16.

512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez
Lecture 6: Heat Conduction: Thermal Stresses

Effect of Solid or Liquid Particles in Nozzle Flow

An issue in highly aluminized solid rocket motors.

3
2Al + O2 Al2O3
2

m.p. 2072 C , b.p. 2980 C

In modern formulations, with 20% Al by mass, the Al2O3 mass fraction of the
exhaust can be 35-40%. This material does not expand, so there must be a loss in
exit velocity, hence in Isp.
i i
Assume mass flows mg (gas) ms (solids), non-converting.

The momentum equation is

i i
mg dug + ms dus + Adp = 0

Call s the (mass of solids)/(volume) (not the density of the solid, theory)

g ug dug + s us dus + dp = 0

Define a mass flux function

i
ms sus
x= =
i i gug + sus
mg + ms

x
gug dug + dus + dp = 0
1 x

dp x
ugdug = ugdus
g 1x

The energy equation is similarly,

(1 x ) ( cpgdTg + ugdug ) + x ( csdTs + usdus ) = 0

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 1 of 10
Substitute here ugdug from above:

dp x x
cpgdTg
g

1x
ugdus +
1x
( csdTs + usdus ) = 0

dp x
g
= cpgdTg +
1x
( )
cs dTs + us ug dus

dp P T 1
with no particles (x=0), this gives R g T = cp dT =
P P0 T0

With particles, we need to know the history of the velocity slip us ug and of the
temperature slip Ts Tg . This is a difficult problem, requiring detailed modeling of
the motion and heating/cooling of the particle. But we can look at the extreme cases
easily.

(a) Very Small Particles good contact. For sub-micro particles (not a bad
representation of reality), we can say that

us ug = u ,
Ts Tg = T . Then

dp x
= cpg + cs dT
g 1 x

Note that the mean specific heat ( cpg and cs are per unit mass) is

cp = (1 x ) cpg + xcs
( )
R g = c p c v = (1 x ) cpg cvg = (1 x ) R g
and also c v = (1 x ) cvg + xcs

dp cp
So that = dT
g 1x

dp cp dp cp dT
RgT = dT =
P 1x P Rg T

cp
and defining an effective by the usual = ,
cv

P T 1
=
P0 T0

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 2 of 10
 The equation of motion is now

( g + s ) udu + dp = 0

Or

g
udu + dp = 0
1x

g P P
= =
1x R g T (1 x ) R g T

P
udu + dp = 0
RgT

From the two boxed equations we see that everything from here can proceed
as if the gas were simple, but with molecular mass

Mg
M=
1x

(or R g = (1 x ) R g ),

and with

c p = (1 x ) cpg + x cs .

For example,

1
P
ue = 2 R g Tc 1 e Tc , Pc in chamber etc.
1 Pc

For sensitivity analysis it may be of interest to linearize this for x 1 . The

algebra is tedious, but one gets,

ue 1
1 1 c 1 +
(1 0 ) ln (1 0 )

ue0 2 0

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 3 of 10
 1
cps P
with c = , 0 = 1 e
cpg Pc

and, of course,

1
P
ue0 = 2 R g Tc 1 e
1 Pc

We see from this that if c < 1 ( cps < cpg , which is common), then ue < ue0 (and

vice-versa).

For a numerical example, look at Problem 2 (attached)

(b) Very Large Particles Hard to quantify, but probably for diameter > 100 m or

so, the particles have too much inertia (and thermal inertia) to follow the gas
acceleration and cooling. We then have

dus dug ; Ts Tc ( Tg at chamber)

or dus 0; dTs 0

dp
Returning to the equation, it now looks as if there were no particles:
g
dp
= cpgdTg
g

(i.e. , particles just do not participate in the dynamics or in the thermal

1
P T
balances). So, we still have = . This does not mean zero
P0 T0
performance effect, though. We do not get the full gas exit velocity

1
Pe
ue = 2 R g Tc 1
1 Pc

but the particulates do not contribute to thrust, because they exit at

us ue :

i i
mg ue + ms us
g Isp = i i
= (1 x ) g Isp0
mg + ms

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 4 of 10
 This is actually more loss than in the small particle case (about twice as much,
depending on c).

From the example, this is a serious loss in solid rockets.

Criterion for Slip

4 2
Rp3s
3

2 2
dup 2 Rp s dup 2 sRp
mp
dt
(
= 6gRp ug up ) 9 g dt
= ug up R =
9 g

dup ug up
= call ug up = s up = ug s
dt R

dug ds s ds s dug
= + =
dt dt R dt R dt

t
dug
R
Say R and = ag are constant s ag R + C e
dt
s ( 0 ) = 0 C = ag R

2
1 1 + ....
2
= = 1 + ...
2

t

s = ag R 1 e R

and ug = ag t

1 t
t R 1 ...
2 R

t
s R R
= 1e
ug t

1
t R
t R

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 5 of 10
So, small slip for t R

L
R
u

2
L 2 s Rp
ug 9 g

9 gL
Rp
2 s ug

Say
g 3 105 Kg / m / s
L 0.3 m 3 105 0.3
Rp 4.5 = 0.9 1011 = 3 106 m = 3m
s 3 103 Kg / m3 3 103 1.5 103
ug 1.5 103 m / s

Rp 3m no slip
So,
Rp 3m full lag

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 6 of 10
Problems

Problem 2

As noted in class, the effect of carrying a mass fraction x of fine solid particles in the
expanding gas in a rocket nozzle can be accounted for by using an average specific
heat ratio

(1 x ) cpg + xcs
=
(1 x ) cvg + xcs
and an average molecular mass

Mg
M =
1 x

For Al2O3 the high temperature specific heat is cs = 1260 J/Kg/K.

Consider a solid rocket with = 1.17 (1.25) , Pe Pc = 0.01, M g = 18 g / mol.
For a 20% aluminum loading in the propellant, x is of the order of 37%.
Calculate the matched specific impulse of the rocket and compare to what it would
be for the same Tc = 3300 K , but with no particles.

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 7 of 10
Problem 2

Specific heat of clean gas

1.25
r R 1.17 8.314
cpg = = = 3180 J / Kg / K
r 1 M 0.17 0.018 2309
0.25

2309
cpg 3180 1.25
cvg = = = 2718 J / Kg / K
r 1.17
1845

The specific heat of the solid (or liquid) Al2O3 is cs = 1260 J / Kg / K.

The average specific heat ratio is then

2309
(1 x ) cpg + x cs (1 0.37) 3180 + 0.37 1260
r= = = 1.1336
(1 x ) cvg + x cs (1 0.37) 2718 + 0.37 1260 1.1795
1845

And the average molecular mass ( Ms ) is

Mg 18
M= = = 28.57 g / mol
1x 1 0.37

Pe
The exit speed for = 0.01 and Tc = 3300 K is then
Pc

1
Q P
ue = 2 Tc 1 e = 2613 m / sec
1 M Pc 2521

NOTE: Alternatively, and easier to do, you can use

1
P
ue = 2 Cp Tc 1 e
Pc

with C p = (1 0 .3 7 ) 3 1 8 0 + 0 .3 7 1 2 6 0 = 2 4 6 9 J/Kg/K

(so M is not really needed)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 8 of 10
As a check,

R 1.1336 8.314
= = 2469 J/Kg/K
1 M 0.1336 0.02857

as it should.

Under pressure-matched conditions, there is no exit pressure contribution to thrust

or Isp , and hence

2613
Isp = = 266.3 sec
9.81
257.3 s

Without particulate but with the same Pc , Pe and Tc , we would obtain

1
2 Q Pe
ue0 = Tc 1 = 3199 m / sec
1 Mg Pc 3029

3199
and Isp0 = = 326.1 sec
9.81 309.1

266.3 16.8%

There is therefore a loss of 1 100 = 18.3% in Igp
326.1
257.3
1
309.1

It is interesting to test the accuracy of the linear approximation given in class for
small x:

1
ue x
1 1
c (1 0 ) ln (1 0 ) ; = 1 Pe


1 +
ue0 2 cpg 0 0
P
c

ue
We find 0 = 0.4878 , and then = 0.837 (16.3% loss)
ue0

(not too different, despite large x)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 9 of 10
NOTE: Alternatively, and easier to do, you can use

1
P
ue = 2 Cp Tc 1 e
Pc

with C p = (1 0 .3 7 ) 3 1 8 0 + 0 .3 7 1 2 6 0 = 2 4 6 9 J/Kg/K

(So M is not really needed)

R 1.1336 8.314
As a check, = = 2469 J/Kg/K as it should.
1 M 0.1336 0.02857

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 10 of 10