SAUSAGES

Sausage is defined as ground meat mixed with fat, salt and other
seasonings, preservatives, and sometimes fillers. Some sausage mixtures
are sold in bulk form, and others forced into casings to form links.

Sausage is available in fresh form, which needs to be cooked before

consumption, and dry or cured form, which are already cooked.

Virtually any type of meat can be used in sausage, but most common are
pork or pork blends. Variety truly is the spice of life, with spicy, hot
sausages and bland sausages, and with flavorings running the gamut
from garlic to nutmeg.

Creative chefs are also making sausages from vegetable and seafood
blends for those who eschew meats. There are also ways to lower the fat
if you make your own at home.These are the basic categories (not
flavors) of sausages.

Fresh Sausage: made from meats that are neither cured nor smoked.
They must be cooked before serving.

Cooked Sausage: made from uncured meats that are cooked but not
smoked.

Cooked, Smoked Sausage: made from cured meats that are lightly
smoked, then cooked. They do not require further cooking. These include
bologna and hot dogs.

Uncooked, Smoked Sausage: either cooked or cured meats that are

smoked and then later cooked before serving.

Dry Sausage: also called summer sausage (because it can be kept in

warm weather without refrigeration) and seminary sausage (because it is
associated with the type of sausages made at monasteries), made from
cured sausage that is air-dried under controlled time temperature-
humidity conditions. They may or may not be smoked. Lebanon bologna,
salami, kosher sausage, and Spanish chorizo are examples of such
sausages.

Specialty Meats: a wide range of products made from cured or noncured

chopped or comminuted meats, usually baked or cooked rather than
smoked and formed into loaves to be sliced and served cold in salads or
sandwiches or as a breakfast meat, like scrapple.

There are four main categories of sausages: fresh, cooked and smoked, cooked,
and semi-dry and dry. The sausages listed here are basically ground meat,
seasoned and flavored, with added fat, stuffed into casings. Bulk sausage is
flavored ground meat, usually pork, that is cooked like ground beef, or formed into
patties. No matter which sausage you use, be sure to read the label for handling
and cooking instructions. A sausage which is smoked or dried, for instance, isn't
necessarily fully cooked and ready to eat without further cooking.

Many people are concerned about nitrates and nitrites, preservatives used in the
making of smoked meat and sausages. These curing agents stop bacterial
contamination and give the product a pink color and distinctive flavor. If you shop
carefully, you can find products labeled nitrate and nitrite-free.

In the chart below, the ingredients listed for each sausage are generic. Specific
brands of sausages may have slightly different ingredients; however, these
ingredients are considered typical.

Oh, and Polish Sausage and Kielbasa are basically the same and are
interchangeable; kielbasa is a polish word that means 'sausage'. One of the
differences is that Kielbasa is sold in rings rather than separate links. Just use the
brand you like!

SAUSAGE TYPE INGREDIENTS COOKING

METHOD

Polish Fresh Pork, beef, Steam, Fry,

Sausage garlic, thyme or Grill, Bake
marjoram, pork to 155
fat, pepper degrees F

Kielbasa Fresh, Beef, pork, Steam, Fry,

Smoked garlic, pork or Grill, Bake
beef fat, to 155
mustard degrees F

Bratwurst Fresh, Pork or beef, Steam, Fry,

sometimes veal, dry milk, Grill, Bake
smoked onion, garlic, to 155
and cooked coriander, degrees F
caraway,
 nutmeg

Salami Dry, Cured Highly Ready to

seasoned: eat
garlic, salt,
pepper, sugar

Sweet or Hot Fresh Sweet: garlic, Steam, Fry,

Italian sugar, anise, Grill, Bake
and fennel to 155
degrees F
Hot: paprika,
chile peppers,
onion, garlic,
fennel, parsley

Cervelat or Cured, Pork, beef, Ready to

Summer Smoked, garlic, mustard, eat
Sausage Semi-Dry mild spices

Andouille Smoked Pork, salt, very Ready to

spicy, sugar, eat
paprika, red
pepper, garlic,
sage

Boudin Blanc Fresh, Pork, fat, eggs, Gently

delicate cream, bread saute
crumbs,
seasonings

Braunschweig Precooked, Smoked liver, Ready to

er smoked eggs, milk eat;
spreadable

Boudin Noir Precooked Pig's blood, Ready to

suet, bread eat; better
crumbs sauteed

Knackwurst Precooked, Beef, pork, lots Ready to

Smoked of garlic, cumin eat

Linguica Cured, Pork butt, lots of Usually

Smoked garlic, cumin, ready to eat
cinnamon,
vinegar

Pepperoni Air-dried Pork, beef, lots Usually

of black and red ready to eat
 pepper

Chorizo Dry, Pork, cilantro, Usually

Smoked paprika, garlic, ready to
chili powder, eat
very spicy

Mortadella Semi-Dry, Cubes of pork Steam, Fry,

Smoked fat, pork, beef, Grill, Bake
peppercorns, to 155
garlic, anise degrees F

Hot Dogs Cooked, Cured beef and Ready to

Smoked, pork, garlic, salt,eat
Cured sugar, mustard,
pepper

Bockwurst Fresh Veal, pork, milk, Steam,

chives, eggs Saute, Bake
to 155
degrees F

Bologna Cooked, Cured beef and Ready to

Smoked pork, garlic, salt eat

Sausage Casings

Traditionally, link sausage is stuffed into natural casings made from the intestines
of animals, but artificial (usually collagen) casings are available on the market.
(These days most commercial common sausages use synthetic casings.) Some
artificial casings require soaking in hot tap water before use, and need to be
punctured with a knife point before stuffing to eliminate air pockets.

If you do not have access to natural or artificial casings or just do not want to use
them but still want to make sausage links, you can make casings from strips of
muslin. To form casings about 1-1/2 inches in diameter, cut strips about 6 inches
wide and 16 inches long. Fold lengthwise and stitch edges together to form tubes.
If you do not use casings at all, you can still form links by rolling up the mixture in
foil or plastic wrap and refrigerating until firm. The uncased method of links needs
a binder (bread crumbs, soy protein concentrate, etc.) in the sausage mix,
normally 5 to 10 percent of the mix, to keep the meat from separating during
cooking.

Reduce the fat in sausage

Of course, by making your own at home, you can control the ingredients, spices,
and fillers. Those on a low-fat diet can control the fat content of homemade
sausage, but keep in mind that less fat will mean a dry sausage.

Sausage and your health The U.S. Department of Agriculture mandates that fresh
sausage contain no sodium nitrite and/or potassium nitrite, and no nitrates.

However, cured sausages do normally contain one of these preservatives, which

are suspected suspected of contributing to cancer. Many people are allergic to
nitrites and nitrates as well as fillers such as soy and other common food
allergens, so beware of these ingredients in commercial cured varieties. Read the
ingredients label.

Cured varieties also contain high amounts of salt, necessary to the curing process,
which could be a potential problem for those with high blood pressure. Yet those
varieties containing pork are rich in thiamine and vitamin B12 which helps
promote healthy nerves and skin. Many are also a significant source of zinc.

Adding fruits, such as chopped apple or raisins will add moisture back. You may
also try onions, mushrooms, and other moisture-rich veggies or even tofu.

You can further reduce the fat content up to 20 percent by cooking fresh
sausages, draining the fat, and then patting it dry with paper towels. Using
sausage in small amounts as a flavor accent instead of as a main dish will also
help reduce fat in your diet, yet still let you enjoy a bit of sausage.

Definition

Raw-fermented sausages receive their characteristic properties (tangy flavour, in

most cases chewy texture, intense red curing colour) through fermentation
processes, which are generated through physical and chemical conditions
created in raw meat mixes filled into casings. Typical raw-fermented sausages
are uncooked meat products and consist of coarse mixtures of lean meats
and fatty tissuescombined with salts, nitrite (curing agent), sugars and spices as
non-meat ingredients. In most products, uniform fat particles can clearly be
distinguished as white spots embedded in dark-red lean meat, with particle sizes
varying between 2-12mm depending on the product. In addition to
fermentation, ripening phases combined with moisture reduction are necessary
to build-up the typical flavour and texture of the final product. The need for
moisture reduction requires the utilization of water-vapour permeable
casings (see page 249, 261, 263). The products are not subjected to any heat
treatment during processing and are in most cases distributed and consumed raw.

Fig. 149: Raw fermented sausage products of different calibres and

degrees of chopping

Biochemical processes in manufacture

Raw-fermented sausage products have been developed and produced for

centuries in regions with moderate climates around the world. Traditionally, the
fabrication took place during the cold season, as relatively low temperatures are
required for fermentation, drying and ripening. At the end of the ripening phase,
raw-fermented sausages, also known as dry sausages, are considered shelf-
stable even under higher temperatures. A sub-group of raw-fermented sausages
are the semi-dry and/or spreadable products. Principles of manufacture of these
semi-dry products are discussed at the end of the chapter.

In the past, when cooling facilities were not readily available, their shelf-stability
made raw-fermented sausages very popular as an animal protein reserve for food
security purposes. Nowadays, these products are fermented, dried and ripened in
artificially climatized rooms or chambers and can therefore also be fabricated
during warmer seasons and even in tropical climates.

In the specific case of raw-fermented sausages, fermentation refers to the

breakdown of carbohydrates (sugars) present in meat mixtures, mainly to lactic
acid. Traditionally processors of raw-fermented sausages relied on the action of
fermentation bacteria, naturally present in the meat contaminating flora.
Relatively low temperatures (around 20C) are instrumental in stimulating the
growth of the desiredfermentation flora, while the growth of the spoilage
bacteria is suppressed. Conditions for spoilage bacteria become gradually more
unfavourable, as the fermentation bacteria produce acids resulting in the decline
of the pH-values in the product. The development of the desired fermentation flora
also contributes to the typical taste, appearance and texture of raw-fermented
sausages. An additional measure to control spoilage bacteria in the product is the
controlled decrease of moisture (reduction of aw) during fermentation and ripening.
Spoilage bacteria need higher aw values than acid producing bacteria (see page
324).

These biological processes in raw-fermented sausages constitute a rare example

where microbial activity can be useful. Another example is raw fermented ham.
However, this biological process can get out of control, for example if
temperatures in fermentation or ripening chambers are too high or if the
contaminating flora is excessively numerous with an overwhelming share of
spoilage bacteria. In such cases, fermentation bacteria will not sufficiently develop
and the product spoils. This risk is minimized by the use of fermentation and
ripening chambers with controlled air temperature and humidity favourable for
fermentation and drying (Fig. 150, 151). The second measure is the use
of selected fermenting bacteria (commercially produced microbial starter
cultures), which are added to the sausage mix and develop the desired
fermentation processes, until moisture contents reached are low enough to stop
fermentation.

Raw-fermented sausages depend not only on fermentation to achieve the desired

texture and flavour, but during their long ripening periods other biochemical and
physical factors become increasingly important. Natural fat
alterations (rancidity) take place and produce strong flavours. This process can
be substantially slowed down by selecting suitable raw fat materials (preferably
fresh pork back fat) and applying relatively low ripening and climatization
parameters (e.g. 20C and 75-80% rel. humidity). Prolonged ripening and drying
also leads to low moisture contents with the consequence of
more concentrated flavour component and firmer sausage texture. The
water content of finished raw-fermented sausages is always below 35%, in many
cases even less than 30%. This corresponds to an aw of 0.90 and below and makes
the product shelf-stable. Under moderate climatic conditions and storage (e.g.
20C and 70-75% relative humidity), the products have a prolonged shelf life of
over one year.

Raw-fermented sausages have moderate acidity with pH-values in the range of

5.0 to 5.5. Some manufacturers still rely on their typical meat plant flora to initiate
the fermentation process. The use of starter cultures has the big advantage that
the initial biological process can be controlled/directed and growth of spoilage
bacteria is reduced. Raw-fermented sausages may be produced with or
without smoking. Un-smoked products are called air-dried.
The ripening and drying periods are determined by the sausage formulation
and casing diameter. Ripening periods can amount up to 90 days, but most raw-
fermented sausages are finished within 3-4 weeks. Typical examples for dry
sausages with more or less prolonged ripening periods are the various types of
salamis (Hungarian, Italian, Central European, Spanish chorizo) (Fig. 152).
Fig. 150: Recently filled raw- Fig. 151: Raw-fermented sausage
fermented sausage being after 10 days in ripening chamber
transferred to ripening chamber

Principles of manufacture (recipes page 394 399)

The manufacture of raw-fermented sausages at the small to medium scale meat

industry level is outlined hereunder. These sectors often lack a full range of
comminuting equipment and in particular equipment for accurate climatization
during fermentation and ripening and therefore face
more technological challenges than larger, well equipped industries.

Raw materials

The processing of raw-fermented sausages is dominated by biological and

biochemical processes and raw meat materials of excellent hygienic quality are
a precondition for the correct functioning of such processes. Lean meat from a
variety of animal sources such as cattle, pigs, horses, donkeys, camels, sheep or
goats can be used. The lean meat can be from older adult animals, as water
content and water holding capacity of such meat is lower, which supports the
necessary drying processes during fermentation and ripening. All meat used must
be chilled for some time to reach its lowest ph-values. Beef meat should have
pH-values at 5.4-5.5, pork meat 5.7-5.8. All lean meats for raw-fermented
sausages need extra careful trimming of sinews and softer inter-muscular fatty
tissue. Remaining sinews will remain tough and are not desired by consumers.

In most products fresh chilled pork backfat is used as it is firm and dry and
remains stable without pronounced rancidity even after prolonged ripening
periods. Softer inter-muscular fatty tissue should not be used as it cannot be
chopped to clearly defined particles and would result in somewhat blurred unclear
appearance of slices of the final products. Soft fat also increases the risk of early
rancidity. If fats from other species of slaughter animals are used, only firm body
fats should be considered (see page 10, 46).

Importance of bacteria

Bacterial starter cultures have a variety of functions including:

 Boosting acidity (decreasing pH)

Intensify the curing colour (acid environment catalyses curing reaction)

Counteract rancidity of fats (due to enzymatic impacts)

Development of flavour and taste

Texture improvement of ripened products (by supporting formation of

protein gel in sausage mixes).

Over the years, mainly bacteria belonging to the groups of Lactobacillus,

Pediococcus, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus have been identified and
cultivated for commercial starter cultures, as they proved to provide the best
results in terms of producing lactic acid, developing ripening flavour, and are
generally harmless in terms of product spoilage and impact on consumers health.
Depending on the desired taste, texture and appearance of the product, specific
cultures are selected. The use of Lactobacillus results in fast acidification to lower
pH-values, the use of Pediococcus leads to slower and milder acidification.
Selected Staphylococcus strains cause a speedy reduction of nitrite, stable curing
colour and reduced risk of fat rancidity, especially in products fabricated with
Glucono-delta-Lacton (GdL, see page 120).

In most cases mixtures from different strains are used in order to achieve the
best product specific results, for example in sausages with normal diameters (35-
70 mm) an even mixture of Lactobacillus and Staphylococcus can be used to
achieve the product-typical flavour, texture and taste. In sausages with of larger
diameter (70-100 mm), the starter culture mixture normally contains a lower
amount of Lactobacillus and a higher portion of Staphylococcus, as these products
need more time to reach microbial growth inhibiting moisture contents. The strong
potential of Staphylococcus to stabilize curing colour and fats is helpful in this
context.

Importance of salt, curing agents and sugars

One of the main targets during fermentation and ripening of raw-fermented

sausages is the reduction of their water content. The moisture to be reduced
is exclusively from the muscle meat which has a water content of around 80%. The
addition of salt lowers the awvalue of the mix by absorbing water, which presents
an initial hurdle for unwanted bacteria. Furthermore, in the presence of salt, salt-
soluble proteins are extracted from the small lean meat particles after grinding
and chopping. These solubilized or gelatinous proteins act like an adhesive
between the interfaces of lean meat and fat particles in the meat mix. The result is
an increasingly firm structure with progressive ripening and drying of the
products. The average quantity of salt added to raw-fermented sausages should
be between 26-30 g/kg (2.6-3.0%) but not below 26 g/kg (2.6%). It should be noted
that the salt content in percent in the final products will always be higher than in
the initial mix, as these products lose a substantial amount of water. Salt contents
in final products can be from 3 - 4.5% depending on the initial salting.
In raw-fermented sausages, salt is also used as a carrier for the curing agent,
normally sodium nitrite. This curing agent is not only responsible for the
development of a typical red cured meat colour, but also has bacterial growth
inhibiting properties, especially on some pathogenic bacteria (see page 68). In
raw-fermented sausages with a slow decrease of pH-values and prolonged ripening
periods,nitrate can also be used as a curing substance. The use of both, nitrite
and nitrate results in similar colour and taste. The main difference is that nitrate
must first be reduced to nitrite by bacteria, which is a time-consuming process and
hence only applicable to long-term ripened products. The slowly progressing
acidity in such sausages allows the bacterial breakdown of nitrate to nitrite. The
following reduction of nitrite to nitrogen oxide (NO), which is the substance
effective in the curing reaction, is a relatively fast chemical process (principles of
curing see page 34). The use of nitrate, mixed with nitrite is favoured by some
processors as it is associated with better colour and flavour.

From the technical point of view, the purpose of adding sugars is to facilitate and
strengthen the fermentation by bacteria. Provision of a sweet flavour to counteract
acidity in the final product is normally not intended. The bacterial breakdown of
sugars results in the accumulation of lactic acid and in a low pH-value
(acidification) as well as the development of a typical flavour. In order to support
this process, lactic acid producing bacteria (starter cultures such as lactobacillus or
pediococcus, see page 118) can be added to the sausage mix. Simple sugars such
as dextrose or fructose support an early drop in pH-values as they are easily
broken down by bacterial action. The breakdown of lactose is slower and takes
longer. Often a mixture of different sugars is used. Another sugar-based additive
is GdL (Glucono-delta-Lactone), which accelerates and intensifies the acidification
process by reacting to glucono-acid in the presence of water (muscle tissue water).
It is preferably used in semi-dry and/or spreadable products, which are not for
long-term ripening and storage, but for consumption within a short period after
production.

Production methods

As a rule of the thumb, raw-fermented sausages are fabricated with 20-35% fatty
tissue and 65-80% lean meat, from one or more than one animal species, e.g. beef
and pork or pork only or beef only. Other variations are also possible. If fatty
tissue other than pork back fat is used the percentages for the fat are usually
lower. The techniques of comminuting of meat and fat for raw-fermented
sausages differ from other meat products. Raw-fermented sausages may be
composed of coarse, medium or tiny meat and fat particles (Fig. 152). The degree
of chopping can be visualized by the size of the fat particles in the final product.
Some traditional Mediterranean (Italian, Spanish, French, etc.) salamis are
chopped coarsely (6-12mm), but the majority of raw-fermented sausages are
chopped moderately (2-5mm). Only a few semi-dry and/or spreadable products are
finely chopped (see Fig. 158).
Fig. 152: Different degrees of chopping (different fat particle size)

In small to medium-sized processing, there are two methods of manufacture of

raw-fermented sausage mixes, which basically differ by the method of
comminution of the raw materials. Applying a simple comminuting method,
only meat grinders are used to prepare the sausage mixes. In more advanced
techniques meat grinders and bowl cutters are used.

Method 1: In small-scale operations with only meat grinding

equipment available, production is restricted to ground sausage mixes. The lean
meat needs to be thoroughly chilled (+1C) or even slightly frozen. The fat portion
should be cut into small and uniform dices (10-20 mm, domino chip size) and
frozen (-12C) in order to obtain clearly and evenly cut particles in the initial
chopping of the sausage mix. Clearly cut particles of firm solid fat also avoid
greasing of the casing from inside, which would make drying more difficult. Firstly,
part of the lean meat is minced 3-5mm (approx. 30%) and the remaining lean
meat is cut into small pieces (20-50 mm). The chilled meat pieces and frozen fat
dices are thoroughly mixed with all additives (curing salt, sugars, starter cultures,
spices, etc), before the minced meat portion is added and incorporated in the
mixture. The entire mixture is now passed through the meat grinder (disc size 3-6
mm), packed into the sausage stuffer and stuffed into casings. Delays leading to
warming up of the mixture need to be avoided as this would result in greasing
during the stuffing.

For the stuffing, natural or artificial casings can be used. Typical natural casings,
depending on the desired sausage diameter, are those derived from the small
intestines of pigs, sheep, cattle or horses. Artificial casings used are fibrous or
collagen casings. One important requirement for casings used for raw-fermented
sausages is to closely adhere to the sausage mix not only after filling but also
during the drying period when sausages shrink. The casings used must be water
vapour permeable, otherwise no drying during fermentation and ripening can take
place and the products would spoil. The required conditions are met by natural
casings, and fibrous and collagen casings (see page 249).

Method 2: With a bowl cutter available, a different technology can be applied.

With this method 50% of the lean meat material is minced (3 mm) and kept at
1C. The remaining 50% of the lean meat is cut into pieces of 30-50 mm diameter
and slightly frozen (-10C). As per method 1, the fat is cut into small dices
(preferably 10-20 mm, domino chip size) and also frozen (-12C). Firstly, the large
pieces of frozen lean meat are chopped. If starter cultures are used, they must be
added at this stage. After several rounds of the frozen lean meat in the bowl
cutter, the frozen fat is added together with the spices and sugars and chopping is
continued at a medium speed until the fat has reached the desired particle size.
Then the minced chilled meat is added under low chopper speed until an even
distribution is achieved. In the next step, the nitrite curing salt is added and mixed
at low speed for at least 6-8 rounds until a final temperature of around -5C is
reached. This mix temperature should not be exceeded in order to avoid the
greasing of the interior of the filling funnel and casings.

Fig. 153: Air pockets caused by loose stuffing. Discoloration caused by

enclosed air. Above right tightly stuffed, no discoloration

When lean beef and pork is used for the above raw-fermented sausage fabrication,
the beef should be chosen for the 50% lean meat portion to be minced, while the
pork portion is preferably used frozen.

The sausage mix is packed into the sausage stuffer and stuffed into the casings as
firmly as possible to avoid air pockets. Excessive air inside the casing will discolour
the meat and reduce the shelf life of the sausage (Fig. 153). Selected natural or
artificial casings can be used as above.

Drying/ripening

The freshly filled sausages are subjected to the crucial part of their manufacturing
process, namely fermentation, drying and ripening. To this purpose they are
transferred to either a climatized room or a modern combined smoking/drying
chamber. Directly after stuffing, the sausage mix is still in the temperature range
below zero (below freezing point). It is therefore advisable to include a tempering
period of three hours at moderate room temperature before the sausages are
transferred to the drying/ripening chamber (Fig. 150).
The immediate goal is to allow moisture release from the sausages and to initiate
the fermentation processes, e.g. to provide proper growth conditions for the
fermentation bacteria. A high relative humidity at the outset of the drying
operation, which keeps sausage casings wet and soft, and the gradual lowering of
the air humidity in the advanced stages of the process are the key factors to
enable the moisture to migrate from the interior of the sausage to the outer layer.

Temperatures and air humidity inside the drying/ripening chambers need to be

adjusted carefully to support the ripening/drying process. The temperatures in the
ripening chamber are initially kept at +22C and are slowly reduced to +19C. The
relative humidity decreases gradually from typical values of 92-94% on the first
day to 82-84% before the sausages are transferred to the ripening/storage room.
During ripening the temperature is maintained at <16C at a relative humidity of
75-78%. These physical parameters are applied to ensure controlled bacterial
fermentation resulting in lowering of pH to 4.9 5.4 and controlled gradual
dehydration resulting in remaining moisture content in finished raw-fermented
sausages as low as 30%. The duration of the drying/ripening process mainly
depends on the diameter of sausages and type of sugars and starter cultures used
(Table 6, see also page 320, 322).

If the humidity is kept too high, excessive surface moisture is retained usually
resulting in increased bacterial growth on the surface, thus forming a slimy layer.
If humidity is reduced too fast especially in the early stages of the process, a
hard and dry crust is formed at the outer layer of the sausage. This crust is unable
to adjust to the reducing diameter caused by continuous loss of moisture and as a
result cracks will appear in the centre of the product (Fig. 154).

Fig. 154: Raw-fermented sausage.

Crack in centre as a consequence of excessively fast drying

In the first phase of drying, the red cured meat colour is built up in the
previously grey sausage mix. The curing colour progresses from the centre of
sausage to the outer region. Fermentation processes start practically from the
point of transfer of the sausages into the drying/ripening chamber. The duration
of the fermentation varies depending on the calibre of the sausages, particle
size of the mix, temperature and ingredients. In a typical raw-fermented sausage
(particle size 3 mm, stuffed in casing of calibre 65, where a sugar mix and starter
culture mix is used), the lowest pH-values should normally be reached within 5-6
days. The typical flavour and texture of the products are developed after
completing fermentation and ripening (Fig. 157).

One problem during the ripening period can be mould and yeast growth on the
sausage casings, even under substantially decreased humidity. If these occur they
can be brushed off and reoccurrence or further growth can be stopped by
exposure of the sausages to smoke. Early (day 3-5) application of cold smoke at
temperatures below +22C as an additional preservation measure is highly
recommended. Of course, smoking is also intended to contribute to flavour and
taste. Sausages are smoked from several hours to several days or even weeks
according to their diameter and type of product.

Fig. 155: Undesirable mould

growth

Fig. 156: Desirable mould

growth. Casing surface
inoculated with mould
starter culture (below),
without mould growth
(above)

One specific group of raw-fermented sausages are the air-dried type, as they
do not undergo smoking. The air-drying combined with prolonged ripening periods
produces a typical yeasty-cheesy flavour, which is often intensified by intended
mould-growth on the casing surfaces. Not all moulds are suitable. Some species
are even capable of producing poisonous substances, which may penetrate into
the sausages (see page 359). There are several cultures of selected
moulds (e.g. Penicillium) available, which serve as starter cultures for desirable
mould growth. A watery suspension of such moulds can be applied onto the
surface of the sausages. This suspension of moulds will adhere to the casing
surface and grow over the course of the ripening period to a thin white-coloured
mould overlay. These microorganisms are harmless from the health point of view
but provide typical appearance and flavour to the sausages (Fig. 156).

Table 6: Raw-fermented sausages of different calibres

Normal fermentation process assisted by starter cultures

Sausages 75 mm diameter Sausage 40 mm diameter

Rel. Rel.
Temp
Day humidity aw pH Day humidity Temp C aw pH
C
in % in %

01 92 23 0.95 5.80 01 92 22 0.95 5.80

02 92 23 0.95 5.70 02 91 22 0.94 5.70

03 91 22 0.94 5.40 03 90 22 0.93 5.40

04 90 21 0.93 5.20 04 88 20 0.91 5.10

05 89 21 0.92 5.00 05 87 20 0.90 5.00

06 88 20 0.91 4.90 06 86 20 0.89 4.90

07 87 20 0.90 4.80 07 85 20 0.88 4.80

08 86 20 0.89 4.80 08 84 19 0.87 4.85

09 85 19 0.88 4.85 09 83 19 0.86 4.85

10 84 19 0.87 4.90 10 82 18 0.85 4.90

11 83 19 0.86 4.90 11 80 18 0.83 4.90

12 82 18 0.85 4.95 12 78 18 0.81 4.95

13 81 18 0.84 4.95 13 76 17 0.80 5.00

14 80 18 0.83 5.00 14 76 17 0.79 5.00

15 80 17 0.82 5.00 15 76 17 0.79 5.05

16 78 17 0.81 5.05 16 76 17 0.78 5.05

Semi-dry sausages
These products (Fig. 158) are produced by forced rapid fermentation. Certain
starter cultures (Staphylococcus for speedy reduction of nitrite, stable colour) are
used in combination with GdL (Glucono-delta-Lacton). This boosts the growth of
the desired bacterial flora (lactic acid bacteria) and drops the pH-value fast,
resulting in the rapid formation of a protein gel and firm structure of the sausage,
which allows slicing and cutting at an early stage. The initial fermentation and
ripening period takes place at slightly higher temperatures (+24-26C) than used
for long-time ripened sausages and rarely exceeds 4-7 days. The low pH of 4.8 to
5.4 also supports the fast release of meat tissue water from the sausage, but
because of the short production period, the final moisture content will not go
below 40%. The shelf life of such sausages is surprisingly long, up to one month,
due to the accumulation of acids and smoke compounds. These products rarely
spoil even in ambient temperatures but they may develop excessive acidity,
hence climatized (<+18C) or refrigerated storage is recommended, in
particular in subtropical and tropical countries. Acidity in semi-dry raw-fermented
sausages is relatively pronounced, which makes such products less attractive to
consumer groups not familiar with acid foods. But they are popular in Europe
(Cervelats, Mettwurst) or in North America (Summer sausage). The product
name summer sausage was coined due to the fact that this products fabrication
was possible by forced fermentation during the warm season and not only in
winter.

A special type in the group of semi-dry sausages are the spreadable raw-
fermented sausages. As the name implies, these products are designed to
remain soft so that they can be used as a sandwich spread. For their production
the same combination of starter cultures and GdL is used, but for a different
reason. The formation of protein gel must be achieved rapidly before the final
mechanical chopping step. The onset of gel formation must already develop in the
semi-processed sausage mix and is destroyed again by additional chopping in
order to retain a soft and creamy texture in the final product. For these products,
softer fatty tissues can be used as they will further facilitate the spreadable
texture.

Fig. 157: Raw-fermented sausages. Fig. 158: Semi-dry fermented

Long ripening period (50 days) sausages.
Short ripening period (10 days)
MAKING SAUSAGE AT HOME

Making sausage at home is a rewarding and interesting craft. In

complexity it is somewhere between making bread and making beer or
wine. The reward comes in the flavors that can't be matched by the
industrial sausage found in the supermarket and the knowledge of being
in control of every ingredient that goes into the sausage.

From the left in this photo we have:

Hard Salami, Summer Sausage, Liver

Sausage, Braunschweiger and
Breakfast Sausage.

In the glass on the table are Beer

Sticks.

As there are many shortcuts to making sausage that are more like rolled up meat
loaf, abundantly available elsewhere on the web, I will confine these pages to real
sausage of the type you would find in a high quality deli.

DEFINITIONS

For discussion purposes, Sausages can be divided into two basic

catagories:

Fresh and Cured.

FRESH SAUSAGE
Fresh sausage is cooked just prior to serving. It will only keep a few days in the
refrigerator but can be frozen for future use. Examples are: Polish, bratwurst,
Italian and breakfast sausage. It is traditionally stuffed into casings but can be
formed into patties and fried like hamburgers. It is made up of ground meat and
spices. As the user controls both, the variations are endless.

CURED SAUSAGE

Implicit in the word cured is the use of an agent or process that provides long term
keeping properties to the sausage. The use of salt, drying and fermentation are
examples of curing that have been used for millenia. Modern public health
practices demand the use of chemical agents in the form of nitrites and/or nitrates
to assure the destruction of pathagenic organisms such as that which causes
botulism.

Cured sausages can further be divided into semi-dry and dried sausages. Semi-
dry sausages, such as summer sausage and hot dogs are cooked, either in hot
water or a smokehouse and will keep under refrigeration for months. Dry sausages
are not cooked but are dried to about 75% of their stuffed weight over a period of
several months and will keep for years at room temperature. Both types can be
fermented by the addition of a lactic acid producing bacteria culture that provides
a wonderful tang to the sausage in addition to the enhancement of long keeping
qualities.

PROCEDURES AND EQUIPMENT.

Sausages are made from ground meat. This can be purchased from a butcher
already ground but the true sausage buff will sooner or later want his own meat
grinder. These can be inexpensive hand cranked affairs found in most kitchen
junk drawers or motor driven grinders running a wide range of prices. I use the
inexpensive attachment sold for use with the Kitchen Aid mixer.

All grinders operate on the same principal. An auger pushes the meat into a
rotating blade that chops the meat as it forces it through the the stationary output
plate. The size of the holes in the plate determine the coarseness of the ground
meat. They range from 3/16" to 1/2" and the meat can be run through several
times for a very fine grind.

Real sausages are stuffed into casings and this requires a stuffer. Fortunately,
this can be done with the same meat grinder by adding a stuffing tube.

CASINGS
Casings are a whole world in themselves and I refer readers to the link below for
more information. The choices are myriad and include natural animal parts, fiber
and plastics. My favorites are sheep casings for breakfast sausage and brats, hog
casings for Polish, fibrous casings for summer sausage and beef middles for
salami. The choices are endless and only with experiecne can one decide what
works best for him.

There are many web pages devoted to the making of sausage and I have no
intention of repeating what is better said elsewhere. I do feel however, that I have
come up with a few recipes for my favorite sausages and developed a few
procedures that are not commonly known or discussed elsewhere.

I have listed a few links below for general information on the subject.

CURES.

The subject that seems to cause the most confusion to beginners is that of cures.
They come in various forms and with various names but the bottom line is that one
type contains sodium nitrite and the other contains sodium nitrite and sodium
nitrate. The generic name for the former is Prague Powder #1 and the latter is #2.
These go under various trade names but are always recognized by the Prague
nomenclature.

Prague #1 is used for cured sausages that fall into the semi-dry catagory in
addition to other cooked products such as "boiled" ham. Prague #2 is used for
dried sausages and country cured hams and bacon. Both of these powders are
combined with enough salt so that they can be measured out by the teaspoon for
recipes. They are also colored pink to distinguish them from common salt

In addition to the bacteriacidal effects of cures, the most obvious effect of cures is
the pink color of the finished product. Gray or brown ham, bacon and sausage
simply does not appeal to the modern consumer.

Morton Salt has several products that combine the cures with large amounts of
salt and sugar that provide all the salt and sugar needed for a recipe but it
precludes the sausage maker from experimenting with the amounts of the
ingredients in a recipe. I much prefer to use the Prague powders and adjust the
salt and sugar to my taste.

These cures are inexpensive and readily available from the many sources of
sausage making supplies found on the web.

FERMENTATION
Fermentation is another subject that has been much maligned in the amateur
literature. It is either ignored completely, declared too complicated for amateurs or
quack substitutes such as "Fermento" are recommended. As mentioned above,
fermentation adds a taste element that simply can not be duplicated any other
way. Furthermore, the lactic acid produced by the fermentation provides the
sausage with an additional weapon against spoilage. Cured sausage without this
step is about analogous to beer without alcohol.

Prior to modern times, sausages where hung up to cure and with luck, the
appropriate lactic acid producing bacteria would happen along and colonize the
sausage and produce the needed fermentation. Unfortunately, as in winemaking,
trusting to luck often produces unpleasant surprises.

Contrary to the popular literature, the fermentation step is no more complicated

than adding yeast to bread. In fact the culture is sold in foil packages just like
yeast and stored in a freezer. It is inexpensive to begin with and only 1/8 tsp is
required for a 5 pound batch. Because of all the misinformation, the biggest
problem was finding a source for the culture and I spent several months
experimenting with cheese cultures as a result. They worked fine but I eventually
found a source for the proper sausage culture and it is also listed below.

In use, the culture is mixed with a little water and sugar and then mixed in (along
with the spices) with the meat mixture. After stuffing, the sausage is held at
around 90F overnight for the fermentation to take place. This can be done in a
smoker, oven with the light on or just take a little longer at room temperature. The
sausage is then smoked, cooked or dried according to the recipe. There simply is
no excuse for not fermenting if the type of sausage calls for it and that is just
about all sausage except fresh.

SMOKING

Smoking is an option with many sausages and a must for some. "Liquid smoke"
provides a smoke flavor but can't come close to producing all the complex effects
of real smoke.

Smokers come in all shapes and sizes and are not difficult to make. There are
many sources on the web for information on them so I will not discuss them other
than to say that I use a "Little Chief" which I modified by installing the "Big Chief"
heating element and adding an external temperature control (* see below) to it. I
can ferment at 90F, smoke at 130F and cook at 160F which are the basic numbers
needed for most sausage and ham. I can also Barbeque at 200F but that is another
story.

Fermented Sausages
Fermented sausages are cured sausages and to produce salami of a consistent quality
one must strictly obey the rules of sausage making. This field of knowledge has been
limited to just a few lucky ones but with today's meat science and starter cultures
available to everybody, there is little reason to abstain from making quality salamis at
home. It is unlikely that a home sausage maker will measure meat pH (acidity) or Aw
(water activity) but he should control temperatures and humidity levels in his drying
chamber.

There is a difference in fermented sausage technology between the United States and
the European countries. American methods rely on rapid acid production (lowering pH)
through a fast fermentation in order to stabilize the sausage against spoilage bacteria.
Fast acting starter cultures such as Lactobacillus
plantarum and Pediococusacidilactici are used at high temperatures up to 40 C (104
F). As a result pH drops to 4.6, the sausage is stable but the flavor suffers and the
product is sour and tangy. In European countries, the temperatures of 22 -26 C (72
-78 F) are used and the drying, instead of the acidity (pH) is the main hurdle against
spoilage bacteria which favors better flavor development. The final acidity of a
traditionally made salami is low (high pH) and the sourly taste is gone.

Some known European sausages are French saucisson, Spanish chorizo, and Italian
salami. These are slow-fermented sausages with nitrate addition and moderate drying
temperatures. North European sausages such as German or Hungarian salamis are
made faster, with nitrite addition and are usually smoked.

Fermented sausages can be divided into two groups:

1. Sliceable raw sausages (Salami, Summer Sausage, Pepperoni)

2. Spreadable raw sausages (Teewurst, Mettwurst)

OR depending on the manufacturing method:

Fast-fermented
Medium-fast-fermented
Slow-fermented. These can be smoked or not, or made with mold or without

Depending on the amount of moisture that they contain, they can be grouped as:

moist - 10% weight loss

semi-dry - 20% weight loss
dry - 30% weight loss
There is also a group of non-fermented cooked salamis that are made in many
European countries. This group will cover any sausage that is smoked, cooked and then
air-dried for 1-3 weeks at 10-12 C (50-52 F). This reduces Aw (water activity) to
about 0.92 which makes the product shelf stable without refrigeration. The fact that a
raw sausage is safe to consume may sound questionable to some but we have been
eating them for thousands of years and as far as we follow the rules of meat science we
have nothing to be afraid of.

The Magic Behind Fermented Sausages - It's All About

Bacteria

Making fermented sausages is a combination of the art of the sausage maker and
unseen magic performed by bacteria. The friendly bacteria are working together with a
sausage maker, but the dangerous ones are trying to wreak havoc. Using his knowledge
the sausage maker monitors temperature and humidity, which allows him to control
reactions that take place inside the sausage. This game is played for quite a while and
at the end a high quality product is created.

We all know that meat left at room temperature will spoil in time and that is why it is kept
in a refrigerator/freezer. Yet fermented or air dried sausages are not cooked and don't
have to be stored under refrigeration. What makes them different? Fermented sausages
and air dried meats are at an extra risk as in many cases they are not subject to
cooking/refrigerating process. In a freshly filled with meat casing, bacteria seem to hold
all advantages: temperatures that favor their growth, moisture, food (sugar), oxygen, we
have to come up with some radical solutions otherwise we might lose the battle.
Fortunately, meat science is on our side and what was a secretive art for many years is
being revealed and made accessible to everybody today. Even so, manufacture of
fermented products is still a combination of an art and technology.

A meat processing facility develops its own microbiological flora in which bacteria live all
over the establishment (walls, ceilings, machinery, tools etc). Each place will have its
own peculiar flora and some places will contain more bacteria which is needed for
making fermented sausages. Keep in mind that in the past meat facilities were not
sanitized so scrupulously as the ones of today. These bacteria are just waiting to jump
on a new piece of meat and start working in. All they need is a bit of food: moisture
(meat is 75% water), oxygen (the air) and sugar (meat contains sugar). Sugar has been
introduced into sausage recipes for hundreds of years as somehow we have always
known that it is needed. Some places in Italy hadinside flora which was beneficial to
produce a product of a great quality and they suddenly developed a name for making
wonderful meat products. They were probably not better sausage makers than their
counterparts working in different locations. Most likely they were lucky to have their shop
located in their area which was blessed by mother nature for making fermented
sausages. They did not have much clue to what was happening, this empirical
knowledge was passed from father to son but it worked like magic.

Fermented sausages are made by use of "beneficial or friendly" bacteria that we

manipulate to our advantage and they become microscopic laborers performing tasks
that we can not do ourselves. They are the tiny soldiers and we are the command center
and if we manage this army well they become a formidable force. All this bacteria talk
should not alarm anybody as we are surrounded with fermented foods: sour bread, wine,
yogurt, sourkraut, cheeses, etc. Some of the most dangerous bacteria
(E.coli and Listeria monocytongenes) live in our digestive tract and help us to digest
foods, other (Staph.aureus) are present in our skin, mouth and nose. The most toxic
poison known to men is in soil (Clostridium botulinum) and we touch those spores every
time when working the garden, yet we are perfecly fine. Dangerous bacteria are present
in meat and we eat them every time when undercooked meat is served and that does
not seem to affect us either. This is due tothe small number of bacteria present and if
their number were higher our immune system would not be able to fight them off.

In regards to sausage making we could divide bacteria as:

Spoilage

These bacteria cause food to deteriorate and develop unpleasant odors, tastes
and textures. These one-celled microorganisms can cause fruits and vegetables
to get mushy or slimy, or meat to develop a bad odor. Most people would not
choose to eat spoiled food. However, if they did, they probably would not get sick.

Dangerous

These are known as pathogenic bacteria and they cause illness. They grow
rapidly in the "Danger Zone" - the temperatures between 40 and 140 F (4-60
C) - and do not generally affect the taste, smell, or appearance of food. Food that
is left too long at unsafe temperatures could be dangerous to eat, but smell and
look just fine. E.coli 0157:H7 (Most illness has been associated with eating
undercooked, contaminated ground beef), Campylobacter (Most cases of illness
are associated with handling raw poultry or eating raw or undercooked poultry
meat), and Salmonella (Salmonella is usually transmitted to humans by eating
foods contaminated with animal feces. They are often of animal origin, such as
beef, poultry, milk or eggs. Chicken meat is known to contain
more Salmonellathan other meats. Staph.aureus is hard to control and to inhibit
its growth Aw must be lower than 0.89 and pH below 5.2. Cl.botulinum, very toxic
and heat resistant, likes moisture but hates oxygen.
Beneficial

These bacteria can be managed to our advantage to produce fermented

sausage. They are naturally occuring in meat and are responsible for:

converting nitrate to nitrite: (Micrococcus, Staph.xylosus,

Staph.carnosus)
improving flavor:(Micrococcus)
increasing acidity (lowering pH) by producing lactic acid through
sugar metabolism: (Pediococcus and Lactobactillus)
mold growth: (Penicilliumnalgiovense) which is highly desired in
some Italian salamis.

To produce a quality safe product it is necessary to:

prevent the growth of spoilage bacteria

prevent the growth of dangerous bacteria
create favorable conditions for the growth of beneficial bacteria

To eliminate the risk of bacteria growth and to prevent meat spoilage we employ the
following steps, also known as "hurdles":

1. using meats with a low bacteria count

2. curing - adding salt and sodium nitrite/nitrate
3. lowering pH of the meat to 5.2
4. lowering Aw (water activity) by drying to 0.89
5. smoking

Meat selection
Going into details on selecting meats according to their pH or using terms like PSE, GFD
or MDM meats is beyond the scope of these pages and will make them confusing to
read. What we want to stress is that meat must be perfectly fresh with the lowest count
of bacteria possible. Commercial producers try to keep this number between 100 and
1000 per gram of meat but a home based sausage maker has to make sure that:

meat is very fresh and kept cold

facilities and tools are very clean
working temperatures are as low as possible

If the above conditions are not met bacteria will multiply and will compete for food with
starter cultures inhibiting the growth. As a result, the product will fault, especially the
slow-fermented salami. It makes little difference to what kind of meat is used and
salamis can be made from pork, beef, venison, buffalo, horse and other meats. If
chicken is used the thigh (dark meat) will be the better choice than a breast (light meat).
Chicken breast being light meat contain little myoglobin that reacts with nitrite to produce
curing color and the finished sausage will have a very light pink color unless chicken
meat will be mixed with darker meats. Keep in mind that chicken meat has higher
chances to be infected with Salmonella than other types of meat. Also remember that
raw pork or venison meat may be infected with trichinosis so please read the following
link to be safe: trichinae

Typical values of meats selected for commercial production are: pork: pH-<5.9-6.0, beef:
pH-<5.8 and Aw- 0.98 - 0.99

Curing
The application of salt and nitrite is actually our first line of defense against the growth of
spoilage bacteria as in many cases (home production) there is very little we can do
about a selected meat's bacteria count except making sure that the meat is fresh. As the
sausage slowly dries out it loses moisture but not the original amount of salt which
remains inside. As a result, in time the sausage becomes much saltier to bacteria. In
about 3-6 days the Aw drops to about 0.95 and the sausage is microbiologically more
stable as some pathogenic bacteria (for example Salmonella) stop multiplying now.

Using a combination of different hurdles is more effective that relaying on one method
only. For example the first hurdle is an application of salt and sodium nitrite which
eliminates some of the microbiological spoilage. This will not be enough to produce a
stable sausage if we don't follow up with addidional hurdles such as lowering pH
(increasing acidity) and then lowering water activity Aw (eliminating moisture by drying).

Salt. In the right part of the table below it can be seen that most bacteria can tolerate
water activity levels (Aw) up to 0.92. For example Clostridium botulinum (food poisoning)
bacteria are active all the way down to 0.93 Aw. The table on the left below depicts that
to bring water activity level down to 0.93 level about 10 % salt solution is needed. We
will have to add 100 g of salt to 1 kg of meat to be sure that Clostridium growth will be
inhibited. But any salt level above 3 % will make meat unpalatable to most people so
salting alone will not cut it. Additional hurdles such as lowering water activity and
lowering of pH (increasing acidity) will have to be implemented. Hundreds of years ago
heavy salting was commonly used to preserve and to transport fish to different countries
but that fish was non-edible in its original state. It had to be soaked in water first to
eliminate an excess salt and only then it would be cooked. The more salt applied to meat
the stronger fence is created against bacteria and some compromise has to be made as
the salt plays a very important role preventing bacteria growth, especially in the first
stages of a process.
pH - Accidity
Foods with a low pH value (high acidity) develop resistance against
microbiological spoilage.Pickles, sourkraut, eggs, pig feet, anything submerged in
vinegar will have a long shelf life. Even ordinary meat jelly (headcheese) will last longer
if some vinegar is added and this type of headcheese is known as "souse". Bacteria hate
acidic foods and this fact plays an important role in the production and stabilization of
fermented sausages. Ideally the pH value of meat to be used for making fermented
products should be below 5.8.
Pork 5.9 - 6.0
Back fat 6.2 - 7.0
Emulsified pork skins 7.3 - 7.8
Beef 5.8

Sugar, Glucono-lactone (GDL) and Citric Acid are important additives in the
manufacturing of fast and medium-fermented salamis as in these sausages pH
reduction (increasing acicity) is the main hurdle against bacteria growth. In slow-
fermented sausages which are dried for a much longer time, lowering moisture (Aw) is
the main hurdle employed to inhibit bacteria growth.

Glucono-delta-lactone is manufactured by microbial fermentation of pure glucose to

gluconic acid but is also produced by the fermentation of glucose derived from rice. It is
soluble in water and is non-toxic and completely metabolized in our bodies. It can be
found in honey, fruit juices, wine and many fermented products. It is a natural food acid
(it has roughly a third of the sourness of citric acid) and it contributes to the tangy flavor
of various foods. Since it lowers the pH it also helps preserve the food from deterioration
by enzymes and microorganisms. It is metabolized to glucose; one gram of GDL is
equivalent to one gram of sugar. Glucono-Delta-Lactone is often used to make cottage
cheese, Tofu, bakery products and fermented sausages.

About 1 g (0.1%) of GDL per 1 kg of meat lowers pH of meat by 0.1 pH. It shall be
noted that the addition of sugar already lowers the pH of the meat and adding GDL will
lower the pH even more. As it is a natural acid, adding more than 10 g may cause a
bitter and sour flavor.

Citric acid is a weak organic acid found in citrus fruits. It is a natural preservative and is
used to add an acidic (sour) taste to foods, soft drinks and wine. In lemons and limes it
can account for as much as 8 % of the dry weight of the fruit. Citric acid is mentioned in
these pages more for its informational value in lowering pH than by its practical
usefulness in making fermented sausages. It acts about three times faster than GDL(1 g
of citric acid added to 1 kg of meat lowers ph of meat by about 0.3 units) and in
higher doses it will contribute to a sour taste. Its usefulness is therefore strictly limited.

Sugar is mainly added to provide food for starter cultures. The pH drop in sausage
depends on the type and amount of sugar utilized. Introduction of more sugar generally
leads to lower pH and stronger acidification.What is notable is that lactic bacteria
process different sugars differently. Only dextrose (glucose) can be fermented directly
into lactic acid and by all lactic bacteria. Other sugars molecular structure must be
broken down until monosaccharides are produced and this takes time and some lactic
bacteria are more effective than others. Sugar introduction also helps to offset the sourly
and tangy flavor of fastand medium-fermented sausages and acts as a minor hurdle in
lowering water activity. The types of sugar which may be used in making fermented
sausages are listed in order of their importance on producing lactic acid by lactic acid
bacteria:

glucose - "dextrose" is glucose sugar refined from corn starch which is

approximately 70% as sweet as sucrose but it has an advantage of being directly
fermented into lactic acid and is the fasted acting sugar for lowering pH. As
lowering pH is the main hurdle against bacteria growth in fast-fermented
sausages, dextrose is obviously the sugar of choice. It can be easily obtained
from all sausage equipment and supplies companies.
sucrose - common sugar (also colledsaccharose) made from sugar cane and
sugar beets but also appears in fruit, honey, sugar maple and in many other
 sources. It is the second fastest acting sugar.It can be used with GDL in medium-
fermented sausages. In slow-fermented sausages common sugar should be
chosen as it has been used for hundreds of years. There is no need to lower fast
pH and sugar contributes better to a strong curing color and better flavor.
maltose - malt sugar is made from germinating cereals such as barley, is an
important part of the brewing process. It's added mainly to offset sour flavor and
to lower water activity.
actose - also referred to as milk sugar is found most notably in milk. Lactose
makes up around 2-8% of milk (by weight). Maltose and lactose are less
important as primary fermenting sugars but may be used in combinations with
common sugar to bring extra flavor.

About 1 g (0.1%) of dextrose per 1 kg of meat lowers pH of meat by 0.1 pH. This
means that 10 g of dextrose added to meat with initial pH value of 5.9 will lower pH by
one full unit to 4.9. Sugar levels of 0.5% - 0.7% are usually added for reducing pH levels
to just under 5.0.

When using acidification as a main safety hurdle, salami is microbiologically stable

when pH is 5.2 or lowerand this normally requires about 48 hrs fermentation time for
fast-fermented product and 72 - 96 hours for medium-fermented type. In slow-
fermented salami pH does not drop lower than 5.5 but the sausage is microbiologically
stable due to its low moisture level (prolonged drying).

Aw - Water Activity
Water activity is an indication of how tightly water is "bound" inside of a product. It does
not say how much water is there, but how much is available to support the growth of
bacteria, yeasts or molds (fungi). Adding salt or sugar "binds" some of this free water
inside of the product and lowers the amount of available water to bacteria which
compete very poorly with salt. Molds are very good competitors for free water. We could
make Aw lower by lowering the temperature of the product but that is not practical as the
temperatures for making fermented sausages are well defined. A much better solution is
to lower water activity by drying.

Air drying is the process employed in lowering water activity (moisture removal)
and has to be properly controlled otherwise it may lead to a number of defects
including a total loss of product.
During the long drying process of salami, the original hurdles lose some of their
original strength as the nitrite is depleted and the number of lactic-acid bacteria
decreases and the pH increases. This is offset by drying which lowers water
activity by removing moisture and the sausage becomes more stable in time.
 When using drying as a main safety hurdle, salami is microbiologically stable
when Aw is 0.89 or lower.
The drying chamber should not be overloaded as a uniform air draft is needed for
proper drying and mold prevention.

Below certain Aw levels, microbes can not grow. USDA

guidelines state:
"A potentially hazardous food does not include . . . a food with a
WATER ACTIVITY value of 0.85 or less."

Common spoilage organisms and their Aw limits for growth

Microbial Group Example aw Products Affected

Normal bacteria 0.95- Fresh meat, milk

Salmonella species,
0.93 Animal intestinal tracts, unchlorinated
Escherichia coli
water
Clostridium botulinum 0.91 Meat, soil
Staph. aureus 0.89 Skin, red meats, poultry
Normal yeast Torulopsis species 0.88 Fruit juice concentrate
Normal molds Aspergillusflavus 0.80 Jams, jellies
Halophilic bacteria Wallemiasebi 0.75 Honey
Xerophilicmolds Aspergillusechimulatas 0.65 Flour
Osmophilic yeast Saccharomyces bisporus 0.60 Dried fruits

Smoking
Smoking may or may not be utilized in a production of fermented sausages. It has been
used in countries in Northern Europe where due to colder climate and shorter seasons,
the drying conditions were less favorable than in Spain or Italy. Smoking imparts a
different flavor, has some effect of fighting bacteria, especially on the surface of the
product and thus prevents growth of molds on fermented sausages. Mold is desired on
some traditionally made Italian salamis and obviously smoking is not deployed. Most
consumers prefer sausages without mold on the surface and smoking is an old method
to prevent it. As mold can already grow in the first days of fermentation it is
recommended to smoke sausages at the early stage of production. In order not to
unbalance ongoing fermentation, the temperature of the smoke should approximate the
temperature of the fermentation chamber which in raw slow fermented sausages falls
into 18-22 C, (66-72 F) range. For the same reason cold smoking will be applied to
semi-dry sausages which will be fermented but not cooked.

Cold smoking is performed with a thin smoke, 70-80% humidity, and good air ventilation
to remove excess moisture. Cold smoking is drying with smoke and should be
interrupted by drying periods without smoke. Often recipes call for 3-4 days of cold
smoking, but that does not mean that the smoking is continuous. Heavy continuous
smoke application for such a long period may impart a bitter taste to the product. All raw
fermented sausages which are not subject to heat treatment and which are smoked,
must be smoked with cold smoke.

Warm smoking (25-50 C, 77-122 F) will be applied to semi-dry sausages which will be
cooked. If sausages are fully cooked (68-71 C, 154-160 F), the hot smoke (60-80 C,
140-176 F) may be administered. Smoke may be applied late during the fermentation
stage (preferably after) when the surface of the sausage is dry. If mold appears before
smoking was performed, or shortly after, the sausage should be rinsed and wiped off
and then smoke may be applied again. Applying smoke for about 4 hours after
fermentation prevents mold growth but only for some time.

Fermented sausages which will be cooked may be smoked with warmer smoke, which
will increase the core temperature of the sausage and will shorten the cooking process.
If mold reappears later, the sausage is wiped off and the smoke is reapplied again.
Applying heavy smoke early during the fermentation stage is not the best idea as smoke
contains many ingredients (phenols, carbonyls, acids etc.) which may impede reactions
between meat and beneficial bacteria, especially in the surface area. After hot
smoking/cooking, shower sausages with hot water (removes grease and soot), then with
cold water and then transfer them to storage. At home, the sausages are normally
smoked/cooked outside and they are cold showered only. This prevents them from
shrivelling and shortens the meats exposure to high temperatures.

Most semi-dry sausages are smoked, many with cold smoke. Traditionally made slow
fermented sausages (Hungarian salami) are cold smoked. In the past cold smoking was
firstly a preservation step with a benefit of better flavor. Today, cold smoking is seldom
performed as a preservation step due to the widespread use of refrigeration. Some
foods, notably cold smoked salmon (lox) are still made with cold smoke but the majority
of regular sausages are hot smoked today. Think of cold smoke as a part of the
drying/fermentation cycle and not as the flavoring step. If the temperature of the smoke
is close to the fermentation temperature, there is very little difference between the
two. The sausage will still ferment and the drying will continue and the extra benefit is
the prevention of mold that would normally accumulate on the surface. Cold smoking is
performed with a dry, thin smoke. If we applied heavy smoke for a long time, that would
definitely inhibit the growth of color and flavor forming bacteria which are so important for
the development of flavor in slow-fermented sausages. As drying continues for a long
time and cold smoking is a part of it, it makes little difference whether cold smoke is
interrupted and then re-applied again. In traditional smokehouses the fire was started in
the morning and burning logs produced smoke until late night hours until the fire died
out. Then it was re-ignited again and the smoke continued. The drying temperature falls
into 15-18 C (59-64 F) range and cold smoke (< 22 C, 72 F) fits nicely into this range.
To sum it up, the length of cold smoking is loosely defined, but the upper temperature
should remain below 22 C (72 F). Unfortunately, this rule puts some restraints on
making slow-fermented sausages in hot climates for most of the year, when using an
outside smokehouse. You cant produce cooler smoke than the ambient temperature
around the smokehouse, unless some cooling methods are devised. By the same token,
people living in cooler climates can make those sausages for most of the year. Semi-dry
sausages, which are of fast-fermented type, are fermented at higher temperatures.
These sausages can be smoked with warmer smoke as they are subsequently cooked.

Manufacturing Technology
The first manufacturing steps such as meat selection, grinding, mixing and stuffing are
common to all sausages whether fresh, smoked or fermented types. The main difference
is that no water should be added to meat during processing as water is the necessary
nutrient for bacteria. The technology of making dry sausages relies on removal of water
and not on bringing water in. After being stuffed with meat the fermented sausages are
submitted to:

conditioning (optional)
fermenting
drying
storing

Conditioning is an optional step for a home sausage maker and he has to exercise his
own judgement. In commercial plants the process of grinding, mixing and stuffing salami
is undertaken at a low temperature (0 C, 32 F) and as the cold sausage is placed in a
warmer (fermenting/drying) room, not needed condensation will appear on the surface of
the sausage. The sausage must remain there for 1-6 hours (depending on its diameter)
at low humidity (no air draft) until the moisture evaporates. Then we can start the
fermentation process.

If the sausage casing is dry there is no need for conditioning. It should also be very
carefully monitored (or even eliminated) in small diameter casings which can dry out too
quickly on the surface. This will eliminate moisture (food) for lactic bacteria and they will
not reduce pH within the outer layers. As a result the sliced sausage will have a different
color in its outer layer (see effects of too fast drying above).

Fermentation refers to the production of lactic acid and to produce consistent quality
product parameters such as temperature, humidity and air flow should be carefully
monitored. The humidity in a drying room is increased to about 92-95 % and the
temperature is increased to 18 -26 C, (66 -78F). The temperature range depends on
the type of the sausage produced (fast, medium or slow-fermented) and the type of the
starter culture used. The air flow is kept about 0.8 m/sec. Commercial plants monitor Aw
(water activity) of the sausage and readjust the correspondingly humidity level of the
drying chamber. There is normally a difference of less than 5% between moisture level
of the sausage and relative humidity of the room, the latter figure being lower. This
means if the Aw of the sausage is 0.95, the humidity is set at 90%. Then when Aw drops
to 0.90, the humidity drops to 85% and so on.

When the fermentation starts the main hurdles against microbiological spoilage of the
sausage are the low bacteria count of the meat, the presence of nitrite and salt. Keep in
mind that in time the sausage will be losing more and more moisture but the salt remains
inside and the percentage of salt in a finished sausage will be higher. In about 48
hours lactic bacteria metabolize enough sugar to produce a sufficient amount of lactic
acid to drop pH (increase acidity) of the sausage and this stabilizes the sausage making
it more resistant to spoilage.

Lactic acid producing bacteria widely used in starter cultures are:

Lactobacillus: Lb.sakei, Lb.plantarum, Lb.farcimis, Lb.curvatus

Pediococcus: Pediococcuspentosaceus, Pediococcusacidilactici

They all have different recommended growth temperatures and can be optimized for
making fast or slow-fermented sausages. In the USA fast fermented sausages dominate
the market and Pediococcusacidilactici is widely used as it allows fermentation at
temperatures as high as 45 C (114 F).

Fermentation Temperatures of Commercial Lactic Acid Bacteria

Temperature
Name
range in C

Lactobacillus curvatus 22 - 37

Lactobacillus farciminis 22 - 32

Lactobacillus plantarum 25 - 35

Lactobacillus sakei 21 - 32

Pediococcusacidilactici 25 - 45

Pediococcuspentosaceus 20 - 37

Source: Chr. Hansen

Drying
Drying is a very important process especially in the initial stages of production. One may
say why not to dry a sausage very fast which will remove moisture and be done with all
this pH stuff and bacteria. Well, there are basically two reasons:

1. The outside layer of the sausage must not be hardened as it may prevent
removal of the remaining moisture. It may effect the curing of the outside layer
which will become visible when slicing the sausage (see the drawings below).
2. Naturally existing in meat, bacteria and/or introduced starter cultures need
moisture and some time before they can metabolize sugar and produce lactic
acid which lowers pH. They are not going to multiply in one second and start
heavy production of acid. Similar to yeasts used to ferment wine, these bacteria
need some time to accomodate themselves in this new environment, they keep
on eating sugar and only then comes a moment when they say OK, let's do some
serious work.

Even if we could rapidly dry out the sausage without hardening its surface this will inhibit
beneficial bacteria from doing their work by removing moisture which they need. The
only possibility will be to lower pH usingchemical reactions such as adding GDL or citric
acid. This method does not depend on bacteria but unfortunatelly it will add so much
acidity that the product will not be edible. Moisture removal during fermentation (it is a
part of drying) must proceed slowly

Water activity (Aw) can be lowered faster in a sausage which contains more fat than a
leaner sausage. Fat contains only about 10% water and a fatter sausage having
proportionally less meat also contains less water. It will dry out faster.

Drying basically starts already in the fermentation stage and the humidity is kept at a
high level of about 92%. Air flow is quite fast (0.8 m/sec) to permit fast moisture removal
but the high humidity level moisturizes the surface of the casing preventing it from
hardening. After about 48 hours the fermentation stage ends but the drying continues to
remove more moisture from the sausage. As the Aw has dropped lower the humidity
level is decreased to about 0.85-90%. Maintaining previous fast air flow may harden the
surface of the casing so the air speed is decreased to about 0.5 m/sec (1.8 miles/per
hour-slow walk). The temperature is lowered to create less favorable conditions for the
growth of bacteria. At this time the medium-fermented sausage will be finished.

Slow-fermented sausages require additional drying time and the humidity is lowered
again just to be a few percents lower than the moisture content of a sausage and that
falls into 75-80% range. Air flow is decreased again to about 1 ft/sec. The temperature is
lowered to 15 C (60 F) to create less favorable conditions for the growth of bacteria. At
those conditions the sausage will remain in a drying chamber for an additional 4-8
weeks, depending on the diameter of the casing.

Sausage is microbiologically stable and can remain at the above settings for a very long
time. It should be kept in a dark room which will prevent color change and fat rancidity.
There is very little need for the air flow now and it can be kept to the minimum. Some air
flow is welcome as it inhibits formation of mold. The temperature is set to about 10-15 C
(50-60 F). The humidity should remain at about 75% as lower humidity will increasing
drying and the sausage will lose more of its weight. Much higher humidity levels may
create favorable conditions for development of mold. If any mold develops it can be
easily wiped off with a solution of water and vinegar. The sausage can also be cold
smoked for a few hours which will inhibit the growth of a new mold. At these
temperatures and humidity levels, the sausage has an almost indefinite shelf life.
Depending on the method of manufacture (drying time), diameter of a casing and the
content of fat in a sausage mass, fermented sausages lose from 5 - 40% of its original
weight.

Jumbo Display Thermo-Hygrometer that measures

temperature and humidity at the same time made
by DeltaTRAKhttp://www.deltatrak.com

Air speed is a factor that helps remove moisture and stale air, and of course it influences
drying. Sausages will dry faster at higher temperatures, but in order to prevent the
growth of bacteria, drying must be performed at lower levels, generally between 15-12
C (59-53 F). The speed of drying does not remain constant, but changes throughout the
process: it is the fastest during the beginning of fermentation, then it slows down to a
trickle. At the beginning of fermentation humidity is very high due to the high moisture
content of the sausage. When starter cultures are used the temperature is at the highest
during fermentationwhich speeds up moisture escape from the sausage. The surface of
the sausage contains a lot of moisture and it must be constantly removed otherwise
slime might appear. If the sausages are soaking wet during fermentation, the humidity
should be lowered. At the beginning of fermentation the fastest air speed is applied,
about 0.8 - 1.0 m/sec. The speed of 3.6 km/h (2.2 mile/hour) corresponds to the speed
of 1 meter/second. Ideally, the amount of removed moisture should equal the amount of
moisture moving to the surface.
Fermentation is performed at high humidity (92-95%) to prevent case hardening. If the
humidity were low and the air speed fast, the moisture would evaporate from the surface
so fast, that the moisture from the inside of the sausage would not make it to the surface
in time. The surface of the casing will harden, creating a barrier to the subsequent drying
process. In slow fermented sausages this will create a big problem as the inside of the
sausage may never dry out and the product will spoil. As the sausage enters the drying
stage, less moisture remains inside and the humidity and air speed are lowered. After
about a week the air speed is only about 0.5 m/sec and after another week it drops
to 0.1 m/sec (4 inches/sec). It will stay below this value for the duration of the drying.

Fast moisture removal is not beneficial in fast-fermented sausages, either. Lactic acid
bacteria need water to grow and if we suddenly removed this moisture, they would stop
producing lactic acid which would affect fermentation and safety of the product. The
technology of making fast fermented sausages relies on pH and not on drying and the
air speed control is less crucial as there is little drying. Spreadable sausages. Course
ground spreadable sausages are fermented at 95% humidity and have an air speed of
about 0.8 m/sec dropping down about 0.1 m/sec every two days.

Finely ground spreadable sausages are fermented at about 90% humidity but with a
slower air speed. As they contain more fat (it helps with spreadability) there is less water
to remove. It is much harder for the moisture to maneuver among fine meat particles on
its way to the surface and the distance is longer, too. As a result, less moisture gets to
the surface and the air speed of about 0.1 m/sec generally suffices.

More on drying can be found here.

A typical medium-fermented salami process

Process Temp Humidity pH Air speed Time

aw
C F % meter/sec

20- 68- 0.96-

Conditioning < 60 5.8 0 < 6 hours
25 77 0.97

18- 66- 0.94- 0.8

1. Fermenting 98-92 5.6-5.2 2 - 4 days
25 77 0.96

18- 66- 0.95-

2. Drying 85-90 5.2-4.8 0.5 5 - 10 days
22 70 0.90
Note: The speed of 3.6 km/h (2.2 mile/hour) corresponds to the speed of 1
meter/second. Based on parameters in the table above, a medium-fermented salami
will lose about 1.0 - 1.5% of its mass daily.

Depending on the manufacturing method salamis can be divided into:

Fast-fermented Medium-fermented Slow-fermented

Inexpensive, low Better quality, less sour and High quality, traditionally
quality, shortest generally better salami flavor than made salami with a superior
shelf life, strong that of a fast-fermented sausage. salami flavor. They are never
tangy and sour fully acidifed and that is why
taste. Production time:4-6 weeks there is little of a sour and
tangy flavor so pronounced in
Production The technology of this product is
a fast fermented types.
time: 5-7 days based on a moderate drop of pH
Salamis develop a desired,
(below 5.0 in about 4 days) and is classical salami flavor,
The technology of about 4.8 in a finished sausage. somewhat cheese and
this product is The production time is long moldy, due to a long drying
based on a fast enough to dry out enough period which permits for
drop of pH(below moisture so that water activity many of the natural
5.0 in just 2 days) (Aw) level of 0.93 is achieved biochemical reactions to take
to make it stable. making it resistant place inside of the meat.
The pH of a againstSalmonella and Staph.aure
finished sausage is us. The flavor of the finished Production time: 6 weeks
about 4.6-4.8 maki product is due to acidification, or longer for a 45 mm casing
ng it safe. Water addition of spices and to a smaller (a very large diameter salami
activity (Aw) is of a extent (insufficient drying time) to can take 5, 8 months or even
lesser hurdle as some natural processes a year to dry).
there is not enough (proteolysis and lipolysis) within a
time to remove sausage. The technology of this
enough moisture by product is based on the
controlled drying. Temperatures:Temperatures drying process(lowering Aw-
Aw of a finished of22 -25 C, ( 70 -77 F) are water activity) and on very
sausage is applied during the initial slow drop in pH (almost
about 0.92. fermentation stages and at those never dropping to 5.2)
temperatures fast-acting bacteria which will later reverse
Lowering pH is cultures perform a bit slower. (increase) as the drying
accomplished by progresses. Slow drop in
the addition of fast Sodium nitrite (Cure #1) is added
pH gives Micrococcus bacte
acting sugar being the first hurdle against ria sufficient time to react with
(dextrose) and/or bacteria spoilage. Nitrate is not nitrate. As a result nitrate
GDL (glucono-- needed as the production times releases nitrite which is
lactone) plus fast- are still relatively short. necessary for:
acting starter
cultures. The flavor control of Cl.botulinum
is greatly proper color of the
influenced by the sausage
acidification of the improved flavor
sausage and
spices employed. The Aw of a finished sausage
is between 0.82-0.88and the
Temperatures: Initi pH of a finished sausage is
al fermentation about 5.3-6.0 (the initial pH
temperatures are value of the meat used for
quite high 26 -30 processing is about
C, (78 -86 F) to 5.8). Although this final pH
allow rapid growth value might seem to be high
of fast-acting the sausage is
starter cultures. microbiologically very stable
Some very fast due to its low moisture
cultured are content (low Aw).
targeted for
fermentation Temperatures: Temperature
temperatures up to s of 16 -20 C, (62 -68 F)
45 C (113 F). are applied during
fermentation stage.
Sodium nitrite
(Cure 1) is used as Sodium nitrate or sodium
the first hurdle nitrite and nitrate (Cure
against bacteria #2)are added.
spoilage. Nitrate is
not used as there is
not enough time for
it to release nitrite.
Bactoferm HLP Bactoferm F-RM-52 Bactoferm T-SPX

Bactoferm HLP Bactoferm F-RM-52 -medium Bactoferm T-SPX - slow

- fast culture fast culture targeted for culture for making traditional
targeted for fermentation temperatures of 22- sausages and targeted for
fermentation 32 C (70 -90 F) temperatures not higher than
temperatures of 24 C (76 F).
90 -115 F, 30- Use dextrose.
45 C. Use sugar.

Use dextrose.

Bactoferm F-LC Bactoferm F-LC

Bactoferm F-LC - meat culture with bioprotective

properties for production of fast or medium-fast
fermented sausages where a higher count
of L.monocytogenes bacteria may be
suspected.Recommended fermentation temperature is
20 -24 C (68 -75 F) for at least 48 hours. Use
dextrose as this culture ferments sugar slowly.

Once the temperature drops below 25 C (77 F) the cold smoke can be applied
which contributes positively to the flavor and inhibits mold growth. No more drying
is needed and the sausage can be sold.
Mold is usually applied after 2-3 days by spraying or dipping sausages in a mold
solution.

Salamis which are produced without mold on its surface can be cold smoked after
48 hours which is basically drying with a thin smoke.

Above listed is a partial only list of starter cultures made by the Danish Company "Chr.
Hansen." They are available from the Sausage Maker and other distributors..

Higher temperatures speed up bacteria growth which results in:

faster pH drop due to increased lactic acid production

faster development of strong curing color
 faster rancidity of fat which is an unwelcome scenario especially in slow-
fermented products that are stored for long time

Starter Cultures

In the past fermented sausages were made by using natural flora (bacteria) of the
establishment. Which is fine even today for a home based sausagemaker or a small
plant. A commercial producer can not relay on mother nature to produced a constant
quality product and he has to eliminate any possible risks that may come up. He has to
control parameters pH of meat material, sausage pH, water activity Aw, temperature, air
speed and bacteria. For a meat plant making a thousand pounds of sausages a day it is
out of the question to rely on natural bacteria to start the fermentation process and this is
where starter cultures come into play.

This is similar to the wine making process:

originally wine was made by leaving fruit with water to start fermenting
then we started to add wine yeasts which were produced in tightly controlled
laboratory conditions. The wine was being fermented using its own fruit yeasts
plus added starter cultures (wine fermenting yeasts)
commercial wine makers do not want ANY yeasts that reside in fruit as that will
not produce a constant quality product. In the first stage of a production process
a chemical is introduced that will kill all yeasts present in the fruit and then after a
day commercially produced wine fermenting yeasts are introduced into fruit and
water.

In meats we don't introduced chemicals to kill bacteria but we have these options:

use meats with the initial bacteria count of 100-1000 per gram of meat
use laboratory grown starter cultures

There are many manufacturers of starter cultures that are used in Europe and in the
USA and we are going to list products made by the Danish manufacturer "Chr. Hansen"
as their products are easily obtained from American distributors of sausage making
equipment and supplies.

Some typical starter cultures are listed in the table below. In addition to starter cultures
whose main purpose is production of lactic acid, there are two cultures that are very
useful:

Bactoferm F-LC M-EK-4 Bactoferm

Meat culture with bioprotective properties
for production of fermented sausages
with short production type where a higher
count of L.monocytogenes bacteria may
be suspected.Bactoferm F-LC has the
ability to controllisteria at the same time
as it performs as a classical starter
culture for fermented sausages. The
culture
produces pediocin and bavaricin(kind of
"antibiotics") and that
keepsL.monocytogenes at safe levels.
Recommended fermentation temperature
is 20 -24 C (68 -75F) for at least 48 maturation resulting in a pH increase and
hours. Use dextrose as this culture
ferments sugar slowly.
Meat culture for production of molded
dried sausages with a white/cream
colored appearance. M-EK-4 is
particularly recommended for the
production of traditional sausages dried at
low temperatures and/or low humidity. M-
EK-4 suppresses the growth of
undesirable organisms such as
indigenous molds, yeasts and bacteria.
The culture has a positive effect on the
drying process by preventing the
emergence of a dry rim. Furthermore, the
mold degrades lactic acid during
a less sourish flavour.

Salamis with a surface mold

In many European countries (France, Italy and others) it is a normal occurence to see a
salami with a white surface mold. This is how it has been made for hundreds of years,
the mold is intentional and it contributes to the wonderful flavor of the sausage. It also
protects the sausage from the effects of light and oxygen which helps to preserve color
and slows down rancidity of fat. Mold covered salamis are not smoked as the smoke
application will prevent molds from growing on the surface. Cold smoking sausages
(below 25 C, 78 F after fermentation (after around 48 hours) will prevent mold from
growing on its surface.Mold can be removed by wiping it off with a rag soaked in vinegar
solution. The color of the mold should be white or off-white and not yellow, green, or
black. As mold in time can grow to a considerable length it is brushed off before sale.

Sausages that are made nowadays are dipped into a mold solution or have a mold
solution sprayed on the surface. The factory grown molds such as the M-EK-4
Bactoferm described in table above are easily obtainable which permits the growth of
a constant quality intentional mold.

Optimal conditions for the growth of mold are: warm temperatures, no air draft
and over 75% humidity.
To prevent growth of mold the commercial producers dip the sausage after filling
for a few seconds into 10% solution of potassium sorbate.
Yeast and molds grow much slower than bacteria in fermented meats and sausages and
they develop later in a ripening process. They utilize some of the lactic acid that was
created during the fermentation stage thus increasing pH (lowering acidity) what as a
result improves flavor in a slower fermented product. They don't seem to be affected by
a pH drop in the fermentation stage and will grow in a vast range of temperatures (8
-25 C, 46 -78 F) as long as there is high humidity in a chamber. To ensure fast growth
at the begining temperatures higher than 20 C (68 F) and humidity over 90% is
required.

Yeast - Debaromyces
Mold - Penicillium

Chr. Hansen produces mold starter cultures with Penicilliumnalgoviense which permits
to grow white uniform mold on the surface of the product.

Salami Flavor

The flavor of salami is largely dictated by the manufacturing method (fast, medium or
slow-fermented). In fast-fermented products the economics play the major role and the
product must be made fast and cheap. There is little reason to produce high quality
salami or pepperoni that will end up as a pizza topping. Most super market sold salamis
are fast-fermented sausages. A fast fermented product is based on the rapid drop of pH
(increasing acidity) and that inevitably leaves a sour and tangy acidic flavor. Spices
come to play an important role as their part is to offset this sourness. Applying smoke
will add in bringing a new flavor.

In slow-fermented traditionally made salami the flavor is the result of many

microbiological reactions that take place in many months of its production. Lactic
bacteria process sugar much slower than dextrose which leads to a slow pH drop. Most
of sugar is converted into lactic acid but as temperatures drop so does the activity of
bacteria which leads to a very slow pH drop. As a result complex biological reactions
that are taking place with remaining sugar create a different salami flavor. Spices play a
lesser role as spices lose their flavor in time anyhow. There is no sourly flavor as in
slow-fermented products pH is known to increase (less acidity) to quite a high value (6.0)
in time. The flavor is kind of cheesy, very typical of a traditionally made product. Salamis
with mold will have distinctive cheesy-moldyflavor.

Bacteria strains such as Staphylococcus and Kocuria have been known to be the main
mechanism of producing nitrite from nitrate during the curing process. Meat containing
an insufficient number of these bacteria will not cure properly and ultimately the color
and the flavor of the product will suffer. In addition the microbiological safety of a
fermented sausage will be at risk as sodium nitrite and salt are the main hurdles against
meat spoilage at the beginning of the process. In order for those bacteria to start
reacting with nitrate a temperature of 8 C (48 F) is required as at lower temperatures
(refrigerator) bacteria stop growing and these strains are no exception.

Today most meat products contain sodium nitrite which does not depend on action
of Staphylococcus andKocuria bacteria and a cured product is submitted to heat
treatment which will guarantee the pink color providing that the meat with enough
myoglobin was selected. In case of slow fermented sausages which still use nitrate
(Cure #2) Staphylococcus and Kocuria bacteria are needed to force nitrate into
releasing nitritewhich in turn will start curing meat. Besides, some nitrite is converted
back into the nitrate which need the above bacteria to react upon.

Two main species of Staphylococcus that are widely used as starter cultures
are: Staph.carnosus andStaph.xylosus.

Making Fermented Sausages at Home

If you have read the sections above you should have a pretty good understanding of the
subject by now. At least you know how it should be made according to the rules of the
meat science. To make consistent products parameters such as temperature, humidity
and air speed must be continuously monitored and adjusted and this is exactly what
modern drying chambers do. It is not expected that one will invest into sophisticated
drying chamber with temperature, humidity and air flow controls and the technology of
making fermented sausages has to be somewhat modified and adapted to the local
conditions of the home sausage maker. Fermented sausages were made in Europe for
thousands of years without all this technology and they tasted great. Yes they were
made, but not during all 12 months of the year. They were made when the temperature
and humidity were right and some moderately blowing wind was of immense help, too
(Italy, Spain). You can find a window of opportunity for making fermented sausages
everywhere: in the summer in Alaska, in the winter in Florida. Ever heard of Summer
Sausage? It was not made in summer when temperatures are high and humidity is low.
It was made in winter when temperatures were lower and humidity was high, then it
dried and was eaten in the summer when harvesting crops.

As long as we remember that in the first stages of production the temperatures are
higher and the drying chamber must have a bowl of water to create high humidity levels
we can produce a fermented sausage. Then as the process progresses the levels of
humidity and temperature settings can be lowered. Cures (cure #1 or Cure #2) are an
absolute necessity and commonly available and inexpensive starter cultures will
guarantee a successful quality product.
The above tables provide all information that is necessary to produce a fermented
sausage. At home conditions there are basically two stages:

Fermenting - which lasts about 48 hours

Drying - which may be subdivided into:
1. fast-fermented type - 5-7 days
2. medium-fermented type - 4-6 weeks
3. slow-fermented type - 6 weeks or longer

It is impossible to provide exact drying times as these will depend on the size of the
casing, percentage of the fat, temperature, humidity, air draft, how full is the drying room
and so on. Nevertheless the above figures may be considered to be a rule of the thumb
values which provide a point of reference. The rest is trial and error and gaining
experience. You will find in many sources advice such as: this is how I like to do it, I
have been doing this that way and it worked for me and so on.... without any concrete
data to temperatures, humidity or air speed. Instead of writing about what works for us
we have decided to create the table which shows how salamis are made commercially in
accordance to the rules of meat science. It will be unrealistic to expect that a home
based sausage maker will have enough equipment at his disposal to measure all those
parameters. Nevertheless he will have a valuable point of reference and he will be able
to improvise his production according to what he has and what he can do in order to
make his salami making process as close as possible to the recommended data. For
instance, temperatures might be too high and humidity too low to dry sausages in
summer time in hot climatic zones and in those areas winter time is more suitable. If a
drying chamber is available (old refrigerator, a suitable box, etc.) a dish filled with water
will provide more humidity. So will a wet rag. Nothing will happen if sausages are
removed every 3-4 hours from the drying chamber and showered with water for a few
minutes. Water will moisten the surface of the sausage and prevent it from too rapid
drying. To control air speed think of a home made smokehouse and its draft control. The
air enters with smoke into the smoking chamber, raises up and escapes the chamber
through the exit pipe on top which has a draft control. If its fully open you have full draft
(full air speed), if it is open 1/4 there is 1/4 of the draft. In a smokehouse the reason for
this air draft is to remove moist air that accumulates in the upper parts of the chamber. If
it was not removed the sausages will taste rancid and bitter and the color will be very
dark due to accumulation of soot and other unburnt particles. In making fermented
sausages, evaporating moisture must also be removed otherwise it will create favorable
conditions for the growth of mold and we may not need this. If the drying chamber is fully
enclosed without any natural draft, one can open the door to it every now and then and
allow the moisture to escape. We all know the smell of a refrigerator when we open it
after coming from extended vacation and the drying chamber is no exception.
Salami making process

Raw material: Temperature

Air-
pork pH-5.9
Humidity speed Expected Expected
beef pH-5.8 Time
C F in % in pH Aw
m/sec
Aw, 0.98-
0.99
little little
Conditioning 20-25 68-77 60-70 1-6 hours
change change
1. Fermenting/drying 18-25 66-77 92-95 0.5-0.8 2-4 days 5.2-5.6 0.94-0.96
2. Drying 18-22 66-72 85-90 0.2-0.5 5-10 days 4.8-5.2 0.90-0.95
When the sausage achieves pH acidity value 5.2 or lower or water activity Aw 0.89, it is
considered microbiologically stable and it is safe to consume. This will be a fast fermented
product. This does not mean that the process must be stopped. The drying can continue, the
sausage will lose more moisture and weight and its shelf life will be longer.
3. Drying 15 60 75-80 0.1-0.2 4-8 weeks 4.6-5.0 0.85-0.92
When the sausage achieves pH acidity value 5.2 or lower or water activity Aw 0.89, it is
considered microbiologically stable and it is safe to consume. This will be a medium fermented
product. This does not mean that the process must be stopped. The drying can continue, the
sausage will lose more moisture and weight and its shelf life will be longer.
will
0.05- more than
Storing 10-15 50-60 70-75 increase 0.85-0.89
0.1 8 weeks
up to 6.0
During the storage period the pH value of the sausage will increase, the sausage will be less
acidic and its flavor will be more mellow. Less acidic and more cheesy. Sausage will lose more
moisture and if kept at those conditions in a dark room, it will have an almost indefinite shelf
life. USDA guidelines state: "A potentially hazardous food does not include . . . a food with
a WATER ACTIVITY value of 0.85 or less."
Notes:

The speed of 3.6 km/h (2.2 mile/hour) corresponds to the speed of 1

meter/second which is basically a walking speed.
Traditionally fermented salami can be made without starter cultures and the
fermentation is caused by the bacteria naturally present in meat. It will be only
microbiologically stable when Aw reaches 0.89 as its pH value never drops to 5.2
Traditionally fermented sausages very seldom achieve pH level of 5.2 due to smaller
amounts of regular sugar (sucrose) used and the absence of starter cultures although
some cultures(Bactoferm T-SPX) are designed for slow-fermented products.

Fast and medium-fermented salamis achieve lower pH value due to the use of GDL, fast
fermenting sugar (dextrose) and fast acting starter cultures.
Making fermented products is a combination of art and sausage making and one will be
ill advised to start with a traditionally slow fermented product which is made without any
starter cultures. On the other hand slow and medium fermented products are much
easier to make and gained experience can lead to production of slow-fermented
sausages.

Notes:

Smearing of the fat (dull knife or warm fat) should be avoided as it will clog the
inside passages of the casing and inhibit moisture from escaping which will affect
drying.
Starter cultures must be kept frozen and should not be mixed with other
ingredients until ready to use. Other ingredients such as salt, sugar, spices or
others will always contain some moisture which will trigger reaction with starter
cultures. Starter cultures are after all bacteria that needs only higher temperature,
humidity (moisture) and food (sugar) to start multiplying.
To keep humidity at high levels, the sausages may be showered a few times a
day for a minute or two.
Some air draft should be present even in the final months of drying to prevent
mold creation.

By choosing an appropriate starter culture a fast, medium or slow-fermented sausage

can be produced, even if the recipe remains the same. It will have different texture and
flavor but as long as the rules are followed it will always be a quality sausage.

At least 2.5 % salt (25 g salt/1 kg of meat) should be added which will help to lower
water activity and inhibit the growth of bacteria.

Sodium nitrite/nitrate is added to the majority of salamis to suppress the growth

of Salmonella or eliminate the danger of Clostridium botulinum. It also contributes to the
development of the desired curing color and curing flavor. A combination of nitrite and
nitate (Cure #2) is applied to slow fermenting products as nitrate guarantees a stable
color even after drying for some months.

Use of Spices in Fermented Sausages

Throughout history spices were known to possess antibacterial properties and

cinnamon, cumin, and thyme were used in the mummification of bodies in ancient Egypt.
It is hard to imagine anything that is being cooked in India without curry powder
(coriander, turmeric, cumin, fenugreek and other spices). Latest research establishes
that spices such as mustard, cinnamon, and cloves are helpful in slowing the growth
of molds, yeast, and bacteria. Garlic and clove are effective against some common
strains of E.coli. Spices alone can not be used as a hurdle against meat spoilage as the
average amount added to meat is only about 1% (1 g/1 kg). To inhibit bacteria the
amounts of spices will have to be very large and that will alter the taste of the
sausage. Rosemary and sage have antioxidant properties that can delay the rancidity
of fat.Marjoram is a proxidant and will speed up the rancidity of fats.

Traditional Fermented Sausages

Traditionally made fermented sausages are made without starter cultures or sugar and
relies entirely on bacteria present in meat and in suroundingmicroflora. Before the starter
cultures were discovered there was a practice of adding fermented sausage mass from
the previous production to a new sausage mass that will be stuffed into casings. This
increased the number of lactic bacteria in a new sausage mass. This questionable
practice today was called "backslopping" and is very seldom used as it introduces not
only lactic bacteria that are needed for fermentation but also any unwanted bacteria that
had developed in the previous sausage mass.

Home made traditionally fermented products are made in conditions that take advantage
of the weather conditions that are typical for a particular season of the year. There is
little one can do to finely tune the temperature or relative humidity levels. Because of
that, temperature range and humidity levels are somewhat more relaxed than stringent
requirements of comercial drying rooms. It should be noted that if the temperature goes
up the relative humidity goes down and vice versa.

Making traditional slow-fermented sausage

Traditionally manufactured sausages are predominantly made from pork, pork fat (back
fat) and beef. About 80% lean meat and 20% fat are the most often used proportions
and selection of spices plays a secondary role. One of the reasons is that there is not
much original spice aroma retained by the sausage is that it is drying for 3 months and
hanging in storage for another 6 months. The taste and flavor of the sausage is the
result of a long drying period when many naturally occuring reactions take place with
meat protein producing a very characteristic and desired flavor.

The beginning of the process is very similar to making any kind of a sausage (grinding,
mixing, stuffing) the main difference being the utmost attention directed towards the
freshness of meat, cool production temperatures, cleanliness of the equipment and
personal hygiene. The second part of the process (fermenting, drying, storage) is
completely different and requires basic knowledge of the theory that governs the making
of fermented and air dried products.

1. Meat selection. Meat of a healthy animal is clean and has no bacteria. Some bacteria
reside on an animal's skin and inside its intestinal tract (casings). Bacteria which is
present everywhere are introduced when we start to process meats: every time a knife
cuts meat, the blade introduces new bacteria which multiply and slowly migrate towards
the inside of the piece. As more cuts are made, the easier it is for bacteria to penetrate
the piece. This is why ground meat (small particles) has the shortest shelf life. Bacteria
will find their way into the sausage mass that will be stuffed into the casings by the
following:

cutting animal carcass - the knife will open the way for them to travel from the
skin into the meat. Some of the bacteria which live in the intestinal tract (they are
needed to digest food) will also find a way to contaminate meat. During the
slaughtering process the carcass is sprayed with water which facilitates the
transport of bacteria.
mowing meat around on tables, carts and different surfaces. There are bacteria
on those surfaces and they will contaminate meat, too.
air movement on the premises.
human intervention - there is bacteria on our skin, clothes, when we are sneezing
etc.

We can not eliminate bacteria altogether but we can restrict their growth to the minimum
and this is the most important step during the manufacturing of fermented sausages. It
should be noted that placing meat in a refrigerator will not stop the growth of bacteria
but merely slow it down. At this temperature (4 C, 40 F) they will double up in number
every 12 hours anyhow. If we have 300 bacteria in 1 gram of meat and we keep this
meat for one day (24 hrs) in a refrigerator we will have 1200 bacteria at the start of the
grinding. But if we have 1000 bacteria in our meat to start with, after 24 hours we will
have 4000 bacteria and a commercial producer will not process this meat for fermented
sausages but he may use it for making fresh meat products (they will be cooked to 160
F, 72 C before consumption).

The example above shows how crucial it is to select fresh meat for making air dried
sausages and processing it (grinding, mixing and stuffing) as soon as possible and at
the lowest temperatures. If those conditions are not met we may be doomed on day one
and we will waste 3 months of our time on producing a low quality sausage or even
throw it away.
2. Curing. Adding salt, sugar and nitrate to meats has been practiced for centuries and
the general consensus is that curing contributes positively to the color, flavor and shelf
life of the product. The curing step has been employed in traditionally made fermented
sausages (without cultures) to increase the number of lactic acid, color and flavor
forming bacteria. When making fermented sausages the main purpose of curing was
twofold:

increase the number of color and flavor forming bacteria

(Staphylococcus, Kocuria)
increase the number of lactic acid producing bacteria
(Lactobacillus, Pediococcus)

The curing step is simply adding extra time for beneficial bacteria to develop. Although
the process will be slow due to cold temperatures, the bacteria count will somewhat
increase. There is a little problem with this curing procedure as other bacteria such as
spoilage and pathogenic (dangerous) will grow as well, and when subsequently
introduced to the fermenting chamber they will also multiply. Fortunately, they are little
salt tolerant and their growth is slowed down by salt and nitrite. Besides, those millions
of bacteria (culture) introduced to meat will start competing for nutrients with beneficial,
spoilage and pathogenic bacteria and their growth would be severely restricted. There is
no need to perform this curing process when starter cultures are added to meat. We are
assured of a huge number of lactic acid bacteria which will start the fermentation
process as soon as the stuffed sausage is placed in a warm fermentation room. Placing
the sausage mix that includes starter bacteria in a refrigerator makes little sense and
will unnecessarily increase the number of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria.

Lets speculate that we have 500 lactic acid bacteria in 1 gram of meat to be cured. At
42 F (6 C) they might double under perfect conditions (no salt and no nitrite). That
means that after 48 hours we end up with 8,000 bacteria ready to start fermentation.
This number pales in comparison with 10 million (10, 000,000)/g bacteria which are
introduced with a starter culture. This proves without any doubt the advantage of using
starter cultures. As mentioned earlier, the curing step is seldom practiced today as every
manufacturer adds starter cultures to the sausage mix to better control the process.
Nevertheless, it is still a fine and recommended procedure for
making unfermented meats and sausages which will be subsequently smoked and
cooked.

Original way to cure meat was as follows:

meats were manually cut into 2" cubes, salt, sugar and nitrite were added and
thoroughly mixed. If meats are not manually cut but processed through a grinder,
 that should be accomplished with a large plate 1/2-3/4". Then meats were packed
tightly (to remove air) about 6-8" high, into pans
meats were covered with a clean cloth (to prevent air from oxidizing meat which
will discolor it and allow gases to escape)
pans were placed in a refrigerator for 72 hours

This time could be shortened to 48 hours by grinding meats with a plate as smaller
particles are penetrated faster by salt and nitrite. A cured sausage mix has a tendency to
firm up and the stuffing process becomes harder to perform especially when using home
equipment. For this reason the sausage mix was re-ground with a correct final plate,
often 3/16" and mixed with spices. Back fat is salted only as it does not contain
myoglobin and there is no need to mix it with nitrite (no color forming will occur).

3. Grinding. All grinders, even manual types, generate heat which warms up the meat. If
possible meat processing should be done at temperatures not higher than 12 C (54 F).
"Take what you absolutely need" should be applied to all processes and that means that
only the necessary amount of meat to complete a particular operation should be taken
out of a cooler. Don't take 50 lbs of meat out of a refrigerator when operating a manual
grinder which is slow. Take what you need. Make sure that the meat is very cold or even
partially frozen as this allows for cleaner cuts and keeps the meat temperature down. Fat
should be partially frozen to prevent smearing which affects drying.

4. Mixing. Adding water to facilitate mixing is a common practice when making

sausages but in the case of fermented sausages this technique is strongly discouraged.
Water removal (lowering water activity Aw) is one of the hurdles employed to safeguard
the sausage against microbial spoilage and bringing extra water in beats the purpose of
drying. It does not matter much when making a smoked/cooked sausage as this water
will evaporate rapidly during smoking and cooking. Besides, cooking will kill all bacteria
anyhow. In case of a fermented sausage this water becomes a wonderful playground for
bacteria.

5. Stuffing. Natural casings of different diameter or synthetic fibrous casings can be

utilized. More attention must be dedicated to the preparation of the casings for the
following reasons:

The parts of the animal that are most contaminated with bacteria are skin and intestinal
tract (casings). Although casings are cleaned, washed and packed in salt nevertheless
they still remain contaminated and can contribute to the total contamination (bacteria
count) of the sausage. The following steps must be undertaken to minimize the danger
of contamination:
 visual inspection-casing should be of white color
they should be salted and kept in a refrigerator
they should be desalted at least one hour before stuffing in cold running drinkable
water. Then they can be washed in 2% solution of vinegar which will eliminate the
majority of bacteria.

6. Mixing of all ingredients should be done at the temperature between 0 and 5 C (32-
41 F). Higher temperatures may start fementation too early which will lead to quality
problems later (rancid taste, case hardening). In such a case the sausage mass should
be cooled down in a refrigerator before proceeding to the stuffing.

A typical process:

No sugar nor starter cultures added

Temperature Humidity Time Notes

The temperature
must not exceed 22
C, 72 F. Expected
Fermentation 12-16 C, 54-61 F 82-98 % 3-8 days
pH value 5.2. pH
below 5.0 may lead
to sourly sausage.

Higher temperatures
must be avoided.
Drying 12 C, 54 F 75-80 % 2-3 months Expected pH around
5.3, expected Aw
0.88.

Storage 12-18 C, 54-66 F 75-80 %

Mediterranean style products (Italy, Spain) produce sausages that are only air-dried

Northern style products (Germany, Poland) produce sausages that are smoked and air-
dried. A thin, cold smoke (no more than 20 C, 68 F), humidity 70-80%, produced from
burning hard wood logs is applied after the fermentation stage. Good air draft (ventilation)
is needed.

If sugar and starter cultures are used use the following parameters for fermentation:

temperature: 20 C (68 F)
umidity: 85%

time: 3-5 days

and monitor pH values

Note: some manufacturers don't carry out the fermentation stage at all and the stuffed
sausage is directly submitted to the drying process at 6 -15 C (42 -59 F)

Staphylococcus aureus starts to grow fast at 15.6C (60 F) and higher. For this reason,
sausages made without starter cultures should not exceed this temperature. When
cultures are used, lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid and this increases acidity of the
meat, inhibits growth of Staph.aureus. This pathogen can survive high salt levels and
funtions remarkable well at low moisture level (down to Aw 0.86).Staph.aureus is
sensitive to acidity (low pH).

7. Fermentation means increasing the temperature of a stuffed sausage which allows

the naturally occuring bacteria in meat to grow and react with the meat. As a rule the
higher the temperature, the faster bacteria growth and their energy to react with meat or
any other food. For most bacteria the best temperature for growth is around our body
temperature (36.6 C, 98.6 F). This temperature is too high for any kind of traditionally
made slow-fermented products. Unless a pH meter is used to check the acidity of the
sausage, it is hard to predict when fermentation ends and when drying begins. Once pH
value reaches 5.2 there is no need to lower it further as it will affect the taste and color of
the sausage and at this point there is little need for bacteria to produce more lactic acid
and lower pH even more. The flavor of the product will taste sour and the color will suffer
too. This may be acceptable for a fast-fermented economy sausage but not for a
traditional sausage.

Fermenting is the crucial step and proper temperature plays a very important role. At
18-24 C (66-76 F), fermentation normally lasts 1-2 days. At lower temperatures, 10-
12 C (50-54 F), it will last about 1 week. During fermentation the relative humidity can
vary between 75 and 95%. If possible it should be kept at 92-95%. To stop the
fermentation process we lower the temperature to 12 C (54 F) and that stops lactic
bacteria from fermenting sugars. The remaining sugar will be utilized for the
development of flavor and stronger color.

To prevent the growth of mold or for this extra flavor after fermentation sausages can be
cold smoked (20 C, 68 F) and then air dried. Cold smoking is basically drying meats
with smoke.
7. Drying is accomplished at 10-14 C (50-58 F) and will last for 4-12 weeks. If drying
temperatures are higher, the drying process may be accomplished in 1-3 weeks. During
drying the relative humidity can vary between 70-85%. If possible it should be lowered
gradually to around 75%.

Time of drying is affected by:

the diameter of the casing (larger casing dries longer)

the amount of fat in meat (fatter sausage dries faster as there is no water inside
the fat)
humidity (lower humidity, faster drying)
temperature (higher temperature, faster drying)
air speed-faster air draft, faster drying. This parameter is not easy to control at
home conditions.

8. Storing. When the sausage reaches water activity Aw 0.89 or lower it is considered
microbiologically stable and can be kept at cool room temperatures. Sausages should be
kept at 12-18 C (54-56 F) in a dark (to prevent color change and fat rancidity), well
ventilated area (to prevent mold growth). The humidity should be about 75% (higher
humidity favors the growth of mold, lower humidity will dry out more moisture and
decrease the weight of the product).

Notes:

Ingredients. Only top quality ingredients should be used (fine salt, sugar, nitrite/nitrate,
freshly ground spices, etc,) but use of fresh spices (garlic, onion, parsley, oregano, etc)
is prohibited. Fresh spices contain moisture and bacteria of unknown nature and may
contaminate and spoil the sausage. If starter cultures are used they should be stored at
low temperatures according to supplier recommendations. At least 2.5 % salt (25 g
salt/1 kg of meat) should be added which will help to lower water activity and inhibit
the growth of bacteria. which will help to lower water activity and inhibit the growth of
bacteria.

If sugar is added, the amount should be based on pH value of the mixed sausage mass
(before stuffing). Typical values of meats selected for commercial production are: pork:
pH-<5.9-6.0, beef: pH-<5.8. About 2-4% sugar (2-4 g/per 1 kg of meat) are most often
added.

In a finished sausage the pH of 5.3 and Aw of 0.88 are signs of quality product.

Microbiological Control:
 keep (if possible) production area at 12 C (51 F)
keep meats at 4 C (40 F) or lower
take from the refrigeraor just the quantity necessary for a particular operation
keep all equipment clean
wash hands regularly