Circulation Theory of Propellers

1. Modern theoretical methods of propeller design are

based upon the vortex theory first enunciated by F. W.
Lanchester
2. Consider the type of streamline flow shown

r = radius vector drawn from O to any point in the field

v = velocity at any point, which is everywhere normal to
radius vector
3. An inner streamline of radius r can be considered as
o

representing the wall of a cylinder whose axis is normal

to the plane of the flow and around which the fluid
circulates.
4. When the radius is very small, we have what is known
as a vortex tube or filament
5. Vortex filaments in ideal fluids have interesting
properties, among which may be mentioned that any
given vortex filament is permanently composed of the
same fluid particles and that it cannot terminate abruptly
 in the interior of the fluid but must either return on itself
or terminate on the boundary of the fluid region.
6. If the cylinder is placed in a uniform stream in such an
ideal fluid, but without any such circulation flow, the
streamlines will be symmetrical and no force will be
exerted upon the cylinder.
7. If now a circulation flow is imposed around the cylinder,
the flow pattern becomes asymmetrical.
8. At the point E the velocity parallel to the flow axis is
V o+ v while at F it is V ov
9. This asymmetry of velocity distribution gives rise to a
similar asymmetry in pressure distribution, the pressure
at F being greater than that at E.
10. As a result, a force is exerted on the cylinder at right
angles to the direction of the uniform stream flow.
11. The production of such a force on a rotating cylinder
in a stream is called the Magnus effect
Mathematical concept of circulation
1. A and B be two points connected by any plane curve,
and let be a vector at the point P on the curve which
makes the angle with the direction of the line element
ds .
2. Then the line integral between A and B is defined by the
expression

3. In the special case when the vector denotes a

velocity and the integration is performed around a closed
curve,
= cos ds

the line integral is called the circulation

4. This type of flow has the peculiarity that when a closed
curve is drawn in the field and the line integral along this
closed curve is evaluated, the circulation is zero when the
 curve does not surround the origin O, but has the
constant value 2 c when the curve surrounds the origin.
5. Consider the two points A and B which are connected by
any curve whatsoever.

6. By definition, the line integral along the curve is

7. In order to evaluate this integral, we replace the chosen
curve by a stepped line consisting of short radial lines
and circular arcs.
8. The integration along the radial lines contributes
nothing to the final value, since the line element and the
velocity vector are normal to each other, and
consequently cos ( ) is zero.
9. The integration along the circular arcs, however, yields
a definite value, since in this case cos ( ) is unity.
10. Reasoning in this manner, we find for the value of
the integral along the arbitrarily chosen curve
 where o is the angle included between the radii through A
and B.
11. The + sign applies when the integration is made in
one direction, the sign when made in the reverse
direction.
12. It appears from this equation that the value of the
line integral is independent of the path and depends only
on the end points.
13. It follows therefore that if we integrate from A to B
along an arbitrary path such as ACB and then integrate in
the reverse direction along any other path not
 surrounding the origin, such as BDA, the value of the
integral around the closed loop ACBDA will be zero.
14. But if we integrate around a closed curve
surrounding the origin 'O', so that the angle o has the
value 2 the line integral around the loop, or the
circulation, will have the value 2 c .

15. The transverse force L acting on the cylinder with

circulation in a uniform flow is given by
 Kutta-Joukowski Equation
16. Great generalizations of mechanics, since it applies
to all bodies regardless of their shape, the shape factor
being contained in the circulation factor
17. By the aid of this equation the mathematical
discussion of propeller action is greatly simplified,
because we do not have to consider the shape of the
propeller blades until the very end, in the meantime
 regarding them merely as vortex filaments or lifting lines
endowed with circulation.
18. These lifting lines are regarded as having finite
lengths, corresponding to the lengths of the blades, not
terminating abruptly at the tips, however, but having
continuations, so-called tip vortices, at the free ends.
19. Such continuations do exist at the tips of airplane
wings and at the tips and roots of propeller blades, as is
readily shown by wind-tunnel or water-tunnel
experiments.
20. The lift produced by an aircraft wing or a propeller
blade is the result of an increased pressure on the face
and a decreased pressure on the back.
21. Since the fluid follows the pressure gradient, it tends
to spill over the free ends from the face to the back,
creating powerful vortices downstream, the axes of which
are practically at right angles to the axis of the wing or
blade, and which form the boundaries of the fluid layer
which has been in contact with the blade.
22. The simpler case of an aircraft wing in flight through
still air is illustrated. The equivalent bound vortex in this
case travels in a straight line at right angles to its axis.
23. If the circulation of this bound vortex is assumed to
be constant along its length, we have the simple system
in which AA is the bound vortex and AB the free tip
vortices already mentioned. This simple system is a
useful concept and helps us to visualize the
phenomenon, but does not express adequately the actual
flow conditions around the wing.
24. In reality the lift of the wing decreases from a
maximum value at midspan to zero at the ends, and so
the circulation around the wing must vary likewise.
25. Assuming that the circulation around the bound
vortex AA varies continuously as shown by the curve,
then it can be shown by interpreting circulation in terms
of its original definition as a line integral that free
vortices flow not only off the free ends but also all along
the trailing edge of AA, forming together a vortex sheet.
26. The strength of any individual vortex in the sheet is
equal to the change in circulation at that point on AA.
27. Thus, if at distances and from midspan the
circulation strengths are and respectively, the free vortex
formed between and will have a strength equal to
28. Considering now two individual vortices in the
sheet,located at opposite sides of the midspan, each lies
in the velocity field of the other and thus must assume
the downward velocity existing at that point of the field.
29. Inasmuch as this is true for all the vortices in the
sheet, it follows that the sheet as a whole assumes a
downward velocity. It was shown by Prandtl (1979) that
this downward velocity is constant across the sheet when
the distribution function represents an ellipse.
30. Along the vortex sheet, however, from AA to infinity
at the right, the induced downward velocity is not
constant but varies from the value at a very large
distance from A A to the value /2 at AA.
31. This can be proved rigorously by a theorem on
vortex motion which has an equivalent in
electrodynamics and is known as the Biot-Savart law.
32. In a general way its truth can be perceived by the
following reasoning. Let the vortex system in Fig. 15 be
supplemented by a like system extending from AA to
infinity at the left.
33. The whole infinitely long vortex system would then
move downward with the velocity in accordance with the
foregoing discussion.
34. At AA this velocity would be composed in equal
measure of that induced by vortices belonging to the
supplementary system and by vortices belonging to the
original system.
35. Removing the supplementary system, and so
reverting to the system shown in the figure, leaves only
the value at the location of the bound vortex.
36. Similar conclusions were reached in the case of an
advancing propeller blade (Prandtl, et al, 1927).
37. The vortex sheet in this case is the helicoidal layer of
fluid trailing behind the blade, and the induced velocity,
which is normal to the helicoidal layer and so tends to
push the sheet astern along the propeller axis and to
rotate it about this axis, is identical with the previously
defined slip velocity.
38. A theorem analogous to that just mentioned holds in
this case alsothat the induced velocity at the position of
the bound vortex, i.e., at the propeller disk, is or one half
that at a great distance behind the propeller.
39. Betz further developed the important theorem that a
propeller blade will have the smallest energy losses
 resulting from the induced velocities when the helicoidal
vortex sheet is pushed astern along the shaft axis and
rotated about this axis as though it were a
40. rigid sheet.
41. This theorem furnishes a simple and definite rule for
the design of the propeller blade in practice; in order to
obtain the maximum propeller efficiency, which is usually
the aim of the designer, the blades must be so designed
that the inflow velocity is the same for every blade
element.
42. The application of the circulation theory to propeller
design enables various refinements to be made to the
simple blade-element theory already described.
43. In particular, it enables the induced velocity to be
calculated, an so the axial and radial inflow factors a and
a'. These questions, and other developments, are
discussed in detail in Section 8.4.