INTRODUCTION ‘The Piper Multi-Engine Course is based on the same innovative approach to advanced flight training that is used in the Piper Instrument/Commercial Course. The course is designed around the Piper Seneca, which is ideally suited for multi-engine flight training. The Multi-Engine Manual is a comprehensive, three-part textbook containing Study Units, Workbook Exercises and Flight Tutors, plus an appendix containing the training syllabus. The Study Units are divided into chapters which represent logical divisions of subject areas. The exercises in Part 2 enable the applicant to check his progress during the academic phases of the course. The Flight Tutors perform the same function as they have in other Piper training programs by allowing the applicant to research the essay exercises prior to a thorough discussion with the instructor. The Variable-Motion Filmstrips introduce and complement the concepts presented in the ‘Multi-Engine Manual. These motivating visual aids provide another view of pertinent subject areas in brilliant color and synchronized sound. The variable-motion feature allows complete motion presentation, when needed for better understanding of difficult concepts. The Multi-Engine Training Syllabus has been developed for applicants training under FAR Part 141 in FAA approved schools, as well as those training under FAR Part 61 who are not affiliated with an approved school. The training program is also useful for pilots with a multi-engine rating who wish to update their knowledge. The coordinated use of these advanced instructional materials in conjunction with the personnel, aircraft, and facilities of the Piper Flite Centers will provide an efficient and highly motivational learning experience. Applicants for the multi-engine rating who complete this advanced training program will be well qualified to become safe, experienced, multi-engine pilots.| PART 1 PART 2 Eel xeeerses Par 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS STUDY UNITS Chapter 1. Aircraft Systems . .. bosoabpod ae ld Chapter 2. Operation and Aerodynamics. 1-19 Chapter 3. Weight and Balance Control B60 fee oo) Chapter 4, Performance ....... wee 47 Chapter 5. Engine-out Operation and Aerodynamics 1-59 EXERCISES Exercise 1. Aircraft Systems Exercise 2, Multi-Engine Operation Exercise 3, Weight and Balance Control and Performance . Exercise 4. Engine-Out Operation . Answers . 217 2:20 FLIGHT TUTORS Flight Tutor 1. Aircraft Familiarization . Flight Tutor 2, Multi-Engine Procedures Flight Tutor 3. Engine-Out Procedures Flight Tutor 4, Oral Exam Preparation Al Alphabetical Index . Multi-Engine Training Syllabus. .CHAPTER 1-Al CRAFT § TEMS INTRODUCTION A sound, working knowledge of the Seneca systems is fundamental to safe operation of the aircraft. Since multi-engine aircraft typically have more complex systems and procedural limitations, the following Seneca systems analysis is provided to develop the pilot’s knowledge of the aircraft. THE FUEL SYSTEM GENERAL DESCRIPTION The fuel system installed in the Piper Seneca aircraft offers ease and safety of operation because of its design simplicity. The total system may be described as two independent fuel systems, one incorporated into each wing, which permit each engine to operate from its ‘own fuel supply. The two systems are intercon: nected by crossfeed lines that allow the fuel from one side of the aircraft to be drawn to the engine on the opposite side, if necessary. COMPONENTS There are 10 basic components of the Seneca fuel system, The discussion of these compo- nents will refer to the following numbered callouts which are illustrated in figure 1-1. Fuel tanks Fuel tank vents Fuel selector controls Fuel selector valves Gascolators Quick drains Engine-driven (mechanical) fuel pumps Electric fuel pumps Crossfeed lines ©09000000 © Fuel system monitoring instruments THE FUEL TANKS The Piper Seneca aircraft incorporates four 25-gallon aluminum tanks. Two fuel tanks are located within each wing, outboard of the engine, and form an integral portion of the wing structure. The fuel tank arrangement is unique, because it eliminates the main/auxiliary nk concept. The two fuel tanks are interconnected to provide fuel for the respective engines. As the fuel from the inboard tank is consumed, fuel from the outboard tank flows inward, This interconnection feature eliminates the need for switching tanks under normal conditions. Both tanks within each wing are filled from a single filler opening in the outboard tanks, FUEL TANK VENTS The fuel tank vents ate a very small portion of the fuel system, but are vital to its operation. The vent system for the fuel tanks consists of a vent in each fuel cap, a vent interconnected between the tanks in each wing, and an overflow line from the top of each filler neck. These vents allow air to replace the fuel that is consumed by the engines. In the absence of a fuel tank venting system, a vacuum is created within the fuel tank, resul- ting in engine failure due to fuel starvation. Therefore, it is important that the pilot visually check the filler cap vents and overflow line opening to insure they are free from wax, dirt, of other foreign material. It also is recommend- ed that extremely dusty taxi conditions be avoided. THE FUEL SELECTOR CONTROLS AND FUEL SELECTOR VALVES The fuel selector controls are located between the pilot and copilot seats. As shown in figure 1-2, the possible fuel selection positions are ON, OFF, or CROSSFEED. The ON and OFF positions are self-explanatory, and the CROSS- FEED position allows the transfer of fuel from one side of the aircraft to the engine on the opposite side, ‘The fuel selector valves have the basic function of either selecting fuel from the same side as ‘the engine, selecting fuel from the other side via a crossfeed line, or completely shuttingOY UNI Fig, 1-1. Seneca Fuel System 12AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS off the fuel. All fuel, regardless of its tank origin, must pass through a fuel valve. These valves are operated by a mechani- cal linkage from the fuel selector controls inside the aircraft. Each fuel selector valve is located inside the wing, forward of the main spar and inboard of the engine. selector A faulty fuel selector valve may be detected if the selector controls fail to seat in the detents or if the controls are difficult to move. Should this occur, a mechanic should be consulted prior to starting the engines. sae) aa leah took) Fig. 1-2, Fuel Selector Controls GASCOLATORS AND QUICK DRAINS The gascolators (fuel filters) are located be tween the fuel selector valves and the electric fuel pumps. The function of the gascolator is to filter and trap any accumulation of water or sediment that may have entered or originated in the fuel supply. The gascolator is @ bow!-shaped mechanism with a quick drain on the bottom, {as shown in figure 1-3. As the fuel passes through the gascolator, any water and/or debris will accumulate in the bottom of the gascolator bowl. The quick drain on each gascolator provides a method for removal of contaminants. FUEL EXITS pe CHS cer ; ENTERS SCREEN SEDIMENT / ACCUMULATES Fig. 1-3. The Gascolator A special consideration prior to draining the gascolators during the preflight inspection is to obtain a sample of fuel from each tank in the wing, If the gascolator is drained before the fuel sample is taken, a portion of the fuel within the tank is moved toward the engine as the gascola- tor is drained. This movement disturbs the fuel within the tank, and any accumulation of contaminants will be disturbed from the bot- tom of the tank. This condition makes removal of the contaminants virtually impossible until they have again settled on the bottom of the fuel tank. Therefore, the pilot should drain the outboard tank first, then the inboard tank, and then the gascolator. The crossfeed lines should be drained after both gascolators with the fuel selectors in the ON position, If the pilot follows this draining procedure, he will always be assured of accurate fuel contamina- tion checks and proper elimination ENGINE-DRIVEN FUEL PUMPS The engine-driven, mechanical fuel pumps are located just before the fuel injection unit, Basically, these fuel pumps pull the fuel from the tanks and force the fuel through the injection unit. The pumps are mechanical and are dependent upon the operation of the engine before they are activated. During the engine starting procedure, the electric pump must be turned on to provide fuel pressure to the engine. However, after the engine is running, the mechanical pump will provide fuel pressure and the electric pump should be turned off,STUDY UNITS ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS The electric fuel pump is installed between the gascolator and the mechanical fuel pump for each engine. Each pump is operated manually by a switch located inside the cabin on the master electrical panels, as shown in figure 1-4. The electric pump should be in operation any time that an engine-driven mechanical pump. failure could be critical, Such situations inelude takeoffs, landings, and maneuvering at slow airspeeds and/or low altitudes. Fig. 1-4. Electric Fuel Pump Switches The starting procedure affords the pilot the opportunity to check the operation of both the electric and mechanical pumps prior to take- off, During the engine start, if the electric pump does not provide fuel pressure and fuel flow with the mixture in the full rich position with the fuel selector on, the pump is probably inoperative The mechanical pump may be checked by turning off the electric pump after the engine is running smoothly. If the mechanical pump in this situation is inoperative, the engine will fail shortly after the pump is turned off. The combination of the two pumps is critical to safety and flight must not be attempted with either pump malfunctioning or inoperative, THE CROSSFEED SYSTEM The crossfeed feature of the Seneca fuel system allows the pilot to direct the fuel flow from one side of the aircraft to the opposite engine. The need for this fuel management technique occurs in emergency situations. The crossfeed system makes all the fuel on: board the aircraft available to the operating engine. If extended single-engine operations become necessary, the pilot should operate the engine from the fuel tanks on alternating sides of the aircraft at approximately 30-min ute intervals to equalize the weight distribution The crossfeed, therefore, increases the range of the aircraft during emergency single-engine operation and also eliminates weight differ ential between the two sides of the aircraft. ‘A limitation placed upon the crossfeed sys tems is that the use of both crossfeed systems simultaneously is prohibited. In addition, the crossfeed position for either fuel selector should not be used for takeoff, These two limitations are due to the distance the fuel must travel during crossfeed operations. At high power settings, the fuel pumps may not provide sufficient fuel pressure to assure adequate engine power. FUEL SYSTEM MONITORING INSTRUMENTS The basic instruments associated with the fuel system are the fuel flow, fuel pressure, and the fuel quantity gauges, as depicted in figure 1-5. The indications of all three of these instruments should be monitored throughout the operation of the aircraft. aust aed yd Os ee VA meth te 30 Aes =a ey ua eee BUC ie Nee ANLI IZ ees fa See Fig. 1-5. Fuel System Monitoring InstrumentsAIRCRAFT SYSTEMS The fuel flow gauge indicates the gallons per hour that each engine is consuming. This instrument measures the flow by detecting a pressure drop within the fuel divider. With a constant fuel pressure being supplied to the engine-driven pump, a pressure downstream may be measured against the constant static pressure, The resulting pressure can be calibra ted in gallons per hour of fuel flow, The constant static pressure is supplied by a vent Jine running to the engine compartment which automatically compensates the instrument for altitude. The fuel pressure gauge indicates fuel pressure at the injector fuel inlet fitting. In the event inadequate fuel pressure is observed, the elec- tric fuel pump should be activated in case the mechanical pump has malfunctioned. The fol lowing list contains other situations which can cause a low fuel pressure indication. Blocked fuel line Fuel vents blocked Mechanical pump failure Fuel selector in improper position Damaged fuel selector valve eo eene The two fuel quantity gauges installed in the Piper Seneca are mounted on the instrument panel. One transmitter unit is installed in each fuel tank and is connected to a movable control arm. The position of the arm is controlled by a float, and its position is transmitted electrically to the indicator gauge to show the amount of fuel in the tank. The transmitters for the respective left and right tanks are connected in series so that only one fuel gauge is necessary for each side of the aircraft. FUEL MANAGEMENT AND. OPERATION OF THE FUEL SYSTEM NORMAL OPERATION During normal operation, each engine is sup- plied with fuel from the two interconnected tanks on the same side of the airplane. When preparing for takeoff or landing, the fuel selectors must be in the ON position and the electric fuel pumps turned on. Once the aircraft is established in a normal cruise configuration, the fuel selectors should remain in the ON position and the electric fuel pumps turned off. CROSSFEED OPERATION AND SINGLE-ENGINE OPERATIONS If it becomes necessary to feather one engine and use fuel from tanks on the same side as the operating engine, the fuel of the ‘operating engine must be in the ON position. The fuel selector of the inoperative engine should be placed in the OFF position and the electric fuel pumps turned off. (However, when an engine-driven pump fails, the electric pump on the side of the operating engine must be used.) selector In the event it becomes desirable to use fuel from tanks on the side opposite the operating engine, the fuel selector of the operating engine must be placed in the CROSSFEED position. In addition, the fuel selector for the inoperative engine must be in the OFF position and the electric fuel pump turned off. (In the case of an engine-driven pump failure, the electric fuel pump of the operating engine should be on.) During landing, the fuel selector for the opera: ting engine must be in the ON position. The fuel selector for the inoperative engine must be in the OFF position and electric fuel pump for the operating engine must be on. CROSSFEED OPERATION WITH BOTH ENGINES OPERATING In cruising flight, it is permissible to operate each engine from either tank or both engines from the same tank. However, care must be exercised not to place both fuel selectors in the CROSSFEED position. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM GENERAL DESCRIPTION Electrical power for the Piper Seneca is sup- plied by @ 12-volt, direct current (DC}, negative ground system. The generating system incorpor ates two engine-driven, 60-ampere alternators and two voltage regulators. Each alternator circuit has an overvoltage relay which prevents damage to the electrical and avionic equipment in the event a voltage regulator malfunctions. A 35 ampere-hour, 12-volt battery also. is incorporated within the system, Electrical pow- er from the battery is used for starting the engines, In addition, the battery is a source of emergency power in case of alternator failure.STUDY UNITS THE ALTERNATOR SYSTEM THE ALTERNATORS The Piper Seneca is equipped with alternators that are located on the front lower right side of each engine, and are driven by a belt from the engine crankshaft. The electrical power that the alternator initially produces is alternating cur- rent (AC). This is converted to direct current {DC) within the alternator by diodes which are located at the bell end housing The operational advantage of the alternator system, as opposed to the generator system, is that full electrical power output is available at very low engine RPM, A generator system requires a minimum RPM (usually about 1,000) before the generator provides electrical power During periods when engine speed is lower than the minimum speed for generator operation, all electrical power is supplied by the battery: Since the battery must be recharged more often with a generator system, the generator and battery life is shortened. During the preflight inspection of the Seneca, it is advisable to check the altemator drive belts for tension and general condition. An excessive: ly worn belt is an indication that belt tension has not been set properly. In addition to excessive wear (which can result in belt failure), improper tension may cause the belt to slip and reduce the alternator power output. ALTERNATOR CIRCUIT BREAKERS As shown in figure 1-6, the alternator systems are protected by four circuit breakers—two for each system, These circuit breakers are located on the instrument panel and are marked AL: TERNATOR OUTPUT and ALTERNATOR FIELD. The output circuit breakers are 60 amperes and protect the alternators and electri cal system from overloads. The field circuit breakers protect the voltage regulators and field wiring of each alternator and are five amperes each. If either of these circuit breakers trips, complete shutdown of power from the particu: lar generating system will occur. After allowing fone to two minutes for cooling, the circuit breaker may be reset manually. If the tripping recurs, the pilot should not hold the breaker in position, The tripped breaker indicates a break- down of wiring or equipment in the alternator circuit. Lie rg ce csoeaiat hag mee LS tiag Fig, 1-6. Alternator Circuit Breakers VOLTAGE REGULATORS The two solid-state voltage regulators are in: stalled in the system for two purposes. First, if both engines are operating, both alternators are generating electrical power. The voltage regula: tors maintain the proper load sharing between the two alternators. Second, the voltage regula tor maintains a constant electrical system vol tage of 14.0 volts. OVERVOLTAGE RELAYS Within each alternator circuit, an overvoltage relay is provided to prevent electrical damage to the electrical and avionic equipment in the aireraft. If an alternator malfunctions or its output exceeds 14.0 volts, the overvoltage relay will trip and the alternator will be taken off the line. When this occurs, the corresponding red light located on the left side of the switch panel will illuminate to indicate that the overload switch relay has been tripped. However, the pilot must understand that the light indicates only that an overvoltage has occurred and the corresponding alternator has been taken off the line. It does not necessarily illuminate for other failures within the alternator system. CIRCUIT BREAKERS The electrical equipment in the system is protected by circuit breakers. The circuit break: er panel, shown in figure 1-7, is located on the lower righthand side of the instrument panel. In the event of an equipment malfunction or sudden surge of electrical power, the appropri: ate circuit breaker will trip automatically. A circuit breaker can be reset after a few minutes cooling period by pushing it in. The circuit breakers in the Piper Seneca cannot be pulled out manually.AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS rn em Ci an eeu na rag on Ut ratty Ceara Ce (et ty rn i fart ar cet nar ed A mar | Eta Fig. 1-7. Circuit Breaker Panel BATTERY The battery is located in the forward left portion of the nose section of the aircraft. It is enclosed in a fiberglass box with a vent system and @ drain. The vents allow fresh air to enter the battery box and draw off fumes that may accumulate during the inflight charging process. The battery drain is clamped shut at the bottom of the fuselage and should be opened occasion: ally to drain any accumulation of liquids. The degree of battery charge may be checked by ammeter indications when all the electrical equipment is turned off with the exception of the master switch. The ammeters will indicate the current that is being used to charge the battery and operate minimum instrumentation. High ammeter readings under these conditions indicate the battery has a low charge. If there is No apparent reason that the battery should have a low charge, the battery and electrical system should be checked by a mechanic. In the remote event that both alternators fail during flight, the battery becomes the only source of electrical power for the aircraft. In this situation, all unnecessary electrical equip: ment should be turned off. The duration of electrical power is dependent upon the condi: tion of the battery, the required equipment for the conditions of flight, and the time it took the pilot to notice the dual failure, ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT SWITCHES The majority of electrical equipment switches are located on the switch panel to the left of the pilot. As depicted in figure 1-8, these include the master switch and those for the magnetos, fuel pumps, starter, alternators, lights, and pitot heat. A press switch, located hear the top of the alternator-master switch panel, activates a light that is not controlled by the master switch, This light allows the pilot to inspect the switch panel at night before turning on the master switch, ELECTRICAL SYSTEM MONITORING INSTRUMENTS In addition to the overvoltage warning lights, the Piper Seneca is equipped with a load-type ammeter for each altetnator as shown in figure 1-9. Unlike other systems, these ammeters do not indicate battery discharge, but show the load in amperes placed upon a particular alternator. If all the electrical equipment is turned off with the exception of the master switch, the only demand on the system is the charging current required by the battery. This amount may vary, depending upon the amount of charge in the battery at the time, As the battery becomes charged, the amount of cur. rent shown on the ammeter will reduce to approximately two amperes. If electrical equipment is in operation, a zero reading indicates that the alternator is inopera: tive, while an indication near 60 amperes shows that the electrical demand upon the alternator is too great. When operating on a single engine, unnecessary electrical equipment should be turned off to avoid demanding excess current from one altemator. An overloaded alternator may burn out or trip a circuit breaker. If the pilot has doubts concerning the reliability of the ammeters, he may check the accuracy and general operation by conducting the fol lowing test. Assuming that all the electrical equipment, except for the master switch, is turned off and the ammeter is showing 10STUDY UNITS Pa CULL eek % COI rtAIRCRAFT SYSTEMS amperes, the battery is drawing 10 amperes charging current. By referring to the circuit breaker panel placards for equipment amperage, it may be seen that the anticollision light, for example, requires 10 amperes. If this amperage is multiplied by 80 percent, the approximate current drawn will result in eight amperes. ‘Therefore, when the anticollision light is turned on, there will be an increase of current from 10 to 18 amperes displayed on the ammeter. As each unit of electrical equipment is turned on, the currents will add up and the total, including the battery, will appear on the ammeter, EXTERNAL POWER SOURCE In the event the battery charge is inadequate to start the engine, external power may be used. The external power source plug is optional and, when installed, is located on the lower left side of the nose of the aircraft. While an external 12,olt to 14-volt power source is being plugged in or unplugged, the master switch should be in the OFF position to prevent sparking. However, the master switch should be in the ON position for engine starting when using external power. THE HYDRAULIC LANDING GEAR SYSTEM The landing gear system installed in the Piper Seneca utilizes hydraulic pressure for extension and retraction. Since the hydraulic system is a portion of the landing gear system, both will be discussed in this section. The brake system is also hydraulic, but utilizes a separate hydraul system and reservoir. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The Piper Seneca is equipped with a tricycle landing gear that is hydraulically extended and retracted. Hydraulic pressure is applied by an electrically powered, reversible pump which is accessible through a panel in the nose baggage compartment. The pump is activated by the landing gear selector switch. When hydraulic pressure is exerted in one direction, the gear is extended; when exerted in the other direction, the gear is retracted, Gear down positions are indicated by the illumination of three green lights, located direc- tly above the selector switch, When all three gears are not fully extended and locked into position, @ red light on the top of the instru- ment panel is illuminated, indicating that the sear is unsafe for landing, OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM EXERTION OF PRESSURE WITHIN THE SYSTEM The landing gear selector switch on the instru ment panel to the left of the power quadrant is used to control the position of the landing gear. When the selector switch is pulled out and placed in the DOWN position, the electrically powered hydraulic pump is put into operation. As shown in figure 1-10, the pump directs flow from the particular pressure line to each indivi- dual actuating cylinder. As the fluid pressure increases on one side of the cylinder and the piston movement occurs, fiuid at the other side is directed back through the other fine to the pump. REGULATION OF HYDRAULIC PRESSURE The hydraulic pump is @ gear-type unit that is powered by 2 12-volt, reversible motor, design- ed to operate in a pressure range of 2,000 to 2,500 PSI. A relief valve incorporated within the pump will open at 4,000 PSI and allow fiuid to flow into the reservoir. To prevent excessive buildup of pressure in the hydraulic system due to thermal expansion, a primary relief valve is located directly above the nose gear actuating cylinder. This relief valve will maintain pressure in the system up to approximately 2,350 PSI The pressure in the hydraulic system also is regulated by the limit switches on each of the three landing gear. Each gear has two limit switches — one for retraction and one for extension. The basic purpose of the electrical limit switch is to stop the flow of electricity to the hydraulic pump when the landing gear is either fully extended or retracted. The last pressure switch is mounted on the pressure line on the aft right side of the nose cone, This switch acts as a backup to the limit switch system and will actuate if the pressure reaches 1,800 + 100 PSI.STUDY UNITS LEFT MAIN GEAR RIGHT MAIN GEAR HYDRAULIC CYLINDER HYORAULIC CYLINDER NOSE GEAR HYDRAULIC CYLINDER PRESSURE ‘SWITCH FREE FALL] vereactiow” eer GEAR UP ‘CHECK vatve | Figure 1-10. Landing Gear Hydraulic System (Extension Cycle)AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS LANDING GEAR SAFETY FEATURES LANDING GEAR SAFETY SWITCH The landing gear safety switch is located on the left main gear and is shown in figure 1-11. In the event the landing gear selector switch is inadvertently placed in the UP position while the aircraft is on the ground, the safety switch will prevent the hydraulic pump from actu: ating. In this situation, the gear will not retract, but the gear warning horn will be activated until the selector switch is returned to the DOWN position, Fig. 1-11. Landing Gear Safety Switch LANDING GEAR WARNING HORN A landing gear warning horn is incorporated within the system to advise the pilot of a potentially hazardous situation. As previously mentioned, the horn will activate on the ground with the gear selector switch in the UP position. However, the main purpose of the horn is to remind the pilot the gear is retracted or unsafe during the approach to landing. When power is reduced and the manifold pressure drops below 14 inches of mercury, a throttle switch located in the power quadrant will actuate the warning horn if the landing gear is not down and locked. The warning horn will continue to operate until the landing gear is down and locked. At that time, three green fights on the instrument panel wit! illuminate. LANDING GEAR POSITION LIGHTS The landing gear position indicators incorporate four lights, as shown in figure 1-12. The three green lights indicate that each landing gear is down and locked and one red light is illumi- nated when the gear is in transit, Consequently, when the gear is cycled up or down, it is normal for the red light to illuminate and then turn off after gear has been fully extended or retracted. Fig, 1-12. Landing Gear Position Lights EMERGENCY LANDING GEAR EXTENSION In the event the hydraulic pump fails, an emergency gear extension feature is provided. Since the landing gear is held up by hydraulic pressure, the only requirement for extension is to relieve the system pressure, An emergency gear extension knob (the freefall valve), located near the center of the instrument panel, is Provided for this purpose. As shown in figure 1-13, @ guard over the knob is provided to Prevent inadvertent extension of the gear. Prior to pulling the emergency gear extension knob, it is advisable to place the gear selector in the DOWN position, thus preventing the pump from trying to raise the gear. Pulling the knob releases the hydraulic pressure and the gear can then free fall to the DOWN position, Gravity and aerodynamic loads assist in extending and locking the gear down. Because the nosewheel extends from the nose of the aircraft rearward, the airstream will push and tend to assist it in moving to the locked position.STUDY UNITS When all three gears are down with the lock hooks engaged, a spring maintains force on each hook in the locked position until it is released by hydraulic pressure. If the hydraulic system develops a leak or if hydraulic pressure is relieved for any reason, gravity will cause the gear to extend, Fig. 1-13. Emergency Gear Extension Knob GENERAL OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS During normal and emergency operations of the landing gear system, certain considerations be- come important to safe and professional opera: tion. The following discussion depicts certain abnormal situations the pilot may encounter and the proper remedy for each THE SAFETY SWITCH The safety switch will prevent the gear from retracting while the aircraft is on the ground. However, proper operation of the safety switch is totally dependent upon strut extension. If the landing gear selector switch is in the UP position and the strut extends beyond eight inches, the hydraulic pump will actuate and the gear will retract. This aspect becomes important during the landing procedure. It is recom: mended that extreme care be exercised when retracting the flaps after landing and that normally they should not be retracted until the aircraft has been taxied off the runway. On some aircraft, it is possible for the pilot to inadvertently reach for the gear selector switch instead of the flap actuator, The Seneca is equip- ped with manual flaps, but pilots who operate aircraft with electrical flap systems may tend to commit this error. In this situation, if the aircraft is rolling out with the gear selector switch in the UP position, any depression in the runway may cause the strut to exceed the extension limit, This situation will cause the landing gear to retract during the landing roll GEAR WARNING HORN The gear warning horn will actuate if the manifold pressure drops below 14 inches of mercury with the gear retracted, The pilot should be aware that actuation of the horn is a function of throttle position, not necessarily manifold pressure, Also, the horn is actuated by either or both throttles. Therefore, if the horn is actuated unexpectedly, the pilot should check the position of each throttle. If one is retarded slightly more than the other in the lower power ranges, the switch may activate the gear warning horn There is another important consideration dur- ing the takeoff roll. If the gear selector switch is, inadvertently moved to the UP position during the takeoff ground run, the warning horn will not actuate, due to the position of the throt- tles, During the takeoff, the throttles are normally full forward, which is beyond the throttle switch actuation point. If the gear strut ‘on the left main gear exceeds eight inches extension, the gear will retract during the takeoff run, DETERMINATION OF GEAR SYSTEM MALFUNCTION The gear system incorporates several safety features, but specific considerations are neces: sary. The pilot should understand the alterna- tives available for given difficulties. If the pilot extends the landing gear by means ‘of the gear selector switch, the three green lights should illuminate when the gear is down. If a gear light does not illuminate when the gear is selected down, this does not necessarily indicate that the appropriate gear is not extend: ed, This situation may be due to inoperative lightbulbs. The square-shaped light bulbs should be pulled out and transferred to different sockets to check for proper operation, There are three possible problems which can account for the failure of the gear position lights to illuminate with the gear selector switch in the DOWN position, First, the electrically powered hydraulic pump may not be receiving power due to an overload. The circuit breaker should be checked and reset, if necessary. Second, if the hydraulic pump circuit breaker is set properly, the gear indicator system may beAIRCRAFT SYSTEMS malfunctioning. This malfunction may be cor: rected by checking the circuit breaker for the gear indicating lights. ‘The third possible reason for all three lights to fail to illuminate, is the actuation of the navigation lights which automatically dim the landing gear position lights. The switch for the navigation lights should be in the OFF position during daytime operations. PROPELLER SYSTEM The Piper Seneca is equipped with a counter: rotating propeller system. The counterrotation of the propellers provides balanced thrust and eliminates the “critical engine” concept that is described in Chapter 5. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The type of propeller installed on the Piper Seneca is a constant speed, controllable pitch, full feathering Hartzell propeller, utilizing oil and nitrogen pressure for operation. The oil Pressure moves the propeller toward the high RPM (unfeathered position) while the nitrogen moves the propeller toward the low RPM (feathered) position, Nitrogen pressure also is utilized to keep the propeller from overspeed: ing. BASIC SYSTEM ANALYSIS CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER OPERATION When an aircraft that is equipped with a fixed pitch propeller accelerates, as in a dive, its propeller RPM tends to increase. Additionally, if the airspeed decreases, the propeller RPM tends to decrease. If the RPM of a propeller is to be held constant, the propeller blade must be designed so that the blade angle may be increased automatically with an increase in airspeed. Conversely, it must be designed so that the blade angle may be decreased automat. ically as the airspeed decreases. Maintaining a constant RPM by variation of the propeller blade angle also tends to maintain the desired angle of attack and optimum propeller efficien- cy. The constant speed propeller system utilizes a hydraulic governor and pitch change mechan. ism, The governor is adjusted by the pilot through the propeller contro! on the power quadrant, When the engine speed begins to increase above the RPM for which the governor is adjusted, the governor activates the pitch: change mechanism in the propeller hub, so that the blade angle increases. This increases the blade’s angle of attack and, therefore, its drag loading, which slows the blade speed, As the engine RPM decreases, the governor reverses the process in the hub pitch-change mechanism, returning the blade angle to the original pitch, and the engine to the desired speed, When the engine speed decreases below the selected RPM, the process is carried out in the reverse order, first decreasing the blade angle, then returning it to the selected pitch, PROPELLER CONTROL LEVERS AND BLADE ANGLE Although the propellers installed on the Piper Seneca are counterrotating, their control and operation are conventional in all other respects, The propeller contro! levers, shown in figure 1-14, allow the pilot to adjust the desired RPM while the constant speed mechanisms maintain the selected RPM setting, To achieve the desired RPM setting, the pilot must move the controls either forward or aft. As the propeller controls are moved to the full forward position (high RPM), the blade angle is decreased. If the control levers are moved aft, the blade angle is increased and a lower RPM setting will result, When the propeller controlSTUDY UNITS Fig. 1-15. Propeller in Full Feather levers are moved into the full aft position {feathering detents}, the blade angle of attack is incteased to nearly 90° to the plane of rotation. At this angle, the propeller is streamlined with the relative wind and its rotation ceases, as shown in figure 1-15. The advantage of the full feathering propeller is elimination of the parasite drag. If the propeller is windmilling, performance is decreased con- siderably because of increased drag. METHOD OF BLADE ANGLE CHANGE Because the propellers installed on the Piper Seneca are not only constant speed, but also full feathering, additional pitch-change mechan- isms are necessary to change the blade angle from low pitch to full feather. The basic propeller pitch-change mechanism depends on a supply of high pressure oil from an engine- driven oil pump, mounted in the governor. If the pitch-change mechanism of a featherable COWLING propeller depended only upon oil pressure to increase the blade angle to the feathered posi- tion, the loss of oil or a governor failure would prevent the propeller from being feathered. Hence, a secondary method of increasing the blade angle is required in featherable pitch- change mechanisms. The aerodynamic twisting forces acting on the propeller blade may be countered by altering the blade's center of mass, in lieu of opposing oil (hydraulic) pressure. Featherable propellers have “‘counterweights” attached to the shank of each blade, as shown in figure 1-16, When the propeller is spinning, the counterweight’s center of mass moves toward the blade’s plane of rotation, tending to increase the blade angle, as shown in figure 1-17. The counterweight’s centrifugal twisting force is designed to be slightly greater than the aerodynamic twisting force, and hydraulic pressure is used to aid the aerodynamic force in decreasing the blade angle. 4 ie « Wi Fig. 1-16. Counterweights on Featherable Propeller UNFEATHERED POSITION Fig. 1-17. Couinterweights Increase PitchAIRCRAFT SYSTEMS HYDRAULIC FORCE AERODYNAMIC FORCE ' CENTRIFUGAL FORCE HYDRAULIC PRESSURE FORCES PISTON, ROD, AND FORKS FORWARD, TWISTING BLADES TO LOW PITCH AIR PRESSURE ASSISTS FEATHERING CENTRIFUGAL FORCE — AERODYNAMIC FORCE => HYDRAULIC FORCE Fig. 1-18. Featherable Pitch-Change Mechanism The Seneca propeller incorporates compressed air or nitrogen in the tip of the cylinder to oppose the hydraulic pressure and aid the counterweights in feathering the blades, as shown in figure 1-18. This aspect becomes important during feathering at lower RPM speeds. A locking device in the hub prevents feathering at speeds below 800 RPM. This insures that the propeller does not feather during engine starting or shutdown. Therefore, the propeller must be feathered before the engine speed drops to 800 RPM, GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES Correct propeller operation and RPM control is directly related to proper engine care. In flight, it is necessary to maintain both the manifold pressure and the RPM within their respective operating ranges. For specific information, the Lycoming Operator's Manual that is issued with each Piper Seneca should be consulted. POWER APPLICATION OR REDUCTION The most critical portion of propeller operation occurs during power application or reduction.STUDY UNITS. Because the propellers are constant speed, the asic propeller operation procedures must be followed. Namely, for power application, the propellers must be advanced first, followed by increases in manifold pressure, For power re- duction, the manifold pressure must be reduced prior to reduction in RPM. This procedure maintains the proper balance between internal cylinder pressure and the power required of the engine. HEATING, VENTILATING, AND DEFROSTER SYSTEM GENERAL DESCRIPTION The heating and ventilating system in the Seneca is designed to provide maximum com: fort for the pilot and passengers by two methods. First, a variable air temperature con: trol allows the pilot to regulate the temperature of the cabin; and second, individual fresh air outlets are installed for each passenger in the aircraft. Defrost heat is provided directly from the heating unit to the windshield of the aircraft. SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND OPERATION The method of heat production incorporated in the Seneca eliminates the gasoline combustion heater. Cabin and defrost heat is provided by a heat exchanger mounted on the exhaust mani- fold of each engine (outboard side). Outside air enters the system through a scoop on the engine cowling, passes through the heat ex- changer, and is heated by the exhaust manifold. ‘A combination heater and defroster valve, located in the forward side of the firewall, directs heated air for the cabin interior through @ fresh air and temperature control valve assembly. At this point in the system, the temperature is regulated before the heat enters the cabin interior. This regulation is accom- plished by adding cool, outside air to the heated air. The heated air that is used for defrosting Purposes does not go through the temperature control valve assembly. It is passed directly from the heat and defroster valve to the defroster outlet located at the base of the windshield. The defroster has a separate control lever that can be turned off when its operation is not required, as shown in figure 1-19. When both the cabin heat and the defroster controls are in the OFF position, heated air from the heat exchanger is dumped overboard. Fig. 1-19, Heater and Defroster Controls Fresh air for the cabin interior is taken in through inlets located in the leading edge of the wing. The incoming air is forced into the fresh air and temperature control valve where it passes directly into the cabin interior or is mixed with heated air, depending upon the setting of the control lever. Fresh air for the overhead ventilating system is taken in through air scoops located on each side of the dorsal fin and directed to a plenum chamber. The plenum chamber provides a constant pressure so that fresh air will be delivered to the outlets at the same pressure, regardless of the speed of the aircraft. The amount and direction of air can be regulated for individual comfort. Rotating the knurled knob regulates the amount of air (clockwise t0 decrease the amount; clockwise to increase it), Moving the outlets regulates the direction of the airflow. counter TURBOCHARGING The power available from the reciprocating engine is directly related to the density of the fuel/air mixture packed into the combustion chamber of each cylinder. Because of de- creasing air density, normally aspirated engines lose progressively larger amounts of their design power output as altitude increases. To over: come these limitations and to extend the operating altitudes of these engines, turbo: chargers were developed. These lightweight, highly efficient units have extended the oper: ating altitudes of the Seneca to 25,000 feet and have more than doubled its single-engine service ceilingAIRCRAFT SYSTEMS SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND OPERATION Most turbocharger units contain four basic elements, Exhaust gases from the engine drive aturbine, which is interconnected by a common shaft to an impeller-type air compressor. The spinning compressor increases the pressure and, therefore, the density of the air available to the engine, Since the compressor unit is capable of producing more air than the engine can use, a pressure controller monitors ambient temper- ature and pressure, then regulates the speed of the turbine by controlling the position of the waste gate. In effect, the waste gate is a valve that controls the amount of exhaust gas needed to drive the turbine. Any excess gases are dumped overboard. As altitude increases, the pressure controller senses the need for increased manifold pressure and gradually closes the waste gate. The alti- tude at which the waste gate is fully closed and the turbocharger is operating at maximum RPM is termed its critical altitude. Above this alti- tude, the engine can no longer maintain full power. The Seneca Il uses a simplified turbocharger unit consisting primarily of @ turbine and a compressor. In this system, part of the exhaust gases are vented overboard through a ground adjustable waste gate. Manifold pressure is regulated by means of throttle positioning. As a pilot aid, the Seneca II is equipped with a pressure relief valve which limits the maximum manifold pressure to approximately 42 inches of mercury. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS Turbochargers are capable of producing mani- fold pressures much higher than those normally encountered at sea level. To prevent damage to the engine, these pressures must be maintained within the limits specified by the manufacturer. Therefore, power is increased by first selecting the desired RPM with the prop control, then advancing the manifold pressure with the throt- tle, Power reductions are made by first reducing the manifold pressure, then the RPM. Due to turbocharger “spool up” and “spool down" times, stabilized manifold pressure read: ings may lag behind throttle position during power adjustments, Changes to RPM, fuel flow, ‘and airspeed also directly affect the manifold pressure. The pilot compensates for these varia- tions by selecting a manifold pressure slightly above or below the desired reading, as appro: priate. He then makes a final pressure adjust- ment, if necessary, after the power settings have stabilized. The Seneca turbocharger is lubricated with engine oil. For this reason, full power should never be applied before the oil temperature is within the operating range or when oil pressure is low. During takeoff, it is generally recom mended that partial power be applied and stabilized momentarily to allow the turbo- charger turbine to “spool up” before adding full power. This prevents pressure surges that might overboost the engine. NOTE: During high power settings, the turbocharger ‘operates at a very high temperature and RPM. To prevent damage to the turbine assembly, it is essential that an adequate “spool down” time be provided prior to engine shutdown. Most manufacturers recommend that the engine be operated at idle RPM for approximately five minutes before engine shutdown.ER 2-OPERATION AND AERODYNAMICS INTRODUCTION Flying a multi-engine airplane is much the same as flying a high performance, single-engine airplane except there are two engines to operate and monitor, and operating speeds generally are higher. ‘Additionally, knowledge of the aerodynamics of an airplane with the engines not producing thrust along the airplane's centerline is an important factor for safe operation MULTI-ENGINE AERODYNAMICS The aerodynamics associated with multi-engine airplanes are slightly different than for single: engine airplanes because the engines are dis- placed from the airplane centerline. The extent of these differences depends upon how far the engines are displaced from the centerline and whether or not they incorporate counterrota- ting propellers. When the engines are located on the wings, they produce a turning moment toward the centerline of the airplane, as illustra- ted in figure 2-1. The turning moment of one engine is counteracted by that of the other when both are producing equal power. In multi-engine airplanes without counterrotat- ing propellers, thrust is not perfectly balanced in all flight attitudes. The descending blades of the left engine's propeller are nearer the fuselage than those of the right engine, causing the right engine to produce @ greater turning mo- -& GREATER TURNING MOMENT |: PRODUCED BY THE RIGHT ENGINE WHEN PROPELLERS DO NOT COUN- TERROTATE f - Fig. 2-2. Unequal Turning Moments Caused by Non-counterrotating Propellers ment to the left. Figure 2-2 illustrates that the right engine's turning moment is greater when propellers are not counterrotating. If the pro- pellers are counterrotating, as they are on the Piper Seneca, the descending blade is always closest to the fuselage centerline, resulting in balanced turning moments from each engine In addition, asymmetrical thrust is produced when one engine is developing more power than the other. As an example, the airplane will turn Fig. 2-1. Counteracting Turning Moments to the right if the left engine is developing moreOPERATION AND AERODYNAMICS AIRPLANE TURNS TOWARD ~~ | THE ENGINE PRODUCING THE LEAST POWER, — Fig. 2-3. Turns Using Differential Power power than the right engine. Figure 2-3 illus: trates how this characteristic can be beneficial to the pilot for tight turns during taxi and in crosswinds. The procedure for using differential power will be discussed later in this chapter. teat Cree’ FiO ssn? tis Crees INCORRECT MONITOR ENGINE INSTRUMENTS, The pilot must monitor the power instruments to insure that both engines are developing equal power, particularly after a power change. Even when the power levers are aligned, the power settings may not be equal because of variations in mechanical adjustments to the throttle and/or propeller control linkages. Equal power should always be determined by the engine instruments, not the position of the power controls. The correct procedure for ‘obtaining equal power is shown in figure 2-4 making PREFLIGHT PLANNING Preflight planning is the first ingredient for a safe flight. The multi-engine aircraft pilot must not only be concerned with the normal pre: flight planning considerations, but he also must consider and plan his course of action in the event of an engine failure. A large percentage of preflight preparations actually involve takeoff planning. The single-engine aircraft pilot has CORRECT NOT THROTTLE OR PROP CONTROL POSITION, TO ESTABLISH EQUAL POWER, Fig. 2-4. Establishing Equal PowerSTUDY UNITS. only one option in the event of an engine failure. If it occurs prior to liftoff, he must discontinue the takeoff regardless of runway length and, if airborne, he must find the most suitable location for a forced landing. Since the multi-engine aircraft pilot has the option of continuing flight on one engine, accurate pre- flight planning is necessary to determine if this option can be exercised safely, TAKEOFF ‘Accurate planning and the use of the airplane performance charts require the determination of takeoff density altitude. It is important to compare this with the airplane's single-engine service ceiling (which is also a density altitude value). High elevations and temperatures often result in takeoff density altitudes greater than the airplane's single-engine service ceiling, Un- der these conditions, the probability of a climb to a safe circling altitude after an engine failure at takeoff, or even at 50 feet, is very remote. In this situation, a rejected takeoff or a controlled descent to a forced landing (if airborne) may be the best alternatives. The first step in takeoff planning is the analysis of the airplane's runway requirements under existing conditions. This includes the takeoff ground run, accelerate-stop distance, the single- engine climb rate, and the approximate lateral distance that will be required to attain a safe altitude to return for landing. The accelerate-stop distance for the Piper Sene- ca is the distance required to accelerate the airplane to the minimum single-engine control airspeed and, assuming an engine failure at precisely that speed, return to a full stop. The multi-engine aircraft pilot must be careful to consider the conditions under which the per- formance chart calculations are attained. Usual- ly, full power is epplied prior to brake release and the runway is level and hard surfaced. Additionally, the tests normally are made using @ new airplane with new tires and brakes. Therefore, the "real situation’ factors must be considered. The loss of power due to engine wear, the increased braking distance if the tires and brakes are worn, and the runway gradient and surface all can add considerably to. the accelerate-stop distance The distance to clear obstacles should include not only the twin-engine performance, but also the single-engine performance. Additionally, the pilot should consider rising terrain and distant obstructions which could not be cleared when considering the anticipated single-engine climb rate. Many times, particularly during conditions of high density altitude, it may be found that the terrain rises more rapidly than the single-engine climb rate, making the proba- bility of a single-engine climb to a safe circling altitude improbable, Takeoff planning also should include the deter: mination of available alternatives. These can include suitable forced landing fields, nearby alternate airports, and the decision to take off with a reduced fuel and/or passenger and baggage load to increase single-engine perfor- mance. Finally, the pilot should review the engine-out airspeeds immediately prior to each flight. This makes each speed available for recall and completes the pilot's planning for a possi- ble engine failure. CLIMB When operating under normal conditions, a cruise climb usually is appropriate. This pro- duces a climb rate slower than that of the best rate-of-climb speed, but it usually decreases the overall trip time, allows for better forward visibility, and provides better engine cooling. If it is necessary to climb at a faster rate to reach favorable winds aloft or to clear enroute ob- structions, the best rate-of-climb airspeed (Vy) an be used throughout the climb. If Vy is used, the rate of climb versus density altitude chart ean be consulted to determine the rate of climb in feet per minute and, from this infor mation, the pilot can determine the approxi- mate amount of time that will be required for the climb, As an example, if a 500 FPM climb rate is planned and a climb of 5,000 feet is required, the time for climb is 10 minutes. An approximation of the distance required for a climb at Vy also can be determined by estimat- ing the groundspeed during the climb, A sustained climb at the best angle-of-climb airspeed (Vx) should not be used except to clear obstructions. A prolonged climb at Vx results in an increase in the overall trip time and decreases engine cooling efficiency because of the high angle of attack and reduced airflow. IfOPERATION AND AERODYNAMICS the best angle-of-climb speed is used for ob- struction clearance, the airspeed should be increased immediately to Vy, or cruise climb, ‘as soon as the obstructions have been cleared, Performance charts usually are not available to determine the rate of climb produced by sustained climbs at Vx CRUISE Prior to takeoff, the cruising altitude and power setting should be selected. With this informa: tion, the Range versus Density Altitude graph can be consulted to determine the fuel con: sumed per hour and the maximum range under normal conditions, Next, the True Air speed versus Density Altitude chart is used to calculate the anticipated true airspeed at cruise, With this information, the pilot can complete the takeoff and enroute flight planning. Addi. tionally, the required landing distance at the destination airport should be determined to complete the preflight planning. MULTI-ENGINE OPERATION USE OF CHECKLISTS The multi-engine aircraft pilot must understand the importance of using a printed checklist for each airplane he flies, The airplane manufactur- er supplies the necessary checklists for the airplane and they should be used consistently with the addition of minor revisions for option- al equipment installed in specific airplane. Excerpts from the complete Seneca checklist supplied by the Piper Aircraft Corporation are included in this section, as they apply to each specific operation. The most efficient use of the checklist is attained by reading each item aloud and actually touching that item to insure that it is operating normatly and/or is positioned properly. PREFLIGHT INSPECTION The preflight inspection on a multi-engine airplane is somewhat more complex than that of a single-engine airplane and, therefore, re~ quires more time to complete. Figure 2-5 shows a typical Seneca preflight checklist. The first preflight inspection should be per formed with the guidance of a competent flight instructor or check pilot to insure familiarity with the aircraft. If the airplane is left unat tended for any reason after a preflight check, the pilot should complete another quick walk- around to insure the airplane is still prepared for flight. If at all possible, baggage should be stowed prior to the preflight inspection to provide the pilot with a second opportunity to inspect the security of the baggage compert- ment doors. Once the preflight is complete, the airplane is ready for boarding. The seats should be ad: justed, seatbelts fastened, and the cabin door secured, If necessary, a passenger briefing should be completed. Then, the pilot can devote his full attention to the starting proce: dure. ENGINE STARTING Prior to starting an engine, the pilot should always visually check the immediate area to be sure that it is clear and that the prop blast will not be directed toward people or property on ‘the ramp. As an additional precaution prior to night engine starts, the rotating beacon or position lights should be turned on to alert anyone in the area, On some multi-engine aircraft, the sequence in which the engines are started depends on the airplane systems and battery locations. In the Piper Seneca, the battery is located in the nose compartment; therefore, either engine can be started first. If another model of airplane is flown, the airplane manual or checklist should be consulted to determine if one engine should be started prior to the other. Figure 2-6 shows the before starting and start- ing checklist for the Seneca, It should be noted that fuel management during starting may be different for an airplane with a fuel injection system than for one with a carburetor system. Item 7 on the engine starting checklist calls for the mixture to be in the full rich position only Until a stabilized fuel flow is shown on the fuel flow indicator. Then, the mixture is returned to idle cutoff. This procedure is used for engine priming; if the mixture is left in the rich position, engine flooding will result. Once the engine begins to start, the mixture is advanced slowly to the full rich position, Again, engine flooding will result if the mixture is advanced too rapidly or before the engine begins to start.STUDY UNITS WALK-AROUND INSPECTION In Cabin Landing gear control ~ Ensure that it is in the DOWN position. Avionics — Turn off, to save power and wear on the units. Master switch — Turn on, Landing gear lights — Three green lights should be illuminated, No red light. Fuel quantity — Ensure adequate for flight plus reserve. Cowl flaps — Open to facilitate inspection and ensure cooling after engine start. Master switch — Turn off to save battery. Ignition switches — should be off to prevent inadvertent start during inspection of propeller. Mixture controls — should be in idle cut-off position, again to prevent inadvertent engine start. ‘Trim indicators — Set to neutral so that tabs may be checked for alignment. Flaps — Extend and retract to check operation. This should be done before engine start so that you can hear any noise which might indicate binding. Control locks — Unlock, and check contro! motion. Drain pitot and static systems before flight. Paperwork — Check that the proper aircraft papers are aboard and that the necessary inspections have been performed. Fig. 2-5. Seneca Preflight InspectionOPERATION AND AERODYNAMICS WALK-AROUND INSPECTION (cont.) Outside Airplane 1. Right wing, aileron and flap — no damage, no ice. Check hinges. 2, Right main gear — no leaks, tires inflated and not excessively worn, 3-1/2 inches piston exposed under static load 3. Right wing tip ~ no damage. Right leading edge — no damage or ice. Fuel cap — open to check quantity and color of fuel. Check cap vent, and then secure. Right engine nacelle — Open doors to inspect engine. Check oil quantity — six to eight quarts, Secure both inspection doors. 7. Right propeller — no nicks or leaks, spinner secure and not cracked, Cowl fiaps — open and secure. Fuel drains ~ Drain five on right side: two fuel tank drains (under wing), ‘one gascolator drain (near bottom of engine nacelle}, two crossfeed drains on bottom of fuselage inboard from wing flap. Nose section — undamaged. Nose gear — no leaks, tire inflated and not excessively worn, 2-1/2 inches piston exposed under static load, tow ber removed, condition of landing light checked. A (2 Forward baggage door — secure and locked. 13, Windshield — clean and secure. G (14, Left wing, engine nacelle and landing gear — inspect as on right side. Pitot tube — hole unobstructed, heat checked by feel if need is anticipated. Stall warning vanes — no damage, free movement. Rear door — latched. Left static vent — unobstructed. <> Bx J {19. Dorsal fin air scoop — free of obstruction, i (2 Empennage ~ no damage, free of ice, hinges secure. 21. Stabilator — freedom of motion, Right static vent ~ unobstructed. Antennas — secure and undamaged. 24, Navigation and landing lights — check (after master switch and light switches have been turned on in cabin). oo Fig. 2-6. Seneca Preflight Inspection (Cont. Priming usually is not necessary during hot starts, The hot start procedure normally is used in hot weather when the engine has been stopped for a short period of time. Figure 2-7 outlines this procedure for the Seneca, The procedure changes after item 5 when compared with the checklist in figure 2-6. In the event of overpriming (flooding), the flooded start procedure should be followed, as shown in figure 2-7. The checklist calls for the remain in idle cutoff and the throttle to be advanced to the full forward mixture to position. The mixture remains in idle cutoff to prevent additional fuel from reaching the cylin- ders and the throttle is in the full open position so the maximum amount of air reaches the cylinders. When the starter is engaged, it may require several seconds before the proper fuel: air ratio is attained. When the engine begins to start, the mixture should be advanced slowly toward the full rich position and the throttle should be retarded to idle. At density altitudes above 5,000 feet, it may be necessary to lean the mixtures after engineSTUDY UNITS. BEFORE STARTING ENGINES Seats — adjusted Seat belts, shoulder harness — fastened Parking brake — set Circuit breakers — in Radios — off Cowl flaps — open Alternate air — off Alternators — on STARTING ENGINES Mixture controls ~ idle cut-off Throttle controls ~ open 1/2 inch Propeller controls — forward Master switch — on Ignition switch — on Electric fuel pumps — on Mixture controls ~ Move to rich position until a fuel flow is indicated and stabilized; then move to idle cut-off. Propeller ~ clear Starter — engage Mixture control — Advance as engine starts, Oil pressure — Check to see that the oil pressure comes up within 30 seconds, {except in very cold weather, when it may take somewhat longer), If the oil pressure does not show an indication, shut down the engine and have it checked. Repeat steps 8 through 11 with the other engine Electric fuel pumps — off; check fuel pressure. NOTE To prevent starter damage, limit starter cranking to 30-second periods. If the engine does not start within that time, allow a cooling period of several minutes before engaging starter again. Do not engage the starter immediately after releasing it. This practice may damage the starter mechanism. Fig. 2-6, Starting Checklists starting to obtain smooth engine operation the brakes do not function properly, the during taxi. If this procedure is used, it may be necessary to readjust the mixtures prior to performing the engine runup. A fuel injected engine will idle with a much leaner mixture than that required for higher power settings, TAXING Before taxiing, the brakes should be checked for proper operation by applying 1,000 RPM to both engines to start the airplane moving, then reducing the power and applying the brakes. If aircraft should not be taxied or flown until the problem is corrected, The pilot of the twin-engine airplane has three methods of directional control while taxiing — the steerable nosewheel, differential braking, and differential power, For nearly all situations, nosewheel steering provides adequate maneu: verability to taxi safely. The nosewheel on the Piper Seneca is steerable through a 42° arc (21° each side of center) which is sufficient for all but the tightest taxi turnsOPERATION AND AERODYNAMICS HOT START #1, Mixture controls — idle cut-off Throttle controls — open 1/2 inch Propeller controls — forward Master switch — on Ignition switches — on Electric fuel pumps — off Propeller — clear Starter ~ engage Mixture control — Advance as engine starts. Repeat steps 7 through 9 with the other engine, If an engine does not start with the above method, which omits the priming, use the normal starting procedure, which includes priming, Engine priming is not required for this procedure. Fig. 2-7. Seneca Hot Start Procedure FLOODED START Mixture control — idle cut-off Throttle control — full forward .. Propeller contro! — forward . Master switch ~ on Ignition switches — on Electric fuel pump — off Propeller — clear Starter — engage When engine fires, retard throttle and advance mixture slowly. Fig, 28. Seneca Flooded Start Procedure Occasionally, it may be necessary to make a sharp turn at slow taxi speeds, This can be accomplished smoothly with the use of differ ential power. For example, to make @ sharp turn to the left, the left engine throttle is reduced and the right engine throttle is ad: vanced at the same time the left rudder is depressed, Figure 2-9 illustrates that the radius of turn depends on the amount of differential power applied, To stop the turn, the pilot anticipates where to straighten out and reduces power on the right engine. If the power is not reduced, the airplane will continue to turn past 1.26 the desired point. Practice is necessary to become proficient at turns using differential power and initial attempts should not be performed in the close proximity to buildings or other aircraft, The least desirable method of directional con. trol is differential braking. It increases wear on. both brakes and tires and, if used excessively, can result in brake overheating and subsequent failure. CROSSWIND TAXI Directional control during crosswind taxiing can be accomplished easily with differential power. Figure 2-10 illustrates that additional power is applied to the upwind engine to produce a turning vector away from the wind. The strength of the crosswind component determines the amount of differential power that must be used. If the crosswind is quite strong, the steerable nosewhee! must be used to assist in directional control; otherwise, taxi speed will become excessive, resulting in fre- uent use of the brakes. EQUIPMENT CHECK Some of the aircraft equipment may be tested during taxiing if the pilot's workload permits. While turning, the turn-rate indicator and head ing indicator can be checked for proper opera- tion, The heater and defroster operation should be checked if cold weather is anticipated, The electric fuel pumps should be off during taxi operations to confirm the operation of the engine-driven fuel pumps. On many airplanes, including the Seneca, the fuel crossfeed can be checked for proper operation. This is accomplished by placing the fuel selector for one engine on CROSSFEED and the other selector in the ON position. The same procedure is repeated for the other engine. At the completion of this check, it is important that both selectors are positioned properly on the correct fuel tank. At the runup area, the airplane should be stopped heading into the wind with the nose: Wheel straight. If at all possible, the airplane should be positioned with the prop blast directed away from other airplanes in the runup. area.“SMALL POWER DIFFERENTIAL STUDY UNITS LARGE POWER DIFFERENTIAL iS Fig, 2-9, Radius of Turn versus Differential Power THRUST COUNTERACTS Pencil ad a? aha BIN REL ohe ONT ya ed =~ Fig, 2-10, Crosswind Taxi % 6 a ° ¢ s 2 127OPERATION AND AERODYNAMICS. PRETAKEOFF CHECK Prior to beginning the pretakeoff check, the engines must be warmed enough to allow sufficient lubrication of engine parts. During cold weather, the oil temperature may not have reached the lower end of the green arc but, if the cylinder head temperature is within the normal operating range and the engine accepts increased power without hesitation, the engines are sufficiently warm to begin the pretakeoff checklist. There are two methods of performing the engine runups. One is to perform the check on each engine separately and the other is to run up both engines simultaneously. The latter method requires less time and provides a direct comparison between the operation of both engines. It also eliminates side loads on the nose gear during runup. Figure 2-11 shows the Seneca pretakeoff check: list. Most of the items will be familiar to the pilot who has flown high performancé, single- engine airplanes, with the exception of item 2d. Most multi-engine airplanes are equipped with full feathering propellers, which means propel- ler rotation can be stopped in the event of an engine failure, Item 2d is the procedure used on the Seneca to check this propeller function. ‘The check is performed by moving the propel: ler control to the feather (full aft) position and noting the RPM change. If the propeller gover nor is operating properly, the RPM should decrease rapidly as the propeller begins to feather. Because of the rapid RPM decrease, the pilot should be ready to immediately move the propeller control out of the feather position prior to a 500 RPM decrease. However, if the runup check for both engines is being per- formed simultaneously, the check of the feath- ering mechanism for each propeller should be performed separately so that the 500 RPM limitation is not exceeded. If the RPM changes slowly, it is an indication that the feathering mechanism is not working properly and that in-flight feathering may not be possible. In this situation, the pilot should not attempt flight, but should have the propel- let inspected by a mechanic and repaired, if necessary, 1.28 At high density altitudes, it may be necessary to lean the mixture of a normally aspirated engine to obtain full power. The airplane Information Manual should be consulted for this procedure. The correct procedure for the Seneca is shown on the pretakeoff checklist. Turbocharged engines should not be leaned for takeoff because they will develop sea level horsepower up to high density altitudes. There. fore, a full rich mixture is required for proper operation with this type of engine TAKEOFF After the pretakeoff checklist has been com. pleted, the airplane is taxied onto the active runway, the nosewheel aligned with the runway centerline, and power applied smoothly to both engines. When takeoff power is attained, the engine instruments should be checked to deter: mine that both engines are operating properly, This check should include at least the RPM, manifold pressure, fuel flow indicator, oil pres sure/temperature, and cylinder head tempera ture, The airspeed indicator also should be checked for proper operation. If any instru ment indicates an abnormal system operation, the takeoff should be discontinued. During a normal takeoff, the airplane is allowed to accelerate to Vic plus five miles per hour prior to liftoff. In the Seneca, this speed is 85 MPH. After liftoff, the airplane is accelerated immediately to the two-engine best rate-of-climb airspeed (Vy) and this speed is maintained until a safe maneuvering altitude is reached (normal ly 500 feet AGL). During the initial climb, the landing gear is retracted after a positive rate of climb is established and a landing on the takeoff runway cannot be accomplished. NOTE: Vy (105 MPH for the Seneca) is used for the initial climb because it produces the best rate of climb and the speed normally is equal to or higher than the single-engine best rate-of-climb airspeed (Vy cel. Therefore, if an engine failure should occur, the airplane has already attained the airspeed which will produce the best single- engine climb performance.ed ur 35 ed ab til ak ne of ne he STUDY UNITS PRETAKEOFF CHECK ‘A thorough check should be made before takeoff, using a check list. Before advancing the throttle to check the magnetos and the propeller action, be sure that the engine is warm enough to accept the power if it is a cold day. If there is no hesitation in engine action when the throttle is advanced, the engine is warm enough. 1 2 Parking brake — on Engine — run up a. Mixture controls ~ forward b, Propeller controls — forward ¢. Throttle controls ~ forward to 1,500 RPM 4. Propeller controls — Check the feather position by bringing the propeller controls fully back and then to the full forward position. Do not allow more than a 500 RPM drop during the feathering check. Throttle controls ~ forward to 2,000 RPM Propeller controls — Exercise to check governor. Retard control until a 200 to 300 drop in RPM is indicated. This should be done three times on the first flight of the day. The governor can be checked by retarding the propeller control until a drop of 100 RPM to 200 RPM appears, then advancing the throttle to get a slight increase in manifold pressure. The propeller speed should stay the same when the throttle is advanced, thus showing that the governor is governing. 1. Propeller controls ~ full forward . Alternate air controls — on, then off again. There should be a drop in RPM when the control is placed in the ON position, since heated air is being supplied to the engine, Do not check the alternate air on the ground if dusty air conditions prevail. Magnetos ~ check Normal drop — 100 RPM Maximum drop — 175 RPM Maximum differential drop — 50 RPM j. Alternator output — check, approximately equal output for both alternators k, Throttles ~ 800-1,000 RPM Fuel — ON position Alternators ~ on Engine gauges — in the green Vacuum gauge — 4.5 to 5.2 in. Hg Altimeter — set Attitude indicator — set Clock — wound and set Mixtures ~ set Propellers ~ set in forward position Quadrant friction — adjusted Alternate air — off Cowl flaps — set Seat backs — erect Wing flaps — set Trim (stabilator and rudder) — set Fig. 2-11. Seneca Pretakeoff Checklist 1.29OPERATION AND AERODYNAMICS PRETAKEOFF CHECK (cont.) 18, Seatbelts and shoulder harness — fastened 19, Controls ~ free, full travel 20. Doors ~ latched 21. Electric fuel pumps — on 22. Pitot heat ~ as required The normally recommended procedure for sea level takeoff is full throttle at 2,700 RPM. During pretakeoff check at a high elevation, lean the mixture to obtain maxi: mum power. Apply full throttle; then lean the mixture until the fuel flow pointer stabilizes at a fuel consumption mark consistent with the density altitude (about 14.9 for 2,000-foot elevation, 14.0 for 4,000-foot elevation and 13.3 for 6,000-foot elevation). Leave the mixture in this position for takeoff. Do not overheat the engine when operating with mixture leaned. If overheating occurs, enrich the mixture enough that temperature returns to normal. Fig. 2-11. Seneca Pretekeoff Checklist (Cont.) The first power reduction should not take place until the airplane is at a safe maneuvering altitude. Then, the power is reduced to the climb setting by first decreasing the manifold pressure and then the RPM. When the power is reduced, the fuel pump for each engine is turned off and the mixture adjusted for climb. This procedure is not performed simultaneously for both engines for safety reasons. Since an engine failure is more likely to occur during changes in power or fuel flow, one fuel pump is turned off and the engine operation is moni tored before the second fuel pump is turned off. The sme procedure is used when leaning the mixture or changing fuel tanks. The propellers should be synchronized after the initial power reduction. If the propellers are not rotating at the seme RPM, an annoying, pulsat ing sound will be created, The greater the difference in RPM, the more rapid the pulsa- tion. Since the tachometers are not accurate enough to allow complete synchronization, the pilot must train his ear to detect the unsynchro: nized condition and correct it. The easiest method is to adjust the RPM as closely as possible using the tachometers, then select one propeller control to make the final adjustment. The control lever is moved slowly toward the decreased RPM position; if the pulsation be comes faster, the control lever should be moved in the opposite direction until the pulsating sound stops. The propellers are now synchro- 1-30 nized. The same procedure must be used each time the power is changed and when necessary during flight because of turbulence or slippage in the propeller control linkage. Figure 2-12 illustrates the synchronization procedure Following the power reduction and synchroni: zation of the propellers, the airplane may be accelerated to the cruise climb airspeed. If a higher rate of climb is necessary, the best rate-of-climb airspeed can be maintained to the selected cruising altitude, SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF The short-field takeoff procedure varies, de pending on runway length and obstruction clearance. If obstruction clearance is not crit: cal, the normal short-field takeoff procedure generally is used. Liftoff and initial climbout are initiated between Viyic and Viqg plus five MPH. In the Seneca, this procedure does not require the use of flaps, nar does it require the airplane to be airborne below Viyc. If the shortest possible ground roll is @ major consideration, a second procedure is available which requires the use of flaps. However, this technique puts the airplane in a rather un favorable situation in the event of an engine failure because liftoff will occur below Viyc. The only alternative in case of engine failure is the immediate reduction of power to maintain aircraft control, It may be impossible to stop the aircraft on the remaining runway or toSTUDY UNITS “15 20 { eae. accelerate to the best single-engine angle-of- climb speed in order to clear the obstacle. Prior to using this technique, the pilot should consider other alternatives that will increase the airplane's performance, such as reduced fuel load, reduced passenger load, reduced baggage load, or takeoff during a cooler time of the day, If the pilot elects to use the maximum perfor mance takeoff procedure, the airplane Informa: tion Manual should be consulted for the correct techniques and airspeeds to be used. In addi tion, the performance charts should be con: sulted to determine the obstruction clearance distance required under the existing conditions, CROSSWIND TAKEOFF Crosswind takeoffs in a multi-engine airplane require a technique similar to that used in a single-engine aircraft. That is, the upwind aile: ron is used to prevent side drift, As with other takeoffs, ground contact should be maintained Until: Vig plus five MPH and, once airborne, a | ADJUST RPM AS "CLOSELY AS POSSIBLE USING THE TACHOMETERS SELECT ONE PROP CONTROL AND DECREASE RPM. IF PULSATION "INCREASES, MOVE "| CONTROL IN "| OPPOSITE A DIRECTION MOVE PROP CONTROL UNTIL PULSATION STOPS crab established to maintain the desired ground track. The landing gear should be retracted when a positive rate of climb is established and a landing is no longer possible on the remain- ing runway. TAKEOFF CONSIDERATIONS Every takeoff, whether normal, crosswind, of short field, involves some general considerations and techniques which result in safe multi-engine operations, Every takeoff must be planned and executed with the anticipation of an engine failure. If one does occur, the pilot will be ready to perform the necessary procedures smoothly and accurately, As previously mentioned, the airplane should always be accelerated to Vic, and preferably Vivic plus five MPH, prior to liftoff, The pilot must consider the disadvantages involved in the use of any lower airspeed. If an engine failure occurs during takeoff or initial climb, the pilot must quickly and accurately analyze the situa 131OPERATION AND AERODYNAMICS tion and perform the correct procedure. If the failure occurs on the ground, the throttles should be retarded and the airplane stopped, If the failure occurs while airborne, but with sufficient runway remaining for a landing, the airplane should be landed and stopped. Specific engine-out procedures are discussed in Chapter 5 and will acquaint the pilot with the steps to be taken, CLIMB The airspeed used for climb will depend upon the performance required. As mentioned previ- ously, the cruise or enroute climb provides the best overall performance. If a faster climb rate is needed, the best rate-of-climb airspeed can be used, When a fast rate of climb is not a eritical factor, passenger comfort should be considered, Multi- engine airplanes generally have climb capabili- ties in excess of 1,000 FPM, but this high climb rate may result in considerable ear discomfort to the pilot and passengers, Therefore, an airspeed may be selected that will produce @ lower rate of climb, such as 500 FPM. This results in added pilot-and passenger comfort, plus a reduced total trip time because of the higher airspeed used for climb. During climb, all of the engine instruments {particularly the cylinder head temperatures) should be monitored and maintained within the normal operating ranges. For the Seneca, the cylinder head temperatures should be kept below 475° Fahrenheit. The proper tempera ture can be maintained by adjusting the cow! flaps, as necessary. With normally aspirated engines, climbs to high altitudes will require periodic increases in throt- tle settings to maintain a given percent of power. Once the full throttle setting is reached, the percent of available horsepower will de- crease, along with the aircraft's performance, After climbing above approximately 5,000 feet MSL, the mixtures must be leaned periodically to maintain smooth engine operation and maxi- mum performance. If the airplane is turbo charged, 75 percent power can be maintained throughout all or most of the climb. If 75 percent power is used, the mixture should be adjusted to the climb fuel flow setting until cruising altitude and power are established. 1:32 CRUISE Upon reaching the cruising altitude, level flight is established and the airspeed is allowed to increase to the anticipated cruising speed before the power is reduced. If the power is reduced prematurely, @ slightly nose-high attitude will be required to maintain altitude and the air plane will not accelerate rapidly to a normal cruise airspeed. ‘The multi-engine airplane accelerates quite rap- idly as the attitude is reduced, resulting in heavy control wheel pressures. It usually is easier to maintain the desired altitude and establish cruising flight if the airplane is con: tinually trimmed nose down as it accelerates. ‘As cruise speed is approached, a slight amount of contrat wheel force should be maintained to facilitate the required trim change when the power is reduced, The percent of power used for cruise should have been selected prior to the takeoff to determine the fuel requirements and range capability. A wide selection of power settings is available, but 60 to 65 percent provides the best compromise between speed and fuel con- sumption. The power setting table provided in the airplane Information Manual can be used to select the RPM and manifold pressure combina- tion that will produce the desired percent of power, After the power is set, the propellers synchro- nized, and the mixture set, the cowl flaps should be closed (or adjusted) to maintain the optimum cylinder head temperatures, The fuel boost pumps should be turned off one at a time, The multi-engine airplane is capable of cruise speeds in excess of the maneuvering or turbu- lent air penetration speed. To avoid exceeding the design limits of the airplane, the pilot must be alert for conditions that indicate approach ing turbulence and know the procedure for quickly slowing the airplane to maneuvering speed. The Seneca has two maneuvering speeds, The 4,200-pound gross weight speed is 146 MPH, while at lighter weights (down to 2,743 pounds), the speed is 133 MPH, It is a good operating practice to know the approximate power setting which will produce maneuveringSTUDY UNITS speed, since the airspeed indicator may fluctu ate in severe turbulence DESCENT Because of the higher altitudes and airspeeds which often are used in multi-engine airplanes, the descent rate and distance from the airport for beginning the descent should be preplanned to prevent arrival at the destination with excessive altitude, The following conditions can be used as an example of proper planning. Cruising altitude . - 12,500 ft, MSL Pattern altitude 1,700 ft. MSL Descent rate - 500 FPM Descent groundspeed - 170 MPH The problem is solved using the following steps. 1. The required altitude loss is calculated as 10,800 feet by subtracting 1,700 feet from 12,500 feet. 2, The descent time is calculated by dividing 10,800 feet by 500 FPM, resulting in 21.6 minutes (22 minutes for easier calculations) for the descent. 3. Finally, the distance required for descent is found on the flight computer by finding the distance traveled in 22 minutes at 170 MPH. This calculation shows that 62 miles will be required for a 500 FPM rate of descent, Once the descent plan is completed, the pilot should begin the descent at the calcu- lated distance from the airport and maintain the planned descent rate to artive at the destination at the proper altitude. During the descent, the mixture should be enriched as the altitude is decreased. The Seneca fuel selectors should be checked for being in the ON position, and the passengers’ seatbelts fastened. If the air is cool and the descent is performed with reduced power, the cylinder head temperatures should be monitored and sufficient power used to maintain normal opera- ting temperatures, APPROACH AND LANDING Seat backs ~ erect Fuel selectors ~ ON Cowl flaps — set as required Electric fuel pumps ~ on Mixture controls ~ rich . Propellers — set to 2500 RPM © @negsena as follows 10° (first notch) 25° (second notch} 40° (third notch) Sometime during the approach for a landing, the throttle controls should be retarded to check the gear warning horn, Flying the airplane with the horn inoperative is not advisable. It can lead to a gear-up landing as it is easy to forget the landing gear, especially when approaching for a single-engine landing, when other equipment is inoperative, or when attention is drawn to events outside the cabin Prior to entering the traffic pattern, the aircraft should be slowed to approximately 115 MPH, and this speed should be maintained on the downwind leg. The landing check should be performed on the downwind leg: Seatbelts and shoulder harness — fastened . Landing gear — down (three green lights and nosewheel in mirror) Flaps — set as required; 125 MPH maximum airspeed The landing gear should be lowered at speeds below 150 MPH and the flaps at speeds 160 MPH maximum 140 MPH maximum 125 MPH maximum Fig. 2-13. Seneca Landing Checklist 1:33