Bio 11 Lec Notes

Wednesday, January 18th

Biology: the study of life

The Concept of Life

life: a particular set of processes that results from the organization of matter
life resists a simple, one-sentence definition, yet we can recognise life by what living things do

Manifestations of Life
1. High Degree of Complexity and Order
Biological organization is based on a hierarchy of structural levels, with each level building on the levels below it
2. Reproduction
Organisms reproduce their own kind, either asexually or sexually. Life comes only from life (biogenesis)
3. Growth and Development
Heritable programs stored in DNA direct the species-specific pattern of growth and development
4. Energy Processing/Utilization
Organisms take in and transform energy to do work, including the maintenance of their ordered state
5. Response to Environment
Organisms respond to stimuli from their environment
6. Homeostasis/Balance
Organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain a steady-state, even in the face of a fluctuating external
environment
7. Evolutionary Adaptation
Life evolves in response to interactions between organisms and their environment

Unifying Themes: the study of life reveals common themes

1. Organization
2. Information
3. Energy and Matter
4. Interactions
5. Evolution

Organization
1. Biological hierarchy
2. Emergent properties
3. Structure and function are correlated
4. The cell: An organisms basic units of structure and function

Information
5. Heritable information (DNA, the Genetic Material)

Interactions
6. Interaction with the environment
7. Feedback mechanisms regular biological systems

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Evolution
8. Unity and diversity
9. Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life

Levels of Biological Organisation

*From smallest > largest
Level Description/Explanation/Example

1. Molecules a chemical structure consisting of two or more

units called atoms
e.g. chlorophyll is the pigment molecules that
makes a maple leaf green, and it absorbs sunlight
during photosynthesis

2. Organelles the various functional components present in cells

e.g. chloroplasts
3. Cells life's fundamental unit of structure and function
single cell - performs all the functions of life
multicellular organisms - has a division of labor
among specialized cells

4. Tissues group of cells that work together, performing a

specialised function
e.g. skin on th surface of the leaf is a tissue called
epidermis and there pores through the epidermis
allows entry of CO2, a raw material for sugar
production

5. Organs and Organ System a body part that carries out a particular function in
the body
e.g. a maple leaf, stems, and roots,
organs of complex antimals and plans are
organised into organ systems, which are a team
of organs that cooperate in a larger function
organs consists of multiple tissues
6. Organisms individual living things
e.g. each of the maple trees is an organisms, so is
each deer, frog, etc

7. Populations consists of all the individuals of a species living

within the bounds of a specified area
e.g. forest includes a population of sugar maple
trees and a population of white tailed deer

8. Communities the array of organisms inhabiting a particular

ecosystem / the set of populations that inhabit a
particular area
e.g. in a forest ecosystem, this includes many
kinds of trees, plants, animals, fungi, etc
each form of life is called a species
9. Ecosystems e..g North American forest with many deciduous
trees, grasslands, deserts, coral reefs
consists of all the living things in a particular area,
and nonliving components of the environment with
which life interacts e.g. soil, water, atmosphere

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 10. Biosphere consists of all life on earth and all the places
where life exists
most regions of land, most bodies of water

Definitions
Population - localized group of organisms belonging to the same species
Community - populations of different species living in the same area
Ecosystem - an energy processing system of community interactions that include abiotic environmental factors,
such as soil and water
Biome - large scale ecosystem classified by predominant vegetation type and distinctive combinations of plants
and animals, aquatic and terrestrial biomes
Biosphere - the sum of all of the planets ecosystems

Friday, January 20th 2017

INFORMATION - Theme: Lifes Process Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information /
Heritable Information
chromosomes contain genetic material in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
genes control protein production indirectly, using RNA as an intermediary
the sequence of nucleotides along a gene is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into amino
acids

gene expression: when a gene directions the manufacture of a cellular product

genome: the entire library of genetic instructions that an organism inherits

James Watson
Francis Crick (1953)
Rosalind Franklin: X-ray crystallographer made the photo that Watson & Crick used in deducing the double
helical structure of DNA

DNA molecule: composed of 2 long chains (nucleotide chains), twisted in a double helix
each chain is made up of 4 kinds of chemical building blocks called nucleotides - A,T, C, and G
Cytosine-Guanine
Adenine-Thymine
nucleotide = base, sugar, phosphate
nucleoside = base + sugar only

DNA's building blocks are called nucleotides. Nucleotides are made up of a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous
base and one phosphate.

Flow of Genetic Information, is universal

Translation: the synthesis of a polypeptide specified by an mRNA i.e. protein synthesis

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DNA Replication - DNA to DNA
Transcription - DNA to RNA
Translation i.e. polypeptide synthesis - RNA to Protein

ENERGY AND MATTER - Theme: Life requires the transfer and transformation of energy and matter
producers: photosynthetic organism
consumers: organisms, such as animal, that feed on producers and other consumers
energy flows one way through an ecosystem, while chemicals are recycled within an ecosystem

INTERACTIONS - Theme: From Ecosystems to Molecules, Interactions are important in Biological Systems /
Interaction with the environment
response to environmental stimulus
tropism: plant movement determined by the direction of an environmental stimulus
phototropism: light is the stimulus
feedback regulation: the output, or product, of a process regulates that very process
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: the response reduces the initial stimulus
e.g. the uptake of glucose by cells (the response) decreases blood glucose levels, eliminating the
stimulus for insulin secretion and thereby shutting off the pathway
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 e.g. our body is able to keep warm during cold days, and cool during hot days which means if the
body temperature is too cold, it will trigger shivering to warm your body, and if its too hot, it will
trigger sweat to release and cool the body.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK: an end product speeds up its own production
e.g. clotting of blood in response to an injury - platelets begin to aggregate at the site of the
damaged blood vessel, and thus platelets release chemicals that attract more platelets, which pile
up and seals the wound with a clot

Theme: Regulation
many biological processes are self-regulating, in which an output or product of a process regulates that process
negative feedback or feedback inhibition slows or stops process
positive feedbacks speeds a process because more products

Homeostasis
regulation of internal environment; maintenance of a stable, constant condition
e.g. panting is the dogs evaporate cooling system
plants transpire (stomata open/closes), humans/animals perspide

Evolutionary Adaptation
white feathers nearly invisible against show surroundings
the whiter feather camouflages the organism in its environment

Structure/Function Correlation
stomata crypts restrict water loss
e.g. Aerenchmy cells of water hyacinth

ORGANIZATION - Theme: New Properties Emerge at Successive Levels of Biological Organisation

Emergent Properties
A property which a collection or complex system has, but which the individual members do not have. For
example, the taste of saltiness is a property of salt, but that does not mean that it is also a property of sodium and
chlorine, the two elements which make up salt.

Structure and Function

e.g. thin, flat shape of a leaf maximises the capture of sunlight by chloroplasts

The Cell: An Organisms Basic Unit of Structure and Function

every cell is enclosed by a membrane that REGULATES the passage of materials between he cells and its
surroundings
prokaryotic vs eukaryotic
bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic

EVOLUTION - The Core Theme: Evolution Accounts for the Unity and Diversity of Life
Darwin presented 2 concepts in the Origin of Species

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 contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors through DESCENT WITH MODIFICATIONS
(EVOLUTION). Darwin proposed that many species on earth are descendants of ancestral species different
from present day species
The mechanism of evolution is NATURAL SELECTION
the natural environment selections for the propagation certain traits among naturally occurring
variant traits in the population
Darwin also saw that when man chooses organisms with specific characteristics as breeding stock, they are
performing the role of the environment
This is called Artificial Selection
e.g. in plants; five vegetables derived from wild mustard

Diversity is a hallmark of life

Unity: Genetic Code
all independently living creatures have hereditary material, DNA
similar ways to form new proteins
same genetic code: dictionary of life
genetic code is a dictionary that specifies which amino acids responses to which base sequence
Biodiversity: organizing biodiversity
2 kingdom system of classifications was used - Animalia and Plantae
once microscope was invented, unicellular organisms did not fit under plane or animalia
Ernst Haeckel proposed a 3rd kingdom, protista - this included microscopic organisms
1969- R.H. Whitaker expanded classification into 5 kingdoms based on: cell type (prokaryotes or
eukaryotes), unicellular or multicellular, type of nutrition
animalia, plantae, fungi, protista, monera
Archaea
considered bacteria and named archaebacteria (ancient bacteria) because they appeared
prokaryotic
lives in extreme environments - e.g. deep sea hydrothermal vents, hot springs, the dead, acid lakes

THREE domains
bacteria; most diverse and widespread prokaryotes
archaea; prokaryotic, lives in Earths extreme environments
euakarya; eukaryotic > plantae, fungi, protists, animalia
bacteria and archae are prokaryotic

Wednesday, January 25, 2017

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Introduction
The discovery of cells arose from the invention and improvement of microscope in the 17th century
Robert Hooke was the first to discover cells and coined the term cell in 1665 from a piece of work under a
simple microscope (300x magnification)
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1670) - he was able to observe different types of cells, sperm, blood cells, and
bacteria through a simple microscope which he built
It took more than 2 centuries (1838) before biologists could extend the work of early microscopists and
understand the true significance of cells to the living state
Matthias Schleiden (studied plant tissues) and Theodor Schwann (studied animal tissues) proposed the cell
theory, which may seen as the birth of contemporary biology

Formulation of the Cell Theory

in 1839, Theodor Schwann & Matthias Schlien published a book on animal and plant cells
They summarised their observations into three conclusions about cells
1. the cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things
2. the cell retains a dual existence as a distinct reality & a building block in the construction of
organisms
3. cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous generation)

Rudolph Virchow's powerful dictum, "Omnis cellula e cellula"... "All cells only arise from pre-existing cells".

The Modern Tenets of Cell Theory

1. all known living things are made up of cells
2. cell is the structural & functional unit of all living things
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells by division (spontaneous generation does not occurs)
4. cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during division
5. all cells are basically the same in chemical composition
6. energy flow (metabolism + biochemistry) of life occurs within a cell

General Attributes of Cells i.e. ALL cells:

are surrounded by PLASMA MEMBRANES
have a CYTOSOL, containing organelles; semifluid substance within the membrane
contain CHROMOSOMES, which have genes in the form of DNA
have RIBOSOMES, which are tiny organelles that make proteins using instructions contained in genes

Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

no (membrane bound) nucleus; instead, a nucleioid nucleus (which is bounded by a membrane)

is present

circular strands of DNA; DNA concentrated in DNA in several linear chromosomes; chromosomes
nucleoid are in a membrane-enclosed nucleus

few cell organelles many specialised membrane-bound organelles

no membrane-bound organelles has membrane-bound organelles

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 The Nucleus

Nucleus
membrane bound organelle
contains most of the DNA/genes in a eukaryotic cell
some genes are located in the mitochondria or chloroplasts; semi-autonomous
the nucleus averages about 5 microns in diameter
the nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane
separated by 20-40 nm
the double membrane fuses in a PORE, which allows macromolecules and particles pass through (e.g. mRNA)
nucleus directs protein synthesis - it synthesises messenger RNA (mRNA) accdg to instruc. provided by DNA
mRNA is transported to cytoplasm via nuclear pores
ribosomes translate the mRNAs genetic message into the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide

*Within the Nucleus-

The Nuclear Envelope
encloses the nucleus, separating its content from the cytoplasm
Double membrane (inner and outer) enclosing the nucleus
each a lipid bilayer with associated proteins
perforated by pores that are 100nm in diameter
pore complex: protein structure that lines each pore
regulates entry and exit of proteins and RNAs
continuous with ER

Nucleolus / Nucleoli
mass of densely-stained fibres and granules
Site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis / involved in production of ribosomes
rRNA combines with proteins imported from the cytoplasm to form ribosomal subunits (large + small)
Not enclosed in a membrane / nonmembranous
has one or more nucleoli

Chromatin
material consisting of DNA + associated proteins (i.e. histones)
this DNA exists in CHROMATIN form, but when the cell divides, it is in CHROMOSOME form
visible in a dividing cell as individual, separate, and condensed chromosomes

Nuclear Lamina
a network of intermediate filaments
maintains shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope

Nucleoplasm
fluid filled space which contains nucleolus

Chromosome
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 structure carrying genetic information
discrete structures into which DNA is organized
condensed form of the chromatin

Chromatin vs Chromosome

Ribosomes: PROTEIN FACTORIES

protein factories, they make proteins / complexes that make proteins
made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) + proteins
carries out protein synthesis in two locations
cytosol (free ribosomes)
outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
two subunits - large and small
no membrane

Free Ribosomes
Suspended in cytosol (located in the cytoplasm of cell - not attached to any structure and can freely float)
makes proteins that function within the cytosol/used by cell

Bound Ribosomes
Attached on the surface of the ER
cannot move to other areas of the cell
makes proteins destined either for insertion into membrane, for packaging within organelles such as lysosomes,
or for export from the cell (secretion)
produces proteins that are transported out of cell

The Endomembrane System

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The Endomembrane System consists of:
Components:
Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles; large version of vesicles
Plasma membrane (not actually ENDO in terms of physical location, but related to other internal
membranes)

The Endomembrane System

Membranes are related by physical continuity or by transfer of membrane segments as tiny vesicles (sacs
made of membrane)
Various membranes not identical in structure and function
extensive network of membrane

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

extensive network of membrane-bounded tubules and sacs, called cisternae
accounts for half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells
continuous with the nuclear envelope
two distinct regions of ER, which differ in structure and function
smooth ER: looks smooth because it lacks in ribosomes
rough ER: looks rough because (bound) ribosomes are attached outside
plays a key role in the synthesis and hydrolysis of macromolecules in the cell
ER MEMBRANE: separates the internal compartment of the ER, called the ER lumen or cisternal space, from the
cytosol

Smooth ER (SER)
lacks ribosomes on its surface
functions in different metabolic processes in various cell types
lipid synthesis (oils, phospholipids, steroids)
SER in Leydig cells in testis - makes testosterone
SER in adrenal gland cells - makes other steroid hormones
metabolizes carbohydrates and steroids
stores calcium ions (Ca2+)
SER in muscle cells pumps Ca2 from cytosol into SER lumen
detoxification of drugs and poisons

Rough ER (RER)
ribosomes in its outer surface
aka protein synthesis, thus RER is specially abundant in cells that SECRETE proteins
adds carbohydrates to proteins to make GLYCOPROTEINS
i.e. enzymes built into the ER Membrane will will attach carbohydrates to proteins in the ER lumen
RER membrane keeps secretory proteins separate from proteins that are produced by free ribosomes,
which will remain in the cytosol
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 these secretory proteins are packed in transport vesicles that carry them away from the ER
produces proteins and membranes, which are distributed by transport vesicles
membrane factory of the cell
grows in place by adding membrane proteins and phospholipids to its own membrane
responsible for membrane growth (rough ER will make vesicles that will travel to membrane, travel
there, and unfold thus making cell larger)
enzymes in the rough ER also synthesise phospholipids from precursors in cytosol

according to youtube video:

big role: making secretory proteins (proteins that will be exported outside of the cell > glycoproteins)
manufactures transport vesicles which takes proteins wherever they need to go

SER VS RER: 2 distinct, but connected ER regions

SER RER
Lacks ribosomes on its surface Has ribosomes that stud outer surface of
its membrane

Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center

receiving, modifying, and shipping of proteins/cell products
consists of flattened membranous sacs (cisternae)
each cisterna is membrane-bound
golgi cisternae move in a cis-to-trans direction
Golgi stack has distinct polarity (cis and trans)
cis face: receiving department, located near the ER
trans face: shipping department; gives rise to vesicles that pinch off and travel to other sites
CIS RECEIVES, TRANS SENDS/SHIPS
functions:
modifies and stores products of ER (and then sent to other destinations)
manufactures certain macromolecules
sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
transport vesicles leave ER and travel to Golgi for modification of their contents
usually extensive in secretion of glycoproteins
different cisternae between cis and trans regions contain unique team of enzymes

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

membraneous sacs of HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES, that eukaryotic cells use to digest macromolecules
enzymes can hydrolyse (i.e. digest) proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
enzymes work best at pH 5, which break down harmful things
massive leakage from lysosomes can destroy an entire cell by AUTODIGESTION
destroys cell when it has reached the end of its life
lysosomal enzymes & membrane are made/synthesized by rough ER and then transferred to golgi
trans face of golgi pinchs off transport vesicles that give rise to lysosomes
can fuse with other organelles or parts of the cytosol

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 responsible for digesting - used to digest all kinds of macromolecules
acidic environment inside lysosomes (optimal for lysosomal enzyme activity)

Phagocytosis
engulfment of smaller organisms/food particles i.e. lysososomes digesting food
lysosome fuses with food vacuole, whose enzymes digest the food

Autophagy
i.e. lysosome breaking down damaged organelles
lysosome fuses with a vesicle containing a damaged organelle
hydrolytic enzymes digest organelle components
recycles organelles/cells own organic materials

Summary of Explanations

Vacuoles
Definition
vesicles and vacuoles (vacuoles = large version) are membrane-bound sacs with varied functions
large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
vascular membrane
selective in transporting solutions
the solution inside a vacuole differs in composition from the cytosol

Function
may carry out hydrolysis, similar to lysosomes
three types; food vacuole, contractile vacuole, and central vacuole

Food vacuole
formed by phagocytosis and fuses with lysosome, digests food

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Contractile vacuole
found in many freshwater protists
Pumps excess water out of the cell, to prevent cell from bursting
this maintains a suitable concentration of ions and molecules inside the cell

Central Vacuole
found in many mature plant cells, holds organic compounds and water
major role in the GROWTH OF PLANT CELLS; cells enlarge as their vacuoles absorb water, with minimal
investment in a new cytoplasm
holds materials and wastes
Tonoplast is the membrane of a central vacuole
made out of lipids
solution inside the central vacuole = cell sap
this is the plant cell's main repository of inorganic ions, including potassium and chloride

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts: Evolutionary Origins

Both have similarities with bacteria:

Enveloped by a double membrane
Contains free ribosomes and DNA molecules (a small amount of DNA only)
They grow and reproduce independently in cells
not part of the endomembrane system
grow as semi-autonomous organelles
organelles that convert energy

Mitochondrion
Function
power house of cell; the site of cellular respiration
contains small amount of DNA, which enables mitochondria to create its own proteins

Structure
consists of two membranes; an inner and outer membrane (each a lipid bilayer)
INNER membrane is highly folded/convoluted with innerfoldings (CRISTAE)
cristae provides more surface area for proteins/ for the enzymes that synthesise ATP
smooth OUTER membrane
inner membrane creates two internal compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix

Mitochondrial Matrix
a fluid-filled space with DNA, Enzymes, and Ribosomes (D-E-R)
site of the Krebs cycle (also called citric cycle)

Chloroplast
Chloroplast
member of a family of organelles called plastids
contain chlorophyll, enzymes, and other molecules that function in photosynthesis
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 found in leaves and other green organs of plant and in algae
measures about 2x5 microns

sites of photosynthesis (solar/light energy > chemical energy)

chloroplast membrane proteins made by free ribosomes and ribosomes inside chloroplast
contains small amount of DNA
amyloplast: stores starch in roots & tubers
chromoplasts: store pigment for fruit + flowers

Structure

Thylakoid: membranous, flattened, interconnected sacs > this is critical for converting light into chemical energy)
Granum: stack (like poker chips) of thylakoid in some regions
Stroma: the internal, fluid-filled space + contains DNA, enzymes, ribosomes for photosynthesis
Compartments of chloroplast space: intermembrane space, stroma, thylakoid space

Peroxisome
specialised metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane
contains enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from substrates and transfers them to oxygen, producing
toxic HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H2O2 - as a by-product), and converting it to H20 (water)

uses oxygen (O2) to break fatty acids, into smaller molecules

detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds
splits into two when they reach a certain size

Cytoskeleton: Organizer of Cell structure and Activities

a network of fibers throughout cytoplasm
organizes the cell structures and activities, anchoring many organelles
consists of MICROTUBULES, MICROFILAMENTS, and INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

Function
helps to support the cell and maintains cell shape
interacts with motor proteins to produce cell motility
vesicles can travel along monorails provided by cytoskeleton
may help regulate biochemical activities

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 provides anchorage for organelles and cytosolic enzymes
cytoskeleton and motor proteins interact with plasma membrane to allow whole cells to move
regulation of cellular activities

Cytoskeleton: 3 Types of Fibers

1. Microtubules: thickest, compression resisting
hollow rods/tubes
wall constructed from TUBULIN protein
each tubulin molecule consists of 2 subunits (- tubulin and -tubulin)
lengthens by adding tubulin dimers attends
can be disassembled; shape and support the cell
separates chromosomes during cell division

2. Intermediate Filaments: with middle range diameter, tension-bearing

constructed from a different molecular subunit belonging to a protein family that includes keratins
more permanent (not disassembled and reassembled)
reinforce cell shape and fix the position of certain organelles (e.g. nucleus is fixed within a cage
made of intermediate filaments)
function as the framework of the entire cytoskeleton

3. Microfilaments (Actin Filaments): thinnest, tension bearing

solid rods
built from actin molecules
one microfilament is a twisted double-chain of actin subunits
ability to form 3D network supports cell shape
bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli (cellular projections) in cells specialized for
transport across membranes
cytoplasmic streaming
formation of cleave furrow - division in animal cells
role in muscle contraction

Cilia and Flagella

Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells
Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns
They share a common ultrastructure:
a core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane
9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules
a basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
a motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending movements of a cilium or flagellum
How dynein walking moves flagella and cilia:
Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the outer microtubules
Protein cross-links limit sliding
Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets to curve, bending the cilium or flagellum

Flagella: snakelike, whiplike motion driving a cell in the same direction as the axis of the flagellum
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Cilia: back and forth motion, perpendicular to axis of cilium

Extracellular Components and Cellular Connections

materials that are external to the plasma membrane

synthesized and secreted by most cells
includes:
cell wells of plants
extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
intercellular junctions
help coordinate cellular activities
involved in intercellular communication

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

mainly consists of secreted glycoproteins
COLLAGEN: most abundant glycoprotein, as it forms strong fibers outside the cell and accounts for about
half of the total protein in the human body
collagen fiber is analgous to microfibrils of cellulose (in plant cells)
are embedded in a network woven out of proteoglycan complexes
fibronectin: glycoprotein that attaches ECM to integrins embedded in plasma membrane
integrins: membrane proteins bind/attached to the ECM on the outside - cell surface receptor proteins built into
plasma membrane -

Plant Cells vs Animal Cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell
Have Plastids (Chloroplasts) No Plastids/No Chloroplasts
*For photosynthesis

Have Cell Wall No Cell Wall

Have Large Central Vacuole Have Small Temporary Vacuole (if any)

Stores excess glucose as starch Stores excess glucose as glycogen

Have plasmodesmata No plasmodesmata (gap junctions instead)

Larger in size Smaller in size

Nucleus positioned towards the side Nucleus positioned in the center

Fixed, regular shape (generally) Amorphous shape (generally)

*Because there is a cell wall *Because there is no cell wall

Function of a Plant Cell Wall

protects cell
maintains cell shape
prevents excessive uptake of water
strong walls hold plant up against gravitational force
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Structure of a Plant Cell Wall
consists of microfibrils of cellulose/cellulose fibres embedded in other polysaccharides and proteins
a mature cell may have multiple layers
primary cell well: relatively thin and flexible, made of CELLULOSE
middle lamella: thin layer with sticky polysaccharides (calcium pectate/PECTIN) between primary walls of
adjacent cells, which holds cells together
secondary cell wall: added between the plasma membrane and primary wall (e.g. in wood) composed of
LIGNIN
plasmodesmata: channels between adjacent plant cells

Intercellular Junctions in Animal Cells

provide means by which cells in multicellular organisms adhere, interact, and communicate
eg. tight junctions, desmosomes and gap junctions

Tight Junctions
Form continuous seals around cells
membranes of neighbouring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

Desmosomes
anchoring junctions
fasten cells together into strong sheets
analogous to middle lamella

Gap Junctions
communicating junctions
provides cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
Cell-cell communication
analogous to plasmodesmata

Plasma Membrane Structure + Function

Plasma Membrane Function
boundary that separates the living cell from its surroundings
exhibits selective permeability - only certain materials can pass through such CO2 or O2
these pass through at a different rate

protects the cell and is boundary of cells; it acts a gate and controls entry and exit of substances
selective barrier that allows the passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes for the whole volume of the cell

Plasma Membrane Structure

staple ingredients: lipids and proteins (+ carbohydrate)
phospholipids are the most abundant lipid in the plasma membrane
phospholipids are amphipathic molecules (hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions)

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 Bilayer of phospholipids phospholipid bilayers
lipid bilayer
held together by hydrogen bonding with water
inhibits the passage of water soluble substances through it
lipids have their water repelling tails facing inward
various proteins attached to or embedded
carbohydrate on outer surface
hydrophilic head - loves water, hydrophobic tail- hates water

Fluid Mosaic Model

FLUID because of phospholipids being AMPHIPATHIC
mosaic because of collage /mosaic of protein molecules

The Fluidity of Membranes

(a) Movement of phospholipids
most of the lipids, and some proteins,
drift laterally i.e. can undergo lateral
movement (SIDE-BY-SIDE)
lateral movement contributes to
fluidity
rarely does a molecule flip-flop
transversely

(b) Membrane Fluidity

UNSATURATED hydrocarbon tails
(kinks) PREVENT packing, enhancing
membrane fluidity > FLUID
SATURATED hydrocarbon tails pack
together, increasing membrane
viscosity > VISCOUS

(c) Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

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 high/warm temperatures (37 degrees
celsius): cholesterol makes the
membrane LESS FLUID by restraining
phospholipid movement (not free to
move around)
low/cool temperatures: remains
FLUID, hinders solidification by
disrupting/preventing the regular tight
packing of phospholipids (i.e. more
freedom to move around)

cholesterol in general hinders close packing of phospholipids, which lowers temperature (i.e. a cooler
temperature) needed for membrane to solidify
help to keep the membrane fluid consistent
fluidity buffer > resists changes in membrane fluidity that can be caused by changes in temperature

Membrane Proteins and Their Functions

A membrane is a collage of different proteins embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer
Proteins determine most of the membranes specific functions
Peripheral proteins - bound to the surface of the membrane
Integral proteins - penetrate the hydrophobic core, amphipathic
transmembrane proteins - integral proteins that span the membrane
hydrophobic regions consist of one or more stretches of nonpolar amino acids, often coiled into alpha helices

Six Major Functions of Membrane Protein (TESCIA)

1. Transport
2. Enzymatic Activity
3. Signal transduction
occurs when an extracellular signaling molecule activates a cell surface receptor. In turn, this receptor
alters intracellular molecules creating a response
4. Cell-cell recognition
cells recognize each other by binding to surface molecules covalently bonded to lipids (glycolipids) or
more commonly to proteins (glycoproteins)
carbohydrates on the external side of the plasma membrane vary among species, individuals, and even
cell types in an individual
5. Intercellular joining
6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)

Permeability of the Plasma Membrane

a cell must exchange materials with its surroundings
selectively permeable, regulating the cells molecular traffic
selective permeability means that the cell membrane has some control over what can cross it, so that only
certain molecules either enter or leave the cell

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The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer
hydrophobic/nonpolar/small molecules (hydrocarbons, CO2, and O2), can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and
pass through the membrane rapidly
lipid bilayer: composed of FATTY ACIDS, which inhibits the passage of water soluble substances through it
hydrophilic/polar molecules (water, sugars) do not cross the membrane easily

Transport Proteins: FACILITATED DIFFUSION

allow passage of hydrophilic/polar substances across the membrane
used for FACILITATED DIFFUSION;
substances transported by facilitated diffusion move passively through specific channels from an area of
high concentration to one of low concentration
Transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules & is specific for the substance it moves

1. channel proteins have a hydrophilic channel/corridor that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel
Aquaporins: for facilitated diffusion of water
Ion channels: open or close in response to a stimulus (gated channels)
2. carrier proteins bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane / undergo a subtle
change in shape that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane

Passive Transport
Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment
Molecules:
have kinetic energy called thermal motion
display random movement - they have a tendency to move around in a solution
One result of this random movement is diffusion
Diffusion is the tendency to molecules to spread out from regions of high concentration to regions of lower
concentration, evenly into the available space
Although each molecule moves randomly, diffusion of a population of molecules may exhibit a net movement
in one direction
substances diffuse down their concentration gradient - high to low conc

Osmosis
water diffuses across a membrane from the region of lower solute concentration to the region of higher
solute concentration

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 Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a selectively-permeable membrane into a region of
higher solute concentration, aiming to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides

Water Balance of Cells

Tonicity - ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
Isotonic solution - solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell
Hypertonic solution - solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell
Hypotonic solution - solute concentration is less than that inside the cell
*careful during exam: should be RELATIVE to the cell
animal cell is normal when: ISOTONIC
*lysed: bursts/ruptures

plant cell is normal when:

HYPOTONIC

*flaccid: soft, loose, flabby

*turgid: When the plant cell is placed
in a hypotonic solution , it takes up
water by osmosis and starts to swell,
but cell wall prevents it from bursting.
The plant cell is said to have become
"turgid" i.e. swollen and hard

Osmoregulation
the control of water balance

Active Transport
moves substances against their concentration gradient
low conc to high conc
requires energy, usually in the form of ATP, and PUMPS
performed by specific proteins embedded in the membranes
membrane potential: voltage across a
The sodium-potassium pump is one type of active transport system
passes more Na+ out than K+ in
(3) sodium ions out and (2) potassium ions in
because INSIDE of the cell is NEGATIVE compared with the outside, the membrane potential favors the
passive transport of CATIONS into the cell AND anions out of the cell

How Ion Pumps Maintain Membrane Potential

Membrane potential: the voltage difference across a membrane
Voltage is created by differences in the distribution of positive and negative ions
2 combined forces, collectively called the electrochemical gradient, drive the diffusion of ions across a
membrane:
a chemical force (the ions concentration gradient)
an electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential on the ions movement)

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 an electrogenic pump is a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane
the sodium-potassium pump is the major electrogenic pump of animal cells
the main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria is a proton pump

Cotransport: Coupled Transport by a Membrane Protein

occurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of another solute
plants use the gradient of hydrogen ions generated by proton pumps to drive active transport of nutrients (e.g.
sugar) into the cell
sodium moves inward down its concentration gradient (high to low)
sugar moves inward up its concentration gradient (low to high)

Bulk Transport
small molecules and water enter or leave the cell through the lipid bilayer or by transport proteins
large molecules ( e.g. polysaccharides and proteins) cross the membrane in bulk via vesicles
requires energy i.e. it is a form of ACTIVE TRANSPORT
occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis

Exocytosis
Transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse with it, and release their contents
used by many secretory cells to export their products
a transport vesicle budded from golgi migrates (via mictroubules) to the plasma membrane, fuse with it, and
release or take out their contents

Endocytosis
the cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane
a reversal of exocytosis,involving different proteins
three types:
phagocytosis (cellular eating)
a cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole
the vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest the food particles
pinocytosis (cellular drinking)
molecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is gulped into tiny vesicles
receptor-mediated endocytosis
binding of ligands to receptors triggers vesicle formation
a ligand is any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule

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SUMMARY
A. Transport of Water + Small Molecules
1. Passive Transport
a. Diffusion
I. Simple
II. Facilitated: using channels
b. Osmosis (special type of diffusion) - water
2. Active Transport: Using ATP
B. Transport of Large Molecules (proteins + large polysaccharides by packaging in vesicles)
1. Endocytosis: Cells take IN molecules by forming new vesicles from plasma membrane (i.e. going
IN the cell)
a. phagocytosis
b. pinocytosis
2. Exocytosis: Cell secrets molecules by fusion of vesicles with plasma membrane (i.e. going OUT of
the cell

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