Ultrasound Beamforming and Image Formation Explained

Ultrasound Beamforming and Image Formation
Ultrasound Beamforming and

Image Formation
Jeremy J. Dahl
Overview
Ultrasound Concepts
Beamforming
Image Formation
Absorption and TGC
Advanced Beamforming Techniques
Synthetic Receive Aperture
Parallel Beamforming
Spatial Compounding
Adaptive Beamforming
Ultrasonic Imaging
Use acoustic (pressure) waves to form images
Frequency range: 1-20 MHz
Tomographic view: imaging plane is orthogonal to the surface
Pulse-echo imaging
Ultrasound System
Beamformer
TGC
Transducer A/D Conversion
Geometric Focal Delays
Summation
Signal Processing
IQ Computation
Magnitude Calculation Scan Conversion
Compression and Display
Filtering
Flow Processing
Image Mode Processing
Coordinate System
Elevation (y)
Azimuthal (x)
Transducer
Elements
Axial (z)
Ultrasound Concepts
BEAMFORMING
Image Formation
Absorption and TGC
Spatial Compounding
Transmit Beamforming
System Time
Delays Scattering Medium
1
5
Receive Beamforming
Signal
Alignment Scattering
Medium
1
4
Summed RF Data
(RF Line out) 5
System Time
Delays
Transducer Array
Beams

Linear Phased
Fixed Focus Beamforming
10 10
15 15
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
20 20
25 25
30 30
35 35
1 0 1 1 0 1
Azimuthal Span (mm) Azimuthal Span (mm)
Fixed Focus Beamforming
12 12
14 14
16 16
18 18
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
20
20
22
22
24
24
26
26
28
28
30
5 0 5 5 0 5
(mm) (mm)
Dynamic-Receive Beamforming
System Time Delays
Propagation Direction
Transducer
10 10
15 15
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
20 20
25 25
30 30
35 35
1 0 1 1 0 1
12 12
14 14
16 16
18 18
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
20
20
22
22
24
24
26
26
28
28
30
5 0 5 5 0 5
(mm) (mm)
Aperture Growth and Apodization
Time: t1 t2 t3
1 1 1
Apodization
Weight:
0 0 0
Aperture
Growth:
Depth
Unused Transducer
Elements
10 10
15 15
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
20 20
25 25
30 30
35 35
1 0 1 1 0 1

12 12
14 14
16 16
18 18
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
20
20
22
22
24
24
26
26
28
28
30
5 0 5 5 0 5
(mm) (mm)
Ultrasound Concepts
Beamforming
IMAGE FORMATION
Absorption and TGC
Spatial Compounding
Radio-Frequency (RF) Image

Envelope Detection
Envelope
Signal with Carrier

Frequency
Envelope Detection
Filter
To other post
RF Line in Compression processing filters
cos 2 f0 I2 + Q2 and
Mapping
Filter
sin 2 f0
Compression and Gray Scale Mapping
The dynamic range of the envelope detected signals is still to large to provide
useful images. Bright targets can drown out the low signals of important
structures.
Compression and gray scale mapping techniques are used to reduce the
dynamic range.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Ultrasound Concepts
Beamforming
Image Formation
ABSORPTION AND TGC
Spatial Compounding
Absorption
Not all of the transmitted ultrasonic energy is reflected. In fact, most of the
transmitted energy is absorbed by the tissue. The typical rate of absorption
of ultrasonic energy is 0.5 decibels per centimeter per Megahertz.
For example, an acoustical pulse at 5 MHz that travels 10 cm into tissue loses
25 dB of its signal strength (in other words, is about 1/18th of the original
amplitude).
Absorption is frequency dependent: The higher the frequency, the greater

the absorption. Although resolution is better at the higher frequencies, the
penetration of the ultrasound signal is not as good as the low frequencies.
5.7 MHz 8.0 MHz 10.0 MHz

Time-Gain Compensation (TGC)
Time-gain compensation is used to counteract the effects of absorption. Gain

is applied to the signal as a function of time (or distance).
Manufacturers apply pre-determined TGC to the ultrasonic signals, however

still allow the user some control of the gain with depth.
Gain can be applied down to reasonable depths depending on the frequency.

At some point, however, the SNR of the signal is so low that applying any
TGC only serves to amplify noise.
Without TGC With TGC


Spatial Compounding
Synthetic receive aperture imaging emulates a larger transducer when a sys-

tems available beamforming channel count is smaller than the number of
elements in the transducer.
The beamforming is considered synthetic because multiple transmits are

used to construct the beam as if it were received on the entire transducer
at once.
First Transmit Second Transmit
Transmitting
Receiving
Transmitting and Receiving

Parallel Receive Beamforming
Parallel receive beamforming, also known as Explososcanning, is a method

of beamforming that forms multiple receive beams from a single transmit
event.
In parallel receive beamforming, a broad transmit beam is fired, and multiple

receive beams are formed within the bounds of the transmit beam.
Parallel receive beamforming is used to increase frame rate. This is most

useful when the imaging deep within tissue, or real-time 3-D imaging is de-
sired.
Transducer
Transmit
Beam
Receive Beams
Spatial Compounding
All ultrasound images suffer from coherent noise, called speckle. Speckle
results from the constructive and destructive wave interference of reflections
from sub-resolution scatterers, and gives the image a grainy appearance.
Speckle reduces the visible resolution by a factor of 10.

Spatial compounding is a means by which the effects of speckle can be re-
duced.
Spatial Compounding
In spatial compounding, multiple images of the same target are averaged in

order to reduce the coherent noise.
Each image must contain uncorrelated speckle patterns.

Many ways to obtain uncorrelated speckle patterns:
Divide the transducer into small sub-apertures
Change the steering angle of the beams
Physically translate the transducer
Change the transmit frequency
pNormalp Spatial Compounding

Up to this point, weve assumed that the sound speed in human tissue is a
constant (1540 m/s).
This is just an average of the soft tissue sound speed.

Because the sound speed can change from tissue to tissue, AND because
the thickness of these tissues vary from location to location, the sound wave
used for ultrasonic imaging can become distorted.
The distortion in the sound wave is called ABERRATION in adaptive beam-

forming.
In adaptive beamforming (also called adaptive imaging) we attempt to com-

pensate the beamformer for the aberration.
Some of the effects of aberration

Reduced image brightness
Loss in resolution
Obscured targets
Image artifacts
Control Aberrated
Many methods have been created to compensate for aberration.

They generally fall into two classes, based on the model of aberration used:
Near-field phase-screen models
Distributed aberration models
The Near-Field Phase Screen Model

Signal Misalignment Near Field
Phase Error PhaseScreen
1
4
Summed RF
Data 5
System Time Scattering Medium
Delays
A Distributed Aberration Model

MidRange
PhaseScreen
Scattering
1
Medium
2
4
Summed RF
Data 5
System Time
Delays Propagation of Distorted
Wavefronts
Aberrated Corrected
Challenges in Adaptive Beamforming
Requires access to the channel signals. Most manufacturers do not provide

access to these signals. In addition, the volume of data created by the chan-
nel signals is extremely large.
Significant computational effort.

Low frame rates - relatively few have attempted to make adaptive beamform-
ing work with real-time imaging.
Thank You
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Ultrasound Beamforming and Image Formation

Ultrasound Beamforming and

Fixed Focus Beamforming

Fixed Focus Beamforming

System Time Delays

Aperture Growth and Apodization

Aperture Growth and Apodization

Aperture Growth and Apodization

Radio-Frequency (RF) Image

Signal with Carrier

Compression and Gray Scale Mapping

Absorption is frequency dependent: The higher the frequency, the greater

5.7 MHz 8.0 MHz 10.0 MHz

Time-Gain Compensation (TGC)

Time-gain compensation is used to counteract the effects of absorption. Gain

Manufacturers apply pre-determined TGC to the ultrasonic signals, however

Gain can be applied down to reasonable depths depending on the frequency.

Without TGC With TGC

Advanced Beamforming Techniques

Synthetic Receive Aperture

Synthetic Receive Aperture

Synthetic receive aperture imaging emulates a larger transducer when a sys-

The beamforming is considered synthetic because multiple transmits are

First Transmit Second Transmit

Transmitting and Receiving

Parallel Receive Beamforming

Parallel receive beamforming, also known as Explososcanning, is a method

In parallel receive beamforming, a broad transmit beam is fired, and multiple

Parallel receive beamforming is used to increase frame rate. This is most

Speckle reduces the visible resolution by a factor of 10.

In spatial compounding, multiple images of the same target are averaged in

Each image must contain uncorrelated speckle patterns.

pNormalp Spatial Compounding

This is just an average of the soft tissue sound speed.

The distortion in the sound wave is called ABERRATION in adaptive beam-

In adaptive beamforming (also called adaptive imaging) we attempt to com-

Some of the effects of aberration

Many methods have been created to compensate for aberration.

The Near-Field Phase Screen Model

A Distributed Aberration Model

Challenges in Adaptive Beamforming

Requires access to the channel signals. Most manufacturers do not provide

Significant computational effort.

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