Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Co-operation
Edited by Caroline Sweetman
'EN UNKit
Oxfam 1994
Published by Oxfam (UK and Ireland), 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK
Designed and typeset by Oxfam Design Department 1367/PK/94
Oxfam is a registered charity No. 202918
Resources
Book review 87
Further reading 88
Organisations working on co-operation 89
Index 93
South and North can only work together in solidarity if there is mutual respect and
awareness of the value of difference, as well as commonality.
Editorial
Caroline Sweetman
T
his issue of Focus on Gender looks at
the process of promoting co- differences which exist between women as
operation between South, East and to the areas where they agree: 'the
North' towards achieving gender equity in international feminist movement is a truly
development. As we approach Inter- anarchic movement in which any woman
national Women's Year in 1995, and the who feels committed and has something to
United Nations Conference on Women in say can contribute to the formulation of the
Beijing next September, it is critical to vision of the future society. Some consider
recognise that 'unlike the mainstream, this as a weakness of the movement, others
which sees these events as the pinnacle of as its strength...' (Mies, 1986, 210). We
activities in a given issue area, women's recognise that women's differences are
movements throughout the world see built, not only upon their different
[them] as merely one aspect of linking' experience as individuals depending on
(Reardon, 1995, forthcoming). factors including class, race, and ethnicity,
As demonstrated in the article from the but upon the different economic and
Women's Environment and Development political factors which affect life in each
Organisation (WEDO) in this issue, region of the world. Mary van Lieshout
international events are the culmination of discusses the process of building alliances
long-term processes of networking and based on a wealth of different opinions and
consultation between different stakeholders insights, in her article on lobbying.
working on gender and development issues. Nearly 30 years ago, the Haslemere
The events themselves are comparable to the Declaration2 stated that 'exploitation of the
top of an iceberg: what is visible is only a Third World is qualitatively similar to, and
small part of a much larger and significant caused by, the same politio-economic
entity, which has formed over a long period factors which are the basis of poverty in
of time. Far from underestimating the power Britain' (Haslemere Declaration 1968, 3).
of formal international gatherings, putting Now, as then, national and regional
them into context in this way shows them to economics and politics, which determine
be important elements of a critical, and less the experience of different constituencies of
visible, process, which is concerned with women, are linked by powerful global
debate, dissent and the eventual building of trends.
alliances working to push gender issues The Women in Development Europe
forward at all levels. network (WIDE) is currently developing a
Building alliances for change demands feminist economic analysis of the world
Carola Carbajal argues that a dialogue she argues, has a vested interest in paying
where women make the links between lip-service to equality which masks a
their own experience, at 'micro-level' in commitment to retaining the status quo.
each country, with the major, 'macro-level' For Longwe, there is a tacit alliance
economic and political trends which exist between the male-run regimes in both
worldwide, is essential to achieve true North and South, to keep gender issues
North-South co-operation. firmly on paper.
The article on Oxfam's WLP stresses the Abantu for Development's article
innovatory nature of the WLP's Thailand explores this theme further, examining the
meetings in enabling Oxfam's staff and priorities of Southern women's networks
partners, from all over the world, to meet and relating these to the different priorities
and talk to one another. The WLP of Northern bodies. A key issue here is that
culminated earlier this year in two many Northern agencies make a distinction
assemblies in Bangkok, Thailand. These between development aims and feminist
were no ordinary conferences: rather, they goals, viewing only the former as suitable
sought to use the opportunity afforded by for funding. The international women's
an international gathering to encourage movement sees this division between
South-South linking. In her article, Maria development and feminist work as
Suarez Toro explains the creative processes artificial, and calls for it to be overcome.
which went into planning an unorthodox Following this, do issues of gender
conference where all participants could necessarily become de-politicised when
have a teaching, as well as a learning, role. they are taken up by the huge Northern
The methodology adapted the partici- funding agencies? Are Gender and
patory approaches used in feminist
workshops to a larger-scale assembly.
An example of the potential of linking
this time from South to North for
informing a powerful international
analysis is shown by Vanete Almeida's
examination of the women's and trade
union movements in Brazil and the UK.
Almeida visited the UK during stage one of
Oxfam's WLP, and in her article draws
interesting parallels between the situations
of women activists in these two countries.
Development Units in such agencies own structure, as well as in its work with
proponents of change, or is their commit- partners. Kokila Parthasanathy explores
ment to gender equity just empty rhetoric? the difficulties and challenges of trying to
An unwillingness to fund 'feminist' 'feminise' a traditional working culture in
endeavours means that many projects and her article on the private sector in India.
programmes are not able to affect women's
subordinate position in society. In their
article, Minh Chau Nguyen et al explore Participation or
the experience of the World Bank in taking representation?
up gender issues and discusses its Examining co-operation and partnership
particular approach. between the regions of the world cannot be
Southern women taking part in Oxfam's done without also assessing who it is who
WLP stressed that if Northern agencies talk represents those regions. Critically, Gert
of empowering women, they must Ranjo-Libang asks which women are
acknowledge the obstacles, inside as well actually brought together in linking
as outside the household, which hamper initiatives. Co-operation and linking are
Southern women from benefiting from arguably needed between all constituencies
development initiatives. If the North concerned in promoting the empowerment
accepts Southern women's ownanalysis of of women: yet, in reality, the gender and
what is needed for development, it will no development establishment in both North
longer view so-called 'radical issues' as and South is staffed by middle- and upper-
outside its remit. North-South co-operation class women, whose concern is invariably
among women on can strengthen women poor women. Posts in multilateral and
in each society to challenge opposition bilateral funding agencies, and the majority
from their own men. Work with radical of national and international NGOs, are
issues will be discussed in the next issue, necessarily filled by women who can
which will focus on culture. understand at least one European language.
Sara Longwe sees NGOs like Oxfam as Places at international meetings and
potentially avoiding the pitfall of de- linking initiatives are likely to be taken by
politicising gender, since they have made a these 'gatekeepers'. Their wide experience
choice of their own volition to work gives them awareness of the linkages
towards gender equity. However, ratifying between community, regional, national,
and implementing a policy which and international experience, and the
questions the most basic assumptions on majority are genuinely committed to
which our societies are built is still difficult representing their grassroots constit-
and challenging. Oxfam's organisational uencies. However, as we have learnt from
Gender Policy has existed on paper for two the experience of representative democracy
years and, as the article on the Women's in many of our countries, representation by
Linking Project recounts, the WLP someone who has a different experience
Conference was an unique opportunity to from our own is no substitute for partici-
canvass staff opinion on how far we fall patory democracy, where we voice our
short of meeting our ideal. At the own thoughts unimpeded. Ranjo-Libang
Conference, Oxfam field staff working on points out that much work needs to be
gender voiced concerns that they are done to develop ways in which grassroots
isolated, overworked, and feel under- women can represent themselves.
valued for working on a 'soft option'.
Oxfam's gender policy means a commit-
ment to achieving gender equity within its
Editorial
The globalisation
of the economy
an international gender perspective
Wendy Harcourt
T
he current global economic crisis is economic interdependence among market
characterised by growing poverty economies in developed countries, but this
worldwide, great and growing has happened at the expense of an
inequality of income, rising unemp- economic crisis in countries which have not
loyment, debt and negative growth in benefited from such uneven growth. This
many countries, and worsening urban and has had a particularly acute impact on poor
rural pollution and environmental women, who are marginalised in the world
degradation. Linked to these factors are economy. Although it is important to
increasing food prices, declining standards remember that different women's
of health and education due to reduced experiences are 'the outcome of different
spending on services, and social and sets of interactions among patriarchal,
cultural dislocation (Kaldor 1986). class, racial, ethical, and spatial relations'
Since the 1980s, global deregulation (Pearson 1986, 93), gender is a critical
allowing the private sector to expand determinant in the degree and manner in
without restriction has been the which economic and other forces affect
dominant principle in the restructuring of different groups.1
the industrialised nations. The restruc- The effects of deregulation are
turing and globalisation of the financial particularly acute in countries of the East
system, the transnationalisation of and South. In general, while Central and
production and the spread of neo-liberal Eastern European countries are struggling
ideas are reflected in the growth of with the impact of a radical economic and
economic strategies such as high-tech political transition, the less-developed
industry, transnational, off-shore, and countries of the South are burdened by.
home-based production, 'flexible' prod- debt, depletion in resources caused by
uction, and a rapid growth in the service poverty, inequality and environmental
sector (Marchand 1994,64). problems, and 'aid fatigue' after 40 years of
This article argues that 'free trade', 'development' initiatives.
which guarantees the free movement of The current trends which are
goods and capital, may have allowed for restructuring industry and employment
an acceleration of economic growth and towards service sectors, casual, and part-
time and out work, might appear to be analysis to their work assert that women's
beneficial to women. But this article will greater exploitation in the global capitalist
argue that because traditional economics system, and their higher labour burden in
ignore the importance of women's work in the home, are due to their lack of power.
the home, community, and informal Women typically lack access to institutions
sectors, economic development policies are which decide economic policy, produce
rarely structured to encompass women's economic statistics, and promote techno-
socio-economic reality and are more logical innovation. Finally, women's role in
usually exploitative than beneficial. reproduction (bearing and caring for
Finally, in addition to discussing how children, and caring for other family
the larger processes of the global economy members) limits their formal employment
have in general affected women in each possibilities, and this reproductive work is
region in terms of securing resources, absent from economic statistics. Feminist
income, and employment, as well as on the economists (Picchio 1994, Elson 1993,
sexual division of labour, this paper Folbre 1993, Tickner 1992) propose a
acknowledges the 'great endurance, gender-aware economic analysis where
courage and resourcefulness of women, women's reproductive activities are
especially poor women...as qualities which recognised as being as important as
have enabled them to cope with the production, since they, too, form a
harshness of their lives and to survive with contribution to the economy.
dignity' (Bunch and Camillo 1990, 77). Feminists argue that the assumption of
Currently, women as individuals and neo-liberal economists, that 'man' is
groups are analysing their situation and competitive and individualist, could not be
actively seeking to change it. Women's made if women's experiences of work were
organisations from the different regions are taken into account. Placing reproduction
increasingly joining together to form on a par with production means revaluing
international women's networks,2 to pool child-bearing and care-giving roles. This
their particular regional experience of the would redefine economic goals towards an
global economic system. Ultimately, by ethic of care and responsibility, and away
making these links they aim to change the from the excessive focus on the ever-
system and empower themselves and other expanding production of commodities.
women. This view is beginning to have an impact
on development policy.3
The awareness by development
Feminist approaches to institutions that 'women's work is not
economics infinitely elastic', and that there is a
Men have been the dominant group which breaking point where women cannot
has determined the shape and direction of continue to sustain the development
society's techno-economic order (Mitter process through their reproductive work,
1993, 103). Traditional economic analysis 'acknowledges the fact that the relationship
ignores reproductive roles, while economic between production and reproduction is
policy defines the majority of women not not only a women's problem but the
as major contributors to the economy but fundamental problem of the system...in the
as disposable cheap labour, offering North as well as in the South' (Picchio,
different (less remunerable) skills from 1994,8).
men, and adaptable to part-time, casual, Picchio argues that the role of carer
and temporary work. which women take on in most societies
Economists who incorporate a gender cannot mechanically adjust to the global
8 Focus on Gender
women under poor conditions.4 Many of market ideologies and seeks to construct a
these firms are marketing ventures that new feminist agenda (Harcourt, 1994,5).
coordinate subcontracted production
activities of family and sweatshop-based
activities (Ward and Pyle 1992, 7). Piece East and Central Europe
work with little or no protection is One crucial occurrence, which may lead to
increasingly carried out by women in the the creation of a new feminist agenda for
textile industries (WIDE, 1994b). Migrant Europe as a whole, was the fall of the
women are particularly likely to be Berlin Wall in 1989, which ended the
employed in this type of work. division between Eastern and Western
The use of tele-terminals means that an Europe (.European Journal of Women's Studies
increasing array of creative and 1994,7).
administrative work can be done from the The opening-up of Eastern and Central
home (WIDE, 1994b). The impact of these Europe to economic liberalism has been a
new 'high-tech' methods of production, mixed blessing to women of those
rendering workers isolated and 'invisible', countries. Women are coping with the
threatens further to reduce women's major social transformation of a regime
opportunities unless it is accompanied by where masculine and feminine identities
training, and unless pay is tied to were blurred in the goal of anonymous
recognition of the skill needed to operate service to the collectivity of the state
sophisticated high-tech equipment. (Miroiu, 1994, in the context of Romania).
While women of all classes continue to This disguised the reality that women were
juggle domestic and child-caring tasks with performing a tripleburden as workers,
paid work, men are still considered the wives, and mothers as they struggled for
primary wage-earners for the family. survival in harsh conditions.
Women are therefore seen as needing to In post-totalitarian society, women are
earn only a supplementary wage, and this still faced with the economics of scarcity,
justifies employing them on a part-time and may find it harder than men to adjust
basis for lower wages. The current to the new sense of individuality as they
recession, high rates of unemployment, retire in greater numbers from positions of
and massive cutbacks in welfare provision political authority (ibid: 110). The
accompanying the globalisation of the withdrawal of the state has often left
economy, have led to many poor women women without a political voice, and little
moving from full-time to part-time opportunity to organise in order to
employment, and family livelihoods safeguard their jobs and their rights to
increasingly depend on women's earnings primary health care, maternity leave, and
(CHANGE etal., 1994). child care. Women, as the primary home-
Despite the apparently sophisticated makers, are the ones who are having to
women's movement in Western Europe, adjust to the abrupt end to state provision
there is little sign that economic policy- of child care.
makers are being pressurised into taking The benefits accompanying Western
into account the profound differences lifestyles and consumer markets have to be
between women's and men's lives. balanced against factors including rising
However, networks such as Women in female unemployment, after a very high
Development Europe (WIDE) are working former level of female participation in the
on the development of an alternative paid workforce; in Russia last year, 70 per
analysis of current economic and political cent of the registered unemployed were
policy, which confronts the neo-liberal women (Weir 1993 quoted in Klasen, 1994).
10 Focus on Gender
The gender wage differential (once with women from minority groups being
relatively small) is rapidly increasing. Rising
the most likely victims. As the economic
awareness of economic insecurity in the situation of families and communities
region has been linked with increasing decline, and social services disappear,
conflicts within and between communities, women carry more and more of the burden
escalating violence, resurgent racism, forcedof family survival. In this climate even
migration, the growth of fundamentalism, professional middle-class women find
and increasing environmental degradation. themselves in a hostile competitive work
environment, and suffer social and
economic deterioration of services and
North America quality of life.
Despite the United States' status as the Alt-WID's analysis argues that the
world's largest economy, the economic economic restructuring of the Reagan era
restructuring prompted by what some was built upon the same package of
have called 'Reaganomics' (Alt-WID, 1992) laissez-faire economic policies that the
has caused severe economic and social World Bank and IMF are currently
dislocation in the US. imposing upon the South and the East.
Alt-WID's analysis argues that since the Under these Structural Adjustment Policies
Reagan era the US has experienced (SAPs), poor women carry the burden of
increasing homelessness, depression of ensuring their own and their families'
wages, declining social spending, and a survival (ibid: 26). Alt-WID, and other
widening disparity between rich and poor, women's groups and networks, are
(ibid: 3) This has been brought about by fighting back by lobbying the current US
increased reliance on export production to administration to address the needs of poor
produce foreign exchange to finance debts, women. They assert that these needs must
accompanied by destruction of the not only be met on a practical, small scale;
environment, deterioration of infrastruc- the structural causes of the continuing and
tures, increased reliance on the informal deepening poverty of women in the US
sector and 'black market' by the poor, and and worldwide should also be examined
increased illiteracy, disease, and violence. and challenged.
Poor women and children bear a dispro-
portionate burden of the costs of this
restructuring, particularly poor African-
The South
American women and Latinas in urban Alt-WID's study on 'Reaganomics' was
centres, and poor white women in isolated inspired by DAWN's path-breaking 1987
rural areas. analysis of the conditions of gender, race,
Even though more women have entered colonial, and class subordination, and the
the US labour force over this period, this nature of the development process itself, for
has not improved their economic or social poor Southern women (Sen and Grown,
status, because the sectors in which they 1987,29). Here, DAWN presented one of the
predominantly work are low paid, with most challenging critiques of the develop-
irregular hours and few or no benefits. The ment process starting from the perspective
decline in employment, real income, and of poor Southern women's lives. Their study
benefits among the poor and ethnic is deeply critical of traditional development
minorities has been accompanied by a models, and argues that women's socio-
decline in social services, affordable economic status has considerably worsened
housing, and health care. These factors due to four decades of international
have been linked to an increase in violence, development and that structural adjustment
The globalisation of the economy 11
policies have a devastating effect on the The removal or drastic reduction of food
poor, particularly women. subsidies increase women's work to
The 1980s saw a reversal of financial provide alternative home-grown food for
flows from South to North in a deepening the family, yet women's time is needed for
debt crisis for Southern countries. the production of cash crops for export.
Increasing national debt, and the inability Women's input into the cultivation of cash
to reschedule debt or obtain access to other crops may be undervalued and
forms of finance, forced Southern countries unrecognised, since these crops tend to be
to turn to International Monetary Fund seen as men's responsibility, and it is men
(IMF) and World Bank Structural who will collect the income.
Adjustment Programmes (SAPs). The key Women's ability to participate in
principles of these packages are 'informal' income generation is
liberalisation and deregulation of the circumscribed by the new demands on their
economy, aiming to address economic time. Women's informal activities are
problems such as balance of payment already likely to be characterised by
deficits and inflation. Measures include requiring little capital outlay (Heyzer 1981,
relaxing financial regulation, reducing state Foreword), and thus assertions that SAPs
involvement in the economy, reducing have actually benefited women by
public spending, devaluing national encouraging them to work profitably within
currency, and removing price controls and the informal sector must be treated with
subsidies. caution. The reality is that women who have
Adjustment measures were designed benefited through private enterprise are
with little consideration of their human likely to have class or other advantages
impact; there have been later attempts to which mean that they have more assets and
cushion the effect of the measures on the resources at their disposal. The only formal
poor, but these are only partially effective sector option open to many Southern
at best (Lennock, 1994, in the context of women is employment by transnationals,
Zimbabwe) and lack an analysis of often in Export Processing Zones (EPZs),
women's specific needs and concerns. As a which share the characteristics of flexible,
result they have reversed the progress in unregulated employment cited in relation to
health, nutrition, education, employment, Western Europe.
and incomes which women in developing
countries had made in the previous
decades. The globalisation of the
Women are most vulnerable to losing economy
their jobs in the formal sector as these are Although to very different degrees
characteristically low in status and depending on their geography, class,
insecure. Cuts in state service provision, ethnic and social status, women
notably in health and education, have not throughout the world were adversely
only affected women as workers in these affected by the globalisation of the
areas. As individuals, they are unable to economy during the 1980s. Poor women's
use health services if user-fees are experience, more than ever, cross-cuts
introduced. Women are also obliged to national and regional boundaries. It is
provide substitute health-care for their characterised by the promotion of the
families, in their capacity as primary carers. private sector including transnational
Cuts in educational services fall most corporations, and a resultant international-
heavily on girls, and adult literacy classes isation of the processes of production.
for women. Countries around the world have
12 Focus on Gender
Robinson, G, Heaton, N, and Davies, C (1994) on gender. In the proposed outline, the
'Ignored and apparently invisible: women Human Development Report states: 'the
at work in Northern Ireland', European special focus on the 1995 HDR will be on
Journal of Women's Studies, 1(1): 43-60. the gender dimension of human devel-
Sen, G and Grown, C (1987) Development opment. It will analyse the present reality
Crises and Alternative Visions: Third World of exclusion of women in social, economic
Women's Perspectives, New York: Monthly
and political life ... the 1995 HDR will be
Review Press.
prepared by drawing on intellectual
Stretenova, N.M. (1994), 'A Sleeping Beauty is
Awakening: The Revival of the Feminist resources from all over the world,
Movement in Bulgaria, The European particularly in policy think-tanks and in
Journal of Women's Studies, 1(1): 111-113. grass-roots movements' (HDR Draft
Tickner, J A (1992) Gender in International Outline:1994).
Relations, New York: Colombia University 4 One recent study of women at work in
Press. Northern Ireland (Robinson et al, 1994)
United Nations Development Report Office explores the patterns of women's paid
(1994), Outline of 1995 HDR, private employment. Having corrected the
circulation, 3 May 1994.
gender bias of the statistics they found that
Ward, K and Pyle, J L (1992) 'Gender,
industrialisation, and development: an in total 62 per cent of women in Northern
overview of trends and patterns', (to be Ireland are economically active, with four
published in Development: Journal of SID). out of five women working in the service
WIDE (1994a), Germany National Report on sector and the other 16.8 per cent in
'The Patriarchal Egalitarian Society: A manufac-turing. In the textile industry in
Survey of the Situation of the Women's Germany the efficiency of the textile
Movement in Germany Today', prepared industry is 'based on a clearly focused,
for WIDE's study on alternative economic short term exploitation of women's labour'
frameworks. (WIDE, 1994b: 2) a strategy which allows
WIDE (1994b), Germany National Report on for easy relocation of production to low-
'Economy, Ecology and Development wage countries (as it has done so in 50 per
The Example of the Textile Industry',
cent of the industry in the 1990s). In
prepared for WIDE's study on alternative
economic frameworks. Greece state-sponsored transnational
garment manufac-turing has employed
largely women and structured production
Notes to take place in both the family and at
home under piece rate system, (ibid)
1 There is a vigorous argument within
different sectors of the women's move- 5 Women in development or WID is a term
ment, both in political activist and now being replaced by gender and
academic circles, about the validity of development or women and environment
universality or heterogeneity of gender. and alternatives to development (WED)
Mitter (1994) argues: 'as our identities get within progressive women's groups
defined and redefined in terms of working in international relations.
ethnicity, religion and class, gender does However, we would argue that DAWN
not always seem the primary factor for does have an influence also on mainstream
forming an alliance or for determining WID discourse which itself is aware of the
vulnerability in the field of paid work' need to integrate gender analysis fully in
(Mitter 1994,101). development policy (Harcourt, 1994: 6;
Bunch and Camillo, 1990: 76). Peggy
2 For example, Development Alternative with Antrobus, General Coordinator of DAWN,
Women for a New Era, (DAWN), Women is leading some of the work of the UNDP
in Development Europe (WIDE), and Report on Gender and Noeleen Heyzer,
Alternative Women in Development (Alt- Steering Group member of DAWN, has
WID). just been appointed Director of UNIFEM
3 For example, the influential United Nations (United Nations International Fund for
Human Development Report for 1995 will be Women).
15
Building alliances
a Southern perspective
Devaki Jain
N
orth-South relations could not be
worse than they are today. One images of the South of hunger, disease, dirt
can in fact take a step back and and lethargy. In contrast, Southern civil
ask, is there a South? We could also ask, is society provided ideas on how to produce
there an East? If there is no longer a South, and consume in less wasteful ways; in
there is no need or scope to talk about addition to ideas on credit and marketing,
North/South relations. It pains me to say the formation of trade unions and self-
this, and to suggest that in spite of all the governance, the South gave an example of
dedication and efforts of Southern and graceful social relations, community spirit,
Northern activists in sharing work, thought and living with joy and laughter. These
and platforms, the North is effacing the and a million other ideas came from the
South and the East. In doing so, it is South, to enliven ideas of development not
actually effacing itself, as it cannot sustain only in the South but in the North also.
its engines of growth and its environmental In a sense, 'we' were the teachers and
and political security and creativity 'you' were the taught. We talk now of aid
without its identifiable and different fatigue and development fatigue. But there
partners, the South and the East. These two was also growth fatigue and prosperity
regions represent important differences in fatigue and these were countered by a
the history of social and political evolution. breath of fresh air from us. Women,
They can be broken by the North, but not minorities, non-white peoples, and the
digested. So, for its own self-preservation, poor of the North were able to find
the North must step back and reflect on its inspiration, a sense of identity, and an
activities. agenda for action out of knowledge coming
It is my reading of the situation that in from the South. Links, threads and
the last three decades the North has learnt eventually ropes began to be formed
a great deal from civil society in the South. joint thought, and joint action, even though
While development aid would have been it was always an uneasy partnership, as are
conventionally routed through government all unequal partnerships, whether they are
channels perhaps on large-scale projects between men and women, employees and
these aid channels received their real workers, or rich and poor.
inputs in terms of learning from civil Once, I had the idealism to suggest that
society: intellectuals, writers, and activists. we of the South could be partners with the
Northern respect for us in the South East: we could facilitate the reconstruction
came from these sources not from of the East, after the breakdown of
socialism, as we knew the effect of the by only three heads of state, if one excludes
withdrawal of a controlling power, due to the host, India. One came for the opening
our experience of the end of colonialism. only, and another for the closing only so
We had knowledge of the challenges of that there were only two who gave the
scarcity, treading the middle path between summit their full attention. If that is any
socialism and its opposite pole, capitalism. indication of the commitment to work
We had experience of co-operatives and together, the signal is that all is not well.
forming unions of the self-employed, small The reason behind this difficulty
businesses, and thrift societies. We, too, experienced by the G-15 in taking off is
had pluralistic societies with young common knowledge. The governments of
democracies, and political parties which the developing countries of the South are
were based on considerations including nervous that any affirmative action from
race, caste, and language. We felt we could their side might alienate their Northern
share with the East our ability to 'muddle benefactors. This ambivalence is allied to a
through' without being bought out. desire to keep lines open to the North, in
Somehow, in spite of the cloud of order to continue to receive financial
Northern domination, the former colonies support, as well as lines open to the South
had even set up NAM (Non-Aligned to gain moral support. These motivations
Movement), and G-77 (Group 77, a were very clear when the report of the
configuration of developing countries that South Commission was being developed.
vote together in economic matters discussed But today this nervousness is worse and
by the United Nations), and formed an their own lines of 'solidarity' appear to be
affirmative 'South' consisting of NGOs, broken, as exemplified in the aborted
grassroots activists, intellectuals, and Burundi Summit and its recent aftermath,
feminist organisations like DAWN the civil war in Rwanda.
(Development Alternatives for Women in a Other Southern groupings, like G-77,
New Era). We thought that the East, too, and sub-groups like the smaller country
could, like a phoenix, rise from the ashes,1 groupings within Asia, Latin America and
and the South and East could then learn Africa, did not feel that they were
from each other. The East has experience in sufficiently clear about the purpose of G-
promoting workers' rights and full employ- 15. In some quarters it was understood as
ment, the provision of basic amenities, and a an attempt to create harmonious relations
legal basis for equality between the sexes and conduct a forum for dialogue with G-7.
and the classes. In turn, the South has In others, it was viewed as a structure
experience of self-determination and finding affirming solidarity between the Southern
a middle path; there could have been a member countries. Was it, in fact, inclusion
fruitful mutual exchange. or exclusion which was being signalled?
State and legislative structures in the
South are devastated and have lost their
Contemporary pressures on way; even civil society is overwhelmed by
Southern solidarity the commanding heights of the new order.
Today, all that hope is ended. The South is The attempt by some Northern countries to
in disarray. For example, when the G-15 include social clauses into aid and trade
the group of fifteen countries which had regimes is a retrograde move which has
come together for development co- caused not only confusion but a degree of
operation, to counterbalance the powers of debilitation of the NGO movement in the
the G-7 attempted to hold a summit in South. While the Southern NGOs were
New Delhi in March 1994, it was attended formerly fearless and articulate in their
Building alliances 17
society it wants, resisting pressure from its intellectual forums, including women's
own bureaucracies and political leadership. forums, dread coming under one banner.
If NGOs with an alternative vision can gain We feminists start off by talking of a
broad acceptance for that vision, the South worldwide agenda, but very soon we are
will be able to legitimise its own vision, reminded of the deep regional and
and start to re-build itself. contextual differences which divide us, on
Northern allies must stop their countries issues which are important to us, and on
from bringing social and environmental the strategies that we favour to change
conditionalities to the negotiating tables. things. The old solidarities, around issues
Development co-operation should not of class and colour, which created such
move away from the economic sectors to great groundswells of attention to injustice,
the social sectors, as is happening at the seem to us to be not only simplistic, but
moment. This trend has been a major undemocratic, and indifferent to gender
setback in the history of North-South and cultural differences.
solidarity among NGOs; the North should We then tend to back off, aware that our
examine itself before it takes on such a activities may dominate others, and that
posture of moral superiority. such domination clashes with our ethic of
Development assistance could do more participation and democracy, and our
to spread development thinking, including desire to accommodate every diversity. We
encouragement for new ideas to engage feel that our structures must be loose,
public support for preventing the destruc- informal, and fluid which is antithetical
tion of the world and its resources, and to building an organised plan of action.
promoting equality and justice. We need to Naturally, we end up divided again. We
build alliances on thought, not only action. are so fragmented, and so self-conscious
It is true that there are many forums of about plunging into any commitment, so
self-criticism, and pro-South activities, in the territorial, and most of all, so suspicious of
North. But, in my view, these are not each other.
widespread enough, political enough, or We feminists cannot, in my view,
theoretical enough. For example, at present continue in this way if we have any ethics
the media from the North is exploding in left in us at all for the poor and deprived
the South. We see within these satellite are in a very fragile state indeed, even
television networks quite a few program- more fragile than the earth itself, about
mes which offer a critique of the Northern which we are so anxious. Hence we cannot
way of life, and its bigotry. But not enough. continue to indulge in these hesitations, if
In addition, such forums are not yet per- feminism is to retain its humanity.
ceived as oriented towards the good of the Sophisticated arguments about who is
whole world, but are introverted and focus truly rich, and who poor, in this and that
on the North. We have to compete with the virtue, and about categories of people who
stronger world of commercialisation, and its are worse off and so on, must end. Our
exporting of Northern consumer values, by concern is about living, and not dying.
putting forward our alternative vision of Nothing else matters. This stark reality
true development co-operation. must shock us, as feminists, out of our
hesitation in building alliances. This is the
Women's networks: problem that we must address: that, at
Southern priorities present, we seem incapable of broad-based,
altruistic action.
There are many problems in building Women of the North have to address
solidarity around an alternative vision. All current ideas of economic growth and ask
Building alliances 19
whether they can bring justice in either of the world's resources and harmful
North or South. They have to find ways of agricultural practices, whether in Northern
criticising the situation as citizens and or Southern countries. But forming such
voters in their countries be they Dutch, alliances requires difficult and deep moral
English, German, or French. The vote is the choices. For example, boycotting of goods,
most powerful weapon to use for political because their production endangers the
change, and politics determines the environment, or involves injustice to
activities of economists. producers in poor countries, may require
We women need to foster solidarity on forfeiting certain standards of consumption
several levels. First, we have to do some in an altruistic way. But no human
very serious exercises in what is called endeavour can have sustainable value
'development analysis'. For example, if without the underpinning of virtue. It is
British women would trace the specifics of this human resource, which goes
why the current situation is treating some unmentioned by the development
of them badly if it is the political party establishment and international economic
in power, the particular investment bodies, which is critically needed now.
decision, or the particular type of
technology chosen then we in the South Devaki fain is a development economist and
can compare similarities and differences in feminist based in India. She is the founder of
our experience, and we can start to really DAWN.
talk to each other. In the North and the
South, poor women are experiencing
similar exploitation. We need to analyse Notes
similar trends and show the parallels. If 1 According to legend, the phoenix is a bird
Northern and Southern women which is reincarnated after burning.
understood their similar experience of 2 The South Commission was composed of 26
economic injustice as two friends, we could eminent economists, headed by Julius
really resist it. Nyerere, the former President of Tanzania,
and operated between 1987 and 1990 to
Secondly, there is an important role for develop a report on the South and its
Northern NGOs in educating people in the potential for development. See its book,
North to use their votes in solidarity with Challenge to the South, Oxford University
people of the South. Giving money to Press.
charities in a philanthropic way is not
enough people must use their political
vote. Northern people must take
responsibility for the actions of their
elected leaders, in perpetuating such
exploitation as patenting Southern genetic
resources and then saying to Southern
countries, 'if you want it now, you must
buy the patent'. I cannot think of anything
more unjust.
Thirdly, women must build alliances
around consumer choices. As consumers,
we are responsible for supporting or
boycotting companies which allow
exploitative labour conditions and low
wages, and perpetuate unsustainable use
20
Scotching myths
SEAD's experience in North-South co-operation
Linda Gray
F
irst, a true story: two fact-finders been pursuing in its work for the past two
from UK NGOs were visiting an years, specifically focusing on women living
Indian village. Relaxed after the in poverty. Linking initiatives are one
evening meal, the women of the village effective way of ensuring that different
were happy to satisfy the curiosity of their stakeholders in development come to
foreign guests, and answered many understand each other's experience and
questions about their lives, their hopes, and priorities. SEAD's linking work is not solely,
their frustrations. 'If you could wish for or even primarily, concerned with issues of
one thing to improve the quality of your development in the South, but seeks to
lives, what would that be?' asked one promote knowledge of the similarities and
representative of the Northern NGO. The differences between poor people's lives in
hilarity this question provoked suggested North and South.
that her hosts were not weighing up the SEAD's priorities and agenda are
merits of better education versus improved developed in the course of a constant
health care. One women translated their process of consultation with people, not
reply: 'we would like our husbands to be just women, living in poverty or
twenty years younger so they were better addressing development issues in Scotland
in bed!' This story illustrates more than the itself. As a nation, Scotland is on the
unexpected humour which exists in margins of Europe, and within the United
situations where outsiders may expect to Kingdom itself the Scottish people are
find only solemnity in the face of poverty. geographically, politically, and econom-
It exhibits the gulf of communication ically peripheral. Within Scottish society,
which often exists between the powerless, the rural and urban poor are likewise
and those who would make decisions on marginalised. It is this experience of
their behalf. exclusion of nations and of people upon
The problem of fostering mutual which SEAD bases its analysis of
understanding between individuals and development both in a Scottish and in an
communities in North and South is uni- international context.
versal; it is a theme which SEAD (Scottish Reactions to SEAD's work among
Education and Action for Development) has disadvantaged groups in Scotland tend to
Study Tour participants compare notes at SEAD's conference, 'Shifting the Balance: People, Power, and
Participation'.
follow a pattern. While at first there may be within sectors of Scottish society which
some resistance, even resentment, to any regularly slip through the development
suggestion that poor people in Scotland are education net. Unemployed workers'
themselves part of the 'Third World', this resource centres, members of food co-
soon breaks down. Linking initiatives need operatives, tenants' organisations, and anti-
to encourage Northern people to see the poverty groups are some of the most
human faces and human lives behind the enthusiastic and consistent supporters of
negative images conjured up when most SEAD's activities. For many, the big
people in the North think about the 'Third attraction of SEAD events is the oppor-
World'. By using comparable case studies tunity to meet, learn from, and be inspired
from Scotland and overseas, and by by their counterparts from other cultures
arranging meetings of counterparts, SEAD and countries. The process of learning is
tries to help people to realise that two-way, and fosters the development of
disadvantaged groups the world over links of mutual solidarity between Scottish-
suffer from the same process of negative based groups and their counterparts
labelling, even to the extent of having the overseas.
same tags attached 'lazy', 'ignorant', While people in Scotland are attracted to
'dependent'. SEAD's work because it is relevant to their
By taking as a starting point the lives, the approach has also been welcomed
experience of people living in poverty in by SEAD's contacts in the southern
Scotland, SEAD has been able to raise hemisphere, who are growing increasingly
levels of awareness of development issues tired of Northern 'experts' giving advice on
22 Focus on Gender
Invisible threads
Oxfam's Bridge programme
Rachel Wilshaw
I
n the mid 1970s, the name 'Bridge' was livelihood to poor producers in the South.
selected for Oxfam's fair trade The Bridge framework enables producers
programme. It sums up very aptly the to sell their products to Northern
bridging link of trade and support between consumers, without losing a percentage to
producers in developing countries, and entrepreneurs on the way. Each different
their customers in the UK and Ireland. stakeholder is aware of the chain of co-
Bridge is a very remarkable partnership, or operation which exists in the Bridge
series of partnerships, between people with programme. As Alan Raymer, who
many roles in different parts of the world. manages Oxfam's warehouse in Bicester,
Fair Trade is concerned with enabling UK, says, 'we in the warehouse feel
small-scale producers to take, and keep, the directly connected to the producers by an
power to determine their own livelihoods. invisible thread, as we are the next people
This power is more often concentrated in to handle goods after they've been packed.'
the hands of traders, leaving the producers Perhaps a spider's web is a better image
open to exploitation. Bridge goods are sold than a bridge for what goes on between
in more than 625 Oxfam shops in the main Oxfam and its trading partners! If so it
streets of British and Irish towns. would have to be a very large web, because
The Bridge programme oversees the the numbers of people involved is another
processes which are involved in a remarkable factor, and in particular, the
continuous chain of relationships between numbers of women. Women constitute by
individuals, from the person who weaves a far the largest proportion of most of the
shawl in a village in Bangladesh to the key groups in this complicated North
person who buys it, in a village in Scotland. South partnership.
These relationships link producers with
group leaders; group leaders with the
exporting organisation; producers with The producers
Bridge field staff; the exporting Women form the vast majority of the
organisation with Bridge's import people living in extreme poverty who are
controllers; Bridge and Oxfam retail staff of dependent on crafts for a living. Of the
all kinds with each other; Oxfam retail staff 15,000 producers in receipt of Bridge
with volunteers; and volunteers with orders in any one year, between 80 and 85
customers. per cent are women. Bridge has a policy of
All these different groups of people prioritising the most vulnerable people in
share a common goal: to ensure a fair its work. Women's lack of decision-making
Bridge
mse,
^m
1. the Producers: Number of people who 4. The Customers: Number of people who
work on Bridge orders in any one year is buy Bridge goods in any one year: is
approx 15-20,000: 80-85% are women 500-800,000: over 80% are women
power and control over resources, In return, Bridge's trading partners can
compared to that of men, means they are expect Bridge to pay a fair price for the
among these vulnerable priority groups. products, to maximise marketing oppor-
Other groups Bridge concentrates on tunities for the goods, in producers' own
include people with disabilities, indig- countries as well as overseas, and to
enous people, and seasonal agricultural provide services, such as design and
workers. For women in these groups, product development, and training and
gender inequity interacts with other dis- skills upgrading.
crimination, to increase their vulnerability.
Bridge expects producer groups to share Case study 1: Aj Quen,
Oxfam's objective of helping disadvan- Guatemala
taged people to improve their situation and
take more control of their lives. Producers Aj Quen is Bridge's main partner in
are required to demonstrate that fair wages Guatemala. The name means 'weaving
are properly accounted for in product together' in Cakchiquel, one of four Mayan
prices, and to pay workers promptly. The languages spoken by the members of the
importers and exporters exercise a lot of association. It was set up in 1989 as a
friendship, not only for financial gain, but combined effort of poor weavers, tailors,
with the aim of improving the living carpenters, basketmakers, potters, and
standards of the producers' (producer from others, for the development of themselves
Machakos Cooperative Union, Kenya). and their community.
Oxfam's decision to work with producer After coffee production, handcrafts are
groups is based on certain criteria. Groups the biggest source of employment in
should demonstrate their commitment to Guatemala. The issue of land reform here
achieving, or working towards, some remains unresolved, and many poor
important objectives: sensitivity to gender people are landless. Escalating conflict
issues, a responsible approach to the affects in particular the 70 per cent of
involvement of children in production, and Guatemalans who are classed as
avoiding the use of bonded labour. Bridge indigenous people. Due to the violence,
stresses that it exists to help struggling or many people live away from their original
newly-established groups, rather than to communities. Handcraft production is one
work with existing groups, who may of the few options open to them.
already meet the criteria. Eighty per cent of the 2,000 producers
Invisible threads 25
with which Aj Quen works are women. (ATOs) in Europe and North America. The
They face many severe problems. At least value of Bridge orders in 1993/94 was
50 per cent are widows, their husbands 30,000. But there is also a special
having been killed in conflict and violent relationship with Bridge because of the
repression. Female-headed households are local office, based in Puebla, Mexico, which
in desperate need of income; it is almost has provided help with design, product
impossible for the children of widows to go development, and financial support, as
to school because of the cost. There is 90 well as training in quality control,
per cent female illiteracy, and most women including the importance of delivery
speak only their local language, which deadlines, and the need for good raw
limits their opportunities for employment. materials and finishing.
In addition, there is no tradition of Actual income generated is still very
community organisation in these artisan low: the average income per producer
communities, and little or no artisan works out at 7 US cents per day . Aj Quen
representation in decision-making bodies. aims to improve this significantly, and will
These women's will to improve the need all the support it can get to achieve
resources at their disposal is strong. Bridge that, but there is no doubt at all that the
producers have been keen to take up the producers have the will, and that the
Spanish classes provided at Aj Quen's five benefits of any increase in trade will reach
literary centres, and this makes communi- the producers themselves.
cation between producer groups possible.
Aj Quen is one of the most democratically
run of all Bridge partner groups. For the
Case study 2: Perfume-
annual general assembly, hundreds of
making in Bangladesh
producers, each representing ten others, Concern, an Irish NGO, is one of Bridge's
make long and difficult journeys by bus trading partners in Bangladesh. It works
and on foot to take part. Women, as with the most vulnerable women, often
primary or sole carers for families, find this refugees from past war and famine who
commitment of time away from their had almost nothing when they first came
families particularly difficult. into contact with Concern. This year,
Poor tailoring skills are holding many Concern carried out an impact assessment
groups back, but training is having a study of the effect on women's earnings of
positive impact on earnings. Many women Bridge orders for incense.
adopt modern production processes, to Mirpur producer group is around seven
increase the output rate and marketability years old. The value of Bridge orders to
of their weavings. On a traditional Mirpur last year was 27,000. The group
waistloom, the maximum daily production members are now self-reliant, purchasing
is 50 centimetres. Aj Quen is introducing the raw materials, mixing perfume scents,
footlooms, which enable a weaver to planning the production process and
produce ten yards in a day. At the same delivering to deadlines, and maintaining
time, the organisation is fostering pride in their own accounts. Even though the
the ancient heritage of the weavers, by formal education of Bridge producers is
commissioning a study into the symbolism often minimal, the confidence to operate
of the patterns, for the producers' own independently develops when appropriate
interest and to help to market the training is given.
weavings. The group feels that, although Bridge
Aj Quen is supported with orders by orders have aided them in developing the
many Alternative Trading Organisations skills of the group, if their operation is to
26 Focus on Gender
become more sustainable, they should not The majority of the women reported
rely completely on Bridge orders. The positive changes in their lives. However,
perfumed products of this group are their increased earnings did not necessarily
intended predominantly for the export increase women's well-being. In some
market; their market in Bangladesh is cases, women's increased contribution to
limited due to the relatively high cost of the family income provoked negative,
the products, and the in-built fair wage often violent, reactions from their
structure which is a feature of Bridge husbands, who saw their wives' higher
producer groups. The producers are now income as a threat. One woman stood up to
independently examining the potential of her husband and refused to surrender her
the local market, considering aspects such savings to him, as she suspected that he
as the effect on price and demand of would divorce her if he acquired her
cheaper raw materials and packaging. savings.
The group has used both its income and Concern has made extra contact with
savings for other income-generating these women's husbands to try to improve
purposes, such as the purchase of livestock their understanding of the benefits of the
and rickshaws. One particular woman took intervention, and improve marital relations.
a loan of 1,000 taka from her group savings As a result of this support and follow-up,
(generated from Bridge orders) and bought one husband stopped his violent behaviour
two goats. She paid back this loan in two to his wife, and became involved in a
months and then she took out a loan of business venture of his own. As these issues
2,500 taka to build a fruit shop for her are being tackled, the women are becoming
husband to manage. This has been very more confident and see the importance of
successful. their daughters, in particular, being
educated and thereby gaining more power
Working towards and control over their lives.
There are 37 producers in the Saidpur
empowerment Shandha group, which produces perfume
A random study of 15 members of the sachets. This group is very new and hence
Demra group, which produces incense still needs a lot of support. They are
sticks on sale in Oxfam shops in the UK currently learning the steps and stages of
and Ireland, looked at the massive increase overall production management. A
in income they had experienced due to significant change occurred in the life of
profits from the Bridge orders. Women had Khodeza, the group leader, as a result of
invested the profits in other income- her involvement with Bridge. Khodeza had
generating activities, to be run by to make the eleven-hour journey from
themselves or by their husbands. Two Saidpur to Dhaka with a bank-draft,
invested in driving lessons and licences so purchasing raw materials and checking
that their husbands could start taxi their quality. She managed to persuade
businesses; this meant that the husbands both her husband and her in-laws of the
could earn over double their previous importance of this. This is a big step for a
income as rickshaw walas. Three other woman who has lived her entire life in a
women extended their homes so as to be small town in northern Bangladesh, caring
able to lease out a room; one used her for her family. Khodeza says: 'previously, I
money to recover her father's and thought that only a man could go to Dhaka
grandfather's land which had been to buy materials and that women weren't
mortgaged. She is now growing crops on capable of doing it. Now I know the value
the land. of work and the responsibility involved.'
Invisible threads 27
begin to feel connected with the people who organisations to promote fairly-traded
have actually made what you're holding, all goods in the 'mainstream' UK market,
those miles away. That's a really good through initiatives such as Cafedirect, the
feeling. Best of all is when someone visits widely-available fairly-traded coffee, and
from a producer group or Bridge office. the Fairtrade Found-ation. As the
Then the reality really comes home to you.' momentum for Fair Trade grows, and more
and more people see it as a way of linking
The customers hands across the North-South divide, the
web of invisible threads linking individuals
The number of customers for Bridge goods around the world extends. Opinion polls
is too great to estimate. We know that some suggest that increasing numbers of people
35,000 regularly buy from one of the see Fair Trade as one of the best ways to
annual mail order catalogues, but these help the Third World.
sales account for only 15 per cent of total An effective way of helping people to
Bridge sales. In all, the number of feel connected to others in other parts of
customers buying Bridge goods in any one the network is the Bridge newsletter, Bridge
year is between 500,000 and 800,000; and of News, which goes to 1,000 producers and
these, at least 80 per cent are women. associates in 38 developing countries, and
Perhaps this statistic has to do with the fact 1,000 staff and volunteers in the UK and
that 90 per cent of the Bridge range consists Ireland, and creates invisible connections
of crafts and textiles, which can be given as of its own, for instance, between producers
gifts or kept to use in the home. Women, in different parts of the world, and
rather than men, tend to buy presents, and between producers and shop volunteers. 'It
have prime responsibility in most cases for gives us a feeling that we are not alone;
the home. Although women are also the that other producer groups have similar
main purchasers of food, we are hoping to problems...'(Tonette Zablan, Community
attract male customers as fairly-traded Crafts Association of the Philippines). As a
foods make more and more headway into volunteer trading secretary for Bridge
the range, and into customers' awareness. comments, 'it gives me a deeper under-
At present, fairly-traded foods available standing and sympathy with the situation
through Oxfam shops and mail-order of the producers which I can relay to shop
include coffee, tea, sugar, Brazil nuts, staff, customers and audiences.'
Chilean wine and condiments from Bridge staff in India used the fiftieth
Swaziland. anniversary of Oxfam as an opportunity to
present a friendship bracelet to all 27,000
Building alliances through volunteers. Mathew Cherian, Bridge
Fair Trac Manager in India, presented the first
bracelet to Vera Rawden in London, who
Effective communication on Bridge's work says: 'We were touched. It's always nice to
is critical if potential customers are to be know your work is appreciated.' Bridge is
made aware of the difference between a true example of the strength of North-
buying fairly-traded products and those South co-operation in action, in support of
which have been manufactured under what poor people who face systemic disadvan-
may well be exploitative conditions. Bridge tage in the world trade system, but who are
is a member of the European Fair Trade working to overcome this through their
Association (EFTA) and the International own efforts.
Federation for Alternative Trade (IFAT). Rachel Wilshaw is Producer Information
Bridge also supports the joint efforts of UK Officer for Bridge.
29
T
he Women's Linking Project (WLP), promote and explore examples of best
a three-year project coordinated by practice and to increase Oxfam's contact
GADU and Oxfam UKI, was with Southern organisations working on
launched as part of Oxfam's fiftieth gender issues, and also to promote gender
anniversary celebrations in 1992. The as a development issue to the British and
project was co-ordinated from Oxford, but Irish public.
drew on the guidance of an advisory group
of Southern women, and the experience of
Oxfam's field offices. Stages of the project
The WLP broke new ground for Oxfam: South-North Linking
it was the largest and most public In March 1992, eight women from Southern
communications and networking activity countries came to the UK and Ireland, and
on gender and development ever met with a range of organisations and
undertaken by Oxfam. The aims were to groups. The rationale behind the visit was,
develop alternative strategies and North- firstly, to identify commonalities and
South co-operation and dialogue, to make differences as the basis for forging
Southern gender perspectives central to alliances; secondly, to promote Southern
development approaches, and to help women's perspectives on aid and other
Oxfam and other like-minded agencies to macro-issues, such as violence, health and
improve their understanding of gender reproductive rights, poverty, and
issues and respond with gender-fair sustainable development; and, lastly, to
policies and programmes. The project was increase people's awareness of women's
intended to create solidarity, and set up existing and potential roles as agents for
information-sharing exchanges and change.
informal networks for Southern NGOs, The South-North visit provided a
Oxfam staff, and like-minded NGOs, in platform for Southern women to speak,
order for them to learn cross-regionally, and valuable opportunities for dialogue,
and break through the isolation that many leading to a better understanding of each
feel. other's situation, both among the visitors
Oxfam works through a large number of themselves and the people they met. It also
field offices, some of which are fairly succeeded in raising interest about
distant from the women's movement, Southern concerns in development in the
while others exemplify best or near-best British and Irish women's organisations
practice. The WLP was designed to and community groups visited; and helped
Southern women's
networks
their own priorities
Abantu for Development
S
outhern women's networks have The formalisation of this process is
existed ever since Southern women something that women's groups and
first identified common concerns associations have identified as a distinct
around which to organise. Their strategy in its own right, to enable women
formalisation within the international to pool resources, mobilise support, and
sphere was accelerated during the UN provide mutual encouragement. The im-
Decade for Women, 1975-1985. The portance of networks cannot be under-
Association of African Women For Research stated: they often form the catalyst for
and Development (AAWORD), set up in women to organise into groups, and have
1977, and Development Alternatives With the potential for influence and impact
Women for a New Era, (DAWN), set up in beyond the lives of the women immediately
1983, are examples of two such organ- concerned.
isations. Southern women's networks have The South, or 'Majority World', is home
grown out of, and are included in, religious to a myriad of women's groups and
organisations, trades unions, political associations; not all of these would identify
parties, and welfare organisations; they also themselves as networks, and their
exist as organisations in their own right. priorities are as diverse as the number of
This article will argue that networking is issues with which women are concerned.
an important political tool for women. It is These issues include basic needs like
often one of the few tools that are freely shelter, food and clothing, and graduate,
accessible to women, who are marginalised through the issues of education and
by the processes and decisions that shape freedom from domestic and civil violence,
their lives. Women are able to meet within to a concern with the effects of Structural
an informal network in the domestic Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) on
sphere and exchange information, news, women and their communities.
and personal stories, and give support and The context within which such Southern
encouragement to each other. This women's networks are operating is often one
networking happens every day, all over the in which the infrastructure of civil society
world, in homes, market-places, and has been eroded by economic, political and
wherever women regularly congregate. social malaise. The general situation of
paucity of resources, and marginalisation of resource is the women themselves, they are
the most vulnerable sectors of society, of often self-sustaining.
which women are one, means that there are
few avenues left for women to formalise
their social and political activity. In this
Abantu's experience
situation, networking is an avenue open to Abantu for Development International is
Southern women who seek to address their an African women's NGO and human
resource network, which started in 1991
problems, as it is an accessible strategy which
requires few resources. Enthusiasm, and was formalised in 1993. Abantu is an
dedication, and time are the precious informal network of African women
resources required of members. trainers who began meeting to exchange
ideas, develop skills, compare methodolo-
gies, and provide mutual support, since all
Barriers for Southern of the women involved in Abantu are
networks based in the West, for social, economic,
However, if Southern networks are to political, and historical reasons.
operate outside their local and national The founders of Abantu had all,
boundaries, lack of resources becomes however, maintained strong links with
more of a constraint. Southern networks their countries of origin which include
are disadvantaged compared to their Zambia, Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal,
Northern counterparts, because they do not Tanzania, South Africa and Kenya
have access to methods of communication through active participation in solidarity
that are taken for granted and that are struggles, political movements and
necessary for international operation. This campaigns, and through the collation and
not only prevents them from networking dissemination of information within their
between North and South, but also respective communities. Networking was a
between South and South, which is a vital tool that they had all identified and used
arena for support, cross-fertilisation, and within their work.
solidarity. South-South networking is one Frustrated at the lack of recognition, on
of the issues that has been identified by the part of Western NGO's and funding
Southern women as a priority to enhance agencies, of Southern women's perspective
the effectiveness of the networks in their on development, they saw a need for a
own countries, and also to increase their Southern women's network to promote
strength and lobbying power in the such recognition. Abantu believes that
international arena. policies which evolve from an informed,
The strategies that these networks have indigenous source are more likely to obtain
identified to address their many concerns the political consensus necessary for
are often very similar. They include sustained change and development.
dissemination of information through 'Abantu' means 'people' in several African
publications such as newsletters; research; languages; and it symbolises our approach
the hosting of conferences and seminars; to development.
and the provision of training, in order to In Abantu's view, the lack of develop-
enhance women's ability to access ment progress in Africa is partly due to the
resources and information on a wider scale. lack of political will on the part of some
Networks can provide organised channels national governments to take into account
through which all of the above can be the economic, social, political, and cultural
made available in a systematic and aspirations of all Africans. Abantu set its
woman-friendly way: as their greatest agenda to complement that of the wider
36 Focus on Gender
communities in their countries, which had men can discuss their priorities from an
tended to subsume the 'women question' African perspective and with a gender
within a broader framework. analysis, often bringing together
As Southern women, our priorities in Anglophone and Francophone Africans.
Abantu are dictated by the circumstances An example of such a forum is a
we find in our countries of the South; we seminar and training workshop held by
have chosen to highlight the issue of Abantu in Entebbe, Uganda, in July 1994.
gender in the various areas of our work, as Here, professional women and men came
it is an important element that is often together to discuss the barriers to women's
marginalised in the economic and political participation in governance and decision-
equation called 'development'. Abantu making. The 50 delegates represented 14
believes that women play a particularly different African countries, and comprised
important role in transmitting values, both leading academics, activists, trainers,
between themselves and within their researchers, and politicians. The delegates
communities: as stated above, this is often expressed their need for the opportunity to
done through informal networking. The improve their skills and share their
central purpose of Abantu is, therefore, to experiences, and this was met by
enhance the capacity of African women to combining the seminar with a two-day
participate in development. Abantu training session on skills that would
believes in women's empowerment enhance women's capacity to participate in
through training, information, and the decision making: public speaking, strategic
control and efficient management of use of the media, and political leadership.
resources. The role of Northern NGOs and
Northern funding agencies in the process
Working in South and North of networking is one of providing support
and building alliances based on equitable
We have a strategy of working in the South partnerships and mutual respect. Southern
through regional offices, which are women need the opportunity to come
currently being set up, because we recognise together in order to set their own agendas
the importance of locally-identified needs and define their own priorities. These will
and solutions. We have also identified the change over time, and are different within
importance of maintaining links and and between communities and organi-
contacts in the North, through establishing sations: they may even be in conflict.
an office in London. This is due to the fact Northern funding agencies can co-
that most of the material resources that are operate with Southern organisations like
available for development are based in the Abantu, DAWN and FEMNET, by pro-
West in the form of information, technology, viding resources, expertise, technology,
and money. We see it as critical to tap into skills, and money for the capacity building
these resources, in order for us to provide of individuals and organisations. This
material help and support to organisations enables Southern women to instigate or
and projects based in the South, who would enhance their own networks. Human
not normally have access to these resources. resource development is fundamental to
Development is a two-way process. the overall development process. The
The role of Abantu is to form a conduit formalisation of networking and networks
for information and resources, both is an effective way of encouraging
between North and South and among women's development, and this can only
Southern NGOs and networks. Secondly, it have a positive impact on the development
sets up fora at which African women and of Southern nations.
37
W
e were 11 women from three
continents: Asia, Africa, and the subordination of our women. They
Latin America. We were asked to displaced women from their means of
come to Bangkok to forge one Southern achieving an independent livelihood, and
women's voice. We were women of many destroyed the communal and clan culture
colours, who could communicate only that supported women in child care and
through interpreters, in three languages home maintenance. Right up to today, the
that were legacies of our colonisers: low status of women persists.
English, Spanish and French. Yet, in our Despite our supposed political indepen-
very first meeting, we knew that these dence, Southern countries like ours remain
differences and these divisions would not neo-colonies of Northern economic
be barriers: they would add spice to our powers. We are no longer ruled by force or
discussions. Awareness of divisions among at the point of a gun (though sometimes,
us helped to define what we held in the North still uses guns to make the South
common: our identity as women from the toe the line, for example in the case of the
South. invasion of Panama, and currently the
present threat to invade Haiti). Instead
they use aid packages, foreign policy, and
Finding common threads diplomacy.
that bind Southern women The Northern neo-colonisers or neo-
Many common threads bind us as imperialists no longer deal with their
Southern women. First is our colonial past. Southern neo-colonies directly. They use
Almost all our countries have at one time such agencies as the World Bank, the
or another come under the direct rule of a International Monetary Fund, and even the
Northern nation, usually the most, or one United Nations, to do the imposing and the
of the most, economically powerful in the negotiating for them. Before, they hid their
world at that time. Portugal and Spain took imperialist intentions behind the phrase
over some parts of South-East Asia and 'bringing development to the South'.
Latin America. Britain had the Indian sub- Nowadays, their favourite phrase is
continent to itself. France annexed parts of 'helping the Southern countries attain
Africa. Later, the USA was able to wrest newly industrialised status'.
certain territories from Portugal, Spain and Many ordinary citizens in the South,
even France. Our resources made them rich especially those in the remotest corners of
and successful as industrialised countries. their countries, may never have heard of
Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs), Southern women bear the brunt of this
and General Agreement on Trade and poverty, displacement and armed conflict.
Tariffs (GATT), but in spite of this they daily Women are the safety nets of Southern
suffer the consequences of the policies that societies in times of need, inventing one
arise from these Northern-imposed way after another to enable their families to
international programmes. When women cope and survive. Women are also
have to spend more time taking care of commodities sold, exchanged and
members of the family who are sick, despoiled. For example, in Afghanistan, it is
because health and medical facilities are not the custom of both warring sides to abduct,
available, it is because governments spend rape, maim, or kill young women. For the
less on basic social services, so that they can fighting men, women are the spoils of war,
receive an IMF loan to enable them to the symbols of their power over the enemy.
continue to service their foreign debt. When Now even the independence of the
peasant women find their produce selling organisations built by and for the women
for less, while the price of agricultural from the South are at stake. In some
inputs spirals up, this is because the countries, women working on gender
government is removing subsidies for their issues are feeling the interference of
produce and inputs, in keeping with governments, and of Northern-based
GATT's aim to keep free trade alive. multilateral and bilateral funding agencies.
Unfortunately, this does not work in favour These agencies have the necessary money
of the produce of Southern countries. and resources, to monopolise the processes
Mass poverty is the legacy of the new of meeting and consultation which are part
colonial economic rule in the South, the of the preparations for the United Nations
product of what our Latin American sisters Conference on Women in Beijing 1995. As
refer to as the neo-liberal economic policies women's organisations differ from each
of the North. Only the multinationals, and other regarding the question of whether to
local partners from the elites of Southern participate in the processes with the
countries, benefit from this system. The multilateral agencies, rifts within the
majority, particularly the very poor, are women's movement are being created. This
penalised. A common occurrence in South- is an issue needing attention and study.
ern countries is the massive displacement One way to combat this is to meet, share
of indigenous people, farmer, fisherpeople, our experiences, and move towards a
and the urban poor from their homes and common vision.
livelihoods, so that the land can be given
over to industrial estates and the infra- South-South sisterhood
structure which accompanies them.
While neo-colonialism is forcing nations It was our first time to be together: we only
to open their trade borders to free trade, knew each other's names and countries of
differences in religious beliefs and tribal origin, from Oxfam communications. And
affiliations are causing the erection of we only had four days to get acquainted
borders within some nations, for example and try to arrive at a point where we could
Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. In many be united.
Southern countries, poverty and other In these four days, we tried to interpret
factors, such as the spread of fundament- our individual experiences as women from
alism, have bred inter-tribal and inter- the various regions of the South. Together,
religious wars where each side seeks to we tried to unravel the complexities of our
annihilate its opponents, for example in everyday existence, refusing to swallow
Rwanda. false conceptions of our situations as
Of borders, bridges and sisterhood 39
presented in media 'hype'. Media often entirely. After dispelling prejudice and
analyses facts from the standpoint of the stereotypes, other borders should be
rich media-owners and their clients, the recognised, respected, and understood; for
advertisers. These people are more often our strength as Southern women lies as
than not men, or women who perpetuate a much in our diversity of belief and
male-dominated system. The media is experience as in what we have in common.
guilty of peddling myths and creating false We came from different ethnic and
images. In the process, it divides people, linguistic groups, each with a distinct
particularly women. It is just another culture and language. The influence of
business whose motive is profit. religion is felt by us all; the major world
Also responsible for distortions about religions Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam,
ourselves and our lives are government and Christianity all have roots in the
propaganda and the multilateral agency countries of the South, and they are very
reports which are released daily. We tried much alive there today.
very hard to segregate fact from fiction, and Each region contains an example of this
in the process realised that, though modern cultural and ethnic diversity. Indian
communications linked our countries, the culture will always be different from
news they carry is not necessarily the truth. Indonesian culture. And although the
We corrected each other's misconceptions Philippines and Thailand are both South-
about our lives, and in the process we East Asian countries, they will remain
learnt to understand not only each other, distinct from each other: the former is a
but also ourselves. For example, for those of Christian nation, with Spanish, Malayan,
us from Asia and Latin America, Africa no Indian, and Chinese influences, while the
longer meant starving children waiting for latter is Buddhist, with a culture and
aid. The vibrant Africa, as exemplified by language closely linked to the Indo-
the anti-apartheid struggles, unfolded Chinese. In addition to the large groupings,
before our eyes. within most countries in the South is a
We also had to deal with 'man-made' wealth of smaller tribes and cultures.
borders which take root in people's Due to these differences, the manifest-
attitudes. These are imaginary borders ations and expressions of patriarchy across
which are often constructed around Southern countries are also different. For
tangible differences, like skin colour, example, the customs of punishing brides,
religion, place of origin or socio-economic sometimes through burning, for dowry
status. These create prejudices and result in debts, and devadasi (the practice of giving
harmful stereotypes. These are the borders girls to be temple prostitutes), are found
we tried to break to ensure real primarily in South Asia. Female genital
communication and understanding. mutilation is practised in areas of North
and Central Africa and some parts of Asia.
As Southern women, we validated the
Difference can be positive reality of our struggles. For we are not only
We realised through our discussions that fighting for our rights as women but for
the path to sisterhood necessitates the our rights as a people, as citizens because
building of bridges across the borders what we seek is complete freedom from all
which divide our minds from each other as yokes of oppression, be it imperialism or
physical borders divide the world into gender. Our fight is not only for ourselves
countries. These mental divisions can but also for our men and children. Thus,
potentially be crossed, but it is not we see our struggle as holistic, covering all
desirable to set out to destroy all of them aspects of our lives.
40 Focus on Gender
Participants at the Women's Linking Project Conference. Gertrudes Ranjo-Libang sees linking as a
bridge between women which builds on their different insights and analyses to create a sense of unity.
Of borders, bridges and sisterhood 41
We women of the South, chosen by where girls and boys have equal access
regional meetings of the Women to Women to education and social services;
Linking Project in Africa, Latin America, where we can participate in decision-
South-East Asia, South Asia, and the making processes at all levels from
Middle East to participate in the Global family and community to government;
Meeting of Women Linking for Change, where our rights are guaranteed and
held in Bangkok from 20-23 February 1994 protected by law;
are concerned that there is an increasing where gender-based violence, and all
concentration of power in the North, other forms of violence, are eliminated;
resulting in the feminisation of poverty all where we have autonomy in decision-
over the globe. With the sharp rise of making, and control over our own
fundamentalism and domestic and bodies;
communal violence, there is devaluation of where we have the right to own
human life, respect, and dignity. These property, and are not deprived of our
processes are making women more rights, regardless of our marital status;
powerless and our struggles for survival where we will be able to live without
are becoming more difficult. fear.
Though the challenges are great and the
situation is complex, we have hope that we Demands:
can change conditions and build a better Considering all these, we demand the
tomorrow. We affirm the experiences and political will to support justice in gender
actions by the women's movement all over relations and concrete plans of action to
the world in the last two decades, and we promote this. This requires change at all
assert that the empowerment process for levels.
women has begun. We are hopeful that this
empowerment process will also give In the struggle against poverty we
strength and support to the other demand:
movements of oppressed people. This is change in the economic, political and
expressed in the increasing participation of socio-cultural position of women, to
women in politics and education, and in redress poverty;
every sphere of life. a concerted effort to change the overall
structure of patriarchal state
This is our vision: we want a just world domination; this should be done
that is free of oppression and through analysis of state power
exploitation, peaceful, safe, prosperous, structures, using identified pressure
respectful of all forms of life, and all points to bring change;
human beings; research on, and analysis of, neo-
where we women have choices, where liberalism, state, IMF, and World Bank
there is equal opportunity for women programmes and policies, the various
and men and equal sharing of forms they take, and their effects on
workloads between us; women at all levels;
where we have access to, and control of, action to influence opinion towards
resources; gender-sensitivity, by use of the media,
lobbying at various levels, mass
42 Focus on Gender
use of local resources for training and funding agencies, be given support for
curriculum development; solidarity work, campaigns, information
lobbying of governments by NGOs and exchange, research, and documentation.
funding agencies to ensure that gender
issues are integrated into their policies; To Beijing and beyond
training for women in project design, We call for attention to be drawn to the
and fund-raising, particularly for new Fourth International Conference on
organisations; Women to be held in Beijing in 1995, and to
that they do not restrict NGOs to a other major international conferences, such
single funding source, to enable greater as the Conference on Population and
freedom in prioritisation and Development, and the Social Summit. We
implementation of projects; express our concern at a possible 'takeover'
that they promote women with a gender by the donors of the Beijing process.
perspective to positions of responsibility We recommend to women's
and authority;
organisations of the South:
that partners be encouraged to see
that the women of the South participate
funding agencies as a channel for actively in the preparations for Beijing
lobbying. through workshops, and seminars; and
We demand: attend the conference en masse;
the involvement of partner NGOs in that the women's organisations lobby
project and programme design, representatives who will be going to
implementation and evaluation, by Beijing to ensure that women's visions
means of participatory processes; and strategies are on the agenda;
response to the needs expressed by that mechanisms be established to
women themselves, even if these do not ensure implementation, monitoring and
fit the agency agenda; evaluation of the conference recommen-
support for innovative projects which dations;
will bring significant change for women; that there is close collaboration with the
the use of the local/regional dialects in media to publicise the conference
project proposals; preparations, proceedings, and follow-
the translation of agency policies and up;
key documents into local/regional that national, regional and global
languages; platforms be established to enable the
the inclusion of translation costs in exchange of priorities and concerns;
budgets; that existing channels be strengthened.
the synchronisation of the funding We see Oxfam's role in the Beijing process
agency project evaluation/processing as complementing that of Southern partners
cycle with the project monitoring/ and women's organisations at national,
evaluation cycle of the country; regional and international level.
consistency in terms of minimum
We recommend to Oxfam:
standards for funding criteria /guidelines
that Oxfam send a mixed delegation of
the agency should be lobbied if these
Oxfam staff and partners to the Beijing
are violated in other Southern countries;
conference, and, in addition, involve
the use of agencies as a channel for partners in the preparatory process;
lobbying; that Oxfam support lobbying and
that 'gender and development' units, informational activities for the
like Oxfam's Gender Team, and other conference;
44 Focus on Gender
that Oxfam provide resources for continue the process of exchange with
networking at global, regional, and Southern partners, women's organisations,
national levels for preparation and and other funding agencies. We invite
follow-up to Beijing. Oxfam to translate the conference
recommendations into policies and action.
We recommend to other funding As women involved in the Southern
agencies: women's movements, who have been
that priority be given to promoting engaged in this linking process, we affirm
women's strategic needs; our personal commitment to continue to
that funding should not be used as a struggle for these issues, within our own
means of control, influence or division; networks, and as Oxfam partners at both
support for women's networks, to allow national and regional levels, and to work
them to: for further North-South co-operation
prepare for Beijing towards a just world for women.
enable the participation of women and
particularly young and elderly women, Signed by:
rural women, tribal and scheduled caste Representatives of South Asia and the
women, disabled women, and other Middle East Regional Meeting:
women belonging to marginalised Neelam Gorhe, Stree Aadhar Kendra,
groups; India
share information about the strategies to Sima Samar, Shuhuda, Pakistan
be adopted in Beijing
collaborate with Southern women's Representatives of Latin America
movements to ensure that issues of Regional Meeting:
concern to them are on the agenda. Morena Herrera, Mujeres por la
These include the position of the girl Dignidad y la Vida Urbanizacion
child, the impact of fundamentalism and Venezuela
communal violence on women, the Giulia Tamayo, Flora Tristan, Peru
position of women who are immigrants, Nalu Faria Silva, SOF Sempreviva
refugees or otherwise displaced, disaster Organozacao Feminista, Brasil
management, and women's political
Representatives of South-East Asia
participation;
Regional Meeting:
support for follow up and implemen-
Nursyahbani Katjasungkana, Solidaritas
tation after Beijing, including research
Perempuan, Women's Solidarity for
and documentation for a News Feature
Human Rights, Indonesia
Service, and the production of alter- Luz Ilagan, Women Studies and
native documents analysing the Resource Center, Philippines
implementation by governments of
resolutions from earlier conferences, Representatives of African Regional
such as the Forward Looking Strategies. Meeting:
Rosalinda Namises, National Education
Conclusion
Legal Assistance Centre, Namibia
We women from Asia, Africa, and Latin
Fatoumata Sow, APAC, Senegal
America express our appreciation of the
Josine Kagoyire, Communication
Global Meeting of Women Linking for
Change, and hope that the Bangkok Officer, Asbl Duterimbere, Rwanda
Conference will be followed by other Joyce Umbina, FEMNET, Kenya
exchanges and consultations on gender
and development. We call on Oxfam to
45
Towards international
solidarity
British initiatives through Brazilian eyes
Vanete Almeida
Vanete Almeida, from Brazil, is one of eight Southern women activists who visited Britain in 1992
to meet with women from a variety of kindred organisations in the UK and Ireland, to share their
experiences of work, discuss commonalities and differences in their vision, and find ways of co-
operating and supporting each other. The following is Vanete's report of her visit to Southampton,
a city on England's south coast.
O
ur first week of work in the area each person has. Development is not about
was excellent. The visit was very giving charity, but should deal with the
well organised and planned. The structural causes of injustice, and
response from the public and the destructive attitudes. It should be about
participants was excellent. There was a creating an equal basis for solidarity
good balance in the types of people and among human beings who live on the same
groups we were meeting, who represented planet.
a variety of experiences. These included In our visit, there were meetings wi'th
Oxfam supporters, trade union women, two particular groups of women which we
students, middle-class women, peace feel we should emphasise: the Women of
activists, and environmental groups. Greenham Common, and members of the
In relation to the objectives of the Transport and General Workers' Union
project, I felt that a platform had indeed (TGWU) in Southampton.
been created for me to talk as a Southern
woman, allowing me to speak about my The Women of Greenham
country, about the participation of women Common
in the unions, and about the methodology
we use in the women's movement. We In our visit to Greenham Common, we
were able to establish initial contact which were able to understand the importance of
may lead to future mutual initiatives. this struggle, which is against the
However, as it was a first contact, there installation of nuclear weapons on British
was not enough time to establish a deep soil, for women and for the world. We first
link. The themes I wanted to explore dropped in to the community of women
during my visit were women and work, who camp at the Yellow Gate, but later
women and the environment, and women, heard that there was a conflict between the
development and international assistance. women at this gate and the women at
We were able to discuss these themes with Green Gate and Blue Gate. We therefore
dignity, emphasising the responsibility decided that we would also visit Blue Gate,
in order to restore balance and so as not to unions: the proposals for women's partici-
be perceived as partisan about a conflict we pation are very different here from Brazil.
knew nothing about. At Blue Gate, the The women we met spoke of winning
women there spoke to us of this conflict. leadership positions, whereas we in Brazil
These kinds of divisions weaken the are trying to organise women at the
movement. grassroots, using a methodology which
However, the activity at Greenham is a attempts to change attitudes in order to
positive example of the strength of women achieve social and political transformation.
in ongoing struggles here and elsewhere, The second difference is that in Britain,
and their capacity to struggle and to women suffer hidden and sophisticated
organise. It is also important to create 'machismo'. In Brazil, it is overt and
spaces for women. According to the conscious.
women there, Greenham is such a space, The state and employers in the UK have
like the space we are creating through the been using various strategies to co-opt and
women's movement in the Rural Workers' confuse trade unions in Britain. These
Union in Brazil. include repression, and the co-opting of
We exchanged addresses and are going union leaders, who identify more with the
to try to support each other in our middle-class than with workers, and feel
struggles. When we in Brazil are going threatened by legislation that allows them
through difficulties or confrontations, we to be prosecuted at times of strikes. The
will let the women at Greenham know, and participation of women in trade unions can
they will support us with letters and make an important contribution and point
telegrams sent to influential people whom to new and more appropriate directions.
we will identify. The crisis in which trade unions find
themselves at the moment in Britain can
The women of the TGWU have negative consequences for workers'
in Southampton movements elsewhere. Trade unionism in
Britain is of historical importance to the
We had two days of meeting with two world, and is often used as a bench mark.
women from the union, one of whom was Its weakening can be seen as reflection of
recently elected to the National Executive. what may happen in other countries. This
As a result of these meetings, and could slow down workers' struggles for
subsequent meetings with other groups, their rights and the construction of a more
we would like to make the following just world. Again, women have a special
observations: contribution to make in terms of bringing
The repressive force of the state in new insights and new ways forward, if
Britain has considerably limited and they are prepared to define new and
weakened the capacity of trade unions to correct directions and proposals. The union
act. Two examples of this are the action of women were particularly interested in the
the government against the miners during way the women's movement in the
the 1984-5 strike, and anti-union legislation Brazilian Rural Workers' Union is
introduced in the last decade. organised.
We observed that workers are going Repression from the state and the
through a period of low morale, with a employers exists in Britain. Subtle and
feeling that it is not worthwhile fighting. In sophisticated means are used to control the
this context, we perceived the great unions. They do not kill union leaders as
difficulties experienced by British women happens in Brazil, but they kill the
in relation to their participation in the struggle, the courage, and the dreams of
Towards international solidarity 47
liberation for workers. The police are that people felt uncomfortable, and wanted
repressive in a sophisticated way, under to discover ways of helping the Third
the guise of self-protection, and it is World; almost as if people here had
difficult for workers to get unbiased already found the solution to their own
coverage in the press, much of which is problems. We have been left with the
unsympathetic to their cause. impression that the majority of people here
We discussed ways of sharing are not conscious of the situation of
experience, information, and our different workers in this country, and are more
methodologies, and how to support each worried about workers in other countries.
other,through showing solidarity by We also observed that English people
writing letters and sending faxes at critical are very conditioned and legalistic. This
times. We also discussed how to get over has implications in terms of the concepts of
the problems of language, culture, and solidarity and development assistance.
distance. How can people be in solidarity with other
struggles when they know so little about
the difficulties faced by workers in their
Conclusion own countries?
I have found that views of development
and current events in the South and North Vanete Almeida works on rural development
are very different. In reality, there is a need issues and with the trade union movement in
for a certain awakening in the North. Brazil.
Perhaps it is easier for people to talk of
'struggles' elsewhere, rather than being
aware of problems and struggles within
their own society. This makes it difficult for
Southern and Northern women to define
future strategies for mutual action. So the
process of linking for the future has been
started, but it will need more, and deeper,
contact with other groups to create links
between grassroots organisations in South
and North.
I, and the other seven women from
Southern countries who took part in the
visit, felt there was a big difference
between the attitudes of people we met
who were actively participating in actions
and struggles, such as the women at
Greenham, and those who were not
involved in such action. It seems to be of
paramount importance to create links and
network with grassroots groups in the
'working class'. Although I was able to get
some idea of rural life in Britain, I did not
get a chance to meet women in their work On her trip to the UK as part of Oxfam's
places. Women's Linking Project, Vanete Almeida visited
the grave of James Hammett, a pioneer of trades
In our various meetings with different unionism.
groups in Southampton, we often sensed
48
International lobbying
for change
a Northern view of South-North linking
Mary van Lieshout
P
erhaps more than any other previous translated into 21 languages, sponsored by
conference, the UN World Confer- over 900 women's organisations world-
ence on Human Rights in Vienna is wide, and it carried almost 500,000 signa-
remembered for the strength of the tures to the conference. The key to this
women's voice; an articulate, unrelenting mass campaign was identifying centres
voice, demanding to be heard and and activists in each country who could
accommodated. Crucial to the success of disseminate the petition and conduct
the campaign of the women's caucus in education and awareness campaigns
Vienna was the single-mindedness of around the issue.
women activists across the globe, who co- In India, a women's group gathered
operated to demand with one voice that several hundred signatures for the petition
violence done to women in their intimate during a public demonstration staged to
relationships, by their partners, fathers, protest about the failure of the authorities
husbands, boyfriends, relatives, is a to prosecute a physician who had burnt his
violation of human rights, and not a wife to death. In Ireland, the petition came
'family affair'. One after another, Govern- alive when the public learnt of a young
ment Ministers and delegates to the man who was given a suspended sentence
Conference stressed the importance of after he was convicted of raping his 18-
women's human rights, and the 'Vienna year-old girlfriend. The young woman
Declaration', the final conference docu- broke with conventional practice, and
ment, reflected this commitment. revealed her identity on television and in
Preparation for Vienna began two years national newspapers, speaking about her
earlier when, in November 1991, activists feelings regarding the sentencing and what
on gender violence launched a worldwide the rape had done to her. Public empathy
petition, working through national and with the young woman, and outrage with
local refuges for victims of gender violence. the 'system', was successfully harnessed by
The petition called for the United Nations campaigners, who gathered thousands of
to recognise women's human rights at the signatures for the worldwide petition. In
World Conference. It was ultimately Southern Africa, Women in Law and
conference focused almost exclusively on best way to meet our objectives, it is the
gender violence a reflection of the only way to ensure our message is
success of that campaign! However, after genuine/The International Women's
meeting with activists from around the Health Coalition, based in New York,
world including, India, Nicaragua, organised activities and disseminated
Brazil, and the Philippines our paper information to health activists throughout
took a much broader view of human rights, the world with this aim in mind. The Rio
and included powerful condemnations of meeting, hosted by the Coalition, resulted
structural adjustment programmes, in a 16-point declaration which reflected
trafficking of women, the abuse of the tremendous amount of work required
indigenous peoples, and a number of other before women enjoy optimum sexual and
global issues. What's more, it was reproductive health.
relatively easy to earn government support
on these issues when we provided relevant
and credible documentation to support our
Lobbying in a South-North
demands.'
partnership
With regard to the long history of exclusion
and marginalisation of Southern women in
Finding a common development and in the international
platform feminist movement, how can we ensure
In some cases, there is no universal that in campaigning and lobbying for
straightforward message that bonds change, the relationship between Southern
activists. This was the situation faced by and Northern NGOS respects both parties
the women wishing to lobby on the issue of and is a true partnership for change?
reproductive rights, at the International Petronella Maramba, consultant to
Conference on Population and WILDAF, based in Harare, Zimbabwe,
Development in Cairo in September 1994. believes that the preparation work for the
Chris Mulvery, a long-standing activist in Vienna Conference, and in particular the
Ireland, states that 'finding a common regional networks that were set up, did
denominator on the issue of population much to alleviate tensions between
policies was difficult; many participants at Northern and Southern NGOs: 'The
a recent meeting in Rio were arguing for tension comes from the fact that we as
women-centred population programmes, Southern NGOs are not on equal footing
and had specific proposals for such. Others with Northern NGOs; one is a donor, the
opposed population polices in their other a recipient. Northern NGOs are not
entirety as being inherently coercive. There as free from their donors as they would
was unanimous opposition to many issues like to think they are, and that of course
but the discussions were sometimes influences their decisions when we
heated.' confront them with some of our views.'
Respecting diversity on issues of Maramba believes Northern NGOs do
reproductive rights is essential, yet not so much determine the issues to be
feminists, gender and development resolved as the strategies to be used. 'For
practitioners, and academics needed to example, women from the rural areas have
explore areas of commonality in order to addressed many of their problems through
achieve a strong voice at Cairo. As Christianity; Northern NGOs, with their
Mulvery says, 'we all want a conference own perspectives on Christianity, often
document which is strong and reflects our don't acknowledge that some Southern
diversity; lobbying together is not only the women are using it as part of a strategy for
International lobbying for change 51
Facilitating women's
participation in UN Conferences
the experience of WEDO
WEDO staff writers
T
he Women's Environment and participating in UN conference preparatory
Development Organisation (WEDO) committee and regional meetings with a
was initiated by an international daily meeting place at which they can
policy action committee convened by the exchange information, jointly analyse and
Women USA Fund, Inc. in 1989, to prepare discuss the official documents, and define
for the June 1992 UN Conference on areas of agreement and disagreement on
Environment and Development (UNCED). issues, strategies, and tactics. The overall
WEDO was formed as a result of the goal of the Caucus is to strengthen and
organisation's growing focus on women's broaden women's advocacy roles in
relationship to the worsening international helping to ensure that the official UN
environment and poverty crisis. This focus conference documents positively reflect the
was a natural evolution from our concern scope and diversity of the needs,
with increasing the participation and perspectives, and recommendations of
visibility of women in policy-making on women from every region of the world.
global security issues. It was clear that, Our work is informed by a feminist
with the winding down of the cold war, analysis, as reflected in the Women's
global security had to be redefined in terms Action Agenda 21, produced at the Miami
of environmental protection, reallocation of World Women's Congress for a Healthy
resources, economic justice, human rights Planet in 1991.
and an equal say for women in 'Fate of the The Caucus meetings, which usually last
Earth' decisions. about an hour each morning, are focused
One of the important aspects of WEDO's directly on the Preparatory Committee's
work is organising women's caucuses. deliberations on proposed language for its
WEDO started to organise caucuses during official documents. This leaves ample time
the preparatory process for UNCED. The for participants to talk with delegates, to
Women's Caucus which WEDO organised pursue their special interests, organise, and
then, and the advocacy methodology it attend workshops, forums and other
developed during the 1991-1992 UNCED activities.
process, was the key to getting literally The Caucus is a democratic political
hundreds of women's recommendations vehicle for consensus-building and open
incorporated into the official UNCED discussion, recognising different view-
Agenda 21, which was approved at the Rio points, emphases, and independent actions
Earth Summit. where they exist. It encourages the broad-est
The Women's Caucus provides NGOs possible participation by grassroots women,
T
he creation of an appropriate and The Gender Team selected a team of
innovative conference methodology women facilitators from the South to
can be as complex as determining the design and implement the methodology of
needs and interests of women, and how the conference, and the objectives
development initiatives should seek to meet expressed in the Global Declaration
them! In organising the 'Women Linking for (printed in full elsewhere in this issue)
Change' Conference, held in Thailand from were the same prioritised by this team.
February 26 to March 2, 1994, Oxfam's Sheelu Francis, Deborah Kasente, Wanjiru
Gender Team aimed to 'contribute to Kihoro, Maitrayee Mukhopadhayay,
making gender-fair policies and pro- Gertrude Ranjo-Libang and myself knew
grammes, that are sensitive to Southern when we met to design the methodology
women's collective perspectives, central to that if Southern women's struggle is to
Oxfam's work and understanding'. integrate a gender perspective into
This was to be done by bringing development, the conference methodology
together different constituencies (Southern should be based on the lessons which a
women's organisations, Oxfam field staff gender perspective teaches us.
and heads of offices, and Northern funding We agreed that the conference must
organisations) in a forum for learning create a process by which people from
through an examination of Oxfam's work, different constituencies could meet, and
with reference to the needs and expect- leave behind their positions of power in the
ations of Southern women. This learning process. This meant the conference must be
was to be converted into a plan of action. participatory, focusing on the issues in
We women from the South have made it gender and development, rather than
clear to the world that, as far as we are concentrating on the hierarchies existing
concerned, development cannot happen between those who attended.
without a gender perspective, if there is to The conference should draw on different
be development at all. Following this, the experiences through developing 'cycles' in
rhetoric used by development agencies of which participants were asked to exchange
'empowerment' has to do with power for their views and arrive at an analysis. These
women, and power to the peoples of the analyses should fuse, through a process of
South. We need this power to enable us to negotiation, into agreements based on
face the devastation that 'development' reviewing our practice in gender and
models from the North have created development, our options regarding future
throughout the world. development initiatives, and the felt needs
and interests of women, especially women the conference has been divided into three
from the South. moments. We use this terminology for a
How does this approach differ from a number of reasons. By referring to
more conventional methodology? Our 'moments', rather than stages, we are able
experience of many conferences had taught to convey a sense of opening and closing of
us that while we may gain information cycles, one at a time, each cycle stemming
from experts, either women or men, from the previous one. We also wanted to
normally this is given through the medium convey the participatory nature of the
of formal talks to an audience who may process necessary for creating a situation
then, at most, be invited to ask questions. wherein common understanding and
The exchange of participants' experience, strategies can be formulated.'
and negotiating between constituencies, The first 'moment', The Global Context
happen outside the formal framework of Through a Gendered Lens', encouraged
the conference. Conference topics, issues, participants to examine where different
and debates are seldom linked to one stakeholders attending the conference were,
another through methodological processes in relation to current gender and
that help to achieve an integratedf vision. development issues. The five issues focused
This fragmentation has not come from on were violence against women, health and
women; on the contrary, women's gender reproductive rights, socio-political rights
perspective has made the links and and women's participation, women's
connections between power, democracy, economic rights, and environment and
development, and rights. Integrating the sustainable development. The objective of
gender perspective into development this 'moment' was to help participants relate
requires a process whereby people are their personal experiences of these issues to
faced with looking at everything through a the regional and global context.
'gender lens', which allows them to make Individual statements were drafted by
the connections between all issues affected each participant. Regional working groups
by gender inequity. followed, in which each participant shared
In our view it is women who lose the her or his personal experience, and
most in these conference structures, attempted to contextualise it in a regional
because our expertise, both in sharing and global setting.
experience and in negotiating, is not met in Following this was a panel discussion:
these parliamentary-style assemblies, but Alda Facio of Costa Rica and Jane
in cross-fertilisation in both large and small Esuantsiwa Goldsmith of the UK delivered
groups. In recent years, women in testimonies relating their own experiences
particular have been involved in the wide- to the global context. Key issues included
scale development and use of 'workshop' cultural and racial identity, finding a voice
methodologies. These create fora where within the women's movement, violence
people come together to share particular against women, and the need to combat
experiences and produce 'negotiated' this through questioning all aspects of
conclusions. Such methodologies do not male-dominated society, including the law.
appear to have been taken into account Then, groups reported the substance of
when most conferences are organised. their discussions; this triggered a debate
which led to a broader and deeper
understanding of sexual discrimination
Structure of the conference and the subordination of women in daily
In the words of our introduction to the life, and the way this is expressed in
conference programme, 'the programme of development structures.
56 Focus on Gender
T
he experience of Chinese women this In an effort to bring women in China
century attracted the early attention and Europe closer together, while
of the women's movement world- simultaneously addressing some of the
wide. The Communist Revolution of 1949 training needs for the Fourth World
transformed the status of women in China, Conference, the Great Britain-China Centre
supporting those who argued that radical organised a ten-day summer school in July
social change and socialism could do the 1994 in Beijing, for young Chinese women.
same for women in the West. Subsequent The training objectives for the summer
developments have undermined China's school were to improve their spoken
early image of a progressive feminist state: English, develop communication skills,
these include China's one-child policy, and promote participatory learning in
the disillusionment with state socialism, workshops, and provide an introduction to
which came to a head with the dramatic and the position of women, their organisations
tragic events of 1989 when the democracy and activities, in Europe and the South.
movement was forcibly put down. The summer school was also intended to
In the post-Cold War world, human give our seven European facilitators an
rights are high on the agenda for agencies opportunity to learn at first hand about the
and countries who conduct relations with activities of women's organisations in
China, and the abuse of Chinese women's China, both within the mainstream All
reproductive rights is now a major issue. China Women's Federation (ACWF) and in
Lack of international respect for China the burgeoning women's studies centres,
though this is arguably modified by world hotlines, and social-service-oriented groups
envy of the pace of its economic growth which are currently being established
across the country.
has helped to leave Chinese women largely
outside the international women's In order to facilitate contacts between
movement, and has undermined prepar- the official women's federation and the
ations for the 1995 Fourth World Con- emerging non-governmental sector, it was
ference on Women. However, the North agreed that half of the participants should
lacks information about the complexity of be nominated by the ACWF, to include
the situation of women in China, and there representatives of the headquarters and
is a danger of neglecting many of the provincial branches, as well as the quasi-
positive achievements in our haste to NGOs who have been given the
condemn abuses of women's rights by the responsibility of running workshops at
Chinese state. next year's NGO Forum. The other half
from the summer school believing in the incentives, and the availability of pensions.
possibility of change and seeing a role for They accept that this does not apply in
themselves in defending women's rural areas, and recognise that the large
interests, and feeling that the summer number of migrant women seeking
school helped them to identify issues for opportunities in the cities fall outside the
further action. Many also came to see the control of the family-planning authorities.
benefit to their causes of mastering the It is also widely recognised that, in a
techniques of the media, and all felt that country with strong son preference, the
the summer school boosted their one-child policy is contributing to a
confidence in speaking in public. problem of 'missing girls' in the country-
The impact of economic reform on side, as a result of selective abortion due to
women in China has been varied, but one the ready availability of ultrasound, failure
issue has dominated the agenda: discrim- to register the birth, infant mortality
ination against women in employment. through neglect, or, more rarely, through
Companies have been made responsible infanticide. Although a de facto two-child
for their own profit and loss, but a compre- policy, if a first child is a girl, has emerged
hensive maternity benefits system has still in many provinces, the government
to be established. Although the Women's remains publicly committed to the one-
Federation recognises the problem in its child policy. Chinese academics working in
report on the implementation of the the field of population studies, and
Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies, the themselves critical of the use of coercion in
issue has been taken up with much more family planning, call for more international
vigour by the National Committee for involvement in China.
Chinese Women Workers of the All China
Federation of Trade Unions. Participants at
the summer school echoed other women's Networking
organisations in calling for the establish- Although personalised networks of guanxi
ment of a national system of maternity (contacts) are essential to success in
insurance, to be funded by all employers Chinese society, there is little experience of
regardless of the number of their women the less personal and more professional
workers. networking at both the national and the
The issue of domestic violence has only international level. Most of the service-
recently been discussed publicly in China, oriented women's groups that have
partly thanks to the work of organisations recently emerged in China are unfamiliar
such as the Beijing Women's Hot Line and with the experience of similar groups in the
the Women's Legal Centre at Wuhan West and in the South, and are often
University, which has revealed the extent equally cut off from each other. The Open
of violence in the home through surveys Door policy has encouraged international
and case work. contacts, but lack of funds and the
On the other hand, reproductive health difficulty of international travel have
issues are still highly sensitive, and the continued to isolate the non-governmental
workshop on health approached the issue sector from the international arena.
obliquely through the documented Women's groups in China are hoping that
experiences of women in India. Most urban next year's Forum will provide the
women in China have accepted the opportunity for establishing a thriving
arguments for a one-child policy, no doubt domestic and international network, and
in part because of cramped living the summer school helped to lay the
conditions, the prospect of economic groundwork for future exchanges.
Breaking down the barriers 61
Participants from Hong Kong and the Mainland deep in discussion over gender aware development
policies
D
iscussion of North-South develop- reversed. Such underlying and opposed
ment co-operation often centres on attitudes are a barrier to honest North-
improving links, understanding, South dialogue. Beneath the technical and
and commitment between the co-operants. politically neutral discourse on improving
For example, it is said that the North productivity, improved technology, and
should not impose its Northern values, but investment in human resources, there lurks
should understand the Southern perspec- the suspicion of a hidden agenda, with
tive; development links must be purged of each side pursuing different and quite
all power imbalance, and we must work opposed national interests.
towards a truly bilateral and equal But the area of gender and development
dialogue, with respect and understanding is a curious exception to this general
on both sides. pattern. It is in the area of women's
The problem is characterised here as a oppression that a strange alliance develops
lack of common values and objectives, the between the Northern development
lack of trust, and the lack of honest agency, and the Southern government. It is
dialogue between North and South. Very in this area that the surface technical
often the Northern attitude is that discourse serves to conceal common
development aid is provided as a favour, interests, rather than opposed interests.
to improve the lot of 'backward' peoples, Both sides have a common interest in the
and to bring them into the twentieth continued subordination and economic
century. Conversely, the alternative exploitation of women. This, of course, is
perspective from the South is that not a common interest to be made explicit.
development aid is a modern form of The nearest the alliance can come to an
colonialism, which perpetuates both admission and defence of lack of action on
North-South inequality and structural women's advancement is to put forward
inequality within the South, and props up the joint claim that 1x>th sides must respect
corrupt regimes. custom and tradition'.1
From the first perspective, the attitude Gender issues are therefore in a
of the donor is insulting to the recipient. paradoxical position as far as North-South
From the second perspective, the insult is alliance is concerned. In most areas of
This group of women in Zimbabwe are still able to congregate by their new water pump. Other women
find that the arrival of new technology heralds the loss of such a valuable opportunity for informal
networking.
development the problem is lack of North- ascribes different social roles according to
South alliance. But gender inequality is the sex. A gender issue is automatically a
subject of a strong North-South patriarchal political issue, since it involves the unequal
alliance. Here, the problem is to break this distribution of resources between the two
existing bond, and to replace it with a genders, arising out of male domination of
North-South sisterhood alliance to pursue the political system which allows men to
objectives of gender equality. allocate to women the heavier burden of
This paper argues that this North-South labour and the more menial tasks, but to
patriarchal bond is essentially a men more leisure and the larger share of
government-to-government alliance, and rewards and benefits.
there is a special place for NGOs in Such a social system of male control for
working to break this bond by mobilising male advantage is called patriarchy. It
the North-South sisterhood to recognise its exists to some extent in all countries of the
existence and to take action to expose it, world, but tends to be more compre-
undermine it, and destroy it. hensive, more inegalitarian, and more
brutal in the South. As is discussed later,
Gender issues: technocratic the political system of patriarchy depends
and political perspectives to a large extent on belief in patriarchal
ideology for its legitimation and contin-
First, we need to understand the political uance, and also on male violence to keep
dimensions inherent in gender issues. women in their place.
Gender issues arise from the sense of the But wait! Are we allowed to say such
injustice in 'gender gaps', where society things? Or, more precisely, can we conduct
64 Focus on Gender
such analysis within the conventions and resources. There is a special focus on
vocabulary of normal North-South women's heavier burden of labour, and
development discourse? We have clearly therefore a special interest in the improved
stepped outside the normal technical and skills and technology with which women's
non-political vocabulary of a project burden of labour can be lessened, and their
proposal! The language of a Northern productivity increased.
government development agency is non- Let us ground our discussion by looking
political, and even more definitely non- at an actual concrete example of a gender
ideological. Development is seen as a purely problem common in the South: lack of
technical matter of more effective and adequate water supply for a village. This,
efficient utilisation of the factors of of course, is immediately a gender
production. There is no question of using problem, because it is traditionally the job
words like 'discrimination', 'oppression', or of women to draw and carry water. To
'ideology'. In fact 'politics' and 'ideology' make the position more specific, we may
are supposed to be treated as particularly consider the case of an African village,
dirty words, as the emotive and irrational where women have to carry water from the
aspects of social life which interfere with the nearest stream, which lies three kilometres
rational and scientific utilisation of from the village.
resources. From the 'access to resources' point of
view, the overall analysis of the problem,
Technocratic interventions and action to solve it, are fairly clear. The
and 'gender-neutrality' problem is twofold: firstly women's lack of
access to water; secondly, and perhaps
In the area of gender and development, more important, the huge burden of labour
this technical and non-political vocabulary in fetching water, which is an unpro-
usually takes the form of an 'access to ductive use of time, and takes time away
resources' approach to the problems of from other potentially productive activi-
gender and development. From this ties. The solution to this problem is to
technical perspective, the gender problem provide the appropriate technology; in this
in development is that women do not have case this would probably be a borehole
sufficient access to resources: land, labour, supply of water in the village. At the
credit, capital, technology, education, etc. technical level, the problem is now solved:
The analytical interest is on the division of the women now have more time (and
the economy between different gender water) for growing vegetables, for better
roles, and the problem is conceived in nutrition, and cash income from vegetable
terms of female gender roles being linked sales.
to restricted access to resources. All this overlooks the political
This technical perspective toward dimensions of the problem. Let us go back
gender issues is primarily concerned with to the same village after the borehole has
explaining the lack of productivity of been put in, and see what has actually
women in the South, especially in happened.
agriculture. Taking as a starting point the The women have not gained more time
fact that women are a crucial part of the for their vegetable growing, because the
labour force, and the majority of men have required the women to spend
agricultural workers, the low levels of their extra time in planting and weeding
productivity in both surplus and the men's maize field, which is now twice
subsistence production are explained in as big as it was last season. Women's
terms of women's restricted access to additional assistance with maize
Breaking the patriarchal alliance 65
production has given the men more leisure have lost the opportunity for mobilising,
time, and a bigger cash income from the since they have lost their meeting place at
crop. It has not benefited the women, the stream. This was an ancient village
because the men control the income from tradition which has been destroyed: the
the cash crop, and they use this money for women had always had this opportunity of
their own pleasures, especially going into meeting together to discuss women's
town to drink beer. issues and village politics, and especially to
The women's burden of labour has not decide how to deal with the menfolk.
decreased, since water carrying has been Rather than serving to empower the
replaced by the work of weeding. What has women of the village, the borehole has in
decreased is the women's independence. fact contributed to their increased
Previously they were able to meet at the disempowerment. They have lost control
stream, steal a bit of leisure time for a chat, over the remaining 'women's time' which
and discuss how to deal with dominant they used to have. They have also lost
husbands. Now they have to go to the control over the supply and distribution of
borehole pump in the middle of the village water, which is now controlled by the men.
where, if they linger for a chat, the Following a long-term historical pattern
headman chases them back to their work. in the South, so-called development and
The borehole, being modern technology, is modern technology has served to
of course controlled by the men. disempower women, and strengthen
Although this project has not worked patriarchy. The so-called non-political
out exactly as intended, from the 'access to technical approach has in fact had political
resources' point of view it can still be effects, by upsetting a balance in gender
counted as a success. It has increased politics. The desire 'not to interfere with
productivity (a larger cash crop of maize), custom and tradition' has in fact upset the
and has diverted women's unproductive long-standing custom and tradition of
labour of water carrying into the more women being in control of the water
productive contribution of an increased supply, and of having a place to meet and
maize crop. From the 'access to resources' organise collectively as the women of the
point of view, this is what gender and village.
development should focus upon: improv-
ing women's access to resources in order to
improve their productivity. Gender issues are political
But from the point of view of gender We should not ask ourselves what is
equality, the women of the village are incorrect about the technical perspective,
worse off. At the level of gender inequality but rather what is missing from it; we
in welfare their position is relatively worse, should not seek to contradict the
since the cash income of the men has explanations it provides, but rather look for
increased, but this will not be to the benefit the gender problems which it cannot
of the women and their children. As far as explain. The limitation of the technical
gender inequality in access to resources is perspective is that it interprets develop-
concerned, women's position has also mental change as taking place within the
worsened. This is especially so in the existing social and political system, and not as
crucial area of having access to their own presenting a challenge to it. In other words,
time. Previously they had some time which if we confine our discussion of gender
was under their control, when they could issues to a non-political vocabulary and
walk to the stream to fetch water. perspective, then we have implicitly
Perhaps the worst part is that women assumed that gender and development are
66 Focus on Gender
bilateral agencies, which have develop- interpret its development assistance within
ment policies which are usually fairly a rationale of 'assisting the Southern
explicit on the principles of gender equality government with its development plans
in development. and priorities', as if there is some automatic
In these circumstances, the Southern coincidence of development objectives on
government has little choice but to both sides. This happy illusion of common
concede, at least on paper, by including interest is fairly easy to maintain when
objectives on gender issues in general objectives are kept at the technical level of
development policy statements. If pressed, improving welfare and access to resources.
government departments may even have to The harmony is obviously upset where the
admit gender objectives into the plans of bilateral agency has objectives which
specific projects and programmes. But, of involve addressing structural inequalities
course, it is hoped to hold the line at this which would upset the political interests of
level, and not allow this 'gender business' the ruling class, whose interests the
actually to affect project implementation. government serves.
Both Southern government and
Imiplementing a gender Northern agency are therefore likely to
po licy in development have explicit policies which commit them
agencies to supporting women's advancement, and
mainstreaming gender issues within the
More in need of explanation is the bilateral development process. But at the level of the
government agency (and often the multi- government bureaucracies actually
lateral agency) which resists implementing concerned with implementing these
policies on gender equality. After all, are policies, there is a tacit and unspoken
they not the very agencies which initiate understanding that these policies on
these policies, and which are supposed to gender will remain on paper. Lip-service
be pushing to implement them? This needs may be paid to these policies when the
looking at more closely. The agency is itself occasion demands. Lip-service is one of a
a patriarchal institution, for which policies range of strategies of patriarchal resistance.
of gender equality are a threat to the Some of these resistance strategies are so
continuation of male supremacy within its sophisticated, and the practitioners so
own bureaucratic system. It does not subtle, that one might be right there in 3
the
regard its organisational gender policy as room and not notice what is going on.
its own, but rather policy which has been There is no difficulty in ignoring policies
imposed upon it by government, due to the of gender equality when these stand in the
activities of feminist pressure groups. way of a cosy bilateral relationship. On the
These pressure groups are regarded as contrary, both sides are patriarchal
ideologically undesirable by the staid male organisations, for whom the very word
conservatives and technocrats of the 'feminism' sticks in the throat. When it
government bureaucracy. In fact, the comes to the serious and ideological aspects
agency has always had strategies for of policy, opposition to gender equality may
resisting policies which it doesn't like, but be the one principle on which both sides can
which have been imposed upon it by the agree. The agreement is so automatic that it
political leadership. can remain unspoken. The usual pattern, in
In addition, we have to understand the government-to-govern-ment development
need for the bilateral agency to work in co-operation, is that neither side is
harmony with the Southern government. interested in implementing policies
Generally, the bilateral agency likes to concerned with women's empowerment.
68 Focus on Gender
Implementing gender
issues in muItilaterals
the experience of the World Bank
Minh Chau Nguyen, Anjana Bhushan, and Jo Bischoff
S
ince the 1970s, the World Bank has objectives to follow while, at the same time,
helped to illuminate the often outlining the basis for a discussion of
unacknowledged contribution of gender issues with borrower countries.
women to economic development. The Bank's involvement in Women in
Research during the last two decades has Development began in the 1970s, partly in
documented substantial benefits from response to the catalytic effects of the
investing in women in terms of alleviating International Decade for Women. In 1977,
poverty and promoting sustainable with the establishment of the position of
development. Recognising that women Adviser on Women in Development, the
could make a still larger contribution if enormous potential of women began to be
freed from the constraints that affect them, discussed in Bank work. Some of the
the Bank has experimented with principles that were recognised early on
operational strategies to ensure greater included the relevance of women in
participation of women in development. development on grounds of improved
The Bank is increasingly concerned efficiency and equity. However, the
about integrating gender issues into the inadequate documentation of these prin-
mainstream of its work. In April 1994, the ciples, and the unevenness of institutional
Board approved the Bank's Policy Paper support, somewhat constrained their
(Enhancing Women's Participation in effective translation into policy and project
Economic Development) and Operational work.
Policy Statement (The Gender Dimensions of In the second half of the 1980s, concep-
Development) on the subject. The Policy tual, institutional, and operational changes
Paper provides an analysis of how accelerated. Senior management support
investing in women fosters growth and became more consistent and visible, and
efficiency, reduces poverty, helps future resources for gender-related action
generations, and promotes sustainable increased. A core of specialised staff was
development. established. A programme of country-wide
The Policy Statement outlines the Bank's assessments of gender issues was under-
goal, which is 'to reduce gender disparities taken. More recently, well-documented
and enhance women's participation in the Bank research findings have been success-
economic development of their countries ful in demonstrating and, in some cases,
by integrating gender considerations in its quantifying the benefits of addressing
country assistance programme.' These gender in development efforts. There is
documents provide staff with clear also a marked increase in information on
women's roles at the country level, arguments, based mainly on the notion of
including in economies in transition. These equity, have either preached to the
developments open the way for fuller converted or have simply failed to
integration of gender issues in Bank convince. In the ongoing campaign to close
lending. the 'conviction gap,' the World Bank is in a
particularly good position to make the case
for investment in women on the grounds of
Closing the 'conviction gap' economic efficiency and poverty reduction.
The World Bank's fundamental objective is Analytical research conducted by the
to help borrowers to reduce poverty and Bank shows that improving women's
improve living standards through productivity can contribute to growth,
sustainable growth and investment in efficiency, and production key
people. The Bank discharges its objective development goals everywhere. Deliberate
through its financial and advisory roles. On efforts to open up opportunities for women
one hand, it mobilises and invests are, thus, not only a matter of equity or
resources for the integration of gender fairness but also of developmental
concerns into mainstream development efficiency. Such efforts directly reduce
activity; on the other, it disseminates its poverty through substantial economic pay-
own cross-country experience, as well as offs, in higher productivity and more
the best available knowledge from other efficient resource use.
sources, to its clients. Development and growth are best
In the Bank's view, worldwide progress served when scarce public resources are
in social and economic development over invested where they yield the highest
the past three decades has not translated economic and social returns; indeed, social
into proportional gains for women. Despite returns are, on the whole, far greater for
such progress, women continue to lag women than for men. Investing in women
behind men according to many basic helps in achieving these goals because the
indicators of well-being. They still face economic and social returns on such
limited options and formidable barriers. investments are high. Moreover, it has
The barriers begin with low investment in significant benefits for other generations.
female education and health, continue with To take an example, investment for
poor access to services and assets, and are increasing education generates conside-
made worse by legal and regulatory rable private economic returns for girls:
barriers that restrict options. The result is a research suggests that the rate of return on
loss of welfare, not only in foregone female education is higher than that for
production and income, but also for society males, with secondary education for
and women themselves. Poverty may females having the highest rate of return, at
persist; fertility rates may remain high; 18.4 per cent, as compared to 13.9 per cent
children's health may suffer; and the rate of return for males. Overall, the
natural resources that women often returns on female education exceed those
manage including land, fuelwood, and for males by more than one percentage
water may not be effectively used. point (Psacharopoulos, 1993).
Despite considerable evidence, there is Education also helps women to secure
still scepticism within the development higher earnings and move from low-
community about the contribution women paying, low-productivity jobs to those of
make to the socio-economic life of their higher economic value. In agriculture,
respective nations. One reason for this lack where modern technologies have been
of commitment is that, so far, the introduced, returns to an additional year of
72 Focus on Gender
the conceptual and operational knowledge gender considerations into Bank work. The
of gender issues in development. Specific information base produced by the Unit
priorities for future Bank analysis include supplies data to operational staff for use in
an investigation into patterns of resource policy planning and project formulation.
allocation within the family, and how these The Unit's primary responsibility is to
can reduce or enhance the effects of public track the Bank's progress in implementing
policy; and what incentive systems can be its poverty reduction strategy, in inte-
used to stimulate changes in social, grating gender issues into its operations,
cultural, and legal institutions that limit the and in supporting human resources
activities and rights of women. development in general.
Studies will also explore the association The visibility of gender issues in World
between low investment in women and the Bank activities has grown over time, and
higher incidence of death and illness in the more so in recent years. Gender issues are
female, as compared to the male, popu- being addressed increasingly, in country
lation; the possibility that structural assistance strategies, and in the design and
adjustment has different impacts on men implementation of lending programmes.
and women; the legal and regulatory Gender-related actions were specified in at
barriers that prevent women from least 615 of the 4955 investment projects
participating in development; and the approved between 1967 and 1993, with
positive impact that women's participation over half of these 615 projects approved
in natural resource management can have between 1989 and 1993. Attention to
on the environment. gender was clearly associated with poverty
and human resources development: of the
615 projects, 93 per cent were in low-
Internal implications of the income and lower middle-income
gender policy countries.
Implementing the World Bank's gender Country-wide assessments of gender
policy will require improvement in staff issues were done in 72 countries during
skills. Therefore, an intensive training this period. In some countries, the process
programme is planned in order to create of conducting such an assessment
awareness of the importance of addressing encouraged a constructive dialogue with
gender issues in Bank operations and to borrower governments, strengthened
provide tools and practical knowledge for borrower and Bank commitment to gender
policy and project design in various areas. issues, and increased cross-sectoral
In addition, the Bank disseminates interaction between staff experienced in
important analytical results and oper- dealing with gender issues, and task
ational tool kits to help Bank staff to managers.
discuss 'what to do' and 'what works' with To ensure the continued attention to
governments in various country gender issues, the Bank plans to strengthen
environments. its current monitoring system. Whereas
present Bank monitoring focuses on
Monitoring the integration identifying the gender content of Bank
of gender issues projects, future efforts will also identify
how gender sensitivity can influence the
The Monitoring Unit (MU) in the design of policies and projects and their
Education and Social Policy Department outcomes. The system will monitor the
(ESP), established in October 1993, tracks gender analysis being done in economic
actions that support the incorporation of and sector work, and the linkage to the
76 Focus on Gender
W
omen's entry into the paid making positions, and their views will be
workforce will continue to reflected in policies which they have played
expand, on a global basis. a role in formulating.
However, the experience of women the Recently, professionals at the Admini-
world over is that they are concentrated at strative Staff College of India (ASCI) have
the lower levels of organisations and this is been asking each other, 'Why are there so
directly related to the fact that their few women in our training programme?'
concerns are ignored by policy makers. Co- We asked our classes, which consist of
operation is needed, on the part of senior executives, personnel managers, and
organisations in the North and South, policy makers, in order to get their views.
international and national, funding On the whole, younger men were more
agencies, governments, NGOs, and private interested in the question, while older ones
companies to make sure there is fair were reluctant to answer. Replies varied
representation of women in the workforce, from very sexist remarks, like 'dead
at all levels. investment', to a definite concern over the
Organisational culture, in all sorts of shortage of women executives in organi-
different contexts, currently favours men, as sations. Such varied reactions lead us to
the traditional workforce. Will women ever suggest that, while the number of women
be able to gain responsible positions if male executives in corporate jobs is currently
power is threatened by this? At present, increasing slowly, their accep-tance as
blockages to women's progress exist, professional equals and partners in
resulting in conflict and a waste of energy management is definitely not increasing.
and resources. Our research into these This paper discusses a project we
issues in the Indian context suggests that if undertook, aiming to develop the profile of
a process of resocialisation is initiated, in a typical woman executive in the Indian
which both sexes are enabled to work out corporate sector, the attitude towards
their own ways of relating to one another in women in that sector, and the gaps and
the workplace, conflict will be reduced and mismatch between the two, with the
energy channelled in a positive way. More resulting dynamics. The ASCI project
women may be appointed to key decision- interviewed more than 250 female, and
about 80 male executives from different of a woman between the ages of later
levels of their organisations. As a conse- twenties and early forties, academically
quence of our research, the paper argues well qualified (50 per cent of the sample
that women must link together in solidarity had a degree in management, law or
to promote themselves as managers, but engineering). Of urban origin, she is likely
that work in mixed groups and with men to have married between the ages of 21 and
must also be used as a strategy. 25 the social norm for marriage. She is
likely to have either one or two children.
The majority of women in our survey were
Indian women managers:
in middle management. Only 10 per cent of
the current situation our sample were at top levels. Women
Currently, Indian women are venturing managers are found mostly in service and
from traditional female-dominated occu- personnel functions, with only a few in
pations, such as teaching and medicine, to industry.
executive roles in male-dominated Our findings indicated that the
occupations in the corporate and public corporate sectors are experiencing the
sector. Male government executives entry of young and highly educated
outnumber women by over nine to one, women managers. However, a large
and women in the corporate sector still number of them are in their first ten years
form only around 1 per cent out of the 12 of career development just when they are
per cent of women in the paid workforce. also undergoing change in their personal
The banking sector is the only sector which lives, upon marriage, moving from their
has experienced a rise in the number of parents' home to that of their husbands,
women managers. and a change in status from daughter to
Private industry employs women in wife and mother.
non-executive functions but is selective and Most of the women in our study said
limited in its employment of women in they had had new doors opened for them
managerial roles. Women have moved from by their education and opportunities. They
'soft' functions such as public relations and glimpsed a new life style, new space to
welfare, to functions such as marketing and develop, and a desire to participate in
finance, but they remain conspicuous by public life. However, the only role models
their absence in the top echelons of both the they had were of mothers, aunts, and
corporate sector and the traditionally grandmothers, who had stayed at home
female-dominated professions. along traditional lines. Caught in the
Whether they are in industry or dilemma of wanting a new style of life
government, women managers face more involving achievement, power, and status
difficulties and strain in balancing their in the work place, as well as the need to
dual roles as homemaker and paid follow the traditional role for women, they
executive. A large number of women experience a simultaneous pull in two
managers are experiencing slower pro- opposite directions.
motion, poor mobility, and a feeling of
being stuck in low-growth functions.
Views of male managers
Profile of women managers Our research indicates that women
managers in the Indian corporate world are
There is a large concentration of married primarily viewed as women rather than
women managers in industry and business. professionals. They are not yet accepted
A typical profile of the women managers is psychologically: in one of our interviews
Feminising the workplace 79
overcome their prejudices should empha- educated and ambitious; loyal and not
sise an awareness of gender stereotyping, expecting special treatment; helpful and
and a sensitivity of the advantages of hard-working; a sobering influence;
blending 'masculine' (traditional) and gentle and compassionate; honest.
'female' management styles. On the negative side, women were seen by
Most crucially, women should have the the senior executives as:
opportunity for meeting and taking part in using their influence to climb the
activities which allow them to explore and corporate ladder, lacking vision, letting
examine their own concerns, build their home life into the office, attending
management skills and work towards a overmuch to what others say, not taking
specific identity which combines their risks, over-emotional, taking criticism
traditional and corporate roles, to replace personally, lacking professionalism.
the current fragmented one. Men in the role of women executives: this
group saw the positive aspects of women
How ASCI has taken up executives as:
the challenge human, clear priorities, not wasteful of
company resources, attention to detail,
In ASCI, we have four general manage- willing to take on any assignment,
ment programmes intended for senior and dependable.
top level executives: the policy makers of The negative side was as follows:
their organisations. We initiated a one- emotional, suffering guilt feelings, not
day module looking at women in manage- liking transfers.
ment in one of our programmes, to explore Women executives: women saw
the stereotypes, myths, and realities of themselves as:
participants' view of women managers. hard-working, quick decision-makers,
The programme consisted of an exercise on good in inter-personal relationships,
image-sharing, and group work where remaining outside office politics,
participants suggested action plans to deal creative.
with the issues which arose from the earlier They saw their own faults as
part. A lot of scepticism was expressed bending too far to please others,
about the module by our Programme hesitant, feeling that the organisation is
Directors, but it was decided to try it. doing them a favour by employing
The image-sharing exercise: two groups them, not getting along with other
enacted their actual experience as senior women, submissive.
executives. A third was asked to role-play A think tank looked at the findings. The co-
as women from middle management. A ordinator of the think tank remarked, 'It
fourth group consisted of eight women appears that the all-women group and the
from senior and middle management. All all-men group have many negative images
four groups had to identify the positive and as compared to the group of men playing
negative aspects of how they saw
women. Do you see a significance?' This
themselves, how they saw others, and how
chance remark plunged the group into a
they thought others would see them. The
heated discussion. The women wanted the
group of men who were asked to role-play
men to listen to the experiences they had
women objected, saying it was ridiculous
had at work. Eventually, the group said
and too difficult for them to imagine.
However, other groups coaxed them into it. they would like to return to the task in the
On the positive side, senior executives afternoon and build their own agenda, and
said they saw women managers as: asked the women managers to stay on.
At the end of the day, the participants
Feminising the workplace 81
presented their action plans. They was designed to allow the participants to
suggested: gain insights into their own style of
initiating a process of changing attitudes leadership and enable them to reflect on
by having in-companyprogrammes of how they could improve this. Thirdly,
mixed groups working on attitudes;. women managers explored issues unique
agreeing that their recruitment, to them, for example their dual role as
selection, placement and promotion managers, and as wives and mothers, and
practices tend to favour men, and they tried to develop the skills to deal with
could initiate a process of looking at them. Related to this, it was hoped that the
these critically;. women managers would be able to
assessing the training and development examine the myths surrounding their role
opportunities open to women, and and separate these from the realities.
trying to increase these. Finally, the managers aimed to develop
As a pilot project, this module was very action plans for improving their self-image
effective and after initial resistance became and performance and develop steps for
an important learning experience for both initiating positive change for other women
men and women. However, we need to in their organisations.
follow the action plan by following the This workshop provided an opportunity
progress of the executives in their attempts for women to express, share, learn, and re-
to 'feminise' their working cultures. learn. It had a cathartic, as well as
This module was very small-scale, stimulating, effect on many, and propelled
initiated in only one programme, and some women out of the lethargy and off
needs to be tried in different programmes the plateaux they had reached in their
and made into a routine part of the lives.
curriculum. As one participant stated, 'the In conclusion, we foresee that women's
very fact that ASCI is bringing this session entry into the upper levels of the Indian
into its flagship programme indicates that workforce will continue to rise. But
it is a critical issue.' attitudes to women working at a mana-
gerial level must change if women are to be
allowed to operate at their full capacity and
A women-only intervention fulfil their potential. In addition to
While the first intervention was a top- providing opportunities, as we have done,
down approach, the second we tried was where mixed and women-only groups can
from the bottom up; we invited forty explore the issues, myths, and realities of
women managers from different women managers, the necessary process of
organisations for a one-week Leadership resocialisation would mean developing
and Self-Development Workshop. The all- working environments where both men
women programme was necessary as we and women learn to work alongside each
found that the idea of attending a mixed other.
workshop was not drawing in women and
they were therefore not meeting people
outside their own organisation.
The objectives of the women's
workshop were, first, to provide a forum
for women managers from a wide range of
organisations so that they could share
experience and learn from one another in
an open atmosphere. Secondly, the forum
82
A women's approach to
North-South co-operation
Carola Carbajal
D
uring the last few years, some offered to 'general' NGOs with much
development agencies have tried greater generosity. We were also
to make co-operation a more confronted by the agencies' lack of
democratic affair, and to establish a understanding of our programmes, which
dialogue between the agents of North and challenged our desire for autonomy in our
South on a more equal basis. 'Entre work. We had to consider whether to
Mujeres' ('Among Women') is a network accept their recommendations on what
that was born within this context, started should be 'done with' Latin American
by NOVIB, a Dutch agency, and five Latin women. We were given assessment and
American counterparts. advice which lacked a gender perspective,
The Entre Mujeres network is a forum and which valued our work with alien eyes
which allows our organisations to discuss and foreign patterns. We defended and
openly our ideas, funding policies and validated our ideas, political views, and
specific practices in co-operative relation- achievements over a long period; for each
ships between Southern and Northern NGO, the outcome is determined by its
NGOs. For instance, a meeting between strength of conviction and ability to face
women's NGO counterparts, held in the conflict.
Uruguay in 1989, generated swift consen- We in the Entre Mujeres network hopes
sus on the nature of the 'knots' which exist to use our analysis of the shared experiences
in co-operative relations. From this and of Latin American women by promoting a
other meetings, proposals have emerged greater knowledge of them among
on various issues; many of these are Europeans, and especially European
currently being integrated into the ways of women. Secondly, we aim to democratise,
thinking and acting of some of the funding strengthen, and consolidate ties between
bodies, who can hardly ignore these European development institutions and
proposals since they came from a large Latin American organisations working with
number of Southern women's NGOs. women, and to support political pressure in
The concerns which paved the way for the South and the North by women working
the 'Entre Mujeres' network stemmed from in NGOs and agencies on the issues of
our difficulties as women's NGOs in gender, co-operation, and development.
obtaining financial resources from the Thirdly, we wish to consolidate ties on a
funding agencies, although funds were 'South-to- South' basis, between Latin
American NGOs which work with women. the historic marginalisation of peasant
The South-to-South ties were envisaged as women, slavery, the effects of more than a
strengthening the Latin American and century of dependent capitalism, and the
Caribbean women's movement's capacity weight of traditional religions.
for reflection and action. CIDHAL (Mexico), CIPAF (Dominican
Entre Mujeres is conferring with Republic), La Morada (Chile), PLEMUU
women-only or mixed NGOs beyond the (Uruguay), and Centro 'Flora Tristan'
network, who have other ideas on co- (Peru) co-wrote a document called
operation, or who have not yet fully 'Contributions to a new politics of women
explored their views on it. We discuss the and development', which was discussed at
long-term development implications and the Uruguay meeting. In it, we stated that
strategies underlying the projects we the people in Latin America have endured
support, and consider which approaches five centuries of struggle to clarify and
will be the most effective in transforming affirm their identity, which is a product of
our societies. To move forward on this, the linking of several cultures in the
several meetings between women context of a process of brutal colonisation
counterparts have been held at a national whose effects still remain. We are
level, as well as regional seminars. We confronted by a situation in which complex
have published and distributed newsletters social, cultural, and economic realities
and organised workshops. In the next stage interact with different and sometimes
we intend to intensify discussions and opposing cultural beliefs and attitudes.
seminars with groups of mixed NGOs. Our society is multi-cultural and multi-
The multiple expressions of passive and ethnic. The complexities of our history run
active resistance that women have across the continent, giving special
developed during the last two decades in characteristics to the economic, political,
Latin America have resulted in a visibly social, cultural, moral, and ecological crisis
heterogeneous movement, characterised by which is affecting the whole world.
a great diversity of social agents: peasant Women's lives are currently affected,
women, factory workers, urban house- both adversely and more positively, by
wives, art workers, academic workers many factors. The debt crisis, and forced
all of them, with different approaches and drive towards the industrial 'modern-
demands, questioning their subordination isation' of our economies, are tremen-
in the public and private spheres. They dously damaging for women's welfare and
have organised on issues such as health, status. For example, although the number
violence, human rights, free motherhood of women in paid work has increased, the
education, sexual discrimination, and majority of women occupy low-paid jobs
many others. We have discovered that which are undervalued, indeed which are
women's status in society is related to all often considered to be an extension of their
other types of oppression. unpaid duties in the home. Working-class
Within this context, the feminist women in both urban and rural areas
movement has contributed substantially by suffer most, together with the very young
analysing the circumstances of women's and old, non-white women, and those
lives, and the factors which affect women's living in regions involved in war.
experiences, such as their ethnicity, religion, The problems are even more complex
class, and age. In addition, the gender for the increasing numbers of women
identity of Latin American women is linked heads of household. In addition, violence
to the history of the conquest of the against Latin American women is in-
Americas: sexual violence in colonisation, creasing, and this issue must be con-
84 Focus on Gender
fronted. Domestic violence and rape, as will have a beneficial effect in the long-
well as institutional violence, has increased term. We may find that through the
tremendously. Legal systems have been changes in our everyday life, our horizons
unable so far to do anything to help the may be widened, allowing us to express
situation. This increase in violence is our needs and desires. Our responses
inspiring women to join resistance and highlight the repression of popular social
feminist movements. participation, and question the traditional
The current crisis has elicited different systems of political action in our countries.
responses from different interest groups: a Because of its diversity, the women's
wide variety of social sectors which were movement has had internal problems and
previously politically marginalised are conflicts in working together on particular
now expressing their disagreement, issues. It has also had to face external
proposing alternatives, and acting within obstacles, such as traditional social
the social movement as a whole. The fact attitudes to women's role, and attacks from
that women's lives, and even their identity, official institutions and from the different
are going through such dramatic changes social and political organisations which
creates contradictory effects: on one hand, have felt threatened by our achievements.
the oppression of women may deepen and
widen, but on the other hand, there are
positive responses to the problems, which Entre Mujeres' vision
'Black and white' distinctions between the
so-called 'First' and 'Third' worlds are no
longer useful. Inter-dependence, reinforced
by the advance of communications and
rooted in the new international division of
labour, shows us a linked world where
power is concentrated in just a few hands.
Co-operation, within this context, has to be
a responsible and mutual activity, which
must not only fulfil its objectives, but do so
in an environmentally sustainable way.
Partners from the developed world must
also face their historic responsibility
towards those countries which have paid
the price for the progress of developed
countries.
Co-operation for development has to be
equitable. We, in developing countries,
must assume responsibility for establishing
5 relationships with our Northern partners
on equal terms. Up to now, we have
accepted inequality, epitomised in the one-
way North-South funding relationship,
with powerful donors and humble
recipients. In future, the interchange
Carola Carbajal urges women's organisations and should not only be financial; human
Northern donors to try to find common ground experience could also be exchanged,
around which to organise for change. valuing the contributions of North and
A women's approach to North-South co-operation 85
South in culture and learning. The understanding that this movement has to
recognition of shared ground the search become more autonomous, find a clear
for a better quality of life could be the voice, and negotiate with other social
basis for democratic co-operative relations. sectors. We recommend support for
International co-operation for develop- women's autonomous projects, as well as
ment depends on NGOs acting as inter- women's programmes and projects in
mediaries between multilateral develop- mixed NGOs. This will help to strengthen
ment organisations and popular grassroots women's movements; in addition, we
movements. From our point of view, our suggest strengthening the initiatives of the
task should be more than this. Many NGOs women's networks in the region.
are devoted to promoting global social We recommend that agencies encourage
change, together with other NGOs and organisations to define their objectives and
social organisations. The role of interme- strategies for programmes and women's
diaries, as the only role assigned or permit- projects, particularly where gender-related
ted to NGOs, reduces their relationship with objectives are lacking; and stimulate their
social organisations to merely financial or internal analysis of gender issues. Agencies
supervisory. In contrast, our vision of that should also promote the exchange of
relationship is a set of social and political information and experience between
agreements which shape different types of organisations working in similar fields.
participation and partnership in different Funding agencies must become aware that
aspects of the same general action. the introduction of clear guidelines for
In the case of all-women NGOs, or women and development, in co-operation
mixed NGOs which incorporate a gender programmes, needs to be backed by
perspective, this process becomes more sufficient resources to support the growth
complex and enriched by the need to build of women's activities and the strength-
our own identity as feminist groups. We ening of their demands.
face accusations of being separatist It is our view that the budget percentage
which we are not or of working only currently allocated for co-operation by
with one half of the world, which is not the development agencies to women's projects
case either. (never exceeding 10 per cent and never
One other challenge for NGO's commit- totally covered) does not correspond to the
ted to the transformation of the quality of complexity of the problem, to women's
life is to negotiate new opportunities for initiatives, or to the fact that women are the
women to realise their full potential on the only group perceived as a 'minority' who
basis of their own strength and autonomy are actually a majority (at 52 per cent of the
and not on the basis of dependence. This is world's population).
particularly needed by women within We consider it fundamental for funding
traditional political structures, such as agencies to continue supporting opportun-
political parties, labour unions, and others, ities for discussion and analysis of the
which often tend to absorb and control characteristics and content of co-operation
women's work. for development between South and
North. Funders must support all efforts
Towards a new politics of designed to improve relationships within
the South. As gender oppression is
women and development universal, this creates perfect conditions for
We support the construction of the solidarity relationships between women in
women's movement in Latin America, different regions. It is necessary to establish
86 Focus on Gender
the basis and provide the resources to the autonomy of social organisations, which
strengthen the exchange, as part of the new should be seen as adult agents of develop-
model with clear achievements that can be ment and should receive financial resources
extended to other sectors of the co- in their own right.
operation for development. We consider that development initia-
We suggest that direct contracts between tives should stimulate, support and,
organisations, institutions and women's especially, emphasise the need for special
networks from the North and the South be missions to design proposals, and conduct
encouraged and supported with resources, surveys, which allow new women's
initiatives, meetings, and seminars that programmes and projects to start from a
contribute to the educational dimension of more realistic basis and to incorporate the
the co-operation in a direct and lively form. accumulated experience, which exists in
In addition, it is important to support Latin America, about the basic indicators
analysis of the content of publications, and budgets that projects for and by
promotions, and actions developed by women require to guarantee their integrity
funding agencies for Northern readership, and ensure that they achieve their aims.
so that we are able to detect and eliminate Finally, for us the key issue that comes
distorted ideas about Latin American out of our linking activities is that of
people. autonomy. We see autonomy as the
Co-operation for development actions process by which a group defines and
must be oriented towards searching for decides its own needs and satisfactions, its
common elements and problems common own path to growth and development, and
to many women, which promote dialogue where group members become active
and show that women are actively co- subjects. It is only in the context of
operating to promote a better way of life. autonomy that a group searching for
liberation may establish a real dialogue
with other groups, whether these are
Recommendations for NGOs stronger or weaker. We understand
It is important to strengthen the role of autonomy as our capacity to define
women's NGOs, since they are active in oppression for ourselves and to formulate
building solidarity between women, as our own proposals for transformation from
part of the dynamic transformation of our our own interests as women; our demands
societies. We consider a main task to be the should have priority, and not be su-
promotion of relationships between bordinated or postponed. Autonomy is
women NGOs and those with limited oriented to obtain more power for us as
women's programmes, so that they can women, so that we can negotiate, conduct
share experiences and put together a dialogue with Northern funders on terms
common vision. of mutual respect, and use political
We feel that the projects and program- pressure in order to influence and
mes of women NGOs and mixed NGOs that transform society.
work with women should be considered as
agents of co-operation in their own right, so Carola Carbajal is a member of CIDHAL and
that they may receive support and financial works on communication and popular
resources. The concept of a 'donor' and a education in rural Mexico.
'beneficiary' should be modified, as this can
create a paternalist attitude which interferes
with the relationships between NGOs and
social organisations. It is also an obstacle to
87
Women in Grassroots Communication: The Global Consumer: Best Buys to Help the
Effecting Global Change, ed. Pilar Riano: Third World ed. Phil Wells and Mandy
explores the informal and formal networks Jaffer: A guide which discusses the issues
that women use in their own communities as well as identifying fairly-traded brand
to inform and communicate. Addresses the name products. Gollancz, 1991
issues of identity, representation, and
leadership and looks at the emergence of The Trade Trap: Poverty and the Global
women in the mass media and the Commodity Markets, Belinda Coote: Shows
development of new competencies. Sage how terms of trade between North and
Publications, 1994. South disadvantage poor producers, and
how UNCTAD and GATT fail to protect
Women Empowering Communication: A the interests of developing nations.
Resource Book on Women and the Globalisation
Recommends action by governments and
of Media ed. Margaret Gallagher and Lilia consumers to support the Fair Trade
Quindoza-Santiago: contains reports movement. Oxfam, 1992
commissioned by the 1994 Bangkok
Conference on Women Empowering Oxfam Gender Information Network Directory:
Communication, concerning the growth of a new network begun by Oxfam in 1994.
mass media, alternative media, develop- Open to all gender and development
ment support communications. practitioners interested in linking, sharing
information on best practice, etc. The
Directory of Third World Women's Publi- network includes Oxfam staff working in
cations: this extensive directory of the UK/Ireland and in the field, Oxfam's
newletter, pamphlets, bulletins, reports existing partners, Southern and Northern
and other publications is organised by organisations working on gender and /or
region and country and is designed to with a feminist agenda. Write for a
facilitate both networking and activism questionnaire to Sue Smith, Gender Team,
among women everywhere. Compiled by Oxfam, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2
ISIS. ISIS International, 1990. 7DZ.
Worldwide Network: 1993-1994 Directory of
Women in the Environment: a list of 1900 Organisations working on
women working in the field of natural co-operation
resource management, drawn from 115
countries and territories. WorldWIDE Vrouwenberaad Ontwikkelingssamen-
Network Inc., May 1994. werking: network of professional women in
Women in Development (WID) in the
Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Netherlands, started in 1978. Organises
Sense of International Politics, Cynthia Enloe: special issue meetings, promotes action
twines the threads of seemingly isolated research, publishes position papers, advises
economic and poltical phenomena into a Dutch development agencies on empower-
single rope the international political ment of women, participates in international
system. Makes visible the work of women discussions e.g. with WIDE, liaises with
in both perpetuating, and challenging, the political parties and action groups in
status quo. Shopping at Benetton, wearing Netherlands. PO Box 77, 2340 Oegstgeest,
Levis, working as a nanny (or employing The Netherlands, tel. (0) 71159159.
one) or booking a holdiay are all examples
of foreign policy in action. Pandora Press,
UK, 1989.
90 Focus on Gender
distribute material on women and Center of Concern, 3700 13th Street, N.E.
development. Publishes catalogue of Washington, D.C. 20017, US, tel: (202) 635
published material concerning women's 2757, fax: (202) 832 9494.
development and empowerment
internationally. 777 United Nations Plaza, CHANGE: formed in 1979 to research and
Third Floor, New York, NY 10017, USA, publish reports on the condition and status
tel. (1-212) 687 8633, fax (1-212) 661 2704. of women worldwide, making links
between the 'First', 'Second' and 'Third'
Institute for Women, Law and worlds to challenge double standards and
Development: an international organ- patronising attitudes. Aims to educate and
isation committed to the defence and alert public opinion to gender inequality
promotion of women's rights on a global and encourage international exchange of
basis. Education, training, advocacy, information on strategies to overcome
networking, research, documentation. disadvantage, discrimination and
Links individuals from activist groups, subordination. Campaigns, provides
research institutions, advocacy and human consultants, and publishes news bulletin,
rights organisations throughout the world. practical and issue-based books and
733 15th Street, N.W. Suite 700, country reports. PO Box 824, London SE24
Washington DC 20005. Tel: (1-202) 393 9JS, UK, tel/fax: (071) 277 6187. For French
3663, fax: (1-202) 393 3664. speakers, there is a francophone CHANGE
called Femmes et Changement, at BP 418,
Centre for Women's Global Leadership: at F-75527, Paris, France.
Douglass College, Rutgers University,
USA. Founded in 1989, the Centre's goals WIDE (Women in Development Europe): a
include developing ways of bringing network of women development workers
women's perspectives and strategies into and researchers, set up in 1985 after the
greater visibility in public policy end of the last UN Women's Decade. WIDE
deliberations nationally and internation- members share knowledge, insights and
ally, and building international linkages research into WID issues. The network
among women in local leadership that seeks to raise awareness in European
enhance their effectiveness and increase NGOs, and lobbies at international
their global consciousness. Runs an annual institutions and fora in support of women
Women's Global Leadership Institute with in the South. WIDE consults the agents of
a thematic focus, held in June, bringing change and development working in the
together participants to compare, contrast, South about their priorities in relation to
and learn from each other, and consider women's development. Each country is
common strategies for the future. Contact encouraged to form a national WIDE group
the Director, Douglass College, 27 Clifton if there is not an existing women in
Avenue, New Brunswick, New Jersey, development network in place. WIDE
08903, USA. Tel: (908) 8782, fax (908) 932- issues a bimonthly newsletter. Squaire
1180. Ambiorix 10,1040 Brussels, Belgium, tel: 32
2 732 44 10, fax: 32 2 732 19 34.
Alt-WID (Alternative to Women in
Development Project): initiated by Center FIRE (Feminist International Radio
of Concern Washington, DC, to bring a Endeavour): a women's radio project
gender, race and class critique to the founded in 1991, broadcasting a two-hour
development process both in developing daily programme (one hour each in
countries and within the US. Contact Spanish and English) on the shortwave
92 Focus on Gender
station Radio for Peace International (RFPI) be articulate and be involved in the
in Costa Rica, and heard in over 100 decisions that affect their lives. Trains in
countries around the world. FIRE enables skills for policy and analysis in economics,
women's voices, in all their diversity, to be media, the environment, and health,
heard by the international community, advises, contributes to formal and informal
crossing barriers of nationality, culture, training and education methodology from
race, geography and language. Live an African perspective. Promotes inform-
broadcasts from women's events, training, ation and training links with centres
distribution of programmes on cassette, between continents. Produces a monthly
strengthening and supporting women's newsletter for members, focusing on
networks, constructing a feminist radio development education. Please contact
communications proposal. Broadcasts each Olukemi Williams or Ndeye Sow at
day at 0000,0800, and 1600 UCT (Universal Abantu for Development at 3 Olaf St,
Co-ordinated Time) in Spanish, and 0100, London Wll 4BE. Tel: 071 229 8022 or Fax:
0900, and 1700 UCT, in English. 071 243 0012. (Kemi can be contacted
Frequencies: 41 meters: 7.735 MHz AM during the day on Tel: 071 226 6747 or Fax:
2100-0800, 31 meters: 9.375 Mhz USB 24 071 226 0482.)
hours, 19 meters: 15.030 Mhz AM 24 hours,
13 meters: 21.465 Mhz, USB 1200-0400. DAWN (Development Alternatives with
Send your tapes on all issues for broadcast, Women for a New Era): launched in 1984 to
labelled clearly, including your name and reflect the growing awareness of women of
contact details. FIRE, Radio for Peace the need for alternatives to the dominant
International, APDO 88, Santa Ana, Costa model of development with its adverse
Rica, tel: (506) 249 1821, fax: (506) 249 1095, consequences for the vast majority of
e-mail: rfpicr@nicaro.apc.org women, and for the environment. Analyses
development processes and strategies,
Association of African Women for conducts research/analysis, training,
Research and Development/Association advocacy, international relations, and
De Femmes Africains pour la Recherche Sur communications activities. Publishes books
le Developpment (AAWORD/AFARD): a and other material including DAWN
pan-African NGO, founded in 1977, INFORMS, a triannual newsletter, c/o
organising different research working Women and Development Unit (WAND),
groups which members can join in University of the West Indies, School of
accordance with their areas of special- Continuing Studies, Pinelands, St Michael,
isation and research interests. Aims to Barbados, tel: 809 426 9288, fax: 809 426 3006.
create networks among African women
researchers and those concerned by AWID (Association for Women in
problems of development in Africa. Holds Development): aims to create and sustain
seminars, publishes materials including an international dialogue on ways of
Echo, a quarterly bilingual newsletter, also achieving a full partnership of women and
available to the public, and the AAWORD men in the creation of a better world.
journal a bi-annual, academic research Publishes a Membership Directory listing
forum. B.P. 3304, Dakar, Senegal, tel: 23 02 individuals and organisations by subject
11, telex: 3339 CODES SG. interest as well as alphabetically. Office of
Women's Programmes, 1060 Litton Reaves
Abantu for Development (People for Hall, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-
Development): an NGO aiming to contri- 0334, tel: 703 231 3765, fax: 703 231 6741.
bute to the capacity of African women to
93
Index to Volume 2