The Development of the Idea of "Imperialism" in Canada and its

Diffusion through Education 1860-1940

2006
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 VIEWS ON CANADIAN IMPERIALISM ..................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 2 REASONS FOR IMPERIALISM........................................................................................ 6
2.1 ECONOMIC TIES .................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 ETHNIC AND POLITICAL DIVISIVENESS AND IMPERIALIST EDUCATION AS AN UNIFYING FORCE .......... 6
2.3 LOYALISTS............................................................................................................................................ 7
2.4 FRENCH NATIONALISM ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.5 FEAR OF AMERICAN ANNEXATION ....................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 3 DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN CANADA AND ITS EDUCATION SYSTEM .......12
3.1 WESTERN CANADA ..............................................................................................................................12
3.2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA .........................................................................15
CHAPTER 4 TEXTBOOKS.......................................................................................................................19
4.1 ORIGINAL TEXTBOOKS: AN ANALYSIS .................................................................................................19
4.2 ORIGINAL TEXTBOOKS ........................................................................................................................19
4.3 DECLINE OF IMPERIALISM ....................................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................30

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................31
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction

How did imperialism develop in Canada during the period 1860-1940 and can this
imperialist ideology can be found in school textbooks, particularly in Western Canada,
during this time period? In examining the development of imperialism during this time
period, a determination needs to be made if this imperialistic ideology developed as a
mere offshoot of late nineteenth century British imperialism, which was based partially
on increased foreign competition and on increasing political fragmentation, or if it
developed based upon different reasons, such as the fear of American expansionism.
Imperialism, in this thesis, is defined as the movement towards closer ties to Britain
(defensively, politically, and economically), Anglicized assimilation of non-British
people, group cohesiveness and loyalty, militarism, and adoption of the English language
and customs as superior to that of other cultures. This concept of imperialism is confined
to its development and demise within Western Canada although this development was
heavily influenced by earlier developments in other parts of the country. In this proposal,
it will be argued that both British-Canadian and, to some degree, French-Canadian
nationalism was based on fear of American expansionism. Ties to the British Empire
were emphasized not only as a rationale for the existence of the Canadian Loyalists but as
a means to unify diverse groups into a Canadian identity which, with British Empire
help, would be able to repel any possible American invasions.

1.2 Views on Canadian Imperialism

Today the word imperialism entails an image of some foreign domination of the
Canadian economy. But seventy-five years ago, imperialism was synonymous with
what for many Canadians was an essential part of being Canadian pride in being
associated with the British Empire and subscribing to the idea and the ideals of British
imperialism. Imperialism was both an international and indigenous movement for
Canadians. The concept of the White Mans Burden, part of the imperialist ideology,
was common across both Western Europe and the English-speaking world. Economic
reasons contributed as well; the British imperial markets appealed to the partial needs of
the Canadian economy. However, the Loyalist myth, in relation to the British Empire,
was uniquely Canadian (Page, 1972: p 1).

O.D. Skeletons, the historian, argued that imperialism was imposed on Canada from
outside and gradually Canadian nationalism replaced imperialism. This view was refuted
by Norman Penlington, in his book Canada and Imperialism 1896-1899. Penlington
argued that imperialism in Canada was based upon a certain understanding of history,
national character, and Canadas national mission. This imperialism was based on the
idealization of the Loyalist legacy, the view of French-Canadian nationalism within
Canada as a force to be countered, criticism of US, social reform, a sense of religious
mission, and an elitist concept of political leadership, and militarism. William Canniff, a
nineteenth century Canadian historian, expanded on this sense of nationalism by claiming
that Canada, being free of the sin of slavery and of a bloody revolution, had a tradition of
gradual improvement rather than the revolution and that of the US Manifest Destiny.
This tradition was a characteristic of British-Canadianism. This characteristic could be re-
enforced by popular education tempered with Christianity. Although French-Canadian
nationalism was a force to be reckoned with, this force could be blended into British-
Canadianism without compromising Canadas loyalty to the UK through imperialism.
(Berger, 1970: p 7)

In this thesis, it is argued that imperialism within Canada began much earlier than in
Britain due to the idealization of the Loyalist legacy, the view of French-Canadian
nationalism within Canada as a force to be countered with British imperialist culture,
strong economic ties and dependence on the UK by Canada, the need for British
protection against American expansionism, and an elitist concept of political leadership
which caused newly-developed areas to be under federal control rather than local control
as was the case in the US.

One of the chief means of diffusion of this imperialist ideology was through school
textbooks for many reasons. A small number of educators, largely from Loyalist-
dominated areas of eastern and central Canada, were able to exert a disproportionate
influence on textbook selection (van Brumeln, 1986: p 17). Furthermore, because of the
grave shortage of teachers and textbooks in Western Canada, many of their textbooks
were not locally produced but mere copies of Ontario, a Central Canadian province,
textbooks. Also, many of Western Canadian teachers were from Central/Eastern Canada
or the UK, where Loyalism/Imperialism was a dominant force (Charyk, 1977).
Furthermore, because many non-British immigrant settlers in Western Canada settled in
large isolated ethnic blocks, schooling was often one of their few links to the wider world
and served as a means to indoctrinate these foreign settlers in the correct imperialist
belief (Kozakewich, 2005).

Because Western Canadian history, in many ways, is still in its infancy, much of the
material of this thesis is drawn from school textbooks, one of the most common books
available in most Western Canadian settlements, and oral history of several people. These
people not only attended school during the period of study (1860-1940) and were aware
of the content of the school textbooks and of the school atmosphere but they also provide
unique perspectives of attitudes and other information that would not be present in any
compiled history books. One source, Millham, who grew up, taught, and compiled local
histories of many small Western Canadian settlements, is aware of the development of
teacher training and textbooks within Western Canada, attitudes within the various ethnic
groups of these settlements, and the changing nature of the schools and these settlements
over time. Another source, Kozakewich, is the child of Ukrainian immigrant parents; as
such, she is aware of some of the immigrant children and parents attitudes toward an
imperialistic assimilationist education. Another source, McCall, attended a British-
Canadian secondary school in Western Canada during this period and personally knew
one of the textbook authors, Bagnall, as one of their faculty. One source, Pilger, is a
university archivist of the Faculty of Education at the University of Alberta in Western
Canada and is knowledgeable about the development of teacher training within the
province of Alberta.
Chapter 2 Reasons for Imperialism

2.1 Economic Ties

Imperialism also had an economic impetus. The adoption of Imperial tariffs by the British
Empire, during the period 1790s to 1840s, to the exclusion of non-imperial nations, such
as the US, was an economic boon to Canada. Prevented by tariffs from buying cheaper
American lumber and wheat, British consumers were forced to buy Canadian lumber and
wheat which resulted in a huge growth in the Canadian farming and lumbering sectors.
(Wallace, p 213) Canadians quickly learned the value of Imperial tariffs and the value of
their relationship, as an imperial colony, to Britain. The repeal of the Corn Laws by
Britain in 1846 caused this boom to crash with resulting widespread protests in Canada.
(Wallace, p 213). The economic depression in Canada in the 1870s and the fear of
unrestricted reciprocity with the US with the consequent US annexation of Canadian
territory, led to increased appeals for an imperial federation and imperial preferential
tariffs as an anti-dote to the increasingly popular concept of continental free trade.
(Berger, 1970: p 7)

2.2 Ethnic and Political Divisiveness and Imperialist Education

as an Unifying Force

One factor in the rise of British imperialism was increasing political fragmentation in
Britain during the 1860s and 1870s. Because of the increasingly difficult economic and
social conditions of the 1870s, Britain showed increasing signs of political fragmentation
as conflicting elite groups called for popular support and as new groups entered the
political arena (Smith, 1982b: p 83). Smith argued that Disraeli promoted imperialism in
the 1870s mostly as a means of overcoming the political fragmentation which he
considered a threat to the orderly government and to the social peace of Britain (Smith,
1982b: p 83).

Ethnic divisiveness played a role in the rise of imperialism in Canada. In mid-Victorian

Canada, tensions between the English and French speaking inhabitants were at their most
acute (Berton, 1984). Although French-Canadians opposed many of the tenets of
Canadian imperialism, such as Canadian participation in the Boer war, they did favoured
British over American rule (Granatstein, 2004). To counter the French-Canadian view of
anti-imperialism, imperialism was more strongly promoted in English Canadian schools
(Berton, 1984). Applied to a Canadian context, imperialism was seen as a unifying force,
by various political and socio-cultural groups, for ethnic and political fragmentation in
Canada.

Besides political fragmentation, Blanch argues that the middle class used imperialism and
nationalism in order to transform working class ways and modes of belief. Militarism, by
stressing ones group identity, and nationalism, which put one within the context of a
nation, would replace this perceived self-centeredness with group identity and concern
for others (Blanch, 1979: p 104-105). Every member of the public, regardless of social or
economic background, could embrace imperialism (MacKenzie, 1986: p 2). Applied to a
Canadian context, settled British Canadians saw militarism and imperialism as a way to
assimilate non-British, newer, poorer immigrants to a British-Canadian group identity.

Despite the uniquely Canadian reasons for embracing imperialism, one can not discount
British influence on Canadians, especially since many immigrants during the late
nineteenth and twentieth century originated from the UK. Many organizations with an
imperialist tone, such as the Boy Scouts, emerged in Canada as a direct result of their
influence (Milks, 1981: p 10; Baines, 1975: p 6).

2.3 Loyalists

Loyalists left America, during the American Revolutionary War and its aftermath, for a
variety of personal, complex reasons. Because the British West Indies had excessive heat
and they lacked the wealth or connections to return to Britain, many Loyalists came to
Canada with its good free land, low taxes, and loyal government (McKinnon, 1991: p
137-9).

The founding of English Canada can be traced to the flight of the Loyalists from America
to Canada. During the American Revolution, Loyalists, who were distinguished by their
high ideals and superior education, fled America to Canada supposedly in order to stay
within the British Empire. (Wallace, p 76) After enduring, in many instances, mob
violence and seizure of their property without compensation, many Loyalists became
opposed to the rule of the mob and its associated republican principles. (Moore, 1984:
p 110,111,154) Consequently, they adopted the principle of allegiance to ones Empire as
paramount in order to provide a counter-balancing ideology to the omnipresent American
republican ideology.

Their loyalist ideology received a boost during the War of 1812 when British troops
helped repel the American invaders (Clement, 1898). Allegiance to Britain was viewed
by them as a guarantee of British help in the case of invasion. Renewed fears of an
American invasion, strengthened by the example of the American army seizing Mexican
sovereign territory during the Mexican-American War of 1848, renewed the propagation
of imperialism, both as a means to distinguish the Canadian identity from its American
neighbor and as a means to ensure Canada would not be annexed by the US (Macgregor,
1981: pp 81-82).

Loyalists and their descendents were associated with national greatness. Similar to a
movement in the US during the 1870s where families traced their ancestry to American
revolutionaries, Canadian families tried to trace their families to Loyalists. Loyalists were
portrayed as guardians of superior culture and their descendents formed a buttress against
the parvenus, of recent massive British immigration of post-Napoleonic times, which
were usurping their earlier position of prominence. (Berger, 1970: p 84-90)

Loyalism was viewed to be a distinguishing factor in Canadian national development

from that of the US in that Canadas birth was characterized by a gradual history of
internal improvement rather than a bloody revolution. (Berger, 1970: p 81)

Loyalism was deemed to be a guardian of superior culture; consequently, the ideal of

Loyalism and British Empire must be enforced, through education and other means, on
recent immigrants, whether British or otherwise, who were usurping Loyalist
descendents positions of power. Canada encountered mass British immigration due to
mass post-Napoleonic War economic depression in Britain as well as massive non-British
immigration afterwards. (Bercer, 1989: pp. 82-90)

2.4 French Nationalism

After the defeat of Quebec in the Seven Years War (1756-1763), the small thriving
French community in Quebec faced cultural extinction. In order to prevent this from
occurring, the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the Quebec Act of 1774, and the
Constitutional Act of 1791 established a boundary between Quebec and the American
colonies, guaranteed the continued use of French as an official language of Quebec,
recognized Roman Catholicism as the established church of Quebec, and continued the
use of the French Civil Code as the civil law of Quebec. The purpose of these acts was to
deal with the rebellious Americans and prevent Quebec from American annexation. In
order to deal with the fleeing Loyalists, Quebec was divided into two colonies: French
Catholic Lower Canada and English Protestant Upper Canada. In practice, the British
controlled law, government, and commerce while the Catholic Church preserved French
traditions, culture, and religion. These compromises led to cooperation between the
French and British Canadians in resisting two American invasions during the
Revolutionary War and in the War of 1812 (Leskun, 2003: p 6)..

This view of the British granting French Canadians privileges caused many French
nationalists, who favoured preservation of French culture, to prefer British over
American rule and to resist American invasions. Henri Bourassa (1868-1952), a French-
Canadian nationalist, in his French-Canadian Nationalism article, sums up the French-
Canadian duties to the rest of Canada. Because after the Treaty of Paris that ended the
Seven Years War, Britain gave French-Canadians a constitution and certain privileges
and furthermore, during the American Revolution, because French-Canadian refused to
join the American Revolutionaries. French Canadians, in return, should only be called
upon when Canadas own territory is attacked. (Bourassa, 1969: p 120-122)

Although Bourassa states that French-Canadians should remain French, they should not
develop closer ties to France. One reason given was that even if Quebec was spared the
horrors of the French Revolution, Napoleon would have sold Canada to the US like he
did with the territory belonging to France in the Louisiana Purchase. Furthermore,
French-Canadians should detest the Napoleonic legacy of modern France, such as its
centralization, administrative organization, and legal militarism, which would make
Canadas inclusion into a modern French Empire unworkable (Bourassa, 1969: p 123-
127).

Another French-Canadian nationalist, J-P Tardivel (1851-1905), saw Canadian

imperialism, not as a duality between the French and English people, but as British
assimilation (Tardivel, 1969: p 147-151).

However, despite their cooperation during the two American invasions, there was a great
deal of antagonism between British and French Canadians. One reason, as identified by
Tardivel, was the fear that British Canadians desired to assimilate the French Canadians
into their culture. Another reason was the strong influence of clergy in the education of
French Canadians, which ran counter to the British Canadian ideal of a non-
denominational public education. (Owram, 1981: p 5)

One of the central features of French Canadian culture was the influence of the parish as
the centre of political, educational, and social life and of the strong influence of the
clergy. The clergy controlled not only education but also served as a model for the
emerging bourgeoisie of French Canada (Guidon, 1988: pp 9-17). The Quebec provincial
Ministry of Education was abolished in 1875 and not re-established until 1964. For
French Quebecois, the clergy dominated the educational system, not only running the
schools and colleges and dictating a classical curriculum, but also serving to mold the
minds of young Quebecois youth to their ideals (Mann, 1982). Although the English
enjoyed full autonomy and control within the public school system of Quebec, reciprocal
rights were not granted to French-Canadians in their school system if these French-
Canadians lived outside Quebec. Consequently, there was much effort, on the part of
French-Canadians, who lived outside Quebec, to have their own separate school system,
and when it was denied, in the Manitoba schools question, there was much bitterness
(Guidon, 1988: p 67). British-Canadians were determined to limit the growth of French-
Canada to Quebec and determined that any model of education should reflect the British-
Canadian one, regardless of the pupils background (Lupul, 1992: p 77-83).

2.5 Fear of American Annexation

In February of 1775, American Revolutionary armies, numbering 8000, marched into

Canada to fight 800 British troops in order, in the terms of Revolutionary General
Richard Montgomery, to declare Canada the fourteenth colony (Orchard, 1993: p 15)
Although Congress anxiously awaited the capitulation of Canada, two unsuccessful
sieges of Quebec city convinced the Americans that Canada could not be taken (Orchard,
1993: p 16).

Another invasion occurred in 1812 to 1814. Many American politicians desired Florida
and Canada as American territory. Although a combination of British troops and native
Indians turned back the invasion, both French and English speaking settlers played a role.
Many men left to fight while the women acted as scouts. Americans failure to capture
Canada in the war of 1812 left a legacy in Canada of resistance to US expansionism and
determined the shape of its nation for the next hundred years. (Orchard, 1993: p 20-30)

Further border disputes developed this fear of American expansionism. In the 1820s,
dispute over the rich areas of the Ottawa Valley and New Brunswick between Maine and
Canadian lumbermen brought Canada and the US to the brink of war (the Aroostook
war). In 1836, American settlers, in Mexicans Texas territory, rose in revolt and
demanded annexation to the US. Sam Houston, an American Texan, managed to defeat
the Mexicans and offered the state to the US Congress. In 1845, the US Congress
completed its seizure of Texas (Orchard, 1993: p 30-33).

During the same time period, although the Hudson Bay Company had the exclusive right
to trade in the British American northwest, the US government financed a group of
missionaries and settlers, numbering less than a dozen, from Missouri to travel to Oregon
where upon their arrival in 1843, they declared a provisional government, in spite of the
Canadians and British already there. The American government threatened war and by
the Oregon Treaty of 1846, Britain, and hence Canada, lost the Oregon territory to the
US. This treaty enabled the US to focus on a renewed war with Mexico by which by
1848, the USA was granted Texas, California, and New Mexico by Mexico. (Orchard,
1993: p 30-35).

Within American society, there was a concept of Manifest Destiny which declared that
parts of North America were destined to be part of the United States, regardless of their
current owners, whether English, Russian, French, Mexicans, or Indians. (Newhouse,
1984). This concept was reinforced by the problem of American pioneers who would
move and settle ahead of official US territory, on territories part of Mexico, British
North America, Russia, France, or native Americans, in order to get in before the land
price rise that normally occurred after this territory was annexed to the United States. By
moving ahead of official US territory, these settlers could take advantage of the
plentiful trade opportunities and free land (by squatting illegally on foreign territories). If
foreign governments should harass them because of their squatting, the settlers would
demand protection by the US Army and annexation by the United States (Lavender,
1968).

In 1864, there were fears of an imminent invasion of Canada by the US. In response,
there were renewed emotional appeals to Loyalism and the British Empire (Berger,
1970). One of the main reasons for Canadian confederation was fear of what the huge
American Union army would do after the Civil War ended. Prime Minister MacDonald,
the chief promoter of Confederation, feared this American army and American historical
itch for territory. Consequently, as a result of the free style American frontier with its
excesses and because of the fear that giving provinces/states too many rights was the
cause of the Civil War, the federal government, under Confederation, retained many
rights that were given to the American states. The federal government retained control of
distributing land and mineral rights in the Canadian West. In order to maintain ties with
the Canadian West, a transcontinental railway, the CPR, was constructed with massive
federal help. The CPR was given 25 million aces in an 1872 charter; this reduced the
amount of land available for homesteading and tended to break up settlements. In order to
encourage settlers and keep Americans from settling in the Canadian West, the federal
government in 1872 passed the Dominion Lands Act which provided 160 acres of land to
a settler willing to homestead and actively recruited immigrants from overseas,
particularly from Britain (MacGregor, 1981: pp 46-113).

Antagonism to the US in Canada could be construed as being derived from the feeling of
the powerlessness of Canada, a heritage of distrust of the US, frequent disputes with the
US over fisheries, tariffs, and territory. In 1892, the premier of Ontario saw two
alternatives for Canada: either annexation to the US or a stronger connection to Britain.
(Berger, 1970: p 82)
Chapter 3 Development of Western Canada and Its
Education System
3.1 Western Canada

Western Canada could be characterized by the territories that now compromise the
provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Western Canada
was characterized by its history and policy of its development. Sixty percent of Western
Canadas population was directly involved in farming, notably a highly specialized grain
production. The remaining 40% served the farmer as merchants, school teachers, etc.
Very little manufacturing or other industry existed in Western Canada (Bercer, 1989: pp
65-68). During 1900-1915, Western Canada enjoyed an upsurge of 2.5 million
immigrants. Immigrants were attracted by the promise of 160 free homestead acres. The
majority of settlers were ignorant of weather or soil conditions. Substantial minorities
were of non-British, non-Canadian birth. The percentage of this minority varied from
province to province from 21% in Manitoba to 38% in Alberta. Although Western
Canada was far more ethically diverse than the rest of Canada, this region had a far
higher proportion of people with no experience or sentimental attachment to its political
institutions. Some of these minorities, such as the Mennonites, had minimal relations
with other settlers; others, such as the Slavic settlers, settled in isolated, block settlements
which were isolated from Anglo-Canadian influence. Although American settlers were
viewed with suspicion, many of these settlers were professional developers who would
create a farm and sell at a profit later on. Many British immigrants were urban dwellers
with no experience of farming. One of the most influential groups of immigrants was a
huge wave of Ontarian settlers and businessmen before 1900 that came to Western
Canada. These Ontarian immigrants dominated Western Canadas political elites,
farmers associations, newspapers, and reform movements. These immigrants established
the basic patterns and culture of Western Canada. (Bercer, 1989: pp 65-68)

The development of the Canadian West was primarily an English phenomenon. The
French Canadian Catholic sense of mission was split by the need for French-Canadians to
immigrate to Western Canada to prevent it from being an English Protestant region yet if
they did so, this immigration would weaken the populace of Quebec, deemed by the
French-Canadians as the real centre of French culture in North America (as dictated by
the sense of mission). (Owram, 1981: p 5)

The Indians in Western Canada were viewed by various missionaries as in need of

education and the superior culture of British imperialism. By raising them from their
gloom of superstition to Christianity and moulding their hearts to Christian piety and
kindness, their material wealth and moral fitness would be raised correspondingly.
Consequently, missionaries spent much time on education of Indians, if partially because
of this sense of mission. British Empire was viewed as mans highest achievement in the
sense of development of government and social institutions. (Owram, 1981: p 124-126)
Because Western Canada tried to preserve the British connection with the old world and
avoid the sense of disenchantment that characterized previous immigrations yet it was
still viewed as a blank slate, it was promoted as the new Eden in the 1870s where
Canada could be built as a world power and as a guardian of British traditions and of
Empire in order to supplant the declining power of the UK, which was constrained by
over-population, age, and limited territory. In order to develop further Western Canada,
British immigration was encouraged. It was felt that the British had a sense of customs
and loyalty common to British-Canadians. This immigration, and its consequent
agricultural development, was viewed as key to the development of Western Canada.
(Owram, 1981: p 126-138).

The creation of Western Canada was a creation of the federal government that controlled
its economic development from the time of its purchase from the Hudson Bay Company
in 1870 to 1930 when Western Canadian provinces gained the same provincial rights as
their eastern counterparts. Unlike the American frontier whose initial stages were
characterized by social chaos; the Canadian frontier was developed through metropolitan
control, and not frontier autonomy, and this Canadian frontier was characterized by good
order with a concept of a relatively stratified society with pre-determined leadership. The
federal government retained and controlled land in Western Canada. This control was in
contrast to the common advance squatters of the American frontier. The institutions
and practices of Eastern Canada were transplanted into the West. Although the Canadian
frontier was considered as a place of opportunity where a man might rise in wealth and
social status, it was not intended that the frontier also would remove a person from the
considered necessary attributes of civilization. An example, a newly-arrived immigrant,
Mair, who came to the newly-formed settlement of Prince Albert in the Northwest
Territories in 1877 found a structured society with an existing social club, the
Saskatchewan Club, under Col. Alexander Sproat, holding St Andrew Days dinners.
(Owram, 1981: p 128) As an example of Western Canadas subservience to the federal
government, Prime Minister MacDonald of Canada, in 1883, referred to the Canadian
West as Canadas crown colony. This focus on metropolitan, rather than local, control
led to many problems in the Canadian West. (Owram, 1981: p 138)

One feature of this metropolitan control was the policies of Canadian Prime Minister
MacDonalds to erect protective industrial tariffs, settle the West as an agricultural
colony of Eastern Canada, and build a transcontinental railway to tie Eastern and Western
Canada together. These policies were also designed to impart solidity to the newly-
confederated Canadian provinces (Berger, 1970: p 3). The federal government promoted
immigration and dense agricultural settlement in Western Canada in order to provide a
captive market for Central Canadian manufactures which an 1879 tariff, instituted by the
federal government, prevent foreign manufactures from entering Canada. (Bercer, 1989:
p 65) This tariff greatly raised the price of manufactured goods for farmers while farmers
were forced to sell their wheat at the world market prices. The purpose of the federal
governments transcontinental railway was to export wheat from Western Canada
eastwards and manufactured goods eastwards. This transcontinental railway, the CPR,
enjoyed a monopoly and a rate structure that discriminated heavily against the land-
bound farmer, who had no alternative transportation for his wheat such as water-bound
transportation. The CPR, using the Crows Nest legislation of the federal government,
charged five times the railway rates to Canadian farmers than comparable rates that were
charged to American farmers. The federally controlled banking also discriminated against
farmers by both charging them a higher rate of interests than in other regions and by
setting a 3-month limit on the loan. This short time period on loans required farmers, who
took out the loan for seeding, to pay this loan off shortly after harvest when wheat prices
were at their annual most depressed level. (Bercer, 1989: pp 65-68) Furthermore, during
Confederation, the federal government assumed the old debt of the merged colonies.
However, in the Canadian West, the settlers were expected not only to help pay this
federal government debt but received no help in return. It was not until the Privy Council
Permit of 1927 which gave Western provinces control over their own resources, a major
source of provincial revenue, that these provinces had a guaranteed steady income
(Chalmers, 1967: p 22).

At the December, 1883 convention of the Manitoba and NorthWest Farmers Union,
complaints were made of grain prices below the cost of production, excessive charges of
a railway monopoly, an oppressive tariff which, however beneficialto the
manufacturing Eastern provinces, cannot fail to be inimical to the interests of a purely
agricultural country such as this, the improper and vexatiousadministration of the
public lands in Manitoba. They demanded that provinces be given rights to charter
railways to break the federal CPR monopoly and speed up branch line construction,
provinces be given absolute control of lands and resources, abolition of tariffs on
agricultural implements, the creation of a rail route to Hudson Bay to bypass Central
Canadian grain ports, legislation to allow municipalities to construct grain elevators,
warehouses, and mills, and the establishment of a government grain inspection agency.
Attempts by the Manitoba provincial government to construct branch railways for their
settlers were disallowed by the federal government. Federal tariffs greatly increased
production and living costs. In 1883, the federal government increased foreign
manufacturing tariffs from 25 to 35%. Federal control of lands frustrated efforts of
farmers to expand their holdings. Because many settlers lived 50 to 300 miles from rail
lines, lack of adequate grain storage, and lack of railway branch lines, there were serious
marketing problems with grain. Grain merchants made huge profits by imposing fixed,
low prices and unreasonably low grades on grain. In 1886, farmers were paid $0.53 per
bushel of grain in Brandon and transportation costs to Liverpool were $0.35 per bushel
but a bushel of grain sold for $1 in Liverpool, giving grain merchants a 12% profit
margin. Using the more competitive US railway system (which was prohibited to
Canadian farmers), a bushel of grain cost $0.12-18 to ship from Duluth, Michigan to
Liverpool. (Conway, 1994: pp 34-39)

Cultural divisions also played a role in the grievances of Western Canada. Besides federal
control of many areas of provincial jurisdiction, most Western Canadian politicians,
professionals, and large merchants were of British-Canadian background in contrast to
the non British-Canadian majority which they governed or serviced (Millham, 2005).

Although federal control, such as land distribution control, helped reduce some of the
chaos that characterised the American frontier, this federal control could also be
considered as a form of politico-economic subservience that was designed to benefit
Central Canadian interests at the expense of Western Canadian inhabitants.

3.2 History of Education Development in Canada

Some of the first teachers in Western Canada were missionaries, who were sent out by
various missionary societies, in order to teach and indoctrinate the natives in Christian
principles and, in so doing, supposedly raise their spiritual and temporal welfare to that of
British standards. However, many of these missionaries, upon finding that their pupils
were indifferent to Christianity, became fur traders instead. This education was not
necessarily elementary school-based but focused instead on religious indoctrination and
agricultural training. (Owen, 1992: pp 37-51)

Unlike the strong French-English divide in Central Canada, the French-Canadians formed
a tiny minority of settlers in Western Canada. An example, they formed 7 040 settlers of
a population of 158 940 in Western Canada in 1901. An 1877 federal government
amendment in 1877 allowed French to be used as an official language in the government
and court but did not contain a provision to allow it to be taught in schools. Partially
because of anti-French feelings aroused by the Riel Uprising of 1885 and partially
because the partially-elected territorial council found this 1877 amendment a major
symbol of the territories subservient colonial status to the federal government, the
council ordered their territories school trustees to conduct classes in English, with
primary classes only in French, in 1892. Ontario settlers, which formed a majority of the
population of Manitoba, viewed Western Canadas identity as part of the British Empire
and felt that it needed a British-Canadian government to rule over it wisely. The
increasingly heterogeneous West needed a single common language for communication.
The Calgary Herald newspaper on February 24, 1890 claimed an absolute necessity of
security for the English language in Canada that supremacy which British arms, British
blood, British courage, British ideas, British institutions may fairly claim at the close of
this nineteenth century in a country over which the British flag has waved for a century
and a quarter (Lupul, 1992: p 75)

Although French settlers appealed to the federal government for Quebec textbooks,
French school inspection, and multilingual schools, this appeal was rejected. Similarly,
German settlers asked that primary classes in German, like the French, be allowed to be
taught to their children. This request was rejected for the following reasons: Western
Canada was an English-speaking country, it was difficult to recognize diverse teacher
qualifications, and immigrant children, because of farm duties, attended school for a short
time only. English remained the primary language of instruction with French offered at
the lower grades only and additional language instruction after school if the local school
board paid for it. Ukrainian settlers became much more numerous in Western Canada
than the French. By 1914, there were 170 000 Ukrainian immigrants clustered in bloc
settlements throughout Western Canada. Because of their voting strength, initial
provisions were made for their language such as Ukrainian textbooks, Ukrainian-
speaking school organizers, and Ukrainian teacher training schools in Regina (1909) and
Winnipeg (1905). There were difficulties in finding qualified English-Ukrainian teachers.
An example, there were less than six available for the 95 schools that requested them.
Furthermore, these Ukrainian teachers were often not fluent in English. Because of their
numbers, French settlers sought support from the Ukrainians for non-English language
instruction. However, in their protests, the French mentioned the French language as the
instruction language only since no other language had constitutional standing.
However, in 1913, some Ukrainians ran opposition candidates to Alberta Premier Sifton
and some Ukrainian teachers campaigned for these candidates. When Sifton was re-
elected, he cancelled the teaching permits of Ukrainian teachers. In protest, some
Ukrainian settlers established their own private school, Bukovina, near Whitford Lake in
Alberta. The government then threatened their teachers with fines or imprisonment for
teaching school without a teaching certificate. (Lupul, 1992: p 77-83)

In many places, particularly in the Canadian West, there were significant minorities of
people of non-British, non-Canadian birth. These people ranged from 21% of the
population in Alberta to 38% in Alberta. These minorities were a particular concern
because they tended to settle in bloc settlements isolated from Anglo-Canadian influence
and because these people had no experience of Canada or sentimental attachment to its
political institutions. Of particular concern were the Ukrainian settlers with their fierce
nationalism; these settlers were perceived to be a threat to British-Canadian culture with
their supposed lack of civic responsibility and lack of elementary standards of social
behavior (Bercer, 1989: p. 69).

These diverse and often opposing groups include the Anglo-French divide in Central
Canada, along with the Ukrainians, Germans, and other new immigrants in Western
Canada. The ideal of this educational system was to make British-Canadian culture
dominant among new immigrants and French-Canadians. Our objective on behalf of
European foreigners shall be to assert in making them English-speaking, Christian
citizens who are clean, educated, and loyal to the Dominions and to Greater Britain
(Bercer, 1989: p 70). French-Canadians were a small minority in the Canadian West and,
as a consequence, highly vulnerable. The goal of the Western Canadian school system
was to eliminate the special privileges that French-Canadians enjoyed in Central Canada
and to assimilate these French-Canadians into the British-Canadian culture. From the
early 1890s to 1920s, there was a gradual elimination of bilingualism (whether French,
German, or Ukrainian) and biculturalism in the school systems of Western Canada
(Bercer, 1989: p 70).

One the only means of assimilation was school. School attendance, in theory, was
mandatory and it was often in school that immigrants had their first encounter with
Anglo-Canadian culture (Charyk, 1977). Schools were austere, isolated institutions of
learning in largely rurally populated areas (Tyre, 1968: p 2). It was necessary, therefore,
to ensure that these immigrants education was that of an Anglo-Canadian, imperialist
culture. This was achieved mostly through the use of prescribed textbooks. Ontario
textbooks, in turn, were based on the Irish National Readers of the 1840s (van Brumeln,
1986). An 1889 list of subjects by the Territorial (Canadian West) Board of Education
included literature by Canadian and British authors, British and Canadian history, and
geography, particularly of Canada and the British Empire. In 1906, history and
geography still dealt with Canada and the British Empire.

Furthermore, imperialism could be used, within the schools, to teach the new immigrant
children the values of imperialism and elevate them to the standards of Anglo-Canadian
behavior. Both the British and Canadian had a common view of education as not just a
means to provide facts and figures to pupils but also as a means to transform ones
morals, behavior, and outlook to the perceived correct norms (MacKenzie, 1986: p 2).
Whether the school was for immigrant or native children, its purpose was to bring
civilization to the school child who would, in turn, bring this civilization to their
parents and home communities under the Biblical maxim A little child shall lead them
(Buck, 1965: p 57). During this period, these norms would include pro-Imperialist views.
Teaching was synonymous with preparing students to live a moral life. School readers,
for example, focused on the figures of English history such as William I, Oliver
Cromwell, and Victoria in order to facilitate how discussion of their deeds could be used
to train moral judgement and, incidentally, to teach patriotism and civic duty
(Programme, 1895: p 34). Imperialism, as taught in the schools, with its perceived stress
on group loyalty and selflessness, was viewed by MacKenzie as enabling colonial people
to be raised from their supposed backward way of thinking (MacKenzie, 1986: p 2).

Imperialism, with its focus on national allegiance rather than individual self-interest, was
viewed by its proponents as an ideology able to heal an increasing fragmented society.
By elevating ones interest beyond ones self, imperialism was viewed as being able to
provide a moral elevation to ones character. This ideal of a moralizing influence fitted in
well with the 19th century view of education as a means to provide a moral upbringing to
the young. Although Canada and the UK were fragmented in the nineteenth century by
very different divisions, imperialism was viewed as being able to heal both types of
divisions. The reasons for Canadas adoption of imperialism were uniquely its own, in
particular as a means to distinguish the Canadian character from the American and as
means to prevent American expansionism.

World War I encouraged this imperialist assimilation process. On the day the war was
declared, Premier Scott of Saskatchewan province encouraged the singing of patriotic
songs and the displaying of the Union Jack in schools. The war was used as an excuse to
eliminate any remaining bilingual instruction on the Canadian Prairies although teachers
were encouraged to show restraint in their promotion of patriotism in school areas whose
pupils would be predominantly from areas that were currently at war in the UK, such as
Austria-Hungary or Germany (Tyre, 1968: p 31). Often, however this imperialism missed
its mark, there was confusion among Western Canadian schoolchildren with the meaning
of imperialistic phrases such as Kiplings famous White Mans Burden. When a class
was asked the meaning of this particular phrase, their unanimous reply was his wife
(Hunter, 1978: p 73).

Schools were instruments to make immigrant children British-Canadian. Attitudes to this

assimilation process by immigrant parents were mixed. Some immigrants adopted British
Canadian culture and Anglicized their names. Others accepted this assimilation as an
imposition which they could not resist. For many immigrant parents who lived in bloc
settlements, education and the need to learn English was unnecessary they planned to
live in these bloc settlements long enough to earn enough money to retire to their home
countries with their families (Millham, 2005). Other immigrant parents encouraged
education among their children, regardless of its imperial bias, because they felt that if
their children were educated properly and could speak English, they would not suffer as
much as they did. These parents realized that their children needed to understand English
to get anywhere; besides their children had to speak their native language at home and
their immigrant culture was kept alive in the bloc settlements though concerts and dances
(Kozakewich, 2005).
Chapter 4 TextBooks
4.1 Original Textbooks: an Analysis

During the 1840s, Egerton Ryerson prescribed standard textbooks in Ontario in order to
create a common set of values among Ontarios diverse resident groups. These school
readers were based on the Irish National Readers that were adopted by Ryerson adopted
to oppose various American readers also in use. These Irish national readers were
designed to unite all schoolchildren of all denominations while allowing for separate
religious education by providing common literary education (Mangan, 1988: p 84). These
readers were devoid of material on Ireland or its heritage; instead, the readers focused on
England and its Empire. Any references to Ireland emphasized its place within the
Empire and minimized national differences; ties with England were emphasized.
Furthermore, by de-emphasizing local and other nations histories, it was felt that these
readers could unite diverse groups of people under British imperialist culture (Bercer,
1989: p 70). Most school textbooks in Canada were direct copies of the Ontario
schoolbooks (Clement, 1898; Programme, 1895; New Canadian Geography, 1899; Saul,
1902; Town; Wallace). In 1872, John Jessop, British Columbias first superintendent of
education adopted Ontarios Canadian readers. Due to Canadas tightly-knit Anglophone
cultural leadership and its centralized school system, a relatively small number of
educators, like Jessop or Ryerson, were able to greatly influence the textbook selections.
(van Brummeln, 1986: p 17)

Van Brummeln noticed that these textbooks differed in their Christian contents over time.
In 1872, Christian beliefs were still assumed to be needed for a productive life and
Christianity was an integral part of their content. In 1880s, references to religion were
less frequent; an example, the Second Reader had only two religious references. During
the twentieth century, Christian references became less and less. In 1916, a secular wake-
up song replaced a Christian one. In the 1920s, these textbooks included Biblical stories
but these Christian beliefs were supplanted by the churches changing motivation from
conversion of people to alleviating their social conditions (van Brummeln, 1986).

4.2 Original Textbooks

The original Ryerson readers consisted of First Book of Lessons, Second Book of
Lessons, and so on. Within them, they contain the preface "Published by direction of the
Commissioners of National Education in Ireland." These books were authorized by the
Council of Public Instruction for Upper Canada (now the province of Ontario) in 1867
(First Book, 1867: p 20).

The First Book of Lessons, although containing elementary words, had a strong
religious and work ethic overtone. Some passages were Come, let us work and the
moral directive, God loves us, and Sent His Son to Save Us. The word of God tells us to
love him. If we are bad, God will not love us, and we shall not go to Him, when we go
from this world. (First Book, 1867: p 20)
The Sixth Book of Lessons, being a more complex reader, contains a better compilation
of the authors viewpoints. Chapters of this book include readings on the development of
representative government in England and a chapter on Christian morality. On the
chapter on Oratory, many speeches by various Empire men are included. Sir William
Jukes of the Bengal Supreme Court (1746-1794), in his speech, What Constitutes a
State?, declares that a state is composed of not high-raised battlements, or labourd
nout but Men, high-minded men, who their duties know, but know their rights,
and knowing, dare maintain. Another speech Trial by Jury, by Sir William Blackstone
(1723-1787), declared trial by jury as the glory of English law and is constituent in the
impartial administration of justice. Thomas Erskine May, in his speech Parliamentary
Oratory, One of the proud results of our free constitution has been the development of
Parliamentary oratory an honor and ornament to our history a source of public
enlightenment and an effective instrument of popular government. (Sixth Book of
Lessons, 1867: p 25) The Second Book also glorifies the English nation, The English
nation has almost all the cotton-making in the world, because it has brought its machines
for that purpose to great perfection (Second Book of Lessons, 1867: p 51)

A British view on the American Revolution is provided by the British Prime Minister Pitt
in these Canadian readers. Pitt, in his speech Extract from a Speech on the American
War, states no bluffing of king ruin is at our door. Army is desperate conquest of
British America an impossibility. American revolutionary leaders welcomed and
acknowledged by our enemy. Through pride and insolence of power, one individual dare
tyrannize over another. It is power usurped and, resistance is a duty this duty is one he
owes to himself and his neighbour but his duty to God (Sixth Reader, 1867: p 177). In
Canadian textbooks, American revolutionaries are identified as usurpers of power and
tyrannizing other people, a typical Loyalist complaint. Duty of God is identified as duty
to the British state, a typical Loyalist sentiment that it was their principle and their duty to
support the King over the revolutionaries (Sixth Reader, 1867: p 177). However, Lawson,
a school textbook author of Canadian History, admitted that British maltreatment of the
Americans was one of the causes of the American Revolution but was apologetic to the
Loyalist cause. During the American Revolution, groups called Committees of Public
Safety, which were organized by American revolutionaries, persecuted Loyalists.
Because Britain was confident of victory during the American Revolution, the British
government promised full compensation to the Loyalists. After defeat, the British
government changed their policy. If a Loyalist could provide full documentation of his
losses and go to England to state their case, they would receive 1/3 compensation for
their losses during the Revolution. Because most Loyalist did not have such
documentation, they went to Canada instead. The Loyalists, in turn, brought their work
the resourcefulness, the industry, the shrewdness, the fortitude, the perseverance, and the
love of order and liberty that have made their colony a great state (Lawson, 1906)

In contrast, the dominant American readers of this time period, 1836-1920, were the
McGuffey readers. The McGuffey readers are similar to the graded reader structure of the
Ryerson readers (Lindberg, 1976). In the Speech before the Virginia Convention,
Patrick Henry, an American orator, warned his American countrymen not to be satisfied
with petitioning the British government for redress against their grievances but instead he
encouraged them to be wary of the British military build up in the Americas whose
purpose was implements of war and subjugation (Lindberg, 1976: p 116). Patrick
Henry spoke in vain of a peaceful reconciliation with Britain:
Our petitions have been slighted; our remonstrances have produced
additional violence and insult; our supplications disregarded; and we have
been spurned with contempt from the foot of the throne. In vain, after these
things, may we indulge the fond hope of peace and reconciliation? There is
no longer any hope of peace and reconciliation (Lindberg, 1976: p 117).
Patrick Henry also believed in divine approval of his plans:
Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in such a
country as that which we possess, are invincible by any form which our
enemy can send against us. Besides, we shall not fight our battles alone.
There is a just God who presides over the destinies of nations; and who will
raise up friends to fight our battles for us. (Lindberg, 1976: p 117-118).

Another poem, The Brave at Home, in the McGuffey reader tells of a mother who is
hiding her pain as she prepares her son for the Revolutionary war and for his fight for
holy freedom:
The mother kissing the patriot brow she blesses, with no one but her
loving God, to know the pain that weighs upon her, sheds holy blood as eer
the sod received on Freedoms field of honor (Lindberg, 1976: p 458-459)

The Second McGuffey reader explained the development of America and its Revolution.
The story, The Settlement of America, contained the following passage:
But we can now look around our rich, cultivated, sunny hills, covered
with pasture, and waving with golden grain. We live in splendid cities.
Beautiful villages are spread over our country, thick as the stars in an
evening sky. After our fathers had passed though a great many trials, the
Lord blessed their labors and smiled upon them; then there were some who
envied them, and the king of England began to oppress them. There were
many good people in England who loved the Americans, and who did not
wish to do them any harm. But there were others there who did not know or
care anything about our country, and thought the people here were almost
the same as Indians. (Lindberg, 1976: p 161)
Lindberg stressed that, in contrast to many jingoistic contemporary American readers,
this story is remarkably balanced and objective (Lindberg, 1976: p 47). This story
illustrated the idea, to the Americans, that maltreatment and ignorance of the Americans
by the English was a factor in the American Revolution. McGuffey readers conveniently
overlooked any maltreatment by its Revolutionaries towards the Indians and Loyalists.

In contrast, Canadian textbooks, had little references to the American Revolution, if only
not to draw attention to the defeat of the Loyalist cause. In 1892 Robertsons Public
School History of England to Canada textbooks, British defeat in the American
Revolution was attributed to synonymous attacks of Britain by France and Spain
(Robertson, 1892).
A Canadian view of the War of 1812 is provided in these readers by Brock, Lt-Governor
of Upper Canada, who, in his speech Proclamation of the Commencement of the War of
1812, declared that this war is an unprovoked declaration of war followed by an
invasion of US forces into our province. When the invading American army asked
Canadians to join the US, Brock replied Where is the Canadian subject who can truly
affirm to himself that he has been injured by the government in his person, his property,
or his liberty? Where is to be found, in any part of the world, a growth so rapid in
prosperity and wealth that this colony exhibits? This prosperity is due to the imperial
markets given to her UK; if annexed by US and once estranged from the UKs power,
Canada would be re-annexed by France who Britain fought in the Seven Years War.
they would become slaves to the despot Napoleon who rules over Europe Indians lost
territory in US but were given new territory in Canada. Brock argued Should they trust
the American again in order to preserve their prosperity? (Sixth Lesson, 1867: pp 177-
192). During the War of 1812, according 1892 Robertsons Public School History of
England to Canada textbook, Americans attacked an inoffensive people. By their attack,
the Americans ruined their own commerce and glory; the Americans were beaten back
which greatly strengthened Canada (Robertson, 1892). Lawson also iterated the
divisiveness of the American states during the War of 1812 and the illiteracy of the
French-Canadians. At the turn of the 19th century, less than 10% of the Quebecois were
literate. This indicates that the French-Canadians, until British government instituted
public education, were mostly illiterate. According to Lawson, American settlers, always
expanding and with the help of American government troops, seized British trading forts
in Illinois Ohio Valley. Soon, these settlers and their government tried to seize Canada
during the War of 1812. However, many Americans and their state governments viewed
this war as unjust and hung their flags at half-mast (Lawson, 1906). George Brown, a
professor of History at the University of Toronto, in his school textbook, The Story of
Canada, adopted an analytic view to American naval battle successes during the War of
1812. Since American ships tended to be larger than British vessels, they generally
succeeded when battling British ships on a one-to-one basis; if American ships were
given a choice of battling multiple British vessels, they simply avoided battle.
Furthermore, Brown admitted that one of the reasons for the War of 1812 was that
American trade was strangled by the British blockage of Atlantic shipping routes during
the Napoleonic War (Brown, 1952).

One of the Canadian Grade Seven textbooks told of the binding influence that the War of
1812 had on the creation of a united Canada from the existing diverse groups of Canada:
The War of 1812, so treated as to show how and to what extent it served to
bind together the peoples, establishing one allegiance, notwithstanding
certain well-recognized race distinctions, introducing and making good use
of the romantic, dramatic, and biographic element as in the incidents of
Laura Secord, Tecumseh, Brock, and De Salaberry. (Jeffery, 1918).

Similarly, various textbooks related how the Loyalist ideal of gradual change in
government and of the British Empire was related to various events in past and present
history. Laut recognized that various defects in earlier government legislation led to the
Rebellion of 1837-8; however, these defects were remedied in subsequent legislation, as
part of a gradual improvement in government, as opposed to radical revolution.
Furthermore, Confederation was portrayed as a binding of various British colonies in the
Canada in the face of American expansionism and common needs.
granting of Representative Government by the Constitutional Act, the
defects of the Act leading to the Rebellion of 1837-1838, growth of
sentiment in favor of a confederation of all the British colonies promoted by
common political difficulties, needs of co-operation for military defence,
and the building up of trade (Laut: p 63)

Imperial references were part of these textbooks. George Grant, an ardent Loyalist and
principal of Queens University, wrote in a textbook that loyalty to the Dominion of
Canada involved seeking a common imperial citizenship with common responsibilities
and a common inheritance (van Brummeln, 1986: p 27; Berger, 1970: p 100). An 1872
Ontario grammar book contained the following reference, Canada is one of the brightest
gems in the British crown. A British Columbia history book devoted only half a page to
Canadas history. These textbooks emphasized Canadas roots in the British tradition.
These textbooks emphasized Prime Minister Sir John A. MacDonalds claim that
Canadas link with England would save it from tyranny. Schoolchildren were required to
memorize Sir Walter Scotts Love of Country which hailed love for England and not
Canada. In 1922, the British Empire still had emotional appeal. The poem, Children of
the Empire called everyone to answer the call of the Empire to save Britain. (van
Brummeln, 1986: p 26).

Wrong, a textbook author, related Canadas expansion and accomplishments to Canadas

relation to the British Empire: modern expansion and accomplishments relation to
commercial and industrial activity and to the stability of Empire. In the chapter,
Growth of Greater Britain subsequent to 1497, Wrongs sections are as follows:
Founding of East India Company settlement in Virginia, Capture of Jamaica,
Gibraltar, Union of England and Scotland, Struggles for Supremacy, War of Spanish
Succession, Seven Years War, resulting in acquisition of wide territories in India and
America, settlement of Australia, Union of Great Britain and Ireland, New Zealand,
Annexation of territories in South Africa, the Dominion of Canada, The
Commonwealth of Australia, The South African Confederacy, and Influence in
Egypt. (Laut: p 65)

Certain prescribed geography books praised both Britain and the British Empire. One
book, Public School Geography, stated that Britain was home to the great British Empire
and it was in Britain that commerce and civilization was advanced to its highest degree
(Public School Geography, 1925).

One of the most interesting examples of British imperialism, as taught through the
schools, comes from a pupil herself. In the 1923-24 South Calgary High School
yearbook, there was a section devoted to selected essays by pupils. Maudie Ferguson, a
current student, wrote in her essay, The Fall of the Monarchy, which told of the
consequences of various revolutions and WWI:
 the whole of the continent was ruled by kings who were either brave and
wise themselves or were guided by brave and wise advisors and in
consequence were implicitly trusted by a loyal peopleWhat has befallen
these happy monarchies? We find in their stead a land of few kings and
these ruling amid turmoil and discontent May years later another great
move was made against the autocracy, this time in England, and the
headquarters of the now great British Empire. The people of England in the
course of time gradually demanded a little more power and the monarchs
wisely gave in, while others were forced to give in (Ferguson, 1924: p 38)

Occasionally, an English textbook would be used in schools as part of a donation of a

British teacher or of a local donor. One such example, The Oxford Reading Books V,
differed from the Canadian readers in at least two respects. Firstly, any references to
Canada or Canadian history were absent. Secondly, the Oxford reader contained stories
of different parts of the British Empire, such as Forest Adventures set in Africa or The
Story of Sonny Sahib set in India, which were missing from their corresponding Canadian
readers (Frowde).

A study of history textbooks during the 19th century by Valerie Chancellor also indicates
a glorification of England and the British Empire in British textbooks. The advance of
British power and prestige after the Napoleonic wars, along with its increased
commercial and industrial strength, served to reinforce the idea that British were supreme
over other nations. The growth of the British Empire in Africa in the nineteenth century
seemed to aid this ideal of British superiority. (Chancellor, 1970: p 115) Furthermore, the
opinions of world events often reflected the viewpoints of the authors background
middle-class and English with the occasional Scot. Furthermore, constituent nations of
the UK, such as Ireland and Wales, were portrayed as needing the protection of England.
Some authors, such as Ross and Carter, described the Americans as malcontents who
obstinately refused to pay taxes while others admitted that the British conduct in
America was arbitrary and unjust. Similarly to Canadian Anglican Bishop Strachan,
who gave scant recognition to the British regular troops in defeating the American armies
in the War of 1812, British authors, such as those of the Jack Readers, give scant
attention to British allies, such as Blucher, in defeating Napoleon. (Chancellor, 1970: p
116-135)

Similarly, to Kiplings White Mans Burden, Americans, through their readers, viewed
themselves both as divinely blessed and as burdened with the need to enlighten Europe
and Asia with its ideals. Lindberg viewed this passage as one of the few clear
articulations in the McGuffey readers of Manifest Destiny, a belief in the inevitability
of the United States continued territorial expansion as part of the divine scheme which
became a slogan for expansionists from the mid-1840s until the Spanish-American War
(Lindberg, 1976: p 145). In the Duty of the American Orator by Grimke (1837), he
stated:
But American eloquence must likewise cultivate a fixed, unalterable
devotion to the union, a frank, generous, ardent attachment of section to
 section, of state to state; and in its citizen, liberal sentiments towards his
rulers, and cordial love for his countrymen. Nor is this all. Let the American
orator comprehend, and live up to grand conception, that the union is the
property of the world, no less than of ourselves; that it is part of the divine
scheme for the moral government of the earth, as the solar system is part of
the mechanism of the heavens; that it is destined, whilst traveling from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, like the ascending sun, to shed its glorious influence
backward on the states of Europe, and forward on the empires of Asia.
(Linderg, 1976: p 145)

It was not until the mid-1880s, students were given a systematic treatment of Canadian
history or geography (van Brummeln, 1986: pp 26-27). This change towards inclusion of
Canadian history or geography came about gradually. In 1907 Gammels Elementary
History of Canada, there was no separation of Canadian history from that of the UK.
However by 1921, references in the same textbook to the Union Jack and God Save the
King started to share space with the Canadian ensign and the Canadian Maple Leaf.
There was mention of Canada signing the Armistice that ended World War I as an
independent nation. The textbook explained that it was the British love of freedom that
allowed it to grant self-government to the defeated people of Quebec and South Africa
soon after they were conquered by Britain (van Brummeln, 1986: p 27)

Later Canadian textbooks would occasionally contain references to Canadian history,

events, or people. In Canadian Reader, Book III, there are poems such as Lullaby of an
Indian Chief or songs such as OCanada (Canadian Reader, Book III: p 7, 205). In the
same reader, there is the poem, The Ploughman, which, although universal, described
scenes that would be familiar to many Canadian readers. Yet even this poem contains the
phrase Are the furrows on the lea (Canadian Reader, Book III, 1927: p 19) whose
word, lea, would be unfamiliar to most Canadian readers. Another poem, The Orchard,
referred to orchards which would be unfamiliar to most Western Canadian readers
because orchards would be non-existent in their readers area (Canadian Reader, Book
III: p 225). Consequently, the rural countryside of England and their descriptive words
still are present in a Canadian reader, even though their context would be unfamiliar to
Canadian readers. Rather than focus on foreign parts of the British Empire, stories from
foreign lands in Canadian readers are often unnamed, as in the far East in Weighing an
Elephant (Canadian Reader, Book III: p 44), or on non-British Empire countries, such as
Japan in A Japanese Home (Canadian Reader, Book III: p 134). Ideas, such as references
to unyielding trust and obedience to authority rather than neglecting ones duty, is
reinforced in stories such as A Race with Time (Canadian Reader, Book III, p 260-263)
where a Canadians captain risky flight of his sinking ship to the nearest drydock is
unquestioned by his crew. Obedience to the law is stressed, in the essay The Laws of the
Land (Canadian Readers, Book V, 1927):
All the laws, however they came, whether they are old or new, are our
laws. They belong to all the people; they are for the sake of all of us, for the
poor even more, if possible than for the rich We vote for the laws; or we
vote for the men who make them; or we vote for the government that carries
out and enforces the law
This essay neglected to note the strong influence and control that vested Central
Canadian interests had in the federal government, which passed laws to benefit
themselves, at the expense of Western Canadians (Conway, 1994: pp 34-39). In these
textbooks, British-Canadian relations emphasized their imperial unity and progress;
Canadian-American relations emphasized disputes and problems with America being
portrayed as a self-centered and troublesome offshoot of the British Empire (van
Brummeln, 1986: pp 27-28).

A 1937 textbook contained some criticism of the British government as self-serving,

while admitting that their imperial preferences were beneficial to Canada. In order to
alleviate mass unemployment after the Napoleonic wars, immigration to Canada was
encouraged. British philanthropic societies gathered their poor together and transported
them to the colonies. Scottish crofters were expelled from their lands in favour of sheep;
many of these crofters came to Canada. Ambitious land companies from Britain brought
more settlers. Younger sons of well-to-do British families immigrated because they
believed that they could obtain an estate in Canada much more cheaply than in Britain.
Between 1831 and 1836, nearly 200 000 British immigrants arrived. These immigrants
both served to greatly expand the British-Canadian population and to dilute the existing
Loyalist gene pool. Imperial tariff preferences also helped Canada. Between 1821 and
1840, Canada paid 1/5 of the timber tariff that Baltic wood companies paid to export their
lumber to Britain. Consequently, by 1840 Canadian timber supplied of the UK timber
market. After the War of 1812, the price of wheat fell. In order to protect their own
farmers, the British government forbade the import of wheat, whether from colonies or
foreign companies, until the price rose until $2.50 per bushel. The British government
amended this requirement in 1825 such that Canadian wheat imports to Britain paid the
import duties that their foreign rivals paid. However, the British government discouraged
the development of Canadian manufacturing or the development of mining of the Cape
Breton coal beds, in Canada, in order to prevent competition with British manufactured
goods or coal (Morrison, 1937: pp 181-205)

A 1937 textbook for Alberta Grade 8 students, Our Empire and Its Neighbors, still
identified Britain as the centre of commerce and the British Empire but also contained
Western Canadian criticisms of Central Canadian dominance. This reader identified the
heart of the British Empire as London; London was viewed as being the centre upon
which the UK depends upon for its survival (McDougall, 1937: p 2-10). McDougall tries
to explain Britain through the textbook, A visit to the British Isles would be a never-to-
be-forgotten experience. As few of us will realize such an ambition, we must build up a
picture with the aid of books, pictures, lantern slides, and moving pictures (McDougall,
1937: p 9). The British Empire was broken up into race: 60% white (including Hindu),
20% Negroid, 6% Semitic, 6% Melanesian, and smaller populations of Mongloids and
Native-Americans. Then, too, the people of Britain, a northern race, are industrious and
energetic, and this fact, combined with their favorable situation, has made the British
Isles a world centre (McDougall, 1937: p 9-20). Although McDougall recognized that
the British Empire is a Protestant Empire, he also recognized that significant minorities of
religions and ethnic minorities existed within the British Empire, such as Latin-Rite
Catholics (French-Canadians, Irish), Greek-Orthodox Cyprians, and Byzantine-Rite
Ukrainian Catholics. Furthermore, there were many ethnic minorities within the British
Empire such as the Cape Dutch, French-Canadians, and the Ukrainian-Canadians.
Additionally, the form of colonial government varied from UK protectorates, limited
government (elected with nominated representatives) as in Bermuda, or full
representative government in Canada. (McDougall, 1937: pp 20-26). The British
government was responsible for educating their colonial people until such a time that
these people were ready for full representative government. India, however, is now at a
more advanced stage in government It is, in a sense, a case of an experienced power
acting as trustee for an inexperienced people until such time as the latter learn to govern
themselves (McDougall, 1937: p 26). McDougall identified the rise of manufacturing
capability in the colonies with the cry for protective tariffs. As manufacturing developed
in Canada, its citizens wanted profits from their domestic manufactures and,
consequently, they demanded wanted tariff protection against foreign, including British,
goods. Subsequently, Canada was the first of the British colonies to lay a protective tariff
for their domestic-manufactured goods. Canada wanted to sell where the price was best
(profit over patriotism as McDougall terms it) and there was no guarantee, even with
imperial tariffs, that the UK or other Commonwealth company could sell or buy all that it
wanted. Although, in 1897, the Canadian government instituted a preferential tariff for
UK manufactures; however, in the 1932, the Imperial Economic Conference was unable
to reach a consensus on lowering existing tariffs between Empire nations (McDougall,
1937: p 195). Criticism of these domestic tariffs and Eastern/Central Canadian control in
Western Canada is provided. The meat-packing industry and, until recently, the milling
and elevator companies of Ontario controlled the prices paid for Albertan meat, wheat,
and hides. Although Central Canadian manufactures enjoyed a protective tariff, Western
Canadian farmers were forced to buy domestically-manufactured farm equipment at a
high cost. Economic Imperialism of the East over West causes great discontent. Alberta,
with its small population, has few government representatives in the federal government
and the existing control of the federal government by the East can not be prevented by
Alberta (McDougall, 1937: p 236-237)

The Northwest (Western Canada) Programme of Studies for teachers dictated that its
teachers, throughout the grades (or standards as they were called then), use history to drill
morality into their pupils and focused exclusively on Central Canadian and English
history. The purpose of the history teacher was
Training of the moral judgement and preparation for intelligent citizenship
are important aims in teaching history. History should be associated with
geography and literature historical poems, etc (Programme, 1895: pp 34-
35)
In Standard II, the history lessons focused on the lives of distinguished men such as the
Cabots, Jacques Cartier, Champlain, Wolfe, Sir John MacDonald, and Sir Guy Carleton.
The aim of these biographies were the Discussion of the chief excellences and,
ultimately, to derive principles of conduct. Reading and reciting of patriotic poems
(Programme, 1895: pp 34- 35). In Standard III, history focused on English historical
figures such as Alfred, William I, Simon de Montfort, Elizabeth, Charles I, Pitt, Nelson,
and Victoria. The purpose was the discussion of their deeds to train moral judgement
and incidentally to teach patriotism and civic duty. Reading and reciting patriotic
selections (Programme, 1895: pp 34- 35). History of Canada, in Standard III, focused
not on any historical figures but themes such as discovery and exploration, struggle
between French and English Colonists, Treaty of Paris, Quebec and Constitution Act,
War of 1812, Rebellion of 1837, and the British North American Act (Programme, 1895:
pp 34- 35). What is interesting about the type of Canadian history taught was that despite
it being taught in Western Canada, it focused exclusively on Central Canadian history
with no references to Western Canadian history such as the Hudson Bay Company, Red
River Settlement, 1870 and 1885 Metis Uprisings, and the federal control of Western
Canada and its consequences (Programme, 1895: pp 34- 35).

A course on physical training for school was based on military training. Military drill was
stressed to Canadian students from Grade One.
The course includes class tactics, marching, elementary drill, free
gymnastics, kindergarten, games, figure marching with dance steps, dumb-
bell drill, wand drill, Indian club-drill, fire-drill stationary, apparatus work,
track and field athletic sports, basketball, hockey, and other league sports,
squad drill, skirmishing, rifle drill, and target practice. (Physical Training:
Scope of the Course : p 100).
Besides promoting grace of movement and to teach courtesy, the idea of this military
drill was to develop a capacity for corporate action by discipline and the practice of
prompt obedience. (Physical Training: Scope of the Course: p 100). A form of military
drill was always part of any public school Christmas concert during the 1930s and 1940s
(Millham, 2005). One possible reason for this stress for military drill was to instill within
the pupils the means for corporate action by discipline and the practice of prompt
obedience. Training: Scope of the Course: p 100) in case of any military war, whether in
the case of an American invasion (Orchard, 1993) or for supplying troops in imperialistic
adventures such as the Boer War as in the example of Strathconas Riders. Strathconas
Riders were a volunteer contigent of experienced cowboys within Western Canada,
recruited as calvary by Lord Strathcona, to battle their Boer counterparts (Page, 1987).

Western Canadian textbooks initially emphasized British history and ties between Canada
and the UK during the nineteenth century. During the latter half of the nineteenth and the
twentieth century, these textbooks began to contain more and more Canadian content.
Although most of this Canadian content focused on Central Canadian topics, Western
Canadian viewpoints gradually emerged during the 1930s as Western Canadian textbook
writers began to write their own textbooks to replace the commonly-used Ontario ones.

4.3 Decline of Imperialism

In 1889, after the establishment of union schools, secondary and normal schools were
established in Edmonton, Calgary, Medicine Hat, Lacombe, Moosimin, and Regina. In
1919, George McNally, principal of Camrose Normal School in Alberta, became the first
supervisor of schools and began to select textbooks for these schools. (Chalmers, 1967: p
187). Many normal school professors and teachers began to write textbooks for use in
their own provinces beginning in the 1930s (Bagnall, 1939; Millham, 2005). Normal
school professors Lewis and Toombs began to write their own history textbook series
(Millham, 2005). Gradually, universities supplanted normal schools for teacher training.
In 1911, the University of Alberta taught a philosophy of education course; in 1928, they
established a school of education which became a faculty in 1942. However, these
universities emphasized theory, not practicality, and their goal was to educate high school
(Grade 9-12) rather than elementary (Grade 1-8) teachers (Sheehan, 1986: p 199). In
1945, responsibility for training Alberta teachers was confined to the University of
Alberta only (Pilger, 2004).

Although other authors such as van Brummeln recognized, in their study of school
textbooks, a gradual increase in the Canadian content of these textbooks from the 1880s,
it was not until the 1930s that a Western Canadian view was provided by McDougall.
Although McDougall praised the British as an industrious race, he also recognized
Canadas policy of self-protective tariffs against British manufactured goods as a means
to develop domestic manufacturing. McDougall was one of the first textbook authors to
identify the Western Canadian economic and political discontent with federal government
policy: Economic Imperialism of the East over West causes great discontent. Alberta,
with its small population, has few government representatives in the federal government
and the existing control of the federal government by the East can not be prevent by
Alberta (McDougall, 1937: p 236-237)(van Brummeln, 1986) Bagnall, in her 1939
textbook, although she identified Canada as part of the British Commonwealth, critically
appraised both British (Irish Free State, high unemployment) and Canadian (American-
Canadian disputes, over-reliance on resource industries) problems. Furthermore, she
provided both a modern geo-political outlook of the world, through her discussion of
problems with Fascist Italy and Germany, and a future outlook for the British Empire,
which corresponded more to a league of independent nations rather than a series of
colonies governed by a British federal Parliament (Bagnall, 1939).

Other than the gradual supplanting of Ontario textbooks with locally-produced textbooks,
other factors were important in the reduction of imperialism within textbooks. Although
American expansionism often led to the brink of war with the latest occasion in 1895, in
the twentieth century, many years of peace and the establishment of commissions to
handle boundary disputes helped reduce the fear of American expansionism (Bagnall,
1939: p 150-151). Although immigrants initially often left the leadership of their schools
and government to English-speaking British-Canadians due to their lack of English
linguistic ability, by 1940 and onwards, there were enough English-speaking, well-
educated immigrant adults, who had learned English in school, to handle their schools
and government by themselves without British-Canadian leadership. Furthermore, the
need for army recruits and city factory workers during World War I caused many
immigrants children, once grown, to move outside their bloc settlements, where their
only previous knowledge of the outside world was through school, to experience a wider
world, and to critically appraise what they had been taught. The increasing wealth of the
settlements meant that many people moved away from bare survival to a more
international outlook, with a wider selection of reading materials (Millham, 2005). Others
noted that the increased wealth, travel experience, and literacy decreased imperialism
within schools. Although many schools wholeheartedly embraced war efforts with
schools forming schools for technical training of servicemen, imperialism within schools
declined greatly after World War II (McCall, 2004).

Chapter 5 Conclusion
Although imperialism within school textbooks had British influences, it had uniquely
Canadian causes as well. Some of the main factors for imperialistic propagation were the
fear of American expansion and the consequent need for British protection, the need for a
foil to French Canadian nationalism, a means to indoctrinate immigrant children to the
correct Canadian norms, and the commercial benefits to Canada of imperial tariffs.

Because clergy in French-Canadian Quebec played a strongly influential role in

education in their province, it was determined, by the controlling British-Canadian elite
in Western Canada, that education in this territory should be confined to English and that
this education should be based on British imperialism in order to prevent the immigrant
children from falling under the ideological sway either of the competing French clergy or
of the Americans.

The War of 1812 and the American Revolution were portrayed quite differently
according to the nationality of the readers origin. In Canadian readers, the American
Revolution was de-emphasized because it focused on the defeat of Loyalist ancestors
while the War of 1812 was hailed as a great victory over an American unprovoked attack
and was hailed as a unifying force for the Canadian people with the British Empire
against the United States. This Canadian portrayal of events was deemed necessary
because many of the people of Ontario were descendents of Loyalists and their
sympathetic Loyalist views were imprinted in Ontario textbooks by their Ontario authors.

In the study, within this thesis, of Western Canadian textbooks during the period 1860-
1940, it is noted that imperialism played a major role in its content. The degree and type
of the imperialistic content varied from textbook to textbook but it also varied by time
period. The amount of emphasis on British imperialistic connections decreased as
Canadian content took its place, the fear of American expansionism subsided, and the
role of Ontario British Canadians, and their stress on imperialism, declined, particularly
in Western Canada.
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