ECE 6151: Communication Theory, Lecture 6

Shengli Zhou
February 22, 2017

Outline

1. Performance analysis for M -ary PAM/PSK/QAM

2. Performance analysis for M -ary orthogonal signals

1 Performance analysis for M -ary signalling

1.1 Definitions needed
1
PM
Symbol energy: Es = M i=1 Ei
Bit energy:
Es
Eb =
log2 M
Signal to noise ratio: s := Es /N0 , b := Eb /N0
   
Es Es
= 10 log10
N0 dB N0

Symbol error rate (SER): Ps

M M  Z 
X 1 X
Ps = P (sm )P (sm 6= sm ) = 1 p(r|sm )dr
m=1
M m=1 Rm

Bit error rate (BER): Pb

1
Ps Pb Ps
log2 M

Gray mapping

Digit Binary Code Gray Code

0 000 000
1 001 001
2 010 011
3 011 010
4 100 110
5 101 111
6 110 101
7 111 100

1
 Rule
Binary code
[B(1)B(2)B(3)...B(n)]
.
Gary code
[G(1)G(2)G(3)...G(n)]
G(1) = B(1)
G(i) = xor(B(i), B(i 1)), i = 2, 3, .., N
Approximate BER based on SER expression
Ps
Pb
log2 M

2 Union bound
For quick evaluation

P (e|si ) = Pr(d2 (s1 , x) d2 (si , x), or,

d2 (s2 , x) d2 (si , x), or, ...
d2 (sM , x) d2 (si , x))
= Pr(j6=i Eij )

define Eij = x is close to sj than to si

now recall

P (A B) = P (A) + P (B) P (A B) P (A) + P (B)

So, we have
s
X d2min
P (e|si ) Pr(d2 (sj , x) d2 (si , x)) (M 1)Q
2N0
j6=i

The union bound s

d2min
P (e) (M 1)Q
2N0

Union bound Pbound = (M 1)Q( 2gs )

2
2.1 PAM
The waveforms

sm (t) = (2m 1 M )g(t) cos(2fc t), m = 1, . . . , M

The constellation
sm = (2m 1 M )d
sm
d

M=2, 2-PAM

sm
d

M=4, 4-PAM

R1 R2 RM

s1 s2 sM
d min

The performance
s
2(M 1) d2min
 
2(M 1) d
Ps = Q = Q
M M 2N0

The constellation-specific constant

M  2
1 X dmin 1
Es = (2m 1 M )2 = (M 2 1)d2min
M m=1 2 12

M M 1
1 X 1 X
(2m 1 M )2 = (2i + 1 M )2
M m=1 M i=0
"M 1 M 1 M 1
#
1 X 2 X X
2
= 4i + 4i(1 M ) + (1 M )
M i=0 i=0 i=0
 
1 M (M 1)(2M 1) M (M 1) 2
= 4 4(M 1) + M (M 1)
M 6 2
2(M 1)(2M 1) 3(M 1)(M 1)
=
3 3
M2 1
=
3

3
 d2min = 4gPAM Es
3
gPAM =
1 M2
r !
2(M 1) 2gPAM Es
Ps = Q
M N0

Reduces to BPAM when M = 2

note, not unexpectedly, that Ps increases as M does

2.2 QAM

The waveforms m = (i 1) M + j.

sm (t) = sij (t) = (2i 1 M )g(t) cos(2fc t) + (2j 1 M )g(t) sin(2fc t)

i, j = 1, 2, . . . , M

two basis functions

q q
1 (t) = 2/Eg cos(2fc t), 2 (t) = 2/Eg sin(2fc t)

sm1 =< sij (t), 1 (t) >= (2i 1 M )d

sm2 =< sij (t), 2 (t) >= (2j 1 M )d

Example, M = 4, M = 16

s1

R1 d min

4
 Performance of 16 QAM:
s s
4 d2 d 2
12 12
P (e) = 1 1 Q 1 Q
16 2N0 2N0
s s
4 2
d12 2
d12
+ 1 1 2Q 1 2Q
16 2N0 2N0
s s
8 2
d12 2
d12
+ 1 1 Q 1 2Q
16 2N0 2N0
s s
2
d12 9 2 d12 2
= 3Q Q
2N0 4 2N0

Another derivation:
s 2
2( M 1) d2
12
P (e) = 1 1 Q
M 2N0

The energy:

M M
1 XX d2 2(M 1) d2min
Es = [(2i 1 M )2 + (2j 1 M )2 ] min =
M i=1 j=1 4 3 4

3
d2min = 4gQAM Es , gQAM =
2(M 1)

The final symbol error rate

" r !#2
2( M 1) 2gQAM Es
P (e) = 1 1 Q
M N0

2.3 PSK
No closed-form expression in the book
Craigs derivation (1991): a smart move

5
 Rm Rm

(n1 , n2 ) shall fall into the decision region

p
Change coordinates: V = n21 + n22 , = tan1 nn12 .

n1 = V cos(), n2 = V sin()

V2
 
V
fV, (V, ) = exp 2
2 2 2
fV, (V, )dV d = fn1 ,n2 (n1 , n2 )dn1 dn2
   n1 n1      
dn1 V dV cos() V sin() dV
= n2 n2 =
dn2 V
d sin() V cos() d
dn1 dn2 = V dV d

D



d

R d
The law of sines: sin() = sin(+)

ZZ Z Z
P ((n1 , n2 ) D) = p(V, )dV d = d p(V, )d
D 0 R
Z
R2
 
1
= exp 2 d
2 0 2
Z
d2 sin2
 
1
= exp 2 d
2 0 2 sin2 ( + )

SER for PSK:

6
 Z /M Z
Ps = 2 pV, (V, )dV d
0 R
/M
sin2 (/M ) Es
Z  
1
= exp 2 d

0 sin ( + /M ) N0
1 (M 1)/M
Z  
gPSK s
= exp d
0 sin2

An important by-product (BPSKs performance)

1 /2 x2
Z  
Q(x) = exp d
0 2 sin2
Chernoff bound (1961) revisited
1 x2 /2
Q(x) e
2

2.4 General procedure for any two-dimensional constella-

tion
M
X
Ps = P (sm )P (e|sm )
m=1

Evaluate P (e|sm ) using Craigs approach. For example:

D1
D2
2 1
d2
1 d1
2
d3
3 4
3 D4
d4
4
D3
4 Z
1 X k d2 sin2 k
 
P (e|sm ) = exp k2 d
2 0 2 sin2 ( + k )
k=1

2.5 Summary on PAM, PSK, QAM

Notation: a finite-integral:
Z b  
1 x
(a, b, x) = exp 2 d (1)
a sin
Q(x) = (0, /2, x2 /2), Q2 (x) = (0, /4, x2 /2)

7
  
M 1
Ps,PAM = 2 (0, /2, gEs /N0 )
M
Ps,PSK = (0, (M 1)/M, gEs /N0 ) ,
 
square 1 1
Ps,QAM =4 (0, /4, gEs /N0 )
M M
 
1
+4 1 (/4, /2, gEs /N0 )
M
Constellation-specific constant

3
g= for M -PAM
1 M2

2
g = sin for M -PSK
M
3
g= for square M -QAM
2(M 1)

3 Approximate SER expressions

Modify the union bound to approximate SER
Nm : # of the nearest neighbors with dmin
M
X p
Ps P (sm )Nm Q( 2gs )
m=1

Textbook, Nm = 2 for PSK

In engineering
practice, numerically determine by comparing the true
Ps and Q( 2gs )
p
Ps Q( 2gs )
Examples: 8-PSK, and 16-QAM
0
10
Exact SER
alpha=1
alpha=2
alpha=3
1
10

2
10
SER

3
10

4
10

5
10

6
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Es/N0

8
 16QAM
0
10
True SER
alpha=1
alpha=3
alpha=6
1
10

2
10

SER
3
10

4
10

5
10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Es/N0

Self-exercise: find for your interested constellations

Fig. 4.3-2 for PAM, Fig. 4.3-5 for PSK, Fig. 4.3-8, SER for QAM

4 Probability of Error for M -ary Orthogonal Sig-

nals
Problem statement: Given a set of equal-probable orthogonal waveforms
{sm (t)}M
m=1 , with equal energy Es , find the optimal decoder and the cor-
responding probability of error.
s1): N = M basis functions: n (t) = 1 sn (t)
Es

r1  
N0
r := ... = sm + n ni N 0,

2
rM

s2): ML detector simplified to comparators

sm = arg min kr sm k2 = arg max sTm r

sm sm

sm = sm
, where m
= arg max rm
m

s3): Suppose s1 (t) is transmitted

p
r = [ Es + n1 , n2 , . . . , nM ]T
P (e|s1 ) = 1 P (c|s1 )
Higher dimension N > 2: geometrical approach no applicable
{r1 , r2 , . . . , rM } are Gaussian random variables

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 Z
P (c|s1 ) = P (n2 < r1 , . . . , nM < r1 |r1 )p(r1 )dr1

!M 1
Z Z r1 /
1 2
= ex /2
dx p(r1 )dr1
2
Z  Z y M 1
1 1 x2 /2
= e dx
2 2
q
(y 2E s 2
N0 )
exp dy
2

s4): We then reach the final answer

M
1 X
Ps = P (e|sm ) = 1 P (c|s1 )
M m=1
q
2Es 2
1
Z 
1
Z y
2
M 1 (y N0 )
Ps = 1 ex /2
dx exp dy
2 2 2

BER for M -ary orthogonal is found:

2k1
Pb = Ps , k = log2 (M )
2k 1
Approximate SER from modified union bound
p p
Ps (M 1)Q( 2gs ) = (M 1)Q( s ) = (M 1)Q( log2 M b )

Fig. 4.4-1, FSK

Performance limit: define k = log2 M

k
Pe < 2k ekb /2 = e 2 (b 2 ln 2)

Hence b > 2 ln 2 = 1.39 = 1.42 dB

Use tighter bounding techniques,
( k
e 2 (b 2 ln2) b > 4 ln 2
Pe
2ek( b ln 2) ln 2 b 4 ln 2

Hence b > ln 2 = 0.693 = 1.6 dB

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5 Comparison of Coherent Digital Modulation
Method
Resources: Power (Es /T ) and Bandwidth (W )

Performance measure: Rate (R) and BER (Ps )

Define Shannon Bandwidth as:

2W T = N

So we have  
R
= 2 log2 M
W PAM
 
R
= log2 M
W QAM
 
R 2 log2 M
=
W FSK M

Shannon Capacity result for AWGN

   
P R Eb
C = W log2 (1 + SNR) = W log2 1 + = log2 1+
N0 W W N0
 
C R Eb
= log2 1 +
W W N0

Let Rs = C, we have
Eb 2C/W 1
=
N0 C/W

if C/W 0

Eb 2C/W 1
= lim = ln 2 = 1.6dB
N0 C/W 0 C/W

A compact and meaningful comparison is based on the normalized date

rate R/W (bits per second per hertz of bandwidth) versus the SNR per
bit (E/N0 ) required to achieve a given error probability; see Figure 4.6-1

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 R
Band-limited region: W > 1; telephone, cellular
R
Power-limited region: W < 1; satellite, military

How far can we go in the tradeoff of power and bandwidth?

In 1948, Shannon pointed out the third resource: block length, and drew
the limit. It took the world about 50 years to reach this limit.

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Whiteboard pictures

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14
A note on PSD evaluation
HW3, problem 1 will be collected together with Project 1.
Some students do not introduce a random delay when programming. This
is what will happen. X
v(t) = In g(t nT )
n

Rv (t, t + ) = E[v(t + )v (t)]

Assume that {In } are i.i.d., we have
X
Rv (t, t + ) = I2 g(t + nT )g(t nT )
n

This is a periodic function. When evaluated at time t = 0, we have

X
Rv (0, ) = 2 g( nT )g(nT )
n

For a rectangular g(t) = Arect(t/T ), we have

Rv (0, ) = 2 g(0)g( ) = 2 Ag( ).

So the decay in the frequency domain is proportional to 1/f if you do not

introduce to estimate the PSD.

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