Art Education and Early Childhood Education: The Young Child As Creator and Meaning

Maker within a Community Context

Author(s): Enid Zimmerman and Laura Zimmerman
Source: Young Children, Vol. 55, No. 6 (November 2000), pp. 87-92
Published by: National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/42728610
Accessed: 22-02-2017 00:01 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted
digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about
JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is collaborating with
JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Young Children

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 22 Feb 2017 00:01:37 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 Art Education and
Early Childhood Education:
The Young Child As Creator and Meaning
Maker within a Community Context
Enid Zimmerman and Laura Zimmerman

sion of art activities often centers on art's formal elements,

on the adults guiding their art development and such as color, line, and shape, rather than its meaning.
The on learning. nature
learning.theThis
adultsis trueof This children'
especially s is guiding
for children two totrue especially experiences their art for development with children art depends two and to A second concern has been that in settings without an art
five years of age in preschool and child care settings and chil- emphasis or art teacher, art may not be viewed as a disci-
dren in kindergarten through third grade in elementary school pline. It may not be taught at all or children may engage in
programs. Each setting has different opportunities and chal- activities that seem art related but in reality have nothing
lenges for art education, yet all young children rely on adults to do with art education. For example, early childhood edu-
for access to materials and encouragement to use them. cators sometimes use prepared materials that are mechanis-
Approximately 30 to 50% of children in preschool centers tic; children follow rigid directions or color in figures on ditto
and programs engage in art-related activities during each sheets with prescribed colors and designs. Such activities
school day (Baker 1992). Art education in settings for two- do not involve art skills or encourage children to look at,
to five-year-olds is usually under the auspices of early child- understand, or talk about artwork by others.
hood teachers without art education backgrounds. In kinder- There is no rationale to defend these kinds of experiences
garten through grade three, art may be taught by an art as art activities (they may, however, build specific small-
teacher for one to two hours per week; however, many art motor skills through activities such as cutting and pasting
teachers do not have a background in early childhood edu- and coloring within prescribed lines). Art activities in which
cation. The lack of knowledge and pedagogy about art teach- the goal is only to have children express emotions through
ing and the isolated teaching of art pose several problems the use of art materials can be viewed as therapeutic or self-
about how art education is included in early childhood cur- fulfilling, but not as activities that highlight cultural heritage
ricula and how art is taught to young children. and recognize the roles of art in society.
One problem is that teachers' art textbooks focusing on early Parsons (1998) describes two important issues of child
childhood education (e.g., Herberholz & Hanson 1995; development in art. First is the significance of social issues
Schirrmacher 1998) tend to stress manual activities that pro- on the process and content. A socially constructive view em-
mote simple skills and quickly rendered products rather than phasizes art processes rather than art products. The second
help children make meaning through art. Textbook discus-issue involves what Parsons terms an "interest in children's
understandings, in their general expectations of art, or their
interpretations of particular works" (p. 86).
In the past, emphasis was on children's art making, per-
Enid Zimmerman , Ed.D., is professor and coordinator of art edu-
ceptual abilities, and preferences for artwork. A new focus
cation and gifted and talented education at Indiana University.
is on in-depth understanding about the world of art and the
She has taught, researched , and published about K-l 2 art students
and their teachers in a variety of settings across the United States.objects contained within it.
This article reviews recent research about art education with
Laura Zimmerman , M.A., formerly an early childhood educa-
tor at the Cyert Center for Early Education at Carnegie Mellon Uni-
young children and outlines implications for teachers and
teacher educators. The first section explores three conceptions
versity in Pittsburgh , is now a preschool teacher at the university's
Children 's School of children's art that have influenced art practices and activi-
ties for young children. The second section offers a holistic
This is one of a regular series of Research in Review columns.
approach to art education based on recent research and looks
The column in this issue was edited by Cary A. Buzzelli, Ph.D.,
at the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education in
associate professor of early childhood education and curriculum
studies at Indiana University in Bloomington. general and art education in particular.

Young Children November 2000 87

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 22 Feb 2017 00:01:37 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 For toddlers, twos, threes, fours, and fives, freely exploring colors, textures,
characteristics of materials, and design and expressing feelings,
perceptions, and ideas seem like good goals. The process is more important
than die product.

Orientations to early childhood art education From this point of view, the child is seen as a creative artist
whose representation of the world should be encouraged but
Three views of art teaching have influenced art education not directed by adults.
for young children over the past 50 years. One takes a psy- This conception of child-centered art education has its
chological point of view, seeing children's art making as a re- roots in the 1940s, when art education goals were viewed as
flection of natural inner processes of development. A second therapeutic, a support of children's creative capacities, a re-
view, based upon a cognitive developmental approach, fo- lease from anxiety and inhibitions, an outlet for aggression,
cuses on children's construction of general knowledge about and a means to depict fantasies (Lowenfeld 1947). There was
the world. In the third view, art education promotes self- to be no direct intervention from adults, so children's natu-
development so that children can understand themselves in ral abilities could unfold (Schaffer-Simmern 1947).
relation to the society in which they live; young children Lowenfeld (1947), who continues to have a great influence
express themselves and communicate with others in their on art education theory and practice, felt that adult author-
communities through artwork. ity had negative effects on children's art learning in kinder-
These three views echo traditional orientations to school-
garten through third grade, that every child had an innate
ing - child centered, subject matter centered, and society capacity to make art, and that that capacity was inhibited
centered - and are useful for explaining the evolution of con-
temporary thinking about early childhood art education.
More contemporary expressions of these art education con-
structs are found in major art education publications in the
Some teachers have found that in
1960s, 1970s, anl 1980s.
Yet one of these three orientations does not preclude con- addition to the above, fives, sixes,
cern with the other two. As Clark and Zimmerman (1983) ex-
plain, "Improving society, helping each person achieve per- and sevens benefit from an
sonal fulfillment, and transmitting the cultural heritage are occasional conversation about a
goals that must be taught in order to create an enlightened
citizenry. All these goals must be given attention in art edu- piece of adult art or from direct
cation programs" (p. 79).
observation of what they are
Child-centered orientation: Child as creator drawing (for example, an animal,
Children's interests and needs determine the content and
a bicycle, or someone running).
structure of a child-centered curriculum. The teacher is fa-
cilitator of children's needs for expression. In art curricula,
emphasis is on helping each child express his or her per-
sonal needs and develop capacities and abilities in art. De- by society. His values, promoting self-expression, creativity,
velopmentally appropriate practice usually implies an under- and uniqueness, often were manifest in open-ended lessons
standing of spontaneous approaches to art making, based on not integrated into other aspects of the school curriculum
stages of early childhood development, which include sug- in which emphasis was placed on academic subjects and
gestions about appropriate materials, classroom environ- learning through direct teacher intervention. Influences such
ments, educational experiences, and related resources as adult artwork, copying from resources, observational
(Bredekamp & Coppie 1997). drawing, and adult-prepared materials were to be removed
Gardner (1980) suggests that children's natural art abili- from all educational settings as sources of inspiration for
ties unfold if adults provide equipment and encouragement. young children. This child-centered orientation has been
His advocacy for young children's untutored and spontane- challenged by many contemporary art educators.
ous use of materials to express themselves is echoed by
many early childhood educators today. Gardner believes that
if young children are offered materials between the ages of
Subject-matter-centered orientation:
two and five, they will engage in art activities; any adult in-
Child as meaning maker
tervention hampers the unfolding of their innate creative
abilities. Davis and Gardner (1993) view the "preschool child In a subject-matter-centered curriculum, emphasis is on
as glittering in a golden age of creativity" that, with too much classified and organized disciplines of knowledge. The
adult intervention, can "too soon turn to lackluster" (p. 193). teacher's major role is to select content and teach knowl-

88 Young Children November 2000

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 22 Feb 2017 00:01:37 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
edge, skills, and understandings. An art curriculum empha- encourage metaphoric thinking and talking about how art
sizes developing children's capacities for art making, art can be used to express feelings and emotions (Smith 1982;
criticism, and appreciation through perceptual-conceptual in- Wilson & Wilson 1982; Stokrocki 1995).
quiry. In the 1980s discipline-based art education (DBAE), a In her review of research, Kerlavage (1995) discusses how
theory funded and disseminated by the Getty Center for Edu- children as young as three react positively to artworks that
cation on the Arts, was presented as a new approach to art depict familiar subject matter; present clear images; contain
education for children in kindergarten through grade twelve. bright, highly saturated, and contrasting colors; are simple
In DBAE the disciplinary character of art is emphasized and in composition; and contain unambiguous spatial relations.
art is viewed as a subject worthy of study itself, without per- Because young children's responses to art are based on their
sonality development, socialization, or achievement in aca- sensory experiences, works chosen for discussion - to be
demic subjects as end goals (Clark, Day, & Greer 1987). Tenets educationally meaningful - should contain content that is
of DBAE include the study of four art disciplines (studio art based on the children's interests and knowledge of the world
production, art criticism, art history, and aesthetics), written around them.
curriculum, content sequenced within and between grades, and However, according to Kerlavage (1995), inquiries into for-
districtwide implementation. In addition, art learning outcomes mal art criticism, aesthetics, and art history are inappropri-
are assessed through educationally recognized measures. ate for preschool-age children because they have little know
Emphasis on art as a school subject was a drastic change edge of time or the world and are not able to make informe
from the previous pervasive emphasis on art as a means of judgments about the comparative merits of art. Surely, mos
freedom of expression, creativity, and studio art production well-trained early childhood educators would agree.
in child-centered art curricula. DBAE now includes a wide
Other researchers who have studied young children and
range of art objects, an expansive view of how art istheir studied,
ability to look at and talk about art - Erickson (199
an interdisciplinary focus, and authentic assessment for proce-
example - suggest that educators underestimate primary
dures that have relevance to art education (Hamblen 1997).
school children's capacities for art historical understand-
More recently art education curricula for childrenings. agesErikson
two believes that if adults pose questions that fo-
to five are beginning to be accepted as containingcus a on
learned
historical understandings rather than subjective re-
body of skills. Smith (1982) suggests that children should
sponses, primary school children can develop and appreciate
make art products that communicate their thoughtsart and feel- understandings. This had not been thought
historical
ings visually; that is, young children should make art to cre-
possible by some teachers.
ate meaning. Because children are symbol makers, they Newton (1995) found that, beginning at about three years
profit, according to Smith, from opportunities to interact of age, children possess language to describe, discuss, and
with adult artwork that is integrated into developmentally interpret works of art. In such activities they learn from each
appropriate lessons ideally delivered by teachers who are other and listen and respond interactively, u$e body move-
knowledgeable about the art world and about children's ments in responding to artworks, and invent stories such as
changing concepts of the world around them. Through such pretending to take a walk in a painting.
instruction, children's thoughts, feelings, fantasies, and Dialogues also help facilitate children's drawing skills, and
imaginations are broadened and enriched. Such teachers, appropriate art games are available for young children. Aline
however, are not often found in preschool settings. Wolf's books (1984, 1986) show how art postcards can fos-
It is possible to reconcile subject-matter-centered ap- ter art appreciation activities with young children. The
proaches to art education and also accommodate a child- books include beginning, intermediate, and advanced activi-
centered approach in which children's specific interests, ties for using postcard reproductions of artworks to match
skills, and abilities are combined with developing their identical paintings, pair similar paintings, and group paint-
knowledge and understandings about the visual arts. Art- ings by the same artist. Some activities are designed for
making and art-appreciation activities, therefore, are impor- learning the names of artists and schools of painting and for
tant from a subject-matter-centered orientation. Teachers of using timelines. Most examples are Western fine art, but teach-
preschool-age children can ers can use the recommended strategies with artworks from
encourage children to discuss and interpret their artwork diverse cultures.
with each other and talk about how they use media to cre-
ate certain effects;
model manipulative skills, such as cutting and pasting tech- Society-centered orientation:
niques, when they are appropriate; The child in a cultural context

use examples of adult works and works of other children Recently, community-based art education (CBAE) has be-
for discussion; come an important aspect of contemporary art education
provide models of children's work as well as adult work, curricula. CBAE includes groups of teachers, students, ad-
because young children learn naturally from each other; and ministrators, and support staff within school settings and

Art appreciation can be introduced appropriately even to children as

young as three. Appropriately is the key word.

Young Children November 2000 89

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 22 Feb 2017 00:01:37 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
local environments in which parents, community members,
When we include parents, artists,
and artists are actively involved in developing arts programs
that build on resources and histories in their local commu-
nities (March 1998). When young children's own artisticand other community members in
heritages and those of their local communities are incorpo-
developing art programs for K-3,
rated into art curricula, children learn to value many tradi-
weincan include history, resources
tions, understand what art is, why it is made, differences
human experiences, and the variety of ways art is made
(Clark & Zimmerman 2000). CBAE provides a way of incor-
and multicultural concerns.
porating multicultural concerns within art education.
Vygotsky (1978) explained that learning occurs when a child
interacts with people, including peers, in his or her environ- Reggio Emilia programs in Italy demonstrate how art can
ment. The child begins to develop a sense of self as part of a be successfully integrated into an holistic early childhood
larger social and cultural environment and develops a desire program that includes child-centered, subject-matter-centered,
to communicate through cultural symbols of significance. and society-centered orientations. A number of early childhood
Vygotsky's writings have been influential in emphasizing the education programs in the United States are adopting the
social, cultural, and historical influences that surround the
Reggio philosophy.
young child. He advocated teachers, parents, and peers as
partners in learning processes and suggested that children
learn more if they are exposed to directive instruction. Reggio Emilia programs
In terms of child development in art, there are educators In Reggio Emilia, a town in northern Italy, young children
and psychologists who advocate that children's drawings are (infants, toddlers, and children age three to six) spend their
influenced by models available in their culture, including day in the company of a small group of adults, including a
popular culture, and that children often imitate the style of studio teacher ( atelierista ). Learning is a communal activity
drawings they see around them (Wilson & Wilson 1982; shared jointly by children and adults (Davilla 1998), and art
Zimmerman 1995). Although children's first scribbles and is an integral part of all activities. The arts are not taught as
drawings are almost entirely determined by universal forces, separate disciplines; rather, they are integrated into the
very little time passes before influences of culture begin towhole school curriculum. Art, like dancing or singing, is con-
interact with these natural forces (Feldman 1980). sidered as one of the many languages available to children
A number of practical examples, based on this society-based to express themselves (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman 1993;
orientation to areducation, can be incorporated into kinder- Gallas 1994), and each classroom has a place for children to
garten through grade-three curricula. Young children can engage in art activities (New 1991). The atelierista helps
learn about art history and culture by visiting communityguide children into appropriate media choices to complete
art museums (Lund & Osborne 1995); their projects (Gandini 1993).
create displays with their own titles and descriptions of The teachers have broad curriculum goals, but they fol-
their artwork (Harris 1999); low the lead of the children and accommodate to their in-

meet local artists in their own classrooms; terests (Schiller 1995). Children's interactions with othe
children and adults are vital components of learning, a
explore the world around them through the use of sketch-
emphasis is placed on children's symbol-making activitie
books to pursue themes, develop skills, and gain insights
and talk about art through which they are encouraged t
into themselves and their community's culture (Thompson
communicate their understandings.
1995a, b); and
Reggio teachers construct environments that support
use manipulative materials, such as sand and water, that learning and are aesthetically pleasing, where children's
are aesthetically pleasing and designed for interaction work is displayed and accompanied by words and photos of
(Bleiker 1999). children engaged in activities. Teachers observe children at
work, listen to their responses, and converse with them about
their artwork to plan for their future needs and interests.
A holistic approach to early
childhood art education Adapting the Reggio Emilia approach to art
In the 1990s the discipline-based art education movement Very young children benefit from a socially constructive
brought renewed interest and public attention in the United view of art-making activities in which the process of
States to the importance of developmentally appropriate children's experiences is valued. At the Cyert Center for
visual art education. Many educators believe that young Early Education in Pittsburgh, an adaptation of our interpre-
children should have some background in art making and tation of the Reggio Emilia approach takes place in a full-day
some content knowledge about art so the young learners can setting with children age three months to five years. Teach-
look at and talk about art in meaningful, developmentally ers Joella Reed, Lisa Timon, Chris Volz, and Laura Zimmer-
appropriate activities. To do so, teachers in preschool, kin- man, along with Jennifer Azzeritti, the atelierista in resi-
dergarten, and primary programs could involve parents, dence, spent the greater part of last school year creating an
teachers, community members, and local artists in planning environment in which their two-year-olds could explore light,
art activities. color, and reflection. They saw the children's interests as an

90 Young Children November 2000

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 22 Feb 2017 00:01:37 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
opportunity to develop the perceptual and conceptual abili-
ties that are so important for the development of literacy.
A large picture window lets morning light stream into the
classroom. The teachers and children alike noticed that the
light creates lines on the floor, shadows on the walls, and
ripples in the water table. For instance, one morning a group
of boys dragged a container of blocks across the floor and,
without speaking, began a construction within the band of light.
The teachers, wanting to further explore the children's
relationship to light, began an investigation very simply.
They drew the children's attention more directly by placing
a five-minute hourglass on the windowsill and watching as
the toddlers turned it over so the sand would pour through
it. Outside the window, a bird feeder, a gift from several
children's families, was placed. Many children came to the
windowsill to watch squirrels and birds feed. Clearly, the
children were interested in the window area, yet they had
not made a connection to light.
Jennifer helped the children make the initial connection
to light with "aquarium bottles," clear plastic jugs that par-
ents had filled with colored water, beads, and trinkets at the
beginning of the school year. The water in the bottles re-
copy machine, teachers and children copied photographs of
themselves onto overhead sheets. They then used color
markers and theater gels to make collages on the images of
their faces. The children called this work "face gardens."
Because the class was still interested in this work, teachers
copied art postcard portraits of children onto overhead sheets.
The two-year-olds, who added other images with color mark-
ers and theater gels, repeatedly asked to view the overheads.
From the clear overhead sheets embellished with theater
gels, the children made gifts, thereby taking their exper
ences with light into their homes. One mother delighted
reported that her kitchen floor was speckled with dots of
color and her child called her attention to this light display.
By working in collaboration, educators and parents helped
the young children explore light, color, and reflection in a
holistic way. The adults valued children as creators and
meaning makers within a community context.
Implications for practice
Few early childhood programs have a special place de-
voted to art studio activities or access to a teacher with ex-

flected different colors of light onto the floor and walls, so tensive art background, such as an atelierista, who can pro-
early one morning Jennifer unrolled a large piece of paper vide such assistance. However, in many communities there
on the floor so the light through the bottles would create are art teachers and artists who may be willing to conduct
spots of color on the paper. As classical music played, small workshops or visit classrooms on a weekly basis to work col-
groups of children were invited to explore the paper. Some laboratively with teachers and children.
two-year-olds colored on and around the reflected colors, Early childhood educators can do a number of things to
and others danced across the paper, jumping on patches of integrate art education into their programs. They can
colored light. dedicate a space in their room to art making;
An intrigued parent brought in a prism. When placed on
create a classroom environment that is aesthetically pleas-
the window, the prism made rainbows appear on the floor
ing and inspires children's art making;
and walls. Finding the rainbow became a morning activity.
incorporate a variety of resources not commonly consid-
One fascinated girl kept running her fingers across the bands
ered art materials, such as photographs, postcards, theater
of color. When the children looked at photographs of her en-
gels, colored lights, and so on, into children's art making; and
gaged in this play, the child explained, "A rainbow - I'm
touching it, I'm catching it." These photographs became part combine music, dance, and creative movement with art-
of a classroom documentation panel, which invited the chil- making activities.
dren to revisit the rainbow experience. It is important to create a holistic approach to early child-
Next the teachers placed on the windowsill a basket filled hood art education. In this environment, teachers, adminis-
with nine colored-plastic see-through paddles. The childrentrators, parents, and community members all collaborate to
took these paddles with them everywhere in the room. One advocate for the young child as creator and meaning maker
afternoon Adam, a middle-school student, came to play his vio-within a community context.
lin. The children gathered around him. One
girl, holding a blue paddle to her face, ex-
claimed, "Blue Adam - Adam is blue," and for
20 minutes, she contentedly listened to Blue
Adam play his violin. Her curiosity and
knowledge transformed the music for her.
All these experiences encouraged meta-
phoric thinking and meaning making and
stressed a process for exploring light and re- Order On-Line!
flection rather than creating a final product.
The class began to work with light and
color in different ways, moving from natu-
ral light to artificial light. Over the course
www.childcraft.com
of a month, children worked with over-
heads and a light table. They experimented
with numerous colored materials, from
plastic bags to theater gels cut into small
opaque pieces. Using the light table and a

Young Children November 2000 91

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 22 Feb 2017 00:01:37 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
References New, R. 1991. Projects and provocations: Preschool curriculum ideas
from Reggio Emilia. Montessori Life 3 (1): 26-28.
Baker, D.W. 1992. Toward a sensible education: Inquiring into the role of C. 1995. Language and learning about art. In The visual arts in
Newton,
visual arts in early childhood education. Keynote address at theearly Art inchildhood learning, ed. C.M. Thompson, 81-83. Reston, VA: N
Early Childhood Education Symposium, University of Illinois at tionalUrbana-Art Education Association.
Champaign, September. Parsons, M. 1998. Book review: Child development in art. Studies in Art
Bleiker, C.A. 1999. The development of self through art: A case for early
Education 40 (1): 80-91.
art education. Art Education 52 (3): 48-53. Schaffer-Simmern, H. 1947. The unfolding of artistic activity. Berkeley:
Bredekamp, S., & C. Coppie, eds. 1997. Developmentally appropriate prac-
University of California Press.
tice in early childhood programs. Rev. ed. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Schiller, M. 1995. Reggio Emilia: A focus in emergent curriculum and art.
Clark, G., M. Day, & W.D. Greer. 1987. Discipline-based art education:Art
Becom-
Education 48 (3): 45-56.
ing students of art. Journal of Aesthetic Education 21 (2): 129-96.Schirrmacher, R. 1998. Art and creative development of young children.
Clark, G., & E. Zimmerman. 1983. Towards establishing first class3dunim- ed. Albany, NY: Delmar.
peachable art curricula prior to implementation. Studies in Art Educa-
Smith, N. 1982. The visual arts in early childhood education: Develop-
tion 24 (2): 77-85. ment and creation of meaning. In Handbook on research in early child-
Clark, G., & E. Zimmerman. 2000. Greater understanding of the local com-
hood education, ed. B. Spodek, 295-317. New York: Free Press.
munity: A community-based art education program for ruralStokrocki, schools. M. 1995. Understanding young children's ways of interpreting
Art Education 53 (2): 33-39. their experiences through participant observation. In The visual arts
Davilla, D.E. 1998. Bringing the Reggio concept to American educators.in early childhood learning, ed. C.M. Thompson, 67-72. Reston, VA:
Art Education 51 (4): 18-24. National Art Education Association.
Davis, J., & H. Gardner. 1993. The arts and early childhood education:
Thompson, A C.M. 1995a. The visual arts and early childhood learning:
cognitive developmental portrait of the young child as artist. In Hand- contexts and concepts. In The Visual Arts in Early Childhood
Changing
book of research on the education of young children, ed. B. Spodek, 191-
Learning, ed. C.M. Thompson, 1-5. Reston, VA: National Art Education
206. New York: Macmillan. Association.
Edwards, C.R, L. Gandini, & G. Forman, eds. 1993. The hundred languages Thompson, C.M. 1995b. What should I draw today? Sketchbooks in early
of children: The Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. childhood education. Art Education 48 (5): 6-11.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Vygotsky, L.S. 1978. Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Erickson, M. 1995. Art historical understanding in early childhood. In The Press.
visual arts in early childhood learning, ed. C.M. Thompson, 63-66. Wilson, M., &B. Wilson. 1982. Teaching children to draw: A guide for teach-
Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. ers and parents. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Feldman, D. 1980. Beyond universalism in cognitive development. Wolf, A.D. 1984. Mommy, it's a Renoir. Altoona, PA: Parent-Child Press.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Wolf, A.D. 1986. Child-size masterpieces. Altoona, PA: Parent-Child Press.
Gallas, K. 1994. The languages of learning: How children talk, write, dance, Zimmerman, E. 1995. It was an incredible experience: The impact of edu-
draw, and sing their understanding of the world. New York: Teachers cational experiences on a talented student's art development. In The
College Press. development of artistically gifted children: Selected case studies, ed. C.
Gandini, L. 1993. Fundamentals of the Reggio approach to early child- Golomb, 135-70. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
hood education. Young Children 49 (1): 4-8.
Gardner, H. 1980. Artful scribbles. New York: Basic.
Hamblen, K. 1997. Second generation DBAE. Visual Arts Research 23 (2):
98-106. For further reading
Harris, V. 1999. A unique pedagogical project contextualized within a
Bettone, M. 1995. From Our Readers. Art education. Young Chil-
children 's art exhibition. Paper presented at the SEA Congress, Brisbane,
Australia, September. dren 50 (4): 3.
Herberholz, B., & L. Hanson. 1995. Early childhood art. 5th ed. Dubuque,
Clemens, S.G. 1991. Art in the classroom: Making every day spe-
IA: Wm. C. Brown.
cial. Young Children 46 (2): 4-11.
Kerlavage, M. 1995. A bunch of naked ladies and a tiger: Children s responses
Cole, E., & C. Schaefer. 1990. Can young children be art critics?
to adult works of art. In The visual arts in early childhood learning, ed. C.M.
Thompson, 56-62. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.
Young Children 45 (2): 33-38.
Lowenfeld V. 1947. Creative and mental growth. New York: Macmillan. Edwards, L.C., & M.L. Nabors. 1993. The creative arts process:
Lund, P., & S. Osborne. 1995. Birthdays, children, and art: Museums asWhat it is and what it is not. Young Children 48 (3): 77-81.
Engel, B.S. 1995. Considering children's art: Why and how to value
meaningful places for young children. In The visual arts in early child-
hood learning, ed. C.M. Thompson, 49-52. Reston, VA: National Art
their works. Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Education Association.
Feeney, S., & E. Moravcik. 1987. A thing of beauty: Aesthetic de-
Marche, T. 1998. Looking outward, looking in: Community in art educa-
velopment in young children. Young Children 42 (6): 7-15.
tion. Art Education 51 (3): 6-13.
Greenberg, P. 1999a. Listening to children talk while they draw.
Young Children 54 (6): 13.
Greenberg, P. 1999b. Painting every day. Young Children 54 (5): 81.
Greenberg, P. 2000. Display children's art attractively. Young Chil-
dren 55 (2): 89.
Considering Children's Art: Koster, J.B. 1999. Clay for little fingers. Young Children 54 (2): 18-22.
Lasky, L., & R. Mukerji. 1980. Art: Basic for young children. Wash-
Why and How to Value Their Works ington, DC: NAEYC.
by Brenda S. Engel Schiller, M. 1995. An emergent art curriculum that fosters under-
standing. Young Children 50 (3): 33-38.
harvard University's Schirrmacher, R. 1986. Talking with young children about their art.
Eleanor Duckworth put it, Young Children 41 (5): 3-7.
C^.iTTWatM "In only 50 pages Brenda Seefeldt, C. 1995. Art - A serious work. Young Children 50 (3): 39-45.
Engel opens up for us Wolf, A.D. 1990. Art postcards - Another aspect of your aesthet-
ways to look at and talk ics program? Young Children 45 (2): 39-43.
about children's art."
NAEYC order #102/$8 Copyright 2000 by the National Association for the Education
(ISBN 0-935989-70-6) of Young Children. See "Permissions and Reprints" online at
www.naeyc.org/resources/journal.

92 Young Children November 2000

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 22 Feb 2017 00:01:37 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms