Study Guide to

Improving Memory and Study

Skills
Advances in Theory and Practice

By
D. Hermann, D. Raybeck, and M. Gruneberg

Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

P.O. Box 2487
Kirkland, WA 98083
Tel.: (425) 820-1500
Fax: (425) 823-8324
E-mail: hh@hhpub.com
Web: www.hhpub.com

Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

Seattle Toronto Bern Gttingen
Copyright 2002 by Hogrefe & Huber Publishers
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Chapter 1: Scientific Theory of Studying and Academic Success

College is preparation for the rest of your life, both professionally and personally. The most important thing you can
get from a college education is an increased mental ability to study, learn, and remember.

I. The Challenge to Your Generation

A. More Challenging Jobs. More than any previous generation, you and your classmates will need to have a
variety of mental skills for your careers.
1. Across an entire career most members of your generation will switch jobs at least three times and
possibly as much as a dozen times.
2. Each new job requires a great deal of learning.
B. More Challenging Personal Life. More than any previous generation, you will need to learn about
common tasks encountered in personal life.
1. Marriage.
2. Having or adopting children.
3. Annulment or divorce law.
4. Buying and owning a house or rental agreements.
5. Income tax, writing a will, using an inheritance, suing someone.
II. Increased Difficulty of Higher Education
Each generation is provided with more years of education than in the past.
A. The approach to improving memory is very much like the approaches that work for improving other kinds
of skills.
B. Improving memory is like improving your ability for a sport.
III. The Importance of Memory to Study Skills
A. Memory is crucial to effective use of study skills.
B. Some skills are fairly general in that they affect a wide variety of academic tasks. Other skills are very
specific, in fact most study skills are specific.
C. The job description of a student:
Identify what a course requires.
Read books and articles in-depth.
Extract meaning from what is read and heard in class.
Prepare for exams.
Take exams.
Write term papers.
Stay in shape, physically and emotionally.
Be socially appropriate.
Take note of the environment.
Continually educate yourself about new ideas concerning the above tasks.
IV. This Books Plan for Improving Your Academic Performance
A. Comprehensive approach.
1. Acquainting you with ways to manipulate your memory: making the best use of your memory and
study skills; assessing the current state of your memory and study skills; dealing with your emotional
state and physical state; manipulating ideas and images in mind when studying or taking tests; how to
use technical manipulations, for many different everyday memory tasks that confront students; how
to use the physical environment, including devices that speed up learning and assist you on term
papers and open book exams; using the social situation can give you clues.

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Chapter 2: The Memory System and How We Learn and Remember

I. Where is Your Memory?
A. The memory system is located in the brain and the brain stem (at the top of the spinal cord.
1. Temporal lobes (the parts of the brain that lie alongside your ears) are also involved in registering
memories.
2. Frontal, parietal, and occipital areas, cerebellum.
II. Memory Processing
A. Memory fails when it does not register something, does not retain over time that which was registered, or
fails to remember.
B. Functional components of the memory system: the senses, a working memory,
a long-term memory, and a central processor.
1. Working memory fades in about one minute, unless it is attended to.
2. The central processor controls the amount of attention given to working memory.
III. Role of Psychological Modes Other Than Memory in Learning and Remembering
A. Academic performance depends also on all psychological modes.
B. Four general categories of modes affect memory processing.
1. MODE CATEGORY 1. Affects what informational content is learned and later remembered.
2. MODE CATEGORY 2. Physiological modes that affect a persons physiological state at the time of
memory processing.
3. MODE CATEGORY 3. Emotive modes affect a persons inclination to learn and remember.
4. MODE CATEGORY 4. Individual modes influence the way that a person performs memory and study
tasks differently than others.
C. Specific Modes. There are three modes in each of the four mode categories.
l. Cognitive modes include mental manipulations, manipulations of the physical environment, and
manipulations of the social environment.
2. Physiological modes include physical state, exposure to chemicals via substance use, and health
status.
3. Emotive modes include a persons emotionality, attitudes, and motivation.
D. Individual differences refer to individual expertise at studying and test taking, their style for how they
approach studying and test taking, and their confidence in themselves when attempting to study or take
tests.
IV. Findings about the Effects of Different Modes on Memory
A. Memory performance has been found to be affected by all four mode categories.
B. Investigations of college students at two different universities, one in the Midwest and one in the East
(Herrmann et al., 1999), support the model.
C. Memory and health.
1. Victims of substance abuse improved mode status over a six-week period with corresponding
increase in memory performance and thinking.
2. Victims of paint toxicity improved their memory functioning after receiving multimodal training
V. The Multimodal Theory of Study Skill Improvement
A. The Formula. Take care of all of your modes when studying and test taking.
B. Forming Repertoires of Manipulations. When a task is troublesome, learn a repertoire of a few skills that
you can apply when the task arises.
C. Improving Memory and Study Skills. The approach to learning memory and study skills is very much like
the approaches that work best for developing other kinds of skills, such as those involved in sports.

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Chapter 3: Evaluation of Your Memory and Study Skills

I. Check Your Memory Abilities
A. Most people do not know how well our memory works.
1. Some people are known as having a good memory because they are good at valuable memory
tasks.
2. People come to be known as having a bad memory because they fail at conspicuous tasks.
3. A realistic appraisal of your memory abilities and study skills is essential to academic improvement.
II. Standard Methods for Evaluating Study Skills
A. The Study Practices Inventory.
B. Memory Diary.
III. The Study Practices Inventory
Scores indicate a persons evaluation of his or her potential for success in college courses.
Attitudes.
Mental Processing Challenges.
Innovative Study Procedures.
Remembering Ability.
Study Habits.
Class Preparation.
Use of Study Procedures.
Study Skill Knowledge.
Knowledge of Self Care Effects on Academic Performance.
IV. Memory/Study Skills Diary
A. A diary provides a good way to take account of how you actually perform academic tasks.
B. Context of failure: class, alone, with friends. For starters, keep a diary on three practices: reading
practices, note-taking practices, and practices for taking note of and retaining recent information.
V. Interpretation of a Memory Questionnaire and Diary
A. Setting Goals for Study Skill Improvement The Inventory and the Diary put you in a better position to
choose those on which you would most like to concentrate.
B. Consider which of the task categories are most important to your memory goals: your attitude, mental
processing, innovative study procedures, remembering ability, study habits, class preparation, use of study
procedures, study skill knowledge, and knowledge of self care practices.

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Chapter 4: Physiological State

I. The Influence of Physical Condition on Memory Mechanisms
A. Physiological condition is the single most important factor in how a person performs incidental memory
tasks when you are not aware that you are doing a memory task.
B. Physiological condition is also a major factor in your performance of intentional memory tasks, because
mental activity is dulled if ones condition is poor.
II. Physical Condition
A. Fitness & Energy Cycles: Routine time for waking and sleeping; disruptions to your cycle diminish
cognitive capacity.
B. Sleep: Going to sleep immediately after learning leads you to remember what you learned better than if you
put off going to bed after learning; people cannot learn while asleep.
C. Eating Habits: Poor nutrition, memory nutritious food, eat moderate amounts.
D. Sensory Difficulties: Poor eyesight or hearing can prevent a person from learning.
E. Illness: Illnesses, major and minor, interfere with memory performance because discomfort diminishes
attention.
F. Medications. Medications that can impair memory: psychiatric drugs, general medicine drugs, barbiturates,
digitalis, bromides, analgesics, benzodiazepams, antihypertensives, phenothiazines, antidiabetics, lithium,
methyldopa, antidepressants, Inderal, antipsychotics, antibiotics, antihistamines, antidepressants, eye drops
for glaucoma.
G. Memory Illnesses. Include Alzheimers disease, Korsakoffs (alcoholic) syndrome, mini/major strokes, and
low blood pressure.
H. Adverse substances. Alcohol is called the amnesia food. Marijuana and mind-altering substances and
stimulants have a state-dependent effect on memory.
I. Stimulants. Mild stimulation from caffeine or nicotine can do little to enhance memory performance and
may impair it substantially. Amphetamines will keep someone awake for a memory task but they are
highly addictive and dangerous. No medicines are available that enhance memory in normal people. Some
medicines available for memory illnesses can only help people with the illness; if a well person takes the
medicine it can be fatal if it is taken incorrectly.
III. Physiological State Checklist
A. To avoid lowering the level of your memory performance, follow some common sense guidelines:
1. PROMPTLY TREAT OR SEEK TREATMENT OF MAJOR AND MINOR ILLNESSES.
2. AVOID THE USE OF ADVERSE SUBSTANCES.
3. EAT A WELL-BALANCED DIET.
4. GET ENOUGH SLEEP.
5. TAKE ACCOUNT OF YOUR PEAKS.
6. REST.
7. STAY IN SHAPE.

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Chapter 5: Emotive State

I. Emotional upsets disrupt concentration and disturb emotions impair attention
A. Diminished Concentration.
1. There are optimum levels of noise and physical comfort for memory tasks.
2. Silence and maximum comfort are probably not the best conditions for memory.
B. Stress. College life is typically stressful, especially at exam time.
1. We need an optimal level of stress to survive.
2. To avoid stress, give yourself a break, take one step at a time, take care of your health, be flexible.
C. Moods. Positive moods dispose us to pay attention and to learn.
1. However, extremely positive feelings may interfere with memory
2. Negative moods, whatever their intensity, impair memory performance.
D. Depression. Depression impairs learning and remembering.
II. Various methods exist to control emotions and improve memory
A. Relaxation. Relaxation relieves stress and decreases the distractibility.
Forms of relaxation: Yoga, muscle relaxation, positive imaging or creative visualization, controlling
ones brain waves, biofeedback, listening to music, playing ball, reminiscing with friends.
B. Attention Training. Four kinds of attention training attempt to increase your ability: to sustain attention, to
divide your attention, to notice details, to resist distraction.
C. Attitudes. Ones attitude affects ones inclination to try to perform memory tasks and ability to sustain
attention while performing the task.
1. COMPONENTS OF AN ATTITUDE. A belief, the value of the belief, and/or its strength.
2. CHANGING ATTITUDES ABOUT TASK CONTENT. Each kind of course requires a special approach so
that the attitude can facilitate memory performance.
a. Uninteresting Information. Boring information is hard to register and remember. Decide ahead
of time why you need to learn something.
b. Negative Information. Memories connected with only moderately negative emotion are often
more difficult to recall and may lead us to suppress the memory. Convince yourself that the content
of the memory should really be viewed positively.
c. Personally Upsetting Information. If someone represses a memory, this person should consult a
clinical psychologist about the problem.
d. Changing Attitudes about The Kind of Memory Task. Make attitudes realistic. If an attitude is
negative, develop reasons for think it is positive.
III. Emotive State Checklist
A. To avoid a lowering the level of your memory performance, you should do the following: maintain an
optimum level of activity, try to keep stress at a manageable level, engage in recreational activities, relax
(daily, on weekends, and on annual vacations), rest (by taking catnaps, talk out your problems, choose
harmonious environments for studying, maintain appropriate attitudes towards memory tasks

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Chapter 6: Memory Manipulations and Study Skills

I. Classic Approaches to Learning: Mnemonics, Memory Strategies, or Artificial Memories
We refer to them as mental manipulations.
A. How Do Mental Manipulations Work?
1. Mental manipulations are relevant only to intentional learning.
2. Mental manipulations intensify attention to information during the
learning, retention, and retrieval phases of the memory process.
3. Once an existing trace is activated, its contents will emerge into consciousness.
B. When You Should NOT Use the Mental Manipulations
1. Many mnemonics take extra time and effort. If you do not have the time,
it may not be worth it to use them.
2. Know how to use the manipulations ahead of time.
C. How We Learn Learning occurs when one intentionally pays attention to the contents of working memory,
leading it to be absorbed into long-term memory. Mental manipulations work in one or more of four
distinct ways:
1. By increasing the strength of an items trace.
2. By fostering the encoding of attributes of the information.
3. By establishing an association between two or more items we wish to learn.
4. By establishing a framework or mental structure that facilitates the retrieval of the memorized items.
II. An Inventory of Learning Manipulations
A. Strength Manipulations: mental snapshot, multisenses, reflection, rehearsal, acting out, articulatory
rehearsal, cumulative rehearsal, spaced rehearsal.
B. Attribute Manipulations: affect elicitation, attribute judgments, description, meaning analysis, phonetic
analysis, prioritize, question, self-referencing, temporal ordering.
C. Association Manipulations: simple associative manipulations: present with past events, relations
(meaningful), relations (phonetic), relations (visual). Organization manipulations: clustering
(meaningful), clustering (phonetic), diagram, spatial arrangement.
D. Retrieval Structure Manipulations: elaboration, reduction, transformation, technical.
1. ELABORATIONS: acrostic, image (color), image (graphic), mediation (image), mediation (verbal),
number elaboration, ridicule, sentence generation, story generation.
2. REDUCTIONS: abbreviation, bleaching, first letter coding, sentence reduction.
3. TRANSFORMATIONS: synonym generation, contrast generation, class-member generation, homophonic
generation, comprehensive generation.
4. TECHNICAL SCHEMES: link, loci, peg (alphabet), peg (image), letter-similar pegs.
III. An Inventory of Retention Manipulations
A. The Causes of Forgetting
1. Forgetting renders traces unavailable (due to decay, distortion, intentional revision, and unlearning
2. Less accessible (due to willful inattention, suppression, repression, interference, and retrieval
failures).
B. Slowing Forgetting
1. Manipulations that forestall unavailability and inaccessibility: review periodically, sleep or rest,
anticipate remembering, make moderately unpleasant memories salient.
2. When forgetting is what you want.
IV. An Inventory of Retrieval Manipulations
A. Retrieval Based on Strength
B. Retrieval Based on Attributes: associate attribute, part reconstruction, sequential reconstruction, probable-
attribute manipulations.
C. Retrieval Based on Associations: causation.
D. Retrieval Based on Retrieval Structures: choosing retrieval manipulations, potential use of learning and
retrieval manipulations.
E. Guessing Schemes: alphabet search, reinstate mood, tip-of-the-tongue.

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Chapter 7: Technical Mnemonics

I. Invention of the First Technical Mnemonic Simonides
A. Technical mnemonics are useful for people who want powerful methods and who are willing to exert a lot
of effort in learning how to use these techniques.
B. Technical mnemonics have a place in helping students with their learning and remembering problems.
II. Visual Imagery Techniques considerably enhance memory for word lists
A. Mental Filing Systems. Useful for remembering examination topics, foreign language vocabulary, spelling
phone numbers, mentally filing ideas which come to you when doing things other than studying, and
remembering speeches.
1. PEG SYSTEM.
2. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING the keyword method.
3. STORY TELLING STRATEGY spelling.
4. DIGIT LETTER STRATEGY use imagery to remember thousands of words.
B. Verbal Mental Manipulations.
1. FIRST LETTER MNEMONICS AND EXAMINATIONS memorize key terms.
2. FIRST LETTER RETRIEVAL STRATEGY remember key terms.
III. Technical Mnemonics and Their Usefulness
A. You probably would not want to go through the effort to learn all the mnemonics in this chapter.
B. However, it will be worth your while to learn one or two mnemonics. Learning a large repertoire of
memory skills is likely to equip a person for many of the important memory problems that occur.

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Chapter 8:Task-and-Domain Specific Manipulations

I. Applicability of a Manipulation
Manipulations vary in applicability because of the number and kind of steps they involve.
A. A manipulation is executed sequentially in four stages.
1. ADVANTAGES IN THE SELECTION STAGE.
2. ADVANTAGES IN THE MODIFICATION STAGE. Every manipulation must be modified or adjusted to the
particular task.
3. ADVANTAGES IN THE APPLICATION STAGE. The effectiveness of an application is easier if the
manipulation is specific.
4. ADVANTAGES OF THE ASSESSMENT STAGE. The assessment should determine whether more
manipulative processing is needed for a task.
II. The Advantages of Repertoires of Manipulations.
A. A repertoire of two or more manipulations is better than preparing just one manipulation because
manipulations emphasize different attributes of task information.
B. Using a repertoire of manipulations allows each manipulation to make up for any loss in the effectiveness
possessed by the other.
C. Method for acquiring task-specific repertoires. Begin by recalling the manipulations that you usually use
for the task; then select new manipulations to use. Fill out a Repertoire Generation Form. Associate the
manipulation with the task.
III. An Inventory of Task-Specific Manipulations
A. Consult menus which provide appropriate manipulations.
B. The Inventory is divided into four sections: everyday knowledge, events, intentions, and actions.
IV. Everyday Knowledge Task Menus
A. Combination to a lock, current events, phone numbers, learning and remembering rules of games, script,
special numbers.
V. Event Menus
A. Actions just performed or recently performed, birthday, conversations, date of a past event, dates of future
events, directions to perform a particular act, event, face recognition, finding a file, location of misplaced
object, message given on awakening, name acquisition, photos, prior statements in conversation, prior
statement in correspondence, what one was saying.
VI. Intention Menus
A. Appointments and meetings, birthday, chores, conversation, correspondence, deadlines, errands, hurried
message, packing for a trip, paying bills, phone calls, proper behavior (etiquette), return library books, set
clocks when time changes, spontaneous idea, spontaneous idea while asleep, starting something on time,
stopping something, take-aways: routine, take-aways: special, wake-up.
VI. Action Menus
A. Actions, drive to the right place, gas cap: putting it back, headlights and signals, headlights: turn off, step
in a sequence, utterances, word choice.

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Chapter 9: Content-Specific Manipulations and Study Skills

I. Study-Specific Manipulations and Study Skills.
A. Study skill usage recommended for use in introductory courses varies across different disciplines and is
specific to particular courses.
B. A lot of people do not change their study skills much from high school. To become a more effective
student expand your knowledge of study skills by consulting an Inventory of Study Tasks.
1. Author, conversation: ill-prepared for, current events, dates of events, script, geography, grammar,
historical facts, information read previously, languages, lecture, lyrics, melody, math-problem solutions,
poetry, prose, speeches, spelling, vocabulary.
II. Study Blueprint
A. The blueprint reminds you of study skills that you may overlook or forget to use.
1. Strategy, in-depth reading procedures, meaning extraction techniques, note taking, exam preparation,
exam strategies.
III. In-depth Reading Procedures
A. Pre-Read.
B. Read.
C. Post-Read.
IV. Meaning Extraction Techniques
A. Verbal Techniques: note taking, outline, hierarchy, key word list.
B. Relations Table.
C. Visual Techniques: graph, historical time line, mind maps.
V. Exam Preparation
A. Plan Your Preparation.
B. Study and Memorization: four means of associating information.
VI. Exam Strategies
A. Confidence is your best defense against white out, clutching, or drawing a blank.
B. Multiple Choice Questions: Use the disciplined approach with a 3 5 card.
C. Essay Questions: Avoid giving a list of terms; instead write well-organized answers.
D. Thinking skills are improved primarily by learning to avoid natural ways of thinking that typically lead to
errors.
1. KINDS OF THINKING PROCESSES: understanding, reasoning, problem solving, support thinking skills,
unconventional reasoning and problem solving, priming.
2. MANAGERIAL THINKING SKILLS, COMMUNICATIVE THINKING SKILLS.
E. At the End of an Exam: Check your exam paper. Review essay answers for their clarity.
VII. Paper Writing
A. Papers should be started as soon as possible.
B. If possible write on something that interests you.
C. Develop an outline and write from the outline.
D. Write your paper in an active voice
E. Use computer resources to outline, write, and research your topic.

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Chapter 10: The Environment and External Aids

I. Our Ability to Learn and Think Depends on How We Make Use of the Environment
A. The Power of Physical Stimuli. Physical stimuli have a powerful effect on memory because they capture
attention more effectively than most ideas.
II. External Aids
An image, a sound, a touch, or a movement often register a more vivid trace and stimulate a memory to emerge
more rapidly than a verbal description of the same sight, sound, touch, or movement. Consequently, external aids
can often facilitate learning and remembering better than ideas in memory.
A. Possible Side Effects from Memory Aid Use. External aids may reduce a persons reliance on memory for a
certain task but ability for other tasks will not lessen.
B. Categories of Aid Use. External aids address registration, others retention or retrieval.
C. Physical Memory.
III. Academic Aids
A. Studying: Notes, teaching machines, memory art, superstitious memory aids, knowledge sources, instant
speller, foreign language study, Nitewriter, the memory-friendly desk, meetings and classes, copying,
work.
IV. Obligations
A. Appointments.
B. Remembrance File.
C. Take-Aways.
D. Timing Devices: Simple timers.
V. Symbolic Reminding
A. Examples of Symbolic Reminding.
B. Phone Use: Phone numbers, what was said.
VI. Personal Memory
A. Personal Finances.
B. Paying Bills.
C. Your Checkbook Balance.
VII. Self Care
A. Cooking.
B. Health: Exercise, taking medication.
C. Locations of Possessions: In drawers and cabinets, valuable or important possessions, frequently used
items, keeping your possessions.
D. Inventory: addresses, where you put your keys.
E Chores: shopping (your shopping list).
F. Prices: your running tab, how much youve spent, to take coupons, party supplies
VIII. Special Days and Dates
A. Personal History: records of your past.
B. Mementos can be helpful.
C. Reminiscing.
IX. Choosing and Using External Aids

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Chapter 11: Social Context

I. Social Situations Require us to Perform Many Memory Tasks
A. Recognize what memory tasks others expect you to perform.
B. To get along with others, you must use memory: make and meet appointments, repay favors, do chores
that others depend on you to do.
C. Others expect you to perform memory tasks that they depend on.
D. Use conversational manipulations:
1. Keep from being distracted; buy time.
2. Gather information that will enable you to perform memory tasks in class.
II. Recognizing the Memory Performance Expected of You
A. Task Expectations
1. LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE OF A MEMORY TASK.
2. YOUR ACADEMIC REPUTATION.
3. MEMORY STEREOTYPES.
4. FEEDBACK.
III. Contrivances of Others About Your Memory
A. Memory insult, memory praise, memory alibi, memory responsibility charge, memory noncooperation,
fraud.
B. Using Others as Memory Aids.
C. Social Pressures: Influence of groups with which we identify.
IV. Communicating About Your Memory In a Convincing Manner
A. Expression.
B. Content.
C. Memory Language: express yourself with appropriate memory language and nonverbal signals.
D. The Current Status of Your Relationships with Other People.
1. RULES OF MEMORY ETIQUETTE: Do not comment on anothers lack of memory ability; correct a
memory error politely; ignore unimportant memory errors; remember what another person was talking
about prior to an interruption in a conversation; remember anothers successes, and forget their failures.

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Chapter 12: Study Savvy

I. Develop and Practice Skills at Applying Knowledge of Memory and Study Skills to your Own Memory
Performance.
A. A superior memory responds to memory tasks in a prompt, appropriate, and proficient manner.
B. To develop memory and study skills, build on your knowledge.
1. MULTIMODAL APPROACH.
2. REPERTOIRES.
C. How to Improve the Appropriateness of Manipulation Use
1. DEVELOPING KNOWLEDGE OF A VARIETY OF MANIPULATIONS.
2. LEARNING TO HOW TO MANAGE THESE MANIPULATIONS.
3. OBSERVE YOUR PERFORMANCE.
4. ELIMINATE BAD MEMORY HABITS.
5. PRACTICE USING MANIPULATIONS.
D. Gathering Information about your Memory Performance.
1. SELF-OBSERVATION OF MEMORY PERFORMANCE.
2. INTERPRETING FEEDBACK ABOUT YOUR MEMORY PERFORMANCE.
3. COMPARISON OF YOUR AND OTHERS MEMORY PERFORMANCE.
II. Continuing Education
New trade books, magazine articles on memory improvement, tapes developed as improvement guides.
II. Bad Habit Identification and Control
A. Memory attitudes.
B. Conditioning.
C. Environmental use.
D. Mental manipulations.
IV. Development of Managerial Skills
A. For Learning.
B. For Remembering.
V. Improving the Efficiency of Manipulation Use
A. Proficient academic performance requires experience in the use of memory manipulations.
B. Practice: Enhances learning and retrieval.
1. CONTRIVED PRACTICE.
2. COMPUTER SIMULATED PRACTICE.
3. MENTAL PRACTICE.
4. ROLE PLAYING.

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Epilogue
I. The College Success Formula
Keep track of your time and control it carefully.
A. Time Categories in College:
1. TIME SPENT IN PREPARING FOR CLASS.
2. TIME SPENT IN CLASS.
3. TIME SPENT IN SELF CARE (EATING, SLEEP, REST, RELAXATION).
4. TIME SPENT IN NONACADEMIC ACTIVITIES.
B. If you are getting the grades you want, then your time is in balance.
C. However, if you are not getting the grades you want, you may be in a time crunch.

Copyright 2002 by Hogrefe & Huber Publishers