PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
iU'rOMATIC AND SPECIAL EQUII'MENT
Figure 174 shows how this phase of the problem was handled
with a semi-portable A.C. induced-current fixture. The core of the
fixture is inserted into the opening of the port and the current
turned on to procluce a toroidal magnetic field around the walls of
the cylindrical secbion. While the current is on, the bath of mag-
netic particles is applied from a hand hose. After turning off the
magnetizing current (to avoid tlemagnetizing action by the A.C.
if the fixture is withdrawn while the current is flowing) the fixture
is withdrawn and the inner and outer surfaces examined f o r defects.
I ~ ESYSTEMS.From the foregoing discussioi~sit
19. ~ I U L T I PTEST
shoulcl not be coiicluded that special magnetic particle testing equip-
ment is any kind of panacea, or t h a t magnetic particle testing is the
single noixlestructive test for any and all defects associated with
ferrous parts. This is certainly not the case. Although magnetic
particle testing methocls hold a n outstanding place in the testing
of parts made from magnetic materials, radiographic methods,
edcly-currents and ultrasonics also have a clefinite plac, in this same
area. There are numerous instances where two o r more tests a r e
applied,to the same part. For example:
( a ) Magnetic particles and radiography f o r welded pipe, steel
castings and forgings, and missile motor cases.
( b ) Magnetic pal0ticles ant1 ultrasonics for welded pipe, steel
castings, general welcl inspection, forgings, ant1 billets ant1
blooms.
(c) Magnetic particles and eddy currents for welded pipe and
pipe couplings.
These multiple test applications have not usually been conducted
simultaneously or by use of a single station of equipment. They were
applied sepnrately with totally separated facilities. This is not
surprising, sillce the introtluctio~l of the various nondestruct;ve
testing mcthotls have folloivetl tach other over a long periotl of
years. Manufacturers "made do" with available test methods until
other methods were developed and offered. I11 recent years, however,
planned mrrlti-metlzod nonclest~.uctive testing installations have
been plncetl into service for sucll parts a s :
(a) Welded pipe-magnetic p:trticles plus radiography.
( b ) Welded pipe-magnetic particles plus eddy currents.
.
d
$1 (c) Welded pipe-eddy currents plus ultrasonics.
(d) Billets and blooms-magnetic particles plus ultrasonics.
The trend toward multi-method nondestructive testing systems
>I will undoubtedly continue, because there a r e very definite economic
i as well as technical advantages to be gained by combining more
than one test into a single handling and testing installation.
20. FUTURE TRENDS. In the course of this chapter we have dis-
cussed special equipment-automatic and special-purpose, single-
purpose and multi-purpose-for testing parts varying as widely a s
from one quarter inch bearing balls to ten foot diameter bearing
races ; 30 foot long gun tubes, ten foot diameter missile motor cases,
five ton blooms and 30 ton steel castings. The trend toward special
equipment of all types and sizes has continued a t a n accelerated r a t e
during recent years. Tlie reasons for this trend a r e numerous. The
wide demand for higher quality by users of materials, brought about
by modern design trends, along with the demand of manufacturers
for increased production rates, has forced the move toward special
equipment. The above demands are, of course, the result of tech-
nological advances in materials and fabricating techniques spurred
by the need for higher strength-to-weight ratios.
On the side of the nondestructive testing industry, a large factor
in the increasing use of special equipment is the availability of im-
proved special unit designs in such areas a s mechanical handling,
magnetizing systerls, wet method bath application methods and
electrical control circuits. A further aid to the design of, special
applications is the development of greatly improved magnetic par-
ticles, to make the results obtainable from the use of special methods
much more effective.
Finally, a s alxvays, the demonstratio11 by successful installations
of the advantages of ~ u c hsystems causes more an8 more users to
be attracted to them. There seems to be little doubt that the trend
toward special equipment and methodu will continue, since the un-
derlying reasons f o r i t a r e not likely to lessen in number o r value.
 I'IIINCIPLES OF MAGNISTIC PARTICLE TESTING
I CHAPTER20
DEFECTS OPEN
TO THE SURFACE ,
Fig, 175--Charactenstics of Surface Defects.
:, <-, I'
(8) Interrelationship. Grouping, alignment, etc.
(9) Relationship of all characteristics to service stresses in
the part, and to critical stress locations.
(10) Stress-raising effect from all considerations.
B. Discontinuities lying ~i*?toll~ belojo the su~fnce.See Fig. 176.
(1) Length, L. Longest principal dimension, measured a t the
surface, and in a direction parallel to the surface.
(2) Width, W. Longest dimension, measured a t the surface
and in a direction parallel to the surface, and a t 90' to
Length.
( 3 ) Height, H. Dimension normal to the surface.
(4) Depth, D. Distance from the surface to the nearest part
of the discontinuity, measured a t 90' to the surface. Note
that the dimension, D, has a different meaniqg a s between
surface and sub-surface discontinuities.
(5) Shape. Globular, angular, flat, sharp-cor~lered,etc.
DETECTABLE DICFECTY
b
WHOLLY
SURFACE
Fig. 1 7 M h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Defects Lying Wholly Below the Surface.
(6) Orientation of planes of principal dimensions
( a ) with respect to the surface,
(b) with respect to the longitudinal axis of the part,
(c) with respect to the transverse axis of the part.
(7) Frequency. Number per unit area of cross-section.
(8) Interrelationship-grouping.
(9) Relationship of all characteristics to service stresses in
the part and to critical stress locations.
(10) Stress-raising effect from all considerations.
Note : In the above listings, the term "surface" in all cases refers
to the sztrfnce on which the inspection is bcling made.
From tile standpoint of detectability, only items one through six
have a bearing. The entire list, one through ten, benys on the ques-
tion of the tliscontinuity as a potential defect.
4. SURFACECRACKS.Surface cracks and other surface discon-
tinuities make up by f a r the largest and most important group
which magnetic particle testing is used to locate. This is true for
two principal reasons. First, the surface crack is the type most
effectively located with magnetic particles; and, second, surface
cracks a s a clasq a r e much more impot-tant and dangerous to the

PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
There is some evidence of a limitation a t the other extreme,
namely, a crack of some depth but with its surface opening so small
that no indication is produced. If the faces of a crack are tightly
forced together by compressive stresses, the almost complete absence
of a i r gap may produce so little leakage field that no particle indica-
tion is formed. Shallow cracks produced in grinding or heat treating
and subsequently put into strong compression by thermal or other
stresses have been reported, which gave no indications with mag-
netic particles. Sometimes, with careful, maximum sensitivity tech-
niques, faint indications have been produced in such cases. The
operator should be alert to the possibility of this occurrence when
dealing with u part the surface of which may have residual com-
pressive stresses from any cause.
One other condition sometimes approaches the limit of detecta-
bility and should be mentioned. This is the case of t h t lap, produced
-
in forging or rolling which, though open to the surface, emerges a t
an acute angle. (See Fig. 32, Chapter 3.) Here the leakage field
produced may be quite weak, because, due to the small angle of
emergence, and the relatively high reluctance of the actual air gap
which results, very little leakage flus takes the path out through
the surface lip of the lap to jump this high reluctance gap. When
laps are being sought - usually always when inspecting newly
forged parts- high sensitivity methods, generally with the use
of fluorescent particles, are desirable. Figure 177 shows the faint
Fig. 177-Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indication of a Forging Lap.
CHAPTEH20
DETECTABLE DEFECTS
indication of a forging lap, produced with fluorescent particles,
which sectioning showed to extend, a t an angle, quite deeply into
the body of the part.
6. DISCONTINUITIES LYINGWHOLLYBELOWTHE SURFACE. The
magnetic particle method is capable of finding many defects which
do not break the surface of the p a r t in which they occur. This is
an important ability, since there a r e circumstances when radiog-
raphy and ultrasound, methods whose primary field is locating such
defects, cannot be used. These two methods a r e inherently better
adapted to the location of interior discontinuities than magnetic
particles, but sometimes the shape of the part, location of the
defect, or the cost or availability of the methods and the equipment
needed, makes the magnetic particle method the best one to use.
As a group those discontinuities which lie wholly below the surface
are less dangerous from the point of view of potential failure than
are surface cracks. This is because they are usually (though not
always) more or less rounded in shape and, lying below the surface,
are in an area of fibre stress below the maximum. They are, there-
fore, less severe stress-raisers than even a very small surface crack.
The detection of such discontinuities with magnetic particles is
nonetheless often important, and much work has been done to deter-
mine the optimum conditions for success in this area.
7. OF DEFECTSLYINGWHOLLY BELOWTHE SURFACE.
DETECTION
Definition of the limiting conditions that determine whether or not
a discontinuity below the surface is likely to be found with magnetic
particles, is not nearly so simple a s is the case with surface craclts.
A large number of variables a r e factors, any one of which may be
determining i n a given case.
The question, often asked, "How deep below the surface can a
defect be detected with magnetic particles?" has no ansurer in spe-
cific terms. But some of the factors and variables that affect the
detectability of deep-lying discontinuities can be defined and under-
stood, so that an operator can be aware of what the problem really is.
8. Two GROUPS OF SUB-SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES. The sub-
surface discontinuities which magnetic pa~.ticles will locate may
be put into two groups. The first of these comprises those small
voids or non-metallic inclusions which lie close to and often just
under the surf:ice of the part. Non-metallic inclusions are present
in all steel products to a greater o r lesser degree. They may occur