OIL - From Pore To Pipeline

OIL from Pore to Pipeline
1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1
1.1 Why do we use oil?...................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Before the 19th century.....................................................................................1
1.1.2 Modern time......................................................................................................1
1.2 How is oil created? ...................................................................................................5
1.2.1 Basic geology....................................................................................................5
1.2.2 Petroleum accumulations .................................................................................6
1.2.3 Types of traps....................................................................................................7
1.3 Where is oil found?...................................................................................................9
1.4 Which types of platforms exist? ............................................................................10
1.4.1 Land rigs..........................................................................................................10
1.4.2 Offshore rigs ...................................................................................................12
1.5 Which types of wells exist? ...................................................................................15
2 PROSPECTION AND CONSTRUCTION ..............................................................17

2.1 How is oil found?....................................................................................................17
2.1.1 Offshore seismic .............................................................................................18
2.1.2 Onshore seismic..............................................................................................19
2.2 How is the well constructed? .................................................................................20
2.2.1 Drilling.................................................................................................................20
Schlumberger Private
2.2.2 Coring ..............................................................................................................23
2.2.3 Logging ...........................................................................................................24
2.2.4 Cementing and casing ....................................................................................26
2.2.5 Tubing and packers ........................................................................................29
2.2.6 Perforating.......................................................................................................31
3 PRODUCTION..............................................................................................................32
3.1 How can a well be stimulated? ..............................................................................34
3.1.1 Acid injection..................................................................................................34
3.1.2 Water injection................................................................................................34
3.1.3 Bottom pump ..................................................................................................34
3.1.4 Gas injection ...................................................................................................35
3.1.5 Intelligent completion ....................................................................................36
3.2 How is oil transported?...........................................................................................37
4 APPLICATIONS...........................................................................................................40
4.1 How is petroleum transformed into different products?......................................40
4.1.1 Refinery...........................................................................................................40
4.2 What are the end products? ....................................................................................42
5 Glossary...........................................................................................................................44
6 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................47
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why do we use oil?
1.1.1 Before the 19th century
Oil has been known to man for several thousand years. It all began more than 5000 years
ago when Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Turks began to use oil for religious
rites and for lighting. The earliest oil fields were found where oil literally seeped through
the rock. From this came the name rock oil a synonym for petroleum. For example, the
Venetian Marco Polo observed fire temples and saw a hot oil spring in 1272, when
passing through Baku in Azerbaijan during his journey to China. Marco Polo reported
that oil seeped out in such large quantities that a whole flock of camels had to work in a
shuttle service to carry it away. About 100 ships could load oil in the port of Baku. This
oil was used in lamps and as an ointment for treating sores and rashes.
Crude oil seepages are also known to have been exploited. This natural pitch, or bitumen,
was used as a sealant for reed boats, as mortar for bricks and tiles, as a source of fire, and
as medicine. This ancient oil industry flourished in the Middle East from before 3 000
A.D. until the Persian conquest of about 600 A.D. Unfortunately, this knowledge was
almost entirely lost during the Middle Ages in Europe.
1.1.2 Modern time

The beginning of the modern use of oil took
place in the 19th century. At this time, the
demand for energy increased drastically. Several
types of energy sources were used for lighting,
heating, transport, and in industry. Not only
sources like wood and coal were used, but also,
for example, whale oil. Whale oil was the major
source of light in homes in America, excluding
candles, in the 1850s. This oil was made from
extracted whale fat. As a result of the great
demand, a large part of the whale population
close to the Atlantic seaboard was killed.
Consequently, the search had to be extended far
away in the Pacific Ocean. This made the price
of whale oil skyrocket. People demanded an
alternative energy source. Fig.1 Drake in front of his well in
Titusville, Pennsylvania, USA.
The first solution presented was kerosene.
Kerosene was made from cannel coal a soft, bituminous coal with good illumination
proprieties. People began to change their whale-oil lamps to kerosene lamps.
OIL from Pore to Pipeline 1

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At the same time, the search for
good, cheap, reliable lamp oil
continued. In certain swamp
areas, American Indians
collected oil that floated on the
water. Observers began to ask
themselves if petroleum could
also be found by drilling. This
technique was already used to
find salt, so why not for oil?
Fig.2 Forest of derricks in the USA.
Another oil rich area, where oil
was seeping out of the rocky terrain, was around Titusville in Pennsylvania, USA. Trial
wells led to a major oil discovery in 1859 by Edwin L Drake and his team (see fig. 1). As
a consequence, oil was sought all over America and rapidly forests of derricks spread
across the country (see fig. 2). At this time, oil was transported in old wooden whiskey
barrels that were made a standard size. That is why we still measure oil in barrels today
(1 barrel = 159 l).
The first well drilled by Drake was a cable-tool rig.
Nowadays almost only rotary drilling is used. The
principle of cable tool drilling can be seen in fig. 3. The
lifting and dropping of the cable and the heavy drilling
jars punch the cutting bit into the ground. Regularly, the
bit has to be winched out of the well so that the cuttings
can be taken away by a special basket, called a bailer.
Little by little, a well is drilled.
Later the rotary drilling method came more into use. The
main difference is that a drilling bit is used instead of a
cutting bit. Secondly, the cable is replaced by a drill pipe
that rotates the bit. While drilling, the whole pipe
rotates.
Another major event in the development of petroleum

drilling industry took place at Spindletop, Texas, USA
in 1901. The man responsible for the drilling was
Captain Anthony Lucas. He was convinced that oil
could be found under the Spindletop dome. The only
problem was how to drill for it. Since the ground around
the dome consisted of unconsolidated formations, cable-
tool drilling did not work. Instead, rotary drilling had to
be used. This method, with its supporting fluid-
Fig.3 The principle of a cable- circulation system, was more suitable to use in soft
tool rig. formations. The Spindletop well also proved that large
quantities of oil could be found in younger

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unconsolidated formations. Previously, only older, consolidated formations were
considered to contain oil.
At this time, Europe was almost completely dependent on imported lamp oil from the
USA. But after 1870, reservoirs began to be explored in Baku in the Russian Empire.
Around 1900, Baku produced more oil than the USA.
Americans continued to improve drilling techniques by driving the drill bit with steam
engines and by casing the borehole with steel tubes. These technological improvements
helped steady the price of oil. This was essential since oil was becoming increasingly
important for the newly industrialized USA and Europe. More and more machines were
depending on petroleum as an energy source. In 1888, Karl Benz invented the petrol
engine. When the car entered the scene in the early 1900s, the demand for petroleum
increased further. From 1900 to 1910, automobile production increased from 8 000 to
450 000 cars per year. This increase was heavily influenced by the mass-production of
the model T car by Henry Ford in 1909.
Other countries followed America in the search for petroleum. Italy began in 1860,
followed by Canada, Poland, Peru, Germany, Russia, Venezuela, India, the Dutch East
Indies (Indonesia), Japan, Trinidad, Mexico and Argentina. The first important oil
discovery in the Middle East was made in Iran in 1908. This was followed by discoveries
in Iraq in 1927 and in Saudi Arabia in 1938. Since then, other big oil fields have been
found around the Persian Gulf.
Along with the increasing demand for oil and the search associated with it, the techniques
for oil exploration developed quickly. One of the most important inventions was the
electrical log in 1927 (see fig. 6). The first log was a real turning point in the history of
petroleum exploration because it gave oil explorers eyes. Before, they could only rely on
core samples or cuttings. The first log showed that electrical measurements in a drill hole
could help identify geological formations traversed by the drill. The Schlumberger
brothers, Marcel and Conrad, (see fig. 4 and 5) stood behind this invention that they
developed in France and tested at their family domain in Alsace, France. Later, they went
abroad to sell and develop their
method. At first, the big oil
companies were not very interested.
But after the success in Pechelbronn,
France, where the Schlumberger
brothers showed the efficiency of
their method, companies were
willing to try. Since then, the
electrical log has been further
Fig.5 Conrad Schlumberger
developed, but the basic principle is Fig.4 Marcel Schlumberger 1878-1936.
1884-1953.
still the same as in the original
design of 1927.

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After 1945, petroleum was discovered in North and
West Africa, Siberia, Alaska, and the North Sea. At the
same time, the Middle East developed into the worlds
most important oil exporting region. To regulate the oil
production in the world, the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established in 1960.
Today the following countries are members of OPEC:
Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and
Venezuela.
Much innovation has occurred in the field of oil

exploration in the past fifty years. Some of the most
important technical achievements are:
- Directional drilling
- Well optimization
- Well stimulation
- 3D and 4D seismic
These innovations have permitted to progressively
extend the search for oil. Today even difficult areas like
the Artic Sea are explored for oil. Another example is
the deep water drilling in the Gulf of Mexico.
Fig.6 The first electric log (1927).

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1.2 How is oil created?
1.2.1 Basic geology
Even since the crust of the earth solidified, it has suffered vertical and horizontal
movement. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions show that the crust is still active today.
Most rocks near the surface are fractured by both internal and external stresses. If the
rock layers in one side of a fracture have moved in relation to the other side, the fracture
is called a fault (see fig. 7). Displacement along a fault may range from only a few
millimeters up to hundreds of kilometers.
Fig.7 A fault schematic and in reality.
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in horizontal layers called strata or beds. However,
geological processes often deform these layers. Under intense pressure, even the hardest
rock will bend or break. The most common type of deformation is the buckling of the
layers into folds. The upwards folds or aches are called anticlines; the downwards folds
or troughs are synclines.
Faults are important to the petroleum geologist because

they affect the locations of oil and gas. Movement is
mostly vertical in normal and reverse faults but horizontal
in overthrust and lateral faults. Combinations of vertical
and horizontal movements are also possible. Faulting can
produce certain recognizable marks on the surface. A
Fig.8 The principle of a graben.
graben (see fig. 8) is a long, narrow block of crust that
has subsided relative to the surrounding crust. A horst
(see fig. 9) is a similar block that has risen. In the North
Sea, oil has accumulated in sediment-filled grabens on
the ocean floor.
An unconformity is an eroded rock surface that has

become buried under more recently formed rocks.
Disconformity and angular unconformity are two general
kinds of unconformity. These may act as a barrier to trap Fig.9 The principle of a horst.
petroleum.

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1.2.2 Petroleum accumulations
Since the exploration of petroleum began, geologists have found that deposits of oil do
not accumulate by chance. Deposits are found in places where necessary geologic
elements are combined to make an oil field possible.
For petroleum to accumulate, there must be:

1. a source rock of oil and gas,
2. a porous and permeable bed of reservoir rock,
3. a trap that acts as a barrier to fluid movement.
All three of these conditions must be present. If one is missing, there will be no oil field.
This specific combination occurs almost exclusively in areas called sedimentary basins.
The petroleum that we find today originates from organic matter. This matter was
deposited along with rock particles during the formation of sedimentary rock, millions of
years ago. This took place in shallow waters such as lakes, swamps, and seas, where
water circulation was poor. A part of all the microscopic animal and plant remains
reached the bottom and were buried in the mud. As an effect of the poor water
circulation, oxygen levels were low at the bottom. Therefore, bacteria used oxygen from
the trapped organic remains and gradually broke these down into substances rich in
carbon and hydrogen.
The organically rich clay was then squeezed into
hard shale as more sediment accumulated. The
pressure and temperature raised under the weight of
thousands of meters (feet) of sediment. When the
temperature reached about 65 C (150 F), the
carbon- and hydrogen-rich substances began to
recombine chemically to form hundreds of different
kinds of hydrocarbon molecules. These
hydrocarbons were well-organized chains of carbon
atoms with hydrogen atoms attached (see fig. 10). Fig.10 A hydrocarbon chain (propane).
The conversion process reaches a maximum C stands for carbon and H for hydrogen.
between 110 C (225 F) and 180 C (350 F).
Above this temperature, the heavier long-chain molecules are broken into smaller, lighter
ones, such as methane gas. At temperatures above 260 C (500 F), the organic material is
carbonized and cannot be used as a source material for petroleum.
ANIMATION: CREATION OF OIL
Petroleum is not formed in large concentrations. It is as dispersed as the organic matter in

original form. Once the petroleum is formed it can migrate through permeable rock. The
pressure from the rocks above tends to squeeze the petroleum out of the impermeable
shale into fractures and open formations such as sandstone. There it can travel from pore
to pore. The oil and gas can rise until they escape at the surface unless they are trapped
underground by geological formations.

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Reservoir rock is subsurface rock that is capable of containing gas, oil, water, or other
fluids. To be a productive petroleum reservoir, the rock must be large and porous enough
to contain an considerable volume of hydrocarbons, and it must be permeable enough to
allow the fluids to flow when the reservoir is penetrated by a well.
Fig.11 A core sample with high permeability to the left and low permeability to the right. Notice the oil
accumulations due to low permeability.
It is important to understand that the reservoir is not a big underground lake of oil.
Instead the oil is trapped inside the rock thanks to thousands of tiny openings (pores). It is
the same principle for a bucket of sand where water is added. The water does not form a
pool in the center of the sand. Instead, it disperses and fills the spaces between the grains.
The more openings (pores) there are, the greater the porosity. Greater porosity means that
more fluid can be held. High permeability is also necessary for a good reservoir rock.
Permeability means that the pores are connected so that the fluids can flow between the
pores and finally into the well.
If the permeability and porosity are high enough, petroleum will migrate. But to
accumulate the oil there must be something to hinder it from dispersing. Otherwise,
hydrocarbons will continue to move up-ward until they escape at the surface. The
geological structure that prevents the hydrocarbons from migrating is called a trap.
1.2.3 Types of traps

There are a many different kinds of traps (see fig. 12), but they all are either structural or
stratigraphic. A structural trap can form where reservoir rock layers have been arched or
broken. A stratigraphic trap forms where the reservoir layer simply ends and becomes
surrounded by impermeable rock.

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Fig.12 Different types of traps.
1.2.3.1 Structural traps

Structural traps can vary a great deal in size and shape. They are mostly formed by the
folding or faulting of the reservoir rock. Some kinds of structural traps are anticlinal
traps, fault traps and dome plug traps. These type of traps has given the biggest
reservoirs. For example, 90 % of the big reservoirs found in the Middle East are trapped
in anticlines.
A fault trap occurs when the formations on either side of the fault move. The formations
then come to rest in such a way, that, when the petroleum migrates, it becomes trapped.
Dome plug traps are porous formations on or surrounding great plugs of salt or serpentine
rock that have pierced, deformed, or lifted the overlying rock layers. Piercement may be
nearly circular or it can be long and narrow. Hydrocarbon accumulations near these types
of traps are usually not continuous, but broken into several segments. This makes it
difficult to drill a well successfully.
1.2.3.2 Stratigraphic traps

Stratigraphic traps form when other nonporous formations seal a reservoir bed, or when
the permeability changes within the reservoir bed itself. In one type of stratigraphic trap a
horizontal impermeable rock layer cuts off an inclined layer of petroleum-bearing rock.
When an impervious layer cuts off the petroleum-bearing layer, the trap is called a pinch-
out.
1.2.3.3 Other traps

Many traps are formed by combinations of traps described above. They have both
structural and stratigraphic origin. One example is the faulted anticline.

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1.3 Where is oil found?
WORLD PETROLEUM ASSESSMENT YEAR 2000 REGIONS:
Fig.13 The worlds assessed geologic provinces.
Source: http://greenwood.cr.usgs.gov/energy/WorldEnergy/DDS-60/wrldmp1.html#TOP
Oil can be found in former sedimentary basins. These regions are marked in red on the
map (fig. 13). Hydrocarbons are not equally distributed around the world. The eleven
OPEC countries alone accounted for 40% of the worlds production of crude oil in 2000
(source: Annual Statistical Supplement for 2000, The International Energy Agency, IEA).

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1.4 Which types of platforms exist?
Many kinds of drilling rigs exist (see fig. 14). There are two main categories of rigs: land
rigs and offshore rigs.
Fig.14 Specialized drilling rigs have been designed to operate in different water depths and on land.
1.4.1 Land rigs

Most land rigs have a similar structure. Details
can of course vary. The biggest difference
between them is their size. The size is the
parameter that decides how deep the rig can drill.
The depth of the well may vary from a few
hundred or thousand meters (feet) to tens of
thousands of meters (feet). The location of the
hydrocarbons dictates the depth of the well.
Rig size Maximum drilling depth,
meters (feet)
Light duty 1 000-1 500 (3 000-5 000)
Medium duty 1 200-3 000 (4 000-10 000)
Heavy duty 3 500-5 000 (12 000-16 000)
Very heavy duty 5 500-7 500+ (18 000-25 000+)
Fig.15 Land rig in the desert.

Table 1 Land rigs classified by drilling depth.

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Land rigs are classified by size as shown in table 1. A rig cannot drill too much beyond
its maximal depth because it cannot support the heavier weight of the equipment required
for deeper holes.
Land rigs are also portable. They can drill at one site, then be disassembled if necessary,
moved to another site, and be reassembled to drill another hole.

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1.4.2 Offshore rigs
There are many different types of offshore rigs. Each type is developed to suit a specific
drill site. The platform used in the Artic Sea is not the same as the one used in the Gulf of
Mexico. Some of the most common rig types are submersible, jackup, semisubmersible,
and drill ship. The main difference between them is whether they contact the ocean floor
or not. As can be seen in fig. 14, submersibles and jackups touch the bottom; the others
do not.
1.4.2.1 Submersibles
When being moved from one drilling site to
another, a submersible (see fig. 16) floats on the
waters surface. When it reaches the drilling site,
compartments in the construction are flooded.
This maneuver makes the rigs sink so that the
lower part of the rig is submerged to the seafloor.
Thanks to this, the wind, waves, and currents have
little effect on the platform.
1.4.2.2 Jackups
A jackup floats on a barge hull while being
transported to its location, as can be seen in fig. Fig.16 Submersible rig.
17. Some jackups have three legs and a triangular
shaped barge hull. Others have four or more legs
with rectangular hulls.
The legs of a jackup can either be cylindrical

columns or open-truss structures. The open-trust
structures look like a derrick. When the jackup is
positioned at its exact drilling location, the legs
are jacked down until they contact the seafloor.
After that, the hull is jacked up above the height
of the highest waves expected. The drilling
equipment is on the hull.
Jackups can drill in waters as deep as 130 m (400

ft).
Fig.17 Jackup rig.

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1.4.2.3 Semisubmersibles
Most semisubmersible rigs float on two or more pontoons (see fig. 18 and 19). While
moving a semisubmersible, the pontoons are filled with air so that the rig floats on the
surface of the water. In most cases, towboats move the rig to its site. However, some of
the semisubmersibles are self-propelled, meaning that they have built-in power units that
drive the rig.
The name semisubmersible comes from the way the platform is anchored at the drilling
site. At the drilling site, the pontoons are filled with water and the platform begins to
sink. However, it only submerges a few meters (feet) below the waters surface. The rig
is then semi submerged and thus the name semisubmersible. When the pontoons are
submerged below the waterline, waves do not affect the platform as much as they do
when the platform floats. This means that a semisubmersible platform is more stable than
a drill ship (see fig. 21).
The normal semisubmersible operates in depth of 300 to 1000 m (1000-3000 ft). The
latest model is capable of drilling in waters up to 2500 m (8000 ft) deep.
Fig.18 Semisubmersible rig. Notice the floating Fig.19 Soveregin Explorer a semisubmersible
pontoons. platform.

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1.4.2.4 Drill ships
A drill ship (see fig. 20) is very mobile
because it is self-propelled and has a
streamlined hull. It looks a lot like an
ordinary ship.
While drilling, anchors keep the ship in

place. To drill in deep water dynamic
positioning is required. Dynamic
positioning consists of computer
controlled thrusters and sophisticated
electronic sensors. Thrusters are power
units with propellers that are used to
control the ships hull. When the
position is decided, the computer uses
the information transmitted by the
sensors to automatically control the
Fig.20 Drill ship.
thrusters and thereby the position.
One advantage of a drill ship is that it can move at reasonable speeds under its own
power. Another advantage is the capability to carry a lot of equipment and material
needed for the drilling. Frequent resupplying is therefore not necessary. These factors
make a drill ship suitable for drilling in remote waters.
Drill ships can drill in 300 to 1000 m (1000-3000 ft) deep waters, some even in 3000
meters (10 000 ft) deep waters. A typical drill ship is 250 m (800 ft) long and 30 m (100
ft) wide. That corresponds to three football fields laid end to end in a row.
Fig.21 Comparison of semisubmersibles and drill ships.

Each design has advantages and disadvantages.

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1.5 Which types of wells exist?
There are two well categories: wild cat and development wells. A wild cat or
exploration well is drilled in a field that has never been explored before. That means that
there could be no oil at all. Only about one wild cat out of seven drilled is exploited
further. A development well is drilled in an existing oil field to extract more oil. The
number of wells drilled in one field depends mainly on its size and characteristics.
Reservoirs can vary in size and also in thickness. Generally, the larger the reservoir, the
more wells it takes to produce it.
These two types of wells can be drilled in different ways. They can be vertical,
horizontal, or multilateral wells. Vertical wells are the traditional form of oil well drilling.
Horizontal drilling has been performed since the mid 80s, and multilateral drilling since
the mid 90s.
Fig.22 Multilateral well offshore. Schlumberger Private
The drilling crew often tries to drill the hole as straight as possible. Sometimes, however,
it is better with a deviated hole. This method is used especially for offshore wells. Instead
of building one platform for each well, several wells are drilled from the same platform
(see fig. 22). This saves time and money. To do this, directional drilling is used.
Normally the first part of a directional well is drilled vertically. Then it is deflected so
that the bottom may end up hundreds of meters (feet) away from its starting point.
Thanks to directional drilling, forty or more wells can be drilled from a single platform.

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Directional drilling can also be used to drill horizontal wells. Certain reservoirs can be
better produced with horizontal drilling. The well is drilled vertically to a point above the
reservoir. Then it is deflected until the angle reaches 90 i.e. horizontal well. Finally it
penetrates the reservoir. Normally, one properly positioned horizontal borehole can
produce a reservoir better than several vertically drilled ones.
In directional drilling the drill pipe can be bent a lot without breaking because the hole is
deflected from vertical over hundreds of meters (feet). The bend is not sudden. A
deflection of three to ten degrees over 100 meters (330 ft) is a normal figure. The drilling
string is flexible and can be bent since it is a hollow metal tube. If the borehole needs to
bend a lot within a short distance, a special
segmented pipe is used.
At Wytch Farm in England (see fig. 23),

directional drilling allowed the
environment to be preserved. Instead of
constructing an artificial island to access
the oil reservoir (see fig. 24), a horizontal
well was drilled from further away. Not
only could the rural park be preserved, but
also oil could be extracted.
Fig.23 Wytch Farm, England.
Fig.24 Wytch Farm, England. A schematic image of the sites problem. Below the solution a horizontal well.

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2 PROSPECTION AND CONSTRUCTION
2.1 How is oil found?
In the early days of oil exploration, the search was very hazardous. Wildcat wells were
often drilled on a hunch. Today, geologists apply earth science and modern technologies
in the search for oil.
The purpose of oil prospecting is to find rock formations that can be possible
hydrocarbon traps. They are not often visible on the surface, so methods that can reveal
the nature and structure of rock formations underground are necessary. First, large areas
are explored by airplanes or satellite photographs. Experts then study theses photographs
to find formations that might contain oil traps. These basic surveys permit the search to
be narrowed down and continued with more detailed explorations in smaller areas.
To continue the search and to be able to view oil and gas reservoirs that are buried under
thousands of meters (feet) of sea or rock, seismic surveys are executed. They can be
performed on land or at sea but the principles are the same: sound waves penetrate the
many layers of rock. When one layer meets another at a boundary, the waves are
reflected. Each boundary reflects a part of the sound back to the surface. The rest
continues downward. On the surface, special devices geophones pick up the reflected
sounds. Depending on how long the reflection time is, the type of geological formation
can be inferred.
The sound carries information about the structure of the subsurface. Cables from the
geophones then transmit the information to recording devices. After that, the information
is analyzed and processed by computers in special laboratories. 2D or 3D images (see fig.
25) can be created from the information. Nowadays, even 4D images are created and
used, the fourth dimension being
time. This allows a follow-up of
the changes in a reservoir during
its producing life.
Experts then interpret the graphs

and they can say whether there is
a possible oil trap or not.
Because of the reliability in these
surveys, oil companies can be
quite sure that when drilling a
well, it will produce oil or gas.
The many variables in sediment
types, fossils, depositional
environments, and geologic
history, structure, and
deformation make each prospect Fig.25 3D image of a reservoir.
unique.

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ANIMATION: SEISMIC
2.1.1 Offshore seismic

A offshore seismic survey is executed by a boat and cables of hydrophones (see fig. 26).
Sound waves are created by air guns. The waves travel through the water and reflect on
the rock layers. Explosives used to be used, but since they can harm marine life, air guns
have replaced them. Hydrophones then pick up the information. The grid of cables can be
very large, up to 1 km per 8 km (see fig. 27).
Fig.26 The principle of a seismic survey. The waves are reflected back by the different
rock layers.
Fig.27 Seismic cable system laid out over Oslo the capital of Norway to
show the enormous size of a cable grid.

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2.1.2 Onshore seismic
A seismic survey on shore is executed by trucks equipped with large vibrator pads (see
fig. 28 and 30) that send the shock waves through the earth. Explosions detonated at
regular distances can also create the required sound waves. But it is easier and cheaper to
perform a survey with trucks. The reflections are picked up by geophones (see fig. 29).
Fig.28 A truck with vibrator pads. Fig.29 Different types of geophones.
Fig.30 Seismic survey in the desert.

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2.2 How is the well constructed?
The construction of a well is executed in several steps. First the well is drilled and
logged. Then, casing is installed and cementing carried out. Since drilling, logging,
casing, and cementing are performed step-by-step, they are repeated several times. After
that, production tubing and packers are installed. Finally, perforations are done in the
casing to permit the oil to flow into the tubing.
ANIMATION: CONSTRUCTION OF A WELL
2.2.1 Drilling
2.2.1.1 Rotary drilling rig
The majority of rigs today are rotary drilling rigs (see fig.
31). One advantage is that the rotary drill can drill in soft
formations like clay or loose sand. Cable-tool drilling is not
able to do that. The clay and sand would only fall back into
the well and block the drilling bit.
The main difference between the two systems is the drill bit
and how it is powered. The rotary drilling rig uses a rotary bit
with rows of teeth that penetrate the rock (see fig. 35). Then
it scrapes out pieces of the rock when the rig system rotates
the bit. The bit is attached to a drill pipe that consists of
several joints of pipe. Joints are added to the drill pipe as the
hole becomes deeper.
Fig.31 The principle of a

rotary drilling rig.
Fig.32 Rotary table. Fig.33 Top drive.

The bit can be rotated in three ways:
o by a rotary table a heavy-duty turntable, see fig. 32.
o by a top drive a device with a built-in motor that turns the pipe and bit, see fig.
33.
o by a downhole motor a motor, powered by drilling fluid, that rotates the bit, see
fig. 34.

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Each of these different rotation systems has its own field of application. Top drives are
newer and more modern than the rotary table. But since rotary tables are simple, rugged
and easy to maintain, they are still used a lot today. The downhole motor is used when
the bit has to be rotated without rotating the whole drill pipe. This occurs when drilling a
directional hole, i.e. a hole that is diverted from a vertical hole.
Regardless of the rotating system, some of the drill pipes weight is

resting on the bit so that the cutters are forced into the rock. Thanks to
the bits rotation, the cutters roll over the rock and scrape the rock out.
Afterwards, the cuttings of rock must be moved out of the way.

Otherwise, the drill bit would be hindered. To permit this, fluid
circulates in the well. This fluid, called drilling mud, transports the
cuttings to the surface where they are sorted out so that the drilling
mud can be recycled in the borehole. The fluid enters the well through
the drill pipe and goes out through the drill bit. A huge pump on the
surface moves the mud circulation system.
Drilling mud is not just a mud, but a complex mixture of materials. A
better name is therefore drilling fluid. The fluid also prevents the well
from collapsing, as the whole borehole is filled with fluid that supports
the walls. Another function of the drilling fluid is the cooling effect it
has on the drilling bit.
When the cuttings reach the surface they are taken aside to be
analyzed. They can tell experts a lot about the rock formations in the
well. Another way to analyze the well is to take core samples.
Fig.34
Downhole
motor.

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2.2.1.2 Different types of bits
As can be seen in fig. 35, there are many different types of bits. Each one of them has its
own specialty. Some are adapted to hard rocks, others to loose sand formations. They are
also made in different sizes, from 95.25 mm to 711.2 mm (3 in to 28 in), so that they
fit different holes. The drilling bits are divided into two main categories: fixed cutter and
roller cone bits.
The fixed cutter bits have a solid head that does not rotate independently. It rotates only
as the drill pipe rotates. Normally the cutters are made of natural, industrial-grade
diamonds or synthetic diamonds.
The roller cone bits have steel cones that roll or turn as the bit rotates. The cutters are on
the cone and they often consist of steel teeth.
Fig.35 Different types of drilling bits.

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2.2.2 Coring
The cuttings from the well are
analyzed to give more
information about the rock
formations that are drilled. If
the cuttings do not give enough
information, samples that are
larger can be taken. These
samples are called cores and
two methods are available: core
or sample taking. The first
method consists of a core barrel
that is run to the bottom of the
well. When it is rotated, it cuts
a cylinder a core of rock.
The core can be several Fig.36 Core samples from a well. Top (right) and base (left)
millimeters (inches) in indicate the direction of the core top and bottom.
diameter and several meters
(feet) long (see fig. 36).
The other method consists of a sidewall sampler
that is lowered into the well (see fig. 37). At the
desired depth, an explosive charge is fired and
several small cylinders are rammed into the
walls of the well. The cylinders are attached to
the tool with wires. When the tool is winched
up, the cylinders and their contents of rock go
back to the surface. A sampler can take about
thirty samples at one time.
Fig.37 A Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

that takes samples from the well bore.

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2.2.3 Logging
Logging is a set of techniques, which consists of

collecting and registering in real time geological
information about the inside of the earth.
The logging permits, eventually, to confirm the

surveys that have been done earlier. Sometimes
they are right and there are hydrocarbons,
sometimes there are not. Only one of seven
exploration wells is developed into a production
well.
Much has occurred since the Schlumberger

brothers succeeded with the first electric log in
1927. Today it exists many different variants,
each with its own specialty and field of
application. The main types are: wireline
logging and logging while drilling (LWD).
Wireline logging is used in open and cased hole.
LWD is performed, as the name indicates, while
drilling.
Fig.38 Portable laboratory in form of a

truck logs at a drilling site.
2.2.3.1 Logging tools

Many kinds of logging tools are
available. Some measure and record the
way in which formations respond to
electric current; others measure
radioactive attributes of the rock or the
speed with which sound travels through
the formation (see fig. 39). Thanks to
these different methods, different aspects
of the well can be evaluated. Examples
are: porosity, shale indicator,
permeability, pressure, and the rocks
mechanical properties.
Fig.39 A OBMI tool that measures the resistivity of

rock formations.

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Fig.40 The inside of a logging unit. Everything is
controlled from here, even the movement of the logging
Logging is performed from a portable

laboratory. It is placed in a truck for land rigs
(see fig. 38) and in a portable logging cabin
off shore (see fig. 40). To execute the
logging, tools are lowered into the well on a
wireline. After reaching the bottom, they are
slowly reeled back up. Formation properties
are measured during the rising. The tools
transmit the data instantly to computers in
the laboratory. The data are processed by
computers in real-time and interpreted by
experts. The gathered data result in logs that
indicate the presence of oil and gas.
Logging can also be performed while

drilling. This method is called LWD. This
gives the operators valuable information
while drilling so that the drilling can be
adapted more precisely to different rock
formations. All the information gathered is
transmitted to the surface to be analyzed. A
wireline log has to be performed after the
drilling anyway to complete the logging.
Fig.41 Common range of sizes of different

logging tools.

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2.2.4 Cementing and casing
To prevent the well bore from collapsing, it has to be
cased. That means putting down strong steel pipe and
then cementing it.
2.2.4.1 Casing
The setting of the casing is done in several steps. A well
of several hundred meters (feet) cannot be drilled in one
pass but has to be stabilized regularly as it becomes
deeper. This is necessary to prevent the well from
collapsing and to isolate the rock formations from the
well.
After the casing has been set, the hole is smaller. A

smaller bit, that fits the new hole, is used. This means that
the wells diameter becomes progressively smaller as the
well deepens.
The name of the casing is different depending on where it
is used:
o Conductor - stabilizes the first part that consists of
loose earth. It goes down to about 30 m (100 ft).
o Surface casing - protects the fresh water
Fig.42 Conventional casing.
reservoirs and is used at a depth of 100 m to 200
m (300 ft to 600 ft). This type of casing goes all
the way from the intermediary bottoms up to the
surface.
o Liner - is used in the rest of the well. These do not
go all the way up to the surface, but stop a little
bit inside the previous casing. This allows saving
on material costs and saving time when
constructing a well.
2.2.4.2 Cementing
The objectives of cementing are to provide a complete
isolation of different zones, support the casing, and
protect the casing string. It is very important that fluids
cannot migrate from one formation to another. This is to
prevent, for example, oil leakage in nearby fresh-water
reservoirs.
Cement contains silica, alumina and iron oxide. Cement Fig.43 The
for wells sets through a chemical process that does not principle of
require air. This process consists of very complex cementing a
chemistry. well. Notice the
bottom and top
plugs.
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The first step is to calculate how much cement is needed to fill the space between the
walls of the well and the casing. Then the cement is delivered to the site in the form of a
fine powder. To transform the powder into cement it has to be mixed with water. There
are two mixing methods: On-the-fly or batch mixed. The first means that the cement is
mixed continuously and directly injected in the well. The second means that the cement is
blended in tanks before being injected.
When pumped from the cement unit to the drill floor,

the cement passes through a cement head containing
wiper plugs. For displacing the cement in the well,
two types of plugs bottom and top are used (see
fig. 44 and 45). The bottom plug separates the cement
from the drilling fluid to prevent contamination of the
cement. If this happens, the characteristics of the
cement change. The top plug protects the cement
from the drilling mud that is used to push down the
bore well. The top plug stays in at the bottom of the
well after cementing and it is perforated by the
drilling bit when the drilling resumes. Fig.44 Bottom plug. Fig.45 Top plug
To execute a cement job, cement is first pumped down inside the casing. Cement then
passes in the annular gap between the casing and open hole. To move the cement, the
drilling fluid is used but a plug always separates the two fluids. Spacers are often pumped
ahead and behind to clean the hole and protect the cement.
Fig.46 Cement unit truck onshore.

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There are different types of cement units depending whether the well is located on land or
offshore:
o Cement Units Onshore (see fig. 46):

These cement units are truck-mounted and mobile. They perform cementing
operations and as well as other pumping jobs. The trucks come in a number of
variants to be able to execute missions at different sites.
o Cement Units Offshore (see fig. 47):

These cement units are permanently fixed on each rig. They perform cementing
operations and also other pumping jobs.
A cement head (see fig. 48) is used to hold the top and bottom plugs and it is fixed to top
of casing during cement job.
The pumping sequence is as

follows:
1) Pump spacer ahead
2) Drop bottom plug
3) Pump cement slurry
4) Drop top plug
5) Displace cement with
drilling fluid
Fig.47 Offshore cement unit.
Fig.48 Cement head.

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2.2.5 Tubing and packers
Usually a well is produced through a tubing string rather than
through the casing for several reasons:
1) The tubing is not cemented in the well. When a joint

of tubing fails it can be easily replaced. Since casing
is cemented, it is very difficult to replace it.
2) Tubing allows the operators to control the production
by placing special tools and devices in or on the
tubing string. These devices permit the operator to
produce the well efficiently.
3) Tubing also protects casing from corrosion and
erosion that occur. The reservoir fluids are corrosive
and under the life of a well they tend to corrode
metals. By producing through tubing, which can be
easily replaced, the casing is preserved.
Fig.49 Coiled tubing.
Packers are installed at the same time as the production tubing. A packer is a sealing
device that is installed on the tubing string. It is placed above the perforations in the
casing. The packer then expands and seals the annular space between the tubing and the
casing above the perforations. The reservoir fluids are lead into the tubing by the packers
and the casing is protected.
Seven sizes of tubing diameter are available. They range from 26.7 mm (1.050 in) to
114.3 mm (4 in). Production tubing is constructed of sections of steel pipe that are
coupled together joint tubing. It is the same principle as for the casing but with different
steel pipes. Tubing joints are generally around 9 m (30 ft) long with a thread
connection on each end. A well is always equipped with production tubing.
Coil tubing (see fig. 49) has a different field of applications and is a
complement to production tubing. Coil tubing consists of a
continuous length of flexible steel pipe. It is delivered to
the site rolled on a large reel (see fig. 50). Wells
over 6 000 m (20 000 ft) deep have been
completed with coiled tubing. Coil
tubing is used to perform
reparations and
other
Fig.50 Truck that performs coil tubing.

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works in a production well without making any changes. Different tools can be lowered
down in the well by coil tubing. If there is no coil tubing, the production tubing has to be
disassembled and replaced by tubing that can execute the work needed. The main
advantage of coil tubing is saving time and money.
ANIMATION: TUBING INSTALLATION
Fig.51 Tubing works at a well.

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2.2.6 Perforating
Upon completion of all the previous steps the well
is almost ready for production. The casing and the
cement are sealing the well from the oil and gas
reservoirs. To let the oil enter the well,
communication has to be established between the
reservoir and the well. A special gun is lowered in
the well and at the oil-producing zone where it
shoots rather small holes in the casing. These holes
are called perforations and do not only penetrate the
casing but also the cement and a short distance into
the rock.
ANIMATION: PERFORATING
The parameters of a reservoir change under the life

of a well. That means that the oil-producing zone
with its layers of oil and gas change. The well has to
be adapted to the new conditions and some new Fig.52 Perforated casing.
perforations may need to be done. The non-useful
perforations are then plugged by cement so that the production can be optimized.
As can be seen in fig. 53, many improvements have been brought to the perforating
during the 19th century. Today, it is possible to perform directional perforating i.e.
explosions that are not symmetrically distributed around the well.
Fig.53 The development of perforating.

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3 PRODUCTION
The production is a combination of many operations. First, it is necessary to bring the oil
to the surface. Second, the well has to be maintained and serviced during its life span.
Third, since well fluids are a mixture of oil, gas, and water, they have to be separated
before further treatments. The water is disposed of, and the oil and gas are treated,
measured, and tested before transportation.
Fig.54 Producing site with its complex equipment system.
It is very important to monitor the well and to know what is happening in the reservoir.
Extracting oil affects the reservoir layers and to optimize the production these changes
have to bee known. Therefore, cased hole logging is performed regularly. These logs give
information about problems and changes that occur. When facing a problem, different
solutions exist.

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Fig.55 Log that shows the entry of water, gas, and oil in a well.

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ANIMATION: PRODUCTION
3.1 How can a well be stimulated?

Under the life of a well, which can last twenty years, different problems can occur:
decreasing permeability, decreasing pressure in the reservoir, decreasing pressure at the
wellhead, too much water in the oil production, etc. To solve these problems there are
different solutions: acid injection, water injection, installation of pumps, gas injection and
intelligent completion.
3.1.1 Acid injection

Problem: decreasing permeability due to particles filling the pores.
To solve this problem, acid injection can be carried out. This method consists of injecting
an acid blend in the well to the rock formations via the tubing. The acid is injected from
trucks installed at the site.
The acid causes a chemical reaction that dissolves

the minerals blocking the pores. Once the
obstacles disappeared, the permeability and the
production can go back to normal. The dissolved
minerals are transported up to the surface where
they are stocked. Different acids are used for
different types of minerals. For carbonated
materials hydrochloric acid is used and for silicate
materials a fluoric acid. Sometimes a mixture of
acids is the best solution.
3.1.2 Water injection

Problem: decreasing pressure in the reservoir.
The water injection is often realized from old

abandoned wells that were producing too much
water. If there are no old wells, it is necessary to
drill a new one. The principle is as follows: water
is injected in the old well towards the water layers
in the producing zone. In this way, the pressure
from the water layer in contact with the oil
increases the pressure in the reservoir. Then the
production can go back to normal.
ANIMATION: STIMULATION
3.1.3 Bottom pump

Problem: decreasing pressure at the wellhead.
Fig.56 Bottom pump.

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To use this technique it is necessary to change the existing tubing for tubing equipped
with a pump. At the surface, a powerful electric source is required to drive the motors of
the pump. The power of the motors can be over 400 hp (300 kW). The pump is placed in
the lower part of the production column and it enables the oil to be lifted. In this way the
pressure at the wellhead increases.
3.1.4 Gas injection

Problem: decreasing pressure at the wellhead.
Fig.57 System of gas stimulation at a site.
The principle of gas injection is to inject gas through valves that are situated in the
vertical part of the tubing. To be able to do this, it is necessary to replace the existing
tubing with tubing adapted for the valves. At the surface, a gas source and compressors
are needed. The gas is injected between the casing and the tubing and blended with the
reservoir fluids via the valves. The gas bubbles rise due to gravity and spread out in the
whole column. In this way the gas lightens the weight of the column, and consequently
the pressure at the wellhead increases.

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3.1.5 Intelligent completion
Problem: increasing quantities of water in the oil.
Intelligent completion is a technique that has been developed recently. To implement this
technique it is necessary to replace the existing tubing by a complex tubing system with
valves at the bottom. These valves are controlled hydraulically or electrically from the
surface. The objective of this installation is to produce different zones along the well
independently. With this local control, zones that produce too much water can be
chocked. The result is a production that contains more oil and less water.
Fig.58 Intelligent completion. The packers seal the oil and gas productive zones from zones that
produce water. The system is controlled at the surface and the information is transmitted to processing
centers on land that follow the development of the well.

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3.2 How is oil transported?
Moving oil from the oil field to the end consumer demands a very complex transportation
system. Oil passes from the field to refining and processing plants. Petroleum products
pass after that from refineries to consumers. Theses movements are possible thanks to
railway tank cars, transport trucks, tankers, pipelines etc.
It first became necessary to transport oil when large quantities were found (as at the
Drake well which produced about 20 barrels of crude oil per day). Before, the oil could
be treated at the well. Later, the refining had to be centralized. The first refinery in the
USA was constructed in Oil City, about 18 km (11 miles) from Drakes well in
Pennsylvania. Horse-drawn wagons and boats and primitive railway tanks were some of
the methods used for moving oil. Due to high transportation prices pipelines were
developed. The first pipeline was constructed by Samuel Van Syckel in 1865 and the
pipeline went from the oil fields in Titusville to the nearest railroad station, a distance of
8 km (5 miles). After that, the price of the transport was cut in half.
During the first half of the 20th century, a network of crude oil pipelines was constructed
to economize the transport. In the 1930s, product pipelines were developed. In pipelines,
different refined products can be transported one after another. Before, horse-drawn carts
and trucks were used for this transport. Around the same time pipelines for gas were
constructed.
Ships were also used for shipping crude oil. The first successful oceangoing tanker that
carried oil in storage tanks built into its hull was The Gluckhauf. It made its maiden
voyage in 1886 between New York, USA and Bremen, Germany. New and better designs
along with the change from sail to steam power transformed the oil transportation. The
capacity of steam-powered tankships after World War 1 was 9 000 deadweight tons
(dwt). (Deadweight tons are the measure of a tankers total capacity to carry cargo,
bunkers, water, stores and people. A tankers capacity to carry crude oil is slightly less.)
When diesel engines replaced steam engines, tankers could take up to 34 000 dwt.
Tank trucks were used to transport crude oil from the wellhead to the pipeline or to
another shipping point. Trucks were mostly used for gasoline and fuel oil transport.

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3.2.1 Railway systems
Railway systems handle only a small volume of the oil transportation compared to other
transportation means. But when there are no pipelines or water, railroad steel tanker cars
are often used to transport oil. One tank can contain 50 tons of petroleum.
3.2.2 Tank truck systems

Many wells are drilled in remote areas were no pipelines or railways are available. If it is
too expensive to build a pipeline, the crude oil is carried by tanker trucks (see fig. 59).
These trucks can carry from 80 to 120 barrels (9 m3 to 14 m3) of oil in one trip.
Fig.59 Tank truck.
3.2.3 Tankers
Most of the worlds crude oil
is moved to refineries or to
different markets by a fleet of
ocean tankers (see fig. 60).
These ships range in size
from small ships that can
carry 5000 barrels to
supertankers that can carry
three to four million barrels.
Fig.60 Ocean tanker.

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3.2.4 Pipelines
Pipelines (see fig. 61) are the primary method of moving petroleum over land. They are
the most efficient and economical way to move large quantities of petroleum from one
place to another. Pipelines are constructed by continuous steel tubes. Different pipelines
are used for different fluids. Generally crude oil, natural gas and end products are
transported in different pipelines.
Fig.61 Pipeline.

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4 APPLICATIONS
4.1 How is petroleum transformed into different products?
The crude oil consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons, made mostly of hydrogen and
carbon. Before it can be used as fuel, lubricants, asphalt or other products, its components
must be separated, blended, and in some cases modified chemically or physically.
The composition of crude oil varies depending on its age, source and location. There are
also sour and sweet crudes. Sour crudes are sulfur-contaminated and sweet crudes have
low sulfur content. These differences in crude oil are so big that different types of crude
oils demand specially adjusted refining processes.
The refining process converts the raw material into gasoline, motor oil, fuel oil and many
other products. The process of refining began to be developed by Egyptians early in the
Christian era. They experimented with distillation of petroleum to convert heavy, sticky
oil to thinner, cleaner oil for lamps. This technology was described in writings in about
100 A.D. It consisted of such necessary devices as fractionating pipes and distilling heads
of pottery, stone, or lead.
In 1850, Samuel M. Kier began distillation of crude oil in Pennsylvania, USA. He called
his product carbon oil, and it was considered a cheaper, safer, and better illuminant than
anything else that existed.
Petrochemicals were at first only byproducts from the refining process. Today, these
products have become very important and are used in our day-to-day lives. The paint on
the wall, the carpet on the floor, the bottles of soda, the chairs we sit in, the clothing we
wear all are made from petroleum byproducts.
4.1.1 Refinery
The first step in the refinery process is fractional distillation. This separates the crude oil
into fractions, which can either be used directly for heating and automotive fuel, or which
must be further processed. Crude is heated to about 375 C (700 F) before being
conducted to the distillation column. In the column, various fractions are separated out at
their respective boiling points. The heaviest components are removed at the bottom of the
column, which is the hottest part. These residual fractions can be blended with diesel to
makes heavy fuel oils. They are then further processed in other plants to make lubricants
and asphalt. They can also be cracked into petrol and diesel oil. Light and heavy gas oil
is extracted at temperatures between 250 C (500 F) and 375 C (700 F). They are the
main components in diesel oil. Kerosene separates out at 160 C (320 F) to 250 C
(500F). Gasoline is extracted at a lower temperature, 40 C (100 F) to160 C (320 F),
and produces fuel for cars, vans and trucks. The products recovered from the top of the
column are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG). They consist mostly of propane and butane.

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Further processing of these different hydrocarbon fractions can be done. The processes
involve reforming the hydrocarbons and removing unwanted components and cracking
the chemical compounds in the oil. The objective is to generate end products that are
almost tailored to consumer needs. This means that all the crude oil components find a
use.
Fig.62 The refinery process. The hot crude rises in the column. The different cooling temperatures
then separate the hydrocarbon molecules from each other. The black circles represent the number
of carbon molecules in each distillate.

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4.2 What are the end products?
4.2.1 Gasoline
Gasoline is a major petroleum product. Two types of gasoline are produced:
o Motor gasoline
o Aviation gasoline
The aviation gasoline is of better quality and has a lower freezing point.
4.2.2 Diesel oil

Diesel oil powers buses, cars, tractors, trains, boats and so forth. One form of diesel oil is
light heating oil, which is used for central heating in factories, hospitals, hotels, public
buildings, schools, and households. It is also used to generate electricity in oil-fired
power stations.
4.2.3 Jet fuel

Jet fuel is used in commercial and military aircraft and helicopters. Most jet fuel is a
mixture of kerosene and oil but only after sulphur in the kerosene has been removed. It is
also free of water and has a low freezing point.
4.2.4 Kerosene
Before, kerosene was the dominant fuel used for lamps. Today it is used as aviation fuel
and as a fuel oil.
4.2.5 Petrochemicals
Petrochemicals are chemicals made from petroleum. Such products can be:
o paints
o synthetic rubber
o detergents
o plastics
o antiseptics
o cosmetics
o ...
4.2.6 Fuel oil

Fuel oil is another major product of petroleum. It supplies fuel to industries and for home
heating.
4.2.7 Lubricants
Lubricants are oils or greases that reduce friction in machines. They are usually classified
in two categories: oil and grease. Petroleum-produced lubricants are used mostly in motor
vehicles.

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4.2.8 Asphalt
Asphalt is an important petroleum product. It is almost a bi-product. Asphalt provides
watertight materials, roof coverings, and road surfaces.
4.2.9 Other products

Other more specialized products are: metallurgical petroleum products, insect sprays,
paint thinner, etc.

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5 Glossary
Acid injection injection of an acid blend in the well to the rock formations to
dissolve minerals blocking the pores.
Anticline a fold in sedimentary rock strata that is convex upward.
Barrel volume unity for oil. 1 barrel = 158.98 l
Bit The tool used to crush or cut rock. The bit is on the bottom of the
drill string and must be changed when it becomes excessively dull
or stops making progress. Most bits work by scraping or crushing
the rock, usually as part of a rotational motion.
Blowout a condition resulting from high-pressured gas or oil blowing all the
drilling mud out of the hole and flowing out of control.
Blow Out Preventer (BOP) a heavy fitting at the wellhead with valves which can be
closed to maintain control of a drilling well that threatens to
blow wild.
Cable-tool drilling drilling method that consists of punching a drilling bit into the
ground. Regularly the bit is winched up to take out the cuttings.
Carbon oil a distillate of crude oil.
Casing Casing consists of steel pipes lowered into the well. It is done in
steps and it prevents the well from collapsing and it also isolates
different rock layers.
Core a sample from a well that can tell weather there is oil or not in the
well.
Dead weight tons (dwt) the measure of a tankers total capacity to carry cargo,
bunkers, water, stores and people. A tankers capacity to
carry crude oil or product cargo is slightly less.
Directional hole a hole that is diverted from a vertical hole intentionally.
Drilling fluid a fluid that is used while performing rotary drilling. The mud cools
and lubricates the bit, transports the cuttings to the surface and
supports the walls in the well.
Drilling mud see drilling fluid

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Dwt see dead weight tons
Fuel oil a distillate of petroleum that supplies fuel to industries and for
home heating.
Gas injection injection of gas in the well to increase the pressure at the wellhead.
Horizontal well a directional hole that has a 90 deflection.
Intelligent completion technique that permits different zones to be produced along

the well independently.
Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) a distillate of petroleum that consists mostly of

butane and propane. It separates at 30 C to 40
C (86 F to 104 F).
LPG see Liquefied petroleum gases
Lubricants oils or greases that reduce friction in machines
Log plot of geologically parameters collected with different tools in a
well.
Logging While Drilling (LWD) a logging technique that continuously records

physical properties in a borehole while drilling.
Multilateral well several deviated wells drilled from the same vertical well.
OPEC The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, established

in 1960.
Packers a sealing device installed on the tubing string to lead the reservoirs
fluids into the tubing.
Perforations holes in the casing and cement that let the oil and gas enter the
well.
Permeability the ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids.

Sandstone is one example of a permeable rock
Porosity the volume within rock that can contain fluids.
Pump installation to increase the pressure at the wellhead. Other types

also perform cement jobs.

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Reservoir rock a subsurface rock that is capable of containing gas, oil, water or
other fluids.
Rig the machine used to drill a well bore. In onshore operations, the rig
includes virtually everything except living quarters. Offshore, the
rig includes the same components as onshore, but not those of the
vessel or drilling platform itself.
Rock oil a synonym for oil.
Rotary drilling drilling method that consists of a drilling bit that is rotated by a
drill pipe. A drilling fluid is used to cool and lubricate the bit,
transport the cuttings to the surface and support the walls in the
well.
Seep oil that oozes out of the ground
Source bed see source rock
Source rock a rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will
generate oil or gas. Typical source rocks, usually shale or
limestone, contain about 1% organic matter and at least 0.5%
total organic carbon although a rich source rock might have as
much as 10% organic matter.
Stratum layers of sedimentary rock that form beds.
Tubing sections of steel pipe installed inside the casing to lead to reservoir
fluids to the top.
Trap an impermeable rock formation that acts as a barrier to fluid

movement. Traps can either be structural or stratigraphic.
Water injection injection of water from abandoned wells into a producing well to
increase the reservoir pressure.
Wild Cat a well drilled in area where no oil or gas is known to exist.

M074011-AA
6 Bibliography
Norwegian Petroleum Museum a petrorama, 2002
How to try to find an oil field, Doris M Curtis, Patricia Wood Dickerson, Donald M Gray,
Helen M Klein, Evelyn Wilie Moody, PennWell Publishing Company, 1981
The oil beneath our feet, Shell UK Ltd, no year
Le ptrole, une poupe, Xavier Boy de la Tour, Presses Pocket, 1993
A primer of oilwell drilling, sixth edition, Ron Baker, Petroleum Extension Service, The
University of Texas at Austin, 2001
Fundamentals of petroleum, third edition, Mildred Gerding, Petroleum Extension

Service, The University of Texas at Austin, 1986
The petroleum industry an overview, fifth edition, Don A Gorman, Action Systems Inc.,
Texas, 1985
Oilfield Review
InterChange
Jacques Orban Metier Manager "System Reliability", SRPC, Schlumberger Clamart,

France
Yves Manin SRPC Reservoir Engineer, SRPC, Schlumberger Clamart, France
Michel Barbier - Documentation/ Technology Based Training Manager, SRPC,

Schlumberger Clamart, France

M074011-AA

OIL - From Pore To Pipeline

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OIL from Pore to Pipeline

2 PROSPECTION AND CONSTRUCTION ..............................................................17

1.1.2 Modern time

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 1

The first well drilled by Drake was a cable-tool rig.

Another major event in the development of petroleum

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 2

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 3

Much innovation has occurred in the field of oil

Fig.6 The first electric log (1927).

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 4

Faults are important to the petroleum geologist because

An unconformity is an eroded rock surface that has

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 5

For petroleum to accumulate, there must be:

ANIMATION: CREATION OF OIL

Petroleum is not formed in large concentrations. It is as dispersed as the organic matter in

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 6

1.2.3 Types of traps

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 7

1.2.3.1 Structural traps

1.2.3.2 Stratigraphic traps

1.2.3.3 Other traps

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 8

WORLD PETROLEUM ASSESSMENT YEAR 2000 REGIONS:

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 9

1.4.1 Land rigs

Medium duty 1 200-3 000 (4 000-10 000)

Heavy duty 3 500-5 000 (12 000-16 000)

Very heavy duty 5 500-7 500+ (18 000-25 000+)

Fig.15 Land rig in the desert.

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 10

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 11

The legs of a jackup can either be cylindrical

Jackups can drill in waters as deep as 130 m (400

Fig.17 Jackup rig.

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 12

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 13

While drilling, anchors keep the ship in

Fig.21 Comparison of semisubmersibles and drill ships.

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 14

Fig.22 Multilateral well offshore. Schlumberger Private

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 15

At Wytch Farm in England (see fig. 23),

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 16

Experts then interpret the graphs

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 17

2.1.1 Offshore seismic

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 18

Fig.28 A truck with vibrator pads. Fig.29 Different types of geophones.

Fig.30 Seismic survey in the desert.

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 19

ANIMATION: CONSTRUCTION OF A WELL

Fig.31 The principle of a

Fig.32 Rotary table. Fig.33 Top drive.

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 20

Regardless of the rotating system, some of the drill pipes weight is

Afterwards, the cuttings of rock must be moved out of the way.

Drilling mud is not just a mud, but a complex mixture of materials. A

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 21

Fig.35 Different types of drilling bits.

OIL from Pore to Pipeline 22

Fig.37 A Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)