Study Notes (100 Days)

IAS PRELIMS 100 DAYS STUDY COURSE
Count Down # 100 (February 24, 2017)
Press Information Bureau Releases:
January 1 4, 2017
1. India and Sri Lanka held Ministerial level talks on fishermen

issues in Colombo.
o Both sides agreed to a set of standard operating Procedures (SOPs)

to expedite the release and handing over of fishermen in each
others custody on completion of respective legal and procedural
formalities.
o It was decided to intensify cooperation on patrolling and to
institute periodic interaction between the Coast Guard of the two
countries.
o An understanding was reached to ensure that there was no
physical harm or loss of life while apprehending fishermen.
o There was an agreement to explore the possibility of introducing
effective tracking systems for the fishing vessels and making use of
onboard communication equipment mandatory.
2. Agni-IV, the Long Range Surface to Surface Ballistic Missile with a

range of 4,000 kms was successfully flight tested. The Missile was
launched from Dr. Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha.
3. The Union Minister of State for Minority Affairs (Independent
Charge) and Parliamentary Affairs, Shri Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi
launched Haj Committee of India Mobile App. It is for the first
time that Haj application process is going to be digital. Applying
for Haj, enquiry and information, news and updates and e-
payment are main features of Haj Committee of India Mobile App.
Application for Haj can be made directly from the app.
4. Shri Anoop Kumar Srivastava, an IAS officer of 1981 batch of
Assam-Meghalaya Cadre has taken over the charge of Secretary in
the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
5. National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) introduced trash
skimmers for surface cleaning of Ganga in Rishikesh, Haridwar,
Garh Mukhteshwar, Sahibganj, Kolkata and Navdweep. Urban
Local Bodies will be the nodal agency to monitor this work.
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6. The Minister of State (I/C) for Youth Affairs and Sports Shri Vijay
Goel has constituted a Committee headed by Secretary (Sports) to
suggest improvements in the National Sports Development Code
and functioning of Sports Federations etc.
7. The President has appointed Prof. David R. Syiemlieh, Member,
Union Public Service Commission, to perform the duties of the
post of Chairman, Union Public Service Commission, with effect
from the forenoon of January 4, 2017 till further orders or till
completion of his term as member on 21.01.2018, whichever is
earlier.
8. Prime Minister inaugurated 104th session of the Indian National
Congress in Tirupati.
9. The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) has started the year
2017 by entering into three unilateral Advance Pricing
Agreements (APAs). The three APAs signed pertain to the
Engineering Goods and Shipping sectors of the economy. The
international transactions covered in these agreements include
Intra-group Services and Support Services. With this, the total
number of APAs entered into by the CBDT has
reached 120 which includes 7 bilateral APAs and 113 Unilateral
APAs. The APA Scheme was introduced in the Income-tax Act in
2012 and the Rollback provisions were introduced in 2014. The
scheme endeavours to provide certainty to taxpayers in the
domain of transfer pricing by specifying the methods of pricing
and setting the prices of international transactions in advance.
10.The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE)
has issued the notification of setting up of Indian Skill
Development Services (ISDS). This service has been created for
the Training Directorate of the Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship. ISDS will be a Group A service where
induction will take place through Indian Engineering Service
Examination conducted by UPSC.
11.Bunkar Mitra, the Government of Indias Helpline for
Handloom Weavers, went live. The helpline was launched by the
Union Textiles Minister Smt. Smriti Zubin Irani .
History
TOPIC 1- PRE HISTORIC INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
The history of human settlements in India goes back to prehistoric times.

No written records are available for the prehistoric period. However,
plenty of archaeological remains are found in different parts of India to
reconstruct the history of this period. They include the stone tools,
pottery, artifacts and metal implements used by pre-historic people. In
India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone
Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the
Metal Age. However, these periods were not uniform throughout the
Indian subcontinent. The dating of the prehistoric period is done
scientifically. The technique of radio-carbon dating is commonly used
for this purpose. It is based on measuring the loss of carbon in organic
materials over a period of time. Another dating method is known as
dendro-chronology. It refers to the number of tree rings in wood. By
counting the number of tree rings in the wood, the date of the wood is
arrived at.
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age:
Indian subcontinent.
Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic people are
scattered across the subcontinent.
Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age in India are: a. The Soan
valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India. b. The Siwalik hills on
the north India. c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh. d. Adamgarh hill in
Narmada valley. e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and f. Attirampakkam
near Chennai.
In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals and
gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are called as
hunter-gatherers.
-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for

hunting animals.
effort of a group of people with large stone axes.
Bhimbetka and other places. The period before 10000 B.C. is assigned to
the Old Stone Age.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age :
dle Stone Age

which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C.
Neolithic Age.
Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh

and Bihar.
about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people.
These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more than five centimeters in
size, and therefore called microliths.
-gathering pattern of life continued during this period.

However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to
small animal hunting and fishing.
The use of bow and arrow also began during this period. Also, there
began a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area. Therefore,
domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation started.
ones are found in these sites and these include dog, deer,
boar and ostrich. Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some
microliths and shells seem to have been practiced.
Neolithic Age
e
Neolithic Age. It is approximately dated from 6000 B.C to 4000 B.C.
the Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh and
in several places of the Deccan.
portant Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski,

Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil
Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.
practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of stone tools

and the manufacture of pottery.
the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life.
chnology of making tools and

other equipments used by man.
and cutting trees.
Wheels were used to make pottery.
Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead.
were cultivated in different areas at different points of time. Rice

cultivation was extensive in eastern India.
sed clothes made of cotton and wool.
Metal Age
-stone) period
when copper and bronze came to be used.
is an important development in human civilization.
-lithic
tools continued to be essential items.
led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures and the Chalcolithic cultures

were found in many parts of India.
importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of Chalcolithic

culture.
the Godavari, Krishna,

Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming communities
during this period. Although they were not using metals in the
beginning of the Metal Age, there is evidence of copper and bronze
artifacts by the end of second millennium B.C.
referred to in the Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often
related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone. The burial
pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found
in South India.
Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in

Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in
Tamil Nadu.
hoes and sickles and small

weapons were found in the burial pits.
The Harappan Civilization
the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind. Both places are now in
Pakistan. The findings in these two cities brought to light a civilization.
It was first called the The Indus Valley Civilization.
the discovery of more and more sites far away from the Indus valley.
Also, it has come to be called the Harappan Civilization after the name
of its first discovered site.
Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in

Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat.
have spread over an area of 200 hectares.
Origin and Evolution:
named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late

Harappan.
The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The

excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of Mohenjodaro
reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. In this stage, the nomadic
people began to lead a settled agricultural life.
In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the

plains. There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus valley. Also,
the transition from rural to urban life took place during this period. The
sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage.
-Harappan stage, great cities emerged. The excavations

at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features
prove this phase of evolution.
-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started.

The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution.
massive brick wall as flood protection. Lothal remained an emporium of

trade between the Harappan civilization and the remaining part of India
as well as Mesopotamia.
Date of the Harappan Culture:
Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C. Subsequently, as and when

new sites were discovered, the dating of the Harappan culture is
modified.
accurate dates.
to between 2000 and 1500 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates of his
findings.
Salient Features of the Harappan Culture:
Town Planning:
planning on the lines of the grid system that is streets and lanes cutting
across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into
several rectangular blocks.
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built
on a high podium of mud brick.
houses, which were inhabited by the common people.
-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions

and the absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics of
the Harappan culture.
underground drainage system

connecting all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone
slabs or bricks.
measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth. Flights of

steps at either end lead to the surface.
from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It must have served as a ritual
bathing site.
length and 50 feet breadth.
Economic life:
agriculture, industry and crafts and trade.
mustard and cotton.
A number of other animals were hunted for food including deer.
cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers.
g examples of the
Harappan metal craft.
pottery is found.
-precious
stones.
ternal trade was extensive with other parts of India.
and Iran Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were
imported.
wheat,
barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products including
cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory products.
the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use

of bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river
and sea transport.
Social Life:
Harappans.
of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth,

one upper garment and the other lower garment.
Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings

and finger-rings were worn by women. These ornaments were made of
gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious stones.
metal have been found at Mohenjodaro.
dles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made of copper.
were other pastimes.
specimens of weapons of war such as axes,

spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.
Arts
irds made of terracotta and

the carvings on the seals show the degree of proficiency attained by the
sculptor.
remarkable for its workmanship. Its right hand rests on the hip, while
the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.
man and the other of a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture.
the fine arts of the

Indus people. The pots and jars were painted with various designs and
colours. Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial motifs
consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves,
plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or

peacock.
Script
basic and the rest are their variants.
y written from right to left.
writing in the reverse

direction in alternative lines - was adopted.
Religion
copper tablets we get an idea
on the religious life of the Harappans.
-Siva) represented in seals as

sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is
surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each
facing a different direction). Two deer appear on his feet.
terracotta figurines.
ped by the Harappans.
against them.
Burial Methods
Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial

practices of the Harappans.
-cremation burial were popular at

Mohenjodaro.
At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use
of coffins.
ce of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of

skeletons.
Decline of the Harappan Culture:
the Harappan culture. Various theories have been postulated.
Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of rivers,

decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation and
occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the Harappan
cities.
delivered by the
invasion of Aryans. The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig
Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled together at
Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners.
(Source: History text books of XI standard Tamil Nadu state book)
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GEOGRAPHY:
Topic 1 The Earth and the Universe
(source Goh cheng leong physical geography)
The stars occur in clusters described as galaxies or nebulas.

Each galaxy contain as many as 100 million stars.
The Earths own galaxy is the milky way.
A ray of light from the sun takes about 8 minutes to reach the earth.
Light takes only a second to reach us from the moon.
All the planets revolve round the sun in elliptical orbits.
The earth shines by the reflected light of the sun.
The Sun has a surface temperature of 6,000 degree Celsius.
Mercury is the smallest and closest to the sun. A year in Mercury is
only 88 days.
Venus is often considered as Earths twin because of their close
proximity in size, mass and density.
The Earth has a natural satellite, the moon, 2,38,900 miles away, that
revolves eastward around the earth once in every 27 days.
Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. Jupiter is
distinguished from other planets by its circular light and dark bands,
and the twelve satellites circle round it.
Saturn has three rings and nine satellites around it. Saturn is the
second largest planet.
Unlike other planets, Uranus orbits around the sun in a clock wise
direction from east to west with five satellites revolving around it.
Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is a little flattened at both ends. The
shape of the Earth is called Geoid.
Evidence of Earths sphericity:

1. Circum navigation of the earth: The first voyage around the world
by Ferdinand Magellan from 1519 to 1522 proved that the earth is
spherical. They had not encountered any abrupt edge over which
they would fall.
2. The circular horizon: The distant horizon viewed from the deck of a
ship at sea, or from a cliff on land is always and everywhere circular
in shape.
3. Ships Visibilty: When a ship appears over the distant horizon, the
top of the mast is seen first before the hull.
4. Sunrise and Sunset: As the earth rotates from west to east, places in
the east see the sun earlier than those in the west.
5. The Lunar Eclipse: The shadow cast by the earth on moon during the
lunar eclipse is always circular.
6. Aerial photographs: Pictures taken from high altitudes by rockets
and satellites show clearly the curved edge of the earth.
When the earth revolves round the sun, it spins on an elliptical orbit
at a speed of 18.5 miles per second.
The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of elliptic at an angle of
66 degrees, giving rise to different seasons and varying lengths of
day and night.
At the Arctic circle, the sun never rises and there is darkness for the
whole day in mid-winter on 22 December. During mid-summer (21
June) the sun never sets and there is complete 24 hour period of
continuous daylight.
In summer the region north of the Arctic circle is popularly referred
to as Land of the midnight Sun.
Mid-Summer at the north pole will be mid-winter at the south pole.
The sun is vertically overhead at the equator on two days each year.
These are usually 21 March and 21 september. These two days are
termed equinoxes meaning equal nights because on these two days
all parts of the world will have equal days and nights.
June or Summer Solstice: The sun is vertically overhead at the tropic
of cancer (23 degree North). This is on June 21.
Winter Solstice: The sun will be overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn
(23 degree South).
The summer is usually associated with much heat and brightness
because
In Summer the sun is higher in the sky. When the sun is overhead its
rays fall almost vertically on the earth.
Days are longer and nights are shorter in summer. More heat is
received during longer daylight.
The brief period between sunrise and full daylight is called Dawn.
The brief period between sunset and complete darkness is termed
twilight.
The lines drawn on the globe that runs east and west parallel to the
equator are called lines of latitude.
The lines drawn on the globe that runs north and south passing
through the poles are called lines of longitude.
The most important lines of latitude are
i. The equator
ii. The tropic of cancer
iii. The tropic of Capricorn
iv. The arctic circle
v. The Antarctic circle
On globe longitude is shown as a series of semi circles that run from
pole to pole passing through the equator. Such lines are also called
Meridians.
The Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near London
represents zero degree meridian or the Prime meridian.
India has accepted the meridian of 82.5 degree east for the standard
time which is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.
Both Canada and the USA have 5 time zones the atlantic, Eastern,
central, Mountain and pacific time zones.
180 degree meridian is the International date line where the date
changes exactly by one day when it is crossed.
INDIAN POLITY & GOVERNANCE:
Topic 1 Indian constitution Historical Background
Regulating Act of 1773

This act is of great constitutional importance as
(a) it was the first step taken by the British Government to control and
regulate the affairs of the East India Company in India;
(b) it recognised, for the first time, the political and administrative
functions of the Company; and
(c) it laid the foundations of central administration in India.
Features of the Act
1. It designated the Governor of Bengal as the Governor-General of
Bengal and created an Executive Council of four members to assist him.
The first such Governor-General was Lord Warren Hastings.
2. It made the governors of Bombay and Madras presidencies
subordinate to the governor- general of Bengal, unlike earlier, when the
three presidencies were independent of one another.
3. It provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court at Calcutta
(1774) comprising one chief justice and three other judges.
4. It prohibited the servants of the Company from engaging in any
private trade or accepting presents or bribes from the natives.
5. It strengthened the control of the British Government over the
Company by requiring the Court of Directors (governing body of the
Company) to report on its revenue, civil, and military affairs in India.
Pitts India Act of 1784

In a bid to rectify the defects of the Regulating Act of 1773, the British
Parliament passed the Amending Act of 1781, also known as the Act of
Settlement.
The next important act was the Pitts India Act of 1784.
Features of the Act
1. It distinguished between the commercial and political functions of the
Company.
2. It allowed the Court of Directors to manage the commercial affairs but

created a new body called Board of Control to manage the political
affairs. Thus, it established a system of double government.
3. It empowered the Board of Control to supervise and direct all
operations of the civil and military government or revenues of the

British possessions in India.
Thus, the act was significant for two reasons:
first, the Companys territories in India were for the first time called the
British possessions in India; and
second, the British Government was given the supreme control over
Companys affairs and its administration in India.
Charter Act of 1833

This Act was the final step towards centralisation in British India.
Features of the Act
It made the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of
India and vested in him all civil and military powers. Thus, the act
created, for the first time, a Government of India having authority over
the entire territorial area possessed by the British in India.
Lord William Bentick was the first governor-general of India.
2. It deprived the governor of Bombay and Madras of their legislative
powers. The Governor- General of India was given exclusive legislative
powers for the entire British India. The laws made under the previous
acts were called as Regulations while laws made under this act
were called as Acts.
3. It ended the activities of the East India Company as a commercial
body, which became a purely administrative body. It provided that the
companys territories in India were held by it in trust for His Majesty,
His heirs and successors.
4. The Charter Act of 1833 attempted to introduce a system of open
competition for selection of civil servants, and stated that the Indians
should not be debarred from holding any place, office and employment
under the Company. However, this provision was negated after
opposition from the Court of Directors.
Charter Act of 1853

This was the last of the series of Charter Acts passed by the British
Parliament between 1793 and 1853. It was a significant constitutional
landmark.
Features of the Act
1. It separated, for the first time, the legislative and executive functions
of the Governor- Generals council. It provided for addition of six new
members called legislative councillors to the council.

2. It introduced an open competition system of selection and recruitment
of civil servants. The covenanted civil service was thus thrown open to
the Indians also. Accordingly, the Macaulay Committee (the Committee
on the Indian Civil Service) was appointed in 1854.
3. It extended the Companys rule and allowed it to retain the possession
of Indian territories on trust for the British Crown. But, it did not specify
any particular period, unlike the previous Charters. This was a clear
indication that the Companys rule could be terminated at any time
the Parliament liked.
4. It introduced, for the first time, local representation in the Indian
(Central) Legislative Council. Of the six new legislative members of the
governor-generals council, four members were appointed by the local
(provincial) governments of Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Agra.
Government of India Act of 1858

This significant Act was enacted in the wake of the Revolt of 1857also
known as the First War of Independence or the sepoy mutiny. The act
known as the Act for the Good Government of India, abolished the
East India Company, and transferred the powers of government,
territories and revenues to the British Crown.
Features of the Act
1. It provided that India henceforth was to be governed by, and in the
name of, Her Majesty. It changed the designation of the Governor-
General of India to that of Viceroy of India. He (viceroy) was the direct
representative of the British Crown in India. Lord Canning thus
became the first Viceroy of India.
2. It ended the system of double government by abolishing the Board of

Control and Court of Directors.
3. It created a new office, Secretary of State for India, vested with
complete authority and control over Indian administration. The
secretary of state was a member of the British cabinet and was
responsible ultimately to the British Parliament.
4. It established a 15-member Council of India to assist the secretary of
state for India. The council was an advisory body. The secretary of state
was made the chairman of the council.
5. It constituted the secretary of state-in-council as a body corporate,
capable of suing and being sued in India and in England.
Indian Councils Act of 1861, 1892 and 1909

The Indian Councils Act of 1861 is an important landmark in the
constitutional and political history of India.
Features of the Act of 1861
1. It made a beginning of representative institutions by associating
Indians with the law-making process. It thus provided that the
viceroy should nominate some Indians as non-official members of
his expanded council.
In 1862, Lord Canning, the then viceroy, nominated three Indians
to his legislative councilthe Raja of Benaras, the Maharaja of
Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao.
2. It initiated the process of decentralisation by restoring the legislative
powers to the Bombay and Madras Presidencies. It thus reversed the
centralising tendency that started from the Regulating Act of 1773 and
reached its climax under the Charter Act of 1833. This policy of
legislative devolution resulted in the grant of almost complete internal
autonomy to the provinces in 1937.
3. It also provided for the establishment of new legislative councils for
Bengal, North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP) and Punjab, which
were established in 1862, 1866 and 1897 respectively.
4. It empowered the Viceroy to make rules and orders for the more
convenient trans-action of business in the council. It also gave a
recognition to the portfolio system, introduced by Lord Canning in
1859. Under this, a member of the Viceroys council was made in-charge
of one or more departments of the government and was authorised to
issue final orders on behalf of the council on matters of his
department(s).
5. It empowered the Viceroy to issue ordinances, without the
concurrence of the legislative council, during an emergency. The life of
such an ordinance was six months.

1. It increased the number of additional (non-official) members in the
Central and provincial legislative councils, but maintained the official
majority in them.
2. It increased the functions of legislative councils and gave them the
power of discussing the budget and addressing questions to the
executive.
3. It provided for the nomination of some non-official members of the

(a) Central Legislative Council by the viceroy on the recommendation of
the provincial legislative councils and the Bengal Chamber of
Commerce, and
(b) that of the Provincial legislative councils by the Governors on the
recommendation of the district boards, municipalities, universities, trade
associations, zamindars and chambers.

This Act is also known as Morley-Minto Reforms (Lord Morley was
the then Secretary of State for India and Lord Minto was the then
Viceroy of India).
1. It considerably increased the size of the legislative councils, both
Central and provincial. The number of members in the Central
Legislative Council was raised from 16 to 60. The number
of members in the provincial legislative councils was not uniform.
2. It retained official majority in the Central Legislative Council but
allowed the provincial legislative councils to have non-official majority.
3. It enlarged the deliberative functions of the legislative councils at both
the levels. For example, members were allowed to ask supplementary
questions, move resolutions on the budget, and so on.
4. It provided (for the first time) for the association of Indians with the
executive Councils of the Viceroy and Governors.
Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the
Viceroys Executive Council. He was appointed as the law member.
5. It introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims by

accepting the concept of separate electorate. Under this, the Muslim
members were to be elected only by Muslim voters. Thus, the Act
legalised communalism and Lord Minto came to be known as the
Father of Communal Electorate.
6. It also provided for the separate representation of presidency
corporations, chambers of commerce, universities and zamindars.

On August 20, 1917, the British Government declared, for the first time,
that its objective was the gradual introduction of responsible
government in India.
The Government of India Act of 1919 was thus enacted, which came into
force in 1921. This Act is also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
(Montagu was the Secretary of State for India and Lord Chelmsford was
the Viceroy of India).
Features of the Act
1. It relaxed the central control over the provinces by demarcating and
separating the central and provincial subjects. The central and provincial
legislatures were authorised to make laws on their respective list of
subjects. However, the structure of government continued to be
centralised and unitary.
2. It further divided the provincial subjects into two partstransferred
and reserved. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the
governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the legislative Council.
The reserved subjects, on the other hand, were to be administered by
the governor and his executive council without being responsible to the
legislative Council. This dual scheme of governance was known as
dyarchya term derived from the Greek word di-arche which means
double rule.
3. It introduced, for the first time, bicameralism and direct elections in
the country. Thus, the Indian Legislative Council was replaced by a
bicameral legislature consisting of an Upper House (Council of State)
and a Lower House (Legislative Assembly). The majority of
members of both the Houses were chosen by direct election.
4. It required that the three of the six members of the Viceroys executive
Council (other than the commander-in-chief) were to be Indian.
5. It extended the principle of communal representation by providing

separate electorates for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and
Europeans.
6. It granted franchise to a limited number of people on the basis of
property, tax or education.
7. It created a new office of the High Commissioner for India in London
and transferred to him some of the functions hitherto performed by the
Secretary of State for India.
8. It provided for the establishment of a public service commission.
Hence, a Central Public Service Commission was set up in 1926 for
recruiting civil servants.
9. It separated, for the first time, provincial budgets from the Central
budget and authorised the provincial legislatures to enact their budgets.
10. It provided for the appointment of a statutory commission to inquire
into and report on its working after ten years of its coming into force.

The Act marked a second milestone towards a completely responsible
government in India. It was a lengthy and detailed document having 321
Sections and 10 Schedules.
Features of the Act
1. It provided for the establishment of an All-India Federation consisting
of provinces and princely states as units. The Act divided the powers
between the Centre and units in terms of three listsFederal List (for
Centre, with 59 items), Provincial List (for provinces, with 54
items) and the Concurrent List (for both, with 36 items). Residuary
powers were given to the Viceroy. However, the federation never came
into being as the princely states did not join it.
2. It abolished dyarchy in the provinces and introduced provincial
autonomy in its place. The provinces were allowed to act as
autonomous units of administration in their defined spheres.
Moreover, the Act introduced responsible governments in provinces,
that is, the governor was required to act with the advice of ministers
responsible to the provincial legislature. This came into effect in 1937
and was discontinued in 1939.
3. It provided for the adoption of dyarchy at the Centre. Consequently,
the federal subjects were divided into reserved subjects and transferred
subjects. However, this provision of the Act did not come into operation
at all.
4. It introduced bicameralism in six out of eleven provinces. Thus,

thelegislatures of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam and the
UnitedProvinces were made bicameral consisting of a legislative council
(upper house) and a legislative assembly (lower house). However, many
restrictions were placed on them.
5. It further extended the principle of communal representation by

providing separate electorates for depressed classes (scheduled castes),
women and labour (workers).
6. It abolished the Council of India, established by the Government of
India Act of 1858. The secretary of state for India was provided with a
team of advisors.
7. It extended franchise. About 10 per cent of the total population got the
voting right.
8. It provided for the establishment of a Reserve Bank of India to control
the currency and credit of the country.
9. It provided for the establishment of not only a Federal Public Service
Commission but also a Provincial Public Service Commission and Joint
Public Service Commission for two or more provinces.
10. It provided for the establishment of a Federal Court, which was set
up in 1937.
Indian Independence Act of 1947

Features of the Act
1. It ended the British rule in India and declared India as an independent
and sovereign state from August 15,1947.
2. It provided for the partition of India and creation of two independent
dominions of India and Pakistan with the right to secede from the
British Commonwealth.
3. It abolished the office of viceroy and provided, for each dominion, a
governor-general, who was to be appointed by the British King on the
advice of the dominion cabinet. His Majestys Government in Britain
was to have no responsibility with respect to the Government of India
or Pakistan.
4. It empowered the Constituent Assemblies of the two dominions to
frame and adopt any constitution for their respective nations and to
repeal any act of the British Parliament, including the Independence act
itself.
5. It empowered the Constituent Assemblies of both the dominions to

legislate for their respective territories till the new constitutions were
drafted and enforced. No Act of the British Parliament passed after
August 15, 1947 was to extend to either of the new dominions
unless it was extended thereto by a law of the legislature of the
dominion.
6. It abolished the office of the secretary of state for India and transferred
his functions to the secretary of state for Commonwealth Affairs.
7. It proclaimed the lapse of British paramountcy over the Indian
princely states and treaty relations with tribal areas from August
15,1947.
8. It granted freedom to the Indian princely states either to join the
Dominion of India or Dominion of Pakistan or to remain independent.
9. It provided for the governance of each of the dominions and the

provinces by the Government of India Act of 1935, till the new
Constitutions were framed. The dominions were however
authorised to make modifications in the Act.
10. It deprived the British Monarch of his right to veto bills or ask for
reservation of certain bills for his approval. But, this right was reserved
for the Governor-General. The GovernorGeneral would have full power
to assent to any bill in the name of His Majesty.
11. It designated the Governor-General of India and the provincial
governors as constitutional (nominal) heads of the states. They were
made to act on the advice of the respective council of ministers in all
matters.
12. It dropped the title of Emperor of India from the royal titles of the
king of England.
13. It discontinued the appointment to civil services and reservation of
posts by the secretary of state for India. The members of the civil
services appointed before August 15, 1947 would continue to enjoy all
benefits that they were entitled to till that time.
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INDIAN ECONOMY:
Topic 1 Business Cycle
The income enhancement in any economy takes place via increasing the
level of production in the economy i.e. real gross national product
(GNP). It means, development requires higher growth i.e. higher levels
of economic activities.
With the help of suitable kind of economic policies, the government of

an economy keeps trying to maintain a higher level of economic
activity. But, at times, economy keeps failing in this objective. And, thus
economies fluctuate between the best and the worst levels of economic
activities which is known in economics as boom and depression,
respectively. They can be called different phases of the economic
activities of the economies.
In between boom and depression, there might be many other situations

of the economic activities, such asstagnation, slowdown, recession
and recovery.
The fluctuations in the level of economic activity between the

depressions and booms has been called by the economists as business
cycle or trade cycle with recession and recovery as the main
intermediate stages.
Stagnation and slowdown may be considered as other intermediate

stages of the business cycle.
The economists have pointed out that the business cycle is characterised
by four phases or stages in which economies alternate:
i. Depression
ii. Recovery
iii. Boom
iv. Recession
DEPRESSION
Though depression has visited the world economy only once in 1929,
economists have pin-pointed enough number of traits to recognise it.
The major traits of depression could be as given below:
(a) an extremely low aggregate demand in the economy causes activities
to decelerate;
(b) the inflation being comparatively lower;
(c) the employment avenues start shrinking forcing unemployment rate
to grow fast;
(d) to keep the business going, production houses go for forced labour-
cuts or retrenchment (to cut down the production cost and be
competitive in the market) etc.
The economic situations become so chaotic in the phase of depression
that the governments have almost no control over the economy. The
Great Depression of 1929 gave rise to the ideas of strong government
intervention in the economy, such as deficit financing, monetary
management, etc.
RECOVERY
An economy tries to come out of low production phase to survive. The
low production phase might be depression, recession or slowdown with
the former being the worst and rare, governments take many new fiscal
and monetary measures to boost demand and production and ultimately
a recovery in an
economy is managed.
The business cycle of recovery may show the following major economy
traits:
(a) an upturn in aggregate (total) demand which has to be accompanied
by increase in the level of production;
(b) production process expands and new investments become
fattractive;
(c) as demand goes upward, inflation also moves upward making
borrowing cheaper for investors;
(d) with an upturn in production, new employment avenues are created
and unemployment rate starts declining; etc.
With the above symptoms, peoples income go for a certain increase
which creates new demand and a cycle of demand and production
(supply) starts playing hand-in-hand to recover the economy.
To recover an economy, governments usually go for tax-breaks, interest

cuts, an increase in salaries of its employees, etc. Assimilation of
innovations by the entrepreneurs and search for new frontiers of
enterprise do play a very vital role in the process of recovery provided
these activities are at first incentives by the governments.
BOOM
A strong upward fluctuation in the economic activities is called boom.
As economies try to recover out of the phases of slowdown, recession
and depression at times the measures taken by the governments as well
as the private sector might put the economic activities as such which the
economic systems fail to digest. This is the phase of the boom. The major
economic traits of boom
may be listed as given below:
(a) an accelerated and prolonged increase in the demand;
(b) demand peaks up to such a high level that it exceeds sustainable
output/production levels;
(c) the economy heats up and a demand-supply lag is visible;
(d) the market forces mismatch (i.e. demand and supply disequilibirium)
and tend to create a situation where inflation start going upward;
(e) the economy might face structural problems like shortage of
investible capital, lower savings, falling standard of living, creation of a
sellers market.
The phase of recovery is considered good for the economy and it reaches
the stage of boom which is considered better. But the boom has its
negative side also. Boom is usually followed by price rise.
As a boom is a strong upward fluctuation in an economy, the supply-
side pattern of the economy starts lagging behind the pace of the
accelerated aggregate demand.
RECESSION
This is somewhat similar to the phase of depression we may call it a
mild form of depression fatal for economies as this may lead to
depression if not handled with care and in time.
Major traits of recession, to a great extent, are similar to that of
depression [except the point (d) of the Depression, discussed earlier]
may be summed up as follows
(a) there is a general fall in demand as economic activities takes a
downturn;
(b) inflation remains lower or/and shows further signs of falling down;
(c) emloyment rate falls/unemployment rate grows;

(d) Industries resort to price cuts to sustain their business.
What may a government do to rescue the economy from the phase of
recession? The usual remedies are given below:
(i) Direct and indirect taxes should be cut down, so that the consumers
have higher disposable incomes (income after paying direct tax i.e.
income tax) on the one hand and the goods should become cheaper on
the other hand thus there is hope that the demand might pick up.
(ii) The burden of direct tax, specially the income tax, divdend tax,
interest tax are slashed to enhance the disposable income (i.e income
after direct tax payment)
(iii) Salaries and wages should be revised by the government to
encourage general spending by the consumers (as the Government of
India implemented the recommendations of the fifth pay commission
without much deliberation in 199697).
(iv) Indirect taxes such as custom duty, excise duty (cenvat), sales tax,
etc. should be cut down so that produced goods reach the market at
cheaper prices.
(v) The government usually goes on to follow a cheap money supply
policy by slashing down the interest rates across the board and the
lending procedure is also liberalised.
(vi) Tax breaks are announced for new investments in the productive
areas. etc.
GROWTH RECESSION
An expression coined by economists to describe an economy that is
growing at such a slow pace that more jobs are being lost than are being
added. The lack of job creation makes it feel as if the economy is in a
recession, even though the economy is still advancing.
GENERAL SCIENCE:
Topic 1 - ANIMAL KINGDOM
Levels of Organizations:
In coelenterates, the arrangement of cells is more complex. Here

the cells performing the same function are arranged into tissues,
hence is called tissue level of organization.
A still higher level of organisation, i.e., organ level is exhibited by
members of Platyhelminthes and other higher phyla where tissues
are grouped together to form organs.
In animals like Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and
Chordates, organs have associated to form functional systems.
This pattern is called organ system level of organization.
The circulatory system may be of two types:
(i) open type in which the blood is pumped out of the heart and
the cells and tissues are directly bathed in it and
(ii) closed type in which the blood is circulated through a series
of vessels of varying diameters
Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation
The cells are arranged in tow embryonic layers, an external

ectoderm and an internal endoderm are called diploblastic animals
e.g., coelenterates.
Those animals in which the developing embryo has a third
germinal layer, mesoderm, in between the ectoderm and
endoderm, are called triploblastic animals (platyhelminthes to
chordates)
Coelom:
The body cavity, which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom

Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates, e.g., annelids,
molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates.
The body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead, the mesoderm
is present as scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and
endoderm. Such a body cavity is called pseudocoelom and the

animals possessing them are called pseudocoelomates, e.g.,
aschelminthes
Segmentation
In some animals, the body is externally and internally divided into

segments with a serial repetition of at least some organs. For
example, in earthworm.
The body shows this pattern called metameric segmentation and
the phenomenon is known as Metamerism.
Notochord:
Animals with notochord are called chordates and those animals

which do not form this structure are called non-chordates, e.g.,
porifera to echinoderms.
Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed
on the dorsal side during embryonic development in some
animals.
Classification of Animals:
Phylum Porifera:
Members of this phylum are commonly known as sponges.

Sponges have a water transport or canal system.
Water enters through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a
central cavity, spongocoel from where it goes out is indirect
having a larval stage which is through the osculum.
Choanocytes or collar cells line the spongocoel and the canals.
Digestion is intracellular.
Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite). Sponges reproduce
asexually by fragmentation and sexually by formation of gametes.
Fertilisation is internal and development
Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria):
The name cnidaria is derived from the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes

(which contain the stinging capsules or nematocytes) present on
the tentacles and the body.
Cnidarians exhibit tissue level of organisation and are
diploblastic.
They have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening,
mouth on hypostome. Digestion is extracellular and intracellular
Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and
medusa.
Phylum Ctenophora:
Ctenophores, commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies are

exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic organisms
with tissue level of organization.
Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is
well-marked in ctenophores
Sexes are not separate. Reproduction takes place only by sexual
means. Fertilisation is external with indirect development.
Phylum Platyhelminthes:
They have dorso-ventrally flattened body, hence are called

flatworms.
Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and
acoelomate animals with organ level of organization.
These are mostly endoparasites found in animals including human
beings.
Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and
excretion.
Sexes are not separate. Fertilisation is internal and development is
through many larval stages. Some members like Planaria possess
high regeneration capacity.
Phylum Annelida:
They exhibit organ-system level of body organisation and bilateral

symmetry.
They are triploblastic, metamerically segmented and coelomate
animals.
Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or
metameres and, hence, the phylum name Annelida.
Neural system consists of paired ganglia (sing. ganglion)
connected by lateral nerves to a double ventral nerve cord.
Reproduction is sexual.
Phylum Arthropoda
This is the largest phylum of Animalia which includes insects

They have organ-system level of organization
They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented and
coelomate animals
Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal
system.
Circulatory system is of open type.
Sensory organs like antennae, eyes, statocysts or balance organs
are present.
Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.
Phylum Mollusca
This is the second largest animal phylum.

Molluscs are terrestrial or aquatic (marine or fresh water) having
an organ-system level of organisation.
They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate
animals.
They have respiratory and excretory functions.
The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for feeding, called
radula
Phylum Echinodermata
These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles and

hence, the name Echinodermata
All are marine with organ-system level of organisation.

They are triploblastic and coelomate animals.
Digestive system is complete with mouth on the lower (ventral)
side and anus on the upper (dorsal) side.
The most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the presence of
water vascular system which helps in locomotion, capture and
transport of food and respiration.
An excretory system is absent.
Sexes are separate, Reproduction is sexual. Fertilisation is usually
external.
Phylum Hemichordata
Hemichordata was earlier considered as a sub-phylum under

phylum Chordata But now it is placed as a separate phylum under
non-chordata.
This phylum consists of a small group of worm-like marine
animals with organ-system level of organization.
They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate
animals.
Respiration takes place through gills.
Excretory organ is proboscis gland. Sexes are separate. Fertilisation
is external. Development is indirect.
Phylum Chordata
Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally

characterised by the presence of a notochord, a dorsal hollow
nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits
These are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with
organ-system level of organization
They possess a post anal tail and a closed circulatory system.
Class Cyclostomata:
All living members of the class Cyclostomata are ectoparasites on

some fishes.
They have an elongated body bearing 6-15 pairs of gill slits for
respiration.
Cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
Circulation is of closed type.
Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for spawning to fresh water.
After spawning, within a few days, they die. Their larvae, after
metamorphosis, return to the ocean.
Class Chondrichthyes:
They are marine animals with streamlined body and have

cartilaginous endoskeleton.
Notochord is persistent throughout life.
Gill slits are separate and without operculum (gill cover).
The skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales.
These animals are predaceous. Due to the absence of air bladder,
they have to swim constantly to avoid sinking.
Class Osteichthyes:
It includes both marine and fresh water fishes with bony

endoskeleton.
They have four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum
on each side.
Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
Air bladder is present which regulates buoyancy. Heart is two-
chambered (one auricle and one ventricle). They are cold-blooded
animals.
Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is usually external. They are
mostly oviparous and development is direct.
Class Amphibia:
As the name indicates (Gr., Amphi : dual, bios, life), amphibians

can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats
Most of them have two pairs of limbs. Body is divisible into head
and trunk. Tail may be present in some.
The amphibian skin is moist (without scales).
The eyes have eyelids. A tympanum represents the ear.
Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a

common chamber called cloaca which opens to the exterior.
Respiration is by gills, lungs and through skin.
The heart is three- chambered (two auricles and one ventricle).
These are cold-blooded animals.
Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external. They are oviparous
and development is indirect.
Class Reptilia:
The class name refers to their creeping or crawling mode of

locomotion (Latin, repere or reptum, to creep or crawl).
They are mostly terrestrial animals and their body is covered by
dry and cornified skin, epidermal scales or scutes.
They do not have external ear openings. Tympanum represents
ear.
Limbs, when present, are two pairs.
Heart is usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in
crocodiles.
Reptiles are poikilotherms. Snakes and lizards shed their scales as
skin cast.
Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal. They are oviparous and
development is direct.
Class Aves:
The characteristic features of Aves (birds) are the presence of

feathers and most of them can fly except flightless birds (e.g.,
Ostrich).
They possess beak The forelimbs are modified into wings. The
hind limbs generally have scales and are modified for walking,
swimming or clasping the tree branches.
Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of the
tail.
Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are
hollow with air cavities (pneumatic).
The digestive tract of birds has additional chambers, the crop and
gizzard.
Heart is completely four- chambered.
They are warm-blooded (homoiothermous) animals, i.e., they are
able to maintain a constant body temperature.

Respiration is by lungs. Air sacs connected to lungs supplement
respiration.
Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal. They are oviparous and
development is direct.
Class Mammalia:
They are found in a variety of habitats polar ice caps, deserts,

mountains, forests, grasslands and dark caves. Some of them have
adapted to fly or live in water.
The most unique mammalian characteristic is the presence of milk
producing glands (mammary glands) by which the young one are
nourished.
They have two pairs of limbs, adapted for walking, running,
climbing, burrowing, swimming or flying.
The skin of mammals is unique in possessing hair.
External ears or pinnae are present.
Heart is four- chambered. They are homoiothermous.
Respiration is by lungs.
Sexes are separate and fertilisation is internal.
They are viviparous with few exceptions and development is
direct.
Profile of Indian State Bihar

(Indian Year Book 2017)
Bihar
Bihar finds mention in the Vedas, Puranas, epics, etc., and was
the main scene of activities of Buddha and the 24 Jain
Tirthankars.
Great rulers of the State before the Christian era were Bimbisar,
Udayin, who founded the city of Pataliputra, Chandragupta
Maurya and Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty, the Sungs and
the Kanvas. Then came the Kushan rulers followed by
Chandragupta Vikramaditya of the Gupta dynasty. Muslim rulers
made inroads into the territory during the medieval period.
The first conqueror of Bihar was Mohammed-bin-Bakhtiar Khalji.
The Tughluqs and then the Mughals followed the Khaljis.
One of the major states of the Indian Union, Bihar is bound on

the north by Nepal, on the east by West Bengal, on the west by
Uttar Pradesh and on the south by Jharkhand.
Bihar has a number of rivers, the most important of which is the

Ganga. The other rivers are the Sone, Poonpoon, Falgu,
Karmanasa, Durgawati, Kosi, Gandak, Ghaghara, etc.
The principal food crops are paddy, wheat, maize and pulses.
Main cash crops are sugarcane, potato, tobacco, oilseeds, onion,
chillies, jute and mesta.
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Study Notes (100 Days)

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IAS PRELIMS 100 DAYS STUDY COURSE

Count Down # 100 (February 24, 2017)

Press Information Bureau Releases:

1. India and Sri Lanka held Ministerial level talks on fishermen

o Both sides agreed to a set of standard operating Procedures (SOPs)

2. Agni-IV, the Long Range Surface to Surface Ballistic Missile with a

TOPIC 1- PRE HISTORIC INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE

The history of human settlements in India goes back to prehistoric times.

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age:

-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for

effort of a group of people with large stone axes.

Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age :

dle Stone Age

Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh

about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people.

-gathering pattern of life continued during this period.

portant Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski,

practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of stone tools

the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life.

chnology of making tools and

and cutting trees.

Wheels were used to make pottery.

were cultivated in different areas at different points of time. Rice

sed clothes made of cotton and wool.

is an important development in human civilization.

led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures and the Chalcolithic cultures

importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of Chalcolithic

the Godavari, Krishna,

Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in

hoes and sickles and small

The Harappan Civilization

Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in

have spread over an area of 200 hectares.

Origin and Evolution:

named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late

The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The

In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the

-Harappan stage, great cities emerged. The excavations

-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started.

massive brick wall as flood protection. Lothal remained an emporium of

Date of the Harappan Culture:

Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C. Subsequently, as and when

Salient Features of the Harappan Culture:

houses, which were inhabited by the common people.

-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions

underground drainage system

measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth. Flights of

length and 50 feet breadth.

agriculture, industry and crafts and trade.

mustard and cotton.

A number of other animals were hunted for food including deer.

cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers.

ternal trade was extensive with other parts of India.

the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use

of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth,

Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings

metal have been found at Mohenjodaro.

dles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made of copper.

were other pastimes.

specimens of weapons of war such as axes,

irds made of terracotta and

the fine arts of the

plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or

basic and the rest are their variants.