International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Heat transfer and hydraulic resistance of supercritical-pressure coolants. Part

I: Specics of thermophysical properties of supercritical pressure uids and
turbulent heat transfer under heating conditions in round tubes (state of the art)
V.A. Kurganov, Yu.A. Zeigarnik , I.V. Maslakova
Joint Institute for High Temperatures, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Izhorskaya 13, Moscow 125412, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The specics of the thermophysical properties of single-phase supercritical pressure (SCP) coolants and
Received 2 September 2011 the typical ranges of their thermodynamic state that determine the peculiarities of their turbulent heat
Received in revised form 8 December 2011 transfer are considered. An assessment of the effect that dissolved gases with low critical parameters
Accepted 16 January 2012
have on water and carbon dioxide properties is given. A brief analysis is presented of experimental stud-
Available online 22 March 2012
ies on heat transfer of turbulent ows of SCP uids in tubes when heating. Specic features of typical heat
transfer modes (normal, deteriorated, and improved) are pointed out. The existing concepts concerning
Keywords:
the nature of heat transfer deterioration are discussed. A simple classication of heat transfer regimes
Variable physical properties
Single-phase near-critical region of uid
under high heat loads is proposed, which makes it possible to determine the reasons for and assess
state parameters the degree of danger of heat transfer deterioration
Supercritical pressure 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Turbulent ow
Round tube
Normal heat transfer
Heat transfer deterioration
Thermal acceleration
Archimedes (buoyancy) forces
Thermoacoustic oscillations

1. Introduction immediately cooled by light SCP water and steam parameters

In the second half of the 20th century, the main direction in
world thermal power engineering was increasing the parameters
of live steam. This resulted in mastery of the supercritical pressure
(SCP) range at the end of 1950s and beginning of 1960s. At present,
SCP power units constitute the basis of the power industry in
developed countries. Now, the use of SCP steam (25 MPa, 540
560 C) provides a power unit net efciency of 4344%. As for the
efciency in using the energy from nuclear fuel, world nuclear
power engineering, which is based mainly on pressurized-water
reactors with a saturated steam pressure of 6.06.5 MPa upstream
of the turbine, lags far behind thermal power engineering. The best
Russian VVER units yield a net efciency of no more than 3033%,
with a much higher construction cost and the manufacturing
requirement of metal-intense equipment.
For these reasons, the problem of switching to SCPs is actively
being discussed in nuclear power engineering [13]. A single-cir-
cuit arrangement of nuclear power plants (NPPs) with reactors
Corresponding author. Tel.: +7 495 484 18 47; fax: +7 495 485 99 22.
E-mail address: zeigar@oivtran.ru (Yu.A. Zeigarnik).
upstream of the turbine of 25 MPa/540 C would make it possible
to increase electricity generation efciency up to the same level
typical of SCP thermal power plants. Meanwhile, due to the use
of heat from the pseudophase transition (1400 kJ/kg), it is possi-
ble to sharply reduce the water ow rate through the reactor (by
eight to ten times) and achieve a considerable gain in capital
expenditures by implementing serial equipment, which is used
and has been mastered well in thermal power engineering. We
cannot exclude the use of SCP water cooling in fast reactors, which
would fully unify NPP equipment.
However, the switch to SCP in nuclear power engineering re-
quires solutions to many complex problems [4]. As for those in
the thermophysical sense, one of the most important is the reliable
calculation of heat transfer of SCP water in a reactor core and
determination of the range of safe heat loads within which the
switch to the deteriorated heat transfer regime, which can lead
to reactor failure, is excluded.
Unfortunately, after the Chernobyl disaster and the upwelling
negative public opinion regarding the prospects of nuclear power
engineering, the interest in heat-transfer problems of SCP coolants
waned and corresponding scientic investigations were curtailed

0017-9310/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.01.031
3062 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075
Nomenclature
Cp specic heat at constant pressure, kJ/(kg K)
C 0p specic heat in an ideal gas state (p ? 0)
d = 2r0 inner diameter of tube, m
Eq = pb/(qCp) thermal expansion parameter
f 2 R 1 f R dR value of parameter f averaged over a tube cross
0
section
g acceleration of gravity, m/s2
3 2
Ga = gd /m Galileo number
Gr/q = gd3(1  qw/qb)/m/b2 Grashof number
h enthalpy, kJ/kg
hm enthalpy at the specic-heat maximum, kJ/kg
hm0, hm1 lower and upper boundaries of the pseudophase transi-
R R tion range, kJ/kg
Ib 2 0 qu2 R dR momentum ow rate, Pa
Ki = ni/nb thermal acceleration parameter
K g Grq =nb Re2b parameter of effect of Archimedes forces
Kig = Ki Kg effective parameter of vertical-ow acceleration
Kr = ng/n = 2Ga/(nRe2) potential parameter of effect of Archimedes
forces
L, ~L L=d dimensional, m, and dimensionless tube (channel)
length
l, l+ = lv/m
dimensional, m, and dimensionless mixing length
M molecular mass of substance
N molar concentration of gas admixture
Nu qw d=kt w  t b  Nusselt number
p pressure, Pa
pcr critical pressure, Pa
Pr Prandtl number
Prt = es/eq turbulent Prandtl number
q heat ow rate in radial direction, W/m2
q qw b=C p =qu thermal acceleration parameter
r, R = r/r0 dimensional, m, and dimensionless radial coordinate in
a round tube
Rl universal gas constant
Re qud=l Reynolds number
Sb Ib =qb u2b mass averaged momentum coefcient of ow
T (K), t (C) temperature
Tm(K), tm (C) specic-heat maximum temperature (at SCP)
to a considerable extent1. At present, we are seeing a certain revival
of studies in this eld. However, the content and results of new
experimental studies, which are of paramount importance for solv-
ing current mandatory problems, are presently at the level typical
of the 1960s1970s (naturally we, do not take into account the indis-
putable progress in designs found in publications). At best, experi-
mental studies on investigating regularities in hydrodynamics and
the turbulent transfer mechanism under the considerable effect of
such specic factors as thermal acceleration and buoyancy that
accompany heat transfer under SCP and form the origin of dangerous
deterioration of heat transfer, are merely under preparation or are
only just being planned. In our publications, we have constantly
emphasized that expansion of knowledge in this eld is quite neces-
sary for developing more reliable methods of theoretical design and
increasing the pitiful level of empiric correlations that generalize
experimental and calculation data.
At the rst glance it seems that intense studies of heat transfer
regularities that took place in different countries during 1960
1970s left a rich inheritance in published literature, which is fully
1
It is very probable that the disaster at Japans Fukushima NPP will lead to certain
additional changes in the development prospects of nuclear power engineering.
u and v longitudinal and transversal velocity components, m/s
ub q pu= qb mass averaged ow velocity in tube, m/s
v  sw =q dynamic velocity
V = 1/q specic volume
x; ~x x=d dimensional (m) and relative longitudinal coordinate
taken from onset of heating
y, Y dimensional (r  r0, m) and dimensionless (y/r0 = 1  R)
distance from wall
y+ = yv/m wall law coordinate
Greek symbols
a = qw/(tw  tb) heat transfer coefcient, W/(m2 K)
b thermal expansion coefcient of uid, 1/K
es, eq coefcients of turbulent transfer of momentum and
heat, m2/s
f = nb + ni hydraulic resistance coefcient
k heat conductivity of uid, W/(m K)
l dynamic viscosity coefcient, kg/(m s)
m = l/q kinematic viscosity coefcient, m2/s
n 8sw =qb u2b friction coefcient
2
ni 2dIb =d~x=qb ub inertial resistance coefcient of ow
2
ng 2gd=ub hydrostatic resistance coefcient
3
q R 1 uid density, kg/m
qu 2 0 quRdR uid averaged mass ow rate in a tube, kg/
(m2 s)
Pb q  =qb
uid density coefcient in a ow
s shear stress, Pa
Subscripts
in tube inlet
out tube outlet
b mass averaged value, physical properties at hb
n values under normal heat transfer condition
ult ultimate value
w wall, at wall temperature
0 reference value; at constant physical properties
l molar values
t turbulent ow
or almost fully sufcient for condently developing of new reactor
and NPP projects. Indeed, as early as 1974, in Protopopovs review
[5] we nd more than 350 references. In the rather new biblio-
graphic survey by Pioro and Duffey [6] published in 2007, 440
publications are referenced and considerable part of them were
analyzed in [5] and certain other reviews, which will be discussed
further. Careful analysis shows, however, that there are few works
in which studies have been conducted within the ranges of param-
eters and geometric characteristics of cooling channels typical of
future SCP reactors, i.e., small passage sections and large lengths
of the channels, rod bundles, etc. We should also bear in mind that
many old studies were carried out with relatively poorly devel-
oped and inadequate measurement devices with an antediluvian,
compared to the present state, computational basis, that could
not ensure a high quality of experiments. During the entire second
half of 20th century, intense investigations and renement of the
thermophysical properties of substances in the near critical range
of parameters took place. At the end of the century, even for such
thoroughly studied SCP coolants as water and carbon dioxide, the
necessity of considerably correcting standardized tabular data on
transfer properties, viscosity, and especially conductivity, was
revealed [79]. Meanwhile, the old experimental and calculated
data and empiric correlations for heat transfer under SCP that
 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075 3063

constitute almost 100% of the available reference material are

based on the old standards of properties. With the transition to
the new standard IAPWS-97 for water properties, the question
arises, whether many widely used empiric correlations will retain
their workability.
We should also recall that a large volume of experimental, cal-
culation, and theoretical studies of heat transfer at SCP has been
caused by the difculties and failures that occured in the rst
phase as SCP apparatuses were introduced in power engineering,
rocket building, and other advanced technology elds. As revealed
post facto, they stemmed from insufcient scientic exploration of
the new problem and imperfection in the scientic and methodo-
logical concepts of the problem at the time. Back then, Powells
experimental data were already known [10], obtained in the heat-
ing of SCP oxygen under parameters typical of rocket technologies.
These data showed the possibility of an extremely deep drop in
heat transfer coefcient values in the vicinity of tb = tm under large
Dt values. It is presently known that this is determined by the ef-
fect of thermal acceleration of the ow. However, at that time, such
a drop in the heat transfer coefcient was explained as a conse-
quence of the peculiar value and specic behavior of the kb =l0:8 b
complex of oxygen, as compared to those of water and CO2 [11].
Powells work did not provoke any anxiety concerning the possibil-
ity of heat transfer deterioration while operating with water and
CO2. Persuasive arguments were later obtained for the fact that
the main role in these phenomena is played by the change in uid
density over the tube cross section and along its length, rather than Fig. 1. Specic volume and dynamic viscosity coefcient of water (a) and steam (b)
the specic behavior of k, l, or even Cp. at different pressures and temperatures.
Thus very often it can be said even as a rule that the all the
existing knowledge appears insufcient for introducing new tech-
nical ideas without certain problems. Therefore, the long list of
works on heat transfer of SCP coolants should not make us assessing the boundaries of the normal heat transfer region,
overcondent that all of the main problems in this eld have been and enhancing heat transfer to prevent its deterioration.
solved to the proper extent and that there is no acute need to
regenerate large-scale experimental and theoretical studies in ad- 2. Specics of the behavior of thermophysical properties of
vance to create nuclear reactors with SCP uid cooling. coolants in the single-phase near-critical region: effect of gas
Teams of heat transfer specialists at Engineering Thermophys- admixtures on the properties of SCP carbon dioxide and water
ics Department of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MEI)
and then later at the Heat Transfer Department of the Institute for Figs. 14 show the typical behaviors of the thermophysical
High Temperatures of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IVTAN) properties of SCP uids with changes in temperature and enthal-
under the guidance of Prof. B.S. Petukhov, have always been py2. Presently, it is generally accepted to consider SCP uids as sin-
among the leaders in solving the problem of SCP heat transfer. gle-phase media with variable physical properties and correlate the
Petukhovs collaborators and students have conducted a great specics of SCP uid heat transfer just with peculiarities in the
deal of work on theoretically and experimentally studying heat behavior of the thermophysical properties of such a uid [16]. The
transfer regularities under SCP conditions and the specics of attempts of some authors to consider the region of maximum spe-
its internal mechanisms, generalizing experimental data, and cic heat capacity at SCP as a special kind of phase transition zone
developing practical calculation methods. Many of the results have not been sufciently substantiated [17]. Nevertheless, this zone
have not lost their importance and use for a new generation of is very often called the pseudophase transition region; this has cer-
researchers in this eld. tain sense, because on both sides of this zone, the dependences of
Our objective here is to present a systematized picture of the thermophysical properties on temperature and pressure are quite
main results of studies of heat-transfer regularities and the specif- different. This can be seen, for example, from Fig. 1, which shows
ics of the hydrodynamics of SCP uid ows under heating in chan- the values of the specic volume and dynamic viscosity coefcient
nels of a standard form (tubes). These studies were conducted at of water and steam in a wide range of temperatures and pressures.
different scientic centers and the results constitute the basis of To the left of the critical isotherm (Fig. 1a), the dependence of the
the current knowledge on the heat transfer mechanism at SCP. thermophysical properties of an SCP uid remains qualitatively the
We assume that a compact representation of these data, as well same as that for dropletlike uids at subcritical pressures (liquid
as the main results of their application in the thermohydraulic phase); i.e., the specic volume, as well as specic heat and heat con-
design, will be useful for competent planning and comprehensive ductivity, change slightly with temperature and almost do not de-
arranging of new-generation studies for new elds of SCP coolant pend on pressure, while viscosity and, correspondingly, the Prandtl
application. number considerably decrease with temperature. To the right of
The large volume of the material made it necessary to separate the critical isotherm, at a certain distance from it, the pattern of
the paper into three parts, the rst of which is presented below. In
the second part, we consider the results of hydraulic and ow- 2
In SCP uid ow and heat transfer, changes in pressure are most often small as
sounding studies, and in the third part, we discuss certain practical compared to the absolute value and do not considerably affect the properties of a
problems, such as methods of calculating normal and deteriorated uid. Therefore, as a rule, pressure is considered only as a parameter of the
heat transfer using new standards for uid heat conductivity, temperature (enthalpy) dependence of uid properties.
3064 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075
Fig. 2. Parameter of thermal expansion (a) and some thermophysical properties at
p = 24.5 MPa (b) of water as a function of enthalpy according to [1214].
Fig. 3. Some thermophysical properties of carbon dioxide as a function of enthalpy
[15].
changes in SCP uid properties qualitatively corresponds to that of
gases with variable properties, when an increase in the l and k val-
ues with temperature and constancy or a slight growth in Cp are ob-
served, while the density is nearly proportional to the pressure and
inverse temperature 1/T. The Prandtl number is on the order of unity
and slightly depends on temperature and pressure. We also can see
these trends in Fig. 3, where the data for CO2 with subcritical and
supercritical pressures are presented.
When the passage through the region of the specic-heat max-
imum occurs, we observe a considerable change in such an impor-
tant parameter as the relative work of expansion Eq = (pdV/
dq)p = pb/(qCp), which is performed by a substance in the course
of thermal expansion against external pressure forces (see Figs.
2a and 3a). At t  tm, the values of Eq are small and have an order
of magnitude of 102, which is typical of dropletlike liquids, while
to the right of tm, Eq increases to rather high values of 0.20.4,
which are characteristic of gases. In this connection, we propose
using Eq to determine the boundaries of the pseudophase transi-
tion region. Beyond these boundaries, we can consider an SCP uid
as a certain analog of a dropletlike liquid3 or as a gas with variable
physical properties. It is clear from Figs. 2a and 3a that it is expedient
to make such a denition using the dependence of Eq on enthalpy h.
In so doing, the region of the pseudoliquid state (I) can be deter-
mined from the condition Eq 6 0.020.03. We designate the lower
boundary of the pseudophase transition region (II), which corre-
sponds to this condition, as hm0. Then, the values of hm0 will be as
follows: for water, hm0  1500 kJ/kg, and for CO2, 500 kJ/kg3.
It is expedient to designate the upper boundary of the pseudo-
phase transition region, from which SCP uid can be considered as
a gas (region III), as hm1, the value of enthalpy at which Eq reaches
the level E0q Rl =C 0pl typical of a particular substance in an ideal
gas state. For water, hm1  28003000 kJ/kg (2900 kJ/kg, on aver-
age), and that for CO2, 750800 kJ/kg (780 kJ/kg). Note that the dif-
ference hm1  hm0, which is 1400 kJ/kg, for water and 280 kJ/kg
for CO2, corresponds to the heat of evaporation of water at
p  8.5 MPa and that of CO2 at p  1.97 MPa (in both cases p/
pcr  0.27). This gives additional grounds to call the range
hm0 < h < hm1 the pseudophase transition region and to apply the
customary thermal-engineering terminology to characterize the
stages of SCP-ow heating, i.e., economizer-type heating (hb < hm0),
steam generation (hm0 6 hb 6 hm1), and steam superheating
(hb > hm1).
In cases when the temperature parameters of the heat transfer
process (tb and tw) at SCP do not fall beyond the boundaries of the
regions of the liquid (I) and gaseous (III) states, we should antici-
pate that the hydraulic-resistance and heat-transfer characteristics
will satisfy the regularities obtained for viscous liquids or gases
with variable physical properties. This has been conrmed by
numerous experimental data. The specic features of SCP heat
transfer manifest themselves in cases when the temperature range
within which the process takes place fully or partially falls in the
pseudophase transition region (II).
While studying hydrodynamic and heat transfer processes of
SCP coolants experimentally, especially if we are dealing with the
pseudophase transition region, it is of great importance to be able
to quite accurately determine the thermophysical properties of the
studied uid. This primarily concerns the thermodynamic
parameters of a state. Such a possibility depends on the availability
of sufciently accurate and detailed tables of the properties of
a substance, as well as on properly arranging of primary
measurements, which account for the specics of the near-critical
region.
3
The enthalpies of water and carbon dioxide are taken according to the
corresponding tables in [14] and [15].
 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075
Fig. 4. Heat conductivity coefcient (a) and Prandtl number (b) for SCP CO2 in the region of the pseudophase transition.
Presently, there are few substances, for which rather detailed
and reliable data on thermophysical properties in the near-critical
region are available. Water and carbon dioxide have been investi-
gated better than other uids. Recently, the near-critical region of
helium was rather intensely explored. For water and pure carbon
dioxide (99.9% CO2 or more) mutually consistent tables of the ther-
modynamic and caloric parameters of state have been elaborated
[14,15]. These tables are based on the vast experimental material
on p-V-T data, as well as those on enthalpy and specic heat.
Transport properties (l and k) in the near-critical region remain
insufciently studied, even for water and CO2. Recently, the data
on viscosity and heat conductivity of water and steam were con-
siderably rened (see [7,8]). Since 1997, the new standard on the
thermophysical properties of water IAWPS-97 (briey IF-97) has
been in force. All calculations for industrial equipment must use
IF-97 data [14]. The new tables on the heat conductivity of water
have constructed with allowance for the existence of peak k values
in the pseudophase transition region, which were recognized in
many experiments (Fig. 2). The region of elevated k values encom-
passes a rather large interval of pressures and enthalpies. As is
clear from Fig. 2, the presence of k peaks considerably changes
the value of the Prandtl number in the vicinity of tm. In the range
of p/pcr from 1.02 to 1.12, the decrease in the Pr(tm) value is by a
factor of 2.51.9; in the range of p/pcr from 1.2 to 1.35, by
1.51.35.
It is easy to obtain, with the use of the known McAdams for-
mula [18], for example, that such changes in the Prandtl number
lead to a considerable increase in the calculated heat transfer coef-
cients, in the vicinity of tm, by a factor of 1.751.18. The conse-
quences of these changes in the standard tabular thermophysical
properties on heat transfer calculations will be discussed in detail
in the third part of the paper.
Analysis of the experimental data on the heat conductivity of
CO2 conducted in [15] also shows the presence of k peaks in the
pseudocritical region. For CO2, however, the discrepancy in the
experimental k values in these peaks is very large. Because of this,
the interpolating equation for heat conductivity of CO2, which was
used in constructing the tables [15], does not allow for the pres-
ence of k peaks in the near-critical region. Proceeding from the
well-acknowledged experimental data, the authors of [9], which
was published later than [15], consider the presence of peaks on
k(t) isobars doubtless and propose coordinating correlations to
introduce proper corrections to the canonic heat conductivity val-
3065
ues of SCP CO2. Fig. 4a shows the k(t) values calculated with the use
of correlations from [9] and [15] at p = 7.7 and 9.0 MPa (p/pcr = 1.05
and 1.23, respectively). It is clear that allowance for the excesses in
k at pressures close to critical also considerably changes the com-
monly used Prandtl number values in the vicinity of tm, Fig. 4b. For
example, with p/pcr = 1.05, the Prandtl number decreases by a fac-
tor of 1.8, and with p/pcr = 1.23, by 15%.
When the hydraulic resistance coefcients and velocity elds
are determined experimentally by measuring the distribution of
static and dynamic pressures in the ow, it is necessary to exactly
know the uid density under the conditions of the experiment. In
this connection, we have always paid special attention to the prob-
lem of determining the actual state and density of an SCP uid at
temperatures corresponding to the pseudophase transition region.
We consider this problem as it relates to carbon dioxide, which
was used in our experiments as the working substance. Naturally,
the main conclusions are applicable to the other SCP uids.
If the state of the uid is determined from the measured ow
temperature t and pressure p, the density of the uid is found using
the thermal state equation (or p-V-T tables). For brevity, we call
this method thermal. Since the p-V-T data in reference handbook
[15] correspond to a pure substance, we shall introduce a certain
error in determining q(p, t) for a substance containing some
amount of admixtures:
 T   !
dq 1 @V 1 X V li
b1 dt dp  1 Ni ; 1
q V 1 @p T i
V l1
where dt and dp are the errors in measuring the temperature and
pressure, respectively; V li and Ni (Ni ? 0) are the partial molar vol-
umes and molar concentrations of different admixtures. Subscript 1
denotes a pure substance. For CO2, the usual admixtures are water,
oil, and dissolved air. To remove air is the most difcult; therefore,
air is the most dangerous as regards the effect on CO2 properties in
the near-critical region. Unfortunately, air is often present in a
noticeable amount in the CO2 used. With p ? pcr and t  tm, the val-
ues of b1 and (oV1/op)t become abnormally large. Therefore, with the
measurement errors of dT = 0.20.3 K and dp 0.03 MPa, typical of
laboratory studies, the error in determining the value of q can be
signicant even in the case of a very pure substance if the working
pressure is too close to critical. As it is known [19], partial molar
volume of the dissolved substance tends to innity, while
approaching a critical point of the pure solvent (by any way).
3066 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075

Therefore, with p ? pcr, the third term in the right side of Eq. (1) can For a Van der Waals gas
be very high even with a small content of the air admixture. For the
above reasons, reliable determination of the density and other aii 27=64Rl T cri 2 =pcri ; bii Rl T cri =8pcri ; i 1; 2 7
properties of CO2 in the near-critical region by the thermal method
2
can be accomplished only at pressures not too close to critical, with pcr amix =27bmix ; V lcr 3bmix ;
obligatory monitoring of the air admixture and allowance for the Rl T cr 8amix =27Rbmix : 8
admixture effect on the uid properties. Recently, in experimental
works on SCP CO2 heat transfer, it became a good practice to indi- After the values of a11, b11, a22, and b22 have been calculated with
cate the data on the purity of the working uid. Judging from the the use of correlations (7) and reference data from [22] on the crit-
very good gures presented, these data are the manufacturers ical parameters of pure components, we can obtain from (8) for the
certicate, which does not guarantee the required purity of CO2 in mixture CO2N2 with N ? 0
the experimental rig circuit, because there are many small possi- pcr =pcr1 1  0:754N=1  0:069N2 1  0:616N;
bilities of the air components to enter the working uid (contam- 9
T cr =T cr1 1  0:754N=1  0:069N 1  0:685N:
inated cylinders, negligent washing of the test rig, the use of a
pressurizer (gas compensator of the volume) with a free gas-CO2 From the above, the correlations between the corresponding
contact surface, etc., in the rig circuit). Thus, the working uid pur- parameters of state (3) of the pure CO2 and the mixture CO2N2
ity must be constantly monitored directly in the course of experi- follow:
ments. A very simple way to measure gas content in SCP CO2 is
p1 p=1  0:616N and T 1 T=1  0:685N: 10
by passing some amount of CO2 through an alkali solution of a
known mass and catching the gas residue bubbles in the measuring Since with N 6 2% the molecular masses of the mixture and pure
receiver (microburet). By calculating (according to Avogadros law) CO2 are almost the same, we obtain from (2)
the amount of gas moles and determining the amount of CO2 moles,
qp; T; N q1 p1 ; T 1 : 11
dissolved in the alkali (from the overweight of the solution), one can
easily calculate the molar concentration of the gas admixture. With small N 6 0.02 (2%), the other similarity correlations (2) can
Unfortunately, we did not encounter any information in the litera- be also transformed and simplied in such a manner, so that to
ture regarding admixture monitoring. obtain nearly accurate solutions to them, one must know only the
To determine the actual properties of the binary CO2air mix- properties of pure CO2.
ture (from here on, we shall consider the dissolved air to be nitro- As is clear from Figs. 2 and 3, the dependence of the thermo-
gen, whose solubility in CO2 is higher than that of oxygen). A physical properties on the enthalpy is not as sharp as that on tem-
special method based on the principle of corresponding states perature. Therefore, if it is possible, in determining the mass-
[20] was developed and successfully mastered. averaged properties of the ow in the vicinity of Tm, it is expedient
To calculate the properties of the CO2N2 mixture from the ta- to apply the calorimetric method of determining the uid state. In
bles and equations for pure carbon dioxide, the following known this case, pressure and enthalpy are considered as the state param-
correlations of thermodynamic similarity are used: eters, with the latter being determined from the heat balance,
V l p; T; N=V l;cr V l1 p1 ; T 1 =V lcr1 ; X
h h0 p0 ; T 0 Dh h0 p0 ; T 0 Q =G; 12
C pl p; T; N  C 0pl T; N C pl1 p1 ; T 1  C 0pl1 T 1 ;
0 0
hl p; T; N  hl T; N hl1 p1 ; T 1  hl1 T 1
; 2
Rl T cr Rl T cr1
lx; s l1 x1 ; s1 ;
kx; s k1 x1 ; s1 ;
where Rl is the gas constant; subscript l denotes molar quantities;
superscript 0 denotes the parameters in the perfect-gas state; sub-
script 1 denotes the properties of the pure solvent (CO2); p and T are
the actual (measured) parameters of state of the mixture; and p1
and T1 are the corresponding parameters of the pure CO2 deter-
mined from the following similarity conditions:
p p=pcr p1 p1=pcr1 ; s T=T cr s1 T1=T cr1 ;
3
1=x V l =V lcr 1=x1 V l1 =V lcr1
The critical parameters of the mixture, pcr, Tcr, and Vlcr, were deter-
mined from the Van der Waals equation for binary mixtures [21]:
pV l Rl T=1  bmix =V l  amix =V l ; 4

where

amix a11 1  N2 2a12 N1  N a22 N2 ;

5
bmix b11 1  N2 2b12 N1  N b22 N2 ;
a11 and b11 are the Van der Waals constants for the solvent (CO2),
a22 and b22 are the same constants for the admixture (N2),
1=3 1=3
a12 a11  a22 1=2 ; b12 b11 b22 =23 6
Fig. 5. Changes in dependences q(t) and q(h/1) (solid lines) and t(h/1) (dashed
and N is the molar concentration of the admixture. lines) in the presence of an air (nitrogen) admixture in CO2.
 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075
Fig. 6. Specic heat of CO2N2 mixture according to data in [23] in comparison to calculations by the thermodynamic similarity method (a) and estimate of the specic heat
of the H2OO2 solution at p = 24.5 MPa as a function of temperature and oxygen concentration (b).
where p0 and T0 are some reference parameters beyond the region
of the pseudophase transition (T0  Tm, h0  hm), G is the uid ow
P
rate, and Q is the total heat supplied to the uid at the length
from the reference state to that under consideration. It is supposed,
naturally, that the values of G and Q are measured with sufciently
high accuracy.
From Eqs. (2) with N 6 0.02, within the range of 300 6 T 6
800 K, for the corresponding enthalpy of the pure CO2, we can ob-
tain the following correlation:
h1 p1 ; T 1 h01 p01 ; T 01 Dh1  0:364N=1  0:685N; 13
where p1, T1 and p01, T01 are related to the observed mixture param-
eters p, T and p0, T0 by similarity correlations (10). From the corre-
sponding parameters p1 and h1 using the tables of properties of pure
CO2 and similarity correlations (2)(10), the temperature and other
thermophysical properties of the CO2N2 mixture are determined.
The cofactor at Dh in (13) slightly differs from unity, and it can often
be neglected.
The effect of the air admixture on the carbon dioxide density is
shown in Fig. 5. The data in the gure have been obtained using the
above technique. It is clear from the gure that the air admixture
produces such a strong effect on the dependence q (p, T) that it ap-
pears impossible to reliably determine the CO2 density using the
thermal method without measuring and accounting for the admix-
ture content. At the same time, the air admixture hardly affects the
dependence q (p, h1), where h1 is the corresponding enthalpy of
pure CO2. This emphasizes the advantages of the calorimetric meth-
od of determining the SCP uid state in the vicinity of Tm. We
should also note (see the dashed lines in Fig. 5) that the air admix-
ture signicantly affects the correlation h1(t); it noticeably (by sev-
eral degrees) decreases the temperature of the specic heat
maximum (at a given pressure).
From Fig. 6a we see that, within the accuracy of calculations, the
thermodynamic similarity method gives results that qualitatively
and quantitatively match the experimental data [23]. The consid-
ered method of determining CO2 properties with the presence of
an air admixture made it possible to considerably increase the
accuracy of the thermal and especially hydraulic and sounding
measurements and to ensure receipt of reproducible and internally
consistent experimental data on the structure of a turbulent SCP
CO2 ow under conditions of intense heating.
In the considered case of small nitrogen concentrations at
pressures that are not very close to pcr, the CO2N2 solution delib-
3067
erately remains in the single-phase supercritical region of the
state. However, with considerable concentrations of N2 (about 4%
or more), already at p/pcr  1.05 and a temperature less than
approximately 20 C, the solution converts into the subcritical
state [24]. In this case, we observe the changes not only in uid
properties but in the heat transfer mechanism as well, which ac-
quires a clearly seen two-phase pattern (it complies with the
heat transfer regularities in a two-phase liquidvapor mixture).
The consequences of such a transformation can be very trouble-
some (see below).
In nuclear reactors cooled by SCP water, radiolysis of water mol-
ecules is a source of the dissolved gases. This process is especially
intense at h < h/m, that is, in the zone of the most high rate of nu-
clear reaction [4]. The products of radiolysis, in particular, oxygen
and hydrogen, readily dissolve in SCP water and should cause cor-
responding changes in its thermophysical properties.
It follows from the assessments in [25,26] that the solubility of
H2 and O2 in region I in Fig. 2 at a pressure of approximately
25 MPa can reach 1013 ncm3/g, which corresponds to a molar
concentration of 0.81%. At such a concentration, a gas admixture
already considerably affects the thermodynamic parameters of an
SCP solution. The application of thermodynamic similarity correla-
tions (2)(8) to an H2OO2 solution at small oxygen concentrations
(N < 0.02), at which the solution deliberately retains the supercrit-
ical state, gives the following approximate correlations (here, as
above, p, t, q, etc., are the observed parameters of the state of the
solution, while the subscript 1 denotes the corresponding parame-
ters of the state and properties of pure water, which comply with
the reference data from handbooks:
p1 p=1  1:38N and T 1 T=1  1:02N;
qp; T; N q1 p1 ; T 1 1 0:78N=1 0; 36N; 14
x qp; T; N=qcr q1 p1 ; T 1 =qcr1 ;
where qcr1 = 322 kg/m3 [14]. The caloric properties can be
determined by the following formulas:
C p p; T; N C p1;T 1 =1 0:78N;
15
h1 p1 ; T 1 h01 p01 ; T 01 1 1:8NDh;
where p01 and T01 are certain reference parameters far from the
P
pseudocritical temperature; Dh = Q/G is the change in uid en-
thalpy while being heated from the reference state to that being
considered. It is assumed that the value of Dh is measured with a
high accuracy.
3068 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075
The values of Cp(t, N) and q(t, N), q(h1, N) and t(h1, N) calculated
using the above correlations at p = 24.5 MPa (p/pcr1 = 1.1) and
N = 0; 0.005; and 0.012 are presented in Fig. 6b and Fig. 7. As in
the case of the CO2N2 solution, the presence of a gas admixture
hm1). It is difcult to
leads to a considerable shift in Cp maxima toward lower tempera-
tures and to a decrease in the Cp value in the maximum. Fig. 7a
shows that with the thermal method of determining the uid state,
i.e., from the measured p and t, the actual values of density q(p, t, N)
can differ considerably from the reference values q1(p, t) of pure
water. We see that the measurement of and allowance for the
gas admixture are needed here also. At the same time, from
Fig. 7b we see that with the caloric method of determining the
mass-averaged state of the SCP uid ow with the use of (15),
qb  q1(h1b), and when this happens, with deliberately low N, we
can assume in (15) h1b  h01(p0, T0) + Dhb. However, in this case
as well, it is necessary to know concentration N to determine the
mass-averaged temperature of the ow.
As in the case of the CO2N2 mixture, with an increase in pres-
sure the effect of gas admixture on thermophysical properties of
SCP water becomes smaller.
Unfortunately, presently, we do not know of any data on the
phase equilibrium in H2OO2H2 solutions. Therefore, now, we
can say nothing about the danger of accumulating a large amount
of dissolved gases (about several molar percents), which can con-
vert water at h < hm into the subcritical state with corresponding
negative subsequences for heat transfer. However, as the above
estimates show, even with moderate concentrations of gas admix-
tures, considerable distortion of the h(t) and q(t) dependences can
cause certain difculties in determining the location of the pseudo-
phase transition region proceeding from the data of temperature
measurements. Therefore, studying the radiolysis of SCP water
and its consequences must be included into the list of serious prob-
lems that must be solved to ensure the development of SCP nuclear
power engineering.
3. Experimental data on regularities of turbulent heat transfer
in tubes under SCP conditions
It was pointed out in the Introduction that by now, a large
amount of experimental works on heat transfer to near-critical
pressure coolants in tubes and channels have been conducted.
Reviews of many of these works can be found in [5,6,16,2735].
Water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia,
and different kinds of hydrocarbons have been studied. In the last
decades of 20th century, heat transfer to SCP helium was
Fig. 7. Dependence q(t) of density of H2OO2 solution on temperature (a) and dependences q(h/1) and t(h/1), where h/1 is the corresponding enthalpy of pure water (b) at
p = 24.5 MPa (p/pcr = 1.1) and different oxygen concentrations.
intensively investigated. We should note that regarding a change
in the state of a substance, a once-through power unit with water
as a working uid operates within a very wide range of enthalpies,
from 200300 (h  hm0) to 3500 kJ/kg (h
simulate such a large range of enthalpies using other SCP coolants.
For example, at room temperature (20 C), the enthalpy h of carbon
dioxide is already higher than hm0; therefore, this substance is
suitable for simulating heat transfer only in the pseudophase tran-
sition and gaseous regions. To simulate heat transfer in the
pseudoliquid region and in the vicinity of Tm, refrigerants can be
applied.
These investigations have revealed the extraordinary complex-
ity of the regularities of SCP heat transfer as compared with the
classical ideas concerning turbulent heat transfer in tubes. In
[16,27], preliminarily sorting of heat transfer regimes under SCP
uid heating was accomplished. According to this classication,
depending on the heat load and thermodynamic state of a uid,
three typical modes of heat transfer can occur: the normal, deteri-
orated, and improved.
Analysis of the experimental data and the results of calculation
and theoretical studies shows that regularities of the normal heat
transfer of SCP coolants correspond qualitatively to the existing
ideas on turbulent heat transfer in tubes with constant or slightly
variable physical properties of a uid. In particular, under condi-
tions of normal heat transfer and the boundary conditions
qw = const, which are most often achieved in experiments, with
any hin we observe monotonic change in the wall temperature
along the tube length, which is common for linear heat transfer
problems. At a fairly small distance from the tube inlet (x/d > 20
40) stabilization of heat transfer intensity is observed (it is better
to say heat transfer regularization, in analogy with the processes
of nonsteady heat conductance). In the zone of stabilized heat
transfer, it (as well as the wall temperature) depends only on local
parameters of the process and hardly at all depends on the temper-
ature (enthalpy) of the uid at the inlet of a tube and the geometric
characteristics of the inlet. In tw(hb) coordinates, with identical qw,
d, and qu, stabilized values of the wall temperature are described
by a single monotonic curve, irrespective of hin (see curves with
qw 6 300 kW/m2 in Fig. 8 and curve 1 in Fig. 9). The effect of a start-
ing section remains qualitatively the same as in the case of con-
stant uid properties, i.e., within 1520 gages of the tube we see
a relative decrease in heat transfer rate, which is caused by the for-
mation of the temperature eld in the liquid ow [39]. The degree
of the inuence of the type of boundary condition (a change in the
qw value along the tube length, in particular) and of the wall
 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075
Fig. 8. Wall-temperature regimes under SCP water heating in a tube 3.9 mm in diameter (p = 24.5 MPa) [36,37].
Fig. 9. Wall-temperature regime under SCP CO2 heating in a tube 8 mm in diameter
[38].
Tm, Nub /Nu0b  1; in this case we have a considerable de-
roughness apparently remains within the limits typical of devel-
oped turbulent ows.
Meanwhile, the effect of variable physical properties of the SCP
uid on the local characteristics of normal heat transfer can be very
signicant and the values of heat transfer coefcients a and the
Nusselt numbers can differ considerably from those determined
by the correlations obtained for constant physical properties of a
uid, by approximately a factor of 1.5 to 0.2. As the analysis of
the experimental data for water, CO2, and helium has shown
(including those from the Lowenberg tables of normal wall tem-
peratures under SCP water heating in vertical tubes [40]), the dif-
ferences between the Nub and Nu0b numbers are especially high
in the pseudophase transition region. When this happens, the ratio
of these numbers can be both lower and higher than unity. The Nub
/Nu0b ratio is greater than unity at Tb < Tm and Tw  Tm, that is, un-
der the conditions of an increased heat capacity of the uid in the
3069
Fig. 10. Temperature difference as a function of heat load in a smooth tube and in a
tube with spiral inserts [42].
wall layer as compared to that in the ow core. With Tb  Tm and
Tw
crease in the density and specic heat capacity in the wall layer
of the ow.
The normal heat transfer regimes to the greatest extent meet
the requirements of reliable and safe operation of SCP heat-ex-
change apparatuses. However, the existence region of such regimes
is limited to relatively low heat loads qw =qu. At high heat loads, the
regularities of heat transfer of SCP coolants become considerably
more complex; certain phenomena appear that are unfavorable
for heating surfaces. Heat transfer deterioration [41] is among these
phenomena. It manifests itself as a sharp reduction in the heat
transfer coefcient at certain, more often limited, sections of a
tube. Under the boundary condition qw = const, at these sections,
typical maxima (peaks) of the wall temperature tw appear, which
are clearly seen in Figs. 8 and 9. In the zone of the tw maximum,
signicant superheating of the wall can occur, which is dangerous
to the wall strength. It is unfavorable that signicant deterioration
3070 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075

of heat transfer can arise following a comparatively small increase

in the heat load qw =qu, from several tens to several units percents
(see curve 1 in Fig. 10). Therefore, determining the reasons and
conditions, at which the transition to the regime of deteriorated
heat transfer occurs, as well as the development of the methods
of heat-transfer enhancement, are among the most acute problems
of heat transfer to SCP coolants.
Numerous studies of heat transfer deterioration under heating
of different SCP uids made it possible to stipulate that, depending
on the tube diameter, mass ow rate, and inlet enthalpy of the
coolant, nonmonotonic distribution of the wall temperature under
heating of the tube according to the qw const law can originate
near the tube inlet (so-called inlet peaks of Tw), as well as in
the range of the ow enthalpies hb, which correspond to the
pseudophase transition region.
Inlet peaks of Tw were observed in tubes of different diameter
(from 5.7 to 32.2 mm) under an upward uid ow in the range
of moderate mass ow rates (approximately 2001000 kg/(m2 s)
for water and CO2) [37,4354]. The collection of inlet peaks ob-
tained by Shitsman [43] is shown in Fig. 11, as it was presented
in [35]. These peaks are most typical for tubes of comparatively
Fig. 11. Inlet peaks of wall temperature under upward ow of SCP water in vertical
large diameter (about 1632.2 mm). In such tubes, inlet peaks of
heated tube [43].
Tw are usually located at the section of 0 6 x/d 6 3050 (initial
thermal section). Inlet peaks were recognized at different values
of liquid enthalpy at the tube inlet, up to hm and more [53]4; they
were also observed during heating of SCP water [45,55,56]. At SCP,
the wall temperature in the inlet peak can be both higher and lower
than Tm. As a rule, downstream of the zone of the inlet maximum of
Tw, the section of increased or normal heat transfer was observed.
This was especially the case if hin  hm.
In very long tubes with hb > hm0 along with the inlet peak of Tw
secondary deterioration of heat transfer takes place. With an
increase in the inlet enthalpy, these two regions of deteriorated
heat transfer draw together and a typical wall-temperature distri-
bution with two Tw maximums along the tube length is formed
(sometimes, the number of temperature peaks can be even
greater).
In downward and horizontal ows under the same conditions
as in upward ows, inlet peaks of Tw, as a rule, are not observed.
Comparison of the heat transfer rate under different uid ow
directions in the eld of gravity shows that the wall-temperature
inlet peaks originate as a result of the considerable effect of buoy-
ancy forces on turbulent ow in the region of the initial thermal
section. Evolution of the wall temperature at the initial section of
tubes with large diameters with increasing heat ow rate (all other
conditions being equal) can have a complex nature depending on
the qu and hin values. Typically, with an increase in qw, the Tw peak
shifts to the tube inlet. At small mass ow rates of about 200 kg/
(m2 s), the inlet peak of Tw can degenerate with an increase in
the heat ow rate; thus, at comparatively high qw, the wall-tem-
perature distribution can become monotonic again, like at small
heat ow rates [49,53].
Heat transfer deterioration at ow enthalpies hb corresponding
to the pseudophase transition region is most typical of SCP cool-
ants. As numerous experimental data have shown [3638,53,57],
et al. (see also reviews [2735]), this kind of heat transfer deterio-
ration can occur in tubes of different diameters. At rather high mass
ow rates (of about 1500 kg/ (m2 s) or more for CO2 and H2O) in Fig. 12. Heat transfer (a) and hydraulic resistance (b) under upward ow of SCP CO2
tubes of small diameter (up to 10 mm), an increase in the heat in heated tube 8 mm in diameter [38].
ow rate leads to local heat transfer deterioration regardless of
the ow direction in the eld of gravity (Fig. 9). In this case, the ef-
fect of Archimedes forces is secondary. Nevertheless, it can cause a considerable difference in local heat transfer under upward and
downward ows, as well as a large temperature maldistribution
4
Heat transfer deterioration under heating of low-temperature gases also develops
over the circumference in a horizontal tube, as well as a change
from the channel inlet similarly to the cases of inlet temperature peaks, although the in the location, height, and conguration of the wall-temperature
physical nature of these peaks is most often quite different [54]. peak under equal heating conditions. This kind of heat transfer
 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075
deterioration occurs at inlet enthalpies hin that are both lower or
higher than hm (see Fig. 9). Hydraulic measurements, which will
be considered in detail in the second part of our paper, have shown
that, in deteriorated heat transfer regimes like that under consider-
ation, the drop in pressure Dpi due to ow acceleration is consid-
erably higher than the friction resistance Dpn; that is, the ow is
signicantly gradient in nature in contrast to normal heat transfer
regimes (Fig. 12).
At moderate mass ow rates (200 < qu < 1000 kg/(m2 s), for
water and CO2) with the ow enthalpies hb corresponding to the
region of the pseudophase transition, heat transfer considerably
depends on the orientation of the ow in the eld of gravity. As
the experiments show, with an increase in the heat ow rate, the
greatest danger of heat transfer deterioration exists in the upward
ow. Fig. 8 shows that, under the same heating conditions, strong
peaks of Tw are observed in the upward ow (Fig. 8a), while in the
downward ow, the wall temperature distribution remains mono-
tonic (Fig. 8b); when this happens, local heat transfer coefcients
differ by several times. At low values of the uid inlet enthalpy
(hin  hm), in long tubes with a rather large diameter with an up-
ward ow, two wall-temperature peaks can be observed, that is,
the inlet peak and that in the region of the pseudophase transition
[44,48]. With an increase in hin, these regions of heat transfer dete-
rioration are brought together and, as a result, we can observe a
wall-temperature distribution with two (sometimes even with
more than two) Tw peaks, which follow immediately one after an-
other [43,53] (see also [30,58]). Such a picture is typical of CO2, be-
cause, as a rule, in this case hin P hm0.
In horizontal and inclined tubes with moderate mass ow rates,
heat transfer in the region of high heat loads qw =qu demonstrates
some specic features, which are due to the presence of secondary
free-convective ows and steady density distribution near the
upper generatrix (see [5962]). In particular, the region of deterio-
rated heat transfer is localized near the upper generatrix of the
tube, while near the lower generatix, rather a high level of the heat
transfer rate is retained. The temperature difference between the
upper and lower generatrices can reach 200 K for CO2 and H2O.
The general feature of deteriorated heat transfer is the strong
dependence of the local heat transfer on the previous history of
the process. As a result, the Tw(hb) curves corresponding to differ-
ent hin (all other conditions being equal) have an individual pattern
and coincide with one another only at hb  hm1or more. This is one
of the main sources of difculties that arise in generalizing the
experimental data on deteriorated heat transfer. Nevertheless, in
the cases of water and, possibly, refrigerants [63], we can point
out a certain regularity in heat transfer deterioration in certain en-
thalpy regions within the range hm0 < hb < hm regardless of the va-
lue of the inlet enthalpy, if a uid is heated from the tube section
with hin  hm0; that is, the tube has an economizer (heating) sec-
tion of considerable length. This regularity is apparently explained
by the fact that in these cases, a ow enters the vapor-generation
section with approximately the same internal hydrodynamic struc-
ture because, in the heating zone, tw < tm and the scale of variation
of density and other physical properties over the tube cross section
and length is relatively small.
In studying turbulent heat transfer deterioration at SCP, it was
recognized that the ultimate heat load value below which the cri-
teria of normal heat transfer and qualitative description of the
deterioration process are retained strongly depends on certain
additional factors that do not affect normal heat transfer. Among
them are the conditions at the tube inlet, wall roughness, and
existence of forced pressure oscillations (ow rate) due to pump
operation. In [64], articial damping of pressure oscillations down-
stream of the pump under water heating in a rising tube yielded a
sharp change in the temperature regime of the wall tube at the
same regime parameters and led to the well seen heat transfer
3071
deterioration. As the experimental data [65] on heat transfer under
heating SCP CO2 in a smooth tube have shown (d = 6 mm,
qu 1180  2350kg=m2 s , in a circuit with a gear-type pump,
pressure oscillations yielded an increase in the heat ow rates in
the deteriorated heat transfer regimes (at a wall-temperature level
similar to experiments [38,66]) and a shift in the tw maximum to
the region hb > hm.
The data in [65] also showed that the wall roughness results in a
noticeable lag in the transition to the deteriorated heat transfer
regime and makes it possible to increase the allowable level of heat
loads by 1520%. However, with further increment in the heat
load, heat transfer deterioration, nevertheless, occurred and the
wall temperature increased even more sharply and to a greater va-
lue. Thus, the uncontrolled roughness of the commercial-grade
smooth tubes used in the most researchers tests without addi-
tional treatment could be a source of considerable discrepancy in
the experimental data on deteriorated heat transfer. In the scarce
cases when the tube hydraulic resistance was preliminarily mea-
sured under adiabatic conditions, most often the considerable
inuence of the wall roughness on hydraulic resistance was recog-
nized in the same range of Reynolds numbers, within which the
abnormal heat transfer data were subsequently obtained.
In the case of water, deposition of dissolved salts on the heated
wall, as well as fouling of the wall by foreign particles, can signif-
icantly affect heat transfer deterioration. Water chemistry of the
coolant can considerably change the conditions and the pattern
of heat transfer deterioration and induce instability in the wall
temperature over time [6769].
These circumstances should be taken into account when com-
paring the quantitative data on deteriorated heat transfer available
in the literature.
As it was pointed out in Section 2, if due to some reasons an SCP
uid is contaminated by dissolved gases, then at high concentra-
tions of the latter, which convert the solution into a subcritical
state, a gas admixture can provoke a sharp heat transfer deteriora-
tion (as compared to the heat transfer level in the supercritical re-
gion), which resembles heat transfer crisis under subcooled liquid
boiling. Corresponding experimental data for a CO2N2 mixture
with a nitrogen concentration from 0.5 to 4.0 mol% can be found
in [70].
During the transition to the deteriorated heat transfer regime,
in a heated tube excitation of a self-oscillating process is often ob-
served. Practically all referenced studies contain such information.
The appearance of acoustic instability in the ow, which often
leads to the development of resonance thermoacoustic oscillations
(TAOs) of pressure in tubes at a natural frequency and overtones, is
also a feature of heating of turbulent SCP uids ows in tubes,
especially of small diameter, with hb < hm0. The span of pressure
oscillations in the antinodes of standing waves can be very high
(up to 50% of the absolute pressure) and is dangerous for the tube
strength (see review in [71]). Strong TAOs contribute to heat trans-
fer enhancement [72]. Due to this, these were called regimes of en-
hanced heat transfer [16] or heat transfer with pseudoboiling.
Experiments conducted by different researchers showed that that
the necessary conditions of TAO development are the existence
of the turbulent mode of the ow, considerable subcooling of the
uid relative to Tm, and a level of heat ow rates measuring
Tw > Tm; that is, there are ultimate changes in density and other
properties of the uid in the wall layer. Experiments [73] recog-
nized the existence of both the lower and upper boundaries of
the acoustic instability in regard to the heat ow rate. Attempts
to develop theoretical models for this phenomenon and the corre-
sponding bibliography can be found in [72,74].
TAO development was repeatedly observed in tests by different
authors on deteriorated heat transfer in steam-generating tubes,
including those in [53] (CO2, p = 7.7 and 9 MPa, tin = 20 C). In a
3072 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075

tube 8 mm in diameter, TAO appeared at qu = 1000 and 1350 kg/ effects of Archimedes forces, which will be analyzed in the third
(m2 s) with the transition to the deteriorated heat transfer regime. part of our paper.
Frequencies of f 50 and 350 Hz with an amplitude of up to 0.5 MPa At that time, calculation and experimental works appeared
were observed. When this happened, the distribution of static [76,77] that demonstrated that in deteriorated heat transfer re-
pressures along the tube length took the specic form shown in gimes, complete rearrangement of the averaged ow takes place,
Fig. 13. As hout approached hm1, acoustic oscillations ceased. No sig- with the velocity prole becoming M-shaped. Heat transfer deteri-
nicant effect of these oscillations on heat transfer was recognized. oration develops at the phase of velocity prole rearrangement
Only in a tube 22.7 mm in diameter, did TAO considerably improve when the zone with very small values of product st(ou/oy) appears,
heat transfer in the inlet peak region of the wall temperature. which is responsible of the gradient generation of turbulent en-
ergy, that is, a certain barrier layer formes in the ow. We now ob-
tain an estimate depicting the above ideas.
4. On the nature and classication of deteriorated heat transfer According to the Prandtl and Boussinesq hypotheses, the fol-
regimes lowing correlations exist:
   
es  @u 2 @u @u
Naturally, the accumulation of experimental data on deterio- sl 1 l 1l   : 16
m @y @y @y
rated heat transfer was accompanied by attempts to explain the
nature of this phenomenon. Initially, it was suggested that the rea- If we exclude the velocity gradient from these coupled correlations,
son for turbulent heat transfer deterioration in the ow is the we obtain the expression for the turbulent momentum transfer
localization of the Tm region in certain zones of the ow, which coefcient:
can cause certain difculties in transferring heat through the zone q

with elevated values of b and Cp. Specic generalized variables es =m 1 4js=sw jl 2  1 2: 17
were proposed for this case by Goldman in 1954 and Shlykov in
1971. However, local analysis of the problem based on the above From here it follows that a decrease in shear stresses in the wall
concept appeared to be unsuccessful. region of the ow also promotes a reduction in turbulent transfer
In 19731975, Polyakov [75] suggested that, in nonisothermal and heat transfer. Hall and Jackson [30] showed that the factors
uid ows with variable properties, turbulent heat transfer that determine these trends are thermal acceleration of the
changes due to the action of mass forces induced by thermal accel- heated ow (if we are dealing with an SCP uid or gas) and, in
eration of the ow (this effect is typical of SCP media and gases) vertical tubes, lifting Archimedes forces (buoyancy forces). In-
and Archimedes forces originated due to a nonuniform density dis- deed, in this case, the pressure gradient that provides uid mo-
tribution over the ow cross section. It was assumed that these tion is determined not only by friction resistance, as is the case
forces immediately act on the intensity of turbulent transfer. The with constant properties of a uid (hydrostatic pressure here
correlation q0 u0 in the equation of the turbulent energy balance, plays a passive role), but by additional dynamic factors that ap-
in the term q0 u0 g u@u=@x, was considered an agent of this pear due to density changes over the tube cross section and along
effect, which can, as was supposed in [75], considerably change its length:
the local parameters of turbulent transfer, uid ow, and heat
dp dIb
transfer; this happens prior to the distortion of the averaged ow  4sw  gdq
: 18
d~x d~x
according to the equation of motion. On this basis, in [75],
estimates were obtained for the boundaries of the effect of mass From here on, a plus sign in the gravitation term relates to an up-
forces on friction and heat transfer in tubes and expressions were ward ow, and a minus sign, to a downward ow. Explaining
presented for specic criteria of thermal acceleration and the Ib Sb qu2 =qb , we can obtain dIb =d~x ni qb u2b , where
 
qw b dSb dSb
ni 8Sb 2 8Sb qb 2 19
qu C p b d~x d~x
is the coefcient of inertial ow resistance. As is seen from (19), in
the inertial resistance of nonisothermal SCP ows, the momentum
coefcient Sb and its changes along the tube length play an active
role. Due to these reasons, actual ni values can considerably differ
from mass-averaged estimates (in the second part of the paper,
these questions will be considered in detail).
The solution to the equation of motion of an axisymmetric ver-
tical ow,

@u @u dp 1 @
qu qv  r s  qg ;
@x @r dx r @r
in the wall region (R ? 1), where convective terms can be ne-
glected, will be as follows:
 " #
s  n Grq
R  21  R i  2C ; 20
sw R!1 nb nb Re2b

where C is the averaged value of the ratio 1  q=q =1  qw =qb in

the interval from R to 1. According to the roughest estimate, C  0.5.
Then we obtain the asymptotic formula
s=sw jR!1 R  2YK i  K g R  2YK ig : 21
Fig. 13. Typical distribution of static pressure in deteriorated heat transfer regimes
in the presence of thermoacoustic oscillations according to [38].
 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075 3073

Table 1
Approximate classication of deteriorated heat transfer regimes under mixed convection of SCP uids in vertical heated tubes.

Group Character of wall-temperature regime in vertical heated tubes under SCP conditions in the region of (ng/n)in References
considerable effect of buoyancy forces and thermal acceleration at qw const.
1 Weak symptoms of the inlet peak of tw at a section of x/d < 20 under upward ow, which disappear with 800 and [45], [49], [52], [53]
further increase in heat load. Monotonic change in tw under downward ow. In both cases a considerable more
decrease in heat transfer coefcients at hb P hm. Stabilization of heat transfer at a far distance from the tube
inlet (x/d > 2030)
2 Inlet peaks of tw under upward ow, which appear in the region of the initial thermal section (x/d<20) and shift 800  120 [4547], [49], [50], [52], [53]
to the very inlet with an increase in qw. In the lower half of this range, the regimes in which the second, more
extended region of heat transfer deterioration is formed in addition to the inlet peak of tw. Heat transfer
stabilization occurs beyond the above regions. Monotonic distribution of tw and heat transfer stabilization
under downward ow
3 Inlet peaks of tw beyond the boundaries of the initial thermal section (x/d < 20) under upward ow, which shift 120  25 [37,41], [43,44], [4648], [50],
to the tube inlet with an increase in qw. The second (or more) peak(s) of tw, which are more eroded over the [52], [53], [64] [70]
length, often follows the rst. At tube sections of considerable length, heat transfer depends on the inlet
enthalpy. Under downward ow and other conditions being equal, monotonic distribution of the wall
temperature and heat transfer stabilization are observed
4 Wall-temperature peaks (of considerable length along the tube). At hin < hm0, these peaks occur at the 25  4 [37], [39,41], [43], [53,57], [64],
beginning of the region of the pseudophase transition < hb < hm); at hin > hm0 the peaks often develop from the [66], [77]
tube inlet intself, similarly to the inlet peaks. A considerable dependence of heat transfer on the inlet enthalpy,
especially in the second case. Under downward ow there is no heat transfer deterioration or the deterioration
is weak
5 A wide region of heat transfer deterioration with a maximum of tw developed in the vicinity of hb = hm at 4  0.5 [37], [38,53], [57], [66],
hin < hm or from the tube inlet itself at hin P hm regardless of the ow direction in the eld of gravity. A
considerable effect of the ow direction on the heat load value, which corresponds to the beginning of heat
transfer deterioration, as well as on the local heat transfer in the region of its deterioration. Dependence of
heat transfer on the inlet liquid enthalpy, which increases at hin > hm0
6 The same. Gradual degeneration of the effect of ow direction on deteriorated heat transfer 0.5 and [38], [57]
less

The smaller the ratio Kg/Ki, the closer Formula (21) to reality. Anal-
ysis of the results of hydraulic and sounding measurements (see
part 2 of the paper) showed that in normal heat transfer regimes,
the shear-stress prole satises the following condition:

s=sw n > s=sw lim 1  3Y: 22

From the presented correlations it is clear that with Kig

1 in
accordance with (21) and (17), we can anticipate radical changes
in the shear-stress proles and in the values of the turbulent trans-
fer coefcient, which can lead to heat transfer deterioration.
The experimental data on heat transfer in vertical heated tubes
under SCP conditions in the literature, which were partially consid-
ered above, show that the general behavior of the wall temperature
at the boundary condition qw const and rather high heat loads
qw =qu, which are beyond the limits of the region of normal heat
transfer5, depends on the parameter
   
ng 2Ga 2gd
K r0 ; 23
n in nRe2 in nin u2in
which species the potential scale of the buoyancy effect on the
dynamics of a uid in the wall layer. The Table 1 presents the re-
sults of analyzing these literature data, which, as a rule, pertain to
the developed turbulent ow at the inlet to the heated section of
a tube. Six typical groups of deteriorated heat transfer regimes are
distinguished. Fig. 14 schematically shows the behavior of the wall Fig. 14. Schematic presentation of heat transfer in vertical tubes at qw const and
temperature in different groups of regimes at qw const and high high heat loads depending on the scale of Archimedes forces. Solid lines, upward
ow (dashed-dotted line, possible version); dotted lines, downward ow.
heat loads. It is supposed that the tubes are sufciently long (L/
d  100 or more). Proceeding from the parameters of a specic
regime, using Fig. 14 and Table 1, we can formulate a preliminary
parameter Kr0 = (nbg/nb)in for different groups of regimes, which
notion on an anticipated wall temperature pattern, to sort out suit-
were specied from the experimental data, form a straight line
able literature data, and obtain the necessary quantitative informa-
with equidistant nodes in logarithmic coordinates. This allows
tion from it. It has been recognized that the boundary values of
determining the number of the group Ngr into which the regime
under consideration falls with using the simple formula
5
Problems in determining the boundaries of the normal heat transfer region will
be discussed in detail in the part 3 of the paper together with the other questions of a Ngr
in 5:625  0:54243 ln K r0 : 24
practical description of heat transfer of SCP uids. Here, we should only point out that
the boundary values of heat load qw =qu depend on specic conditions of the It is expedient to perform calculations with an accuracy of up to a
process and can change in a rather wide range. decimal place. An increase in Ngr points to a reduction in the effect
3074 V.A. Kurganov et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 30613075
Fig. 15. Value of the buoyancy effect parameter in different groups of heat transfer
regimes in table and Fig. 14.
of Archimedes forces and an increase in the inuence of thermal
acceleration. In very long tubes, in which the thermodynamic state
of the uid considerably changes, the heat transfer regime can pass
into another group in accordance with the local values of parameter
K rx ng =nb 2GanRe2 b 2gd=nb u2b .
It is also possible to conditionally introduce buoyancy effect
parameter Fg, the value of which will give an idea on the relative
role of this effect on the heat transfer pattern. If we suppose that
an equal effect of buoyancy and thermal acceleration takes place
at the boundary between the third and fourth groups and take into
account that in the regimes of the rst and second groups Fg ? 1,
while in the regimes of the fth and the sixth groups, where ther-
mal acceleration prevails, Fg ? 0, the following simple expression
for buoyancy effect parameter Fg can be obtained:
F g0 1=1 20=K r0 2 : 25
Formula (25) can be useful in developing correlations for forecast-
ing deteriorated heat transfer. A graphical interpretation of correla-
tions (24) and (25) is presented in Fig. 15.
5. Conclusions
1. Recent data on the specics of the behavior of thermophysical
properties of SCP uids are presented. It is advisable to divide
the entire region of possible states of SCP uids into three typ-
ical zones. These zones are as follows: the pseudoliquid state;
pseudophase transition, which encompasses the maximum spe-
cic heat temperature tm; and pseudogas (superheated vapor)
state. To determine the boundaries of these zones, we propose
using the Eq = pb/(qCp) parameter, which characterizes the spe-
cic work of uid expansion per unit of heat assimilated. It is
emphasized that new standards of thermophysical properties
of substances contain sharp changes in the k (t) and Pr(t) depen-
dences for SCP water and CO2, which must be taken into
account, when using the knows correlations and constructing
new formulas. The effect that small admixtures of dissolved
gases have on the q(t) and t(h) dependences and other proper-
ties of SCP water and CO2 is considered.
2. It is shown that the reason for heat transfer deterioration of SCP
uids in heated tubes is weakening of turbulent transfer in the
wall region caused by a decrease in shear stress due to the effect
of thermal acceleration and (in vertical tubes) Archimedes
forces (buoyancy). This concept, in principle, is in agreement
with Hall and Jacksons ideas.
3. The results of experimental studies of heat transfer regularities
under heating of SCP uids in tubes with qw = const are consid-
ered. The existing data base on deteriorated heat transfer was
classied (for the case of high heat loads qw =qu) using parame-
ter Kr = ng/n, which characterizes the scale of the effect of
Archimedes (buoyancy) forces on turbulent ow and heat
transfer. Six representative groups were distinguished with
respect to this parameter, and the corresponding typical modes
of the wall-temperature behavior within these groups were
described.
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