Leonardo Da vinci- first European interested in flight Ideal Gas: pV=nRT (R=8.

314)
designed parachutes. George Cayley- true inventor or For uniform flow, constant=Total
airplane, designed and flew first gliders, tested airfoils on pressure=Stagnation pressure
a rotating arm, separate concept of lift and propulsion, Incompressible for v<100m/s
basic config of modern airplane. Otto Lilenthial-
Lift=>Increased by
designed first successfully controlled glider, first to
recognize importance of flight experience. Wright bros-
Slats=>re-directs airflow in the front of the wing,
achieved sustained powered flight. allowing it to flow more smoothly over surface at
higher angle of attack.(increase lift coefficient)
Flaps (back) increase camber and chord, which
will provide more lift for any amount of drag. This
virtually increases angle of attack. It is deflected
more during landing as it also causes drag.
(increase lift coefficient)
Dtotal = Dprofile + Dinduced
Dprofile = Dskin friction/viscous + Dpressure/form
Total pressure(Stagnation pressure)=Dynamic
P+ Static P
Stagnation point=>point on surface of body
submerged in fluid flow where fluid velocity is 0
p = RT, R = 287 J/(Kg K) Aspect ratio= b/S (bwing span, Swing area)
Geometric altitude: Geometric height above the sea Structural=>longer wing require stronger
level. structure
Absolute altitude: The distance from the center of
Internal volume=>higher AR, lower thickness,
earth. Absolute altitude is important for space flight
reduced vol. to store fuel
a = (RT) where = ratio of specific heats R = gas
constant T = absolute temperature
M = V/a is called the Mach number (V is flow velocity) If
M < 1, the flow is subsonic If M = 1, sonic If M > 1,
supersonic Aero
Critical Mach number, lowest M number at which airflow over
some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound. Thick
airfoils have lower crit M number.
The processes in a gas turbine are continuous
The processes in a piston engine are discontinuous
Process in gas turbine continuous. Process in
piston engine discontinuous.
Thrust required(steady level flight)= W/(L/D)

High Reynolds number = high inertia or low viscosity.

Therefore flow has higher energy / mixes easily and
becomes turbulent. Low Reynolds number = low
inertia or high viscosity. Therefore flow has lower
energy / mixes less easily and is laminar

R/Crate of climb
RGlide distance
RRange
EEndurance

Mean camber line of an airfoil is the locus of points Static stability- Initial tendency
midway between the upper and lower surfaces. The Dynamic stability- time-history of aircraft
most forward and most rear points of the mean
motion.
camber line are called leading and trailing edges .
dynamic stablestatic stable
The camber is the maximum distance between the
chord line and the camber line. Camber, shape of Longditudinal static stability pitching
mean line, and the thickness distribution essentially moment tendency(nose up/down)
control the lift of the airfoil. Directional static stability- yawing tendency
Isentropic- Adiabatic and reversible process (turning)
Adiabatic- No heat energy lost e=0 circular trajectory (e is
eccentricity)
Lateral static stability- rolling tendency
e<1 Elliptical Factors affecting lateral- Wing sweep(swept
e=1 Parabolic back: stabilizing), Wing position(high wing:
e>1 hyperbolic
Minimize entry heating vehicle must
stabilizing), Wing dihedral(positive dihedral:
have blunt nose. So drag mainly stabilizing)
pressure drag and not friction drag. SenseComputeActuate (loop)
(Friction Drag main cause of heat)

Fluids- compressed gaspneumatics, pressurized fluidshydraulics
Hydraulics- high power density because fluid is incompressible, failure
means loss of flight control so independent systems required redundancy.
1.Reservoir , Reserve supply of oil for system, condition fluid by settling
contaminants, space to remove air or foam from system
2.Pump with electric motor
3.Pressure relief valve Protect system against overpressure
4.Check valve Determine the path of a fluid. One direction flow
5.Accumulator Reduce pressure bumps, maintain system pressure
reduction due to leaks, serve as pressure storage unit
6.Direction control valve Allow fluids to flow into different path from 1 or
more sources
7.Electronic control
8.Cylinder
9. Return line filter Remove solid particles from system using porous
medium. Cleanliness is critical in smooth operation of hydraulic system.
Pneumatics- uses air at high pressure to perform work. Advantages-
abundant supply of air, simple and light weight, low cost, no fire hazard,
portability. Disadvantages- low power density. Used for ice and rain control
by inflating pneumatic boot.
i. Bleed air turns turbine (1)
ii. This turbine turns a compressor (2) mounted on the same shaft
which draws in outside air from the flush inlet located on the
fuselage
Main types skinof
andjetwhich is then
engine compressed.
Turbojet: onepass Turboprop: core
&bypass Turbofan: core & bypass (Fire protection required)
Ramjet: onepass Auxiliary power unit- small gas turbine engine
that is used to help start larger jet engines. At rear of aircraft.
Secondary function to provide cabin air and electric power b4
engine start &emergency source of power when engine fails.
Jet engine starting-APU is started by an electric motor powered
by battery. 2.suppplies high pressure air starter of one engine.
Other engines started by crossfeed from this running engine.
Engine air starter- 3.Incoming air drives turbine rotor 4.Turbine
rotor speed reduced by reduction gears which turn engine drive
shaft 5. Engine drive shaft is connected to main engine through
bevel gear system and starts rotating. Ignition- 6. The compressed
air from the compressor is directed into combustion chamber 7.Fuel
is injected through fuel spray nozzle 8.ignitor is switched on for a
short time and then switched off when air in combustion chamber
becomes hot enough to spontaneously ignite. Continuous
running- Ignited fuel from fuel spray nozzle drives turbine. Turbine
then drives compressor. Fuel spray nozzle function- atomize fuel for
rapid combustion.
Non- Destructive Testing (NDT) does not damage or destroy the test object.
Widely used in the industrial world, especially aviation industry
Surface Techniques Eddy current testing a form of electromagnetic
testing, which uses principles of electromagnetic induction to detect near
surface cracks and monitor material thickness. Material has to be conducting.
Magnetic Particle Inspection tests surface and near surface(1mm deep)
defects of ferromagnetic material.adv- most sensitive NDT technique for
ferromagnetic materials,locate and size defects. Takes a few seconds, low
cost.disadv- only suitable for ferromagnetic material, depends on human
operator skills, interpretation may be false. Difficult to automate.Liquid (Dye)
Penetrant Testing Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) or Dye Penetrant
Inspection (DPI) is used to locate surface-breaking defects in all non-porous
materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics). Based on principle of capillary action,
where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry surfacebreaking
discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping,
spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the
excess penetrant is removed, and a developer is applied. The developer helps
to draw penetrant out of the flaw indicating its presence Steps 1. Pre-Cleaning
2. Application of Penetrant 3. Excess Penetrant Removal 4. Application of
Developer 5. Inspection 6. Post-Cleaning
Subsurface techniques Radiographic Testing (RT) inspects materials for
hidden flaws by using ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation
(high energy photons) to penetrate various materials. Source of photos from X-
ray machine. Amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of material
can be detected and measured, variations in amount (or intensity) of radiation
used to determine thickness or composition of material. RT used to check the
integrity of welds. Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency, highly directional
sound waves to detect hidden internal flaws. Utilizes frequencies beyond
human hearing, ultrasonic instruments generate shorts bursts of sound energy
into specimen=>instrument monitors and analyzes reflected or transmitted
Aircraft Materials Aluminum(most widely used,low cost, corrosion resistant, easily
machined)/Steel(only in areas requiring high str. due to weight)/Titanium(maintains str. at high temp,
hard to machine and expensive, (Mach>2.4)/Inconel(V expensive, difficult to machine,
Mach>5)/Composites(light)Ductile and brittle materials Ductile materials withstand large strains
before specimen ruptures; brittle materials fracture at much lower strains. *Yielding region for ductile
materials takes up majority of stress-strain curve *Brittle materials often have relatively large Young's
moduli and ultimate stresses compred to ductile materials. *Toughness is a measure of energy a
sample can absorb before fracture.Plate & Shell Theory (Bending) Love-Kirchhoff hypothesis
*Thickness of shell very small compared with other dimensions; h/r < 0.005 *Deformation of shell is
small; *Transverse normal stress negligible; *The normal to the reference surface of the shell remains
normal to the deformed surface; *The normal to reference surface undergoes negligible change in
length during deformation. Improving Strength-to -Weight Ratio HONEYCOMB Sandwich
Panels Pros: Excellent resistance to buckling and fatigue. High specific strength and stiffness. Cons:
Complicated and lengthy manufacture. Fragile skins(susceptible to damage and difficult to repair).
Difficult to attach to panels - special inserts needed. METALLIC FOAM Sandwich Panels
Composite Materials A composite material is a system of materials composing of two or more
materials mixed or bonded on a macroscopic scale. Fiber-Reinforced Composites vs Metal Alloys
Trade-Off Pros: Light weight, High Strength, High resistance to fatigue damage, Can tailor material
for strength /stiffness requirements, Absorbs radar microwaves, Low thermal expansion Cons:
Expensive raw materials, Susceptible to environmental degradation, Poor energy absorption,
Expensive and complicated inspection methods, Reliable detection of substandard bonds difficult,
Linear elastic to failure, Poor performance in compression (delamination) Functionally Graded
Materials: Smooth and continuous change of properties from one surface to another via the gradual
intentional variation of the volume fraction of constituent materials=>defined as macroscopically
inhomogeneous materials, where inhomogeneous composition is deliberately adjusted to suit the
application. Smart Materials have one or more property that can be significantly altered in a
controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric or magnetic
fields. Adaptive Structures incorporate sensors, actuators, and processors to enable adaptation to
changing operational and/or environmental conditions, enhancing performance, stability, and/or
safety. Piezoelectric materials have the ability to produce a voltage (current) when subjected to
mechanical stress. The effect is reversible whereby piezoelectric materials when subject to an
externally applied voltage, with correspondingly deform. Pros: Compact and lightweight, displacement
proportional to applied voltage, operate over large temperature ranges, fast response to applied
voltage, repeatable sub-nanometer steps at high frequency, no moving parts i.e. no wear and tear,
function at high frequencies, excellent stability, easily embedded into laminated composites. Cons:
brittle due to crystalline structure, produce small strains compared to SMA and magnetostrictives,
cannot withstand high shear and torsion, material ages, use active control that lead to instability, can
be depolarized via high voltage, high temp, large stress. Shape memory alloys (SMA's) are metal
alloys, which exhibit two very unique properties, super-elasticity, and the shape memory effect. These
effects were first noted in the 1930s but serious R&D on SMAs only began in the 1960s. The most
effective and widely used alloys include NiTi (Nickel-Titanium or Nitinol), and copper based CuZnAl and
CuAlNi. Pros: produce very large recovery stresses, easily machined into different shapes and sizes,
manufactured to desired properties, material is ductile, very effective for low frequency vibration,
heating is easily done with resistive heating, easily embedded into laminated composites. Cons: Slow
reaction time, low energy efficiency conversion, may not be able to operate in condition with large
temp ranges, unweldable and expensive for large scale projects, non-linear thermomechanical
behavior can limit accuracy. E.g for SMA: Advanced flap control, coupling sleeve for naval fighters
Magnetostrictive materials: Pros: fast response time, high curie temperature, relatively high strain
and force capabilities compared to piezoelectrics, no ageing effects, operate over large temp range,
low voltage op. Cons: low tensile strengths, brittle, costly due to rare earth metals involved, large
magnetic field required, equipotential intensive. Electro-rheological (ER) and magneto-
rheological (MR) materials are fluids, which can experience a dramatic change in their viscosity.
These fluids can change from a thick fluid (similar to motor oil) to nearly a solid substance within the
span of a millisecond when exposed to a magnetic or electric field; the effect can be completely
reversed just as quickly when the field is removed. MR fluids experience a viscosity change when
exposed to a magnetic field, while ER fluids experience similar changes in an electric field. MR fluids
are being developed for use in car shock absorbers and damping washing machine vibration,
prosthetic limbs and exercise equipment. ER fluids have mainly been developed for use in clutches
and valves, as well as engine mounts designed to reduce noise and vibration in automobiles. Micro
Electrical Mechanical systems (MEMS) are miniature devices which use batch microfabrication
methods to develop mechanical moving parts linked to electrical components for sensing and
actuating functions. Less formally, the term MEMS is often used to describe batch-fabricated
mechanical devices even when there is no electrical functionality or system (ie a single mechanical
component), or interchangeably with MST or micromachines. Bulk micromachining is a subtractive
process that involves the selective removal of the wafer substrate material to form the MEMS
structure, which can include cantilevers, holes, grooves, and membranes. Steps: Grow Oxide Layer
Apply Photoresist Polymer Place Mask over Chip Expose Photoresist removed by UV Light Etch
Oxide via Hydrofluoric Acid Wash Away Exposed Photoresist with Acetone Surface
micromachining is an additive process that involves depositing combinations of thin structural and
sacrificial layers, wherein the sacrificial layers are subsequently removed to form raised structures
that can include gears, comb fingers, cantilevers, and membranes. HARM includes deep ultraviolet or
x-ray lithography techniques collectively known as LIGA (from the German Lithographie,
Galvanoformung, Abformung, meaning lithography, electroplating, and molding). LIGA makes it
possible to create micro-components out of polymers, metals, and ceramic materials using
Buckling is defined as collapse (sudden failure) due to compressive loading
micromachined molds.
Use Euler when S>=Scr and Johnson when S<Scr
Vibration - Discrete & Continuous Systems, Natural Frequencies of a Structural System, Solution of a
1-DOF Spring-Mass-Damper System under Harmonic Loading Parametric Resonance In certain
conditions, a structure loaded periodically in its axial direction may become unstable and resonate in
its transverse direction. This phenomenon is known as parametric resonance. Aeroelasticity No
aircraft structure is completely rigid, so when it is subjected to aerodynamic forces it will normally
deflect by a small amount. This effect can become very important at high speeds because any change
in the shape of the body can cause the applied aerodynamic forces to change, leading in turn to
further deflection and further changes in load. This vicious circle can rapidly develop into adverse
aeroelastic phenomena such as flutter, tail buffeting and wing divergence. FLUTTER An aeroelastic
self-excited vibration with a sustained or divergent amplitude, which occurs when a structure is placed
in a flow of sufficiently high velocity. Flutter is an instability that can be extremely violent. At low
speeds, in presence of an airstream, vibration modes of aircraft are stable whereby ensuing structural
deformations is damped. At higher speeds, effect of airstream is to couple two or more vibration
modes such that vibrating structure will extract energy from the airstream. The coupled vibration
modes will remain stable as long as the extracted energy is dissipated by the internal damping or
friction of the structure. However a critical speed is reached when extracted energy equals the
amount of energy that structure is capable of dissipating, and a neutrally stable vibration will persist.
This is called the flutter speed. At a higher speed, the vibration amplitude will diverge, and structural
failure will result Tail Buffeting In high speed fighter aircraft, leading-edge extension of wing
maintains lift at high angles of attack by generating a pair of vortices that trails downstream over the
aircraft. In certain flight conditions, these leading-edge vortices break down ahead of the vertical
tails=>the breakdown flow impinges upon vertical tail surfaces, causing severe structural fatigue and
premature failure. Wing Divergence refers to a state where, at very low angles of attack of high
speed, two pressure centres develop pushing the front portion of wing downward and rear portion
upward. This aerodynamic twisting action on the wing structure, while the rest of the aircraft is