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Front cover: Girls at Lovea Cluster Satellite School, Cambodia, funded by Oxfam.
Photo: Howard Davies/Oxfam
Oxfam GB 2005
Published by Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK
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ISBN 0 85598 550 X
The education MDGs: achieving gender equality through curriculum and pedagogy
change 44
Sheila Aikman, Elaine Unterhalter, and Chloe Challender
Not a sufficient condition: the limited relevance of the gender MDG to women's
progress 56
Robert Johnson
Goal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Eradicate Achieve Promote Reduce Improve Combat Ensure Develop
extreme universal gender child maternal HIV/AIDS, environ- a global
poverty primary equality mortality health malaria, mental partnership
and education and empower and other sustainability for
hunger women diseases development
Key Halve the Ensure by Eliminate Reduce the Reduce by Halt and Halve by Develop a
targets proportion 2015 that all gender mortality three- begin to 2015 the non-discrimi-
of people children disparity in rate of quarters the reverse the proportion natory and
living on complete a primary and children ratio of incidence of of people rules-based
less than full course secondary under five by women HIV/AIDS without trading
$1 a day of primary education by two-thirds dying in and other access to system,
by 2015. schooling 2005, and in by 2015 childbirth major safe drinking provide more
Halve the all levels of by 2015 diseases water and generous aid
proportion education by 2015 basic and deal
of people by 2015 sanitation compre-
who suffer hensively
from hunger with the debt
by 2015 problem
agreements, and pledges to uphold women's equality and the empowerment of women.
full human rights. The fact that there is a goal on gender equality
Step one - of analysing the MDG and the empowerment of women at all is seen
framework as it currently stands - is already by some as a powerful symbol of the success
well advanced. The first issue is the limited of the international feminist movement on
'fit' between the understandings of poverty international politics and development (for
underpinning the MDGs, and the reality of example, Subrahmanian 2004). Second, they
economic want linked to social and political argue that it is not true to say that the MDGs
inequality, as experienced by women. At are informed by an understanding of poverty
present, the MDG approach to poverty is as purely economic in nature, since the goals
charged by feminists with failure to place so much stress on social goods such as
understand and address the gender-specific education and health care.
aspects of women's experience of poverty.
Another strength of the MDGs is the
Decades of research and activism focusing
focus on maternal mortality. Ninety-nine per
on the experience of women in poverty have
demonstrated that this is as much about cent of all maternal deaths occur in the
agency compromised by abuse, stress, developing world (Freedman 2003, 99). In
fatigue, and voicelessness as it is about lack sub-Saharan Africa, the lifetime risk of a
of resources. Solving material poverty is not woman dying from pregnancy-related
possible for women who lack the power to causes is 1 in 16; maternal mortality is higher
challenge the discriminatory policies of there than in any other region of the world
social institutions, ranging from the family and reaches 1 in 12 in East and West Africa
to the state. (Panos 2005). Lynn Freedman points out that
the health-care systems in high-mortality
Strengths countries are 'grossly deficient' (2003,100).
Supporters of the MDGs argue, first, that one The MDGs also provide a common
extremely important advance in the approach conceptual framework and language for the
is that the issue of gender inequality is work of governments, UN agencies,
addressed in Goal 3, aiming to attain gender international financial institutions, and
development organisations from civil explains in her article, the UN Millennium
society. Although the indicators and targets Summit occurred at the end of 25 years of
are inadequate in capturing the full reality of international progress on women's rights,
the experience of poverty for women, based on the documents that emerged from
progress towards them can at least be UN conferences: notably the Beijing
measured. The framework also potentially Platform for Action (1995) and the Cairo
provides an opportunity to assess what is Programme of Action (the output of the UN
preventing particular Goals from being International Conference on Population and
attained. The high profile that the MDGs Development in 1994). At the time of the UN
enjoy means that they provide an Millennium Summit, many feminist activists
opportunity for civil society organisations to were fighting to defend the Beijing and Cairo
hold donors and governments accountable documents from being damaged by right-
for their failures to provide resources to wing opposition to the hard-won victories
achieve them. on women's rights: in particular, to their
reproductive and sexual rights.
Weaknesses
It was only when the MDGs were
Nevertheless, the MDGs do undeniably fail
announced at the UN that women's groups
to address social and political margin-
alisation where these are not linked to discovered that gender equality was
economic want. Hence, they are not useful in relegated to one quite limited Goal, and that
supporting women whose security and the issue of reproductive rights had vanished.
human dignity are compromised in contexts The fact that these essential issues were left
that are not needy in an economic sense. In out, and gender concerns have not been
his article, presenting a case study of the included in other Goals, despite their key
position of women in Belize, Robert Johnson relevance, reflects a tendency in international
reminds us of the need for context-specific development circles to depoliticise gender
analysis of the empowerment of women. issues. There is a widely noted tendency to
Targets and indicators may indicate that adopt an integrationist approach to
empowerment of women has occurred, yet 'mainstreaming' gender concerns, in which
the real picture may be very different. they are added to a pre-existing analysis and
Another warning that the MDGs are agenda (Jahan 1995). This failure to allow
necessary but not sufficient to address gender issues to inform and shape the
gender-equality concerns comes from Sheila analysis and agenda results in gender issues
Aikman and Elaine Unterhalter. Their being collapsed 'within the wider category of
discussion focuses on the gender issues in poverty' (Subrahmanian 2004,11), resulting
education that remain after access to in 'a fairly depoliticised and needs-based
education is achieved for girls. Access is the discourse [which] ... requirefs] focus on
first part of a more complex web of gender women within poor households, rather than
issues which affect the teaching and content gender disadvantage per se' (ibid.).
of education, and are critical determinants of
the worth of the education that girls receive.
It is also a fact that the MDGs are silent on Improving on the MDGs
violations of women's human rights, In development circles, it cannot be taken for
including gender-based violence, and are granted that all agree on the rationale for
silent on the need to uphold women's challenging gender inequality. Instead, it has
reproductive and sexual rights. (The latter often needed to be argued carefully. In order
are, obviously, not only important in their to convince policy-makers to take feminist
own right, but critically important if Goal 6, goals seriously, a synergy must be demon-
on HIV/AIDS, is to be met.) As Carol Barton
strated between these and the 'official
Editorial
millions of women who suffer as a result of The UK Gender and Development Network,
pregnancy and childbirth - and it is sorely for example, will focus all its lobbying and
lacking. This is no argument for technical advocacy work in 2005 on both the MDG and
quick-fixes, however. International efforts to the Beijing+10 reviews.
reduce maternal mortality must concentrate Finally, all can participate in the
on improving health systems - a project that advocacy around the MDG Review. As
entails rebuilding states to deliver services - noted earlier, the Global Call to Action
but must also look to an advocacy grounded against Poverty is a worldwide alliance
in women's rights, as articulated in the committed to ensuring that world leaders
Beijing Platform for Action and the Cairo live up to their promises to support countries
process' (this issue). worldwide to meet the MDGs (see
www.whiteband.org). For readers in the
UK, 'Make Poverty History' is the UK
Conclusion: the way element of the global campaign, consisting of
forward a unique alliance of charities, trade unions,
This collection of articles aims not only to campaigning groups, faith communities, and
provide readers with information on the high-profile individuals who are uniting
debates on gender in relation to the MDGs, to tackle global poverty in 2005
but aims to inspire them to action. At the time (www. oxfam. org.uk/ what_you_can_do/
of going to press, the 49th session of the campaign / mdg / mph.htm).
Commission on the Status of Women (CSW)
in New York is about to commence. As References
Genevieve Painter discusses in her article,
there will be a formal link between the review Beijing Platform for Action (1995) 'The United
Nations Beijing Declaration and Platform for
of the Beijing Platform for Action, which will Action', www.un.org/
take place at the CSW, and the review of the womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/ (last
Millennium Declaration and the MDGs, checked 25 February 2005)
which will take place in September 2005. Elson, D. (ed.) (1991) Male Bias in the Development
There is a risk that fundamentalists may Process, Manchester: Manchester University
challenge some of the hard-won rights of Press
women at Beijing+10, in particular their Freedman, L. (2003) 'Strategic advocacy and
sexual and reproductive rights, and women's maternal mortality: moving targets and the
human rights activists are prepared to millennium development goals', Gender and
defend these key areas of concern and to Development 11(1): 97-108
ensure that the outcome of the CSW is as Jahan, R. (1995) The Elusive Agenda: Mainstreaming
Women in Development, London: Zed Books
robust as possible. Advocacy by activists at Kabeer, N. (1999) 'Resources, agency, achievements:
the CSW will directly affect the MDG reflections on the measurement of women's
discussions and content. The outcome of the empowerment', Development and Change 30:435-64
CSW will be transmitted, via the Economic Lairap-Fonderson, J. (2002) 'The disciplinary power
and Social Council of the General Assembly of micro credit: examples from Kenya and
(ECOSOC), to the high-level General Cameroon', in J. Parpart, S. Rai, and K. Staudt
Assembly meeting that will review the (eds.) Rethinking Empowerment: Gender and
Millennium Declaration in September 2005. Development in a Global/Local World, New York:
Routledge
Both Ceri Hayes' and Genevieve Oseen, C. (1999) 'Women organizing for change:
Painter's articles provide guidance and ideas transformational organizing as a strategy for
on ways in which activists can work to feminist development', in Marilyn Porter and
ensure that women's human rights Ellen Judd (eds.) Feminists Doing Development: A
perspectives are addressed in the MDGs. Practical Critique, London: Zed Books
Panos (2005) 'Safe Motherhood: A Human Rights Whitehead, A. and M. Lockwood (1999) 'Gender in
Perspective', www.panos.org.uk/ the World Bank's Poverty Assessments: Six Case
global/projectdetails.asp?ProjectID=1017&ID=l Studies from Sub-Saharan Africa', United
005 (last checked 22 February 2005) Nations Research Institute for Social
Subrahmanian, R. (2004) 'Promoting gender Development (UNRISD) Discussion Paper No.
equality', in Richard Black and Howard White 99, Geneva: UNRISD
(eds.) Targeting Development: Critical Perspectives Zuckerman, E. (2002)' "Engendering" Poverty
on the Millennium Development Goals, London: Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs): the issues
Routledge and the challenges', Gender and Development
UN (1979) 'Convention on the Elimination of All 10(3): 88-94
Forms of Discrimination Against Women',
www.un.org / womenwatch /
daw/cedaw/ (last checked 2 March 2005)
UNDP (2004) Human Development Report, New
York: UNDP
Making t h e links: women's rights
and empowerment are key to achieving
the Millennium Development Goals1
Noeleen Heyzer
Men and women have the right to live their lives and raise their children in dignity, free from hunger
and from fear of violence, oppression or injustice.
Millennium Declaration (UN 2000a, 2)
T
he Millennium Declaration, adopted
by all UN Member States in 2000, Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
outlines a vision of freedom from Against Women (CEDAW), an international
want and freedom from fear. Together with women's bill of rights - now ratified by 179
the eight Millennium Development Goals countries - which obligates governments to
(MDGs), which make that vision concrete, take actions to promote and protect the
the Millennium Declaration commits states rights of women (UN 1979). It is crucially
to 'promote gender equality and the important that the specific and detailed
empowerment of women as effective ways commitments and obligations contained in
to combat poverty, hunger, disease and to these documents are not lost as governments
stimulate development that is truly and the international community begin to
sustainable' (UN 2000a, 5). organise around goals and targets selected to
The recognition that women's equality track progress on the MDGs.
and rights are central to achieving The power of the MDGs lies in the
economic and social priorities is important. unprecedented global consensus and
But it is not by chance that this has come commitment that they represent. They
about. It is the result of work by women's establish a common index of progress, and a
human rights advocates over decades, common focus for global partnership for
creating a groundswell of activism for development, which emphasise the needs
gender equality at global, regional, and of poor people. The MDGs also provide an
national levels. The commitments to opportunity to raise awareness about the
women made in the UN World connections among the eight Goals and the
Conferences of the past two decades - in rights and capacities of women. The year
Beijing, Cairo, Vienna, and Copenhagen, as 2005, which will mark the ten-year review
well as the Special Session on HIV/AIDS in of the Beijing Platform for Action and the
New York in June 2001 - are fundamental five-year review of the Millennium
to the vision embedded in the Millennium Declaration, will present an opportunity to
Declaration and the MDGs. assess progress in implementing both the
10
Platform for Action and the MDGs, Millennium Declaration, and are entirely
especially Goal 3. absent in the MDGs themselves. They point
As governments and civil society come to the lack of a goal on reproductive rights,
together to track progress towards achieving or a decent work standard for women or
the MDGs, we have an opportunity to re- men, the absence of issues such as violence
energise gender-equality initiatives, by against women, and the narrow targets and
insisting on the central importance of Goal 3 indicators for the gender equality goal.
and the Millennium Declaration itself. As a As a result, many women's advocates
recent World Bank report notes: 'Because the have questioned the relevance of the MDGs
MDGs are mutually reinforcing, progress to their work. Why should women's
towards one goal affects progress towards organisations pay attention to the MDGs
others. Success in many of the goals will when the need to tackle the roll-back in
have positive impacts on gender equality, women's reproductive rights, the
just as progress toward gender equality will persistence of violence against women, and
help other goals' (World Bank Gender and the rise in militarisms, extremisms, poverty,
Development Group 2003, 3). It is thus and inequality is so urgent? Especially
absolutely essential to ensure that tracking when, at face value, the MDGs are
progress towards all of the eight Goals relies operational and are devoid of any analysis of
on sex-disaggregated data and gender- power relations. Nor do they take into
sensitive indicators. Many agencies and account the inequities within the global
advocates for gender equality are producing economic system that exacerbate existing
reports that will contribute to under- inequalities.
standing the gender dimensions of many of Several participants in the online
the goals and targets. discussion observed that, in much of the
Progress, however, will again depend on work on MDGs, the gender dimensions
the energy and commitment of women. were often missing or treated as an
How then, do women's equality advocates afterthought. As one said: 'We have been
view the MDGs? In order to find out, the witness to serious exclusions of a gender
United Nations Development Fund for perspective in MDG Task Forces, MDG
Women (UNIFEM), in co-operation with the Reports and PRSPs [Poverty Reduction
UN Interagency Network on Women and Strategy Papers]. This is just one symptom of
Gender Equality, the OECD/DAC Network a larger epidemic, that puts gender and
on Gender Equality, and the Multilateral human rights on a back burner.'
Development Bank Working Group on This has begun to change over the last
Gender, hosted a five-week online year, as gender advocates made themselves
discussion on gender and the MDGs with heard in the Task Forces working on
more than 400 women's equality advocates, strategies for achieving the Goals, and in the
representing UN agencies, bilateral donors, statistical agencies working on better data
multilateral development banks, and civil and indicators for monitoring progress.
society organisations, as well as States are already under formal, legal
independent scholars and activists. What obligations to realise gender equality,
did this tell us? particularly those states that have ratified
First, women's advocates are dismayed CEDAW. For every area covered by the
that, despite their success in pushing for MDGs, there is direction on gender equality
recognition of women's rights as human that exists in the core human rights treaties,
rights by governments through UN and through the concluding observations
conferences, many of these hard-won and recommendations of the treaty bodies
victories are not reaffirmed in the and special rapporteurs this direction has in
Making the links 11
This article discusses the third Millennium Development Goal (MDG), on gender equality and
women's empowerment. It explores the concept of women's empowerment and highlights ways in
which the indicators associated with this Goal - on education, employment, and political participation
-can contribute to it.
G
ender equality and women's
empowerment is the third of eight to bring about positive changes in women's
MDGs. It is an intrinsic rather than lives, but, in each case, it is the social
an instrumental goal, explicitly valued as an relationships that govern access to the
end in itself rather than as an instrument for resource in question that will determine the
achieving other goals. Important as extent to which this potential is realised.
education is, the translation of this goal into Thus, in each case, there is both positive and
the target of eliminating gender disparities negative evidence about the impact of
at all levels of education within a given time women's access to these resources on their
period is disappointingly narrow. However, lives. There are lessons to be learned from
the indicators to monitor progress in both. The article also considers some of the
achieving the goal are somewhat more wide- other 'resources' that have been overlooked
ranging: by the MDGs, but could be considered
equally important for the goal in question.
closing the gender gap in education at all
levels;
Conceptualising
increasing women's share of wage empowerment: agency,
employment in the non-agricultural
sector; resources, and achievement
First, however, it is important to clarify what
and increasing the proportion of seats
is implied by 'empowerment' in this article.
held by women in national parliaments.
One way of thinking about power is in terms
In this article, I interpret this as meaning that of the ability to make choices. To be
each of the three 'resources' implied by these disempowered means to be denied choice,
indicators - education, employment, and while empowerment refers to the processes
political participation - is considered by which those who have been denied the
essential to the achievement of gender ability to make choices acquire such an
equality and women's empowerment. Each ability. In other words, empowerment entails
14
change. People who exercise a great deal of The concept of empowerment can be
choice in their lives may be very powerful, explored through three closely interrelated
but they are not empowered, in the sense in dimensions: agency, resources, and
which I use the term, because they were achievements. Agency represents the
never disempowered in the first place. processes by which choices are made and put
However, for there to be a real choice, into effect. It is hence central to the concept of
certain conditions must be fulfilled: empowerment. Resources are the medium
through which agency is exercised; and
There must be alternatives - the ability to
achievements refer to the outcomes of agency.
have chosen differently. Poverty and
disempowerment generally go hand in Below, each of these dimensions is considered
hand, because an inability to meet one's in turn, as is their interrelationship in the
basic needs - and the resulting depend- context of empowerment.
ence on powerful others to do so - rules Agency
out the capacity for meaningful choice. Agency has both positive and negative
This absence of choice is likely to affect
connotations:
women and men differently, because
gender-related inequalities often Its positive sense - the 'power to' - refers
intensify the effects of poverty. to people's ability to make and act on
their own life choices, even in the face of
Alternatives must not only exist, they others' opposition.
must also be seen to exist. Power relations
are most effective when they are not Its negative sense - the 'power over' -
perceived as such. Gender often operates refers to the capacity of some actors to
through the unquestioned acceptance of override the agency of others through,
power. Thus women who, for example, for example, the exercise of authority or
internalise their lesser claim on the use of violence and other forms of
household resources, or accept violence coercion.
at the hands of their husbands, do so However, as noted earlier, power also
because to behave otherwise is operates in the absence of explicit forms of
considered outside the realm of agency. Institutional bias can constrain
possibility. These forms of behaviour people's ability to make strategic life choices.
could be said to reflect 'choice', but are Cultural or ideological norms may deny
really based on the denial of choice. either that inequalities of power exist or that
Not all choices are equally relevant to the such inequalities are unjust. Subordinate
definition of power. Some have greater groups are likely to accept, and even collude
significance than others in terms of their with, their lot in society, if challenging this
consequences for people's lives. Strategic life either does not appear possible or carries
choices include where to live, whether and heavy personal and social costs.
whom to marry, whether to have children, Agency in relation to empowerment,
how many children to have, who has therefore, implies not only actively
custody over children, freedom of exercising choice, but also doing this in ways
movement and association, and so on. These that challenge power relations. Because of
help to frame other choices that may be the significance of beliefs and values in
important for the quality of one's day-to-day legitimating inequality, a process of
life, but do not constitute its defining empowerment often begins from within. It
parameters. Finally, the capacity to exercise encompasses not only 'decision making' and
strategic choices should not violate this other forms of observable action but also the
capacity on the part of others. meaning, motivation, and purpose that
Gender equality and women's empowerment 15
individuals bring to their actions; that is, women's sense of independence, rather than
their sense of agency. Empowerment is simply meeting survival needs.
rooted in how people see themselves - their
sense of self-worth. This in turn is critically The interrelationship between agency,
bound up with how they are seen by those resources, and achievements
around them and by their society. There is a distinction, therefore, between
'passive' forms of agency (action taken when
Resources there is little choice), and 'active' agency
Resources are the medium through which (purposeful behaviour). There is also a
agency is exercised. They are distributed further important distinction between
through the various institutions and greater 'effectiveness' of agency, and agency
relationships in a society. In institutions, that is 'transformative'. The former relates to
certain actors have a privileged position over women's greater efficiency in carrying out
others concerning how rules, norms, and their given roles and responsibilities, the
conventions are interpreted, as well as how latter to their ability to act on the restrictive
they are put into effect. Heads of households, aspects of these roles and responsibilities in
chiefs of tribes, directors of firms, managers order to challenge them. For example, in
of organisations, and elites within a India, the reduction of overall child
community all have decision-making mortality has been associated with rising
authority in particular institutions by virtue female literacy. This can be interpreted as the
of their position. The way in which resources product of 'effective' agency on the part of
are distributed thus depends on the ability to women in their role as mothers. However,
define priorities and enforce claims. Equally the reduction of gender disparities in under-
importantly, it defines the terms on which five mortality rates has transformative
resources are made available. If a woman's implications, because it shows a form of
agency that is acting against the grain of
primary form of access to resources is as a
patriarchal values, which define daughters
dependent member of the family, her
as having less worth than sons.
capacity to make strategic choices is likely to
be limited. The focus in this article is on
transformative forms of agency on the part
Achievements of women and on those achievements that
Resources and agency make up people's suggest a greater ability on the part of poor
capabilities: that is, their potential for living women to question, analyse, and act on the
the lives they want. The term 'achievements' structures of patriarchal constraint in their
refers to the extent to which this potential is lives. The three dimensions that make up the
realised or fails to be realised; that is, to the concept of empowerment can be seen as
outcomes of people's efforts. In relation to representing the pathways through which
empowerment, achievements have been these processes of empowerment can occur.
considered in terms of both the agency Changes in any one dimension can lead
exercised and its consequences. For to changes in others. For instance,
example, taking up waged work would be 'achievements' in one sphere of life can form
regarded by the MDGs as evidence of the basis on which women seek improve-
progress in women's empowerment. ments in other spheres in the future. Policy
However, it would be far more likely to changes that provide women with access to
constitute such evidence if work was taken new 'resources' may be the result of their
up in response to a new opportunity or in collective action to achieve this change. Such
search of greater self-reliance, rather than as changes may occur over the life course of an
a 'distress sale' of labour. It is also far more individual or group or across generations, as
likely to be empowering if it contributes to mothers seek to give their daughters the
16
chances that they themselves never had. The immunised; educated women were more
reverse is also true. Inequalities in one likely than uneducated ones to know about
sphere are likely to get reproduced in other family planning; but only secondary-
spheres of society if they go unchallenged. schooled women revealed an in-depth
Today's inequalities are translated into the understanding about disease and prevention.
inequalities of tomorrow as daughters Education increases the likelihood that
inherit the same discriminatory structures women will look after their own well-being
that oppressed their mothers. along with that of their family. A study in
We are, therefore, interested in rural Zimbabwe found that among the
transformative forms of agency that do not factors that increased the likelihood of
simply address immediate inequalities but women accessing contraception and
are used to initiate longer-term processes of antenatal care - both of which improve
change in the structures of patriarchy. While maternal survival and well-being - were
changes in the consciousness and agency of education and paid work (Becker). In rural
individual women are an important starting Nigeria, 96 per cent of women with
point for such processes, it will do little on its secondary and higher education, 53 per cent
own to undermine the systemic of those with primary education, and 47 per
reproduction of inequality. Institutional cent of those with little or no education had
transformation requires movement along a sought post-natal care.
number of fronts: from individual to There are also other effects associated
collective agency, from private negotiations with education that suggest a change in
to public action, and from the informal power relationships within and outside the
sphere to the formal arenas of struggle household. In rural Bangladesh, educated
where power is legitimately exercised. The women in rural areas participate in a wider
question then is what the three resources range of decisions than uneducated ones.
identified by MDG 3 contribute to these Whereas the latter participated in an average
movements. of 1.1 decisions, the number increased to 1.6,
2.0, and 2.3 among women with primary,
Access to education middle, and secondary education
respectively. A study from Tamil Nadu
The positive effects of education found that better-educated women scored
There is considerable evidence for the claim higher than less educated women on a
that access to education can bring about composite index measuring their access to,
changes in cognitive ability, which is essential and control over, resources, as well as their
to women's capacity to question, to reflect on, role in economic decision-making.
and to act on the conditions of their lives and Educated women also appear less likely
to gain access to knowledge, information, and to suffer from domestic violence. A study by
new ideas that will help them to do so (see Sen in West Bengal noted that educated
review in Jejeebhoy 1995). This is evident in women were better able to deal with violent
everyday instances. In Kenya, it was found husbands: 'access to secondary stages of
that women with at least four years of education may have an important
schooling were able to correctly understand contributory role in enhancing women's
instructions for administering oral capacity to exercise control in their lives ...
rehydration salts; but only those with at least through a combination of literacy and
secondary education were able to explain the numeracy skills, and enhanced self-esteem'
environmental causes of diarrhoea. In (Sen 1999, 12). Similar findings were
Nigeria, less educated women were as likely recorded in rural Bangladesh (Schuler et al.
as educated ones to have their children 1996).
Gender equality and women's empoiverment 17
Education appears to increase women's resourced, schools, but, even within the same
capacity to deal with the outside world, school, different groups of children are
including government officials and service treated differently. Dalit children are
providers of various kinds. In rural Nigeria, sometimes made to sit separately from others,
uneducated women preferred not to deliver are verbally abused, are used for running
in hospitals because of the treatment they menial errands, and are physically punished
received at the hands of nurses, a treatment more often than higher-caste children. There
not meted out to the more educated and self- is also evidence of widespread gender bias,
confident women who were surveyed (cited with teachers showing more attention to boys
in Jejeebhoy 1995). Finally, the exposure to and having a lower opinion of girls' abilities.
new ideas can translate into direct collective The absence, or minority presence, of female
challenges to male prerogatives. The widely teachers is a problem in many areas.
documented anti-liquor movement Reinforcing the male dominance of public
mounted by members of Mahila Samakhya, services, it can act as a barrier to girls' access to
a literacy programme for women in India, and completion of schooling.
was sparked off by images of collective
Teachers in Africa also have different
action against alcoholism in their literacy
primer (Niranjana 2002). attitudes towards male and female students,
on the basis that boys need careers and girls
need husbands. They tend to be dismissive
Limits to education as a route to
and discouraging towards girls and to give
empowerment
more classroom time to boys, who are
However, there are also studies that suggest
that the changes associated with education usually more demanding. Even when girls
are likely to be conditioned by the context in are encouraged to pursue a career, they are
which it is provided and the social expected to opt for the 'caring' professions,
relationships that it embodies and promotes. in other words teaching and nursing. The
In societies that are characterised by extreme 'hidden curriculum' of school practice
forms of gender inequality, not only is reinforces messages about girls' inferior
women's access to education curtailed by status on a daily basis and provides them
various restrictions on their mobility and with a negative learning experience, thus
their limited role in the wider economy, but creating a culture of low self-esteem and low
its effects may also be more limited. Where aspirations.
women's role in society is defined purely in The less hidden content of the
reproductive terms, education is seen in educational curriculum also mirrors and
terms of equipping girls to be better wives legitimates wider social inequalities,
and mothers, or increasing their chances of denigrating physical labour (largely the
getting a suitable husband. These are preserve of poor people) and domestic
legitimate aspirations, given the realities of activities (largely the preserve of women).
the society. However, they do little to equip Gender stereotyping in the curriculum
girls and women to question the world portrays girls as passive, modest, and shy,
around them, and the subordinate status while boys are seen as assertive, brave, and
assigned to them. ambitious. This reinforces traditional gender
A second set of qualifications concerns the roles in society, and acts to limit the kinds of
relationships embodied in the delivery of futures that girls are able to imagine for
education. Social inequalities are often themselves. The design of educational
reproduced through interactions within the curricula has not yet taken account of the fact
school system. In India, for example, not only that many more women are entering the
do the children of poor and scheduled-caste labour market around the world, making
households attend different, and differently critical contributions to household income
18
and frequently heading their own initiate or expand women's own income-
households. Policy makers often continue to generating activities, despite the fact that
see the benefits of educating girls and these continued to be largely home-based
women in terms of improving family health (Hashemi et al. 1996; Schuler et al. 1996). A
and welfare, rather than preparing women recent survey of the impact of various
for a more equal place in the economy and in microfinance organisations (MFOs) in India
society. Women's lack of skills partly and Bangladesh noted that longer-term
explains why they continue to be confined to membership of such groups also led to
the poorer paid and more casualised forms various categories of wider impact, including
of paid work. higher levels of political participation,
These limitations to education as a route improved access to government
to empowerment do not negate the earlier programmes, and practical skills, as well as
positive findings, but they suggest the need knowledge of the wider society, self-
for caution in assuming that the effects of confidence in dealing with public officials,
education can be taken for granted or that and the likelihood of participating in protests
they will be uniform across all contexts. They and campaigns (Kabeer, forthcoming).
point to the various aspects of educational However, the study notes that these impacts
provision that militate against not only its depend not only on the provision of financial
empowerment potential but even its ability services of various kinds, but also on the
to attract and retain girls in school, kinds of group that MFOs promote.
particularly those from poor backgrounds.
Positive implications of wage labour in
agriculture
Access to paid work However, the most striking feature of recent
There is also a solid body of evidence to decades has been the large-scale entry of
show that access to paid work can increase women into the labour market across the
women's agency in strategic ways. world: the 'feminisation' of the labour force.
The rise of non-traditional agricultural
Positive implications of self-employment export (NTAE) production in a number of
Even paid work carried out in the home has African and Latin American countries has
the potential to shift the balance of power led to a rise in wage employment for women
within the family. A detailed study of women in medium- and large-scale production
engaged in industrial homework in Mexico units. Studies suggest that this income has
City noted that in households where brought about a number of economic
women's economic contribution was critical improvements for women themselves and
to household survival, women had been able for their families, and show that they
to negotiate a greater degree of respect exercise a considerable say in how their
(Benen'a and Roldan 1987). Studies of the money is spent (see, for instance, the review
impact of microcredit in societies where in Dolan and Sorby 2003). A study in
women have traditionally been excluded Ecuador found that more than 80 per cent of
from the cash economy have found that women in the flower industry managed their
women's access to credit led to a number of own wages. Among female employees in the
positive changes in women's own Kenyan vegetable industry, single women
perceptions of themselves, and their role in managed and controlled their own wages,
household decision making (Kabeer 2001; while married women usually managed
Kabeer forthcoming). It also led to a long- their incomes jointly with husbands.
term reduction in domestic violence, as well There is also significant evidence from
as an increase in women's assets. Such effects the vegetable industries of Guatemala and
were stronger when these loans were used to the Dominican Republic, and the flower
Gender equality and women's empowerment 19
not only to help their families but also to buy Honduras, for example, were more likely to
things for themselves without having to report a health problem in the previous
account to someone for whatever they spent. month than those who had been working
Others used their earnings to meet the elsewhere, and they had less leisure. Studies
demand for repayment of bride price or from Vietnam and Bangladesh both found
child support by husbands whom they long hours of work in the same position to be
wished to divorce. the major source of complaint among
In Honduras, women working in women workers in the export sector,
maquiladoras (assembling manufactured together with various ailments associated
goods for export) earned higher wages than with this.
workers elsewhere, and they reported Moreover, not all studies report positive
improvements in household relationships findings concerning women's capacity to
and help in domestic work from male have greater control over their lives. Many
members. They were more likely to have women who leave rural areas to take up jobs
voted in elections and more likely to feel that in towns, in order to make new friends and
they carried some weight with the build a life for themselves, do not have time
government. These trends became stronger to take up such opportunities. The division
over time. This may explain why, while most of labour in domestic chores and child care is
workers wanted to see improvements, rarely renegotiated between the sexes.
especially in their wages, 96 per cent Despite their increased labour input into
reported that they were very (49 per cent) or paid work, women (particularly married
somewhat (47 per cent) satisfied with their women) either continue to bear the main
jobs. Similarly, married women workers in burden of domestic work, or share it with
export-oriented manufacturing factories in a other female members of the household -
number of Caribbean countries reported often their daughters. By and large, gender
improvements in household relations as a inequalities in work burdens appear to be
result of their greater economic intensified. Despite the collective nature of
contributions, with greater sharing of their work, women workers in these sectors
decision making with male partners. are either forbidden to unionise or find it
difficult to do so.
The limits to empowerment through paid
work Moreover, despite the visibility of
On the other hand, most of these studies also export-oriented waged employment in
highlight the exploitative conditions of work agriculture and industry, the vast majority of
in which women are generally found. The women in low-income countries continue to
greatest attention has been paid to women work in the informal economy in various
who work in the agro and manufacturing forms of economic activities that may or may
industries, which seek to compete not be affected by global markets, but are
internationally through the promotion of characterised by far worse conditions.
flexible labour practices. Export-oriented Within this informal economy, poorer
manufacturing is associated with extremely women are concentrated in the most
long hours of work during busy seasons, casualised forms of waged labour, and low-
often combined with lay-offs in the slack value own-account enterprises. It is difficult
season, and poor conditions. In China, most to see how earnings generated by sex work,
women from the localities in which these domestic service, or daily labour on
industries are based shunned such work if construction sites - which is where the
they could find employment with higher poorest women are likely to be found - will
status or that was less tedious. There are also do much to improve women's subordinate
health hazards. Maquila workers in status at home or at work.
Gender equality and women's empowerment 21
1995, brought together parliamentarians and that many of the elected women were
NGOs to scrutinise the allocation of public gaining self-confidence. They questioned the
resources (Budlender, Hicks, and Vetten priorities of panchayat (local government)
2002). development programmes, emphasised
At the same time, it should be noted that, issues affecting women such as fuel and
at present, the women who enter national water, and had begun to build broad
parliaments are not generally drawn from alliances among themselves. One study
the ranks of poor people, nor is there any showed that women representatives were
guarantee that they will be more responsive likely to allocate resources differently from
to the needs and priorities of poor women men, suggesting that their presence allowed
than many men in parliament. a different set of priorities to be expressed.
Positive effects of local government
There is some debate about whether greater Building citizenship from
participation and influence in local the grassroots
government structures are more relevant
goals for poor women than increasing It is clear that each of the resources in
women's seats in national parliaments. The question had the potential to bring about the
former, after all, make the decisions that kinds of change that could lead to
most directly affect the lives of poor people. renegotiations of the boundaries between
In recognition of this, a number of states in public and private life, to collective forms of
India, where there is now 33 per cent struggle, and to women's greater represent-
reservation of seats for women in local ation in the structures of decision making.
government, have added further induce- Together, they could also provide the basis
ments to local communities to encourage on which women could organise to address
women's participation. Madhya Pradesh the other aspects of the patriarchal structures
and Kerala, for example, require that one- on which the MDGs are silent: reproductive
third of participants in the regular open rights, violence against women, unjust laws,
village meetings are female before there is and so on. However, it is also clear that there
considered to be a quorum. Kerala also are likely to be powerful forces, some within
allocates 10 per cent of development funds the policy domain itself, that will militate
received by local councils from the state to be against this happening. It is only through the
used for 'women's development' and to be mobilisation of women, particularly poor
managed by representatives of female women, who are primary stakeholders in all
groups of the village assembly. of the MDGs, but particularly the MDG on
Clearly, all these measures, including the women's empowerment, that policy makers
reservation policy itself, are open to abuse. can be held accountable to ensure that the
There has been much discussion in India MDGs are followed through in the spirit of
about the possibility that women are merely the international movements and meetings
proxies for husbands or powerful men that gave rise to them. Yet it is precisely this
within their family or caste. Objections are that is missing from the letter and spirit of the
raised on the grounds that only supporters MDGs. The vision and values of women's
of parties in power attend village meetings; groups and organisations across the world
or that women are being harassed to spend have been translated into a series of technical
funds in ways that do not benefit poorer goals, to be implemented mainly by the very
women. While these are valid concerns, they actors and institutions that have blocked
may also alter over time, as women become their realisation in the past.
more experienced in the political arena. If the vision and values that gave rise to
Studies from India, for example, showed the demand for gender equality and
Gender equality arid women's empowerment 23
potential for change will be limited. Africa: expanding into diverse initiatives' in
Women's access to paid work may give them Gender Budgets Make More Cents, London:
a greater sense of self-reliance and greater Commonwealth Secretariat
purchasing power, but if it is undertaken in Dolan, C.S. and K. Sorby (2003) Gender and
conditions that erode their health and exploit Employment in High Value Agriculture Industries,
Agriculture and Rural Development Working
their labour, its costs may outweigh its
Paper series, no. 7, Washington DC: World Bank
benefits. Women's presence in the Goetz, A.-M. (2003) 'Women's political effectiveness
governance structures of society clearly - a conceptual framework', in A.-M. Goetz and
carries the potential to change unjust S. Hassim (eds.) Wo Shortcuts to Power: African
practices, but if the women in question are Women in Politics and Policy Making, London: Zed
drawn from a narrow elite, if they have been Books
invited rather than elected, and if they have Hashemi, S.M., S.R. Schuler, and A.P. Riley (1996)
no grassroots constituency to represent and 'Rural credit programs and women's
answer to, their presence will be only a token empowerment in Bangladesh', World
one. Development 24(4): 635-53
Jejeebhoy, S. (1995) Women's Education, Autonomy,
The question, therefore, is to what extent
and Reproductive Behaviour: Experience from
the international community is prepared to Developing Countries, Oxford: Clarendon Press
provide support to women at the grassroots Kabeer, N. (1999) 'Resources, agency, achievements:
- support which will ensure that they have reflections on the measurement of women's
the collective capabilities necessary to play empowerment', Development and Change 30(3):
this role. 435-64
Kabeer, N. (2001) 'Conflicts over credit: re-
Naila Kabeer is Professorial Fellow at the evaluating the empowerment potential of loans
Institute of Development Studies, University of to women in rural Bangladesh', World
Sussex. She can be contacted at Development 29(1): 63-84
n.kabeer@ids.ac.uk Kabeer, N. (forthcoming) 'From social exclusion to
citizenship: wider social impacts of
microfinance', in J. Copestake, M. Greeley, N.
Note Kabeer, S. Johnson, and A. Simanowitz (eds.)
Money With A Mission. Microfinance and Poverty
1 This article is an edited version of a chapter in Reduction, Rugby: ITDG Publications
Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the
Niranjana, S. (2002) 'Exploring gender inflections
Millennium Development Coals: A Handbook for
within Panchayat Raj institutions. Women's
Policy-makers and Other Stakeholders, by Naila
politicisation in Andhra Pradesh' in K. Kapadia
Kabeer, published by the Commonwealth
(ed.) The Violence of Development. The Politics of
Secretariat, London, in 2003.
Identity, Gender and Social Inequalities in India,
New Delhi: Kali for Women
References Schuler, S.R., S.M. Hashemi, A.P. Riley, and A.
Akhter (1996) 'Credit programs, patriarchy and
Becker, S. (1997) 'Incorporating Women's men's violence against women in rural
Empowerment in Studies of Reproductive Bangladesh', Social Science and Medicine 43(12):
Health: An Example from Zimbabwe', paper 1729-42
presented at seminar on Female Empowerment Sen P. (1999) 'Enhancing women's choices in
and Demographic Processes, University of Lund responding to domestic violence in Calcutta: a
Benen'a, L. and M. Rold^n (1987) The Crossroads of comparison of employment and education', The
Class and Gender: Industrial Homework European journal of Development Research 11(2)
Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico
City, Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Budlender, D., J. Hicks, and L. Vetten (2002) 'South
25
As the global corporate agenda has Economic Reforms in Africa network has
strengthened its reach, it has increasingly pointed out, this has had a devastating impact
marginalised - or co-opted - the UN as a on women's livelihoods (GERA 2005).
space for influencing global economic Alejandro Bendana notes that the notion
policy, as was evident in the UN Financing of 'good governance'4 and the MDGs have
for Development process from 2001-2. The been linked in current development
UN International Conference on Financing discourse, promoting human rights,
for Development was held in Monterrey, democracy, rule of law, property rights, and
Mexico, in 2002. The Monterrey Consensus neo-liberal economics (Bendana 2004). Yet he
represented a deal between the countries of argues that 'the faulty notion of "good
the global North and South, in which poor governance" is taking us away from the
Southern countries would take more internal [MDGs] because it entails placing the state
responsibility for addressing corruption, and society at the service of the market'
adopting fiscal policy perceived as sound by (ibid.). In his view, the Washington
the international financial institutions, and Consensus version of 'good governance' is to
generating internal resources. In exchange, strengthen the state in terms of its ability to
there would be some debt cancellation (with administer economic policies that serve
continued conditionalities3), opening of transnational capital. In this equation,
Northern markets to Southern goods, and governance has been separated from popular
increased Official Development Assistance democracy and sovereignty. Civil society
(ODA). gets involved as 'stakeholders', not political
This deal was incorporated into the actors. The IFIs and donors 'limit themselves
MDGs in Goal 8 (global partnership for to procedural definitions of democracy ...
development). It is worth noting that NGOs, imposing neo-liberal economic policies as
including many women's organisations, part of liberal political values that... further
rejected the Monterrey Consensus, partic- transfer power towards the top ... Both the
ularly because it did not address systemic public and standing governmental structures
issues of power and wealth distribution in become disempowered' (ibid.). The global
global financial governance. trade and finance regime, and global political
Despite the consensus, there has been little misgovernance, are unquestioned in the
willingness on the part of the USA and the EU MDG framework. Hunger and poverty are
to change their agricultural trade policies or to seen not as political issues, but as technical
open markets, as witnessed at the Cancun concerns. Yet, notes Bendana, 'poverty,
Ministerial of the WTO in 2003. Similarly, the hunger and bad government cannot be
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) eliminated without the democratisation of
Initiative of the World Bank and the IMF aims policy-making to the most local level
to provide meagre debt cancellation in possible' (ibid.).
exchange for economic 'reforms', through
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs). Globalisation and the
In actuality, the PRSP process has led to little
debt cancellation. In comparison, it has led to
backlash against women's
enormous changes in terms of the rights
privatisation of public services, the opening The world has changed in many other ways
of Southern markets to imports, the end of too in the time since the UN conferences of the
subsidies for agriculture and other key sectors 1990s. Women are experiencing a backlash
in poor economies, and the influx of foreign against equality and human rights, as the
capital and foreign goods at the expense of outcome of the current rise of the three
local economies. As the Gender and interrelated forces of economic neo-liberalism,
28
and choices, reproductive health, sexual including it as one of the eight Goals. For
rights, and legal protections). Of greatest example, they include Goals related to
importance is the need to advocate for these HIV, maternal health, and gender
rights in an integrated way that does not equality, but have left out the overall
prioritise one set of rights while ignoring Cairo goal of universal access to sexual
others, forcing women into impossible and reproductive health care for all by
trade-offs. Many women's rights activists 2015. In so doing, they vastly reduce
are concluding that they must work in government accountability on women's
multiple arenas at multiple levels, without rights and obscure key concerns such as
abandoning one arena for another. Beyond violence, labour, reproductive rights,
strategic questions about how and when to and women's unpaid labour. This is
engage with official institutions in the quest critical: overcoming male domination of
for accountability, the larger question is how women in the private sphere of the
women can build movements that can household, violence against women, and
challenge the forces of neo-liberalism, the invisibility of women's unpaid labour
political fundamentalisms, and militarisms in the economy are all central to women's
in a way that affirms gender equality and all ability to secure their own livelihoods
human rights. and participate in development.
open markets in the North to Southern them as a tool to advance their agendas.
goods. For peoples in the North, this is These issues are part of an important
problematic because it apparently dialogue in which women's organisations
absolves their governments of respon- are just beginning to engage. The Association
sibility to address issues of poverty, for Women's Rights in Development (AWID)
gender equality, and environmental is conducting a broad study on the sources
sustainability within their own borders and nature of funding for women's
(commitments that they made in the movements, and their implications for the
1990s). kinds of agenda that these movements can
consequently further. For women's groups, a
All this goes some way to explain women's
reticence to embrace the Goals, and why key question is how to assess strategically the
Peggy Antrobus, in her article in this issue political impact of engagement in particular
and elsewhere, has referred to them as issues at this moment, in the context of their
'Major Distraction Gimmicks'. own agenda, and grounded in their
Yet, as the UN system and bilateral and particular local realities.
private donors mobilise their resources to
implement the MDGs, and the Beijing ten- Women mobilising for
year review (Beijing+10) in March 2005 is action
minimised on the global agenda, many
women also feel that they need to be where Women's organisations have responded in
the action is, to influence and shape policy multiple ways over the past two years, often
and the flow of resources. At the local level, reflecting different regional realities as well
many Southern countries are developing as where they find themselves in global
plans to implement the MDGs that ignore social movements and vis-a-vis donors. What
gender and Beijing commitments. A second is beginning to emerge are efforts to use the
Millennium Summit in September 2005 MDGs to continue to advance women's
(MDGs+5) will measure progress on the broader social-justice agenda, without being
MDGs and may continue to ignore gender distracted by the limitations of the MDG
issues if women's voices are not present. So conceptual framework.
the ongoing task is to discern where the key At the global level, women activists are
battles are, and how much should be insisting on the importance of integrating
invested in the process. the Beijing+10 and MDG+5 Reviews. This
One further aspect of the debates among entails demands that commitments made in
women's organisations is about the extent to Beijing in 1995 be reflected in efforts to
which donors may be setting the agenda. implement the MDGs, and that these
Many government and private donors have commitments be structured into the debates
embraced the MDGs, and are seeking civil and official outcome documents of these
society partners. Funds are flowing for MDG intergovernment meetings. This work is also
work. For struggling women's groups and being done at a conceptual level by NGOs.
other civil society organisations, it is hard to As an example, the International Planned
ignore this reality. This creates further Parenthood Federation (IPPF) Western
tensions, and many groups have expressed Hemisphere Region and partners hosted
doubts about the process. After many two symposia in 2004 to explore the
negative reactions to the MDGs in the early centrality of sexual and reproductive health
stages, some groups are now getting on in relation to the MDGs. Their meeting in Rio
board because they find that their donors are de Janeiro in December 2004 addressed the
tying funding to MDG engagement. Others interaction between the MDGs, sexual and
feel they can engage with the MDGs and use reproductive health and human rights,
Where to for women's movements and the MDGs? 31
which raise the bar. As noted earlier, the aid, and for a reduction in military spending
conference in Rio de Janeiro in 2004, to meet MDGs and their 'related livelihood
sponsored by the IPPF Western Hemisphere rights' (ibid.). The groups made a concrete
Region, gathered regional feminists to suggestion of using the MDGs as 'one of the
explore how to affirm reproductive rights tools that enable the advancement of human
within the MDGs. Several events at the 2005 rights and sustainable development within
World Social Forum, including one co- the context of people's ongoing struggle for
sponsored by the Latin American and their basic right to live and sustainable
Caribbean Committee for the Defence of livehoods' (ibid.). They called for alternative
Women's Rights (CLADEM), sought to people-centred reports on MDG implem-
'"engender" the MDGs'.7 entation, participation in the MDG+5
Asia Review, and in the 5th WTO Ministerial in
Responses to the MDGs in Asia reflect a Hong Kong in December 2005. Sunila
reality of poverty, racial, ethnic and caste Abeyesekera of the Sri Lankan human rights
divisions, and militarism. Women's organisation, INFORM, who was present at
responses have often been linked to those of the event, described the rationale as follows:
broader social movements with which they
as women's rights activists, we are faced with
work. The statement of the Asian Civil
the challenge of engaging in a serious attempt
Society Forum, held in Bangkok in
November 2004 by the Conference of NGOs to transform the MDGs at the national level, to
(CONGO), and including women's and fulfil at least some of our most primary
feminist organisations, affirmed 'critical aspirations in terms of women's health and
engagement' with the MDGs. They focused education, while at the same time engaging in a
on the Millennium Declaration, which critical evaluation of the overall implications of
underscores the need for a human rights reducing the sum total of human aspirations in
perspective for the implementation of the the 21st century to a few basic needs ... In
MDGs, and also affirmed the UN particular, the framework for fulfillment of the
Declaration on the Right to Development: MDGs [must] confront and overcome violence
and discrimination against women and
the MDGs can be meaningfully achieved only
guarantee the equality of women within the
if issues of exclusion and discrimination, as
family and in the 'private sphere'.
luell as structural causes of poverty ... are
(Abeyesekera 2004, 7)
made central to the implementation process ...
Governments and relevant agencies have to
draw on international commitments and Europe
obligations [to gender equality] as set out in ... Some women's organisations in Europe,
the Beijing Platform ... and... CEDAW. particularly the Nordic countries, have taken
(Asian Civil Society Forum 2004) on the task of holding their governments
The Asian Civil Society Forum expressed accountable on Goal 7 (environment) and
concerns about the potential use of the Goal 8 (global partnership), while
MDGs to justify privatisation of public continuing work to convince both govern-
services, proposals emerging from the ments and NGO colleagues to integrate
Millennium Project to promote genetically gender analysis and a commitment to
modified organisms, and the perception of gender equality into these Goals. KULU
marginalised sectors as 'stakeholders' (Women in Development of Denmark) is one
instead of rights-holders. The members such group engaged in this process.
called for commitments from the North on
Goal 8, including debt relief, fair trade, and
34
Conclusion Notes
1 I differentiate here between women's
As we have seen, many women are reluctant organisations and feminist organisations.
players in the MDG game, but they continue Women's organisations may organise around
to feel the need to be at the table to push for a women's needs, including a social and economic
gender-equality agenda that is integrated agenda, but may not claim to be feminist. I refer
into all areas of development and peace. They to feminist organisations, self-defined, as groups
are not conceding any terrain on Beijing and that bring a systemic analysis of patriarchy to
their activism. I refer to women's movements
Cairo commitments, but many are using the
(plural) because they are many and diverse.
MDGs as a vehicle to keep women's issues on
2 The Washington Consensus refers to a set of
the global agenda. They are challenged to
policy prescriptions emanating from the IMF
link with other social movements, and to and the World Bank which have encouraged the
address systemic macro-economic issues, opening of markets, a reduced role for the state
while insisting on the need for gender justice in the economy, and export-oriented growth.
and an integrated analysis of inequality, 3 'Conditionalities' here refers to the economic
including race/ethnicity, caste, and class. and legal prescriptions urged by the World
This means strengthening women's Bank, the IMF, Regional Development Banks,
movements and organising to tackle the and often bilateral donors, as a condition for aid,
powers behind neo-liberalism, fundament- credit, or debt relief. Early on, these included
alisms, and militarism. It means, also, being calls to liberalise trade, focus on exports, cut
strategically present in multiple international wages and social spending, and devalue
currency. More recently, conditions have
arenas, from the UN, to the G8, to the WTO,
included calls to privatise public goods and
while strengthening local work. It is always a enterprises, and to change laws and even
dual task to convince male allies that the constitutions to comply with WTO rules and
feminist agenda is central to the social-justice guarantee the rights of foreign capital.
agenda and to mobilise with these allies to 4 As understood within the UN and international
challenge entrenched power. Despite global financial institution (IFI) development context,
backlash, there are signs of vitality in 'good governance' refers to national government
women's movements, including young commitments to adopt 'responsible fiscal
women organising around feminist concerns, policy', contain corruption, and establish legal
and the Feminist Dialogues (2005). These, structures that enable capital, particularly
foreign capital, to be managed according to
among others, offer hopeful signs for the
predictable rules. It does not tend to refer to
future. respect for human rights, including economic
Carol Barton is co-ordinator of Women's and social rights, people's political participation,
International Coalition for Economic Justice equitable taxation, national economic
sovereignty, or other concerns of civil society.
(WICEJ) (www.wicej.org), a coalition of more
5 The United Nations Development Fund for
than 40 organisations from all regions of the
Women has a new resource to assist women's
world, addressing gender and macro-economic organisations in this area; see UNIFEM (2004).
policy from an integrated feminist perspective 6 Co-sponsors included, among others, ActionAid,
which explores gender, race, and class AWID, Centre for Women's Global Leadership
oppressions. (CWGL), Comite de America Latina Y el Caribe
Para la Defensa de los Derechos de la Mujer
(Latin American and Caribbean Committee for
the Defence of Women's Rights - CLADEM),
INFORM Sri Lanka, International Confederation
of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), International
Gender and Trade Network (IGTN),
International Women's Health Coalition
(IWHC), Red de Educaci6n Popular Entre
Where to for women's movements and the MDGs? 35
Approaches to reducing
maternal mortality:
Oxfam and the MDGs
Arabella Fraser
The political momentum of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), coupled with a technical
consensus about how to tackle maternal mortality, greatly improves the prospect of reducing women's
death and disability rates. In its campaigning and advocacy work on the MDGs, Oxfam will focus on
the need to raise the national and international finance for the investments that this requires. Finance
is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for change to the lives of millions of women who suffer as a
result of pregnancy and childbirth - and it is sorely lacking. This is no argument for technical quick-
fixes, however. International efforts to reduce maternal mortality must concentrate on improving
health systems - a project that entails rebuilding states to deliver services - but they must also look to
an advocacy grounded in women's rights, as articulated in the Beijing Platform for Action and the
Cairo process.
Oxfam and the MDGs despite all this, the MDGs are under threat.
Only the target of halving income poverty
Oxfam has adopted the MDGs as a has any chance of being met, and even this is
framework for action in 2005 and beyond, in due to progress in just a few countries
the belief that they represent an (World Bank and IMF 2004). Suggestions are
unprecedented opportunity to combat
even emerging to the effect that the MDG
global poverty and suffering. The commit-
deadlines should be postponed to 2050
ments made by developed and developing-
(Painter 2004).
country governments in 2000, the
constellation of events in 2005 (in particular
the UN Special Assembly on MDG The importance of the
progress), and the political momentum that MDG on maternal health
this is now generating provide civil society
organisations with a critical opportunity to The high level of maternal death in the
effect change. Undoubtedly, the aims of the developing world is a tragedy in itself. It
MDGs fall far short of the eradication of reflects a gross violation of human rights by
global poverty and suffering: it is estimated the world's governments. At a conservative
that reaching the Goal 1 target to halve estimate, at least 530,000 women die each
income poverty would still leave 694m year from causes related to pregnancy and
people living on less than $1 a day in 2015 childbirth (WHO, UNICEF and UNFPA
(Pogge 2003); but it is also true that they 2003) - a toll that amounts to one death every
should be both realistic and achievable. They minute. On top of this, severe pregnancy-
represent a mechanism for political related complications induce high levels of
accountability that is linked to outcomes and morbidity, affecting around 15 million
is multi-sectoral - delivering results where it women each year and in many cases leading
matters, to tackle the broad underlying to long-term disability. The impact on family
causes of poverty. The sad fact is that, and community is equally stark. Beyond the
Approaches to reducing maternal mortality 37
immediate suffering and grief caused, outcome-based targets, only two - on gender
maternal deaths diminish children's own life equity and education, and maternal health -
chances. Death rates for these children, are specifically directed at issues of gender
measured over the two years after their inequity. As Lynn Freedman has argued
mothers' deaths, are between three and ten previously in Gender and Development in
times higher than for children with both response to criticisms of the limited attention
parents living (Panos Institute 2002). Recent paid to gender in the MDG framework,
estimates for Africa, where almost half of all 'there is space for feminist action around the
maternal deaths take place, are that between remaining MDG on reducing maternal
2001 and 2010 there will be 2.5m maternal mortality' (Freedman 2003). It is the only
deaths, 7.5m child deaths, and 49m maternal goal with an explicit connection to women's
disabilities, with a cost to economic health, but it also represents an opportunity
productivity of US$45m (WHO 2004). to highlight the political, cultural, and
More than any other indicator for health, economic barriers that women face when
maternal mortality figures reveal huge gulfs seeking access to health care.
between rich and poor countries. The risk of
death over the course of a woman's
reproductive lifetime in the UK is 1 in 3,800;
A new opportunity for
the figure is 1 in 8,700 in Canada (WHO, progress
UNICEF and UNFPA 2003). But in Setting international targets to reduce
developing countries, the risk is of a maternal mortality is not new. In 1987, the
different magnitude. In Sierra Leone and Safe Motherhood Conference set the
Afghanistan, a woman's lifetime risk of objective of reducing the number of
maternal death is 1 in 6. Estimated maternal maternal deaths by at least half within a
mortality ratios,1 the basis for the MDG decade. However, the conditions for action
target, are 13 deaths per 100,000 live births in on maternal mortality have changed,
the UK, compared with 1,800 in Malawi. meaning that the MDG set of targets should
Maternal mortality-related measures also be operationalised more effectively. First,
show the depth of national disparities in there is far greater knowledge about
access to health care. In Yemen, half of all maternal health than ever before. The first
women in the richest quintile are cared for by global estimates of maternal mortality were
a skilled attendant at birth, compared with not made until the mid-1980s (Standing
less than 10 per cent for the poorest women 2004). Measuring maternal mortality is still
(Public World 2004). difficult: under-reporting, incorrect diag-
The outlook for progress on maternal nosis, and poor recording systems make
mortality is currently grim. On current statistics unreliable, and the measure of
trends, only 17 per cent of developing deliveries by skilled health personnel is
countries are likely to meet the target of commonly used as a proxy for maternal
reducing the maternal mortality ratio by mortality ratios. Nevertheless, since the
three-quarters (Wagstaff and Claeson 2004). founding of the Safe Motherhood Initiative
Maternal mortality ratios have barely in 1987, a vast body of evidence has been
declined in many developing countries, and generated about its causes and consequences
have even increased in Africa, exacerbated (Weil and Fernandez 1999).
by the spread of HIV/AIDS (DFID 2004). There is also a much clearer consensus
The MDG on maternal health, for which than at any time previously about the
maternal mortality is the specific indicator, is strategies required to reduce maternal
also significant within the theoretical context mortality. Based on the fact that 80 per cent
of gender and the MDGs. Out of seven of all deaths are caused by complications (in
38
particular haemorrhage, or severe bleeding, are certainly more grounds than ever before
infection, hypertensive disorders, and to believe that these preconditions are
obstructed labour) that are easily treatable, it coalescing at an international level for a
is recognised that the interventions with reduction of maternal mortality in the
greatest life-saving potential are (1) the developing world.
provision of skilled attendants at birth and
(2) Emergency Obstetric Care, with an
effective referral system in place to ensure Financing gains in maternal
that when complications are identified, mortality
women access the necessary health care One of the main obstacles to capitalising on
(Freedman et al. 2004). In the 1980s and early these trends is the failure to finance maternal
1990s, practitioners focused on training health. Increased finance alone is not a
Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) and sufficient condition for achieving progress,
providing antenatal care. Both are important but it is nevertheless a necessary one. In the
aspects of improving attendant factors to absence of additional finance for countries
maternal mortality, such as poor nutrition or with high maternal mortality levels, the
anaemia, which increase a woman's MDG will undoubtedly be missed.
susceptibility to complications. However,
Developing-country governments need
neither alone will bring down death rates.
to allocate greater shares of their public
Complications are difficult to predict,
budget to basic social services. In Abuja in
meaning that antenatal care is unlikely to be
2001, African governments committed
able to identify women at greater risk. And
themselves to devote at least 15 per cent of
when potentially fatal complications do
their spending to improving health services;
occur, attendants need to possess a far higher
but almost all countries in sub-Saharan
level of skill than can be expected of TBAs.
Africa allocate less than 10 per cent of their
Even then women may ultimately require
budgets for this purpose (Oxfam
access to emergency care facilities capable of
International 2004). However, for
performing Caesarean section operations
developing countries to mobilise the
and blood transfusions. There has also been
necessary resources to improve health
increasing recognition that although family
services will take many years - and women
planning reduces the number of
are dying today. The Commission on
pregnancies, and therefore the number of
Macroeconomics and Health estimates the
deaths, it does not alter the risk of dying once
additional cost of providing an essential
pregnant (Weil and Fernandez 1999).
health 'package' in low-income countries at
Both developments are the result of a more than double current average health
broader shift in attitudes to maternal health, budgets. Even allocating developing-
away from seeing it as instrumental to country expenditure more efficiently, the
population control and child welfare, to amount that developing countries could
recognising it as an end in itself (Kabeer mobilise by 2007 would be less than half the
1994). This is an important step. In a study of level required to cover a basic health
the preconditions for reducing maternal package, with a 30 per cent shortfall in 2015
mortality in industrialised countries, De (Commission on Macroeconomics and
Brouwere, Tonglet, and Van Lerberghe Health 2001). For the poorest countries,
identify the following as key factors: marginalised from the global economy, aid
awareness of the magnitude of the problem, is the only source of finance that can be
a recognition that it is avoidable, and the released in the time-frame and in the
mobilisation of health professionals and the predictable, targeted manner required to fill
community (De Brouwere et al. 1998). There the financial gap to meet the MDGs. It is for
Approaches to reducing maternal mortality 39
this reason that the MDGs include a HIV/AIDS epidemic, but it remains low: in
requirement for rich countries to provide 2002, aid to health and population
more generous aid. programmes amounted to only 8 per cent of
The scale of mortality rates can create the development assistance (DAC 2004). Of this,
impression that resolving the problem will it is difficult to tell how much is allocated to
require vast financial resources. However, programmes that contribute to reducing
the investment needed is relatively modest. maternal mortality (a problem in itself), but
The World Bank and World Health just over one-third supports reproductive
Organization (WHO) estimate that the cost health-care and population activities, one-
of providing basic maternal services third funds basic health care, while the rest
averages around US$3 per person in goes to general health care and non-basic
developing countries (Goodburn and health services. Studies from 1990 showed
Campbell 2001). The total cost of such health finance for reproductive health to be
coverage for sub-Saharan Africa would strongly biased towards family-planning
amount to around US$1.5bn. This is just half programmes; 42 per cent went to family
a day's total health spending in the USA. The planning, while just 0.2 per cent went to Safe
annual incremental cost of cutting maternal Motherhood programmes - the main
mortality by 75 per cent is around US$4bn - initiative at the time with responsibility for
a price equivalent to 0.01 per cent of the maternal mortality (Standing 2004).
combined GDP of the OECD countries, or
just two days' worth of military spending by
the G8 countries.
Financing health-care
Yet the major aid donors have yet to
services that are responsive
make available the necessary finance. to women's needs
Overall, at least US$50bn extra a year is Maternal mortality ratios highlight the
estimated to be necessary to meet the MDGs, importance of investment in building
and the value of existing aid is reduced by effective health systems. Indeed, maternal
such practices as tying aid to the purchase of mortality rates are often seen as a key
goods and services in the donor countries indicator of the state of a country's health
(Oxfam International 2004). Countries system, with poorly functioning systems
continue to pay out more in debt service than unable to supply the necessary skilled
they spend on essential health services: 10 personnel and emergency obstetric facilities.
out of 14 African countries included in the More broadly, the effect of the MDGs has
Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) been 'to place the expansion and improve-
Initiative, which aims to relieve countries of ment of basic public services at the heart of
heavy debt burdens, continue to spend more international development policy' (Public
on debt repayments than health (ibid.). World 2004). The UN Task Force on Child
Meanwhile, major health initiatives remain Health and Maternal Health describes weak
starved of cash: at the 1994 Conference on health systems as 'the primary obstacle to
Population and Development, developed meeting the MDGs' (Freedman el al. 2004).
countries agreed to pay around one-third of Without doubt, legal, managerial, and
the cost of a programme to deliver sexual human-resource reforms need to accompany
and reproductive health and rights to all by the provision of finance for health systems.
2015. Despite a target of providing US$5.7bn However, it also needs to be recognised that
by 2000, only US$2bn of this amount was the potential for institutional and organ-
made available (UNFPA 2003). Aid to the isational change is undermined by the lack of
health sector in general has been increasing, resources. In addition, undertaking to build
in large part due to concerns about the effective health systems has implications for
40
the type of international finance provided. paying for services may not be taken by
Donors will need to finance recurrent costs, women themselves, and where cost places
salaries, and maintenance, not just one-off increased constraints on families' use of
capital investments. Funding needs to be health care, women's health needs are not
predictable and long-term. Donors need to prioritised.
move away from funding their own stand- An important lesson from the history of
alone projects and other vertical universal state provision is that equity is not
programmes. Oxfam's own research in guaranteed. Studies in the UK show that
Ethiopia reveals that current HIV/AIDS although the introduction of universal free
programmes could divert around half of health care in the late 1940s led to dramatic
existing health personnel away from their reductions in maternal mortality, there was
current activities (Fraser 2004). little impact on inequality between income
The capacity of states in the developing groups (Watt 2000). There is little current
world to provide such services is weak, and work focused on how to ensure gender-
has been weakened further by Structural equitable state health provision, although a
Adjustment Policies. Many governments key component of this is known to be the
reduced health expenditure in real terms in quality of care, with studies showing that the
the 1980s and 1990s: Zambia's per capita interpersonal skills and attitude of staff are
spend on health fell by 50 per cent each as important an influence on women's
decade, for example (Public World 2004). It decisions to seek care as are their technical
is estimated that Africa will require lm skills (Buttiens et al. 2004). In Yemen, female
additional health workers to ensure the patients identified the lack of a female
staffing required to deliver basic health medical practitioner as an important reason
interventions (High-Level Forum on the for not using state health-care services
Health MDGs 2004). Health care is now (Public World 2004).
provided by a plethora of actors - not just the
private sector, but NGOs and faith-based
organisations as well as traditional healers.
Engaging with rights-based
However, for Oxfam, investing in state approaches to reducing
provision is vital, as the state is theoretically maternal mortality
the only provider with the means to ensure As a rights-based organisation engaged in
nationwide, equitable, and sustainable monitoring the MDGs, Oxfam has a keen
coverage. As Oxfam set out in 2000, leaving interest in forging links with the
such social provision to the market leads to constituency of analysis and practice that
inequity in access and reinforces income emerged from the Cairo process and the
inequality, with the poorest people having to Beijing conference in the 1990s. What the
put aside a greater proportion of their International Conference on Population and
incomes to pay for services, which in the Development in Cairo in 1994 did was to link
health sector are often highly unpredictable sexual and reproductive health to rights for
and large (Watt 2000). Introducing market the first time, emphasising women's
mechanisms into state structures has a empowerment and the provision of
similar effect: in Yemen the introduction of universal, high-quality reproductive health
user fees meant that one person in two could services (Standing 2004). These commit-
not afford basic health treatment, thus either ments to gender equality and reproductive
forgoing the treatment or accumulating health were reinforced at the Fourth World
debts to pay for it (Public World 2004). Conference on Women, or the Beijing
Particularly pertinent for reducing maternal Platform for Action (ibid.). Elements of the
mortality rates is the fact that decisions about constituencies that fought so hard to achieve
Approaches to reducing maternal mortality 41
this in the 1990s are critical of the MDG Bahrain and Kuwait have reduced levels of
process, on the following basis: it represents maternal mortality, despite women's low
no more than a 'Most Distracting Gimmick', status (McCarthy and Maine 1992).
which diverts attention from international Second, attention to a human rights
agreements made prior to the MDGs - framework draws attention to the fact that
agreements that have greater potential to sexual and reproductive rights, agreed upon
advance women's equity and empowerment at the International Conference on
(Antrobus 2004); and the absence of a rights- Population and Development in Cairo in
based framework means that the MDG 1994, were deliberately written out of the
indicators are devoid of important notions of MDGs by a US-led conservative alliance. This
agency and empowerment and pay has ramifications for donor and government
insufficient attention to vulnerable groups policies relating to women's reproductive
(Robinson 2004) as well as the power choices, with a knock-on effect on maternal
relations that affect women, which sanction mortality. The most striking example of this
among other things violence both in the is US policy on abortion. The Bush
family and the community (Abeyesekera administration in 2001 restored the 'Mexico
2004). City Policy', which prohibits funding for
Engagement with this powerful critique groups that provide or promote abortion.
is vital for all working on the MDGs, but in With 18 per cent of all maternal deaths
particular for those concerned with maternal attributed to unsafe abortion, it is of grave
mortality. Indeed, authors such as Hilary concern that the largest bilateral funder of
Standing partly attribute the slow progress health programmes in the world is not
on improving reproductive health services tackling this issue - and despite the evidence
to insufficient dialogue between the that abortion continues even when better
protagonists of reproductive health family planning is available (Pearson and
(associated with Cairo) and health-sector Sweetman 1994). The rule has also meant cuts
reform (increasingly associated with the to health programmes around the world,
MDGs). Yet, first, attention to a human rights with funding to the United Nations Fund for
framework leads us to understand that Population Activities (UNFPA), the largest
although the emergence of a 'technical multilateral source of assistance for
consensus' is a major breakthrough, there is reproductive health and population pro-
no technical quick-fix. For the supply of grammes, stopped for three years in a row,
modern health care to be effective, there also while Population Action International has
has to be demand. Among poorer women, charted the closure of clinics in Bangladesh,
although the need for care will be greater, the Ghana, and Kenya and cuts to reproductive
ability to access care may be limited by their health services in Tanzania and Ethiopia as a
status, as women are not economically or result {Observer 2004).
socially able to take their own decisions A rights-based perspective also reveals
about seeking health treatment. In parts of the underlying socio-economic and cultural
Afghanistan, for instance, women are not causes of women's poor health. Socio-
permitted to leave home unless accom- economic and cultural factors indirectly
panied by a male family member (Oxfam GB increase the risks of maternal death. Women
2004). Uneducated women are less likely to with less education are likely to have more
recognise complications when they occur, pregnancies earlier and are more susceptible
although there is no established relationship to HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted
between education and using health-care diseases. Cultural pressures may mean that
facilities. In addition, the relationship is women bear children at a younger age, with
often context-specific, and countries such as pregnancy the leading cause of death among
42
women aged 15-19 years worldwide. review of the Beijing conference will occur in
Violence against women compounds health the same year as the five-year review of the
problems during pregnancy: a study in MDGs, to exploit the synergies between the
Bangladesh confirmed that 14 per cent of two.
maternal deaths were due to violence
(UNICEF 2003). However, the links between This article is adapted by Arabella Fraser from
these underlying causes and actual death The Cost of Childbirth, written by Arabella
rates are difficult to prove precisely, and it is Fraser, Dr Mohga Kamal-Smith, and Kevin
now clear that action on these causes by itself Watkins (Oxfam GB 2004). Arabella Fraser is a
will not reduce maternal mortality ratios. researcher at Oxfam GB on MDGs and
Tackling them is, however, not only international finance, and the author o/Paying
important in its own right, but certainly the Price, Oxfam International's latest report on
affects maternal health more broadly - and financing for the MDGs (Oxfam International
the stated aim of Goal 5. And both reducing 2005).
maternal mortality and improving maternal
health are affected by the political and legal
Note
status of women, which governs effective
supply of relevant health care and 1 Maternal mortality ratios, used as the indicator
circumscribes the legal rights of women, for the MDG, measure the number of maternal
with particular reference to laws relating to deaths per 100,000 live births. This is different
from maternal mortality rates, which reflect the
the legal age for marriage, and laws relating
number of maternal deaths per 100,000 women
to rape and female genital mutilation. aged 15-49 and capture not only the risk of
death but also the number of pregnancies per
year.
Conclusion
The planned events of 2005 are a huge
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44
T
oday, millions of girls who attend
school are the first in their families discussions have broadened the focus from
ever to do so. Yet for many of them, gender parity to gender equity and quality of
gender inequality is not only a feature of the education.1 These include the uneven
political, economic, and social conditions in quality of education provided, the high
which they live, but often pervades their levels of dropout, and the difficulties that
educational experience. many girls (the majority, in some societies)
At the Millennium Summit of the UN, have in progressing beyond a few years of
Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 3 formal schooling. In other words, those
was broadly framed to 'promote gender working to achieve Education For All need
equality and empower women'. Within the to look beyond access to schooling and
Goal, the target relating to education was set examine what happens within the school.
in terms of eliminating gender disparity in Moreover, unless urgent attention is paid to
primary and secondary education prefer- addressing inequalities of gender (and race
ably by 2005 and in all levels by 2015 and ethnicity) that shape girls' experience of
(www.un.org / millenniumgoals). education in classrooms around the world,
Eliminating gender disparity is generally the narrower project for increasing access to
taken to mean overcoming barriers to equal education may also be undermined.
access to, and sometimes achievement in, The 'Beyond Access: Gender, Education
schooling for girls and boys. Gender parity and Development' Project, launched in April
can be measured simply in terms of whether 2003, aims to disseminate knowledge and
or not there are equal numbers of girls and support policy and practice changes that will
boys in a population enrolled in school or achieve gender-equitable education and
completing school (UNESCO 2003). meet the 2005 MDG 3 on eliminating gender
The disjuncture between the wide disparity in primary and secondary
framing of the Goal and the narrow focus of education.2 It has engaged policy makers,
the target on education has prompted researchers, and practitioners through
considerable discussion and debate seminars and discussions to identify
The education MDGs 45
strategies for achieving gender equality in outcomes they have reason to value. The
formal education. This article draws on the existence of gender equality in the classroom
papers and discussion from two international is therefore important in connecting
seminars: 'Curriculum for Gender Equality schooling with citizenship, based on a vision
and Quality Basic Education', September of equal rights. An education system should
2003, in London, and 'Pedagogical Strategies develop the full capabilities of children,
for Gender Equality', February 2004, Nairobi through offering an education that is
(see www.ungei.org and Aikman and personally and socially worthwhile. Children
Unterhalter 2004). These seminars examined need the freedom to enter school, to learn and
the impediments to achieving a gender- participate there in safety and security, to
sensitive, quality education that will provide develop identities that tolerate others, to
benefits for learners. This article focuses on promote health, and to enjoy economic,
schooling and examines practices of political, and cultural opportunities.
curriculum and pedagogy which promote a
quality education for girls and boys. Through Gender issues and the curriculum
a case study from northern Mozambique, the The curriculum is a key piece of national
article considers one community's attempts legislation. There are important questions to
to ensure gender justice for girls and changes be asked regarding what girls are being
in the practice of education in school. The taught about themselves in formal
article ends by suggesting important actions schooling, whether education institutions
that need to be taken by governments, allow girls effective participation, and
teachers training institutions, NGOs, whether the existing situations of girls and
teachers, and communities to ensure that women are enhanced or diminished by the
these changes occur. schooling they receive. The kind of
education that girls and women want is
shaped by their experience and expectations
Curriculum and pedagogy of what they can do with education in the
future. The expectations of girls and their
for gender equality parents regarding the curriculum that they
In this section, the article examines two study may be formed through social,
important issues beyond access: the need to economic, or political constraints in the
ensure curricula that promote gender immediate environment or deduced from
equality and gender-equitable pedagogical development rhetoric about the benefits
practices. By emphasising pedagogy as 'the schooling brings for individuals and society.
teacher-learner relationships involved in While a range of declarations and
child-rearing as well as in schooling' (Weiner conventions provide written support for ideas
2000), we recognise that definitions of about gender equality and human rights, the
pedagogies are contested and that there are ways in which these values can form a part of
different approaches to what is good the process of putting a curriculum into
pedagogy and what promotes learning. practice have been hardly considered. This is
Gender equality should be integral to an important area for governments, NGOs,
ideas of educational quality, since gender and community-based organisations to
equality entails the removal of deep-seated consider. There is not a single model
barriers to equality of opportunity and demonstrating how this might be done, but
outcome, such as discriminatory laws, Box 1 outlines some recommendations.
customs, practices, and institutional The who and the what of curriculum are
processes. It also entails concern with the not confined to the content, but also to the
development of the freedoms of all processes of curriculum development and
individuals, irrespective of gender, to choose the forms of consultation and debate that
46
Rights and participation: Who (which groups) are defining what is to be taught and how
it is to be delivered? (To what extent are women a part of this?)
Rights and conceptions of the person: What are girls being taught about who they are in
their education?
Rights and institutions: Do the processes in which education is institutionalised and
delivered allow girls' effective participation? Are girls'/women's existing situations
enhanced or diminished through the education they receive?
Yates (2004)
gender and other social divisions are open to changes to the curriculum and to
change. Maintaining gender inequalities in a classroom organisation that allow for
classroom, for example, is not a 'natural' increased participation of girls and
process: it entails deciding not to change. women (and other under-represented
Problems with girls' learning are diverse: groups of students);
for example, teachers commonly have low
encouragement of critical questions
expectations of the intellectual abilities of
about the curriculum and what counts as
girls, and girls have correspondingly low
school knowledge;
expectations of themselves. These low
expectations are reinforced by textbooks and a breaking down of hierarchies and
curriculum and examination materials. power-networks that exclude girls and
Teachers often say that they enjoy teaching women, whether they are students or
boys more than girls, especially if girls are teachers;
seen as passive. They may also offer a lower
greater understanding of the conditions
level of feedback to girls. There is a
that lead to bullying, racism, sexism, and
widespread lack of female teachers in high-
homophobic behaviour, and more
status subjects, and an overall lack of female
successful forms of intervention;
teachers. Finally, the use of physical space in
school playing fields or classrooms can greater valuing of students' experience
marginalise girls (Arnot 2004). and knowledge, and closer involvement
Across the world, schooling has not of students in planning and evaluating
always fulfilled its potential as a change agent their educational work (Weiner 2004).
capable of challenging existing gender This pedagogy might be expected to result in
inequalities. Assumptions about what is an increased consciousness among students
appropriate for boys and girls to learn often of misconceptions, prejudices, and
undermine aspirations for equality in stereotypes, and the ability to criticise and
pedagogy. For example, in many societies, it is challenge these. It would also result in a
assumed that girls cannot learn mathematics, stronger sense of agency in all involved in
and that boys cannot learn about the care of learning, which would enable them to
young children. As discussed in the section on visualise wider and more varied options in
curricula, historical and geographical life (ibid.).
contexts play a crucial role in shaping these Appropriate pedagogy involves living as
assumptions, and creating the conditions in well as teaching gender equality. There is
which an agenda for gender equality does or considerable evidence from many different
does not develop. Curriculum divisions and settings across continents of classroom
the pedagogies that accompany them may practice that is far from acceptable, and
entrench gender inequalities. For example, if widespread instances of sexual harassment
only boys practise public speaking or play the and violence at school. The majority of
sports that are linked with national prestige accounts point to teachers and male pupils as
(football or cricket for example) and girls are being involved in sexual harassment of
excluded from these activities but encouraged female teachers and primarily girl pupils.
to concentrate on learning domestic skills, The issues touch on how teachers not only
inequalities regarding how young people teach gender equality, but how they live this
express citizenship are entrenched. in areas of their life that are considered
At a general level (clearly it will differ private. Studies in seven African countries
according to contextual factors) we might show how the relationship between male
expect to see a pedagogy that promotes teachers and girl students is often
gender equality to include the following: constructed as sexualised (see Chege 2004).
48
Thus pedagogy for gender equality is not absence of formal procedures by the
only a matter of professional orientation, but Ministry of Education, the District Education
also of changing personal behaviour among Department was slow to respond, did
teachers and other education officials, and nothing, and later suggested a transfer of this
challenging some of the deeply held teacher to another school. So AMME took the
assumptions that perpetuate inequalities. case to the Provincial Department of
Education, which eventually acted: the
teacher was suspended and subsequently
Case study: addressing dismissed. As a result of lobbying by AMME
sexual abuse of girl pupils and other organisations, a new Ministerial
in northern Mozambique Decree was passed, which now provides
clear steps for District and Provincial
This section draws on an example from
Ministries to take in cases of abuse in school.
northern Mozambique to show the actions
AMME's work has brought this new
that can be taken by an NGO and community
legislation to the attention of teachers, who
to begin to overcome sexual abuse of girls in
now realise that they cannot act with
school, which is one of the worst
impunity. AMME reports that, because of
manifestations of gender inequality.
this awareness, sexual abuse of students by
Oxfam GB has been working in the teachers appears to be declining; however, it
province of Zambezia on a programme aimed is still prevalent in the wider society,
at capacity building for basic education, with particularly by traders.
a strong focus on gender equality, since 2000.3
It work with the Mozambican Association for After the abusive teacher had been held
Gender and Education (AMME), providing to account, other girls in Lioma began to
capacity building and supporting AMME to come forward to report incidences of abuse.
develop its ways of working at the Concern in the community was so strong
community level. Together with Oxfam, that it created a Committee Against the
AMME has lobbied the Ministry of Education Abuse of Girls. Fortified by the capacity
for legislation concerning abuse of girls in building and support that the School
school. In 2003, they achieved a landmark Council has received from AMME and
ruling by the Ministry of Education against a Oxfam, the new Committee set up a
teacher in Zambezia province. This work was Counselling Centre in the village to help
carried out by AMME and the Committee victims of abuse in schools and in the
Against the Abuse of Girls in the community community. With some training from
of Lioma, Gurue District.4 AMME has been AMME and a little money to repair an old
supporting women teachers and gender house, the Centre is now open on two
training for community members, School evenings a week for anyone to drop in.
Councils, and teachers in Zambezia province. Between January and June 2004,18 cases of
In addition, it has been encouraging abuse of girls and young women were
community-based organisations to tackle reported to the Committee, including abuse
gender inequalities and abuse in their by teachers and fellow students. These cases
communities and schools. are being taken to the local Tribunal. The
In 2003, in the village of Lioma, sexual Committee now has plans to expand its
abuse of a school girl came to light when the awareness-raising about the problem of
girl herself came forward and denounced a abuse to localities nearby.
teacher who had made her pregnant. It was Capacity building and support for new
subsequently found that he had abused forms of community organisation, such as
several girls. AMME supported the villagers School Councils and the Counselling Centre,
to take the case to the local Tribunal. In the are enabling community members to play an
The education MDGs 49
active part in promoting gender equality and become clear that teachers themselves have
gender justice in their own schools and to learn how to guide their students'
villages. Women and girls are becoming sexuality and provide living examples of
members of both the Council and the low-risk behaviour.
Committee, though they are still in a It is essential to support and train teachers
minority. But they have broken their to promote gender equality. Even in contexts
silences, and their voices are beginning to be in which there are extensive gender
being heard in the school and the wider inequalities outside school, teachers can
community in Lioma. The Lioma case is not make a difference inside school. They can
unique - both in terms of the abuses and work with a diversity of girls' and boys'
inequalities faced by girls and women, and learning styles so that all children's styles can
in the initiatives taken to turn the tide. be accommodated in the class. When
teachers, teacher educators, and school
managers work together to develop
Teachers and training for classroom strategies incorporating a
gender-sensitive curricula diversity of styles, then all students can excel.
and pedagogy Attempts to make schools more 'girl-
friendly' involve challenging the ethos of
The Mozambique case study provides an authority, hierarchy, and social control that
example of the widespread harassment of pervades the majority of schools, and
girls by male teachers - ranging from verbal developing ways of engaging with rights,
and physical abuse to sexual abuse - that is empowerment, agency, and the voice of
a major influence on girls' decisions to drop the learner. Where school management
out of school. Girls and female teachers are is gender-responsive, gender-equality strat-
often assigned chores such as fetching egies are developed not only for
water, cleaning classrooms, and cooking for administrative issues, but also for manage-
the (male) head teacher. Teachers may use ment of the curriculum, the personal and
these tasks as a pretext for luring girls into social development of students, and the
their houses, where they are sexually participation of students in decision-making
abused (Muito 2004). The HIV/AIDS (see Box 2). Through School Management
epidemic gives an added urgency to the Committees and School Councils, the
need to deal with this unacceptable possibility now exists in many countries for
dimension of school life. In challenging greater decision-making and influence by
inequalities or abusive relationships, learners and community members in
particularly in the era of HIV/AIDS, it has schools, on issues that include gender.
The Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) took teachers at a small number of
schools in Kenya, Rwanda, Senegal, and Tanzania through a tuseme ('speak out')
programme, with good results for girls and boys. In tuseme clubs girls learned how to
analyse their educational problems and find ways of solving them.
Teachers and school managers also attended tuseme workshops, as well as having
training in guidance and counselling. This encouraged them to work with the students to
create stimulating and gender-sensitive learning environments that were not restricted to
the academic aspect of their work but encompassed the social ethos of the school.
Mlama (2004)
50
Teachers and school management need Teachers face multiple problems and
to be aware of how their pedagogies and the challenges in their personal and professional
curriculum can sustain gender inequalities lives, including low pay and poor
and have severe consequences for girls' and conditions, which contribute to low morale
boys' learning. 'Gender sensitisation' is not and low status. To return to the Mozambique
enough to empower teachers to develop example, AMME has been carrying out a
gender-responsive teaching methodologies range of initiatives since 2000, which aim to
and pedagogies that go beyond recognising build the cultural, social, and economic
gender stereotypes and questioning knowledge of women teachers. It has also
stereotypical expectations of boys and girls. attempted to address some of the problems
Gender differences pervade the choice of faced by primary-school teachers. These
learning style, assessment, students' ability include very low standards of living for all
to express their voice and use space, as well teachers. Female teachers' status and
as how reforms geared to developing opportunities boomed briefly during the
'independent learners' are expressed and socialist regime in Mozambique in the 1980s,
implemented. but the ensuing civil war undermined
Very little work has been done in teacher- previous gains, and female teachers today
training courses to develop teachers' are struggling for equal access to benefits,
understanding of gender inequalities and resources, and opportunities for promotion.
how to overcome them in the classroom. To The situation is slowly changing as women
address the issues of both teachers' teachers begin to demand greater
professional and personal orientation, participation in decision-making within
opportunities are needed for student schools and within the education system.
teachers and teachers in-service - who may There are now examples of women school
have had only very limited pre-service directors and school cluster directors,5
training, or none at all - to understand their although they are still a small minority.
own gender socialisation and identities, and Other changes taking place that can reinforce
to understand how gender discrimination the principle of equal rights and
takes place in schools, as well as their role in opportunities for women in the teaching
addressing it (Chege 2004). Because the profession include the establishment of
issues are complex, a single training session, Gender Units in District Departments of
either at the pre-service stage or through in- Education, although these suffer from a
service, is generally not sufficient to change chronic shortage of funding and resources.
teaching practice and behaviour. And any Women teachers and directors are
training that does not extend to supporting providing positive examples of what women
teachers to develop practicable solutions and can achieve, in the rural areas of Zambezia.
is not accompanied by monitoring and AMME, Oxfam, and the District Department
follow-up support will have limited impact. of Education are working together with a
Where training is co-ordinated and effective, multi-faceted approach to improving access,
it is not well documented, with the result retention, and quality outcomes for girls in
that knowledge of strategies and learning is primary schooling. This has included building
not captured and utilised. So, strategies need houses for female teachers, supporting the
to be explored for storing the knowledge District Gender Unit to develop its terms of
about gender-equitable pedagogies that is reference and planning, offering bursaries to
developed at schools and training centres, in girls from some of the most economically
order that teachers and teacher trainers can disadvantaged households, and investing in
benefit from lessons already learned and girls' hostels so that they can easily access
experience already gained. upper primary school.
The education MDGs 51
As AMME testifies for the rural In the second scenario - realising the
Mozambique context, female teachers often Dakar Framework - we will have achieved
struggle against abuse from male colleagues Education for All, as laid out in the Dakar
and students, while at the same time being Programme for Action, and all children will
expected to be active transformers of the be in school. But the ways in which improved
system, to assess textbooks, audit the education quality and enhanced pedagogies
curriculum, develop the local curriculum, link with gender equality will have been only
and develop new classroom practice. partially fulfilled, because of a focus on the
Expectations of teachers to become effective formal education system to the exclusion of
change agents for gender equality - inside wider societal considerations. The Lioma
reformers - will not be met unless teachers school will nevertheless be supported by
are supported and empowered to do this good implementation of the current
through the co-ordinated efforts of pre- curriculum reform in Mozambique, by
improved school/community relations
service training institutions, and providers of
in-service and ongoing professional through the School Council, and by enhanced
development. Local contexts are very training for teachers in gender equality and
important in defining the nature of support increased numbers of female teachers.
needed and the nature of gender inequalities, In the third scenario - gender-equal
such as unequal power relations, gender- pedagogies for enhancement and confidence,
based violence and HIV/AIDS, poverty, and inclusion and participation (Arnot 2004) - the
employment (Chege 2004). full vision for gender equality as laid out in
the Beijing Platform for Action, the
resolutions taken at other key international
What can be done, and to forums such as Cairo in 1994 (International
what do we aspire? Conference on Population and Develop-
There are three broad scenarios for the ment), and the World Summit on Social
coming ten years with regard to our Development in 1995 will have been realised.
aspirations for the MDGs and therefore with This means that gender-equitable pedagogies
regard to what is achieved. In the first will be based in broader societal change for
scenario - a 'business as usual' approach - gender equality, with implications for the
we continue with the current patchy sustainability of practice. In Lioma, girls will
implementation of policies and programmes no longer be preyed upon by traders and
for gender equality, concentrating primarily others in the community, because they will be
on improving access and leaving the empowered to demand that their rights are
responsibility for pedagogies to small units respected and their positions in society are
within education ministries, a handful of strengthened. They will benefit from an
NGOs, and certain concerned teachers and education which provides them with the
education officials. Larger numbers of capabilities to achieve the freedoms they
children will come into school, but only want and the kind of lives they value. Table 1
some will learn in ways that help them to illustrates the potential of each scenario.
thrive. A considerable number will be The opportunities provided by the global
subject to threat and violence in school. push for the MDGs will have been lost if in 15
Strategies to combat sexual abuse of girls in years' time we have only achieved Scenario
school, such as in Lioma, will continue; but 1. To move towards Scenarios 2 and 3, this
funding and support may remain unreliable article has highlighted a range of strategies
and short term, provided through NGOs which, as part of a coherent and integrated
and community-based organisations with approach, will help to achieve gender
little institutional support or follow-up. equality in education. These are drawn
52
Entering school Partially achieved Achieved for all Achieved for all
Retention in school Only some stay in school Achieved for all Achieved for all
Learning successfully Only some learn Some do not learn Achieved for all
Developing tolerant Receives little attention Only some develop Achieved for all
identities in school tolerant identities
Experiencing safety Safety and security is Only some experience Achieved for all
and security very fragile safety and security in
school
Promoting health Very little promotion and Some do not experience Achieved for all
experience of health this
Facilitating economic, Achieved for some children Increasing numbers Achieved for all
political, and cultural achieve this
opportunities and outcomes
together below in terms of the types of action School heads and teachers
that need to be taken by different actors. Policies need to be translated into practical
curricular and pedagogical responses which
Policy makers and government officials challenge gender inequalities and pay
It is crucial that policy makers and particular attention to eradicating abusive or
government officials promote institutions violent relations. Head teachers need to
that are fair to women and men and promote provide good leadership with support from
gender equity as a fundamental value. Such local education authorities and communities
institutions will provide an environment for so that the ethos of the classroom and school
furthering dialogue between policy makers is 'girl-friendly' and the female teachers feel
and practitioners where both are alert to the supported and safe. Within classrooms,
insights of the other with regard to gender- teachers can involve pupils by asking them
equality strategies. This will help to ensure how they learn best and by attending to the
that there is a questioning of the current voices of all, particularly those who are least
gendered ways in which decisions about often heard. Here, teachers' skills in
curriculum content and curriculum participatory methodologies and respond-
development are taken, and that measures ing to different learning styles are important.
are instigated to ensure that they do not They can involve students in developing
reinforce inequalities. The policy- strategies for gender equality through a
development process needs to involve not process of change regarding pedagogies and
only government officials and donor experts the curriculum. Teachers can work with
but teachers, teacher trainers, students, students, developing what they already
parents, and the wider community. know, and can directly challenge both their
Listening to girls and parents about their own and students' use of offensive
expectations is vital for the design of realistic stereotypes by making explicit rules about
and good policies. gender equality with regard to class
The education MDGs 53
The new century opened with an be in the hope of 'ridding' the world of
unprecedented declaration of solidarity and poverty by 2015? The HDR simply observes
determination to rid the world of poverty. that 'the 1990s saw unprecedented stagnation
(UNDP 2003,1) and deterioration' in this regard (ibid. 40); and
So begins the UNDP Human Development
this for the decade that promised the world's
Report (HDR) for 2003, subtitled Millennium
poor the benefits of the 'peace dividend'
Development Goals: a compact among nations to
following the end of the cold war.
end human poverty. It is not clear what is In his analysis of the feasibility of the
'unprecedented' about such a declaration, in poverty reduction objectives of the MDGs,
the wake of failed commitments to 0.7 per Gaiha concludes that they are overly
cent GDP official development assistance by optimistic, if not misleading. However, he
developed states, the poverty-reduction argues, they 'are nevertheless useful in
undertakings of the 1995 World Summit on drawing attention to pervasive deprivation
Social Development, the actual effects on in the developing world, and to the need for
poor people of structural adjustment a determined and co-ordinated effort on the
programmes, the International Monetary part of the development community to
Fund's (IMF's) Poverty Reduction and reduce [poverty] substantially in the near
Growth Facility, the World Bank's Poverty future' (2003, 76). Is that the best that can be
Reduction Strategy Plan, and other global expected from the MDGs? Who needs such a
declarations and initiatives concerning reminder to try harder? Poor people don't.
poverty. Perhaps it is that this concerns the The developing countries - with increasing
eradication rather than merely the reduction ofexternal interventions allegedly in their own
poverty, which seems a cruel hoax on the interests - don't. And those multilateral
world's poor people in the wake of such agencies that pull the levers that have
multilateral failures. If it hasn't been possible imposed poverty-exacerbating state econo-
to reduce poverty under earlier mic policy are unlikely to change their
commitments, what confidence should there behaviour due to the MDGs (and neither are
Not a sufficient condition 57
they required to do so by the associated world order in a way that mere poverty
performance indicators). statistics, accompanied by benevolent policy
declarations, do not ... [B]y prioritising
poverty over inequality, relations of power, and
Poverty and inequality, the responsibilities these entail, are eliminated
gender and power from the picture.
Within the dominant framework of poverty (Nederveen Pieterse 2002,1027)
reduction and economic growth, lessons Of course, at a national level, inequality -
have been learned slowly and with insofar as it concerns a gender dimension -
difficulty. Neo-liberal policy prescriptionscan become politically sensitive precisely for
have served to weaken developing-country that reason: it challenges dominant power
economies, increase the numbers in poverty, relations. It is useful here to draw a distinction
and diminish the interventionist capacity ofbetween 'condition' and 'position', the former
their governments (in the interests of free referring to a person's material state (such as
markets). Dagdeviren et al. conclude that
levels of wealth/poverty, education,
'growth alone is a rather blunt instrument
employment / unemployment, vulnerability
for poverty reduction, since the consensus
to violence/abuse), the latter referring to a
of empirical work suggests that typically it
person's social, political, or economic place in
is distribution neutral' (2002, 405). Their
society (Economic Commission for Latin
analysis demonstrates the primary role of
redistributive measures - even to the America and the Caribbean 1997,3). Much of
exclusion of a growth scenario - in tackling the attention to the situation of women has
poverty. been addressed to their poorer condition:
inequitable access to resources and greater
But the interventions of the IMF and need for certain services. This rarely threatens
World Bank have explicitly served to power relations. It is when measures are
weaken the capacity of states to perform advocated to address the inferior position of
such roles. Their imposed neo-liberal women, especially with respect to their equal
prescriptions have been additionally rights to economic and political power, that
counter-productive because they 'widen the systemic resistance is encountered.
global inequality that poverty reduction
Consequently, it has been possible - even
strategies seek to mitigate' (Nederveen
normal - to improve the condition of women
Pieterse 2002, 1042). Those developing
countries that survived the economic without hurting the condition of men or
downturn of the past decade 'were those challenging the position of men. However,
which refused to listen to the IMF' (Monbiot resistance occurs when there is action to
2003,148). achieve greater equity in the position of
women, because it is more likely to mean
There have been two concurrent trends in changes in the position of men. Arguably,
recent decades: the parallel increases in
this has been a central theme of the 'gender
global inequality and in global economic
and development' agenda. The 'feminisation
integration, and the parallel increases in
of poverty' at a national level has been
extreme poverty and wealth. While at a
understood as an issue of inequality that
national level inequality is not as politically
extends to the very basis of women's
sensitive a theme as is poverty, at a global
level it is the other way around, because position: in economic relations, in access to
power and decision-making, and in the
poverty can be posited as a fact of life - while
inequality concerns power relations: domestic sphere. It is emphatically not
addressed in a sustainable manner solely by
In that global inequality maps relative measures to improve the material conditions
deprivation, it challenges the legitimacy ofof women.
58
The inclusion in HDRs of gender north and Guatemala to its west and south.
indicators has helped to focus the treatment In ethnic terms it is a highly diverse society.
of gender within the human development With a population approaching 300,000, it is
framework. This necessarily involves a the least populous Central American
consideration of issues of power within country. As a former British colony with a
states, if not between them or beyond them. sizable Creole population, it is culturally and
A gender perspective has thus been a historically part of the English-speaking
productive - and essential - means by which Caribbean, among which it is above the
the direct relationship between poverty and median in country size. Belize's HDI is 0.737,
inequality may be better understood at the a fall on preceding years due to a long-
national and sub-national levels. For the overdue replacement in the HDR of a
HDR gender indicators - the Gender-related measure of adult literacy of 93 per cent,
Development Index (GDI) and the Gender despite all national assessments of adult
Empowerment Measure (GEM) - the focus is literacy placing it in the low 70s or lower. The
both on gender disparities in the components rate included in the 2004 HDR is 77 per cent.1
of the Human Development Index (HDI) (life As is well known, such national indices
expectancy, education participation, literacy, usually conceal intra-state disparities, not
and income) and on gender shares of the least on the basis of gender. In fact, the
economic and political power (parliamentary UNDP (1996, 33-4) has drawn several
seats, positions as legislators, senior officials conclusions from its production of the GDI
and managers, positions held as professional and GEM:
and technical workers, and access to national
earned income). No society treats its women as well as it
treats its men (no country's GDI matches
In this context, a crucial indicator - possibly its HDI).2
the most crucial indicator - of a reduction in
poverty and in gender inequality is that of Removing gender inequalities is not
gender shares of national earned income dependent upon having a high income.
(which may reflect access to better-paid and Gender inequality is not necessarily
perhaps more strategic decision-making associated with high economic growth.
positions without being sidetracked by
tokenism in the small number of women Gender development occurs regardless
offered access to such arenas). For the MDGs, of socio-economic characteristics.
the assumption is that gender equality in This means that considerable progress in
access to education is a primary means of gender equality may be made without such
redressing gender inequity in the economic 'preconditions' as high national income,
spheres, including in employment. In fact, high economic growth, a particular political
according to the UNDP, 'gender equality in ideology or cultural context. Countries with
education helps women secure employment 'low' human development may nevertheless
outside the home and acquire political power, achieve such progress. (Of course, this also
contributing to their agency in the public denies the 'need' for neo-liberalist
sphere' (2003,86). This article challenges such a prescriptions as a prerequisite for gendered
perspective on the basis of experience in Belize. human development.)
Improved gender equality is one of the
MDG gender indicators for principal MDGs, of which there are eight,
accompanied by 18 'targets' and 48
Belize 'indicators' in order to measure progress
Belize is located on the Caribbean coast of towards the achievement of each of those
northern Central America, with Mexico to its Goals. Goal 3 is to 'promote gender equality
Not a sufficient condition 59
and empower women'. It is accompanied by Indicator 9 does not reflect the actual
one target (Target 4) to 'eliminate gender proportions of boys and girls in the
disparity in primary and secondary education system, just the number of girls
education, preferably by 2005, and in all relative to the number of boys, and the HDR
levels of education no later than 2015'. There combined gross enrolment ratios suggest a
are four indicators by which the achieve- rate for Indicator 9 of 1.01. The withdrawal of
ment of Goal 3 is to be measured for each boys from the education system, especially
country: at secondary level, serves to elevate the
apparent level of female participation
Indicator 9: the ratio of girls to boys in
suggested by this indicator. Nevertheless,
primary, secondary, and tertiary
the point remains that females have a higher
education;
rate of education outcome than do males in
Indicator 10: the ratio of literate women Belize.4
to men, aged 15-24 years;
Indicator 10: literacy
Indicator 11: the share of women in wage For literacy, all available national indicators
employment in the non-agricultural conclude that there is little or no gender
sector; disparity. The HDR puts the rate for those
Indicator 12: the proportion of seats held aged 15 years and above as 77.1 per cent for
by women in national parliaments.3 females and 76.7 per cent for males,
suggesting that Indicator 10 for Belize is 1.01
Indicator 9: education participation (aged 15 years and over). The United
Education participation rates highlight some Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) puts the
of the hidden problems in properly rate for 15-24 year olds in Belize at a
understanding the MDG indicators. consistent 1.01 over the past decade at least.
According to the HDR, Belize's combined That is, available data suggest a small
primary, secondary, and tertiary gross 'disparity' in favour of females.
enrolment ratios (2001/2 data) are 72 per
cent for females and 71 per cent for males, Indicator 11: non-agricultural wage
and its net enrolment ratios (2000/1 data) of employment
females to males are 1.00 (primary) and 1.07 The MDG gender measure of wage
(secondary). According to the Government employment concerns the non-agricultural
of Belize's Education Statistical Digest, the sector. The Central Statistical Office (CSO)
net enrolment ratios of girls to boys in 2001 conducts an annual Labour Force Survey
were 0.99 (primary) and 1.06 (secondary). (LFS). For the 2002 Survey (the latest for
However, this does not reflect gender which data were available at the time of
disparities against girls (primary) or in writing), the ratio of persons aged 14 years
favour of girls (secondary) as some may and over in non-agricultural occupations is
assume (see, for example, UNSD 2004b). The 62.3 per cent (males) and 31.2 per cent
slightly lower ratio of girls in primary (females). However, the figure for females is
schooling is a reflection of the higher overstated with respect to actual wage-
repetition rate for boys; the higher female earning because, while only 0.3 per cent of
ratio in secondary schooling is a reflection of employed women are in agricultural
that primary-school characteristic, as well as occupations, 4.3 per cent of employed
boys' higher drop-out rate at secondary women are described as being in 'unpaid
level. These data produced by the Belize family' employment, which suggests that
Government accord with UNICEF gross around 4 per cent of women in non-
enrolment ratios of girls to boys in 2000: 0.97 agricultural 'wage' employment are
and 1.08 respectively (2003,118). Of course, unwaged. It therefore seems that, at best,
60
Indicator 11 is in the order of 0.44. This means signifies the necessary advances in
approximates UNSD data, which give a ratio tackling issues of poverty and wealth
of 0.41 for each of 2000 and 2001. The second distribution that are central to shifting
half of this article gives closer scrutiny to the gender relations in power-sharing and
gender dimensions of the Belize labour economic equity.
market on the basis of trends in successive
LFSs, given that this is argued as being an
important aspect of gender equity. Belize's labour market:
early gender characteristics
Indicator 12: parliamentary seats
The 1991 national census reported an
In a small country like Belize, the number of
unemployment rate in Belize of 3.8 per cent:
women parliamentarians fluctuates as a
4.2 per cent for men and 2.1 per cent for
percentage but remains a minority. The issue
women. This may have seemed good news,
of the extent to which this indicator is a more
but to anyone with any knowledge of Belize,
informative measure of gender power-
it was clearly a gross understatement.
sharing than the GEM or an important
indicator in 'ridding' Belize of poverty is not In the absence of alternative sources of
debated here. However, it seems reasonable data at that time, the Chief Statistician
to suggest that visible achievements in the computed new estimates of unemployment,
entry of women into, for example, political based on an assumption that Belize's labour-
representation or corporate management force participation rate equated with the
have been more likely to mask continued average for the English-speaking
resistance to gender equity than to signify Caribbean.5 This yielded an unemployment
real reform. Cosmetic or temporary rate of 19.6 per cent: much higher than that of
'advances' have often been mistaken for - or the census. More importantly, it highlighted
overtly promoted as - systemic progress in the limitations of the census in providing
gender equity. They have not necessarily satisfactory measures of the labour market
been accompanied by a sustained improve- and strengthened the focus on the need for a
ment in the position of women. Such more methodical collection of such data.
illusions have been characteristic of In 1993, the CSO conducted an LFS in
economies, labour markets, and social each of April and October, supported by the
institutions in both developed and Organization of American States and the
developing countries, and reflect the limita- International Labour Organization (ILO).
tions of the 'gender infrastructure' approach This was the first in-depth study of the Belize
(Rao and Kelleher 2003). The 2004 figure for labour force in ten years. The Survey
Belize for Indicator 12 is 9.3 per cent, and the followed standard international concepts
UNSD rate over the period 1999-2002 is 7 per and definitions set down in UN Statistical
cent. Office and ILO guidelines.
In summary, the emphasis of the single For statistical utility, it was necessary to
MDG concerning gender is on gender survey 8 per cent of households country-
equality in education participation, and is wide, selected according to sampling by
the specific focus of the associated target. For districts according to size, based on the 1991
Belize, there is a small tendency in favour of census. This resulted in more than 3,400
females in both education participation and households being interviewed in each of
literacy. However, Indicator 11 - concerning April and October. The response rate for the
wage employment - suggests that education Survey was 86 per cent (88 per cent in April
equality is not translating into vocational and 83 per cent in October); the 1983 rate had
and income equity. Arguably, the been 83 per cent. Subsequent surveys have
achievement of this particular MDG by no been conducted on a similar basis, but
Not a sufficient condition 61
confined to April only in each year, due to number of people in the Belize labour force,
resource constraints. There was no survey the female share of the labour force fell
conducted in 2000 due to the competing marginally to 31.8 per cent. While women's
demands of conducting the national census. share of employment rose marginally to 30.1
(As a consequence, all data in this article are per cent, women primarily responded to the
for April in each year, with no data for 2000.) behaviour of the labour market by reducing
LFS data are periodically published by their labour-force participation rate (a fall of
the CSO, and are available for researchers 5.3 percentage points to 35.0 per cent,
and policy analysts.6 Of course, this has been compared with a 2.2 percentage point fall for
no guarantee that such data are used for such men to 79.4 per cent) and retreated into
purposes, but the foundations exist for doing unpaid domestic labour in even larger
so. (In addition to decadal national censuses, numbers.
the CSO regularly conducts and publishes a On the basis of the 1983 and 1993
range of other surveys, more notably Surveys, the 1994 examination noted the
household surveys and 'family health' following points:
surveys - each with full attention to sex-
The female labour force was more highly
based and gender-based dimensions - which
educated but less well paid, less likely to
extend the quantitative framework for
be employed, and more likely to
planning in that country.)
experience long-term unemployment
It is normally the case in any country that than the male labour force.
politicians and the media give most attention
to three labour-force statistics: the rise or fall Men gained fully two-thirds (66.9 per
in jobs, the rate of unemployment, and the cent) of the jobs added to the Belize labour
rise or fall in the number of people who are market in that decade, thus exacerbating
unemployed. In all three cases, the 1993 an already inequitable situation.
Survey, on the surface, presented welcome
Women responded to being denied
news: between 1983 and 1993, the labour
equitable access to the labour market by
force in Belize grew by 47.6 per cent, the rate
withdrawing in large numbers: the net
of unemployment fell by 4.2 percentage
addition over that decade of women of
points (to 9.8 per cent), and the number of
working age was concentrated in the
people unemployed fell by 2.8 per cent.7
growing numbers engaged in 'home
However, in all three cases, those data duties'.
concealed serious problems in terms of
gender patterns. A 1994 examination of the The fall in male unemployment was
1983 and 1993 Surveys made a number of primarily a result of them benefiting
observations about the gendered behaviour most from the decade's jobs growth,
of the Belize labour market (Johnson 1994). while the fall in female unemployment
While the censuses had yielded female essentially reflected them giving up on
unemployment rates of a half of that for men, the labour market (often referred to as
the 1993 LFS showed that the rate for women 'hidden unemployment').
was at least double that for men, as well as
revealing an unemployment rate treble that Belize's labour market over
of the 1991 census.
In terms of sheer volume, the two largest
the past decade
changes between 1983 and 1993 were in the Between 1993 and 2002, the employed Belize
numbers of women not in the labour force labour force grew by 37.7 per cent. Over that
and the numbers of men in employment. period, there appears to have been no
Despite a 40.7 per cent increase in the improved gender equity in the labour
62
market, which suggests that the deterioration numbers of men than women who declare
in the situation for women (especially their themselves to be in retirement (reflecting
withdrawal from the labour force over the their historically higher shares of
previous decade, particularly into home employment) and the growth over the
duties) has become a structural change. decade in the number of women who declare
Women are still unemployed at a rate that they do not 'want' to work. Over the
that is more than double that of men (for past decade, this latter group rose from 1.2
2002, 16.3 per cent and 7.8 per cent per cent (1993) to 4.9 per cent (2002) of
respectively), despite still having a labour- women not in the labour force. Given that
force participation rate less than half that of women persist in their efforts to secure
men (37.5 per cent compared with 78.8 per employment (as noted earlier), this trend - as
cent). ('Despite', because it is often normal with the growth over the previous decade in
for the labour-force participation rate to women withdrawing from the labour force
change to achieve some sort of equilibrium: a into home duties - suggests another refuge
population denied job opportunities would for the 'hidden unemployed': another group
be more inclined to withdraw from the of what is termed 'discouraged job seekers'.
labour market.) High unemployment and A consideration of the data for young
low labour-force participation indicate a people (14-25 year olds) does not give much
greater tenacity by many women in their reason for optimism in the foreseeable
attempts to secure paid employment. future. Between 1993 and 2001 (2002 data for
Women are at a multiple disadvantage young people appear to suffer errors), the
here: if they don't give up and withdraw from unemployment rate for young females
the labour force, then they are more likely to ranged between 1.5 and 2.3 times the young
suffer unemployment; if they find male rate, standing at 32.6 per cent and 15.1
employment, it is more likely to be less well per cent respectively in 2001.8 The labour-
paid - especially given their higher education force participation rate seems to have risen
levels - than that for men. Men continue to for young females, from around 50 per cent
hold almost 70 per cent of available jobs to about 60 per cent of the male rate. As with
(women's share in 2002 was 31.0 per cent). the total adult workforce, young women
Women also continue to bear the greater continue to receive around 31 per cent of
burden of long-term unemployment (at least 'youth jobs', which suggests no
12 months' duration): although those rates improvement as young educated females
fluctuate annually, the rate for women over the enter the workforce.
decade was a fairly constant average of at least In fact, there also appears to be a marked
50 per cent higher than the male rate: another increase in the proportion of females in post-
indicator of their tenacity in seeking work. secondary education over the past decade.
Women also continue to comprise While any increase for young males is
approximately three-quarters of all persons unclear from the LFS data, that for young
not in the labour force (that is, persons who females may indicate deferred labour-force
have left formal full-time education but do not entry due to lack of job opportunities. In 1993,
consider themselves to be in the labour force, 4.0 per cent of young males and 4.6 per cent of
whether employed or unemployed). young females were in post-secondary
Approximately 67 per cent of such women education, and the corresponding rates in
continue to be in 'home/family duties', 2001 were 4.8 per cent and 8.1 per cent. If
compared with a fairly static 3 per cent of men. post-secondary education participation is to
Apart from the much higher 'home be encouraged, intervention is essential to
duties' rate for females, other gender ensure no labour-market resistance to young
disparities for this group are the higher graduates.
Not a sufficient condition 63
The labour force continues to exhibit tackling serious gender inequity in wealth
gender disparities with respect to education distribution and economic power, but it is
levels. Males in the labour force who had at clearly not a sufficient basis for doing so.
least a secondary education ranged around Education equality appears to leave the
inequitable position of women unchanged in
the 19-23 per cent rate (22.6 per cent in 2001).
The female equivalent was in the range of the absence of other measures that are not
36-43 per cent (36.4 per cent in 2001). Of the reflected in the MDGs.
unemployed in 2001,24.0 per cent of females The resistance of the Belize labour market
had at least a secondary education, to greater gender equality occurs despite the
compared with 16.0 per cent of men. fact that Belizean women are, compared
If the education levels of females have with Belizean men, better educated.
evidently not assisted their achievement of Nevertheless, Belizean women continue to
equity in the labour market, they have suffer twice the unemployment rate, and
similarly not assisted their parallel access toaccess fewer than one-third of the available
income equity. This is most apparent from jobs, compared with their male counterparts.
reference to HDR GEM data, which include And there does not appear to be a basis for
gender shares of earned income. The HDR optimism when considering such data for
presents such data for 153 countries. Belize's younger Belizean males and females over at
ratio of estimated female to male earned least the past decade.
income is 0.24, exceeded in disparity by only Successive annual labour-market data
two other countries Oman (0.22) and suggest that apparent gender discrimination
Saudi Arabia (0.21). Of course, care needs to in the Belize labour market led to a marked
be taken in interstate comparisons: the withdrawal of women from the labour force
estimated earned income levels of women in into unpaid domestic labour in the decade to
Oman and Saudi Arabia are 71 per cent and 1993. Those data further suggest that such
61 per cent higher respectively than that of withdrawal has become a structural feature
women in Belize.9 In summary, the Belize over the past decade, which saw no
male share of earned income is 4.1 times that improvement in women's rate of access to
for women, which is at the most inequitable paid employment, despite their higher
end of the global spectrum: women in states education levels, and labour-force
with higher distributional inequality receive participation rates continuing to be a half of
substantially higher incomes than their the male rate.
Belizean counterparts. This is not to say that the government of
Belize has taken no corrective measures: on
the contrary. Government policy reforms in
Concluding comments this regard in recent years have been
The trickle of benefits from economic growth primarily of a redistributive nature,
to those living in poverty has enabled the reinforced by changes to various laws
systemic barriers to sustainable poverty (Johnson 2002). This seems to be the very least
reduction to be largely left intact. For that needs to be done (Dagdeviren et al. 2002),
women, this is doubly disastrous, given the given that Belizean males receive 80 per cent
domestic and social spheres where power of national earned income. It is, however, to
relations operate to their disadvantage: challenge the adequacy - even relevance - of
condition may improve, but position is largely the single MDG concerning gender in
left unchanged. measuring real national advances in poverty
10
Like economic growth and poverty, the reduction and economic empowerment.
achievement of gender equality in education In this context, the MDGs - as a
in Belize may be a necessary basis for framework 'adopted by a consensus of
64
experts from the United Nations Secretariat of girls and women. In this regard at least,
and IMF, OECD and the World Bank' the MDGs appear to be in danger of
(UNSD 2004a) - avoid any systemic changes becoming yet another lost opportunity in
in global or national economic and political global development effort.
power relationships necessary to enabling
real advances in gender equity. Accordingly, Robert Johnson is a development consultant
it is most unlikely that the achievement of currently engaged as a UN adviser on human-
the MDGs (even if that were to occur, in rights treaty reporting to the Government of
contrast to other global compacts) will result Timor-Leste. He was social policy adviser to the
in any sustainable improvements in the Government of Belize 1993-5, and a human-
equitable treatment of women, and therefore development consultant in Belize 2001-3.
it can - at best - be expected to make little Contact: rj_bz@yahoo.com.
real impact in 'ridding' the world of poverty.
Of course, the education of girls, with
particular emphasis on poor families and
communities, is absolutely essential:
essential in guaranteeing rights to all,
essential in overcoming gender inequalities,
essential in combating poverty, essential in
optimising human development and well-
being.11 But it must be accompanied by deep
systemic changes:
Eliminating gender inequality in education
will only work if it is part of a much broader
nationwide mobilization that has ambitious
goals to ensure that women fully and equally
participate in all aspects of economic, social and
political development.
(Oxfam UK 2003, 29)
To return to an earlier theme: while the
education of girls and women is necessary in
improving the condition of women, it is not
enough on its own to redress the inequitable
position of women. The failure of the MDGs
may not only lie in the fact that (according to
early reports) donor states have failed, yet
again, to meet their resource commitments
to developing states (most notably, in such
areas as meeting the education targets). It
may also emanate from a failure, yet again,
to explicitly address the systemic barriers to
gender equity, even for those states that are
able to meet MDG targets.
As such, the MDGs may enable many
desirable goals to be attained (including
necessary improvements in gender equity in
schooling), but they are unlikely to be a
sufficient condition to advance the position
Not a sufficient condition 65
Johnson, R. (2002) 'Women's economic UNICEF (2003) The State of the World's Children 2004,
development: Belize's progress towards an New York: UNICEF
elusive goal', IDEAS 7(3): 6-8, Society for the UNSD (2004a) 'Millennium Indicators Database',
Promotion of Education and Research, Belize http: / / millenniumindicators.un.org /
City, Belize unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp (last checked by the
Monbiot, G. (2003) The Age of Consent: A Manifesto author November 2004)
for a New World Order, London: Flamingo UNSD (2004b) 'Progress towards the MDGs,
Nederveen Pieterse, J. (2002) 'Global inequality: 1990-2003: Summary',
bringing politics back in', Third World Quarterly http: / / millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd / mi /
23(6): 1023-46 mi_coverfinal.htm (last checked by the author
Oxfam UK (2003) 'A Fair Chance: Attaining Gender November 2004)
Equality in Basic Education by UN Statistical Commission (2004) 'Indicators for
2005',http:/ / oxfam.org.uk/ Monitoring the Implementation of the
what_we_do / issues / education / Millennium Development Goals', UN Economic
downloads/gce_afairchance.pdf (last checked and Social Council E/CN.3/2004/23,
by the author November 2004) http: / / unstats.un.org / unsd / statcom / doc04 / 20
Rao, A. and D. Kelleher (2003) 'Institutions, 04-23e.pdf (last checked by the author March
organisations and gender equality in an era of 2005)
globalisation', Gender and Development 11(1): Watkins, K. (2000) 'The Oxfam Education Report',
142-8 www.oxfam.org.uk /
UNDP (1996) Human Development Report, New what_you_can_do / campaign / mdg /
York: Oxford University Press downloads / edreport / edreport.htm (last
UNDP (2003) Human Development Report, New checked by the author November 2004)
York: Oxford University Press
UNDP (2004) Human Development Report, New
York: Oxford University Press
67
T
he inclusion of the goal to 'promote
gender equality and empower General Recommendations, which elaborate
women' (Goal 3) in the MDGs the Committee's view of the obligations
demonstrates the impact of many years of assumed under the Convention, can be used
lobbying by the women's movement to to enhance and strengthen efforts to meet the
promote gender equality and women's MDGs by addressing gender inequality as
human rights in development. Nevertheless, one of the underlying causes of poverty.
many gender activists have expressed CEDAW is one of a number of legal
concern that the MDGs fail to represent the instruments that have, over the years,
vision and commitment to gender equality elaborated upon the nature and scope of
and women's empowerment that are set out women's human rights. It is the only
in key human rights instruments, such as international human rights treaty to
CEDAW, and outcome documents of comprehensively address the issue of
intergovernment conferences of the 1990s. women's human rights. CEDAW needs to be
The most notable of these outcome considered in the context of other global
documents is the Beijing Declaration and human rights instruments, including the
Platform for Action (1995). Beijing Platform for Action and the
Given that the MDGs now play a central International Covenant on Economic, Social
role in shaping development policy and and Cultural Rights (1966). In this context,
practice nationally and internationally, the provisions of CEDAW on women's
women's human rights organisations, such human rights look considerably stronger
as WOMANKIND Worldwide, have had to than they do alone.
ask themselves how they might use the The article begins with a brief
Goals to further the agenda of the inter- consideration of the challenges, oppor-
national women's movement. tunities, and paradoxes presented by the
This article examines how CEDAW, and MDGs, from a women's human rights
some of the other tools available to the perspective. It then examines how the MDGs
CEDAW Committee, such as the CEDAW sit within the broader human rights agenda.
68
The final section focuses on CEDAW and the implementation of the Goals, but there are
practical ways in which the Convention can some examples of good practice.
inform and guide strategies for the One example is that the UNDP has been
implementation of the Goals to ensure that at the forefront of MDG 'scorekeeping' at the
women and men benefit equally from country level and has worked with
development gains. governments and civil society to ensure that
gender issues are built into the national
Millennium Development Goal Reports
The MDGs: challenges, (MDGRs). For instance, in Albania, a
opportunities, and thematic Working Group on Gender was
paradoxes formed to establish a baseline against which
to measure progress towards meeting the
Adopted by the Heads of State and
Goals. The process involved consultation
Government in September 2000, the
with more than 650 stakeholders from all
Millennium Declaration (UN 2000) shares
over Albania and has greatly enhanced
CEDAW's vision of a world where women
national ownership of the process. It has also
and men are equal. It identifies gender
allowed the Goals to be translated into
equality as an essential ingredient for
targets and indicators that are most
achieving all the MDGs and affirms the need
appropriate for women at the sub-national
to combat violence against women and to
level (UNDP Albania 2004).
implement CEDAW.
Yet, this vision is not embraced by the Also at the national level, some countries,
MDGs themselves, or by the limited and (for such as Viet Nam, have used their National
the most part) gender-blind selection of Plan of Action for the Advancement of
targets and indicators chosen to monitor Women as the basis for identifying targets
progress towards their fulfilment. Even Goal and indicators towards meeting Goal 3 (UN
3 has been interpreted in the narrowest in Viet Nam 2002), but this seems to be the
sense, with a focus on the target of exception rather than the norm. Given how
educational access to the exclusion of other far the MDGR process has advanced,
barriers to gender equality, such as the national-level reporting does represent the
devastating impact that gender-based best opportunity to build national
violence has on women's lives. It also fails to commitment to women's rights and gender
take into account the fact that in some equality; but these processes must, of course,
countries, particularly in Latin America, be accompanied by sufficient political will
gender parity in education has already been and resources. The MDGs do have broad
attained and yet gender inequality is still a support among governments and can offer
feature of these societies. gender activists the potential of a new
It is, of course, impossible to expect a set impetus for old agendas, but existing
of universal goals to take account of the approaches to implementation must be
many differences between countries. In revised if the MDGs are not to reinforce
practice, efforts have been made to establish traditional top-down approaches to
complementary goals and targets and to development and add another layer of
'localise' the MDGs (that is, to interpret them 'invisibilisation' for women.
in a way that reflects national and local Another example is at the international
development priorities and agendas). There level. The UN Millennium Project's Task
is still a long way to go until the attainment Force on Education and Gender Equality has
of gender inequality and (in particular) the produced a series of recommendations to
realisation of women's human rights are strengthen the implementation of Goal 3,
seen as cross-cutting issues in the including a set of six strategic priorities, such
Out of the margins 69
as the guarantee of sexual and reproductive as it does on outcome. For instance, the
health rights for girls and women, and an human rights principles of participation and
end to violence against women (Birdsall et al. empowerment demand the meaningful
2004). involvement of poor people in all stages of
the MDG process, while the principle of
accountability underlines the rights of
The MDGs and human populations to monitor the progress of
rights governments towards meeting the Goals,
While the Millennium Declaration reaffirms and to hold them to account where they fail.
states' commitment to promote human Given that poor women tend to be excluded
rights, the MDGs make no specific reference twice over - on the grounds of poverty and
to human rights. Nevertheless, they do gender - their involvement in these
reflect a human rights agenda. Goal 1, for processes is crucial if all the Goals are to be
example, sets out time-bound targets for achieved. Thus, a human rights approach
reducing poverty, one of the greatest denials positions poor women as key actors in the
of human rights. Also, Goals 4 (to reduce development process, rather than as passive
child mortality), 5 (to improve maternal recipients of aid. Yet the involvement of poor
health), and 6 (to combat HIV/AIDS, women - and the involvement of civil
malaria, and other diseases) can be society more generally - in the MDG process
compared to the human right to health, set has been largely peripheral to date. At the
out in the core human rights treaties. national level, the MDGs remain the
However, it is dangerous to assume that principal tool for participating in the MDG
the MDGs will automatically contribute to the process and for holding governments to
promotion of respect for human rights simply account. It is therefore essential that they are
by addressing thematic human rights made accessible to everyone, including the
concerns (Committee on Economic, Social and poorest and most marginalised people, and
Cultural Rights 1990). The case of China, that these people are empowered to
which has seen impressive economic growth participate meaningfully in the reporting
in recent years yet has an estimated 30m and monitoring process.
women 'missing' as a result of sex-selective More and better access to information
abortions and infanticide (Seager 2003), and data concerning the Goals would, of
highlights how a country can make progress course, not, by itself, achieve women's
towards the poverty-reduction goal while empowerment. The Goals must also seek to
violations of women's human rights continue. address the nature of gender relations and
International human rights rest on a the environment in which women exercise
series of core principles, including equality, their agency. This means tackling the
non-discrimination, and the fact that human inequality and the denial of rights at all
rights are interdependent, i.e. equal levels, including the macro-economic
attention must be given to the realisation of structures, the political institutions, and the
all rights. Thus, a human rights approach cultural practices and attitudes that sustain
would forbid trade-offs being made by forms of discrimination.
decision makers between economic growth Of course, just as we cannot assume that
and gender equality. It reminds us that the attainment of the MDGs would
progress in development can be measured inevitably contribute to the promotion of
only by improvements in the lives of all human rights, neither can we suppose that a
individuals. commitment by governments to apply
A human rights approach would place as human rights principles to policy making
much emphasis on the importance of process would necessarily contribute to the
70
realisation of the MDGs. The ratification of gender equality and women's rights will
international human rights treaties has not both raise the costs and decrease the
generally resulted in dramatic improve- likelihood of achieving the Goals (Carlsson
ments in the quality of the lives of citizens. and Valdivieso 2003).
The gap between the rhetoric of human Looking at the MDGs through a CEDAW
rights and the reality of failure to uphold
lens adds another dimension to these
them is particularly marked in the case of
arguments. The Convention rests on the
women's rights. For human rights principles
to be truly effective, action is required on a conviction that all women have human
number of different levels. In the context of rights, not just needs. Seen in this light, the
the struggle for gender equality, it means ideals of equality and non-discrimination
incorporating international human rights are, in fact, important ends in themselves,
norms, set out in instruments such as not simply means of delivering the MDGs in
CEDAW, into national constitutions and a cost-effective way. CEDAW also identifies
laws. It also means investing in national the factors that give rise to inequality, thus
equality commissions and human rights preventing the realisation of the MDGs, and
bodies, education and outreach programmes highlights some of the solutions required to
for both women and men, and developing address them.
and providing access to fair arbitration
systems at the local level. This costs money, The Convention covers a range of areas
and, in the context of the MDGs, there needs relevant to the MDGs, such as education,
to be far greater emphasis on financing these employment, and maternal mortality, but
systems of implementation, to render the there are also gaps. The General
Goals effective. There also needs to be a Recommendations and Concluding
broader discussion about the meaning and Comments of the CEDAW Committee help
practical implications of a rights-based to close some of these gaps, providing as
approach to the MDG process among they do more detailed guidance for tackling
governments, civil society, the private barriers to gender equality and women's
sector, and international financialempowerment. In addition, both the official
institutions. reporting process and the shadow reporting
process that monitor states' compliance with
the Convention offer opportunities for
The MDGs through a
dialogue between states, the CEDAW
CEDAW lens Committee, and NGOs, which can be used to
This section focuses on how the standards explore and strengthen the links between
and principles set out in CEDAW can be women's human rights and specific Goals.
used to strengthen existing approaches to Since the scope of this article precludes
the MDGs and reinforce the processes for an analysis of all of the MDGs through a
achieving the Goals. CEDAW lens, the next section examines just
A number of arguments have already
two of the MDGs: Goal 1 and Goal 3. They
been made which support the rationale for
are closely interrelated, and the pathways
adopting a more gender-sensitive approach
to the MDGs, but these primarily advance an for achieving them intersect and
'instrumentalist' logic that seeks to convince complement each other. The analysis aims to
the economists of the effectiveness of highlight some of the specific interventions
mainstreaming gender. That is, they are and policy choices that would be required
based on the rationale that attempting to for a CEDAW-compliant approach to these
achieve the MDGs without promoting particular Goals.
Out of the margins 71
Article 14:2c Right of rural women to benefit from social security programmes
General Recommendation 16 Unpaid women workers in rural and urban family enterprises
General Recommendation 23, Discriminatory laws and customs that prevent women from having equal
paragraphs 12 and 17 access to resources; that accord husband the status of head of household and
primary decision maker
devise sub-targets that take into economic resources. For instance, on the
consideration the most marginalised question of women's land rights, CEDAW
groups of poor women, such as widows, draws attention to the legal process through
and rural and disabled women; which land reform is secured and the need to
remove barriers that restrict women's legal
describe the types of policy formulation capacity in any way (CEDAW 1979, Article
in which women have participated and 15). Strategies to meet Goal 1 must therefore
the level and extent of their participation; incorporate measures to strengthen
provide for education and training to women's legal aid and to reform the justice
ensure that women are fully informed of system, if women are to claim their equal
the MDG process. property rights.
An initiative between civil society
2 To reform laws and policies to secure organisations and regional government
women's equal access to economic resources officials in the Western Cape region of South
One of the biggest constraints preventing Africa used CEDAW as a baseline for
women from accessing employment and measuring the extent of the exclusion of
income is their unequal access to capital, rural women farm workers from economic
resources - particularly land and credit - and opportunities. This enabled participants to
labour markets. This has a direct impact on identify the gender issues that compounded
their ability to provide security against women's experience of poverty. This work
hunger and poverty. Women's equality in contributed to the development of gender-
accessing employment and income is sensitive indicators for monitoring the
directly linked to their empowerment and progress of rural women in other regions
their ability to participate fully in the (International Center for Research on
economic and social lives of their country. Women 2002).
This illustrates clearly how progress
towards Goal 1 is dependent on progress MDG strategies should:
towards Goal 3, and vice versa. improve legal aid and education for
CEDAW emphasises the legal steps women seeking redress on poverty
required to secure women's equal access to issues;
Article 2c Establish legal protection of rights of women on equal basis with men
Article 13b Right to bank loans, mortgages, and other forms of financial credit
include steps to reform the justice system Access to data and other information is
and make it more accessible to women; critical if women are to be given the
opportunity to make informed choices about
measure compliance with CEDAW on
their lives, to challenge the status quo, and to
women's access to economic assets;
hold governments and individuals
measure reductions in gender disparities accountable. However, apart from some
in access to, and control over, economic notable exceptions,2 there is currently a huge
resources, including the right to gap in the quality and quantity of data
inheritance and land ownership; available for monitoring the extent of
women's poverty. The lack of information
ensure that women have access to available to poor women about poverty-
financial services, improve availability of reduction strategies, and their rights more
credit, and support innovative lending generally, also constitutes a form of
practices; discrimination. This must be addressed
support self-help initiatives of poor urgently if Goal 1 is to be met.
women, such as co-operatives, that seek MDG strategies should:
to develop work opportunities in their
conduct assessments of their impact,
communities.
disaggregated by sex, with a view to
3 To improve measurement and monitoring eliminating discriminatory practices that
of women's poverty and their access to affect women's economic and other
information interests;
General Recommendation 9 of the CEDAW improve the availability and quality of
Committee points to the need for reliable data sex-disaggregated poverty data on, for
disaggregated by sex in order to understand instance, minimum wage levels and
'the real situation for women' (Committee on equal pay for equal work requirements,
the Elimination of Discrimination Against in order to stabilise women's income
Women 1990). In a number of its Concluding levels above the poverty line;
Comments (the remarks and recommend-
ations made by the Committee at the end of ensure that strategies to achieve Goal 1
the reporting process), it has also urged states include various awareness-raising
to assess the gender impact of anti-poverty initiatives, such as skills-training
measures (Committee on the Elimination of workshops and media information
Discrimination Against Women 2003, campaigns.
paragraph 34).
Article 10h Access to educational information to ensure health and well-being of families
General Recommendation 24, States must report on their legislation, plans, and policies for women with reliable
paragraph 9 data disaggregated by sex
Out of the margins 75
Article 11 Take measures to eliminate discrimination in employment, including equal pay for
work of equal value, right to social security, maternity leave
Article 14:2e Right of rural women to organise to obtain equal access to economic opportunities
through employment or self-employment
General Recommendation 5 Temporary special measures to advance women's integration into education, the
economy, politics, and employment
General Recommendation 16 Unpaid women workers in rural and urban family enterprises
General Recommendation 17 Measurement and quantification of unremunerated domestic activities of women
and their recognition in the GNP
General Recommendation 19, Sexual harassment in the workplace constitutes a health and safety issue
paragraphs 18 and 24j
General Recommendation 21, Equal rights of husband and wife to choose employment and need to modify
paragraphs 24, 41, and 42 stereotypes that prevent women from choosing their profession
76
which works with partner organisations around the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination
world to achieve lasting improvement in women's Against Women (2003) Concluding Comments on
economic, social, and political position. Contact: Canada's 5th Periodic Report, UN Doc.
CEDAW/C/2003/l/CRP.3/Add.5/Rev.l(31
ceri@womankind.org.uk; WOMANKIND
January 2003)
Worldwide, Development House, 56-64 Leonard
Global Alliance for Workers and Communities
Street, London, EC2A 4JX, UK.
(2001) 'Workers Survey, Indonesia, Nike',
www.theglobalalliance.org/workerssurveys.ht
Notes m (last checked by the author January 2005)
Grown, C, G. Rao Gupta, and Z. Khan (2003)
1 This article is a synthesis of a longer paper Promises to Keep: Achieving Gender Equality and the
originally written in September 2003. It has Empowerment of Women, Background Paper of
subsequently been printed by WOMANKIND the Task Force on Education and Gender
Worldwide and is available from Equality, UNDP
ceri@womankind.org.uk. With thanks to International Center for Research on Women (2002)
Professor Diane Elson for the helpful discussions 'CEDAW: An Essential Tool for Overcoming
and guidance in researching the original paper. Poverty and Ensuring the Dignity and Rights of
2 For example, the UN Economic Commission for Women', statement to the Committee on Foreign
Latin America and the Caribbean has developed Relations of the US Senate,
a set of gender-sensitive indicators that have www.womenstreaty.org / ICRWstatement.pdf
been used to measure the extent of women's (last checked by the author January 2005)
poverty for the whole region. International Covenant on Economic, Social and
3 See www.womankind.org.uk/ Cultural Rights (1966)
four%201iteracies/bodylit/ wafrica.html for www.unhchr.ch / html / menu3 / b / a_cescr.htm
further information about WOMANKIND (last checked by the author January 2005)
Worldwide's Nkyinkyim programme. Menon-Sen, K. (2003) 'Millennium Development
Goal. National Reports: A Quick Look Through
A Gender Lens', UNDP, 1 United Nations Plaza,
References
New York, NY 10017, USA www.undp.org/
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Fourth gender/docs/mdgs-genderlens.pdf
World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, UN Seager, J. (2003) The Atlas of Women: An Economic,
Department of Publication Information, 1995 Social and Political Survey, The Women's Press
Birdsall, N., A. Ibrahim, and G. Rao Gupta (2004) UN (2000) 'United Nations Millennium
From Promises to Action: Recommendations for Declaration', Ref: A/55/L.2,
Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, www.un.org/millennium / declaration / ares552e.
Millennium Project Task Force 3 Interim Report htm (last checked by the author January 2005)
on Gender Equality, UNDP UNDP Albania (2004) Albania National Report on
Carlsson, H. and C. Valdivieso (2003) 'Gender Progress Toward Achieving the Millennium
Equality and the Millennium Development Development Goals
Goals', Gender and Development Group, World UNIFEM (2003) 'Annual Report 2002/2003',
Bank www.unifem.org/index.php?f_page_pid+180
CEDAW (1979) UN Convention on the Elimination of (last checked by the author January 2005)
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, UN UN in Viet Nam, (2002) 'Millennium Development
Doc. A/34/36 Goals: Bringing the MDGs Closer to the People',
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights www.undp.org/
(1990) General Comment 2, International Technical mdg/ country _regionalreports.html#Viet%20Na
Assistance Measures, UN Doc. HRI/GEN1/REV 1 m (last checked by the author January 2005)
at 45 (Fourth Session)
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination
Against Women (1990) General Recommendation
9, Statistical Data Concerning the Situation of
Women, UN Doc. A/44/38
79
T
he year 2005 is a key moment for
women's human rights advocacy, of Discrimination Against Women CEDAW
because the Beijing Platform for (UN 1979) and the International Covenant on
Action (BPFA), the Millennium Declaration, Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
and the MDGs will be reviewed. (ICESCR) (UN 1966a). Of the 191 UN
To prepare for the 2005 reviews, the UK's Member States, 179 have ratified CEDAW
Gender and Development Network (GADN) and 150 have ratified the ICESCR. The
commissioned research on the conceptual existence of these treaties means that most
and practical links between the review states have existing, immediate, and binding
processes.2 The GADN believes that the 2005 duties regarding the MDGs. Human rights
reviews are an arena for emphasising the instruments and mechanisms can potentially
centrality of a women's human rights be used to mitigate problems caused by the
approach to development. They are an deficiencies of the MDG framework. In turn,
opportunity to reclaim gender main- the MDGs can potentially mitigate the
streaming as a strategy to achieving weaknesses of human rights instruments
women's human rights, grounded in treaty stemming from lack of political will and
obligations, not a technical process for vagueness regarding achievable targets. The
efficient progress towards development MDGs need to be achieved if human rights
goals. Linking the Millennium Review and are to be realised.
the Beijing+10 Review processes presents an The GADN believes that understanding
opportunity to reframe the MDGs as and working on the MDGs within a human
international human rights obligations. rights framework can provide activists with
The MDGs largely correspond with tools to challenge inequality and injustice
states' obligations under international caused by features of the prevailing neo-
human rights law; specifically the liberal model of development.3 This
80
synthesis article, which is an excerpt from a progress on women's human rights and
full report (Painter 2004), presents the holding governments to account. It creates an
GADN's perspective on the reviews of the international space for women to participate
BPFA (UN 1995), the Millennium in policy debate, to meet each other, to put
Declaration (UN GA 2000a), and the MDGs, issues on the agenda, and to lobby their
which will take place in 2005. governments. But this opportunity is difficult
Governments have agreed that there to realise for many women and women's
should be a formal link between the review of organisations from the South, because the
the BPFA and the review of the Millennium CSW is held in New York, and costs and visa
Declaration and the MDGs (UN CSW 2004). restrictions make attendance difficult, if not
The 2005 session of the Commission on the impossible, for many.
Status of Women (CSW) will be a high-level The Beijing+10 Review will be conducted
plenary meeting open to UN Member States by looking at national action plans designed
and Observers, including civil society to implement the BPFA, state reports to the
organisations. They will discuss states' committee monitoring CEDAW, inform-
implementation of the BPFA and Beijing+5. ation generated through annual CSW
The Chairperson of the CSW will then sessions, and analysis of questionnaires
transmit the outcome from this discussion, submitted by states to the UN Division for
via the Economic and Social Council of the the Advancement of Women on implemen-
General Assembly (ECOSOC), to the high- tation of the BPFA. Official statistics, Poverty
level General Assembly (GA) meeting, which Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), MDG
will review the Millennium Declaration in Reports, and other sources of information
September 2005. This departs from the usual will also be used. Alongside information
procedure for CSW, in which the annual about the progress that states have made in
Agreed Conclusions are considered only by implementing the BPFA, reports from
ECOSOC and effectively have no further Beijing+10 regional preparatory meetings
impact. will feed into a final global report.
The research for this article, which was However, these preparatory meetings
conducted from June to August 2004 and have been marked by anti-abortion lobbying
therefore does not draw on the documents and calls to dilute the force of the BPFA text.
produced by the Millennium Project in Some governments have attempted to limit
January 2005, included desk research and civil society participation in these processes
interviews with members of the GADN, staff in order to insulate themselves from civil
in the UK Department for International society pressure (Articulaci6n de Mujeres
Development (DFID), and staff in the Brasileras et al. 2004; APWW 2004). There is a
European Commission. risk that these trends at the preparatory
meetings risk will persist and prevail at the
Beijing+10 meeting itself.
The 2005 reviews
The Millennium Review
Beijing+10 The Millennium Review will be held at a
At the 49th session of the CSW, in March high-level plenary meeting of the UN GA, at
2005, a review and appraisal will take place of the beginning of its 60th session, in New
the implementation of the Beijing York in September 2005 (UN GA 2004a). The
Declaration, the BPFA, and the outcome of Secretary-General will submit a compre-
the 23rd special session of the GA in 2000, at hensive report on the Millennium
which states conducted the first five-year Declaration (UN GA 2004b, paragraph 5). As
review of the BPFA (UN GA 2000b). the product of the largest-ever gathering of
Beijing+10 offers opportunities for analysing world leaders, the Millennium Declaration
Linking women's human rights and the MDGs 81
sets out a vision for the 21st century. With the experiences from the grassroots to be heard,
exception of a few leakages from other with particular barriers for women, older
sections, the MDGs come out of the people, indigenous people, and poor people.
Development and Poverty Eradication Women's human rights activists are worried
section of the Declaration. Thus the that the Millennium Review will overshadow
Millennium Declaration is broader than the Beijing+10, and there are concerns that
MDGs. The Millennium Review will be women's rights advocates will be running to
informed by the work of the Millennium stand still in the face of better resourced, more
Project regarding strategies for achieving the organised lobbyists with fundamentalist
MDGs (Sachs and the UN Millennium agendas. Not only are women's human rights
Project 2005).4 The 59th GA, currently in under attack: they are also being hijacked, as
session, will be making a final decision on concepts of gender, equality, and
the format and structure of the Millennium mainstreaming have been turned into
Review. symbolic and technical tools to achieve
The Millennium Review offers a chance to objectives that threaten or ignore women's
reaffirm global commitment to achievement human rights concerns. It is feared that, as a
of the MDGs. It creates space to stress the result of these difficulties, the Millennium
importance of a human rights approach to Review may not address concerns from
development and to highlight the broader activists including the women's movement.
non-discrimination and inclusion agenda
that has been overlooked by the MDGs. It is a
venue to hold governments to account for
Linking the 2005 reviews
their commitments and an opportunity to Within the GADN, there is a range of views
strengthen advocacy by working in more about how feminist activists should engage,
effective alliances. Given that the 2005 target and prioritise, the two reviews of 2005.
on girls' education will be missed, the Many organisations, from both the North
Review could focus attention on the and South, cannot or will not participate in
consequences to women, development, and all the global political events and processes
human rights of inadequate concern for around them that are happening in 2005.
gender equality issues. Some feminist organisations have discussed
Despite these hopes, observers are whether to refuse to engage with the MDG
anxious about the global political context, as processes (Macdonald 2004). These
the rise of fundamentalisms, extremisms, and sentiments flow from a feminist critique of
militarisations has polarised the international the MDGs and the processes surrounding
community (Barton and Prendergast 2004). them, which has exposed the weak
Direct civil society participation in the integration of gender equality and women's
Millennium Review summit in September human rights issues. One common critique is
2005 itself will not be possible, because of the that the MDGs are silent on violence against
security concerns and space limitations in the women, and another is that they do not
UN building associated with a high-level frame reproductive and sexual health as a
plenary meeting of the GA (UN GA 2004b, human rights issue.
paragraph 21). The Secretary-General has The MDGs do not provide a feminist
suggested to the Assembly that it organise framework for development and human
hearings with civil society organisations prior rights. According to the MDGs, the key
to the meeting (ibid.). States have already barriers to women's advancement are high
begun their preparations for the Millennium maternal mortality and lack of access for
Review. In these national and international girls to education; but according to the
processes, there are few opportunities for BPFA, there are other barriers in addition to
82
maternal health and girls' education (UN essential to engage with the MDG process.
1995). Women at the Beijing+10 regional The GADN has decided that the opportunity
preparatory meetings held in 2004 identified to link the Millennium Review and the
a very different set of challenges to gender Beijing+10 Review needs to be taken up. We
equality and women's empowerment. These need to emphasise the importance of gender
are a weakened women's movement, equality and gender mainstreaming if the
economic barriers to the empowerment of MDGs are to be achieved. The Millennium
women, social and cultural attitudes that Review offers us a chance to put issues of
hinder women's empowerment, problems in importance to women on the MDG agenda.
'mainstreaming' (integrating) gender issues In addition, engagement with the MDG
into governance and development, and an process presents us with an opportunity to
adverse international economic environ- challenge the development model that is
ment. Only one Beijing+10 report cited high being promoted to achieve the MDGs, and to
maternal mortality and lack of girls' access to stress that global economic justice, peaceful
education as top priority (UN Economic resolution of international disputes, and
Commission for Africa 2004). Obviously, sustainability are essential for achievement
this does not mean that maternal mortality of the MDGs (Barton 2004).
and girls' education are irrelevant for
women's human rights. Rather, it shows that
using the BPFA as a framework reveals Linkages in policy-making
different priorities from those identified in
The MDGs originated in the Millennium
the MDGs - priorities that go to the core of
Declaration, which, in turn, has its roots in
the fundamental and structural roots of
the Platforms for Action agreed at the series
women's human rights violations.
of global conferences held in the 1990s. These
There are further concerns among were founded on international human rights
feminist activists that the MDG framework is treaties, including the International
distracting governments from their Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
obligations under international human (ICCPR), the ICESCR, and CEDAW.
rights treaties, and the Millennium Review Yet despite their origins in human rights,
process is overshadowing other monitoring the MDGs are being used in support of a neo-
and accountability mechanisms (Obando liberal model of development, which we
2003). These concerns are discussed in more believe threatens the realisation of human
detail in the section that follows. Some rights and gender equality. Many inter-
advocates fear that linking the reviews will national agencies and donors have
result in the marginalisation of the BPFA. committed themselves to the MDGs. But
One major effect of this would be that these commitments are not worth much if
women's human rights in developed they do not address the incoherence that
countries would receive no attention, results from pursuing the MDGs while
because the Millennium Review and the continuing to follow a development model
MDGs are understood as relevant only for that equates economic growth with human
developing countries, while the inter- development. For example, women's
national human rights obligations under empowerment is pursued in the MDGs
CEDAW and commitments under Beijing because it has high 'payoffs' for economic
apply in all countries. growth and poverty reduction: studies have
Women's human rights advocates shown that a failure to meet the goal of
should consider these issues in shaping their gender equality in education will lead to
strategies for engagement. Yet, despite these economic growth losses (Abu-Ghaida and
concerns, many feminist activists see it as Klasen2003).
Linking women's human rights and the MDGs 83
In fact, attaining the MDGs means ICESCR by defining and protecting the
shaking the pillars of the growth-driven human rights of women specifically. States
model of development. The MDGs require that are party to CEDAW must prohibit
investments in health, education, and discrimination against women in their laws,
infrastructure (Vandemoortele 2004), while as well as in the practice of public authorities
the neo-liberal model emphasises a and institutions, and they must pursue a
reduction in state expenditure for purposes national policy to eliminate such
of financial stability (Dollar and Kraay 2002). discrimination (Article 2). Under CEDAW,
A major reason for failure to meet the MDGs states must take all appropriate measures to
thus far is that governments and donors are ensure the full development and
failing to invest in services, failing to take advancement of women (Article 3), and to
advantage of cross-sectoral synergies, and address the structural, social, and cultural
failing to foster an enabling international patterns that underpin discrimination
environment (Vandemoortele 2003). against women (Article 5). Under CEDAW,
Advocates can use the human rights states have an immediate obligation to
obligations of states to challenge policy pursue a policy of eliminating discrimination
decisions taken by governments in the name (Article 2). Yet the majority of the provisions
of reaching the MDGs, if these violate human in CEDAW are phrased as obligations to take
rights. International human rights treaties, all appropriate measures, because these
such as the ICESCR, the ICCPR, and CEDAW, rights must be progressively realised over
create a minimum standard for national time. Thus, the obligation to make policies
legislation and policy making. They define that will help get the result is immediate,
what governments agreed they must achieve. while the obligation to actually attain the
The ICESCR and the ICCPR establish that result is gradual.
states must not discriminate (Article 2 of The ICESCR deals with this difference
each), and must guarantee the equal rights of between obligations of conduct and
women and men to the enjoyment of rights obligations of result with the concept of
(Article 3 of each). Under the ICESCR, states progressive realisation. To ensure that
have obligations to take progressive steps progressive realisation is not used to argue
towards achieving the full realisation of that states can meet their obligations just by
economic, social, and cultural rights, using enacting policies, the concept of minimum
all appropriate means including the adoption core obligations has been developed to define
of legislative measures (Article 2). The a limited sphere of obligations of result
concept of progressive realisation captures (Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
the idea that achievement of these rights will Rights 1990). These define the rock-bottom
not happen overnight, but instead requires responsibilities of states in terms of economic,
gradual progress over time. Signatories to the social, and cultural rights. A state is presumed
ICESCR are obliged to take immediate, to have failed in its ICESCR obligations if
deliberate, concrete, and targeted steps significant numbers of its population are
towards the full realisation of the rights set deprived of the right to food, the right to
out in the ICESCR, within a reasonably short essential primary health care, the right to
time of ratification. No matter how a state is basic shelter and housing, or the right to the
doing on progressively realising the rights to most basic forms of education (ibid.). The
health, or education, or work, it has an Committee monitoring the ICESCR has
immediate obligation to do so in a non- further defined and articulated these core
discriminatory way (Aurora et al. 2002). obligations in a number of General
CEDAW strengthens the non- Comments on housing (Committee on
discrimination provisions in the ICCPR and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1991),
84
Goals and targets from the Millennium Declaration Core obligations under the ICESCR
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases Primary health care
Water
legislation that has already resulted in those relating to health and education.
rights being realised (for example by Although these documents give greater
criminalising abortion where it has been clarity, their existence demonstrates that the
legalised, or by introducing user fees for ICESCR lacks specific goals and targets for
primary education). effective monitoring of government
progress. The BPFA also suffers from a lack
Progressive realisation: States have a legal
of clear indicators to assess governments'
obligation to work progressively towards
performance against their commitments
achievement of the MDGs, because
(Timothy and Freeman 2000).
realisation of human rights requires
The GADN believes that using human
achievement of the Goals.
rights instruments can improve monitoring
Realisation of core obligations: The fact that of the MDGs, in terms of what is being
states are under the core obligations measured and how the information is being
mentioned earlier of basic housing, analysed. A human rights approach
adequate food, basic education, primary encourages disaggregation of data, a
health care (including maternal health), broader definition of poverty, and analysis
and water can be used in MDG processes of causes and consequences.
to argue for the prioritisation of The MDG targets and indicators are
government actions to meet core widely acclaimed as representing an
obligations over other potential actions international consensus on global
(for example research into new weapons). development goals. With their measurable
targets and indicators, the MDGs should be
Using these principles, the ICESCR, CEDAW,
less vague than human rights instruments
and the BPFA can be used as advocacy tools to
about the nature of progress to be realised.
lend authority to specific policy
They could potentially help states to
recommendations for the realisation of human
measure their progress in attaining human
rights, thus helping to challenge inequality-
rights. However, this would be possible only
enhancing, growth-driven development
by addressing questions about what is
interventions.
measured in the MDGs and how progress is
Building the links among the ICESCR,
monitored. These problems make the MDGs
CEDAW, the BPFA, and the MDGs in this
and their indicators unreliable yardsticks of
way shows that the MDGs are not lofty
progress (Vandemoortele 2004).
global commitments being pursued out of
global charity. They are actually concrete The indicators used to measure
human rights obligations, which must be achievement of the MDGs risk generating
prioritised and achieved in a non- problems. If the narrow aims of achieving
discriminatory way. Reframing the MDGs as numerical goals drive policy-making
human rights obligations changes the debate decisions, the policies would only be as good
from the language of will and commitment as the goals and indicators being measured.
to the language of duty and obligation. For example, the use of World Bank indexes
to measure poverty under Goal 1 of the MDGs
Analysis and monitoring results in an underestimation of poverty, due
However, a shortcoming of these human in part to reliance on national household
rights instruments is that they fail to define surveys which mask inequality among
how rights should be realised, and what different individuals and categories of people
states are obligated to do. In its General within households, and fail to disaggregate
Comments, the Committee monitoring the between data from rural and urban areas
ICESCR has sought to define the nature of (ibid.). Reliance on this kind of averaged and
states' obligations to ensure rights, including aggregated data means that it would be
possible, in statistical terms, to achieve the Advocates can use states' obligations
MDGs globally by ensuring progress on under human rights treaties to challenge the
indicators in the most populous countries and problems surrounding what is measured
ignoring sparsely populated countries, and how progress is monitored to achieve
regions within countries, groups within the MDGs. The principle of equality and
societies, or individuals within households in non-discrimination (found in the UN
which poverty would remain unaddressed. Charter (Articles 1, 2 and 7), the ICCPR
There are crucial flaws in the method for (Article 26), the ICESCR (Articles 2 and 3),
monitoring progress on the MDGs. the Convention on the Elimination of All
Mechanisms for monitoring progress on the Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD; UN
MDGs currently include annual UN global 1969), and CEDAW) puts signatory states
reports, five-year comprehensive reviews, under an immediate obligation of non-
and country-level MDG Reports. A UNDP discrimination. These obligations mean that
evaluation revealed serious problems with states should not claim achievement of a
the MDG Reports. These problems Goal if, in the process, inequality has been
concerned the need for sex-disaggregated perpetuated or exacerbated. A commitment
data, national participation and ownership, to non-discrimination and equality requires
synergies with other reporting processes, specific attention to groups that experience
and capacity (UNDP 2003). There is discrimination or disadvantage. This
insufficient scope in the MDG Reports for requires states to look for evidence about the
analysis of why progress has or has not been impact of policies on different social groups.
achieved, and no mechanism to explore the Thus, advocates can argue that measuring
impact of factors that fall beyond the scope of progress on achievement of the MDGs using
the MDGs (like peace and security). only averages and aggregates violates that
Furthermore, a recent gender evaluation of obligation of non-discrimination.
the MDG Reports showed dismal A human rights approach regards
performance in integrating gender analysis development and poverty alleviation as
into the issues, or attention to women's processes towards the realisation of human
empowerment (Menon-Sen 2003). Women rights. Further, a feminist human rights
are seen as vulnerable victims and mothers, approach to development requires more than
rather than as agents of development. just identifying that women are an adversely
These problems notwithstanding, there affected group, but analysing why (Dairiam
is some evidence at a country level of 2002). The MDGs describe symptoms of
progress being made in more effective and poverty, rather than analysing causes.
gender-sensitive monitoring. In Viet Nam The understanding of poverty in the
and Cambodia, the indicators and targets MDGs demonstrates this problem. The
have been made more context-specific, to MDGs, in particular Goal 1, understand
recognise that the global targets may be poverty narrowly in terms of economic
inadequate (for example because they are want, and fail to take account of social and
unattainable or have already been reached). political marginalisation, which is both an
The Cambodian Country Report had strong outcome and a primary cause of poverty.
emphasis on ensuring that the statistics used The definition of poverty does not consider
for the indicators are disaggregated by sex why and how women's experience of
(Hyun n.d.). The Albanian government has poverty differs from that of men. An holistic
brought the MDGs down to a sub-national definition of poverty would address the
level by developing regional MDG Reports, need to attain the goals of human security
and it has identified gender mainstreaming (encompassing security from gender-based
as one of its approaches to the MDGs. violence, to security from armed conflict),
Linking women's human rights and the MDGs 87
human rights instruments as tools for the and poor states (Piron 2002). The MDGs go
promotion of gender equality, and helped to some way to address this problem. Goal 8,
put women's organisations on the map as despite its weaknesses, provides a
legitimate watchdogs of government action framework for calling for improved
(Timothy and Freeman 2000). international aid and co-operation. This
Using human rights instruments and approach could be stronger than the human
processes can facilitate genuine partnerships rights route because the international
between civil society in the North and South, community has agreed to this Global
because all societies have yet to realise the Partnership for Development.
promise of human rights. The BPFA and In order to bring these various strands
CEDAW address gender inequality and together, I offer an example which shows, in
women's human rights in all countries, practice, what can be achieved by linking the
North and South, poor and rich, and MDGs and human rights.6 As part of the
represent a shared agenda among women's CEDAW reporting process in Nepal,
organisations working in different contexts. Women for Human Rights (WHR) and
This can counter the concern that the MDGs Single Women's Group (SWG) submitted a
focus on developing countries and ignore Shadow Report to the Committee on
development challenges in rich countries. breaches of their government's treaty
In these ways, the processes surrounding obligations in relation to widows.
the ICESCR, CEDAW, and the BPFA can help Subsequently, the UNDP raised the issue of
to fill the participation deficit in the MDGs. the situation of widows with the
government, in the context of the MDGs. The
Political will government has since asked WHR to
The Millennium Declaration and the MDGs conduct a situational analysis of widows'
have captured political attention, helped to
lives in the context of human rights and the
revitalise international aid flows, and
MDGs. WHR and SWG are using the
focused attention at an institutional level on
CEDAW Committee's Concluding
targets (Barton 2004). The MDGs receive
Comments and their ongoing research to
more attention than human rights,
support their lobbying efforts.
particularly as commitments to international
human rights and humanitarian law treaties Through strategic advocacy work using
are rescinded by some states. Lack of human rights instruments and processes,
political will is the fatal flaw for the ICESCR, WHR and SWG have made the government
the BPFA, CEDAW, and many international and donor community 'see' a social group
human rights mechanisms. The BPFA is that had been marginalised. CEDAW's
particularly vulnerable, because of its status definition of discrimination helped to expose
as the outcome of a conference rather than a widows' particular experiences of
treaty. There are few states that view the inequality, and the reporting process offered
women's human rights agenda as a high the NGOs a chance to hold their government
priority issue, and a handful openly obstruct to account. The UNDP became involved
it. Building linkages between MDGs and through its commitment to meeting the
human rights instruments can benefit MDGs. Thus, activists in Nepal have reaped
women's human rights activism by the rewards of the MDGs and human rights
harnessing global political will. processes: CEDAW offered a framework for
The lack of consensus around the concept analysing discrimination, a formal account-
of a 'right to development' means that ability process, and established routes for
human rights instruments do not bring NGO participation; and the MDGs opened
much to the creation of a concrete obligation up space for dialogue between governments
of international co-operation between rich and donors and helped to generate political
90
Thapa (2004). For more information, contact Lily (1990) 'General Comment on the Nature of
Thapa at WHR (lily@mos.com.np) or Margaret States Parties' Obligations (Art. 2, Para. 1)',
Owen at Widows for Peace through Democracy report on the Fourth and Fifth Sessions, UN
(margieowen@aol.com). ESCOR (Official Records of the Economic and
Social Council), 1991, Supp. No. 2, UN Doc.
E/1991/23E/C.12/1990/8
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94
O
verall, as a feminist I think of the
MDGs as a Major Distraction activist who is involved in the global
Gimmick - a distraction from the women's movement as part of the DAWN
much more important Platforms for Action network. Finally, I did doctoral research on
from the UN conferences of the 1990s, in Rio the links between global trends, develop-
1992 (Environment), Vienna 1993 (Human ment strategies (including the macro-
Rights), Cairo 1994 (Population), Copenhagen economic policy framework of structural
(Social Development) and Beijing 1995 adjustment), the impacts on poor women,
(Women), Istanbul 1996 (Habitats), and Rome and possible interventions aimed at
1997 (Food), on which the MDGs are based. achieving the goal of women's equality and
But despite believing this, I think it empowerment, and all that goes with that.
worthwhile to join other activists within What can be said in favour of the MDGs?
women's movements who are currently As the United Nations Development Fund
developing strategies to try to ensure that the for Women (UNIFEM) and many others
MDGs can be made to work to promote point out, when viewed within the context of
women's equality and empowerment. the new aid agenda, the MDGs provide a
This article is written in response to the common framework, agreed to by all
need to do this. It draws on my experience of governments. They have measurable targets
working in this field for more than 30 years, and indicators of progress, around which
and makes particular reference to Caribbean governments, UN agencies, international
women's realities. First, I worked within the financial institutions, and civil society alike
bureaucracy as Director of the Jamaican can rally. They provide a 'strategic talking
Women's Bureau. Second, I was head of point for assessing what the barriers to the
what used to be the University of the West achievement of goals are, and provide a tool
Indies' (UWI's) major outreach programme with which to hold both donor agencies and
for women, the Women and Development governments accountable' (White 2001,
Unit (WAND), where, in 1981, we tested a 2002, cited by Subrahmanian 2003,3). Goal 3,
pilot project aimed at promoting women's on gender equality and the empowerment of
Critiquing the MDGsfrom a Caribbean perspective 95
women, has been argued by some to be Women Living in Situations of Conflict and
'symbolic of the significant impact of Under Foreign Occupation; 6 Economic
feminist advocacy over years in making the Structures and Policies; 7 Sharing of Power
case for gender-aware development' and Decision-Making; 8 Mechanisms for the
(Subrahmanian 2003,1), despite the fact that Advancement of Women; 9 Human Rights;
we know the emptiness of rhetorical 10 Access to Communications Systems; 11
statements on gender. Management of Natural Resources; 12 Rights
On the other hand, there is widespread of the Girl Child.
awareness of the limitations of the MDGs as For women, the MDGs have inadequate
an approach. First, to treat each Goal as targets and indicators. The indicators used
separate ignores the ways in which they are are restricted to quantifiable indicators,
interconnected. In relation to the when much of what is most important - such
empowerment of women specifically, this as women's equality and empowerment - is
limitation is particularly challenging because not easily quantifiable. In addition, they
of the complex relationships between omit important goals and targets, such as the
women's equality and empowerment - Goal elimination of violence against women and
3 - and all the other Goals. As the sexual and reproductive rights.
International Center for Research on Women
Report notes (ICRW 2003), none of the other
MDGs can be achieved without the
The political economy of
achievement of women's equality and the MDGs
empowerment. The other goals and targets - From the perspective of women, the political
eradicating extreme poverty and hunger economy of the MDGs is one dominated by
(Goal 1); achieving universal primary the twin demons of religious and economic
education (Goal 2); reducing child mortality fundamentalism.
(Goal 4); improving maternal health (Goal 5); I first heard of the MDGs through the
combating HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other outraged response of the global feminist
diseases (Goal 6); and ensuring environ- community when the goal of women's sexual
mental sustainability (Goal 7, including and reproductive rights, hard-won at the UN
Target 10, access to safe water) - are all International Conference on Population and
related in some significant way to the Development (IPCD) in Cairo, 1994, was
position of women and to the conditions excluded from the list. This omission is even
under which they live in any society. more inexcusable given that the attainment of
For women, the Beijing Platform for sexual and reproductive rights of women is
Action remains the most important basic text. not only a goal in itself, but a crucial target
Structured around 12 Priority Areas of and /or indicator of progress under at least
Concern, its theoretical framework is four of the other MDGs: Goal 3 (women's
consistent and much more comprehensive. It equality and empowerment), Goal 4 (child
addresses gender issues from within a mortality), Goal 5 (maternal health), and Goal
theoretical framework of social reprod- 6 (HTV / AIDS). The deliberate exclusion of this
uction, which relates to the realities of fundamental indicator of women's human
women's lives and the ways in which women rights and empowerment from the MDGs
organise, and considers each of the Priority symbolises the new2 power of religious
Areas in relation to women's equality and fundamentalists, the lack of sincerity on the
empowerment. The Priority Areas are: 1 part of the majority of those who voted on
Poverty; 2 Education and Training; 3 Access them, and the struggle that lies ahead for
to Health Care and Related Services; 4 The anyone who seriously seeks equality, equity,
Elimination of Violence Against Women; 5 and empowerment for women.
96
for and win seats owe their preferment to the and domestic violence; access to health
male decision makers within the political services that respect women's sexual and
parties. Women who challenge male privilege reproductive rights; access to and control of
are not likely to be among these. More land; access to credit; and equality before the
importantly, once in office, women (and men) law.
tend to cede their own power to that of their
government, and are unlikely to have the
freedom to make decisions about their lives Other important goals for
and act upon them: in short, to demonstrate CARICOM women
empowerment and agency, especially in In my view, CARICOM women should pay
relation to gender issues. as much attention to the gender dimensions
The inadequacy of these indicators for of the other MDGs as they do to Goal 3. We
advancing the rights of Caribbean women have much more to gain from this approach.
can be judged from the fact that, apart from For the Caribbean region, Goals 1
the indicator on women in parliaments, (eradication of extreme poverty) and 6
women in CARICOM countries have (combating HIV /AIDS) should be
already achieved the targets. We've 'been prioritised, within a framework in which
there, and done that'. And yet, we can hardly gender is seen as a cross-cutting issue. To the
speak of equality, equity, and empowerment extent that both areas represent priorities for
in a situation where poverty persists, most CARICOM governments - in the way
violence against women continues that gender equality and women's
unabated,7 there is increasing hostility empowerment certainly do not - a focus on
against women (possibly generated by the these Goals can be especially useful for
very achievements in education and CARICOM women.
employment mentioned earlier), the spread However, there are problems with the
of HIV/AIDS is the second most rapid after formulation of the MDGs relating to poverty
sub-Saharan Africa (and is spreading most and HIV/AIDS; these need to be addressed
quickly among women),8 and where only if the framework of the MDGs is to be useful
two CARICOM countries (Barbados and to women. One obvious problem is that the
Guyana) provide for abortion services that targets and indicators associated with these
are accessible, safe, and affordable. Goals are not disaggregated by gender.9
In UNIFEM's publication, Progress of the Recognition of the disparity between men
World's Women 2000, additional indicators of and women in terms of poverty, or the
women's economic equality were proposed. incidence of HIV/AIDS, is an important
These included tracking women's partici- starting point for the design of effective
pation in informal wage work; capturing policies, programmes, and strategies for
women's work in its entirety; and measuring addressing these areas.
the extent to which women are paid a living
wage. In addition, UNIFEM has suggested Goal 1: poverty
that a target should be created to end gender Along with violence against women (not
disparity in wages. But while these measures included as a target or indicator in the MDGs),
are useful, they are still not adequate for the poverty is one of the leading concerns
Caribbean region, which has one of the identified by Caribbean women. The gender-
highest levels of literacy, education, and blindness of the goal on income-poverty
labour force participation in the world. The eradication is particularly problematic,
indicators of women's equality and especially as poverty is widely recognised as a
empowerment in the Caribbean would have 'highly gendered phenomenon, and in ways
to include indicators on the incidence of rape that are not captured by income or headcount
Critiquing the MDGsfrom a Caribbean perspective 99
measures' (Subrahmanian 2003, 10). For that when a man is present he receives the
Caribbean women, it is important to major share of food in the household, and his
recognise that 'outcomes of poverty are needs take priority over those of other
embedded in processes and relations of household members. The assumption (often
gender' (ibid.), and that poverty reduction accepted by women themselves) that men
programmes must take these into account. are the 'heads of household' can work
For example, poverty reduction programmes against the interests of women, who indeed
must provide for a range of services, carry the main responsibility for the care and
including low-income housing, access to maintenance of households.
water and sanitation, health services that A point of interest in the Caribbean is that
integrate primary health care, maternal and women with limited resources often fare
child health, family planning, cancer better in female-headed households than in
detection, services for the detection and one headed by a man. A study, by Lynn
treatment of sexually transmitted diseases Bolles, of women in Jamaica during the
and HIV/AIDS, free and compulsory economic crisis of the 1980s shows that when
primary education, child-care provision, and the woman is the sole bread-winner, a male
women's access to credit, land, and skills partner is less likely than a second woman in
training. They must also ensure that the the household to provide the assistance with
minimum wage legislation extends to domestic chores and child care that the
domestic workers and other categories of working woman needs. If there is a second
low-income work. woman present, she not only assists with
Because of the primary responsibility household maintenance tasks, but engages
that women have for the care of children, in her own income-generating activities,
elderly, sick, and disabled people, their such as petty trading, crafts, or paid
income-earning capacity is more limited domestic work, to augment household
than that of men. It means that the incidence income (Bolles 1983).
of poverty among women is greater than it is Finally, the link between gender equality,
among men. This has particularly serious women's empowerment, and food security
consequences in the Caribbean, where a high is critical in poor households: while
proportion of families are heavily or entirely Caribbean men can (and do) walk away from
dependent on the income of women, and household responsibilities when they are not
there is a high incidence of female-headed in a position to offer financial support,
households. In such a context, the earnings women stay and will do whatever it takes to
of women affect the well-being of entire put food on the table.
families, and especially that of children and Goal 6: HIV/AIDS
elderly people. The lack of attention to gender issues in Goal
While poverty is a major concern for 6 and its associated indicators on the spread
women, advocates should be aware of the of HIV/AIDS is especially problematic.
tendency of governments and donors alike HIV/AIDS, like poverty, is a highly
to 'collapse gender concerns within the gendered phenomenon. Advocates ought to
wider category of poverty, as it enables the draw attention to the fact that women's
use of a fairly depoliticised and needs-based sexual and reproductive rights must be the
discourse as requiring focus on women cornerstones to any effective programme for
within poor households, rather than gender combating the spread of HIV/AIDS, even if
disadvantage per se' (ibid. 11). This masks the this is presently excluded from the MDGs,
uneven distribution of power and resources with their targets and indicators. Central to
within households, especially when there the spread of HIV is the issue of sexuality
are men present. Caribbean women know and women's sexual and reproductive
100
rights: no amount of education can protect a higher than that of men in the same age
woman from exposure to the virus if she group. According to the UNAIDS Fact Sheet,
cannot negotiate safe sex. in Trinidad and Tobago HIV rates are
As Sheila Stuart points out, young women reported to be five times higher in girls than
and girls are particularly vulnerable when in boys aged 15-18 years, and this is
they engage in sex with older men, especially probably true of other countries in the
those in positions of authority, like clergymen, region. Women's rights advocates should
teachers, and employers (Stuart 2000). In the press for sex-disaggregated data in this area,
Caribbean, there is also a high incidence of and for a particular focus on these indicators.
incest, and the exposure of young girls to
sexual assault by the male partners of their
mothers is commonplace (ibid.). Finally, Other goals and targets of
homophobia, especially in Jamaica {New York special concern to women
Times 2004), is an important factor in the Other goals and targets of special concern to
spread of the virus. These are matters that women in the Caribbean are the reduction of
should be discussed as part of any programme the under-five mortality rate (Goal 4);
for combating the spread of HIV / AIDS in this improved maternal health (Goal 5); access to
region, and it is up to women to raise these safe drinking water (Goal 7, Target 10); and
questions. Unfortunately, the hostility and improvements in the lives of slum dwellers
resentment shown by men towards women (Goal 7, Target 11). Here, I confine myself to
that underlies the 'male marginalisation' a few brief remarks regarding these goals in
thesis in this region make open discussion of relation to the Caribbean. Overall, inform-
these issues especially difficult. This is hardly
ation, including statistics, is needed to
conducive to the kind of mutual respect and indicate the extent, and reasons behind, the
consideration necessary for the exercise of problems that these goals seek to address, as
sexually responsible behaviour. they exist in the Caribbean.
Two of the indicators of Goal 6 - the An example is the lack of information
HIV/AIDS prevalence rates among regarding Goals 4 and 5. While there were
pregnant women aged 15-24, and rates of substantial improvements in infant and
condom use - are especially appropriate for maternal mortality rates in the Caribbean in
this region. According to a Joint UN the 1960s and 1970s in the processes leading
Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) Fact up to and following independence, there
Sheet of February 2001, in Trinidad and have been setbacks over the past two
Tobago a large survey of men and women in decades. These setbacks are the result of the
their teens and early twenties showed that onset of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, along
fewer than 20 per cent of sexually active with the deterioration in public health
respondents said they always used services. CARICOM governments had a
condoms, and two-thirds did not use good record throughout the 1960s and 1970s
condoms at all. Although the ratio of men to of making steady improvements in the
women living with HIV is 2:1 in the region, provision of public health services. This has
the rapid increase in HIV/AIDS among been placed in jeopardy with the pressures
women can be gauged by the fact that this on states that came with the spread of neo-
has increased from 5:1 in Barbados since the liberalism. It is important to assess the status
beginning of the disease in this country, and of public health services in CARICOM
is now reported to be 1:1 (UNAIDS 2001). countries at the present time, especially in
The ratio of 2:1 also conceals the ratio by age the context of pressures to liberalise trade in
group. There is evidence that the rate of services (through the proposed General
increase among young women may be Agreement on Trade in Services, or GATS).
Critiquing the MDGs from a Caribbean perspective 101
There is a similar risk to public water and active women's movement to monitor
supplies. It is difficult to reconcile the those officials who are mandated to monitor.
pressures of powerful government on poor I am reminded of a project on gender-
countries to privatise water and liberalise sensitive statistics undertaken by the
trade in services with appearing to support Women's Desk of the CARICOM Secretariat
the goals and targets of poverty reduction, some years ago. Despite the fact that the
access to safe drinking water, and workshops were well attended by statistical
improvements in the lives of slum dwellers.10 officers from across the region, it would be
Regarding Goal 5, there are major hard to detect any marked improvement in
problems with the indicators. To limit the the data available today.
indicator for the target of reducing maternal There is really no serious commitment to
mortality rates by three-quarters to the collecting gender-disaggregated data,
'proportion of births attended by skilled because there is little agreement on the
health personnel' is to ignore the importance importance of this issue. So far as the
of women's access to maternal and child bureaucracies of the region are concerned, it
health services, including family planning seems to be sufficient for the governments to
services. In the context of deteriorating sign commitments, pledges, and conventions;
public health services and the hostility of the taking action is another matter entirely. Even
current US Administration to the inclusion of when there is action, it is so ineffective as to
abortion within family planning pro- give credence to those who dismiss the whole
grammes and even to the use of condoms, issue of gender equality as a gimmick. I could
this indicator is particularly inadequate. give an entire paper on this, starting with my
experience working with a government
0amaica in the second half of the 1970s) that
Strategies to improve the was at least semi-serious about women's
MDGs equality and participation.11 This was
undoubtedly due to the fact that the women
This section suggests some strategies to in the People's National Party (PNP) at that
ensure that gender inequalities are identified time, under the leadership of the wife of the
and addressed in the MDG monitoring Prime Minister and with the involvement of a
process, and in national policy responses number of wives of other ministers and
from governments. officials, committed to the pursuit of an
agenda for the advancement of women.
Holding governments to account through
national and international monitoring of The UNIFEM report (Elson with Keklik
2002) also acknowledges that the
progress on gender issues
achievement of the MDGs will require wide-
UNIFEM's special issue of Progress of the
based social mobilisation, including civil
World's Women 2002: Volume 2. Gender
society, governments, and development
Equality and the Millennium Development Goals
agencies. It will also require women's
(Elson with Keklik 2002) has a chapter on organisations to actively monitor
'Innovations in measuring and monitoring', international and national progress towards
which focuses on improving national Goal 3, and progress on all other Goals, with
statistics, creating alternative indicators and particular attention to gender issues.
indices, and producing supporting studies.
Each region must identify indicators and Linking Gender Budgets to the MDGs
devise strategies that accord with the Another strategy worth examining is one
resources and capabilities at its disposal. that would link work on MDGs to work on
However, as valuable as all these would Gender Budgets. The most effective work on
be, they are meaningless without a strong Gender Budgets takes place at the level of
102
civil society as well as within the links of these bureaux with key ministries -
bureaucracy. This work is just beginning in health, education, labour, finance and
the Caribbean and, judging from experience planning and foreign affairs - need to be
in Latin America and elsewhere, there is strengthened. Political support is needed
much to be done to work out a mechanism from feminists within the ministries and
that would ensure ongoing support for this within the political parties, especially the
within the bureaucracy. Here again, a link governing party. Finally, in order to be
between those working on the inside and effective, they have to build strong
those on the outside is essential. relationships with women's organisations,
My own work in community especially those with an activist orientation.
development in the 1960s and 1980s, and From my own experience in Jamaica, I
currently with the Gender and Trade found that, working together, these three
Network, suggests that economic literacy groups of feminists in different institutional
programmes which enable women and men contexts were able to generate and initiate a
at community level, and in NGOs, to fairly effective set of strategies that saw real
understand how policy frameworks are advances in bureaucratic arrangements,
influenced by global trends and agreements legislation, and programmes within a
are an important base for the construction of relatively short period of time. In Jamaica,
proposals for policy alternatives which the first step was the appointment of an
would lead to the achievement of goals such Adviser to the government on Women's
as poverty eradication, advances in Affairs early in 1974. Within one year, the
education, improved health, and women within the PNP were able to arrange
environmental protection - the MDGs. for this single post to be converted into a
Women's Desk in the Ministry of Social
A three-pronged approach to policy Welfare, and later into a Women's Bureau in
implementation at the national level the Office of the Prime Minister.
The discussion so far in this section reveals
my view that since all the MDGs are political Linking the Beijing Platform for Action
issues, and none more so than the goal of with the MDGs
gender equality and women's empower- To benefit from the high-profile attention
ment, they will never be achieved if we received by the MDGs as the new consensus
continue to treat them as issues that can be framework for development discourse and
addressed by purely technical means. No assistance, all those committed to the
matter how good the indicators, no matter advancement of women's equality and
how accurate the statistics, nothing can be empowerment need to develop strategies for
achieved without political will. A women's monitoring and measuring progress
movement with an analysis of power and a towards the achievement of the Beijing
set of carefully thought-through strategies is Platform for Action, and building this into
essential to the achievement of the MDGs. work on the MDGs. We must substitute the
My experience in setting up the Jamaican Best Plan of Action (BPA) for the Most
Women's Bureau in 1975 was that a three- Distracting Gimmick (MDG)! Certainly, in
pronged approach was essential for effective the Caribbean our resources are far too
action. First, a well-placed and well-staffed limited to have them spread over a number
mechanism is needed within the of 'initiatives' that are essentially no
bureaucracy, with access to all government different from each other. The BPA includes
ministries. Bureaux of Gender Affairs or all the concerns of the MDGs, and already
Women's Affairs have a crucial role to play has a constituency of support in an array of
in the monitoring and measurement of the women's organisations, research and training
implementation of the MDGs. Second, the centres, media and communications
Critiquing the MDGsfrom a Caribbean perspective 103
7 It is notoriously difficult to get accurate data Bolles, L. (1983) 'Kitchens hit by priorities:
on this. Roberta Clarke's (1998) report, Violence employed working-class Jamaican women
Against Women in the Caribbean, prepared for confront the IMF', in J. Nash and M.P.
UNIFEM and the Inter-American Commission Fernandez-Kelly (eds.) Women, Men, and the
of Women, highlights the problem. International Division of Labor, New York: State
8 Within three years of the report of the first case University of New York Press
of AIDS, female and paediatric cases Clarke, R. (1998) Violence Against Women in the
represented 23 per cent of the total. There is Caribbean: State and Non-state Response, UNIFEM
now parity between the number of men and and the Inter-American Commission of Women
women with AIDS, and the spread of (CIM)
HIV/AIDS among young women aged 15-24 Elson, D. with H. Keklik (2002) Progress of the
is the highest for any age group (see Stuart World's Women 2002: Volume 2, Gender Equality
2000). and the Millennium Development Goals, New York:
9 Of course, disaggregation is not without its UNIFEM
problems, as Diane Elson warns us: 'the basic Fraser, A. and I. Tinker (eds.) (2004) Developing Power:
problem with disaggregation is that it focuses How Women Transformed International Development,
on the separate characteristics of men or The Feminist Press
women, rather than the social institutions of ICRW (2003) 'Promises to Keep', Task Force
gender as a power relation' (Elson 1998,160). Background Paper on Gender Equality and
10 There is a Caribbean Gender and Trade Women's Empowerment,
Network (CGTN), part of the International www.unmillenniumproject.org
Gender and Trade Network, which monitors Miller, E. (1987) The Marginalisation of the Caribbean
the trade negotiations and is an important Male: Insights from the Development of the Teaching
source of information. The programme of the Profession
CGTN also includes research and New York Times (2004)' "Hated to death" in
economic/trade literacy (see www.igtn.org). Jamaica', editorial, 2 December 2004
These are resources available to women's Stuart, S. (2000) 'The reproductive health challenge:
organisations in this region. women and AIDS in the Caribbean', in G. Howe
11 A full account of this experience is in my and A. Cobley (eds.) The Caribbean AIDS
Lucille Mair Lecture, delivered at the Mona Epidemic, Kingston: UWI Press
Campus, UWI, in 2000, which is the basis of Subrahmanian, R. (2003) 'Promoting gender
my chapter in the book, Developing Power: How equality', in R. Black and H. White (eds.)
Women Transformed International Development Targeting Development, London: Routledge
(Fraser and Tinker 2004). UNAIDS (2001) HIV/AIDS Fact Sheet, February
UNDP (2003) 'Caribbean Regional Report on the
Implementation of the Millennium Development
References Goals', unpublished paper prepared for the
Barriteau, E. (2000) Examining the Issues of Men, Male UNDP Caribbean Office
Marginalisation and Masculinity in the Caribbean:
Policy Implications, Cave Hill Working Paper
Series No. 4, Centre for Gender and
Development Studies, UWI
Barriteau, E. (2003a) 'Requiem for the male
marginalization thesis in the Caribbean: death of
a non-theory', in E. Barriteau (ed.) Confronting
Power, Theorising Gender: Interdisciplinary
Perspectives in the Caribbean, Kingston: UWI Press
Barriteau, E. (2003b) 'Conclusion: beyond a
blacklash: the frontal assault on containing
Caribbean women in the decade of the 1990s', in
G. Tang Nain and B. Bailey (eds.) Gender Equality
in the Caribbean: Reality or Illusion, Kingston: Ian
Randle Publishers
105
accountable rather than the current top-down Gender, the Millennium Development Goals,
partnerships envisioned by the Goal. and Human Rights in the Context of the 2005
Review Processes (2004), Genevieve Renard
Seeking Accountability on Women's Human Painter, Gender and Development Network
Rights: Women Debate the Millennium (GADN), c/o WOMANKIND Worldwide,
Development Goals (2004), Carol Barton and 2nd Floor, Development House, 56-64
Laurie Prendergast (eds.), Women's Leonard Street, London EC2A 4JX, UK.
International Coalition for Economic Justice Available online at www.siyanda.org/
(WICEJ), 12 Dongan Place #206, New York, docs / painter_cedawmdgs.doc
NY 10040, USA. This paper was written by Painter to inform
www.wicej.org the Gender and Development Network's
Hard copies are available from advocacy strategy for 2005. Painter
info@wicej.org (please include your full highlights the opportunities for advocacy
mailing address). presented by linking and participating in the
Featuring 29 articles and short opinion pieces MDG Review process and the Beijing
from women in diverse roles (from civil society, Platform for Action +10 Review process. She
human rights organisations, and academia) argues that it is vital to conceptualise the
and regions of the world (including Russia, MDGs from a human rights perspective and
Tanzania, and Colombia), this book presents explores the links between CEDAW, the
diverse viewpoints on women's engagement Beijing Platform for Action, and the MDGs.
with the MDGs. It includes sections on the
importance of a human rights perspective on 'Promoting gender equality' by Ramya
the MDGs, understanding the MDGs within Subrahmanian, in Targeting Development:
wider frameworks such as international law, Critical Perspectives on the Millennium
strategies for engaging with the MDGs and Development Goals, Richard Black and
transforming them as a tool for rights, equality, Howard White (eds.), Routledge, Taylor &
sustainable development, and peace. The book Francis Group, 2 Park Square, Milton Park,
aims to serve as an accessible tool to enable Abingdon, Oxford, OX14 4RN, UK (2004).
women's organisations to assess how, why, www.routledge.com
and whether to engage with the MDGs.
Subrahmanian critically examines MDG 3 on
Pathway to Gender Equality: CEDAW, Beijing gender equality and empowerment, and
and the MDGs (2004), Lee Waldorf, UNIFEM. argues that the targets and indicators of the
Available online at: www.unifem.org/ Goal may specify outcomes/ends, but they
index.php?f_page_pid=216 fail to make clear what routes / processes are
This report looks at the linkages and necessary to achieve these outcomes. She
crossovers among the MDGs, the Convention also makes the point that the notion of
on the Elimination of All Forms of gender empowerment that the MDGs adopt
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) seems to be restricted only to health and
and the Beijing Platform for Action; and education goals, and criticises the gender-
argues that the MDGs should not be viewed as blindness of the poverty eradication goal as a
a new agenda but as a new means of attaining major shortcoming. In order to achieve
CEDAW and Beijing. Conversely, ensuring gender equality, Subrahmanian emphasises
that the commitments made in CEDAW and that all the major actors in development
Beijing are fulfilled would help in the must ensure transparency in all levels of
attainment of the MDGs. The report provides their policy processes.
practical guidelines on how to link the MDGs
processes with CEDAW and Beijing.
Resources 107
Taking Action: Achieving Gender Equality and This booklet demonstrates the links between
Empowering Women (Final Report of the UN Goal 1 (poverty eradication), Goal 3 (gender
Millennium Project Task Force on Education and equality and the empowerment of women),
Gender Equality) (2005), Caren Grown, Geeta and Goal 7 (environmental sustainability) in
Rao Gupta, and Aslihan Kes, Earthscan, 8-12 the context of increasing women's access to
Camden High Street, London NW1 OJH, UK natural resources. Four key dimensions frame
earthinfo@earthscan.co.uk the discussion, along with accompanying
www.earthscan.co.uk case studies: water (Kenya), energy (Malawi),
Available online at: land and food security (Tanzania and Nepal),
http:// unmp.forumone.com/eng_task_ and biodiversity (Kenya and Laos).
force / GenderEbook.pdf Recommended strategies, tools, and actions
The Final Report by the Task Force on to ensure the links between gender and access
Education and Gender Equality spells out the to natural resources are incorporated into the
seven strategic priorities that are essential in MDG process at a national level include the
order to achieve gender equality and use of sex-disaggregated data, gender
women's empowerment by 2015. These are reviews of country reports, and gender
strengthening opportunities for post-primary budget initiatives.
education for girls, guaranteeing
reproductive and sexual health and rights, 80 Million Lives: Meeting the Millennium
investing in infrastructure to reduce women's Development Goals in Child and Maternal
and girls' time-burden, guaranteeing Survival (2003), Suzanne Fustukian, Regina
women's and girls' property and inheritance Keith, and Angela Penrose, Grow Up Free
rights, eliminating gender inequality in from Poverty Coalition.
employment by decreasing women's reliance Available free online at:
on informal employment, increasing www.savethechildren.org.uk/ temp / scuk /
women's share of seats in local and national cache / cmsattach / 1527_80millionlives.pdf
government, and combating violence against or by writing to: Save the Children, 17
women and girls. The report stresses, Grove Lane, London, SE5 8RD, UK.
however, that gender equality cannot and This report, by a UK-based coalition of
will not be achieved without the leadership to NGOs, faith groups, young people's
institute policies for social change and the organisations, and civil society organ-
political will to allocate the necessary isations, focuses on Goal 4 (reducing child
resources towards their fulfilment. mortality) and Goal 5 (improving maternal
health), arguing that a 'social mode' of
Common Ground: Women's Access to Natural health-care provision is vital to the
Resources and the United Nations Millennium attainment of these Goals. The report is based
Development Goals (2003), Rebecca Pearl, on a rights-based approach to health care. It
Women's Environment and Development sets out the Coalition's recommendations on
Organization (WEDO), 355 Lexington how to implement a 'health for all' system.
Avenue, 3rd Floor, New York, NY 10017- The title of the report derives from the fact
6003, USA. that achieving the MDGs by 2015 will help to
wedo@wedo.org save 80m children and women from death.
www.wedo.org
The booklet can be ordered from WEDO 'Strategic advocacy and maternal mortality:
using their online order form at: moving targets and the Millennium
www.wedo.org / publicat / shop.htm Development Goals', Lynn Freedman, in
and is also available free online at: Women Reinventing Globalisation, Caroline
www. wedo.org/sus_dev/ commonl.htm Sweetman and Joanna Kerr (eds.), Oxfam
108
GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford, OX2 7DZ, Gender, Education and Development: Beyond
UK (2003). Access to Empowerment (1999), Christine
Available online at: Heward and Sheila Bunwaree (eds.), Zed
http: / / publications.oxfam.org.uk / oxfam / Books, 7 Cynthia Street, London Nl 9JF, UK
default.asp www.zedbooks.co.uk
Freedman stresses the importance of access This book draws on case studies from
to Emergency Obstetric Care, in the event of Ethiopia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, South Africa,
birth complications, as vital to the Tanzania, Pakistan, Nepal, Mauritius, Niger,
achievement of the MDG on the reduction of Peru, and Papua New Guinea to argue that
maternal mortality. She argues that this education does not automatically lead to the
MDG provides an important avenue for empowerment of women. For example, the
strategic advocacy to attain accountable case study from Sri Lanka demonstrates that
health systems that can deliver the care equal educational attainment does not
necessary to save women's lives and translate into equal rewards in the labour
improve their health. market for women. Social, cultural, political,
and economic factors all affect the impact of
Gender and Education For All: The Leap to education on the lives of girls and women.
Equality. EFA Global Monitoring Report 2003/4
The book also contains a strong critique of
the World Bank's education policy as
(2003) UNESCO.
simplistic and unresponsive to the realities
Can be ordered online at:
of the lives of poor and marginalised girls
www.publishing.unesco.org
and women the world over.
or downloaded at:
http: / / portal.unesco.org / education / en / Partnerships for Girls' Education (2005), Nitya
ev.php-URL_ID=23023&URL_DO= Rao and Ines Smyth (eds.), Oxfam GB, 274
DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Banbury Road, Oxford, OX2 7DZ, UK.
The report assesses the progress made By documenting and analysing the
towards the six Education For All goals, achievements and challenges of a multitude
adopted at the World Education Forum in of partnerships for girls' education, this book
Dakar, Senegal in 2000, two of which were aims to suggest strategies for progress
later incorporated into the Millennium towards the achievement of the Millennium
Development Goals of education and gender Development Goals. An account of the
equity. Stressing the importance of formation and development of the Global
achieving gender equality in education from Campaign for Education is followed by
a human rights perspective, the report detailed case studies from Bangladesh,
makes a distinction between gender parity in Egypt, the Philippines, Peru, and sub-
education (a numerical concept) and gender Saharan Africa, illustrating a wide range of
equality (a more complex notion including partnerships and raising crucial questions
equal learning achievements and the life about power and control, 'scaling up', and
opportunities that follow). The report is sustainability.
divided into seven chapters, which examine
progress towards achieving the goals, the The Beijing Platform for Action and the
barriers to the attainment of gender equality, Millennium Development Goals: How to Defend
examples of good practice, and the national the Progress Made? How to Move Forward in
and international strategies and Globalising Women's Rights: Confronting
commitments that will be necessary in order Unequal Development Between the UN Rights
to make gender equality in education a Framework and the WTO Trade Agreements
reality. (2004) Women In Development Europe
Resources 109
(WIDE) Annual Conference Report, pp 51-7. Education, London and Sheila Aikman of
Can be ordered by sending an e-mail to Oxfam GB. The Project was launched in April
Nerea Craviotto at info@wide-network.org 2003 and will run until December 2005. It is
This section of the WIDE Annual Conference linked to work in support of the Millennium
Report contains presentations by Kalyani Development Goal for gender equity in
Menon-Sen and Carol Barton. The education worldwide by 2005. The main aims
presentations provide concise critiques of of the Project are to share new knowledge,
the MDGs from the perspective of the critically examine practice, and undertake
women's movement (for example the new strategies for learning between
relegation of gender to only one Goal, and policy makers, NGOs, intergovernment
the inadequate measures of the complex organisations, practitioners, academics,
notion of 'empowerment') and explore the teachers, and the general public and build
links between the MDGs and the Beijing awareness of debates and practical strategies
Platform for Action. They also discuss some for the delivery of gender equitable education
of the strategies being adopted by the through a series of seminars, a conference,
women's movement for 2005. and a range of publications.
within the Reports. It finds that gender has legal, political, economic, and social rights,
not been sufficiently and effectively this paper by the Gender and Development
incorporated within the analyses. Group of the World Bank examines the
Suggestions for improvement include the gender equality Millennium Development
inclusion of disaggregated data and Goal as well as the links between gender
qualitative information on critical gender equality and the achievement of the poverty,
issues across goals and targets. The countries education, health and nutrition, and
covered are Albania, Armenia, Bolivia, environment Goals. While it does not
Cameroon, Egypt, Lithuania, Mauritius, critically examine the World Bank's own
Mozambique, Nepal, Poland, Saudi Arabia, policies, it does argue strongly for the need
Tanzania, and Viet Nam. This paper to attain gender equality in order to achieve
provides concrete evidence on how the other MDGs, and discusses Goal-specific
countries are failing to take gender issues gender-sensitive approaches that would
into account in their reporting on the MDGs. enable the implementation of the Goals.
Indicators for Monitoring the Millennium Reproductive Health and Gender Equality: Paper
Development Goals: Definitions, Rationale, for the Task Force on Education and Gender
Concepts, and Sources (2003), United NationsEquality (2003), Carmen Barroso and
Development Group Franchise Girard
www.mdgender.net / upload / tools / Indicat www.mdgender.net / upload / monographs
ors_for_Monitoring_the_MDGs.pdf
/ReproductiveHealth_and_GenderEquality
This handbook provides guidance on the _l.doc
definitions, rationale, concepts, and sources
The authors highlight the failure of Goal 3 on
of data for each of the indicators that are
gender equality to address women's right to
used to monitor the MDG targets. For each
reproductive health, arguing that repro-
indicator used to measure progress towards
ductive health and access to health care are
the targets and goals, the handbook provides
essential for gender equality. They urge the
a simple operational definition, the goal and
Millennium Project's Task Force on
target that it addresses, the rationale for use
of the indicator, the method of computation, Education and Gender Equality to include
sources of data, references including targets and indicators on reproductive
relevant websites, periodicity of measure- health as central to gender equality.
ment, gender and disaggregation issues,
limitations of the indicator, and national and The Cost of Childbirth: How Women are Paying
international agencies involved in the the Price for Broken Promises on Aid, Oxfam
collection, compilation or dissemination of Briefing Paper (2004), Oxfam GB, 274
the data. Banbury Road, Oxford, OX2 7DZ, UK
www.oxfam.org.uk/ what_we_do / issues /
Gender Equality and the Millennium debt_aid / downloads /bp52_childbirth.pdf
Development Goals (2003), Gender and This paper argues that, on current trends, the
Development Group, World Bank, 1818 H Millennium Development Goal on reducing
Street NW, Washington DC 20433, USA maternal mortality by two-thirds by 2015
http: / / siteresources.worldbank.org / INTGE will be missed. This failing, say the authors,
NDER / Publications / 20169280 / gendermdg. can be rectified if donors increase their aid
pdf for financing of better health-care provisions
Drawing on research that builds a global and governments ensure that health systems
picture of the current status of women's are responsive to the needs of women.
Resources 113
Gender and Education For All: The Leap to Learning to Survive: How Education For All
Equality. Commissioned Papers (2003) Would Save Millions of Young People from
http: / / portal.unesco.org / education / en / ev HJVI'AIDS (2004) Oxfam
.php-URL_ID=25755&URL_DO=DO_ www.oxfam.org.uk/ what_we_do / issues / e
TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201 .html ducation / downloads / gce_hivaids.pdf
More than 70 Background Papers on gender An Oxfam report which stresses that
and education informed the EFA Global education for all would prove to be a crucial
Monitoring Report 2003/4 (see the 'vaccine' against HIV/AIDS. The report
Publications section for further details). looks in particular at the benefits of
Major barriers to education are analysed in education for young women in protecting
papers on child labour, school fees, and them against the virus. Education, argues
HIV /AIDS. Others shed light on the the report, provides young women with
household perspective, teaching profession, access to knowledge, economic resources,
disability, and the issue of gender violence in and decision-making power that deeply
school. Some papers locate education within affects their ability to protect themselves
the broader context of globalisation and against HIV/AIDS.
political participation. Country-specific
114
Beijing Platform for Action (2004), Carol Gender Equality and the Millennium
Barton Development Goals (2003), MDGenderNet
www .eurosur.org / wide / Structure / CBS4_ www.mdgender.net
UN_2.htm www.mdgender.net / upload / tools / MDGe
The Beijing Platform for Action was adopted nder_leaflet.pdf
at the Fourth UN World Conference on This brief leaflet summarises why gender
Women in Beijing, China in 1995. Carol equality and the empowerment of women
Barton provides a concise summary of the are crucial in achieving all eight Millennium
Beijing Platform for Action and its strengths, Development Goals. It provides examples of
weaknesses, and contradictions. Barton broad-based actions that would help
sheds light on the background of backlash incorporate gender equality into the Goals
against which women's rights activists are and result in development gains that would
now being forced to defend the Platform, support the achievement of all the MDGs.
despite its many limitations.
Gender Equality and the Millennium
Beijing Declaration and Platform for ActionDevelopment Goals Poster (2003),
(1995) MDGenderNet
www.un.org / womenwatch / daw /beijing / www.mdgender.net/resources/tool_detail.
platform/ php?ToolID=3
The UN website that provides the full text of Downloadable poster stating '189 Heads of
the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for States committed to Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women. Gender equality
Action, including the 12 strategic objectives
is central to all the Millennium Development
and actions that women's organisations
Goals'.
argue are more representative of women's
rights than the MDGs.
International Women's Rights Action Watch - Africa, South Asia, Central and South
Asia Pacific (1WRAW Asia Pacific), 2nd Floor, America, and Europe.
Block F, Anjung Felda, Jalan Maktab, 54000
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia The UN Millennium Project Task Force 3 on
iwraw-ap@iwraw-ap.org Primary Education and Gender Equality,
www.iwraw-ap.org / Center for Global Development, 1776
IWRAW Asia Pacific is a non-profit Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington
international women's organisation based in DC 20036, USA
the South. It promotes the domestic tf3info@unmillenniumproject.org
implementation of international human www.unmillenniumproject.org/html/
rights standards by building the capacity of tforce_3.shtm
women and human rights advocates to claim The UN Millennium Project Task Force has
and realise women's human rights. This is been tasked with developing an operational
done through the development of new framework of action for meeting MDG
knowledge and the utilisation of a rights- Target 3 - to ensure that, by 2015, children
based approach. IWRAW Asia Pacific everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able
contributes to the progressive interpretation, to complete a full course of primary
universalisation, implementation, and schooling. In addition, the Task Force is also
realisation of women's human rights developing an operational framework of
through the lens of CEDAW and other action to meet MDG 3: promote gender
international human rights treaties. equality and empower women. The Task
Force comprises two groups (on education
WOMANKIND Worldwide, 2nd Floor, and gender) that will produce two separate
Development House, 56-64 Leonard Street, reports, though the groups work closely
London EC2A 4JX, UK together. The education group is
info@womankind.org.uk systematically analysing the means to
www.womankind.org.uk achieve dramatic improvements in
education in the developing world, and to
WOMANKIND Worldwide is a UK-based
highlight priority actions for both
charity dedicated to women's development
developing and developed countries. The
and women's human rights globally.
gender group has taken a broad look at the
WOMANKIND Worldwide has developed
goal of gender empowerment within the
programmes in partnership with local
framework of enhancing women's capabil-
community groups to tackle women's
ities, opportunities, and security in order to
inequality in many of the world's poorest
meet the goal. The group is highlighting
places. These programmes are called the
priority areas of action, which include and
Four Literacies - Word Literacy, Money
go beyond the issue of gender disparity in
Literacy, Body Literacy, and Civil Literacy.
education. The Task Force has completed its
WOMANKIND works to unlock women's
Interim Reports on Education and Gender
potential and maximise their ability to make
and will prepare its Final Reports by the end
decisions in their own lives, the lives of their
of 2004.
families, as well as in the future of their
community and country. WOMANKIND
Worldwide works with 70 partner
organisations in 20 countries, spanning