Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference (CAPER)

CANADIAN AIRFIELD PAVEMENT
ENGINEERING REFERENCE
G.H. Argue
Ottawa, Canada
September, 2005
Preface
Most Canadian airports of significance were developed by Transport Canada, a

Department of the Federal Government of Canada that was established in 1936. The
construction of major airport facilities in the country gained momentum during the
second world war and extensive expansion of the national airport system continued
through to the early 1970s. The Department directly operated approximately 90 of the
largest airports in Canada and subsidized the operation of about 60 others, until a policy
of divestiture and privatization was implemented in the 1990s.
This reference CD records the engineering practices used by Transport Canada for the
construction and operation of airfield pavements during the years of direct involvement
by the Department in the Canadian airport system. The practices were developed by the
many fine engineers and technicians employed by Transport Canada in the past, and their
contributions are acknowledged.
Gratitude is expressed to Dr. G.Y. Sebastyan for his many years of personal kindness and
support during my career in airport engineering. In his last position as Airports
Administrator at Transport Canada, Dr. Sebastyan directed the development of a
comprehensive series of manuals on Canadian airport engineering and architecture. This
reference is based extensively on the airfield pavement related manuals. Some updating
has been performed where appropriate.
Thanks are due to my daughter, Susan Welch, for an editing review of the document text.
Many thanks also to the following airport engineering staff of Transport Canada who
assisted in assembling material for this CD:
Bruce Denyes
Alice Krol
Mahmoud Farha
Domenic Morra
Comments or notification of corrections needed to the contents of this reference

document would be gratefully received and may be e-mailed to:
glenn.argue@sympatico.ca.
G.H. Argue
September, 2005
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 : Pavement Structures
Chapter 2 : Construction Materials
Chapter 3 : Structural Design and Evaluation
Chapter 4 : Construction Contract Supervision
Chapter 5 : Quality Evaluation
Chapter 6 : Maintenance and Restoration
Chapter 7 : Miscellaneous Topics
Appendix A : Mathematical Models

Appendix B : Geotechnical Surveys
Appendix C : Construction Specifications
Appendix D : Maintenance Specifications
Appendix E : Standard Drawings
Appendix F : Bearing Strength Measurement
Appendix G : Structural Condition Survey
Appendix H : Engineering Management Records
Appendix I : Airstrips on Floating Ice Sheets
Appendix J : Selected Terms and Definitions
Appendix K : Listing of ASTM Standards
Appendix L : Industry Sources and References
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Chapter 1 : Pavement Structures
CHAPTER 1
PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
Section Page
1.1 Quality Attributes .................... 1.2
1.2 Pavement Types .............................. 1.3
1.3 Component Layers .............................. 1.5
1.4 Life Cycle Management .............................................................. 1.7
Figures
Figure 1.01 Idealized Performance Curves ...................................................... 1.3

Figure 1.02 Types of Pavement Structure .. 1.4
Figure 1.03 Typical Pavement Sections . 1.6
Figure 1.04 Life Cycle Management .................................................................. 1.7
- 1.1 -
CHAPTER 1
PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
1.1 Quality Attributes
Airfield pavements are constructed to provide operational surfaces for aircraft ground
movements and parking. The suitability of these structures for traffic depends on
geometric and operational quality attributes. Geometric standards for lengths, widths,
grades and clearances are published by Transport Canada and, in the case of international
standards, the International Civil Aviation Organization. Operational quality attributes
are the subject of this engineering reference.
The primary operational quality attributes of airfield pavements are:

bearing strength ability to support traffic loads;
skid resistance level of friction available for vehicle braking and directional control;
ride quality effect of profile roughness on ride comfort and safety;
structural integrity surface intactness and potential for foreign object damage
(FOD) to aircraft from loose surfacing material.
The bearing strength of pavement structures is controlled largely by structural design. In

areas subject to seasonal frost penetration, bearing strength varies throughout the year
reaching lowest values following spring thaw and recovering to normal levels for the
summer and fall period. Although subject to an annual cycle, bearing strength during
summer and fall months remains more or less constant over the service life of a pavement
facility.
The skid resistance of newly constructed pavement surfaces depends on paving practices
and construction materials. Surfaces should have a good level of micro- and macro-
texture and be resistant to wear and polishing under braking tires. Skid resistance is
significantly affected by pavement surface contaminates, such as water, snow and ice.
The ride quality of newly constructed pavement surfaces is a function of paving methods
and the quality of construction workmanship. Ride quality deteriorates with pavement
age, and may exhibit seasonal variation with ride becoming rough during winter and
recovering during summer. Behaviour with age depends on design measures to
ameliorate the effects of frost heaving, and on compaction and other measures taken
during construction to limit post-construction consolidation and settlement. Ride quality
is of particular importance for runways serving large aircraft with high take-off and
landing speeds. About 10% to 20% of airfield pavements eventually need restoration
because ride quality deteriorates to an unacceptable level.
- 1.2 -
Structural integrity deteriorates with age and most airfield pavements reach a state
requiring restoration because of structural deterioration. Failure modes are numerous but
a common course of events involves an initial life cycle phase during which structure
defects develop as a result of environmental effects. These defects eventually weaken the
structure to a level where traffic loads acting on the weaknesses begin to fracture the
pavement surface. At this stage, the rate of deterioration may accelerate, depending on
the magnitude and frequency of traffic loads. Eventually, a state is reached where an
unacceptable risk of surface breakup exists and restorative action is required. Under
conditions of light traffic, structure serviceability can be kept at fair-to-poor levels for an
extended period through maintenance. Figure 1.01 illustrates these trends of structure
serviceability with age. The development of environmentally-related defects during the
initial phase of the pavement life cycle is strongly related to the quality of construction
and the durability of construction materials.
Surface drainage is another operational quality attribute of note. When present, surface
drainage problems are often associated with deficiencies in the primary quality attributes
and can be considered together with those attributes. Adequate surface drainage is
obtained through design and construction measures providing proper grades for new
facilities, and limiting post-construction settlement and load related deformation.
initial life cycle 2nd life cycle

Pavement Condition or Ride Quality Index
good
restoration
restoration
Servicability
heavy light
traffic traffic
poor
unsuitable level
Age
Figure 1.01 : IDEALIZED PERFORMANCE CURVES
1.2 Pavement Types
Figure 1.02 illustrates various types of pavement structure. Pavements are designated as
flexible or rigid depending on the principle employed for the support of traffic loads. A
flexible pavement distributes loads to the subgrade and depends on aggregate interlock,
particle friction and cohesion for stability. A rigid pavement depends primarily on the
flexural beam strength of a Portland cement concrete slab for load support.
Hard-surfaced pavements, categorized as asphalt, concrete or composite, provide a high

level of service with uninterrupted year-round operation and minimum maintenance
- 1.3 -
Asphalt (Flexible) Pavement
asphalt concrete surfacing

crushed gravel base course
selected granular subbase
subgrade
Concrete (Rigid) Pavement
Portland cement concrete slab
gravel base course
subgrade
Composite Pavement (Rigid)
gravel base course
subgrade
Composite Pavement (Flexible)

crushed gravel base course
gravel base course

Gravel Pavement (Flexible) subgrade
gravel surfacing
(crushed if higher stability required)
subgrade
Figure 1.02 : TYPES OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
- 1.4 -
requirements. An asphalt pavement is a flexible pavement structure with an asphalt

concrete surfacing course. A concrete pavement is a rigid pavement structure with a
Portland cement concrete surface. Composite pavements comprise a Portland cement
concrete slab with an overlay of flexible construction and may be considered as a rigid or
flexible system depending on the depth of overlay. Paving brick has also been used as a
surfacing material in recent years, mainly on an experimental basis and limited to
pavements in apron areas.
Asphalt and concrete pavements are the basic options for new construction at most
airports. Composite structures are not normally considered because of cost and other
considerations; composite structures are created when deteriorated concrete surfaces are
restored with an asphalt resurfacing overlay. The choice between asphalt and concrete
for new construction depends in large measure on their respective costs as determined
through a life cycle cost analysis. However, asphalt has some performance limitations.
Asphalt surfaces commonly rut at parking locations for large aircraft with high tire
pressures and concrete construction should be provided at these locations. Also, asphalt
surfaces are subject to damage from fuel spills and require a fuel resistant seal coat in
refueling areas.
Gravel surfaced pavements are often provided at small and remote airstrips serving low
traffic levels of propeller aircraft. These pavements are constructed using a selected
granular material. A surfacing of higher quality crushed gravel is desirable if
uninterrupted year-round service is required. The initial construction cost of gravel
pavements is significantly less than the cost of hard-surfaced pavements and gravel
pavements can be regraded and leveled with relative ease when surface irregularities
develop from settlement or frost heave. Disadvantages of gravel surfaces include dust
problems, damage to aircraft from loose surface particles, and high maintenance costs for
periodic regrading, compaction and replacement of eroded surface material.
Graded and compacted earth surfaces may sometimes be used to support light and
infrequent tire loads. These surfaces are usually unserviceable during spring thaw and
prolonged wet periods. The establishment of turf on a compacted earth surface provides
some stability and reduces dust and erosion problems, but care of the turf increases
maintenance requirements.
1.3 Component Layers
Asphalt Surface
An asphalt surface layer consists of graded mineral aggregate bound by asphalt cement.
Hot-mixed asphalt concrete (HMAC) is employed in most instances for the construction
of asphalt surface courses. HMAC is produced by heating and drying granular aggregate
and then mixing the aggregate with heated, penetration-grade asphalt cement. The top
lift of a multi-lift asphalt layer is referred to as the surface or wearing course and a
subsurface lift is referred to as a lower or binder course. Less expensive and less durable
cold mixes are a possible alternative surfacing material for secondary facilities. Cold
mixes may be mixed prior to placing or are mixed on grade using emulsified or cut-back
liquid asphalt.
- 1.5 -
CL
Asphalt Concrete (AC) Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)
(flexible) Pavement Structure (rigid) Pavement Structure
shoulder
asphalt
surface course concrete
base course crushed gravel or crushed stone graded

area
selected granular material

subbase course
subgrade in-situ (native) soil drainage pipe
(Note : Not to scale)
Figure 1.03 : TYPICAL PAVEMENT SECTIONS
Portland Cement Concrete Surface
A surface slab of Portland cement concrete (PCC) is constructed with a concrete

manufactured by mixing together mineral aggregate, Portland cement and water. A
concrete surface is partitioned into panels by longitudinal construction joints between
paving lanes and transverse contraction joints cut at regular intervals across paving lanes.
Base Course
A base course is the layer immediately beneath the surfacing course and is constructed
from well-compacted granular aggregate meeting high standards with respect to stability
and durability. The base course contributes to pavement bearing strength, provides a
stable platform for construction of the surfacing course, and in asphalt pavements, must
have sufficient stability to withstand high stresses imposed by aircraft tire pressures.
Unbound bases are normally employed but, in some instances, a stabilized base may be
provided in which the aggregate is bound with an asphalt or Portland cement.
Subbase Course
Subbase courses are constructed using selected granular materials that are not susceptible
to frost action and with stability and durability requirements that are generally less
demanding than those for base course aggregate. Subbase contributes to the pavement
structure by providing an increase in bearing strength and frost protection.
- 1.6 -
Subgrade
Subgrade is the foundation on which the pavement is constructed and consists of the
native soil or, in the case of fill sections, of imported common material placed on top of
the native soil. During construction, the top layer of subgrade is compacted to a higher
density than the underlying subgrade material.
1.4 Life-Cycle Management
The Pavement Management Committee of the Roads and Transportation Association of

Canada introduced the term pavement management system during the 1970s. The term
has been widely adopted and given a variety of definitions, but originally, pavement
management system referred to the complete set of technical practices used by an agency
for the development and operation of their pavement facilities. Recently, the term has
sometimes been employed in a more limited sense to refer to the evaluation and
restoration of existing pavement inventory. For clarity, pavement management in its
original sense may be referred to more fully as pavement life-cycle management. This
engineering reference presents a life-cycle management system for airfield pavements.
The term life-cycle derives from the cyclic nature of pavement service life and the
repetitive character of technical processes associated with each cycle. Planning and
programming are the first activities undertaken for the initial and subsequent life cycles
of a pavement facility. The implementation of plans is achieved through design,
followed by construction. During operation, the facility is subject to monitoring and
evaluation of the operational quality attributes. Maintenance is undertaken as needed on
the basis of evaluation results. Restoration eventually becomes a requirement and the
facility is submitted to planning and programming for the next life cycle during which
these technical processes are repeated. Figure 1.04 illustrates components of a life-cycle
management system.
Government-Industry-Airports Airport Authority

Support Activities PAVEMENT LIFE-CYCLE ACTIVITIES
Research & Development (new) MAINTENANCE
Regulatory Standards PLANNING &

PROGRAMMING (restore)
EVALUATION
Technical Literature
DESIGN MONITORING
Communications
Training CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS
Records and Information Systems
Figure 1.04 : AIRFIELD PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
- 1.7 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Chapter 2 : Construction Materials
CHAPTER 2
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Section Page
2.1 Material Standards

2.1.1 Processed Materials . 2.3
2.1.2 Trade Products . 2.3
2.1.3 Test Methods 2.4
2.2 Soils and Aggregates

2.2.1 Basic Properties 2.5
2.2.2 Soil Types and Classification ... 2.12
2.2.3 Aggregate Standards . 2.17
2.3 Binders
2.3.1 Asphalt Cement 2.23
2.3.2 Asphalt Emulsions and Cutbacks . 2.28
2.3.3 Portland Cement ... 2.31
2.4 Mixes
2.4.1 Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete ... 2.33
2.4.2 Portland Cement Concrete 2.41
2.4.3 Other Mixes .. 2.46
- 2.1 -
Tables Page
Table 2.01 Trade Product Standards . 2.4

Table 2.02 Basic Properties of Soils and Aggregates ... 2.5
Table 2.03 Standard Sieve Sizes ... 2.6
Table 2.04 Unified Soil Classification System . 2.13
Table 2.05 Soil Characteristics for Subgrade Construction .. 2.14
Table 2.06 Soil Frost Susceptibility Classification ... 2.16
Table 2.07 Base and Subbase Aggregate Standards . 2.19
Table 2.08 Alternate Base Gradations for Secondary Gravel Roads 2.19
Table 2.09 Asphalt Concrete Aggregate Standards .. 2.21
Table 2.10 Portland Cement Concrete Aggregate Standards 2.22
Table 2.11 Asphalt Cement Penetration Grades ... 2.24
Table 2.12 Asphalt Cement Grade Selection . 2.25
Table 2.13 Asphalt Binder Performance Grades ... 2.26
Table 2.14 Asphalt Emulsion Grades .... 2.29
Table 2.15 Asphalt Cutback Grades .. 2.30
Table 2.16 Portland Cement Types 2.32
Table 2.17 Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Standards .. 2.33
Table 2.18 Asphalt Concrete Mix Design Aggregate Summary 2.38
Table 2.19 Asphalt Concrete Mix Design Mix Calculations . 2.39
Table 2.20 Portland Cement Concrete Standards . 2.41
Table 2.21 Portland Cement Concrete Trial Mix Computations .. 2.45
Figures
Figure 2.01 Gradation Chart . 2. 6

Figure 2.02 Maximum Density Gradation 2.17
Figure 2.03 Asphalt Pavement Design Temperatures 2.26
Figure 2.04 Asphalt Cement Temperature-Viscosity Chart . 2.27
Figure 2.05 Proportioning Aggregates . 2.35
Figure 2.06 Mix Properties vs Asphalt Cement Content .. 2.40
Figure 2.07 Estimating Mixing Water Requirements for Concrete Mixes .. 2.44
Figure 2.08 Estimating Percent of Fine Aggregate for Concrete Mixes .. 2.44
- 2.2 -
CHAPTER 2
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
2.1 MATERIAL STANDARDS
2.1.1 Processed Materials
The primary materials subject to manufacturing processes during pavement construction

are:
soil mineral particles from disintegrated rock, organic material, or a mixture of
both. Mineral soil is used in the construction of subgrades.
aggregate mineral granular materials such as sand, gravel and crushed rock, and
mixtures of these materials. Aggregates are used for the construction of subbase
and base courses and are mixed with binders to manufacture concretes.
asphalt concrete aggregate bound by asphalt cement and used as a pavement
surfacing material.
Portland cement concrete aggregate bound by Portland cement and used as a
pavement surfacing material.
The words asphalt and concrete when used in isolation generally refer respectively to
asphalt concrete and Portland cement concrete. The word asphalt may refer on occasion
to asphalt cement rather than to asphalt concrete but the meaning is generally clear from
context.
Materials used in pavement construction must possess sufficient strength and stability to
withstand the stresses imposed by traffic loads. The materials must be durable and must
be resistant to degradation under construction handling and when exposed to post-
construction wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles and other environmental influences.
Material standards specified in construction contracts identify physical properties
affecting strength and durability. The standards also designate test methods for the
measurement of these properties and give criteria for material acceptance or rejection on
the basis of test results. These material standards are the subject of this chapter.
2.1.2 Trade Products
Various trade products are used in pavement construction and the quality of these
products is governed by published industry standards. Table 2.01 lists the primary trade
products associated with pavement construction and the industry standards commonly
used for specification. When selecting trade product standards, first preference should be
given to Canadian national standards as published by such organizations as the Canadian
General Standards Board (CGSB) or the Canadian Standards Association (CSA).
- 2.3 -
Table 2.01 : Trade Product Standards
Product Standard
ASTM Canadian
Asphalt Cement, Penetration Graded D946 CGSB-16.3
Asphalt Cement, Performance Graded D6373
Asphalt Emulsion, Anionic D977 CGSB-16.2
Asphalt Emulsion, Cationic D2397 CGSB-16.4
Asphalt Emulsion, High Float D977 CGSB-16.5
Asphalt Cutback, Slow-Curing D2026 CGSB-16.1
Asphalt Cutback, Medium-Curing D2027 CGSB-16.1
Asphalt Cutback, Rapid-Curing D2028 CGSB-16.1
Coal Tar Pitch Emulsion D5727 CGSB 37-GP-39
Portland Cement C150 CSA-A5 (A3000)
Concrete Air Entraining Agent C260
Concrete Chemical Admixtures C494
Concrete Curing Compound C309
Hydrated Lime C977
Traffic Paint CGSB 1.74
Reinforcing Steel:
- dowels, tie bars, reinforcing bar A615 CSA-G30.18
- welded steel wire fabric, plain A185
- welded steel wire fabric, deformed A497
Joint Sealers and Fillers:
- hot applied sealer D6690
- fuel resistant sealer, hot applied D3569
- fuel resistant sealer, cold applied CGSB-19.20
- preformed expansion joint filler D1751
- preformed elastomeric seal D2628
Joint Backer Rod D5249
Drainage Pipe:
- steel A760 CSA G401
- concrete, non-reinforced C14 CSA A257
- concrete, reinforced C76 CSA A257
- concrete, perforated C444
- plastic, polyethylene, 75 to 150 mm dia. F405
- plastic, polyethylene, 200 to 600 mm dia. F667
- asbestos cement C663 CGSB 34.9
If a Canadian national standard is not available, a standard published by the American

Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) is recommended. If not available from these
agencies, a standard may be selected from such sources as the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the Asphalt Institute (AI) or the
Portland Cement Association (PCA).
2.1.3 Test Methods
ASTM is the main source of the test methods referenced in this text. Reference is usually
by test number only but full titles of the test methods are appended. Printed copies of the
test methods should be available to designers and construction supervision personnel.
The printed documents may be found in various volumes of ASTM standards that are
updated and republished annually. Alternately, subscribing members can access the
standards on-line.
- 2.4 -
2.2 SOILS AND AGGREGATES
2.2.1 Basic Properties
Table 2.02 lists physical properties widely used for the characterization and specification
of soil and aggregate materials.
Table 2.02 : Basic Properties of Soils and Aggregates
ASTM Aggregates
Property Soils
Test Method
Subbase Base Asphalt Concrete
Gradation C117 + C136

Atterberg Limits D4318
Crushed Content D5821
Los Angeles Degradation C131
Sulphate Soundness C88
Micro-Deval Abrasion *
Sand Equivalent D2419
Absorption C127
Loss by Washing C117
Deleterious:
- lightweight particles C123
- organic impurities C40
- clay lumps C142
- elongated particles D4791
General Potential:
- petrographic analysis C295
- stripping D4867
- wear and polish D3319
- alkali reactivity **
- D-cracking ***
Notes:
* Micro-Deval test procedure not yet published by ASTM - use CSA A23.2-23A and CSA A23.2-29A.
** Evaluate alkali reactivity potential to CSA A23.2-27A.
*** Evaluate D-cracking potential using the modified version of ASTM C666 outlined in CSA A23.1.
Gradation
Gradation is the distribution of particle sizes in a soil or aggregate material and is

measured by passing a sample of the material through a stack of wire screen sieves.
Successive screens in the stack have openings progressively smaller in size and the dry
weight of material retained on each sieve size is determined. The total percent of material
passing each sieve size is calculated and the results are displayed in the form of a
gradation chart, as illustrated in Figure 2.01.
Table 2.03 lists standard sizes for laboratory sieves. The specification and testing of a
material employs only a few of the screen sizes and different combinations are used
- 2.5 -
Table 2.03 : Standard Sieve Sizes
Gravel Sizes Sand Sizes

Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine
75-mm 19.0-mm 4.75-mm 2.00-mm 425-m

63-mm 16.0-mm 4.00-mm 1.70-mm 355-m
53-mm 13.2-mm 3.35-mm 1.40-mm 300-m
50-mm 12.5-mm 2.80-mm 1.18-mm 250-m
45-mm 11.2-mm 2.36-mm 1.00-mm 212-m
37.5-mm 9.5-mm 2.00-mm 180-m
31.5-mm 8.0-mm 850-m 150-m
26.5-mm 6.7-mm 710-m 125-m
25.0-mm 6.3-mm 600-m 106-m
22.4-mm 5.6-mm 500-m 90-m
19.0-mm 4.75-mm 425-m 75-m
coarse aggregate fine aggregate
Note : See ASTM E11 for standard sieve sizes coarser than 75-mm and finer than 75-m.
Sieve Size (mm)

0.075 0.425 4.75 9.5 19.0 37.5 50
100
sieve stack
50-mm
37.5-mm
19.0-mm
9.5-mm
80 4.75-mm
425-m
75-m
pan
Percent Finer Than
60
40
20
0.05 0.10 1.0 10 100

Grain Size (mm)
Figure 2.01 : GRADATION CHART
- 2.6 -
depending on the type of material and test method involved. The smallest screen
normally used for mechanical sieving is a 75-m sieve and material passing this sieve is
referred to as fines or filler. The distribution of particle sizes smaller than 75-m is not
often needed but may be determined through hydrometer analysis methods (ASTM
D422). When sieving an aggregate sample to determine gradation and the fines content is
important to the property being measured, the sample should first be washed through the
75-m sieve. If washing is not performed, dust fines may adhere to the larger particles
and may produce significant error in the measurement of percent finer than 75-m.
Atterberg Limits
Atterberg limits are determined on the material fraction passing the 425-m sieve and
they reflect the moisture contents at which this fraction passes from a semi-solid to a
plastic state (plastic limit), and from a plastic to a fluid state (liquid limit). Plasticity
index is equal to the liquid limit minus the plastic limit.
Plastic limit is measured by repeatedly rolling a sample into a 3 mm diameter thread with
the sample pressed together and reformed into a ball after each rolling. The sample loses
moisture as it is worked during the rolling process and the plastic limit is reached when
the sample can no longer be rolled down to the 3 mm diameter because of crumbling.
Liquid limit measurement utilizes a testing device in which a spoon-like brass cup is
raised a short distance and dropped in a proscribed manner. A sample of material is
placed in the brass cup and divided in two with a grooving tool. The liquid limit is the
moisture content at which the groove in the sample just closes after 25 drops of the cup.
Crushed Content
Particle angularity and surface texture have a significant effect on the stability of
aggregate mixtures because angular particles with rough surfaces have a much better
interlocking action than rounded particles with smooth surfaces. Angular particles of
rough surface texture also improve the skid resistance of surface wearing courses.
Particle angularity and surface roughness are increased through the specification of a
minimum percent of coarse particles having at least one broken face (some agencies
specify at least two broken faces) as produced by the mechanical crushing of larger
particles. The measurement may be performed by dividing a sample of the coarse
aggregate fraction of interest into two groups: one group containing crushed particles and
the other containing unbroken particles. The two groups are then weighed or the particles
in each group are counted to determine crushed content.
Los Angeles Degradation
Resistance to degradation under impact and abrasion in the Los Angeles machine is
measured by placing a dry sample of coarse aggregate of specified gradation in a rotating
drum containing steel balls. The internal diameter of the drum is 710 mm. The diameter
of the steel balls is approximately 47 mm and the total weight or charge of balls placed in
the drum depends on the aggregate gradation selected for the test. As the drum rotates, an
interior shelf plate on the side of the drum picks up, carries upward and then drops the
- 2.7 -
aggregate and steel balls. In the drop, the steel balls impart a crushing impact action on
the aggregate particles. Further drum rotation produces a grinding abrasive action until
pickup by the paddle occurs again and the cycle is repeated. After a prescribed number
of drum revolutions, the aggregate is sieved and degradation is measured as percent of
material lost. Limits are specified for Los Angeles degradation loss to avoid an excessive
quantity of weak aggregate particles subject to breakdown under handling by construction
equipment.
Sulphate Soundness
Soundness testing measures the susceptibility of aggregate particles to degradation under

wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles. The material is subjected to cycles of immersion in a
solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate, followed by drying. The test creates
pressures in the internal pores of the particles through the growth of salt crystals, similar
to the pressures produced by freezing water. The procedure is inherited from a time when
few laboratories had the capability to directly freeze materials.
The effects of sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate on aggregate are somewhat
different; the effect of magnesium sulphate is usually more severe. Consequently, a
specification for soundness loss must identify the sulfate to be used in the test (normally
magnesium sulphate) and the maximum loss criteria must be appropriate for the sulphate
specified. Also, the specification must note the number of immersion cycles to be used
(normally 5) as the test method does not specify this parameter.
Micro-Deval Abrasion
Increasingly, the Micro-Deval test is being used in place of sulfate soundness testing
and/or Los Angeles degradation testing. For the testing of coarse aggregates, a 1500 gm
sample is first soaked in two litres of water for at least one hour. The sample and water
are placed in a 195 mm diameter steel jar containing a 5000 gm charge of 9.5 mm
diameter steel balls. The jar is rotated at 100 rev/min for a prescribed time and the
sample is then washed through a 1.18-mm sieve to determine percent loss. For fine
aggregate, the material is first washed through a 75-m sieve. A 500 gm sample is
soaked in water and subsequently placed in the steel jar with a 1250 gm charge of steel
balls. The jar is rotated for 15 minutes and the sample is washed through a 75-m sieve
to determine percent loss.
Micro-Deval test results exhibit a general correlation with sulphate soundness

measurements and the test can be completed in one day compared to the minimum six
days required for sulphate soundness testing. In addition, the repeatability of Micro-
Deval test results is much better than the repeatability of sulphate soundness test results.
Consequently, some agencies have opted for the replacement of sulfate soundness testing
by Micro-Deval testing. Other agencies specify both requirements but routinely use only
the Micro-Deval test for quality control purposes during aggregate production.
- 2.8 -
Sand Equivalent
Sand equivalent is a measure of the quantity of clay-like fines in an aggregate and is used
instead of Atterberg limits in the specification of asphalt aggregates. A measured volume
of fine aggregate passing a 4.75-mm sieve is mixed with a flocculating solution in a
cylinder. After a prescribed period of settlement, flocculated clay particles overlay sand
particles in the cylinder and sand equivalent is determined as the ratio of the height of the
sand to the total height of particles, multiplied by 100.
Absorption
Aggregates absorb water (and bitumen) into the internal pore structure of individual
particles. The degree of absorption by coarse aggregate particles is measured by soaking
a sample in water for 24 hours to fill the pores. When the sample is removed from the
water bath, the particle surfaces are dried to a saturated surface-dry state and the sample
is weighed. The sample is then oven-dried and weighed a second time. The loss in
weight during oven drying reflects the amount of absorbed water and this loss is
expressed as percent of the dry aggregate weight. A specified limit for coarse aggregate
absorption controls the amount of bitumen lost through absorption during the
manufacture of asphalt concrete.
Loss by Washing
Loss by washing involves sieving out the coarse fraction of an aggregate and then
washing this fraction through a 75-m sieve. A coating of fines sometimes adheres to the
surface of coarse aggregate particles and this coating may interfere with the bonding of
asphalt or Portland cements. A loss by washing specification controls the extent of such
coatings.
Deleterious Materials
Various types of material are considered deleterious when present in excessive amounts
in an aggregate. Lightweight particles tending to be weak are identified as those that float
rather than sink in a liquid of selected specific gravity. Injurious quantities of organic
impurities in fine aggregate for concrete are detected by immersing a sample of the
aggregate in a solution of sodium hydroxide, and after standing for 24 hours, colour is
compared against the colour of a reference standard solution. Clay lumps and other
friable particles can be broken down under finger pressure after being soaked in water for
24 hours. Flat and elongated particles are generally defined as particles having a length
to width ratio exceeding five.
Petrographic Analysis
Petrographic analysis involves the examination of individual aggregate particles to

identify characteristics such as parent rock type and mineralogy. Also, a subjective
assessment of quality is made with respect to hardness, soundness and durability. Based
on this analysis, an overall assessment is made of the aggregates suitability for its
intended purpose. Some agencies determine a Petrographic Number by taking a
- 2.9 -
weighted average of numerical values assigned to individual particles depending on their

characterization as good, fair, poor or deleterious.
Petrographic analysis is subjective in nature and must be performed by trained and

qualified personnel. The procedure is sometimes used for preliminary screening purposes
to identify aggregates exhibiting various types of deficiency, such as high potential for
alkali reactivity in concrete mixes. Petrographic analysis may also be used when
deciding to approve or not approve an aggregate that is marginal with respect to some
specified property.
Stripping Potential
Stripping is a process in which the bond between aggregate particles and asphalt binder is
lost in the presence of water. Some aggregates are more susceptible to this problem than
others. Stripping potential is measured on asphalt-aggregate mixes as the phenomenon
may be dependent to some extent on the asphalt-aggregate combination. For hot-mix
asphalt concretes, evaluation is performed by measuring the loss in split tensile strength
of mix briquettes when the briquettes are partially saturated with water using vacuum,
then conditioned with a freeze-thaw cycle followed by soaking for 24 hours in a water
bath at 60C. Acidic aggregates, such as quartz, generally exhibit a higher stripping
potential than basic rock, such as limestone. Hydrated lime or other anti-stripping agent
may be added to an asphalt mix to decrease stripping potential.
Wear and Polish
Some aggregates are more susceptible than others to wear and polish under the action of
traffic. These aggregates may lead to poor skid resistance if used in the surface course of
asphalt pavements subject to heavy traffic. Methods are available for the evaluation of
wear and polish characteristics (ASTM D3319) but the requirement for such evaluation is
not often specified. Instead, a clause is included in asphalt concrete specifications to the
effect aggregate known to be susceptible to wear and polish not be used. Major airports
experiencing runway skid resistance problems may wish to specify laboratory evaluation
and limits for aggregate wear and polish. Alternatively, aggregates of known hardness,
such as trap rock, may be specified for surface mixes. The cost of these measures should
be evaluated.
Alkali Reactivity Potential
Certain forms of silica aggregate and certain types of dolomitic limestone react with the
alkalis in Portland cement to produce post-construction volume expansion in Portland
cement concrete. Depending on the proportion of such materials in the aggregate and the
alkali content of the cement, volume expansion after some years of service may be of
sufficient magnitude to produce surface crazing and, eventually, surface spalling.
Although not foolproof, the best protection against a deleterious degree of alkali
reactivity is a history of satisfactory field performance when the aggregate was used
previously for the manufacture of Portland cement concrete. If a performance history is
not available, laboratory methods as specified in CSA A23.2-27A are available to
evaluate the potential for alkali-aggregate reactivity. Time restrictions often render
- 2.10 -
laboratory evaluation impractical as up to a year may be required for completion. In

these situations, construction specifications usually require a contractor to satisfy the
owners Engineer that suitable preventive measures are taken, such as the use of low-
alkali cement or the inclusion of beneficial supplementary cementing materials in the
mix.
D-Cracking Potential
Certain limestone aggregates in Manitoba have been identified as the cause of durability
D-cracking in concrete pavements. These aggregates have an internal pore structure
promoting the absorption of water with subsequent cracking of the larger aggregate
particles on freezing. The crack eventually extends into the surrounding mortar and
subsequently throughout the concrete mass along the edges of concrete panels.
Susceptibility to D-cracking can be evaluated through a modified version of ASTM
C666 as outlined in CSA A23.1, but evaluation is not always be practical as the
laboratory testing takes about six months. The service history of aggregate sources or
petrographic evaluation must usually be relied on to avoid aggregates promoting
D-cracking. If in doubt, concrete aggregate should be crushed down to a 19.0-mm
maximum particle size rather than the standard 37.5-mm as the problem is generally
caused by the larger particles. Cement content requirements for concrete mixes are
increased by crushing to the finer gradation.
Alkali Reaction
Surface Crazing
D-Cracking
- 2.11 -
2.2.2 Soil Types and Classification
Soil materials are divided into the following categories (ASTM D2487):
Boulders: particles of rock that will not pass a 300-mm square opening
Cobbles: particles of rock that pass a 300-mm square opening and are retained on a
75-mm sieve
Gravel: particles of rock passing a 75-mm sieve and retained on a 4.75-mm sieve
Sand: particles of rock passing a 4.75-mm sieve and retained on a 75-m sieve
Silt: soil passing a 75-m sieve, non-plastic or very slightly plastic and
exhibiting little or no strength when air dry
Clay: soil passing a 75-m sieve, exhibiting plasticity (putty-like characteristics)
within a range of water contents and having considerable strength
(cohesion) when air dry
Peat: soil composed of vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition,
usually with an organic odour, a dark-brown to black colour, a spongy
consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous
Gravel and sand are further subdivided on the basis of particle size:
coarse gravel : passing a 75-mm sieve and retained on a 19.0-mm sieve
fine gravel : passing a 19.0-mm sieve and retained on a 4.75-mm sieve
coarse sand: passing a 4.75-mm sieve and retained on a 2.00-mm sieve

medium sand: passing a 2.00-mm sieve and retained on a 425-m sieve
fine sand: passing a 425-m sieve and retained on a 75-m sieve
Clay and silt are referred to respectively as organic clay and organic silt if they have
sufficient organic content to influence the properties of the soil. A generally discontinued
practice is to refer to silt sizes as being from 20-m to 2-m, and clay sizes as being finer
than 2-m (limits of 50-m and 5-m are sometimes used). With this practice, the term
very fine sand describes material finer than 75-m but coarser than silt size.
Unified Soil Classification System
Soils are further classified to convey information on their general engineering properties
and to indicate suitability as a construction material. The Unified Soil Classification
System is widely employed for pavement design and construction purposes. Table 2.04
outlines essentials of the Unified Soil Classification System; further details and
refinements are available in ASTM D2487.
- 2.12 -
Table 2.04 : Unified Soil Classification System
Soil Classification
Criteria for Assigning Group Symbols and Group Names
(based on laboratory tests performed on material passing a 75-mm sieve) Group Group
Symbol Name
Gravels Clean Gravels
CU 4 and 1 CC 3 GW well-graded gravel
Coarse-Grained Soils More than 50% of less than 5% fines
More than 50% retained on coarse fraction CU < 4 and/or 1 > CC > 3 GP poorly graded gravel
a 75-m sieve retained on a
4.75-mm sieve Gravels with Fines fines classify as ML or MH* GM silty gravel
more than
12% fines fines classify as CL or CH* GC clayey gravel
Sands Clean Sands

CU 6 and 1 CC 3 SW well-graded sand
50% or more of less than 5% fines
coarse fraction CU < 6 and/or 1 > CC > 3 SP poorly graded sand
passes a 4.75-mm
sieve Sands with Fines fines classify as ML or MH* SM silty sand
more than
12% fines fines classify as CL or CH* SC clayey sand
Plasticity index > 7
Silts and Clays Inorganic and plots on or above A line CL lean clay
Fine-Grained Soils Liquid limit Plasticity index < 4
50% or more passing a less than 50 or plots below A line ML silt
75-m sieve
liquid limit (oven dried) organic clay
Organic
< 0.75 liquid limit (not dried) OL organic silt
Silts and Clays Inorganic

Plots on or above A line CH fat clay
Liquid limit
50 or more Plots below A line MH elastic silt
Organic
< 0.75 liquid limit (not dried) OH organic silt
Highly Organic Soils primarily organic matter, dark in colour, and organic odour PT peat
Gravels with 5% to 12% fines require dual symbols: Sands with 5% to 12% fines require dual symbols: * If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual
GW-GM well-graded gravel with silt SW-SM well-graded gravel with silt symbols GC-GM or SC-SM
GW-GC well-graded gravel with clay SW-SC well-graded gravel with clay
GP-GM poorly graded gravel with silt SP-SM poorly graded gravel with silt See ASTM D2487 for refinements
GP-GC poorly graded gravel with clay SP-SC poorly graded gravel with clay to group names.
Procedure:
For coarse-grained soils, determine gradation to ASTM C136. For fine-grained soils, determine Atterberg limits to ASTM
Plot gradation and determine CU and CC as shown below (note that D4318. Plot position on plasticity chart shown below.
DXX is the particle size for which xx% is finer than).
Sieve Size (mm)
.075 .106 .250 .425 .850 2 4.75 9.5 19 25 50 75
100 60
Coarse-Grained Soils Fine-Grained Soils

ls
Gradation Chart Plasticity Chart

lin soi
50
e
ve a l
in
80
e
bo tur
Coefficient of Uniformity
'l
ts a r na
'A
CU = D60 / D10
plo t fo
OH
= 18 / 0.15 = 120
ata mi
40
or
f d r li
Coefficient of Curvature D60 = 18

Percent Passing
CH
s i pe
60 CC = (D30)2 / (D60 x D10)

Plasticity Index
ul t up
= (2.5)2 / (18 x 0.15)

res ate
30
ck xim
= 2.31
- c appro
40
he
e-
lin
D30 = 2.5 20
OL
'U'
or
MH or OH
CL
20
10
D10 = 0.15
CL-ML ML or OL
0
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Particle Size (mm) Liquid Limit
- 2.13 -
Table 2.05 : Soil Characteristics for Subgrade Construction
USC Suitability Drainage Potential Compressibility Mod. Proc. Compaction

Group for Frost / Expansion Dry Density and
Subgrade Action (kg/m3) Equipment
GW excellent excellent none to negligible 2000 to 2150 good:

slight ct, rt, sw or vib
GP good to excellent none to negligible 1850 to 2000 good:

excellent slight ct, rt, sw or vib
GM good fair to slight to slight 1900 to 2150 good:

impervious medium rt or light sf
GC good poor to slight to slight 1850 to 2100 good to fair:

impervious medium rt or sf
SW good excellent none to negligible 1750 to 2100 good:

slight ct, rt or vib
SP good to excellent none to negligible 1600 to 1900 good:

fair slight ct, rt or vib
SM fair fair to slight to slight to 1750 to 2000 good:

impervious high medium rt or sf
SC fair poor to slight to slight to 1700 to 2000 good to fair:

impervious high medium rt or sf
ML fair to fair to poor medium to slight to 1500 to 1900 good to poor:

poor very high medium rt or sf
CL fair to impervious medium to medium 1500 to 1900 good to fair:

poor high sf or rt
OL poor poor medium to medium to 1300 to 1600 fair to poor:

high high sf or rt
MH poor to fair to poor medium to high 1200 to 1600 fair to poor:

very poor very high sf or rt
CH poor to impervious medium high 1300 to 1700 fair to poor:

very poor sf
OH poor to impervious medium high 1100 to 1600 fair to poor:

very poor sf
Pt not suitable fair to poor slight very high ----- not practical
Notes: a) adapted from U.S. Corps of Engineers

b) see Table 3.04 for typical subgrade bearing strengths
c) compaction equipment designations:
ct crawler tractor sf sheepsfoot roller vib vibratory roller
rt rubber-tired roller sw steel-wheeled roller
- 2.14 -
Classification requires the determination of gradation for coarse-grained soils and

Atterberg limits for fine-grained soils. Note classification is performed only on material
passing the 75-mm sieve. If cobbles or boulders are present, the group names are
modified as applicable with the phrase with cobbles, with boulders, or with cobbles
and boulders.
The plasticity of samples with significant organic content is greatly reduced when
oven-dried due to irreversible changes in the organic colloids. For laboratory
classification purposes, the soil is considered to be organic if the liquid limit is reduced
by more than 25% by oven drying. However, other characteristics can be used to identify
organic soils. Compared to inorganic soils, colour is normally darker, natural moisture
contents are significantly higher and unit weights are lower. Odour is frequently quite
noticeable, particularly when heated.
Table 2.05 lists the unified soil classification groups in order of their suitability as
subgrade material. Coarse-grained soils are preferred to fine-grained soils because of
higher bearing strengths, lower frost susceptibility and lower susceptibility to volume
change. Of the fine-grained soils, clays are generally preferred to silts, and materials of
low plasticity are preferred to materials of high plasticity. Soils having a significant
organic content should be avoided. These preferences lead to certain principles for the
construction of subgrades and subgrade embankment. If fill material from borrow areas
varies significantly, higher quality material should be reserved for placement at the top of
subgrade. If encountered in pockets in an otherwise acceptable subgrade, wet or weak
organically-contaminated soil or highly frost-susceptible soil should be excavated and
replaced with suitable material. Subgrade conditions should be uniform so the pavement
structure reacts uniformly to subgrade moisture changes and frost penetration.
Frost Susceptibility
Frost susceptibility refers to soil characteristics that promote ice segregation and heaving
when the soil freezes. Significant frost heaving is often differential in nature, producing
rough pavement surfaces and non-uniform bearing conditions for concrete slabs.
Subgrade soils exhibiting major frost heave also have the highest loss of bearing strength
during the spring thaw. Consequently, soils with high frost susceptibility are undesirable
as pavement subgrades. Table 2.06 outlines a system of classifying soils according to
frost susceptibility.
In general, fine-grained soils are frost susceptible and coarse-grained soils are not.
Heaving results not only from the expansion in volume occurring when soil water turns to
ice but, more critically, from water migrating through the soil to the freezing front where
segregation and the formation of ice lenses occurs. Fine-grained soils are frost
susceptible because of high capillary suction forces that promote water migration through
the soil. Fat clays are only moderately frost susceptible and ice lenses forming are thin
and closely spaced because material impermeability restricts water migration. Silts and
very fine sands not only exhibit high capillary suction but their permeability also allows
water migration. Large ice lenses can develop in these latter soils if a water table or a
capillary zone above a water table exists within the depth of frost penetration.
- 2.15 -
Table 2.06 : Soil Frost Susceptibility Classification

(Source: U.S. Corps of Engineers)
Symbol Description
F-1 Gravelly soils containing 3% to 20% finer than 20-m by weight.
F-2 Sands containing 3% to 15% finer than 20-m by weight.
(a) Gravelly soils containing more than 20% finer than 20-m by weight.
F-3 (b) Sands, except very fine silty sands, containing more than 15% finer than 20-m
by weight.
(c) Clays with plasticity indices more than 12.
(a) All silts including sandy silts.

(b) Very fine silty sands containing more than 15% finer than 20-m by weight.
F-4
(c) Clays with plasticity indices less than 12.
(d) Varved clays existing with non-uniform subgrade conditions.
Notes:
(a) Classifications are arranged in increasing order of frost susceptibility.
(b) Soils containing less than 3% of grains finer than 20-m are considered to be frost-free,
meaning no ice segregation and heaving occurs when the soil freezes.
(c) Abbreviation NFS is sometimes used in soil descriptions to indicate Not Frost Susceptible.
Swelling Clays
Some clays exhibit large volume change with changes in moisture content; shrinking with
a decrease in moisture and swelling with an increase. Swelling characteristics are related
primarily to clay content and mineralogy of the clay particles (see appendix on
geotechnical surveys). Swelling clays are undesirable as subgrade material because
associated volume changes cause roughness at the pavement surface and non-uniform
bearing for concrete slabs. Lime modification during construction may be considered as
a remedial measure.
Permafrost
Permanently frozen soil (permafrost) is encountered in the northern regions of Canada.

The zone immediately below ground surface, the active layer, is subject to yearly
freezing and thawing. Permafrost beneath the active zone may have high ice content,
particularly if the soil component is fine-grained. Pavement construction tends to
increase active layer depth, and unstable conditions and large settlements can be expected
when thaw penetrates previously unthawed fine-grained soil of high ice content. Some
considerations related to pavement design and construction in permafrost regions are
discussed in the chapter on miscellaneous topics.
- 2.16 -
2.2.3 Aggregate Standards
Aggregates are obtained from stone quarries, gravel pits and sand pits. Oversized
aggregate particles are crushed to a smaller size and materials may have to be screened,
blended or washed to meet specification requirements. A general requirement is that
aggregate be sound, hard, durable stone or gravel particles, free from soft, thin, elongated
or laminated pieces, organic material, frozen lumps or other deleterious substance. The
stability of aggregate mixtures is a function of particle interlock, and internal friction and
cohesion, and these properties are affected in large measure by gradation, particle
angularity and material density.
Figure 2.02 shows gradations that optimize density for a given maximum particle size.
An aggregate mixture is described as being well-graded if it has a gradation
approximating the maximum density distribution. In contrast, a mixture is open-graded if
consisting of coarse particles with few fines. For base construction, an old argument
exists on the merits of using well-graded aggregate mixtures that sacrifice drainage
characteristics for high stability as opposed to using open-graded mixtures that sacrifice
stability for good drainage. The use of a well-graded material is preferred. Aggregates
with a deficiency of particles in a given size range are termed gap-graded. For example,
gap grading results if material from a sand stockpile is blended with material from a
stockpile of uniformly sized coarse aggregate. Gap-graded aggregates are generally not
suitable for construction purposes due to poor stability. A uniformly graded aggregate
has a majority of particles of the same approximate diameter.
Sieve Size
0.075 0.425 4.75 9.5 19.0 37.5 50
100
theoretical maximum density gradation curve D(12.5) D(25) D(50)

(note: exponent of 0.45 rather than 0.5 sometimes used)
80
p = 100 ( d / D ) 0.5
Percent Finer Than (p)
60
40
20
0.05 0.10 1.0 10 100

Grain Size (d) mm
Figure 2.02 : MAXIMUM DENSITY GRADATION
- 2.17 -
Two other important aspects of aggregate gradation are maximum particle size and
percent passing the 75-m sieve. The stability of aggregate mixtures increases as
maximum particle size increases. Also, larger particle sizes offer less surface area per
unit volume and thus decrease binder requirements in asphalt and concrete mixes. On the
other hand, larger particle size increases the difficulty of grading and finishing surfaces.
Consequently, a compromise depending on usage is required for maximum particle size.
A fines content of 3% to 8% passing the 75-m sieve is generally specified for base and
asphalt aggregates. A minimum amount of fines is needed to produce suitable grading
and density, but an excess of fines has undesirable effects such as lower stability and
higher frost susceptibility and binder requirements. Consequently, the fines content of
these aggregates requires a degree of attention and control. For aggregate serving as
gravel surface, a fines content of 8% to 15% with some plasticity may be desirable to
increase cohesion and provide some bonding of the surface. These materials of higher
fines content should not be paved over. Portland cement concrete aggregate requires little
in the way of fines as the Portland cement itself serves the purpose.
Tables 2.07 to 2.10 summarize standard specification requirements for aggregate

gradations and other characteristics affecting stability and durability. Regardless of
compliance or non-compliance with specified physical requirements, specifications
usually contain a clause to the effect aggregates may be accepted or rejected on the basis
of past field performance.
Base and Subbase Aggregates
Table 2.07 gives standard specification requirements for airfield pavement base and
subbase aggregates. Material requirements for asphalt pavement base course are
considerably more stringent than for subbase because the base layer has less confinement
and is subject to higher stresses from aircraft tire pressures. The quality of base material
is less critical in the case of concrete pavements and the crushed content requirement is
sometimes deleted if expense is a more important consideration than an improved
working platform for the paving operation.
A wide range of granular materials can perform suitably as subbase, as reflected by the
very open limits for subbase gradation listed in Table 2.07. Some grading is desirable as
a material of uniformly sized particles may be difficult to compact and may present an
unstable working surface for construction equipment. However, the local availability of
materials may limit choices from an economic viewpoint.
Table 2.08 gives some alternate base gradations for secondary gravel roads.
Requirements are less demanding for these facilities and the alternatives presented are
intended to provide some flexibility to accept materials readily available from local
sources.
- 2.18 -
Table 2.07 : Base and Subbase Aggregate Standards
Material
ASTM
Property Test Cement
Base Gravel
Method Subbase Base Stabilized
Levelling Surface
Base
75-mm C136 100
50-mm " 100
Gradation (min max)
37.5-mm " 70 100 100

% Passing Sieve Size
25.0-mm " 100 100

19.0-mm " 50 75 75 100 75 100
9.5-mm " 40 65 50 75 50 85
4.75-mm " 30 50 30 50 35 65 35 65
2.00-mm " 20 50 25 50
425-m " 0 30 10 30 10 30 15 30
300-m " 10 30
150-m " 0 10
75-m C117 08 38 38 8 15
Crushed Content (%) (min)

50-mm to 37.5-mm 60
D5821
37.5-mm to 19.0-mm 60 60
19.0-mm to 4.75-mm 60 60
Liquid Limit (%) (max) D4318 25 25 25 25 35
Plasticity Index (%) (max) D4318 6 6 6 6 4 to 9
Degradation Loss (%) (max) C131 50 45 45 50 50
Soundness Loss (%) (max)

coarse aggregate C88 12
fine aggregate 16
Other Requirements:
(a) Aggregates to be sound, hard, durable stone or gravel particles, free from soft, thin, elongated or laminated particles,
organic material, frozen lumps or other deleterious substance.
(b) Crushed content desirable but not necessary for aggregate under Portland cement concrete and for gravel surfaces.
(c) Use gradation A in test method C131 for degradation loss.
(d) In test method C88 for soundness loss, use magnesium sulphate and five immersion-dry cycles.
(e) Gravel surface aggregate (do not pave over) percent finer than 75-m not to exceed two-thirds of percent finer than 425-m.
Table 2.08 : Alternate Base Gradations for Secondary Gravel Roads
Sieve % Passing
Size A B C D E F
50-mm 100 100
25.0-mm 75 95 100 100 100 100
9.5-mm 30 65 40 75 50 85 60 100
4.75-mm 25 55 30 60 35 65 50 85 55 100 70 100
2.00-mm 15 40 20 45 25 50 40 70 40 100 55 100
425-m 8 20 15 30 15 30 25 45 20 55 30 70
75-m 2 8 5 15 5 15 10 25 6 20 8 25
Note: Gradations listed in descending order of preference.
- 2.19 -
Asphalt Concrete Aggregate
Table 2.09 gives standard specification requirements for asphalt concrete aggregate. The
gradations listed are intended to produce high-density mixes with sufficient voids to
prevent bleeding or undesirable plastic flow. The coarser gradation for lower course
aggregate promotes higher stability and a lesser asphalt cement requirement. The finer
gradation for surface course produces a smoother and less permeable, tightly-finished
surface.
Mix design gradation must fall within the min-max values listed in Table 2.09. Once a
gradation is approved, variation during aggregate production must not exceed specified
limits ranging from 5% for sieve sizes 4.75-mm and larger, down to 1% for the 75-m
sieve size.
Specifications normally contain a clause stipulating the gradation of asphalt aggregate

must form a smooth curve without sharp breaks when plotted on a semi-log gradation
chart. This requirement is intended to prevent the use of a gap-graded aggregate having a
deficiency of particles within a given size range. Gap-graded aggregate tends to produce
an asphalt mixe of low stability and high flow.
Portland Cement Concrete Aggregate
Table 2.10 gives standard specification requirements for Portland cement concrete
aggregate. Alternatively, aggregate may be specified to comply with the requirements of
CSA Standard A23.1. CSA Standard A23.1 lists a number of aggregate gradations
designated by maximum nominal size and the designation chosen for specification
purposes should be grading 40-5, which is similar to the gradation listed in Table 2.10.
An exception occurs for aggregates susceptible to D-cracking which have been

encountered in the prairie provinces of Canada. If an aggregate is known to be
susceptible to D-cracking, maximum coarse aggregate size should be reduced to
19.0-mm as the phenomenon is caused primarily by larger particles.
Service records should be reviewed to ensure an aggregate is not susceptible to

deleterious alkali-aggregate reactions, D-cracking, or similar performance problems. In
the absence of service records, aggregate suitability should be evaluated by the methods
outlined in CSA Standard A23.1.
- 2.20 -
Table 2.09 : Asphalt Concrete Aggregate Standards
Hot Mixed Asphalt

Mixed
ASTM
Property In-Place
Test Method
Lower Surface Asphalt
Course Course
25.0-mm C136 100 100

Gradation (min max)
12.5-mm " 70 85 100 80 100

9.5-mm " 70 90
4.75-mm " 40 65 55 75 50 70
2.36-mm " 35 50
2.00-mm " 30 50 35 55
600-m " 18 29
425-m " 15 30 15 30
180-m " 5 20 5 20
75-m C117 38 38 4 10
Loss by Washing (%) (max) C117

coarse aggregate 2.0 1.5 ----
Sand Equivalent (%) (min) D2419 50 50 35

Crushed Content (%) (min)
25.0-mm to 12.5-mm D5821 60 60
12.5-mm to 4.75-mm 60 60 60
L.A. Degradation Loss (%) (max) C131 25 25 25
Soundness Loss (%) (max) C88
coarse aggregate 12 12 ----
fine aggregate 16 16
Micro-Deval Abrasion Loss (%) (max)
coarse aggregate ** 14 14 ----
fine aggregate 20 20
Lightweight Particles (%) (max) C123 3 1.5 3
Absorption (%) (max) C127

coarse aggregate 2.0 1.75 ----
Other Requirements:
(a) Aggregate to be sound, hard, durable stone or gravel particles, free from soft, thin, elongated or laminated pieces, organic
material, frozen lumps or other deleterious substance.
(b) In test method C131 for Los Angeles degradation loss, use gradation B for lower course aggregate and gradation C for
surface course aggregate.
(c) In test method C88 for soundness loss, use magnesium sulphate and five immersion-dry cycles.
(d) For micro-Deval abrasion testing, use test method CSA A23.2-29A for coarse aggregate and CSA A23.2-23A for fine
aggregate.
(e) In test method C123 for lightweight particles, use heavy liquid with a specific gravity of 2.40 to separate particles such as
shale (specific gravity 2.35), coal or lignite (specific gravity 2.0).
- 2.21 -
Table 2.10 : Portland Cement Concrete Aggregate Standards
Material
ASTM
Property Coarse Aggregate
Test Method Fine
Aggregate
A B
37.5-mm C136 100 100

25.0-mm " 90 100 58 82
Gradation (min max)
19.0-mm " 60 85 36 64
12.5-mm " 25 60 18 50
9.5-mm " 100 15 45 6 26
4.75-mm " 90 100 05 05
2.36-mm " 70 95
1.18-mm " 50 75
600-m " 25 55
300-m " 10 30
150-m " 05
75-m C117 05 01 01
Crushed Content (%) (min) D5821 50
Soundness Loss (%) (max) C88 16 12

Micro-Deval Abrasion Loss
(e) 20 14
(%) (max)
Lightweight Particles (%) (max) C123 2.0 2.5
Lighter than
Organic Impurities C40
standard
Clay Lumps (%) (max) C142 1.0 0.25
Flat or Elongated Particles

D4791 15
(%) (max)
Other Requirements:
(a) If crusher screenings are blended with the sand, screenings should not exceed 25% of the fine aggregate.
(b) Gradation A is for either crushed gravel or stone; gradation B is an alternate for crushed stone.
(c) Crushed content to be determined on each coarse aggregate sieve size.
(d) In test method C88 for soundness loss, use magnesium sulphate and five immersion-dry cycles.
(e) For micro-Deval abrasion testing, use test method CSA A23.2-29A for coarse aggregate and CSA A23.2-23A for fine
aggregate.
(f) In test method C123 for lightweight particles, use heavy liquid with a specific gravity of 2.40 to separate out particles such as
shale (specific gravity 2.35), coal or lignite (specific gravity 2.0).
(g) If colour is darker than standard in test method C40 for organic impurities, test to C87 to evaluate the effect of organic
impurities on strength of mortar.
(h) A flat or elongated particle is one having a maximum dimension exceeding minimum dimension by a factor of five or more.
- 2.22 -
2.3 BINDERS
2.3.1 Asphalt Cement
Bitumens are cementitious substances composed principally of high molecular weight

hydrocarbons soluble in carbon disulfide. They are black or dark coloured and may be a
solid, semi-solid or of fluid consistency. Asphalt is a bituminous material widely used in
pavement construction. Coal tar is also a bitumen and this material is used in special
applications requiring resistance to damage from fuel spills.
Although there are some natural occurring sources, most asphalt is derived from crude
petroleum and is manufactured from the residue remaining after distillation to remove the
lighter fractions of the crude, including naphtha, gasoline, kerosene and lubricating oils.
Asphalt cement is a desirable bonding agent for pavement surfaces because it is a strong
adhesive, waterproof, and resistant to most chemicals. The material is a solid or
semi-solid at normal temperatures but is readily liquefied by the application of heat,
emulsifying in water (emulsified asphalt) or dissolving in petroleum solvents (cutback
asphalt).
CGSB Penetration Grading System for Asphalt Cement
The principal use of asphalt cement is the manufacture of hot mix asphalt concrete and
the material has traditionally been graded by penetration. A secondary grading based on
temperature susceptibility was added to the CGSB specification some years ago.
Table 2.11 summarizes physical characteristics and associated requirements.
Penetration is an indication of hardness when asphalt cement is at a temperature of 25C

and the property is measured using a needle-like instrument weighted to 100 grams. The
needle is brought to bear on the surface of the asphalt and after 5 seconds, the penetration
of the needle into the asphalt is recorded in units of 0.1 mm. In descending order of
hardness, the six penetration grades of asphalt cement marketed in Canada are 60-70, 80-
100, 120-150, 150-200, 200-300 and 300-400.
Temperature susceptibility refers to the change in consistency (penetration or viscosity)

asphalt cement undergoes as temperature changes. Low levels of temperature
susceptibility are desirable as asphalt with a suitable penetration at 25C but of high
temperature susceptibility may become too soft at hot summer temperatures and too
brittle at cold winter temperatures. Standard CAN/CGSB-16.3 classifies asphalt cements
into three groups of temperature susceptibility: Group A, Group B and Group C.
Group A cements have the lowest degree of temperature susceptibility.
The grade of asphalt cement selected for a construction project is a compromise as a

harder, low-penetration cement is desired to increase the stability of the asphalt concrete
and a softer, high-penetration cement is desired to decrease susceptibility to thermal
cracking at low temperatures. Consequently, the grade recommended for a project
depends on the climate of the project site, as indicated in Table 2.12.
- 2.23 -
Table 2.11 : Asphalt Cement Penetration Grades
Penetration Grade
ASTM
Property Test
Method 60 - 70 80 - 100 120 - 150 150 - 200 200 - 300 300 - 400
Penetration at 25C D5
units of 0.1 mm, min 60 80 120 150 200 300
max 70 100 150 200 300 400
Flash Point, C , min D92 230 230 220 220 175 175
Thin-Film Oven Test D1754

% loss in mass, max 0.8 0.85 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.5
Retained Penetration of ---

Thin-Film Oven Test Residue
% of original penetration, min 52 47 42 40 37 35
Solubility in Trichloroethylene D2042

% by mass, min 99.0
Kinematic Viscosity at 135C D2170 As calculated below for Temperature

mm2/sec, min Susceptibility Group specified.
Note: As a general requirement, the asphalt cement shall be homogeneous and shall not foam when heated to 175C
A
Temperature Susceptibility vis min = 5375 pen -0.635
Group
B vis min = 3970 pen -0.623
{ vis min = minimum kinematic
viscosity at 135C }
{ pen = penetration at 25C }
C vis min = 7970 pen -0.860
Note : Specification CGSB-16.3-M90 has an alternative definition for Temperature Susceptibility Group based on absolute
viscosity measured at 60C. See CGSB-16.3-M90 if that definition is preferred.
- 2.24 -
Table 2.12 : Asphalt Cement Grade Selection

Penetration Grade and Group
Site Freezing Index
(C.days) Runways and Taxiways Aprons
500 80 100 80 100

500 to 1400 120 150, Group A 80 100, Group A
1400 150 200, Group A 120 150, Group A
Note: Freezing Index is defined in the chapter on structural design and evaluation
Performance Grading of Asphalt Cement
The performance grading system for asphalt binders is a recent initiative of the asphalt
industry and some details of the system are still evolving along with application
experience. The specification of asphalt cements by the performance grading system
should be approached with caution until a correlation has been established with the
CGSB classification system based on penetration grading and temperature susceptibility.
A performance grade is designated in the form PG xx yy, where xx is the high design
temperature for an asphalt pavement surface and -yy is the low design temperature
(e.g. PG 64 28). The high design temperature is one of the standard 6C increment
levels 46, 52, 58, 64, 70, 76 and the low design temperature is one of the standard 6C
increment levels listed in Table 2.13. As indicated in Table 2.13, property requirements
specified for performance graded asphalt binders remain constant irrespective of grade
but the temperature at which these requirements must be met varies with grade. If the
range between high and low design temperatures exceeds 90C, the addition of polymer
modifiers to the asphalt cement may be needed to meet specified requirements, with a
corresponding increase in cost. Temperature susceptibility decreases as the difference
between high and low design temperature increases.
High and low design temperatures for asphalt pavement surfaces are usually established
from air temperature statistics as actual pavement temperature data are rarely available.
Figure 2.03 provides some relationships from which design temperatures may be
estimated for road pavements based on maximum and minimum annual air temperatures.
Local road agencies should also be consulted to determine their specification practice and
possible experience with performance graded asphalts.
The high design temperature grade as established for road pavements should be increased
for airfield pavements serving larger aircraft. It is recommended the high design
temperature grade be increased by one level if the design aircraft tire pressure exceeds
0.5 MPa, and increased by two levels if the design aircraft tire pressure exceeds 1.0 MPa.
The low temperature grade selected should provide for at least the 90C difference
between high and low design temperatures that can be accommodated without the
additional cost of polymer modification. The FAA (Engineering Brief #59) recommends
the high design temperature grade for airfield pavements be not less than 64 and not more
than 76.
- 2.25 -
Table 2.13 : Asphalt Binder Performance Grades
Current Grades
Grade Specification Format High Temperature xx Low Temperature yy
PG xx yy PG 46 -34, -40, -46
PG 52 -10, -16, -22, -28, -34, -40, -46
xx = maximum pavement PG 58 -16, -22, -28, -38, -40
design temperature PG 64 -10, -16, -22, -28, -34, -40
yy = minimum pavement PG 70 -10, -16, -22, -28, -34, -40
design temperature PG 76 -10, -16, -22, -28, -34
PG 82 -10, -16, -22, -28, -34
Property Test Method Requirement Testing Temperature C

Original asphalt binder
Flash Point maximum C ASTM D92 230 ---
Viscosity maximum Pa.s ASTM D4402 3 135

Rolling Thin Film Oven
ASTM D2872
maximum % loss 1.00 ---
Dynamic Shear
G* / sin , minimum kPa * 1.00 maximum design temperature
25 mm plate, 1 mm gap
Asphalt binder aged in the Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO)
Dynamic Shear
G* / sin , minimum kPa * 2.20 maximum design temperature
25 mm plate, 1 mm gap
Asphalt binder aged in RTFO plus Pressure Aging Vessel
Dynamic Shear 4 + (xx+yy) / 2
G* sin , maximum kPa * 5000 e.g.: for xx = 58 & yy = 34
8 mm plate, 2 mm gap test temp = 4 + (5834) / 2 = 16
Creep Stiffness 10 + yy
S, maximum MPa * 300 e.g.: for yy = 28
m-value, minimum 0.300 test temp = 10 28 = 18
Direct Tension
* same as creep stiffness
failure strain, minimum % 1.0
Note:
* No ASTM test method. Refer to Asphalt Institute SP-1 Performance Graded Binder Specification and Testing."
(Note: based on relationships given by the Asphalt Institute in SP-1, with some approximations.)
80
High Design Temperature C
Low Design Temperature C
70 -50 latitude
60
64
50
-40
58 40
-34
52
-28
46
40 -22
50
60
latitude
30 -10
20 25 30 35 40 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50
Average Annual Maximum of Daily Averages C Average Annual Minimum of Daily Averages C
Figure 2.03 : ASPHALT PAVEMENT DESIGN TEMPERATURES
- 2.26 -
Viscosity Temperature Charts
Viscosity may be measured and expressed in various units. Absolute viscosity is defined
as the ratio between applied shear stress and rate of shear (constant for a Newtonian
fluid). In the SI system of measurement, the unit of absolute viscosity is Pa.s. In the cgs
system of measurement, the unit is g/cm.s (1 dyne.s/cm2), called a Poise (P). Kinematic
viscosity is equal to absolute viscosity divided by the density of the asphalt cement at the
measurement temperature. Kinematic viscosity is often used in situations where results
are affected by gravity as well as fluid viscosity. The unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s
in the SI system of measurement and cm2/s (called a Stoke (St)) in the cgs system of
measurement. In practice, kinematic viscosity is usually measured in units of mm2/s
which is numerically equal to centistokes (cSt). For conversion between absolute and
kinematic viscosity, densities (g/cm3) of asphalt cement at 60C and 135C can be
estimated by multiplying specific gravity at 25C by 0.98 and 0.934, respectively. If not
known, the specific gravity of asphalt cement at 25C may be roughly estimated as 1.015.
Site: example Contract No: 54321 Mix: #3 upper Sheet of

1500 3000
Bitumen
150 - 200 1.0291
2500
Pen Sp. Gr.
1000 2000
900 Supplier
800 Refinery
700 1500
600 Source
500 1000
900
(mm2/sec or cSt)
400 800
700
300
Saybolt Furol Viscosity (seconds)
600
Plant 500
Temperature
200 ( 5 C) 400
350
150 300
Kinematic Viscosity
Lab 250
Compacting
100 Temperature
(280 30 cSt) 200
90
80
70 150
Lab
60 Mixing
Temperature
50 (170 20 cSt)
100
90
40 80
70
Notes:
30 a) Plant temperature not to exceed 160 C. 60
b) Relationship Sayolt Furol to Kinematic Viscosity per ASTM D2161.
25 50
35 60 85 100 115 130 145 160 175
Temperature (C)
Figure 2.04 : ASPHALT CEMENT VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE CHART
- 2.27 -
The viscosity-temperature relationship of asphalt cement is needed to determine suitable

mixing and compacting temperatures for asphalt concrete mixes. When preparing
Marshall briquette specimens in the laboratory, mixing and compaction should take place
at temperatures corresponding to those giving the asphalt cement a kinematic viscosity of
170 20 cSt and 280 30 cSt, respectively (ASTM 1559). Plant mixing should occur at
temperatures giving the asphalt cement a viscosity in the range of 150 to 300 cSt.
Asphalt cement viscosity was commonly measured at various temperatures using Saybolt
Furol methods (ASTM E102), and kinematic viscosity was estimated from these
measurements as shown in Figure 2.04. Modern practice is to measure viscosity in more
fundamental units and an asphalt cement viscosity-temperature chart to ASTM D2493
gives absolute viscosity in units of Pa.s as a function of temperature.
2.3.2 Asphalt Emulsions and Cutbacks
Asphalt emulsions and cutbacks are referred to as liquid asphalts. They are used for the
application of prime and tack coats, surface treatments, and in the manufacture of cold
mixes. Cutbacks were widely used in the past but emulsion usage is now more common
due to considerations related to energy conservation and environmental protection.
Asphalt emulsions consist of small droplets of asphalt cement dispersed in water

containing an emulsifying agent. Following application, the emulsion breaks, the water
evaporates and the asphalt cement remains to perform its function. Depending on the
manufacturing process and type of emulsifying agent used, the asphalt droplets carry a
negative electrical charge (anionic emulsion) or positive electrical charge (cationic
emulsion). Anionic emulsions are employed for most applications although cationic
emulsions may perform better for surface treatment applications if the aggregate being
used consists primarily of particles with negatively charged surfaces. High-float
emulsions are anionic emulsions to which certain chemicals have been added to permit
the formation of thicker asphalt films on aggregate particles and to decrease the tendency
of the emulsion to drain from the particles. Table 2.14 summarizes asphalt emulsion
grades and associated physical requirements. The designations RS (rapid setting), MS
(medium setting) and SS (slow setting) give an indication of setting rate. The rapid and
medium setting emulsions are divided into two grades with the 2 grade having a higher
viscosity better resisting run-off, but which necessitates some heating for application.
The SS grade can be cut back with water which is an advantage in tack coat applications.
Asphalt cutbacks consist of asphalt cement dissolved in a petroleum solvent. These

materials are divided into three types depending on the volatility of the solvent employed:
rapid curing (RC) cutbacks gasoline or naphtha type solvent;
medium curing (MC) cutbacks kerosene type solvent;
slow curing (SC) cutbacks heavy oil solvent, or may be obtained by stopping the
refining process on reaching a suitable consistency.
Each of these cutback types is divided into a number of grades based on viscosity.
Viscosity is controlled primarily by the amount of solvent present and to a minor degree
by the penetration of the base asphalt cement. Table 2.15 summarizes asphalt cutback
grades and associated physical requirements.
- 2.28 -
Table 2.14 : Asphalt Emulsion Grades

ASTM
Emulsion Type / Property Requirement for Grade
Test Method
Rapid Setting Medium Setting Slow Setting
Anionic Emulsion RS-1 RS-2 MS-1 MS-2 SS-1 SS-1h
min max min max min max min max min max min max
Viscosity (SF) at 25C, sec D244 20 100 ---- ---- 20 100 ---- ---- 20 60 20 60
Viscosity (SF) at 50C, sec " ---- ---- 50 300 ---- ---- 50 ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Storage Stability, 24-h, % " ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5
Demulsibility, % " 60 ---- 60 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Coating Test " ---- ---- ---- ---- * * ---- ---- ---- ----
Cement Mixing Test, % " ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2.0 ---- 2.0
Particle Charge ** " negative ** negative ** ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Sieve Test, % retained " ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1
Residue by Distillation, % " 55 *** 60 *** 55 ---- 65 ---- 55 *** 55 ***
Tests on Residue by Distillation
Penetration, 0.1 mm D5 100 200 100 200 100 200 100 200 100 200 40 100
Ductility, cm D113 60 ---- 60 ---- 60 ---- 60 ---- 60 ---- 60 ----
Solubility, % D2042 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ----
Notes:
* Evaluate to ASTM D244 with modifications. The stone is to be thoroughly and uniformly coated after vigorous mixing of the limestone and emulsified asphalt for
five minutes. Immerse completely in tap water and pour water off. Stone shall remain 90% or more coated.
** Follow ASTM D244 for testing particle charge of cationic emulsions, except asphalt is deposited on the anode.
*** Upper limit on % residue is governed by the viscosity limits.
Rapid Setting Quick Set Notes:
Cationic Emulsion CRS-1 CRS-2 CQS-1h
* The test requirement for settlement may be
min max min max min max waived when the emulsified asphalt is used in less
Viscosity (SF) at 25C, sec D244 ---- ---- ---- ---- 20 100 than five days.
Viscosity (SF) at 50C, sec " 35 150 150 400 ---- ----
Settlement, 5-d, % * " ---- 5 ---- 5 ---- 5 ** The 24 h storage stability test may be used
Storage Stability, 24-h, % ** " ---- 1 ---- 1 ---- 1 instead of the five day settlement test, but in case of
dispute, the five day storage settlement test governs.
Particle Charge " positive positive positive
Sieve Test, % retained " ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1
*** Upper limit on % residue is governed by the
Residue by Distillation, % " 62 *** 65 *** 57 *** viscosity limits.
Oil Portion of Distillate, % " ---- 3 ---- 3 ---- ----
Tests on Residue by Distillation # Determine ductility at 25C for 100 to 200
Penetration, 0.1 mm D5 100 250 100 250 40 125 penetration asphalts, and at 15C for 200 to 250
Ductility, cm # D113 60 ---- 60 ---- 60 ---- penetration.
Solubility, % D2042 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ----
Surface Treatment Grades Mixing Grades
High Float Emulsion
HF-100S HF-150S HF-250S HF-350S HF-300M HF-500M HF-1000M
min max min max min max min max min max min max min max
Viscosity (SF) at 50C, sec D244 30 150 30 150 35 150 75 400 50 ---- 50 ---- 50 ----
Storage Stability, 24-h, % D244 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5 ---- 1.5
Demulsibility, % D244 60 ---- 60 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Coating Test D244 ** ** ** ** ** ** **
Workability at -10C * ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- Pass
Sieve Test, % retained D244 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1 ---- 0.1
Residue by Distillation, % D244* 62 ---- 62 ---- 62 ---- 65 ---- 65 ---- 65 ---- 65 ----
Oil Portion of Distillate, % D244 1.0 4 1.0 4 1.0 6 1.5 6 1.0 6 1.0 6 1.0 7
Tests on Residue by Distillation
Penetration, 0.1 mm D5* 90 150 150 250 250 500 350 750 300 ---- 500 ---- ---- ----
Apparent Visc. at 60C, Pa.s D2171* see Fig. A see Fig. A see Fig. A see Fig. A 10 40*** 8 20*** 2 8***
Solubility, % D2042 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ---- 97.5 ----
Float Test at 60C, sec D139* 1200 ---- 1200 ---- 1200 ---- 1200 ---- 1200 ---- 1200 ---- 1200 ----
1000 Notes:
Fig ure A
Minimum A ppa re nt V isc osity a t 60C (Pa .s)
500 * See CGSB-16.5 for testing guidelines and some modifications to these ASTM test methods.
300 ** To ASTM D244 with modifications. The stone is to be thoroughly and uniformly coated after vigorous
mixing of the limestone and emulsified asphalt for five minutes.
200
For surface treatment grades - immerse completely in tap water and pour water off. Stone shall remain
90% or more coated.
100 For mixing grades - allow to stand for three hours after initial mixing. Mix an additional five minutes.
Rinse twice in an approximately equal volume of water. After rinsing, mixture to show no appreciable
loss of bituminous film.
50
*** Viscosity limits shown for mixing grades are tentative. The supplier is to advise the purchaser before
30 delivery if the limits cannot be met.
20
10
80 100 200 300 500 1000
Penetration at 25C, 100 g, 5 s (0.1 mm)
The physical requirements listed reflect the following specifications; refer to these specifications for other requirements.
CGSB 16.2 M89 Emulsified Asphalts, Anionic Type, for Road Purposes
CGSB 16.4 M89 Emulsified Asphalts, Cationic Type, for Road Purposes
CGSB 16.5 M84 Asphalt, Emulsified, High-Float Type, for Road Purposes
- 2.29 -
Table 2.15 : Asphalt Cutback Grades

ASTM
Cutback Type / Property Requirement for Grade
Test Method
RC-30 RC-70 RC-250 RC-800 RC-3000
Rapid-Curing Cutback
min max min max min max min max min max
Kinematic Viscosity at 60C, mm2/s D2170 30 60 70 140 250 500 800 1600 3000 6000
Flash Point (Open Tag), C D3143 ---- ---- ---- ---- 27 ---- 27 ---- 27 ----
Distillation Test, D402

% of total distillate to 360C
to 190C 15 ---- 10 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
to 225C 55 ---- 50 ---- 35 ---- 15 ---- ---- ----
to 260C 75 ---- 70 ---- 60 ---- 45 ---- 25 ----
to 315C 90 ---- 85 ---- 80 ---- 75 ---- 70 ----
Residue from distillation to 360C
volume % by difference 50 ---- 55 ---- 65 ---- 75 ---- 80 ----
Tests on Residue from Distillation

Penetration at 25C, 0.1 mm D5 80 120 80 120 80 120 80 120 80 120
Ductility at 25C *, cm D113 100 ---- 100 ---- 100 ---- 100 ---- 100 ----
Solubility, % by mass D2042 99.0 ---- 99.0 ---- 99.0 ---- 99.0 ---- 99.0 ----
MC-30 MC-70 MC-250 MC-800 MC-3000
Medium-Curing Cutback
min max min max min max min max min max
Kinematic Viscosity at 60C, mm2/s D2170 30 60 70 140 250 500 800 1600 3000 6000
Flash Point (Open Tag), C D3143 38 ---- 38 ---- 65 ---- 65 ---- 65 ----
Distillation Test, D402

% of total distillate to 360C
to 225C ---- 25 ---- 20 ---- 10 ---- ---- ---- ----
to 260C 40 70 20 60 15 55 ---- 35 ---- 15
to 315C 75 93 65 90 60 87 45 80 15 75
Residue from distillation to 360C
volume % by difference 50 ---- 55 ---- 67 ---- 75 ---- 80 ----

Penetration at 25C, 0.1 mm D5 120 250 120 250 120 250 120 250 120 250
Ductility at 25C *, cm D113 100 ---- 100 ---- 100 ---- 100 ---- 100 ----
Solubility, % by mass D2042 99.0 ---- 99.0 ---- 99.0 ---- 99.0 ---- 99.0 ----
SC-70 SC-250 SC-800 SC-3000
Slow-Curing Cutback ------
min max min max min max min max
Kinematic Viscosity at 60C, mm2/s D2170 70 140 250 500 800 1600 3000 6000
Flash Point (C.O.C), C D92 65 ---- 80 ---- 90 ---- 105 ----
Distillation Test, D402 10 30 4 20 2 12 ---- 5

total distillate to 360C, % by vol.
Distillation Residue D2170

Kinematic viscosity at 60C, mm2/s 400 7000 800 10000 2000 16000 4000 35000
Asphalt Residue
residue of 100 penetration, % D243 50 ---- 60 ---- 70 ---- 80 ----
ductility of 100 pen residue at 25C* D113 100 ---- 100 ---- 100 ---- 100 ----
Solubility of distillation residue to D2042

360C, % by mass 99.0 ---- 99.0 ---- 99.0 ---- 99.0 ----
RM20
Special Primer
min max Notes:
Kinematic Viscosity at 60C, mm2/s D2170 20 35
Water content when tested to ASTM D95
Distillation Test, D402 - not to exceed 0.5% for SC grades,
% of total distillate to 360C - not to exceed 0.2% for all other types and grades.
to 190C ---- 60
to 225C 40 ---- * For all types and grades, if ductility at 25C is less than 100,
to 260C 70 ---- the material is acceptable if ductility at 15C is more than 100.
to 315C 85 ----
Residue from distillation to 360C The physical requirements listed reflect specification CGSB-16.1-M89;
volume % by difference 50 ---- refer to this specification for other requirements.
Penetration at 25C, 0.1 mm D5 80 200
Ductility at 25C *, cm D113 100 ----
Solubility, % by mass D2042 99.0 ----
- 2.30 -
2.3.3 Portland Cement
Portland cement is manufactured using appropriate proportions of:

lime (such as limestone, cement rock, oyster shell)
silica (such as sand, quartzite)
alumina (such as clay, shale, slag)
iron (such as iron ore, iron oxide, blast-furnace flue dust)
The selected raw materials are pulverized, proportioned and blended in such a way that
the resulting mixture has the desired chemical composition. A dry or wet manufacturing
process may be used. In the dry process, grinding and blending are done with dry
materials. In the wet process, the grinding and blending operations use a slurry. After
blending, the prepared mix is fed into the upper end of a kiln and passed through at a rate
controlled by the slope of the kiln and the speed at which the kiln rotates. Kiln
temperatures of 1400C to 1650C change the raw mix into Portland cement clinker. The
clinker is cooled and then pulverized. During this operation, a small amount of gypsum
is added to regulate the setting time of the cement.
The Canadian Standards Association specifies five types of Portland cement in CSA A5.
Type 10, normal:
a general purpose cement suitable for all uses where the special properties of the
other types are not required.
Type 20, moderate:
displays a moderate degree of sulphate resistance and relatively low heat of
hydration.
Type 30, high early strength:
provides high strengths at an early period, usually within a week or less.
Type 40, low heat of hydration:

for use when the rate and amount of heat generated during hydration must be
minimized, such as placing concrete in very hot weather, or for mass concrete
projects; strength develops at a slower rate.
Type 50, sulphate resistance:
for use when the concrete is subject to severe sulphate action.
In practice, Type 10 cement is used almost exclusively for the construction of airfield
pavements. High early strength, Type 30 cement, may be used in some maintenance
applications where downtime for slab repair or panel replacement is critical. CSA
Standard A5 specifies a number of physical and chemical requirements for Portland
cement but only the physical requirements summarized in Table 2.16 are normally
checked for quality control purposes.
- 2.31 -
Table 2.16 : Portland Cement Types
Physical Requirements for Portland Cement of Type

ASTM
Property 10 20 30 40 50
Test
Method High Low-Heat
Sulphate
Normal Moderate Early of
Resistance
Strength Hydration
Fineness C430
45-m sieve
max. retained, % 28 28 ---- ---- 28
Autoclave Expansion C151

maximum, % 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Time of Set C191

minimum, minutes 45 60 45 90 60
maximum, minutes 360 360 250 360 360
Heat of Hydration C186

7 day max., kJ/kg ---- 300* ----- 275 ----
Sulphate Resistance C452

expansion at 14 days
maximum, % ---- 0.050* ---- ---- 0.035
Compressive C109
Strength,** MPa
1 day, min. ---- ----- 13.5 ---- ----
3 days, min. 14.5 14.5 24.0 8.5 14.5
7 days, min. 20.0 20.0 ---- ---- 20.0
28 days, min.*** 26.5 26.5 ---- 25.0 26.5
Notes:
* The requirement of either heat of hydration or sulphate resistance may be specified at the option of the purchaser.
** The strength at any age to be higher than that of the preceding age.
*** 28 day strengths may be waived at the option of the purchaser.
The physical requirements listed reflect specification CSA A5 except ASTM test methods are referenced rather than CSA test
methods. See specification CSA A5 for chemical and other requirements.
If Portland cement is used with an aggregate potentially reactive with alkalis, then a low
alkali cement with a total alkali content of less than 0.6% should be used. The total alkali
content of a Portland cement is expressed as sodium oxide equivalent (Na2O + 0.658K2O)
and the sodium and potassium oxide content of cement may be measured using test
method ASTM C114.
To avoid a rapid set, Portland cement should be allowed to cool prior to use if delivered
to the job site at an elevated temperature, as may occur if the manufacturing plant is close
to the job site and shipping occurs immediately after manufacture. Also, Portland
cements from different manufacturers should not be mixed as differences in setting times
and other physical properties can lead to paving difficulties.
- 2.32 -
2.4 MIXES
2.4.1 Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete
Mix Design Methods
The method of designing asphalt concrete mixes presented in this section is based on the
Marshall method of mix design. This procedure has been widely used for many years
with generally satisfactory results when designing mixes for airfield pavements.
Superpave is a recently formulated mix design method being promoted by some

segments of the asphalt industry. The Superpave mix design method is detailed in the
Asphalt Institute document SP-2. Some elements of the design method are still evolving
and at the present time there is insufficient experience to reliably set criteria for asphalt
mixes intended for airfield pavements. If a proposed asphalt mix is developed using
Superpave methods, the mix should be subjected to additional testing to ensure it meets
the Marshall mix criteria and the Marshall test results can then be used as the basis for
construction quality control.
Standard Mix Requirements
Table 2.17 summarizes standard requirements for asphalt concrete mixes.
Table 2.17 : Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Standards
ASTM Test Requirement

Mix Property
Method Airfields Roads
Marshall Load (kN) (min) D1559 5.50

design tire pressure < 0.35 MPa 4.50
0.35 to 1.40 MPa 6.75
> 1.40 MPa 9.00
Marshal Flow Index (mm) (min max) D1559 24 24
Air Voids (%) (min max) D3203 35 35
Voids in Mineral Aggregate (%) (min) *

12.5-mm maximum sized aggregate 15 15
25.0-mm maximum sized aggregate 13 13
Tensile Strength Ratio (%) (min) D4867 75 75
Compactive effort on briquette specimens - blows each face : 50 75
* Note: void calculations shown in Table 2.19
- 2.33 -
Test Methods
The methods used to prepare and test asphalt mix samples are:
Molding and compacting briquette specimens - Asphalt briquette specimens are
prepared in accordance with test procedure ASTM D1559. The compaction effort
given is 50 blows per face with asphalt concrete mixes for airfield pavements and 75
blows per face with asphalt concrete mixes for roads and car parks.
Density determination - The bulk specific gravity of the briquette specimens is
determined by test method ASTM D1188. Paraffin coating of the specimens is not
necessary with the dense graded mixes used.
Void determination - For the calculation of voids, the maximum specific gravity of
the mix and asphalt cement absorption by the aggregate are determined by test
method ASTM D2041. Normally, absorption is measured on three samples at 5%
asphalt cement content and three samples at 6% asphalt cement content and an
average of these determinations is then used for all asphalt cement contents in the trial
mixes. With the asphalt cement absorption known, air voids in the mix can be
calculated by ASTM D3203. Voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) are calculated
on the basis of aggregate weight and bulk specific gravity as shown in Table 2.19.
Marshall load and flow - Marshall load (stability) and flow are measured by test
method ASTM D1559.
Tensile strength loss - Susceptibility of the mix to stripping is measured by tensile
strength loss in accordance with ASTM D4867. Testing should include the optional
freeze-thaw conditioning cycle. Normally, testing is needed at only one asphalt
cement content.
Preliminary Data
As illustrated in Table 2.18, the following information should be compiled before

Marshall testing begins:
accurate average gradations of each aggregate proposed for use
bulk specific gravity of the coarse and fine fractions of each aggregate
specific gravity of the asphalt cement
viscosity-temperature relationship of the asphalt cement
Aggregate Proportioning
If the use of more than one aggregate is proposed, the aggregate for the initial trial mix
should be proportioned to give a grading falling evenly within the specification limits.
Figure 2.05 illustrates a graphical procedure for proportioning two aggregates to meet a
given gradation. The proportions selected should be capable of being reproduced in the
field by the plant. Since the 4.75-mm sieve is normally the smallest used in asphalt
plants, the gradation of the aggregate passing the 4.75-mm sieve can be varied only by
adding other materials and not by subtracting portions of the aggregate.
- 2.34 -
100 gradation of aggregate 'A'

100
gradation of aggregate 'B'
90 specification gradation limits 90
4.75-
mm
sieve any gradation within these limit
80 80
meets specifications
Gradation of Aggregate 'A'
Gradation of Aggregate 'B'

70 70
2.00-
m m s ie
60 ve 60
50 50
40 40
425-m
sieve
30 30
180-m s
20 ieve 20
75-m sieve
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Amount of Aggregate 'B'
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Amount of Aggregate 'A'
Procedure:
1. Plot gradation of aggregate 'A' on left scale and gradation 'B' on right scale.
2. Join plotted points on left scale to corresponding points on right scale for each sieve size.
3. Plot specification limits for each sieve size on the diagonal line corresponding to that sieve
size using the vertical scales.
4. The gradation of a mixture is given by the intercepts of the vertical line representing the
mixture with the diagonal lines representing the various sieve sizes.
5. Suitable blended mixtures meeting the specified gradation can be found as indicated, between
the two vertical lines drawn through the innermost points of the specified gradation limits.
Figure 2.05 : PROPORTIONING AGGREGATES
- 2.35 -
Trial Mixes
The mix design procedure involves the molding and compacting of asphalt concrete
briquette specimens at various asphalt cement contents and then testing these samples for
stability, flow and void properties.
Briquette specimens should be molded at 4%, 5%, 6%, and 7% asphalt cement for lower
course mixes and at 5%, 6%, 7%, and 8% for surface course mixes. Three specimens
should be prepared and tested at each cement content. If necessary, a second set of trial
briquettes should be prepared using at least four asphalt cement contents bracketing the
optimum percent of cement determined in the first trial.
Tables 2.18 and 2.19 are example mix design data sheets containing an example of test
results and computations involved in the mix design process
Selecting Asphalt Content
Figure 2.06 shows the plotting of test results from trial mix briquettes to determine
optimum asphalt cement content. One method of selecting the optimum asphalt cement
content is to average the cement contents corresponding to the peak of the stability curve,
the peak of the unit weight curve, 4% air voids, and 80% voids filled. A different asphalt
cement content must be selected if the mix does not satisfy all the specification
requirements at this cement content. If possible, a job mix should be selected so all
requirements are met within a range of 0.25% of the chosen asphalt cement content.
Where a choice exists, asphalt cement content should be kept on the high side to enhance
durability.
Modifying Mix Characteristics
A different mix must be tried if the initial trial mix does not satisfy all of the specification
requirements at any asphalt cement content. Various methods are available to improve
mixes for additional trials.
It is assumed the aggregate is reasonably well graded. Although the use of trial aggregate
gradations outside of specification limits may be helpful to ascertain the effect of changes
in gradation, the final job mix aggregate gradation should fall within specification limits.
When investigating the effect of changes in aggregate gradation on mix properties, the
changes in the trial gradations should be sufficiently large that the effects of the changes
are not obscured by the natural variability of test results. The following changes might be
used:
Sieve Change
12.5-mm 10 %
4.75-mm 10 %
2.00-mm 10 %
75-m 4%
- 2.36 -
(a) To Increase Stability

Increase the percent of crushed particles. High stability cannot be achieved unless
the aggregate contains a good percentage of crushed particles. Crushed particles in
the fine aggregate also have a pronounced effect on stability. Screening and
blending operations should conserve all of the fine aggregate produced as a result of
the crushing operation.
Increase the percent of coarse aggregate.
Increase the percent of filler.
(b) To Increase Voids in the Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

The most effective method of increasing VMA is likely to be the introduction of
additional crushed rock coarse aggregate.
Changing aggregate grading can also change VMA. A more open aggregate
gradation and therefore a higher VMA should result from increasing the fines
content or increasing the coarse content to increase deviation from the maximum
density curve indicated by Figure 2.02.
The introduction of bulges into the fine aggregate portion of the grading curve by
adding fine sand of narrow gradation, such as dune sand, is also very effective for
increasing the VMA of paving mixtures. This solution, however, usually creates a
marked drop in the stability of the mixture and consequently the approach cannot
always be employed to obtain higher VMA.
If aggregate VMA is too low due to dense grading, the introduction of mineral filler
may make the problem worse by reducing VMA still further.
(c) To Increase Flow Value

In some cases, an increase in the filler content may increase the flow value without
causing other properties to fall outside specification limits.
Flow increases with asphalt cement content and an increase in asphalt cement
content may be required along with steps to prevent the other properties from falling
outside specification limits.
(d) Modifying Air Voids and Percent Voids Filled
Changes to VMA and the asphalt cement content modify air voids and percent voids
filled.
(e) To Decrease Tensile Strength Loss
Anti-stripping agents may be used to decrease the susceptibility of a mix to stripping and
strength loss on exposure to the effects of water. Hydrated lime is generally effective as
an anti-stripping agent when added in the amount of 0.5% to 1% by weight of the mix.
Also, several proprietary anti-stripping agents are available commercially.
- 2.37 -
Table 2.18 : Asphalt Concrete Mix Design Aggregate Summary
SITE : ___________________________________ MIX DESIGNATION: ______________________

REGION: ________________________________ DATE TESTED: ____________ by: __________
CONTRACT No: __________________________ TESTING LAB: ___________________________
AGGREGATE SUMMARY
% % GRADATIONS - % PASSING SIEVE (mm)
No. DESCRIPTIONS
of Total Fractures 25 12.5 4.75 2.00 0.425 0.180 0.075
1 12.5mm Stockpile 45 70 100 68.4 46.2 16.8 8.5 5.0
2 12.5mm 100% crushed 45 100 100 44.5 29.3 13.4 8.6 6.3
3 Sanatorium Sand 10 0 100 100 98.9 94.2 27.0 4.3
4
5
6 Blended Mix 100 100 60.8 43.8 23.0 10.4 5.1
AGGREGATE FOR BRIQUETTE

Loss Angles Abrasion 24 %
Sand Equivalent 54 % Agg. Grading % of Agg. Cum.
Shale NIL % No. Total Mass Mass
Pass Ret
RICE VACUUM TEST 25 12.5
Total Bitumen Maximum Absorbed Bitumen
12.5 4.75 14.2 170 170
kg/100 kg Density kg/m3 kg/100 kg 1
5 2520 1.74 4.75 2.00 10.0 120 290
6 2464 1.53 2.00 Pan 20.8 250 540
25 12.5
12.5 4.75 25.0 300 840
2
Mean Absorption 1.64 4.75 2.00 6.8 82 922
AGGREGATE SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.00 Pan 13.2 158 1080
USE BULK DRY ASTM C127, C128 25 12.5
Specific % x Sp.Gg 12.5 4.75
Aggregate % of Total 3
Gravity 100 4.75 2.00
coarse 14.2 2.640 0.375 2.00 Pan 10.0 120 1200
1
fine 30.8 2.566 0.790 25 12.5
coarse 25.0 2.643 0.661 12.5 4.75
2 4
fine 20.0 2.602 0.520 4.75 2.00
coarse 2.00 Pan
3
fine 10.0 2.540 0.254 25 12.5
coarse 12.5 4.75
4 5
fine 4.75 2.00
coarse 2.00 Pan
5
fine Totals 100 1200
Design Bitumen Content
Totals 100 2.600
Per 100 kg Aggregate 5.8 kg
- 2.38 -
Table 2.19 : Asphalt Concrete Mix Design Mix Calculations
SITE : ___________________________________ MIX DESIGNATION: ______________________

REGION: ________________________________ DATE TESTED: ____________ by: __________
CONTRACT No: __________________________ TESTING LAB: ___________________________
SHEET __________ of ____________ SHEETS
1 Sample Number
2 Compacting Temperature (C) 133 135 135 138 140
BITUMEN
3 Total Bitumen (kg per 100 kg agg.) 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
4 Absorbed Bitumen 1.64 1.64 1.64 1.64 1.64
5 Net Bitumen (3) (4) 2.36 3.36 4.36 5.36 6.36
BRIQUETTE
6 Weight in Air (g) 1234.2 1238.9 1240.4 1238.6 1251.8
7 Weight in Water (g) 709.2 715.9 719.4 721.5 720.0
3
8 Volume (cm ) (6) (7) 525.0 523.0 521.0 517.1 531.8
9 Bulk Specific Gravity (6) (8) 2.351 2.369 2.381 2.395 2.354
3
PER m OF MIX
10 Weight of Mix (kg) 2351 2369 2381 2395 2354
11 Weight of Aggregate (kg) 2260 2256 2246 2238 2180
((10) x100) / (100 + (3))
12 Weight of Net Bitumen (kg) 53.3 75.8 97.7 120.0 138.6

(11) x (5) / 100
3
13 Volume of Aggregate (m ) 0.870 0.868 0.865 0.860 0.838
(11) / (1000 x SG agg)
14 VMA = 1.00 (13) 0.130 0.132 0.135 0.140 0.162
15 Volume of Net Bitumen 0.052 0.074 0.095 0.117 0.135
(12) / (1000 x SG bit.)
16 Air Voids (14) (15) 0.078 0.058 0.040 0.023 0.027
17 Voids Filled (15) / (14) 0.040 0.056 0.700 0.835 0.835
STABILITY
18 Dial Reading 88.1 115.4 116.2 109.2 93.0
19 Load (kN) 6.46 8.31 8.40 7.89 6.79
20 Volume Correction 0.972 0.978 0.984 0.995 0.953
21 Corrected Load (kN) 6.27 8.13 8.26 7.85 6.46
22 Flow (mm) 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.75 3.75
23
24
- 2.39 -
2390 10
Percent Voids - total mix

Unit Weight (kg/m3)
2380 8
2370 6
2360 4
2350 2
2340 0
4 5 6 7 8 4 5 6 7 8
Bitumen - kg per 100 kg of aggregate Bitumen - kg per 100 kg of aggregate
Percent Voids in the Mineral Aggregate

9.0 18
8.0 16
Stability (kN)
7.0 14
6.0 12
5.0 10
4.0 8
4 5 6 7 8 4 5 6 7 8
Percent Total Voids Filled With Asphalt
3.5 90
3.0 80
Flow (mm)
2.5 70
2.0 60
1.5 50
1.0 40
4 5 6 7 8 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 2.06 : MIX PROPERTIES vs ASPHALT CEMENT CONTENT
- 2.40 -
2.4.2 Portland Cement Concrete
Mix Requirements
Table 2.20 summarizes standard specification requirements for Portland cement concrete
mixes.
Table 2.20 : Portland Cement Concrete Standards
Property ASTM Test Method Requirement
cement content - 280 to 310 kg/m3
28-Day flexural strength C78 & C192

average (min) 4.0 MPa
standard deviation (max) 9% of the average
slump C143
slip form paving 10 mm to 35 mm
fixed form paving 25 mm to 60 mm
entrained air content C231 5% 1%
Cement content may exceed 310 kg/m3 if essential to obtaining specified levels of
strength. In general, higher cement contents are not desirable due to cost and may
produce excessive heat of hydration or shrinkage resulting in uncontrolled transverse
cracking.
Admixtures
The only admixture used on a regular basis is air entraining agent, as required to produce
an air content of 5% 1% in the concrete mix. Occasionally, a plasticizer may be
required to give suitable workability if slip form paving is employed. Other admixtures
should be avoided as they tend to be expensive, are not needed, and complicate the
construction process. An exception may occur if the aggregate used is susceptible to
alkali-reactive problems. Special mixes, including materials such as fly ash, may be
required to counter alkali-reactivity, or the alkali content of the cement should be
reduced.
Mix Design Objective
The objective of a concrete mix design is to determine the proportion of mix components
resulting in a concrete having required workability, durability, and strength. A mix is
defined by specifying the following proportions per cubic metre of concrete:
weight of mixing water weight of coarse aggregate
weight of cement amount of air-entraining agent
weight of fine aggregate amount of other admixture
- 2.41 -
If the Contractor is responsible for submitting a mix design, the Engineer need only
check the proposed mix produces concrete meeting specification requirements. If the
Engineer is responsible for the mix design, the process involves making an initial
estimate of the mix proportions and then modifying these proportions as required by test
results obtained on trial mixes. Trial mixes require a considerable period of time and
should be run as far in advance of construction as possible.
Initial Estimate of Mix Proportions
The initial estimate of mix proportions is made as follows:

Use a cement content of 310 kg/m3.
Use the amount of air-entraining agent needed to give 5% entrained air as
recommended by the product manufacturer.
Estimate from Figure 2.07 the amount of mixing water needed for a slump of 40 mm,
or 15 mm in the case of slip form paving.
Calculate the volume of aggregate needed by subtracting the volume of cement, water
and air from one cubic metre. Use a specific gravity of 3.13 for cement volume
calculation.
Determine from Figure 2.08 the relative percentages of fine and coarse aggregates
and calculate the weight per cubic metre of fine and coarse aggregate. Use saturated
surface dry bulk specific gravity to calculate aggregate weight.
Adjust the weight of fine and coarse aggregates to include free moisture in the
aggregate, where free moisture is defined as the moisture content of the aggregate
minus the absorbed water.
Adjust mixing water required by subtracting free moisture of the aggregates from the
total mixing water requirements. When water content is less than absorption, free
water is negative and the mixing water required increases.
Trial Series
Three trial series (A, B, C) are required to adjust and optimize mix proportions. Table
2.21 presents sample calculations carried out to adjust and optimize mix proportions
during the three trial series.
(a) Trial Series A
The object of trial series A is to determine the amount of mixing water required to give a
slump of 40 mm (15 mm in the case of slip form paving) and the amount of air-entraining
agent required to give 5% entrained air.
- 2.42 -
A concrete batch is prepared using the initial estimate of mix proportions. If slump or air
content is not within the range permitted by specification, use the following
approximations to adjust the mixing water and the air-entraining agent, and repeat the
trial mix:
3% change of mixing water for 25 mm change of slump,
air-entraining agent in direct proportion to the amount of air in the initial mix.
Trial series A is complete when a mix is obtained with the required slump and air
content.
(b) Trial Series B
The objective of trial series B is to determine the minimum percent of sand while still
maintaining a satisfactory workability.
Normally three different percentages of fine aggregate should be used. The mix
proportions meeting slump and air requirements as determined in trial series A constitute
the first trial of series B. If the first mix of series B appears to have a good workability,
the other two mixes should be run at percentages of fine aggregate 3% greater and 3%
less. If the first mix appears to be sandy/under-sanded (stiff), the other two mixes should
be run at percentages of fine aggregate 3% and 6% less/more than the first mix.
The acceptable mix in series B should have a slump and air content within specification
limits and the minimum amount of fine aggregate consistent with adequate workability.
(c) Trial Series C
The objective of trial series C is to determine the relationship between the cement content
and flexural strength.
Mixes are usually run at cement contents of 280, 310 and 340 kg/m3. The acceptable mix
in series B constitutes the first mix of series C. A minimum of six beams should be cast
for each of the three trial mixes.
The final mix chosen should have the following characteristics:

cement content for flexural strength of 4.0 MPa minimum at 28 days, but not less
than 280 kg/m3;
air-entraining agent required for entrained air of 5 1%;
water required for slump in the range permitted for the type of paving operation
involved (mid range preferred);
minimum fine aggregate consistent with adequate workability.
- 2.43 -
240
Note: For air entrained concrete, reduce the water content as 250
read this side when coarse aggregate is angular (crushed stone)

read this side when coarse aggregate is rounded (gravel) 230 determined from this figure by 3% for each 1% of entrained
Water (litres per cubic metre of concrete)
air; e.g. by 13.5% for 4.5% entrained air. 240
Water (litres per cubic metre of concrete)

220
slum 230
210 p 2
25 m
m 220
200 175 210
190
125 200
180
75 190
170
25 180
160
170
150
160
140
150
130
140
120
12.5 19.0 25.0 37.5 50 63 75
Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregate (mm)
Figure 2.07 :
ESTIMATING MIXING WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE MIXES
60 volume of fine aggregate

65
read this side when coarse aggregate is angular (crushed stone)

Notes: 1. Percent of fine aggregate = x 100
volume of total aggregate
read this side when coarse aggregate is rounded (gravel)
2. For air entrained concrete, reduce the amount of fine aggregate

Fine Aggregate (percent of total aggregate)
Fine Aggregate (percent of total aggregate)

as determined from this figure by 1% for each 1% of entrained
air, e.g. by 4.5% for 4.5% entrained air.
fine 55
50 n ess
mod
ulus
o f fin
e ag
greg
ate
3.2 45
40
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
30 2.0 35
Fineness Modulus (ASTM C125)
Sum of cumulative percentages of the material
retained on the following sieves, divided by 100:
150-m 1.18-mm 9.5-mm 75-mm
300-m 2.36-mm 19.0-mm 150-mm
600-m 4.75-mm 37.5-mm
20 25
12.5 19.0 25.0 37.5 50 63 75
Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregate (mm)
Figure 2.08 :
ESTIMATING PERCENT OF FINE AGGREGATE FOR CONCRETE MIXES
- 2.44 -
- 2.45 -
2.4.3 Other Mixes
RAP Mixes
When reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is generated during a project through the
excavation or milling of old asphalt surfaces, consideration may be given to recycling this
material by incorporating into the production of new asphalt. The inclusion of RAP
should be limited to binder mixes and RAP content should not exceed 40%. A lower RAP
content of 20% to 30% may be preferable if a batch plant is used for asphalt production.
When recycling, the RAP must be analyzed to accurately determine asphalt cement
content, retained penetration of the asphalt cement and gradation of the aggregate. A
softer grade of new asphalt cement must be chosen so the blend of new asphalt cement
with the reclaimed asphalt cement meets the requirements of Table 2.12. Penetration of
the blend can be estimated by taking a weighted average of the penetrations of the
reclaimed and new asphalt cements, with weighting by percent of each material in the
blend. Proportions of RAP, virgin aggregate and new asphalt cement are then calculated
to give the trial mixes described previously and mix design proceeds in the normal
manner.
Cold Mix Asphalt
Although cold mix asphalt can be plant mixed, airfield applications normally involve
on-grade travel plant or blade mixing operations. Further, the material is generally used
only at small airports serving light aircraft. Consequently, mix design methods are not as
formal as those for hot mix asphalt concrete.
Provided the aggregate used is suitable, initial mix proportioning for cold mixes often
consists simply of adding sufficient liquid asphalt to provide for 6% residual asphalt.
Adjustments may then be made on-grade depending on the look and feel of the product.
Asphalt Institute published mix design methods for cold mix asphalt (MS14) may be
consulted in situations requiring more formal procedures.
Portland Cement Stabilized Base
Mix design for Portland cement stabilized bases is determined by preparing and testing
laboratory specimens at various cement contents ranging from approximately 3% to 7%.
The cement content selected should limit weight loss to less than 14% when the material
is subjected to standard wet-dry and freeze-thaw tests (ASTM D559 and D560). A
minimum compressive strength of 5.0 MPa (ASTM D1633) after seven days of curing
may also be specified. Test specimens are prepared by the procedure of ASTM D558,
except the modified Proctor compaction effort of ASTM D1557 is used. The density of
these laboratory specimens provides the reference base for compaction control during
construction.
A minimum cement content of 5% is normally specified to allow for variations occurring

during plant production, although with a good base course aggregate, the required mix
properties are met at a lesser cement content. Where stabilized base cement content must
- 2.46 -
be estimated for quantity purposes prior to tendering, a value of 5% to 7% may be

assumed.
Slurry Seal and Micro-Surfacing Mixes
Slurry seal mix design requirements and test methods are available in ASTM D3910.
Micro-surfacing mix design requirements and test methods are available in ASTM
D6372.
- 2.47 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Chapter 3 : Structural Design and Evaluation
CHAPTER 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND EVALUATION
Section Page
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Methods . 3.3
3.1.2 Design Objectives .. 3.3
3.1.3 Evaluation Objectives 3.4
3.2 Plate Load Relationships

3.2.1 Plate Bearing Strength ... 3.4
3.2.2 Plate Load versus Bearing Area, Deflection and Load Repetitions .. 3.5
3.2.3 Pavement Surface versus Subgrade Load .. 3.6
3.2.4 Equivalent Granular Thickness . 3.9
3.3 Design Parameters

3.3.1 Traffic 3.11
3.3.2 Frost .. 3.12
3.3.3 Subgrade ... 3.18
3.4 Flexible Pavement Design and Evaluation

3.4.1 Equivalent Single Wheel Load .. 3.21
3.4.2 Design Equation . 3.21
3.4.3 Design-Evaluation Charts .. 3.23
3.4.4 Minimum Thickness of Layers . 3.24
3.5 Rigid Pavement Design and Evaluation

3.5.1 Stress Analysis of Concrete Slabs 3.26
3.5.2 Bearing Modulus ...... 3.27
3.5.3 Concrete Strength and Overload Ratio ......... 3.28
3.5.4 Design-Evaluation Charts .... 3.30
3.5.5 Minimum Thickness of Layers ..... 3.30
3.5.6 Joints and Steel .. 3.30
3.6 Standard Gear Loads and Load Ratings

3.6.1 Pavement Design Thickness for Standard Gear Loads .... 3.32
3.6.2 Aircraft and Pavement Load Ratings . 3.32
3.7 Roads and Carparks

3.7.1 Ground Vehicle Loads . 3.36
3.7.2 Flexible Pavement Design ... 3.36
3.7.3 Rigid Pavement Design 3.36
- 3.1 -
Section Page
3.8 Strengthening Overlays

3.8.1 Asphalt Overlay on a Flexible Pavement 3.40
3.8.2 Concrete Overlay on a Flexible Pavement . 3.40
3.8.3 Asphalt Overlay on a Concrete Pavement .. 3.40
3.8.4 Concrete Overlay on Concrete Pavement 3.41
Tables
Table 3.01 Plate Load Ratio vs Plate Size .... 3.6

Table 3.02 Granular Equivalency Factors .... 3.10
Table 3.03 Example Air Freezing Index Calculation ... 3.13
Table 3.04 Typical Subgrade Bearing Strengths .. 3.20
Table 3.05 Minimum Thickness for Aircraft Flexible Pavement Layers . 3.24
Table 3.06 Standard Gear Loads ... 3.33
Table 3.07 Aircraft Corresponding to Standard Gear Loads .... 3.33
Table 3.08 Ground Vehicle Loading Characteristics .... 3.37
Table 3.09 Minimum Thickness for Road Flexible Pavement Layers .. 3.38
Figures
Figure 3.01 Typical Plate Load-Deflection Curves .. 3.5

Figure 3.02 Plate Load Ratio vs Plate Size ...... 3.7
Figure 3.03 Plate Load Ratio vs Load Repetitions .. 3.8
Figure 3.04 Subgrade Load Ratio, 12.5 mm Deflection ... 3.8
Figure 3.05 McLeods Base Course Constant K ...... 3.9
Figure 3.06 Freezing Index Map of Canada ............. 3.14
Figure 3.07 Frost Penetration in Pavements ..... 3.16
Figure 3.08 Frost Penetration in Snow-Covered Areas .... 3.17
Figure 3.09 Minimum Thickness for Frost Protection ..... 3.17
Figure 3.10 Spring Reduction Factor .... 3.18
Figure 3.11 Equivalent Single Wheel Load ... 3.22
Figure 3.12 Flexible Pavement Design and Evaluation Chart ...... 3.24
Figure 3.13 Flexible Pavement Composite Design and Evaluation Chart ...... 3.25
Figure 3.14 Concrete Slab Stress Analysis ....... 3.27
Figure 3.15 Bearing Modulus on Base Surface ..... 3.28
Figure 3.16 Rigid Pavement Design and Evaluation Chart ....... 3.29
Figure 3.17 Rigid Pavement Composite Design and Evaluation Chart . 3.31
Figure 3.18 Pavement Design Thickness for Standard Gear Loads .. 3.34
Figure 3.19 Example Load Rating of Aircraft and Pavements ...... 3.35
Figure 3.20 Flexible Pavement Design Thickness for Airport Roads ....... 3.39
Figure 3.21 Equivalent Single Slab Thickness of Overlaid Concrete Slab .... 3.42
- 3.2 -
CHAPTER 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND EVALUATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 Methods
The flexible pavement structural design and evaluation methods presented in this chapter
were originated by Transport Canada. The design and evaluation methods presented for
rigid pavements were adapted from the design practices of the Portland Cement
Association. The design practices of the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
differ from the methods given in this chapter, but the FAA practices are widely used
internationally and are generally acceptable for application at Canadian airports.
3.1.2 Design Objectives
The objective of pavement structural design is to determine the thickness required for the
pavement structure and each of its component layers, assuming construction materials
and workmanship meet normal standards. The design of both flexible and rigid
pavements depends on a design aircraft loading, bearing strength of the subgrade and
frost protection requirements. A site soil survey and a data collection phase are required
to quantify these parameters as a preliminary to design.
In most design situations, alternatives exist with respect to the type of pavement to be
provided and other design details. Generally, choosing between these alternatives is not a
design function although a recommendation should be given. The designers major
responsibility is to assist airport management in reaching decisions by outlining the
alternatives available along with costs and operational implications.
The following guidelines apply generally to design alternatives and selection:

All types of pavement structure satisfying operational requirements should be
considered. The operational requirements should come from the Airport Authority,
or at least be approved by the Authority.
Minimizing life cycle costs is a major objective when deciding between design
alternatives. For restoration projects, disruption to traffic is also a major factor. Life
cycle costing is outlined in the chapter on miscellaneous topics.
Aircraft pavements intended to provide year-round service should be surfaced with
asphalt or Portland cement concrete, unless technical or economic reasons exist for a
lower quality pavement structure.
Parking positions for heavy aircraft with tire pressures exceeding 1.0 MPa should be
surfaced with Portland cement concrete. For heavy traffic conditions, Portland
cement concrete surfaces are also commonly used in areas subject to turning
movements, such as aprons, holding areas, and runway buttons.
- 3.3 -
3.1.3 Evaluation Objectives
The objective of airfield pavement structural evaluation is to determine the size of aircraft
that may operate on an existing pavement structure. Airfield pavement structures can
usually accommodate operations by aircraft presenting a more critical loading than the
design aircraft. The amount of overloading permitted depends on the degree of risk the
airport authority is willing to assume with respect to accelerated deterioration of their
pavement facilities.
Current standards of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) require the
reporting of airfield pavement bearing strength in terms of the maximum size of aircraft
preauthorized to use the facility. ICAO pavement strength reporting methods are
presented in the chapter on quality evaluation.
3.2 PLATE LOAD RELATIONSHIPS
3.2.1 Plate Bearing Strength
Plate bearing measurements have played a prominent role in Canadian airfield pavement
technology. The bearing strength of subgrades and flexible pavement structures are
measured in terms of plate loads. Also, plate load relationships derived from plate testing
programs conducted at Canadian airports form the basis of the flexible pavement design
procedure.
A plate load test involves the application of a load to a test surface through a rigid
circular plate and the measurement of deflection as the load is increased. The load-
deflection relationship measured depends on the size of plate used in the test, the rate of
load application and the number of load repetitions, as illustrated in Figure 3.01. The
standard test method, Repetitive Static Plate Load Testing, is detailed in the appendix
on bearing strength measurement. Also presented in the appendix are other methods of
measuring pavement and subgrade bearing strength from which plate bearing strength
may be estimated.
When expressing pavement and subgrade bearing strength in terms of a plate load,
information must be provided on the deflection and number of load repetitions at which
the measurement was made, the size of plate used and the nature of load application
(static or dynamic). The standard measure of bearing strength is defined as the static load
in kN producing an accumulated deflection of 12.5 mm after 10 load repetitions when the
load is applied through a 750 mm diameter plate. References to plate bearing strength
assume these measurement conditions unless otherwise noted.
- 3.4 -
Effect of Plate Size Effect of Load Repetitions

(load repetitions constant) (plate size constant)
number of load repetitions
plate diameter (mm) 1
10
Static Load (kN)
1050
100
900 1000
750
600
450
300
Deflection (mm)
Figure 3.01 : TYPICAL PLATE LOAD-DEFLECTION CURVES
3.2.2 Plate Load versus Bearing Area, Deflection and Load Repetitions
Table 3.01 gives the average ratio between loads measured on a pavement or subgrade
surface using plates of different size. The plot of Table 3.01 data in Figure 3.02
illustrates the linear relationship between the pressure on a plate producing a given
deflection and the size of the plate as measured by the plates perimeter to area ratio.
Figure 3.03 shows the effect of load repetitions on the load producing a given deflection.
These relationships were derived from extensive plate load data obtained during testing
programs conducted at Canadian airports.
Bearing plates of 300, 450, 600 and 750 mm diameter are normally available for use in a
plate testing program and depending on the size of plate selected and the reaction load
available, the desired deflection of 12.5 mm may or may not be reached. If other than a
750 mm diameter plate is used, or if the standard accumulated deflection of 12.5 mm is
not reached, the average load ratios given in Table 3.01 may be used to estimate the
standard measure of plate bearing strength.
The relationships for subgrade surfaces given in Figure 3.02 are also used in the flexible
pavement design procedure, as detailed in Section 3.4. The load supported on a bearing
area equal to the contact area of the aircraft design load must be converted to an
equivalent load supported on a 750 mm plate. Figure 3.04 provides a conversion factor
for this purpose derived from the relationships of Figure 3.02.
- 3.5 -
Table 3.01 : Plate Load Ratio vs Plate Size
PLATE LOAD RATIO

Load in kPa on Plate of Diameter D at Deflection d
Load in kPa on Plate of Diameter 750 mm at Defln 5 mm
DIA. AREA P/A
D RATIO DEFLECTION d mm
mm mm2 mm-1 1.25 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5
ASPHALT SURFACES
300 70686 0.01333 0.95 1.63 2.55 3.17 3.64 4.04 4.37 4.71
450 159043 0.00889 0.64 1.08 1.69 2.11 2.44 2.72 2.97 3.21
600 282743 0.00667 0.49 0.80 1.26 1.58 1.83 2.06 2.25 2.42
750 441786 0.00533 0.39 0.64 1.00 1.26 1.47 1.66 1.82 1.96
900 635173 0.00444 0.33 0.53 0.83 1.05 1.23 1.39 1.53 1.66
1050 865901 0.00381 0.29 0.45 0.70 0.89 1.06 1.20 1.32 1.44
SUBGRADE SURFACES
300 70686 0.01333 0.81 1.38 2.17 2.71 3.13 3.45 3.73 3.98
450 159043 0.00889 0.57 0.97 1.52 1.90 2.20 2.43 2.65 2.85
600 282743 0.00667 0.46 0.77 1.19 1.50 1.74 1.95 2.13 2.30
750 441786 0.00533 0.39 0.65 1.00 1.25 1.46 1.65 1.81 1.97
900 635173 0.00444 0.35 0.57 0.87 1.09 1.28 1.45 1.60 1.74
1050 865901 0.00381 0.31 0.50 0.78 0.98 1.15 1.27 1.43 1.58
Notes: (a) Ratios adjusted to fit straight line relationship, see Figure 3.02.
(b) Use asphalt surface ratios for granular base surfaces.
(c) P/A ratio = perimeter/area ratio, equal to 4/diameter.
3.2.3 Pavement Surface versus Subgrade Load
For a pavement constructed with granular base material only, an empirically derived
equation relating pavement surface and subgrade plate bearing values is:
P = S10t/K .................................................................................. Eq. (3.1)
where P = plate bearing value measured on the pavement surface (kN)

S = plate bearing value measured on the subgrade surface (kN)
t = thickness of the granular pavement (mm)
K = a variable dependent on the size of bearing plate being used,
as given in Figure 3.05 (mm)
Eq. (3.1) applies provided P and S are measured with the same size of bearing plate, at
the same deflection and at the same number of load repetitions. The equation is
sometimes referred to as the McLeod equation as it was developed by Dr. Norman
McLeod using plate load test results obtained at Canadian airports. See Appendix A.
Eq. (3.1) applies for a pavement structure constructed of granular materials. If layers of
other materials are present, such as an asphalt surfacing course, the pavement thickness
must be converted to an equivalent granular thickness.
- 3.6 -
Load in kPa on Plate of Diameter 750 mm at Deflection 5 mm

Load in kPa on Plate of Diameter (D) at Deflection (d) 1050 900 750 600 450 plate diameter (D) mm 300
Subgrade Surfaces
4 m
(d) m
ion
lect
Def 17.5
15.0
3 12.5
10.0
)
(P/A
.2 2 6 7.5
0+0
0 .4 3
R=
2
5.0
2.5
1
Average Ratio
1.25
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-1
Plate Perimeter/Area Ratio P/A = 4/D (mm )
Load in kPa on Plate of Diameter 750 mm at Deflection 5 mm
5
Load in kPa on Plate of Diameter (D) at Deflection (d)
1050 900 750 600 450 plate diameter (D) mm 300

Asphalt Surfaces mm
(use for base surfaces also) (d)
4 tion
flec 17.5
De
15.0
12.5
3 10.0
7.5
2 5.0
2.5
1
Average Ratio
1.25
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-1
Plate Perimeter/Area Ratio P/A = 4/D (mm )
Figure 3.02 : PLATE LOAD RATIO vs PLATE SIZE
- 3.7 -
1.2
1.15 for deflection range 5 mm to 15 mm
1.1
1.00
1.0
Load Ratio
0.9 0.89
Load Ratio:
0.8
Load at 'N' Load Repetitions
0.80
Load at 10 Load Repetitions, same Deflection
0.7
1 10 100 1000
Number of Load Repetitions N
Figure 3.03 : PLATE LOAD RATIO vs LOAD REPETITIONS
4

F = S1 / S2 = 1 / (0.59 A + 1.10 A )
S1 = load (kN) on contact area of diameter 750 mm, 12.5 mm deflection
S2 = load (kN) on contact area A, 12.5 mm deflection
3
S1 S2
subgrade
Load Ratio F
750 mm area A
2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Load Contact Area A (m2)
Figure 3.04 : SUBGRADE LOAD RATIO, 12.5 mm DEFLECTION
- 3.8 -
2000
300 450 600 750 900 1050
Plate Diameter (mm)
for computational purposes:

1750
A = 0.0 to 0.1 K = 730 + 2350 A
McLeod's Base Course Constant K (mm)
A = 0.1 to 0.2 K = 692 + 2730 A

A > 0.2 K = 1125 log (A) + 2025
1500
1250 P
top of base
S t granular base
1000 top of subgrade
McLeod's Equation :
t/K
P/S = 10 or t = K log (P/S)
750 where P, S = loads on the surface of base and subgrade
respectively, same contact area and
measured at the same deflection
t = thickness of granular base
500
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
2
Load Contact Area A (m )
Figure 3.05 : McLEOD'S BASE COURSE CONSTANT K
3.2.4 Equivalent Granular Thickness
Equivalent granular thickness is a term frequently encountered in the design and

evaluation of flexible pavement structures. It is the basis of comparison for pavements
having different thicknesses of materials of different load distribution characteristics.
Table 3.02 lists granular equivalency factors for various pavement construction materials.
The granular equivalency factor of a material is the depth of granular material in
millimetres considered equivalent to one millimetre of that material on the basis of load
distribution considerations. The values listed in Table 3.02 are generally conservative
and actual granular equivalencies are often higher than the values listed.
To determine pavement equivalent granular thickness, the depth of each layer in the
pavement is multiplied by the granular equivalency factor for the material in the layer.
The sum of these converted layer thicknesses is the pavement equivalent granular
thickness, as shown in the example provided with Table 3.02.
- 3.9 -
Table 3.02 : Granular Equivalency Factors
Pavement Material Granular Equivalency Factor
selected granular subbase 1
crushed gravel or stone base 1
waterbound macadam base 1
bituminous stabilized base 1
cement stabilized base 2
asphalt concrete (good condition) 2
asphalt concrete (poor condition) 1
Portland cement concrete (good condition) 3
Portland cement concrete (fair condition) 2
Portland cement concrete (poor condition) 2
Example :
Calculate the equivalent granular thickness for the pavement structure,

80 mm asphalt (good condition) + 250 mm base + 200 mm subbase.
Granular Equivalent
Layer Equivalency Granular
Factor Thickness
80 mm asphalt 2 160 mm
250 mm base 1 250 mm
200 mm subbase 1 200 mm
total equivalent granular thickness 610 mm
- 3.10 -
3.3 DESIGN PARAMETERS
3.3.1 Traffic
The magnitude of load imposed on a pavement by an aircraft is defined by:

operating weight of the aircraft and the proportion of this weight supported by each
main gear,
number and spacing of tires in the main gears,
tire inflation pressure.
These characteristics are readily available from aircraft manufacturers. The maximum
operating weight of the design aircraft is normally the basis of design.
Other traffic characteristics having an influence on the performance of pavement

structures include:
traffic frequency and seasonal variations,
traffic mix,
traffic channelization,
static (stopped) versus transient (moving) loads.
Attempting to specifically account for traffic frequency and mix becomes a complicated
exercise subject to considerable error when projections are made over the life of a
facility. The simplest approach is to adopt a design philosophy of accommodating an
unrestricted number of static load repetitions by the maximum size of aircraft expected to
use the facility on a regular basis. This approach does not impose major over-design
penalties for facilities serving low traffic frequencies. The approach clearly identifies the
design load and helps to identify future proposals for operations by aircraft significantly
exceeding design load levels. Proposed overload operations should be subjected to an
engineering evaluation before being approved by the Airport Authority.
Since the loading characteristics of aircraft tend to change over the years as new models
are introduced and existing models are modified, a further refinement is to design for a
class of aircraft rather than for a particular aircraft. A system of standard gear loads for
airfield pavement design is presented in Section 3.6. At airports intended to serve small
aircraft only, maintenance equipment may present a more critical loading than the
aircraft.
Extensions to pavements or traffic routes at an airport should be designed to provide a

bearing strength compatible with the strength of existing pavements subject to the same
traffic.
- 3.11 -
3.3.2 Frost
Air Freezing Index
Air freezing index is a measure of freezing severity over a winter season. The depth of
frost penetration and pavement frost protection requirements are related to this variable.
Air freezing index is measured in degree-Celsius days (Cdays) and is calculated as the
summation of the daily average air temperatures over the freezing period (with below
zero values considered as positive). Table 3.03 provides an example calculation. An
approximate value of freezing index for an airport site may be estimated from Figure 3.06
or a more accurate value may be calculated from the temperature records of the nearest
meteorological station.
Frost Penetration
A program of measuring frost penetration at a number of Canadian airports was

undertaken during the 1960s. Figure 3.07 shows the maximum depths of frost
penetration recorded in snow-cleared pavements plotted against the air freezing index for
the winter season in which the measurements were made. Frost penetration is slightly
less in asphalt pavements than in concrete pavements as the darker colour of the asphalt
surface increases the absorption of solar radiation.
Figure 3.08 shows frost penetration plotted against air freezing index for snow covered
natural ground surfaces. For this surface condition, frost penetrations are highly variable
because they depend on the depth of snow cover and when the snow arrives relative to the
start of freezing temperatures. Although frost penetrations are highly variable for this
surface condition, a maximum potential value can be identified in Figure 3.08
corresponding to the case of little or no snow cover. This maximum potential value is
useful when considering burial depths for installations needing protection from frost,
such as foundations or water and drainage pipe.
Pavement Frost Protection
Pavement seasonal frost penetration can have two major detrimental effects. If the
subgrade soil is frost susceptible and water is present, frost penetration induces ice
lensing in the subgrade with subsequent heaving and the development of roughness at the
pavement surface. When the ice melts during spring thaw, pavement bearing capacity is
reduced due to excess moisture and subgrade density loss. The latter effect requires
structural design be based on a spring-reduced subgrade bearing strength. The former
effect requires sufficient pavement thickness be provided to ameliorate differential frost
heaving and prevent excessive ride quality loss. Figure 3.09 gives the recommended
minimum pavement thickness to attenuate the effects of frost heave.
- 3.12 -
Table 3.03 : Example Air Freezing Index Calculation
Region : Site :
Month November December January February March April
Avg. Index Avg. Index Avg. Index Avg. Index Avg. Index Avg. Index
Day
Temp. Count Temp. Count Temp. Count Temp. Count Temp. Count Temp. Count
1 +5 0 -8 58 -7 285 -19 600 -8 928 -8 1124

2 +4 0 -10 68 -4 289 -18 618 -7 935 -5 1129
3 +6 0 -6 74 -6 295 -18 636 -7 942 -1 1130
4 +6 0 -4 78 -8 303 -15 651 -9 951 -2 1132
5 +8 0 -3 81 -9 312 -15 666 -8 959 0 1132
6 +7 0 -4 85 -12 324 -15 681 -11 970 -1 1133
7 +8 0 -8 93 -8 332 -12 693 -12 982 -1 1134
8 +10 0 -10 103 -5 337 -15 708 -8 990 0 1134
9 +5 0 -12 115 -3 340 -11 719 -7 997 0 1134
10 +3 0 -12 127 -1 341 -10 729 -6 1003 +1 1133
11 0 0 -12 139 +2 339 -14 743 -6 1009 0 1133
12 -1 1 -11 150 +4 335 -13 756 -4 1013 +1 1132
13 +1 0 -8 158 +3 332 -12 768 -6 1019 -1 1133
14 +1 0 -4 162 +2 330 -14 782 -5 1024 +1 1132
15 -1 1 -2 164 +1 329 -11 793 -7 1031 +1` 1131
16 -1 2 -4 168 -2 331 -9 802 -5 1036 +2 1129
17 -2 4 -6 174 -4 335 -12 814 -4 1040 0 1129
18 0 4 -6 180 -8 343 -13 827 -3 1043 +2 1127
19 +1 3 -5 185 -10 353 -10 837 -6 1049 +3 1124
20 0 3 -3 188 -14 367 -7 844 -8 1057 +1 1123
21 -1 4 -3 191 -18 385 -8 852 -7 1064 +2 1121
22 -3 7 -5 196 -22 407 -10 862 -6 1070 +3 1118
23 -3 10 -8 204 -19 426 -11 873 -5 1075 +2 1116
24 -6 16 -9 213 -18 444 -8 881 -4 1079
25 -8 24 -9 222 -15 459 -9 890 -3 1082
26 -4 28 -10 232 -15 474 -10 900 -8 1090
27 -4 32 -8 240 -18 492 -9 909 -5 1095
28 -5 37 -8 248 -20 512 -11 920 -3 1098
29 -6 43 -9 257 -23 535 -3 1101
30 -7 50 -10 267 -26 561 -7 1108
31 -11 278 -20 581 -8 1116
Air Freezing Index for the season = 1134 Cdays
- 3.13 -
6500
CANADA
6250 AVERAGE AIR FREEZING INDICES

6500
6250
6000 6000
5750 6500 C DAYS
5500 5750
5500
4750 5250 5250
5000 5000
6250 1970 - 1999
4750
4500
4500 4250
4000
4250
6000 3750
4000
3500
3750 5750
5500 3250
3500
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference
3250 5250
3000
2750
2500 5000
2250
2000 4750
2000 1750
4500
- 3.14 -
1750 1500
4250
1250
2250
4000
1500 2500 1000
1250 3750 2750
3500 750 500
1000 3000
3250
3000
750 750 750 250
500 2750
250
2500
500
250 2250 750
2000 1000
1000
1750 1250
1750
Figure 3.06 : FREEZING INDEX MAP OF CANADA

1500 250
1250
1000
750
750
500
Note:
250
Approximate indication only.
Freezing index depends on elevation as well as latitude.
The following guidelines apply to the incorporation of frost protection in the design of a
pavement structure subject to subgrade frost penetration.
Frost protection should normally be provided for pavements with paved surfaces
constructed on frost susceptible subgrades.
Frost protection is not required for pavements with unbound surfaces such as gravel
where surface irregularities caused by frost heave can readily be corrected by
regrading.
Frost protection is not required for pavements constructed on non-frost susceptible
subgrade soils. Gravels and sands with less than 10% passing the 75-m sieve are
considered non-frost susceptible.
Frost protection may be waived under special circumstances such as:
- the pavement structure is intended as a temporary facility,
- stage construction is contemplated,
- the pavement is for an infrequently travelled road and a low structure quality
can be tolerated.
The recommended minimum pavement thickness for frost protection given in Figure 3.09
is empirical in nature. Experience has shown that when combined with adequate
subsurface drainage, the thickness satisfactorily attenuates frost heave effects in most
situations. A comparison with the expected depths of frost penetration shown in
Figure 3.07 indicates the recommended minimum thickness for frost protection generally
provides only a partial degree of protection. In cold climates, the protection corresponds
to roughly one-third of frost penetration. In milder climates with a low freezing index,
the minimum thickness for frost protection corresponds to approximately the full depth of
average frost penetration. The year-to-year variation in freezing index and frost
penetration tends to be substantial in milder climates and there are colder winters when
the depth of frost penetration significantly exceeds the average.
The recommended minimum thickness for frost protection is not sufficient to prevent
excessive differential frost heaving when pockets of highly frost susceptible soil exist in
an otherwise non-frost susceptible subgrade. Special measures are required for this
situation; usually excavation and replacement of the frost susceptible pockets to the depth
of frost penetration or to 1.25 m below the finished pavement surface, whichever is less.
Also, large boulders embedded in a matrix of fine grained soil can be raised by frost
action to create a bump at the pavement surface. Such boulders should be removed
during construction if they are encountered within the top half metre of subgrade.
- 3.15 -
5000
Snow-Cleared Asphalt Surfaces
X = - 620 + 68.4 FI
Standard Error of Estimate = 402 mm
4000
Depth of Frost Penetration X (mm)
3000
2000
1000
0
100 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Air Freezing Index FI (Cdays)
5000
Snow-Cleared Concrete Surfaces
X = - 280 + 65.3 FI
Standard Error of Estimate = 310 mm
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
100 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 3.07 : FROST PENETRATION IN PAVEMENTS
- 3.16 -
5000
Undisturbed Snow Covered Surfaces
4000
maximum X ~ 58 FI
3000
2000
1000
0
100 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 3.08 : FROST PENETRATION IN SNOW COVERED AREAS
1000
Minimum Pavement Thickness for Partial Frost Protection t (mm)
900 t (min) = 180 (FI - 55) 0.216
800
700
Note :
600
PC concrete and cement stabilized base if
present should have a minimum 400 mm of
unbound granular for frost protection.
500
400
100 200 500 1000 2000
Average Annual Air Freezing Index FI (Cdays)
Figure 3.09 : MINIMUM THICKNESS FOR FROST PROTECTION
- 3.17 -
3.3.3 Subgrade
Geotechnical Survey
Detailed engineering for a pavement construction project commences with topographic

and geotechnical site surveys. The geotechnical survey provides the designer with
information on such items as subgrade soil type and classification, settlement
characteristics, water tables, project excavation requirements, and the availability of
suitable materials for fills and construction aggregates. The survey must also provide
tendering contractors with an accurate picture of working conditions.
Geotechnical survey procedures for pavement construction projects are appended. The
knowledge developed of subsurface conditions must be as comprehensive as reasonably
possible. Unexpected soil conditions encountered during construction may lead to costly
change orders and claims.
Spring Reduction Factor
As previously noted, one of the effects of subgrade frost penetration is a reduction in

pavement bearing capacity during the spring thaw. As a result, a spring reduction factor
must be applied to bearing strength measurements made during summer and fall months.
The reduction applied depends primarily on the type of subgrade soil present and varies
from zero for clean gravel to about 50% for silt.
Subgrade soil gradations should be available from the geotechnical survey and an
appropriate spring reduction factor may be determined by plotting soil gradation on the
gradation chart given in Figure 3.10.
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

v. fine medium coarse
clay silt f. fine gravel
s. sand sand sand
sieve sizes 75 -m 425 -m 2.00-mm 4.75 -mm
grain size in millimeters
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
100
80
little frost frost some frost no frost
percent passing
susceptibility susceptibility susceptibility susceptibility

60
15 % 45 % 10 % 0%
Notes:
40
(a) to determine Spring Reduction Factor, plot
the soil gradation on the chart and take an
average, weighted by percent of soil within each
susceptibility class.
20 (b) if gradation falls within the shaded area and
frost susceptible soils, the reduction is 45%.
(c) increase % frost susceptibilty by 10 if depth
to water table is less than one metre.
0
Figure 3.10 : SPRING REDUCTION FACTOR
- 3.18 -
The gradation chart is divided into a number of ranges with a spring reduction factor
assigned to each range. If the subgrade soil gradation falls in two or more of these
ranges, a weighted average is taken where weighting is by percent of material falling
within each range.
When determining a spring reduction factor from Figure 3.10, some consideration should
also be given to moisture contents, water table levels, and possible site reports of frost
heaving. If the water table level is within one metre of the pavement surface, the percent
spring reduction factor should be increased by 10 for each soil type except granular soils
of classification GW and GP.
Subgrade Strength Design Value
The design of both flexible and rigid pavements requires a value be available for
subgrade plate bearing strength. However, subgrade bearing strength varies with location
throughout a pavement area and at any given location varies with the time of year. The
strength value used for design purposes is the lower quartile strength of the pavement
area occurring during the spring thaw period. Lower quartile strength is the strength
value for which 25% of the pavement area is weaker and 75% is stronger. Where several
strength measurements are available, lower quartile strength value (SLQ) may be
calculated as SLQ = - 0.675 where is the average of the measurements and is their
standard deviation. This value is then multiplied by the spring reduction factor to arrive
at the lower quartile, spring reduced value used for design purposes.
When designing new pavement facilities at an existing airport, subgrade bearing strength
values are frequently available from strength measurements made on existing pavements
at the airport. These values may be used for designing the new facility provided subgrade
soil conditions are similar, as determined from the geotechnical survey. When designing
pavement facilities at a new airport location or at an airport where no strength
measurements have been made, a value of subgrade bearing strength for design purposes
may be selected from Table 3.04, based on the classification of the subgrade soil as
established during the geotechnical survey. The bearing strength values listed in
Table 3.04 are conservative in many instances and actual pavement strength should be
determined by measurement after construction.
- 3.19 -
Table 3.04 : Typical Subgrade Bearing Strengths
Usual Subgrade Plate Bearing Strength (kN)

Spring
Subgrade Soil Type
Reduction Design Value
% Fall Range
Fall Spring
GW - well-graded gravel 0 290 - 400 290 290
GP - poorly graded gravel 10 180 - 335 220 200
GM - gravel with silt fines 25 135 - 335 180 135
GC - gravel with clay fines 25 110 - 245 145 110
SW - well-graded sand 10 135 - 335 180 160
SP - poorly graded sand 20 110 - 200 135 110
SM - sand with silt fines 45 95 - 190 120 65
SC - sand with clay fines 25 65 - 155 85 65
ML - silt with low liquid limit 50 90 - 180 110 55
CL - clay with low liquid limit 25 65 - 135 85 65
MH - silt with high liquid limit 50 25 - 90 40 20
CH - clay with high liquid limit 45 25 - 90 55 30
Note : If the water table is within one metre of the pavement surface, the % spring reduction factor should be
increased by 10 for each soil type except GW and GP.
Landing Gear of the Antonov-124
- 3.20 -
3.4 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN AND EVALUATION
3.4.1 Equivalent Single Wheel Load
Design procedures for flexible pavements require multiple-wheel gear loads be converted
to an equivalent single wheel load (ESWL). The equivalent single wheel load produces
maximum stresses and strains in the subgrade similar in magnitude to those produced by
the multiple-wheel loading. The contact pressure of the ESWL is equal to the contact
pressure of the wheel configuration it replaces.
Figure 3.11 illustrates an equivalent single wheel load chart for a multiple wheel gear
loading. The ESWL is a function of pavement thickness. For a pavement thickness less
than a certain value t1, the ESWL is equal to the load on one wheel of the gear. For a
pavement thickness above a value t2, the ESWL is equal to the total gear load. For a
pavement thickness between t1 and t2, the log of the ESWL is assumed to vary linearly
with the log of the pavement thickness.
The thicknesses are:

t1 = half the minimum clear distance between any two tire imprints in the gear
configuration,
t2 = twice the centre-to-centre distance between the wheel closest to the geometric
centre of the gear configuration and the farthest outermost wheel.
Figure 3.11 illustrates the minimum clear distance and the centre-to-centre wheel
distances used in calculating t1 and t2 for various gear configurations. In drawing a gear
configuration, the imprint of a single tire is assumed to be a rectangle with semi-circular
ends as shown in Figure 3.11.
3.4.2 Design Equation
The equation used for the structural design and evaluation of flexible pavements may be
expressed in the form:
t/K
R = ( F ESWL 10 - )/S ............................................................ Eq. (3.2)
where ESWL = equivalent single wheel load of the design vehicle (kN), see Figure 3.11
t = equivalent granular thickness of the pavement structure (mm)
F = a factor dependent on the contact area of the ESWL, see Figure 3.04
K = a factor dependent on the contact area of the ESWL, see Figure 3.05
S = subgrade plate bearing strength (kN)
R = overload ratio imposed by the ESWL on a subgrade of bearing strength S
- 3.21 -
L
ESWL = P for t < t1

= nP for t > t 2
log n W 0 .6 L
t t )
log (t 2 / 1 for
= P ( )
t1 t1 < t < t 2
0 .3 L 0 .4 L 0 .3 L
total load on gear of n wheels fo r tire lo ad P (k N )

nP
tire p ressu re Q (MPa)
tir e co n tact area A ( mm2) = 1 0 0 0 P / Q
tire co n tact len g th L (mm) = 1 .3 8 3 A
tir e co n tact w id th W (mm) = 0 .6 L
ESWL G ear Sp acin g s f o r ESW L D eter min atio n

(a) d u al w h eel g ear (b ) d u al tan d em g ear
- 3.22 -
d S d
(c) mu ltip le d u al g ear
Equivalent Single Wheel Load - Log Scale

load on one wheel d
S
P
d = min . clear sp acin g b etw een an y tw o w h eels

S = cen tre o f w h eel clo sest to th e g ear cen tre o f
g r av ity , to cen tre o f th e farth est w h eel
t1 = d/2 t t2 = 2S
Pavement Equivalent Granular Thickness - Log Scale
Figure 3.11 : EQUIVALENT SINGLE WHEEL LOAD

Eq. (3.2) is a modified form of Eq. (3.1) with ESWL substituted for the plate load P. The
factor F converts subgrade load from the contact area of the ESWL to the contact area of
a 750 mm diameter plate. Note the conversion is done (arbitrarily) at the level of
subgrade and not at the pavement surface. The overload ratio, R, defines the operational
category of the pavement:
Overload Ratio Operational Category

1.0 design level
1.25 unrestricted
1.25 to 1.50 limited
1.50 to 2.00 marginal
> 2.00 emergency use only
3.4.3 Design-Evaluation Charts
Figure 3.12 illustrates a flexible pavement design-evaluation chart. To generate the chart:
Assume a value of pavement equivalent granular thickness, t (mm).
Calculate ESWL (kN) of the design aircraft gear loading, see Section 3.4.1.
Compute the contact area, A (m2), of the ESWL;
A = ESWL / Q / 1000, where Q (MPa) is the tire pressure of the design aircraft.
Obtain values of F and K from Figures 3.04 and 3.05, respectively.
Using Equation (3.2), determine the subgrade bearing strength giving overload ratios
of R = 1.00, 1.25, 1.50 and 2.00.
Assume other values of t, repeat steps to compute corresponding S values.
Plot t vs S curves for R values of 1.00, 1.25, 1.50 and 2.00, as shown in Figure 3.12.
For design, pavement structural thickness requirements may be determined from a chart
similar to the one illustrated in Figure 3.12, using the design value of subgrade bearing
strength and the overload ratio R = 1.00 curve. For evaluation, an operation by the
aircraft gear loading on a given pavement may be evaluated by plotting the point having
the pavement t and S values as co-ordinates. The location of this point on the chart with
respect to the overload curves indicates whether the operation falls into the unrestricted,
limited, marginal or emergency use only category.
A design-evaluation chart of the type shown in Figure 3.12 represents only one aircraft
operating weight. A series of these individual weight charts is needed to provide design
and evaluation capability over the full range of an aircrafts operating weight. A series of
individual weight charts can be consolidated into one composite design and evaluation
chart as illustrated in Figure 3.13.
- 3.23 -
2500
Aircraft: B747-400
Pavement Equivalent Granular Thickness t (mm) Gross Weight: 3900 kN
2000 Weight on Main Gear: 23.8%
un Tire Pressure: 1.38 MPa
re
s
lim trict
ite ed
m
ar d o op
1500 gi pe erat
ra
na
lo tio ions des
pe ns ign
ra c ur
em
tio ve
er
ns
ge
nc
1000
y
us
eo
R=2.0 R=1.5 R=1.25 R=1.0 overload ratio

nl
y
500 minimum
thickness
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Subgrade Bearing Strength S (kN) (750mm plate, 12.5mm defl'n, 10 rep)
Figure 3.12 : FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN AND EVALUATION CHART
3.4.4 Minimum Thickness of Layers
The pavement design thickness determined from a design-evaluation chart is in terms of

an equivalent granular thickness. This thickness is subdivided into asphalt, base and
subbase layers as indicated in Table 3.05. In determining the equivalent granular
thickness of the resulting pavement structure, a granular equivalency factor of 2.0 is
applied to the thickness of the asphalt layer as previously discussed.
Table 3.05 : Minimum Thickness for Aircraft Flexible Pavement Layers
Design Aircraft Tire Pressure

Component Layer Less 0.5 MPa 0.75 MPa Greater
than to to than
0.5 MPa 0.75 MPa 1.00 MPa 1.00 MPa
asphalt concrete
surface course 50 mm 65 mm 80 mm 100 mm
(hot mixed)
crushed gravel or
crushed stone 150 mm 200 mm 250 mm 300 mm
base course
As required in addition to the asphalt and base layers to provide:
selected granular
(a) the total pavement thickness required for structural support,
subbase course
(b) the total pavement depth required for frost protection.
- 3.24 -
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
DESIGN AND EVALUATION CHART B 727
Operating Weight : Maximum (kN) = 935

Minimum (kN) = 450
mm
860
% Load on Main Gear = 46.5
Tire Pressure (MPa) = 1.19
Subgrade Plate Bearing Strength S (kN)

30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190
operating weight (kN)

450
550
675
800
935
overload ratio
2.00 1.50 1.25 1.00
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Pavement Equivalent Granular Thickness t (mm)
Figure 3.13 :
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT COMPOSITE DESIGN AND EVALUATION CHART
- 3.25 -
3.5 RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN AND EVALUATION
3.5.1 Stress Analysis of Concrete Slabs
The stress analysis of a concrete pavement slab is based on the theory of thin plates. The
following assumptions are made relative to the pavement slab and loading conditions:
the slab consists of a homogeneous, isotropic and elastic material;
the slab is of uniform thickness, and the range of relative thickness is such that the
ordinary theory of thin plates may be applied;
the load is applied normal to the face of the slab, and is remote from an edge;
the reaction of the base beneath the slab occurs normal to the slab and is directly
proportional to the slab deflection.
With these assumptions and for a concentrated load, the following differential equation
applies to all the slab except for the point of application of the concentrated load:
D22 + k = 0 ...................................................... .................. Eq. (3.3)
where D = the flexural rigidity of the slab = Eh3 / 12(1-2)

E = elastic modulus of concrete (typical value 27,500 MPa)
= Poissons ratio for concrete (typical value 0.15)
h = thickness of the concrete slab
k = modulus of reaction of the surface on which the slab rests
= slab deflection
d2 1 d
2 = differential operator 2
+
dr r dr
r = distance from the concentrated load
Mathematical analysis as performed in Appendix A carries solution through to an

equation for the moment in the slab due to a uniformly loaded sector, as illustrated in
Figure 3.14. For moment and associated flexural stress due to an aircraft gear load, the
moment equation must be numerically integrated around the perimeter of the wheel
imprint areas. Slab flexural stress computations were originally performed with the
assistance of influence charts but current technology relies almost exclusively on
computer software.
The third assumption above is sometimes referred to as the centre slab loading condition
as the load is assumed remote from a free edge. Flexural stresses are higher if the aircraft
loading is located near a free edge and higher yet if the loading is located at a panel
corner. Experience indicates there is sufficient safety factor in the design process that
these loading conditions are rarely a problem and design can be based on flexural stresses
computed for the centre slab loading condition.
- 3.26 -
Slab flexural stress f S fS = 6 M / h 2

due to uniformly loaded sector 2
M = q l { (1+ ) ( 2 - 1 ) f1( r ) + (1 - ) (sin 2 2 - sin 2 1 ) f2( r ) }
4 l l
r r
f1( r ) = l kei ( l )
l
1 r kei ( r ) - kei ( r ) -
f2( r ) = l
l 2 l l 4
M = moment per unit length in the concrete slab, at point O, in the
r direction of the reference axis, due to a uniformly loaded sector
uniform load q
l = radius of relative stiffness = 4 D / k = 4
Eh3 / 12 (1- 2) k
2 kei( ) = a form of Bessel function ; kei ( ) indicates first derivative
1
reference
O axis Note: See Appendix A for details
M
L Integrate moment equation around perimeter of

each tire imprint and sum moments for all tires.
W
Assuming elliptical tire Depending on the gear configuration, maximum

imprint, contact area A moment may occur at some angle to the gear axis 0
L = 1.383 A and slightly offset from centre of the tire closest to
M
W = 0.666 L the gear centre of gravity.
Figure 3.14 : CONCRETE SLAB STRESS ANALYSIS
The structural design of concrete slabs considers only the flexural stresses resulting from
the design aircraft gear loading. Bending stresses associated with the curling of concrete
slabs due to vertical thermal gradients are generally ignored.
3.5.2 Bearing Modulus
In Equation (3.3), the variable k is the proportionality constant between slab deflection
and the reaction pressure generated on the bottom of the slab by the base course. The
variable is called the modulus of reaction, or bearing modulus. Bearing modulus, k, is
measured using a single application of load applied to the surface of the base course
through a 750 mm diameter plate. The bearing plate is loaded to produce a deflection of
1.25 mm and the plate pressure in kPa is then divided by the deflection, 1.25 mm, to
calculate bearing modulus in units of MPa/m.
In practice, bearing modulus is rarely measured directly but is estimated from a design
value of subgrade bearing strength and the thickness of base and subbase placed between
the subgrade and the concrete slab. An equation for this purpose, given in Figure 3.15,
can be derived from McLeods equation (Eq. (3.1)) and the plate load relationships given
in Figures 3.02 and 3.03. For the design of new concrete pavements, bearing modulus is
limited to a maximum value of 150 MPa/m. The limitation exists because very high
values of bearing modulus cannot be relied upon due to such events as differential
subgrade settlement, frost heaving or slab curling caused by thermal gradients.
- 3.27 -
150
Bearing Modulus on Base Surface k (MPa/m)
125
120 0 mm
110 mm
m
0m
m
30
0
0m
m
t=1
100
0m
100
m
0m
90
m
0m
80
m
m
70
0
60 m
75 00m m
5
0m
40 mm
0
30 mm
0
20
50 mm k = 0.474 S 10 t / 1650
1 0 0 mm
0
t= t = equivalent granular thickness
of base + subbase
25
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Figure 3.15 : BEARING MODULUS ON BASE SURFACE
3.5.3 Concrete Strength and Overload Ratio
Similar to the approach for flexible pavements, an overload ratio R is defined for concrete
pavements :
R = fs / fa Eq. (3.4)
where fs is the flexural stress in the concrete slab as the result of an aircraft load and fa is
the allowable design flexural stress. Allowable design stress is based on concrete flexural
strength and fatigue considerations.
Concrete flexural strength is a function of age. For construction purposes, the required
strength of a concrete mix is normally specified in terms of a 28-day curing period but the
concrete continues to slowly gain strength at a decreasing rate with age. Construction
specifications and field quality control should ensure an average 28-day flexural strength
of not less than 4.0 MPa. With good quality aggregates and proper mix design, average
28-day flexural strengths in the order of 4.5 to 5.0 MPa are not uncommon. After a few
years of curing, the flexural strength of the concrete is usually unknown but values of 6.0
to 6.5 MPa are possible.
The flexural strength used for design purposes should represent a lower percentile in the
distribution of strength values rather than the average 28-day flexural strength, or a value
about 1.0 to 1.5 standard deviations less than the average. A good concrete plant
operation produces a concrete with a standard deviation in flexural strength test results of
- 3.28 -
less than 10%, so the flexural strength value chosen for design purposes should be in the
order of 10% to 15% (1-1.5 ) less than the average strength.
The selection of an allowable design stress is also influenced by fatigue considerations.

Failure occurs with one application of a load giving a stress equal to the flexural strength.
Under repeated load repetition, failure stress decreases linearly with the log of the number
of load repetitions. For a large or unrestricted number of load repetitions, the allowable
design stress should not be greater than one-half of the longer-term flexural strength.
Based on these considerations and in the absence of strength data from construction
quality control testing or a field coring program, an allowable design stress of 2.75 MPa
is recommended for most situations. Corresponding levels of stress defining the various
operational categories are:
Operational Category Overload Ratio Stress Level (MPa)

Design Level 1.00 2.75
Unrestricted < 1.25 < 3.5
Limited 1.25 to 1.50 3.5 to 4.1
Marginal 1.50 to 2.00 4.1 to 5.5
Emergency Use Only > 2.00 > 5.5
450
Aircraft: B747-400
Portland Cement Concrete Slab Thickness h (mm)
450 Gross Weight: 3900 kN

Weight on Main Gear: 23.8%
Tire Pressure: 1.38 MPa
unr
400 e stri
cte desig
d ope n cu
rve
rati
o ns
lim overload ratio
350 ited
ope
rat R=1.0 fs = 2.75 M
ion Pa
s
ma
300 rg ina
l op
era R=1.25
ti ons fs = 3.5 MP
a
250 R=1.5
em fs = 4.1 MP
erg a
enc
y us e
onl R=2.0
y
200
fs = 5.5 MPa
150
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Bearing Modulus on Surface of Base k (MPa/m)
Figure 3.16 : RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN AND EVALUATION CHART
- 3.29 -
3.5.4 Design-Evaluation Charts
With current technology, pavement design and evaluation is likely to be performed

directly by computer. The plotting of computations in chart form helps to illustrate the
sensitivity of results to parametric values, which is useful as the value of parameters is
rarely known with precision. Figure 3.16 shows a concrete pavement design and
evaluation chart for an aircraft at a given operating weight. Figure 3.17 illustrates a
number of these charts representing a range of operating weights combined into a single
composite design and evaluation chart for the aircraft.
The charts give slab thickness as a function of bearing modulus for four levels of flexural
stress: 2.75, 3.5, 4.1, and 5.5 MPa. For design, slab thickness requirements may be
determined using the 2.75 MPa stress curve. In an evaluation situation, an operation by
the aircraft on a given pavement is evaluated by plotting the point having the pavement
slab thickness, h, and bearing modulus, k, as co-ordinates. The location of this point on
the chart relative to the overload curves indicates whether the operation falls into the
unrestricted, limited, marginal, or emergency use only category.
3.5.5 Minimum Thickness of Layers
The minimum thickness recommended for concrete pavement layers are:

concrete slab: the depth of slab required to structurally support the design aircraft
load, but not less than 225 mm.
base course: 200 mm cement stabilized base for design aircraft in excess of 2000 kN
in weight, and 150 mm crushed gravel base for design aircraft of lesser weight.
subbase: as required to provide a total pavement thickness meeting the frost
protection requirements presented in Section 3.3.2.
3.5.6 Joints and Steel
Canadian practice is to construct plain concrete pavements that, for the most part, have no
reinforcement, crack control steel, tie bars or load transfer dowelling. Some steel is
needed in certain locations, such as tie bars for small irregular shaped panels,
reinforcement steel around interior manholes and catchbasins, and crack control steel at
locations of mismatched joints. Details are shown in appended standard drawings.
Design practice for concrete pavements containing crack control steel, dowelling and tie-
bars is available in the FAA pavement design manual.
Because plain concrete is used, joints must be located at relatively close intervals to avoid
cracking during cure shrinkage or from thermal expansion and contraction. Longitudinal
construction joints and transverse contraction joints are usually located at 6 m intervals
with a construction joint along the centreline of runways and taxiways. Construction
joint spacing is increased to 7.5 m on runways and taxiways serving wide-bodied aircraft
to avoid the outside support gears of the aircraft tracking along a construction joint.
- 3.30 -
RIGID PAVEMENT
B 727
DESIGN AND EVALUATION CHART
Operating Weight : Maximum (kN) = 935
Minimum (kN) = 450
mm
860
% Load on Main Gear = 46.5
Tire Pressure (MPa) = 1.19
Bearing Modulus k (MPa/m)

10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
operating weight (kN)

450 550 675 800 935
overload
ratio
1.00 fs = 2.75 MP
a
1.25 3.5 MPa
1.50 4.1 MPa
2.00 5.5 MPa
180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390
Concrete Slab Thickness h (mm)
Figure 3.17 :
RIGID PAVEMENT COMPOSITE DESIGN AND EVALUATION CHART
- 3.31 -
3.6 STANDARD GEAR LOADS AND LOAD RATINGS
3.6.1 Pavement Design Thickness for Standard Gear Loads
Table 3.06 lists twelve standard gear loads (SGLs) spanning the range of current aircraft
loads. Common Canadian practice is to design airport pavements for one of these
standard gear loads rather than for a particular aircraft. Table 3.07 identifies some
aircraft corresponding to each of the standard gear loads. The maximum standard gear
load, #12, is slightly more critical than the loads imposed by current major aircraft and
provides some room for future growth in the size of aircraft. Figure 3.18 gives flexible
and rigid pavement structural thickness design requirements for the standard gear loads.
3.6.2 Aircraft and Pavement Load Ratings
A standard gear load rating for a particular aircraft is determined by superimposing the
aircrafts design curve over the set of design curves for the standard gear loads, as
illustrated in Figure 3.19. The SGL to which the aircraft corresponds varies slightly
between flexible and rigid pavements and with bearing strength levels. Aircraft Load
Ratings (ALRs) are listed at four values of subgrade plate bearing strength for flexible
pavements, and at four values of bearing modulus for rigid pavements.
Pavement load rating (PLR) is determined in a similar manner, as illustrated in

Figure 3.19. For flexible pavement, a point is plotted in Figure 3.19(a) using the
pavements equivalent granular thickness and subgrade plate bearing strength as co-
ordinates. The load rating of the pavement is determined by comparing the position of
the point relative to the SGL design curves. Similarly, the load rating of a rigid pavement
is determined by plotting a point on Figure 3.19(b) using the pavements slab thickness
and bearing modulus as co-ordinates. Whether a pavement exceeds or is deficient with
respect to the design requirements of an aircraft is easily determined by comparing the
PLR of the pavement to the ALR of the aircraft.
The Load Rating system has been used in the past to report Canadian airport pavement
bearing strength. However, the PLR system has been largely superseded by the
ACN/PCN system, a somewhat similar method specified by the International Civil
Aviation Organization as the international procedure for reporting airport pavement
bearing strength. The ACN/PCN system is detailed in the chapter on quality evaluation.
- 3.32 -
Table 3.06 : Standard Gear Loads
Characteristics of Standard Gear Loads
Single Wheel Gear Dual Wheel Gear Dual Tandem Wheel

Standard
Gear
Load Gear Tire Gear Tire Tire Gear Tire Tire
Load Pressure Load Pressure Spacing Load Pressure Spacing
(kN) (MPa) (kN) (MPa) (mm) (kN) (MPa) (mm)
1 20 0.30
2 30 0.35
3 45 0.40
4 60 0.45 80 0.50 500
5 80 0.50 110 0.60 550
6 110 0.55 130 0.65 600
7 140 0.60 170 0.70 650
8 220 0.85 700
9 290 1.05 750 440 1.10 6501150
10 400 1.15 900 660 1.20 9001500
11 900 1.55 11001650
12 1120 1.80 11501650
Table 3.07 : Aircraft Corresponding to Standard Gear Loads
SGL AIRCRAFT SGL AIRCRAFT SGL AIRCRAFT

Piper Gulfstream G159 BAC-111-500
Cessna Cutlass/Skylane F27 DC-9-21, 32
1 5 9
Beech Bonanza/Baron HS748 Hercules C130
DHC2 Beaver Dart Herald
B707-120B
Beech King Air 90 Convair 580/640 B737-200/300
2 Cessna 421Golden Eagle 6 Canadair CL215 10 B767-200
DHC6 Twin Otter Dassault Falcon 50 DC-7
SuperConstellation
Cessna Citation I B-747-100
Swearingen DC-4 DC-10-20
3 Metro/Merlin 7 BAE-146-100 11 B707 320/420
Piper Cheyenne III Canadair CL699, 601 Airbus A-300
VC-10-1100, 1150
DC-9-15 Concorde
DC 3 DC-6, 6B B-747-200
DHC Dash 8 Gulfstream II, III DC-10-10, 30, 40
4 8 12
Gates Learjet 55,56 Argosy A W650 L1011-100, 200, 500
BAE-146-200 B727-200
DC-8-62, 63, 72, 73
- 3.33 -
2000
Flexible Pavements
1800
Equivalent Granular Thickness t (mm)
1600
1400 standard gear load

12
1200 11
10
1000
9
8
800
7
6
600 5
4
3
400 2
1
200
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
500
Rigid Pavements
450 (fs = 2.75 MPa)
standard gear load

400
12
350 11
10
300
9
250 8
7
200 6
5
150
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150
Base Surface Bearing Modulus k (MPa/m)
Figure 3.18 :
PAVEMENT DESIGN THICKNESS FOR STANDARD GEAR LOADS
- 3.34 -
2000
(a) Flexible Pavements
1800
Aircraft Load Rating
Equivalent Granular Thickness t (mm)
1600 B727 @ 935 kN

for S (kN) = 50 90 130 180
1400 ALR = 10.3 10.6 10.8 11.0
1200 12
11
1000 10
9
800
8
7 Pavement Load Rating
600
6 for t = 750 mm, S = 95 kN
5 PLR = 9.0
400 4
3
2
200
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
500
(b) Rigid Pavements
Aircraft Load Rating
(fs = 2.75 MPa)
450 B727 @ 935 kN
for k (MPa/m) = 20 40 80 150
ALR = 10.5 10.7 11.0 11.3

400
12
350 11
10
300
9
250 8 Pavement Load Rating
7 for h = 275 mm, k = 70 MPa/m
PLR = 9.0
200 6
5
150
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Base Surface Bearing Modulus k (MPa/m)
Figure 3.19 :
EXAMPLE LOAD RATING OF AIRCRAFT AND PAVEMENTS
- 3.35 -
3.7 ROADS AND CARPARKS
3.7.1 Ground Vehicle Loads
A wide variety of ground vehicles is encountered at airports. Access roads and carparks
are subject to loads typically experienced by provincial highways. However, some
specialized service and maintenance vehicles peculiar to airports exceed permissible
highway limits. Table 3.08 provides the loading characteristics of a number of
specialized vehicles found at airports.
In most situations, airport roads and carparks are designed for one of the four load groups
listed in Table 3.09. The type of traffic expected to use a road or carpark should be
determined from planning studies and the appropriate load group for design should then
be selected from Table 3.09.
3.7.2 Flexible Pavement Design
For roads and carparks, subgrade plate bearing strength was originally defined in terms of
the load supported on a 300 mm diameter plate at 5 mm deflection after 10 load
repetitions, and design procedures were based on converting surface loads transferred to
subgrade level to these measurement conditions. However, this procedure is equivalent
to using design Eq. (3.3), together with an overload ratio of 0.625.
Consequently, roads and carparks may be designed using the procedures outlined in
Section 3.4, the applicable ground vehicle design loading, and a value of R = 0.625. This
value of overload ratio produces a higher design thickness requirement for road and
carpark pavements than for aircraft pavements. In pavement fatigue terms, this higher
design requirement reflects the greater number of load repetitions expected on roads as
compared to aircraft pavements. In some situations, where it is known a road will be
subject to infrequent traffic, the pavement may be designed using a value of R = 1.0,
corresponding to aircraft pavement design requirements.
Figure 3.20 gives flexible pavement structural thickness design requirements for the four
standard load groups listed in Table 3.08. Table 3.09 gives component layer minimum
thicknesses.
3.7.3 Rigid Pavement Design
Rigid pavement designs for airport access roads and carparks are not often required as
these facilities are usually constructed using flexible pavements. If required, rigid
pavements for roads and carparks are not designed by the theory outlined in this chapter.
Standard sections are normally used based on experience and these sections have slab
thicknesses ranging from 175 mm to 250 mm. Design should be performed according to
the practices of the local Provincial Highway Department.
- 3.36 -
Table 3.08 : Ground Vehicle Loading Characteristics
Wheel Spacing
Gross Gear Vehicle
Vehicle Weight Load Tire Load
Dual Tandem
(kN) (kN) Pressure Group
(mm) (mm)
(MPa)
EMERGENCY
Small Foam 73.9 23.6 320 - 0.38 1
Crash Rescue 65.8 18.5 - - 0.31 1
1000 gal. Foam 169.0 59.2 - 1420 0.62 2
2000 gal. Foam 287.6 77.7 - - 0.62 4
MAINTENANCE
Small Snow Plow 92.1 27.8 - - 0.59 2
Large Snow Plow 109.4 32.5 - - 0.59 2
7200 Snow Plow 126.8 37.8 - - 0.69 2
Snow Blast Blower 151.2 40.8 - - 0.59 2
Spreader Truck 276.0 106.6 330 1420 0.69 3
FUEL TANKERS
Imperial 7000 329.2 93.6 330 1320 0.62 3
8000 400.3 88.8 330 1370 0.69 3
9500 415.9 109.6 300 1220 0.55 3
11000 111.2 360 1300 0.55 3
12500 600.5 118.0 300 1220 0.62 3
Petrofina 12000 542.9 82.4 360 1220 0.59 2
Shell 4500 249.1 100.0 380 - 0.62 4
7100 378.1 111.2 410 - 0.62 4
11600 511.6 73.6 360 1190 0.48 2
15000 582.7 133.2 330 1270 0.69 4
Standard 3500 77.8 280 - 0.55 3
14000 640.5 146.8 360 1320 0.62 4
OTHERS
Planemate 361.6 90.4 - - 0.48 4
Passenger Car Variable Variable - - Variable 1
Transport Truck
Front axle 53.4 26.7 - - 0.70 3
Single axle 97.6 48.8 320 - 0.70 3
Tandem axle 177.6 88.8 300 180 0.70 3
Triple axle 266.4 133.2 300 2440+4880 0.70 3
TOW TRACTORS
Lectra Haul T150 747.3 186.8 - - 1.03 >4
International T180F 114.8 28.7 - - 0.52
T225SL 142.3 35.6 - - 0.52
T300SL 218.0 54.5 - - 0.76
T300SL 177.9 44.5 - - 0.62
T500SL 489.3 122.3 - - 0.72 >4
T800SL 689.5 172.4 - - 0.97 >4
T800SL 520.4 130.1 - - 0.72 >4
- 3.37 -
Table 3.09 : Minimum Thickness for Road Flexible Pavement Layers
Minimum Layer
Wheel Spacing
Thickness
Design Typical Type Gear Tire
(mm)
Group Vehicle of Load Pressure
Dual Tandem
Gear (kN) (MPa) Asphalt Crushed
(mm) (mm)
Concrete Base
Local Airports single 20 -- -- 0.50 150

1 cars dual 24 30 -- 0.50 65 to
light trucks dual tandem 40 30 120 0.50 200
Regional Airports
buses single 40 -- -- 0.70

2 maintenance vehicles dual 50 40 -- 0.60 65 200
some trucks dual tandem 80 30 120 0.60
- 3.38 -
some fuel tankers
National Airports
heavy trucks single 70 -- -- 0.70
3 fuel tankers dual 80 40 -- 0.60 85 250
heavy maintenance dual tandem 120 30 130 0.70
International Airports single 100 -- -- 0.80

4 heavy fuel tankers dual 110 40 -- 0.70 85 250
heavy service vehicles dual tandem 170 30 140 0.80
Notes: (1) Subbase thickness is the greater of :

(a) thickness needed to provide total pavement equivalent granular thickness for structural support,
(b) thickness needed to provide the depth required for frost protection.
(2) For small airports with low traffic volumes, the minimum thickness requirements for design group 1 may be reduced to
50 mm asphalt concrete + 150 mm crushed gravel or stone base.
1000
800
ground vehicle design loading group
600
3
2
420 mm
400
1 330 mm minimum pavement thickness
280 mm
200
40 60 80 100 120 140
Figure 3.20 :
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN THICKNESS FOR AIRPORT ROADS
Unplanned Traffic
- 3.39 -
3.8 STRENGTHENING OVERLAYS
An overlay may be classified as a resurfacing or strengthening measure depending on

purpose. When basic pavement bearing strength is already sufficient, resurfacing
overlays may be placed for the correction of major surface deficiencies such as excessive
roughness, or, more commonly, surface breakdown producing loose particles and a high
potential for foreign object damage (FOD) to aircraft. Resurfacing overlay thickness
requirements are addressed in the chapter on maintenance and restoration.
A strengthening overlay not only restores surface conditions but increases bearing
capacity to accommodate aircraft presenting a significantly higher loading than the
original design aircraft for the facility. Overlay thickness needed for strengthening
purposes is addressed in this section.
3.8.1 Asphalt Overlay on a Flexible Pavement
The equivalent granular thickness of flexible pavement required for the current design
aircraft is determined as previously outlined in this chapter and the depth of overlay
placed should result in a pavement structure having this equivalent granular thickness.
An overlay of full-depth asphalt is preferred but a sandwich overlay of granular base plus
a new asphalt surface may be considered if the required thickness of a full depth asphalt
overlay exceeds 150 mm.
3.8.2 Concrete Overlay on a Flexible Pavement
A concrete slab overlay on an asphalt pavement is designed using the previously outlined
concrete pavement design methods. Bearing modulus is computed at the top of the
existing flexible pavement.
3.8.3 Asphalt Overlay on a Concrete Pavement
A flexible overlay on a rigid slab is assumed to result in a rigid pavement structure if the
depth of overlay does not exceed the thickness of the slab, or 250 mm. For this case, the
thickness of asphalt overlay required (t) is computed as:
t = 1.67 (F hd h) ........ Eq. (3.5)

where t = asphalt overlay thickness required (mm). If a granular layer is to be
included in the overlay, multiply the thickness of the granular layer by 0.67
to determine equivalent asphalt thickness.
F = a factor dependent on the bearing modulus of the existing slab, see
Figure 3.21.
hd = thickness of slab required for a new concrete pavement (mm).
h = existing slab thickness (mm).
The value of t should be adjusted upward to t = hd - h if the value computed by Eq. (3.5)
is less.
- 3.40 -
If the thickness of flexible construction overlay exceeds the thickness of the existing slab,
or exceeds 250 mm, the composite pavement structure is considered to be a flexible
system. In this case, the overlay is designed by determining the thickness necessary to
provide the pavement equivalent granular thickness required by the current design
aircraft.
3.8.4 Concrete Overlay on Concrete Pavement
A concrete slab overlay on a concrete pavement may be placed without a separation

course if the existing slab is in relatively good structural condition with little or no
cracking. The surface of the existing slab should be thoroughly cleaned and roughened
by light milling to promote bond with the overlay slab. Also, reinforcement bar or mesh
should be incorporated in the overlay slab for crack control, and joints in the overlay slab
should be offset by 75 mm to 100 mm from those in the underlying slab for load transfer.
The thickness of overlay slab without separation course and with a granular separation
course not exceeding 150 mm is computed from Equations (3.6) and (3.7), respectively.
Without separation course:

ho = (hd1.4- C h1.4)1/1.4 .... Eq. (3.6)
With separation course not exceeding 150 mm:

ho = (hd2 C h2)1/2 ......... Eq. (3.7)
where ho = overlay slab thickness (mm)

hd = thickness of slab required for a new concrete pavement (mm)
h = existing slab thickness (mm)
C = 1.00 if the existing slab is in very good condition
= 0.75 if the existing slab has minor cracking
= 0.35 if the existing slab has major cracking
Equations (3.6) and (3.7) are plotted in Figure 3.21. The minimum thickness of overlay
slab is 150 mm.
If a separation course exceeding 150 mm in thickness is used, the upper slab is considered
to act independently of the lower slab. The bearing modulus is calculated at the top of the
separation course (converting the existing slab to an equivalent granular thickness) and
the overlay slab thickness is determined as previously outlined for new concrete
pavement. The value of bearing modulus used should not exceed 250 MPa/m.
- 3.41 -
Existing Slab Thickness h (mm)

500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100
ASPHALT OVERLAY
bearing modulus k (MPa/m)
250 30
200 50
70
150
100 90
asphalt overlay 50 110
thickness t (mm)
h d = (0.6t + h) / F (Note: hd t+h)

where F is a function of k
k = 30 50 70 90 110 >110
F = .94 .89 .85 .80 .74 .74
If granular layer is used in overlay, multiply granular layer
thickness by 0.67 to obtain equivalent thickness of
asphalt concrete.
CONCRETE OVERLAY
with separation course 150 mm
exis exis
with ting sla in g ting s
som b ood lab
e cr con
ack diti
ing on
overlay slab thickness

h 0 (mm)
100 150
200
250
300 existing slab
350 (a) in good condition
400 h d2 = h 02 + h 2
(b) with some cracking
h d2 = h 02 + 0.75 h 2
CONCRETE OVERLAY
without separation course
exis exis
t
with ing slab in g ting s
so m ood lab
e cr con
ack diti
in g on
overlay slab thickness

h 0 (mm)
100
150
200
250 existing slab
300 (a) in good condition
350 h d1.4 = h 01.4 + h 1.4
400 (b) with some cracking
h d1.4 = h 01.4 + 0.75 h 1.4
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Equivalent Single Slab Thickness h d ( mm )
Figure 3.21 :
EQUIVALENT SINGLE SLAB THICKNESS OF OVERLAID CONCRETE SLAB
- 3.42 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Chapter 4 : Construction Contract Supervision
CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION CONTRACT SUPERVISION
Section Page
4.1 Construction Quality ... 4.3
4.2 Administration Elements

4.2.1 Construction Contracts .... 4.3
4.2.2 Technical Specifications . 4.4
4.2.3 Supervision Organization ... 4.6
4.2.4 Laboratory Facilities .... 4.7
4.2.5 Quality Control Program .. 4.8
4.3 General Activities

4.3.1 Aggregate Production . 4.11
4.3.2 Material Weighing ... 4.12
4.3.3 Density and Compaction Measurements 4.14
4.3.4 Straightedge Measurements .. 4.17
4.4 Earthwork and Subgrade

4.4.1 Materials . 4.19
4.4.2 Excavation .. 4.21
4.4.3 Placement 4.23
4.4.4 Compaction .. 4.24
4.4.5 Soil Modification . 4.26
4.5 Subbase and Base

4.5.1 Material Placement .. 4.28
4.5.2 Compaction . 4.28
4.5.3 Proof Rolling .. 4.29
4.5.4 Cement Stabilized Base .. 4.31
4.6 Asphalt Paving

4.6.1 Mix Production 4.32
4.6.2 Prime and Tack Coats . 4.37
4.6.4 Compaction . 4.41
4.6.5 Cold Weather Paving .. 4.43
4.6.6 Cold Mix and Surface Treatments .. 4.44
- 4.1 -
Section Page
4.7 Concrete Paving

4.7.1 Mix Production 4.45
4.7.3 Texturing . 4.56
4.7.4 Curing .. 4.57
4.7.5 Joints 4.57
4.7.6 Defective Work ... 4.60
4.8 Construction Contract Records

4.8.1 Supporting Details .. 4.60
4.8.2 Technical Records ... 4.60
Tables
Table 4.01 Airfield Pavement Construction Specifications .. 4.5

Table 4.02 Supervision Organization ... 4.6
Table 4.03 Minimum Trade Product Sampling Requirements .... 4.9
Table 4.04 Minimum Requirements for Construction Quality Control Testing .. 4.10
Table 4.05 Standard Compaction Requirements .. 4.14
Table 4.06 Minimum Placing Temperatures for Asphalt Concrete . 4.38
Table 4.07 Typical Requirements for Concrete Batch Uniformity ... 4.47
Figures
Figure 4.01 Typical Field Laboratory Layout ...... 4.7

Figure 4.02 Example Weigh Ticket .. 4.13
Figure 4.03 Modified Proctor Density Curve ... 4.16
Figure 4.04 Replacement of Unsuitable Subgrade Materials .... 4.20
Figure 4.05 Level of Proof Rolling ... 4.29
Figure 4.06 Example of Asphalt Plant Calibration Curves ... 4.33
Figure 4.07 Bitumen Daily Usage Record .... 4.36
Figure 4.08 Concrete Plant Weigh Scales Check .. 4.46
Figure 4.09 Measures of Concrete Strength .. 4.48
Figure 4.10 Batch Weight Correction for Concrete Aggregate Moisture . 4.50
Figure 4.11 Cement Daily Usage Record .. 4.51
Figure 4.12 Subgrade Soils Profile Construction Record .. 4.63
Figure 4.13 Construction History Record ...... 4.64
- 4.2 -
CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION CONTRACT SUPERVISION
4.1 CONSTRUCTION QUALITY
The process of constructing new pavement facilities at an airport generally involves the
Airport Authority retaining an engineering firm to design the facility, prepare and tender
a construction contract, and then supervise the work of the Contractor. The success of a
construction project is assessed through three main parameters; time, cost and quality of
the work. Construction quality is the primary subject of this chapter.
The Airport Authority and their engineering representatives have two major instruments
to achieve construction quality. The first instrument is construction contract technical
specifications containing suitable standards with respect to materials and workmanship.
The second is a supervision and quality control program that ensures the specified
standards are met.
4.2 ADMINISTRATION ELEMENTS
4.2.1 Construction Contracts
Construction contracts contain three parts: the front end documents, the technical
specifications, and the contract plans. The front-end documents typically include the
articles of agreement, terms of payment, general conditions, labour conditions, insurance
conditions, and the contract security conditions. The technical specifications detail the
material and workmanship standards to which the work must conform. The contract
plans typically present geotechnical and topographic survey data; work area boundaries;
existing structures and service lines; and the lines, grades, dimensions, cross-sections and
construction details defining the work.
Construction contracts may be classified in terms of their approach to payment with three
major categories being unit price, lump sum, and cost plus contracts. Under a unit price
arrangement, the amount of work done is measured in units such as weight, area or
volume, and payment is determined by multiplying this measurement by the price per
unit bid for the item. This arrangement allows for changes to work quantities within
reasonable limits with the Contractor receiving pre-agreed compensation for the work
actually done. Heavy civil construction, including pavement construction, is usually
contracted on a unit price basis because some work quantities cannot be determined with
precision prior to construction.
The lump sum approach involves one fixed price bid for the entire work. This
arrangement is sometimes used if the work can be well defined at the time of design.
- 4.3 -
Lump sum contracts are frequently used for the construction of buildings. A major
advantage is quantities do not have to be measured during construction. However,
changes under lump sum contracts must be negotiated and the approach may provide
incentive for contractors to deliver the minimum acceptable work.
Payment under cost plus contracts is based on actual costs to the Contractor plus a
specified or bid percentage to cover overhead and profit. The approach may be used
when the work and associated costs cannot be determined with any degree of accuracy at
the time of tender. Such situations may arise, for example, with projects in remote areas.
Cost plus requires considerable administrative effort to track the Contractors costs and
the approach tends to promote inefficiency and inflate work quantities.
Payment arrangements can also be mixed, such as a cash allowance included in a unit
price contract to cover a work item where quantity cannot be well defined at the time of
contract (e.g. escort services for construction traffic on live airside areas). Cash
allowances are dispensed on a cost basis with a specified markup usually added. A major
objective in structuring contract payment is to minimize risk to the Contractor, as low
risk promotes better bid prices. Where major risk cannot be avoided, it should be shared
between Contractor and the Airport Authority.
The Engineer administering the contract should be thoroughly familiar with the front end
documents, in particular with the terms of payment and the general conditions of contract,
as these documents contain the basis for exercising authority over the work. The
approval of payments to the Contractor is a major part of such authority. Progress
payments are usually made monthly based on a progress claim submitted by the
Contractor and certified by the Engineer. However, progress payments are subject to a
hold-back, usually 10%, and the accumulated hold-back is not released until the end of
the work when the Engineer issues interim and final certificates of completion.
Certificates of completion follow a formal inspection of the completed work by an
acceptance board.
4.2.2 Technical Specifications
Table 4.01 lists technical specifications covering major work items directly associated
with the construction of airfield pavements. Examples of these specifications containing
typical material and workmanship standards are appended. Modifications and editing are
needed to adapt these specifications to project specific conditions. Actual construction
projects include several other work items, and typical specifications for other types of
work are available in the National Master Construction Specifications system and from
other industry sources.
Technical specifications are sometimes referred to as end-product or method

specifications depending on whether emphasis is placed on the product to be delivered by
the Contractor or on the methods by which the product is to be produced. From a
theoretical viewpoint, end-product specifications are preferred as an emphasis on method
places some responsibility on the specification writer for the product produced by those
methods. In addition, the specification of method may limit the Contractors ability to
employ new and/or more efficient methods.
- 4.4 -
Table 4.01 : Airfield Pavement Construction Specifications
C2010 : Cash Allowance for Runway C2320 : Granular Base

Paving Ride Quality C2330 : Cement Stabilized Base
C2110 : Aggregates General C2410 : Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Paving
C2120 : Compaction Measurement C2420 : Mixed-in-Place Asphalt Paving
C2210 : Airfield Grading C2440 : Asphalt Prime and Tack Coats
C2220 : Lime Modification of Subgrade C2460 : Coal Tar Seal Coat
C2310 : Granular Subbase C2510 : Portland Cement Concrete Paving
Note: See example specifications appended. Refer to the National Master Specification system for other work items.
From a practical viewpoint, recognition must be given to the substantial costs involved in
pavement construction, and the financial inability of contractors to correct many types of
widespread deficiency if the deficiency is uncovered at a later stage of the work.
Specifications and quality control practices must be structured to identify and correct
deficiencies at an early stage. While the end-product must be adequately defined, the
essential elements of good construction practice required to produce the product should
also be contained in specifications. After a contract is awarded, the Contractor may
propose changes to specifications and the Engineer may accept the proposal with a
negotiated change to price, if appropriate.
The specification for a work item may indicate only one measurement for payment, such
as tonnes for asphalt paving or cubic metres for concrete paving. An alternative practice
is to measure and pay for the supply of the asphalt cement or Portland cement materials
separately from aggregate production, and the mixing and placing operation. This
approach requires additional inspection resources to record cement shipments and track
usage. However, the approach allows the Engineer to dictate the cement content of mixes
without adverse financial consequences to the Contractor and daily usage records provide
the best assurance the proper amounts of cement are being incorporated into the work. A
similar practice may be adopted for the Contractor supply of other expensive materials.
In some instances, supply of materials directly by the Engineer may be advantageous,
such as when delivery lead times are lengthy or when future prices are very uncertain and
high risk to the Contractor would increase bid prices.
Some agencies include a payment bonus and/or penalty approach in specification writing,
particularly with end-product specifications. The approach provides benefits by
increasing the incentive to contractors to deliver better work and by ensuring product
testing is done as required to obtain the data on which the bonus or penalty payment is
based. On the negative side, bonus and penalty clauses can become very involved and
add considerable complexity to a specification. Also, test results are not always reliable.
The appended specifications do not include the bonus and penalty approach except for a
separate specification optionally included to provide a bonus for the ride quality of
runway paving work. If requirements are specified in terms of fixed minimums or
maximums as in the appended specifications, the Engineer has various options if the
specified requirements are not met. If a deficiency is substantial but not fatal, and
corrective measures are prohibitively expensive, the usual approach is to accept the work
at a reduced price.
- 4.5 -
4.2.3 Supervision Organization
The organization chart of a traditional group formed to supervise a pavement construction

contract may be structured along the lines indicated in Table 4.02. The number of staff in
the supervisory group depends on the size of the project. On small projects, non-
dedicated and non-resident personnel may perform all functions. On large projects, the
supervisory group may include a number of inspectors and more than one survey and
quality control testing crew. Heavy civil construction includes manufacturing processes
such as earthwork and asphalt and concrete production, and quality control personnel are
needed to monitor these manufacturing processes. Hence, heavy civil construction
generally requires more supervisory staff than building construction which, except for the
concrete work, largely consists of the assembly of pre-manufactured components.
Table 4.02 : Supervision Organization
Resident Engineer
- contract administration
- design changes
- personnel management
- project diary and records
Administrative Support Survey & Quantities Quality Testing Inspection

- secretarial - layout - trade products - grade
- clerical - grades - aggregates - plant
- drafting - cross-sections - mix designs - paving
- weigh scales - field testing - drainage
In keeping with tradition, the word Engineer is used to denote the person in charge of
the supervisory group. Contract Administrator or some other term is sometimes used in
place of Engineer as the latter term implies professional qualifications which may not
be a requirement, particularly on smaller projects. The official Engineer for the
contract is named in the articles of agreement and this person may designate a project
engineer as his representative. Official communication with the Contractor of a legal
nature is through the Engineer named in the contract; all day-to-day communication of an
administrative and technical nature should be through the project engineer and all
involved parties should be cognizant of this procedure.
Construction contract supervision has changed over the years and the organizational
structure and responsibilities depicted in Table 4.02 may be somewhat altered, although
the functions identified still exist somewhere. The organization of Table 4.02 was
prevalent during the years of major expansion of national infrastructure following World
War II, when public agencies responsible for large inventories of pavement facilities had
permanent engineering and technical staff for all design and construction supervision
functions.
Due to a decline in construction volume and the streamlining of public organizations in

recent times, the practice has shifted to much greater use of engineering consulting firms
to supervise construction contracts on behalf of the facility owner. Previous practice was
- 4.6 -
to provide considerable direction to the Contractor during the course of the work and in
providing such direction, the Engineer was assuming substantial responsibility for the
outcome of the work. Engineering consulting firms retained to supervise construction
contracts are reluctant to provide direction to contractors because of liability concerns.
Their undertaking is usually limited to monitoring of the work and reporting on progress
and quality to the Airport Authority. Also, contractors have become more professional
and knowledgeable in their operation and modern contracts sometimes assign
responsibility for much of the surveying and quality control testing to the Contractor.
The supervisory group then monitors the Contractors results and performs only minimal
checking. The term quality control is still used to describe construction contract
supervision programs although the programs commonly in place today might be more
accurately described as construction quality assurance.
4.2.4 Laboratory Facilities
In many instances, quality control testing is divided between a central laboratory and an
on-site laboratory. The central laboratory is a well-equipped, permanently located
facility satisfying infrequent or more advanced testing requirements, such as trade
product testing and aggregate source acceptance testing. The on-site laboratory is a
temporary facility established for the duration of the project and is equipped only for
routine, day-to-day production testing. All testing may be conducted at the central
laboratory if the construction project is close to the central facility or if the construction
project is too small to justify an on-site lab.
Figure 4.01 shows a typical layout of an on-site laboratory for a medium-sized project. A
large project may require laboratory space in the order of 35 to 45 m2. The laboratory
space should be physically separated from office accommodations and should be
partitioned to keep noise and dust separate from other operations. Heat, running water
and electrical power are required. The cleanliness and tidiness of a soils laboratory
requires constant attention. Laboratory facilities are sometimes housed in a mobile trailer
stationed at a site for project duration and is then moved on to other projects.
9 10
bench sink 1 1 oven

bench 8
2 compaction pedestal
3 beam breaker
4 sieve shaker
5 20 kilo balance
2 work table 3 desk
6 Marshall apparatus
7 water bath
8 sensitive balance
drafting file 9 box screens
4 5 bench 6 7 table cabinet 10 curing tank
Figure 4.01 : TYPICAL FIELD LABORATORY LAYOUT
- 4.7 -
4.2.5 Quality Control Program
Trade Products
Trade products, such as bituminous materials, Portland cements, air-entraining agents,

curing compounds and joint sealers, can normally be used in a project without testing for
pre-approval provided the product has been used successfully in previous pavement
construction projects. The Contractor should supply manufacturers test data showing the
product meets specification requirements and, if requested, references from projects
where the product was used previously.
Trade products should be sampled when received on site with the minimum sampling
frequency given in Table 4.03. One sample of each trade product should be tested for
compliance with specification requirements during the initial stages of the work. The
other samples should be stored for six months or more with additional testing performed
if problems with the product are encountered during the course of the work.
Aggregate Source Acceptance and Mix Designs
Contract specifications usually require the Contractor to identify proposed sources of

aggregate with a lead time of about four weeks prior to starting aggregate production and
plant production activities. The specifications may also require the Contractor to submit
test data showing aggregate from the proposed source meets specified requirements.
However, an independent verification should be carried out.
At least three samples from the identified quarry or pit should be tested for the specified
characteristics of gradation, crushed content, Atterberg limits and sand equivalent. If
specified, soundness, degradation, abrasion and deleterious substances need be
determined on only one representative sample if test results easily meet requirements.
Additional testing should be performed if test results are marginal and should be repeated
during the course of the work if material changes are suspected from visual inspection. If
the proposed aggregate source does not have crushed material stockpiled for sampling,
samples of the rock should be obtained and crushed in the laboratory for a preliminary
property assessment.
Particular attention must be given to the process of sampling from aggregate sources to
ensure the samples obtained are truly representative of the material from the source.
Non-representative samples are worse than useless; they give misleading data. The
acceptance of aggregate sources on the basis of preliminary tests is always tentative and
conditional on the production of acceptable aggregate materials throughout the course of
the work.
Contract specifications commonly require the Contractor submit a proposed job mix
formula for asphalt and Portland cement concrete mixes. The information submitted
should contain test results from trial mixes. The Engineer may choose to independently
check the proposed mix complies with specification requirements.
- 4.8 -
Table 4.03 : Minimum Trade Product Sampling Requirements
Minimum
Samples Sampling Sample Quantity
Material Sample Size
Taken From Frequency Container Requiring
Sampling
Asphalt Cement tank car or 1 per week sealed can 5 litres 5 tonnes
truck 2 per job min.
Liquid Asphalt tank car, truck 1 per delivery sealed can 10 litres 1000 litres
or drum 2 per job min.
Emulsified Asphalt tank car, truck 1 per delivery plastic container 10 litres 1000 litres
or drum 2 per job min.
Coal Tar Emulsion tank car, truck 2 per job plastic container 10 litres 400 litres
or drum
Portland Cement bulk, barrels, 1 per week poly bag 10 kg 500 bags
bags 2 per job min.
Air-Entraining drums 2 per job sealed can 5 litres 50 litres

Agent
Curing Compound drums 2 per job sealed can 5 litres 400 litres
Joint Sealer:
Hot Applied drums or cakes 2 per job poly bag 10 kg 250 kg
Cold Applied drums 2 per job sealed can component 400 litres
proportions
for 5 litres
Notes:
(a) Sample materials as soon as possible after delivery to site, or after containers have been opened for use.
(b) Sample containers to be airtight.
(c) One sample to be tested against standards; others to be saved in the event of problems with the product.
Construction Testing
The main element of construction quality control is visual inspection. Quality control
testing is a supplement to inspection, to verify visual impressions and to quantify results
for record purposes. Consequently, required testing frequency is a variable. Testing is
needed more frequently during the start-up of an operation, when problems arise or if the
work is of marginal quality. When construction is proceeding smoothly with no
problems visually evident, testing may be reduced to the minimum frequencies given in
Table 4.04.
Generally, corrective action should not be taken on the basis of an individual test result
not meeting specification requirements as the poor result may be due to testing error.
Isolated poor results may be accepted to a limit in the order of 5% to 10% of the total
number of tests. When substandard quality is confirmed through repeated testing or
when a trend is identified, the Engineer should discuss corrective action with the
Contractor.
- 4.9 -
Table 4.04 : Minimum Requirements for Construction Quality Control Testing
Minimum Testing
Work Phase Type of Testing Frequency
(No. of Tests Per Unit)
Common Fill
Placing Moisture-density relationship 2 material type
Field density 1 3000 m2/lift
Subgrade
Compaction Moisture-density relationship 2 material type
Field density 1 3000 m2
Subbase
Gradation 1 day
Atterberg limits 1 week
Base
Aggregate Stockpiling* Gradation and crushed count 2 day
Atterberg limits 1 week
Gradation and crushed count 2 day
Asphaltic Concrete
Mix Production Dry bin aggregate gradation 2 day
Plant Marshall Tests ** 2 day
Placing Field density 1 1000 m2
Straightedge 1 100 m2
Portland Cement Concrete
Mix Production Flexural strength*** 2 day
Placing Slump and air content 1 100 m3
Straightedge 1 100 m2
Notes:
* Micro-Deval abrasion tests (one per week) to be conducted during aggregate production if equipment available.
** Plant Marshall tests to include for each briquette density, stability, flow, voids, VMA and extraction for
bitumen content, aggregate gradation and crushed content. Each test to include four briquettes. Occasionally
test for retained penetration of the recovered bitumen to determine degree of oxidation from plant operations.
*** Each flexural strength test to include two beams.
Casting Concrete Beams

for
Flexural Strength Testing
- 4.10 -
4.3 GENERAL ACTIVITIES
4.3.1 Aggregate Production
Aggregate Source Development
The Contractor should designate the proposed aggregate sources with sufficient lead time
to permit preliminary testing for tentative acceptance. Preliminary testing for source
acceptance involves the measurement of all properties identified in the contract
specifications. Some aggregate properties such as gradation and crushed content are
monitored continuously during production. Other properties such as sulphate soundness
and Los Angeles degradation are normally measured only during the source acceptance
stage. Aggregate production should be monitored visually with additional soundness and
degradation testing conducted if characteristics appear to be changing. If the equipment
is available, Micro-Deval abrasion testing may be conducted periodically during
aggregate production with additional soundness and degradation testing conducted if the
need is suggested by the abrasion results.
Clearing, grubbing and overburden stripping must be carried out sufficiently in advance
of the pit or quarry face so deleterious materials do not become mixed with the aggregate.
In pits or quarries where the material is non-homogeneous, special attention to equipment
and methods may be necessary to ensure a satisfactory product. Where a pit is stratified,
vertical cuts the full depth of the face should be made to obtain a blended material.
Where non-homogeneities exist in pockets, excavation areas may have to be chosen
selectively.
Crushing and Screening
Problems are unlikely in the crushing and screening operation if the aggregate is being
drawn from stockpiles in a continuously operating pit or quarry. Where a plant is erected
specifically for the project at a new or infrequently used aggregate source, a period of
adjustment may be necessary until the plant is producing satisfactory material. Plant
adjustment should be controlled through sampling and testing by the quality control
testing crew.
Once satisfactory material is being produced, the product should be visually monitored
for changes in appearance suggesting changes in the source material. The equipment
should be inspected periodically for problems such as screens developing holes or
becoming clogged by wet fines.
Stockpiling
Prior to commencing aggregate production, agreement should be reached with the

Contractor on a satisfactory location for stockpiling. Stockpiling should not be permitted
on paved surfaces where consolidation of the subgrade may occur and produce settlement
or cracking of the pavement surface.
- 4.11 -
Consideration must be given to the base material on which stockpiles are constructed.
Toward the end of the project when the stockpile is depleted, the aggregate being
withdrawn from the stockpile must not become contaminated by the underlying material.
The bottom of the stockpile may be unusable for this reason. Expensive crushed
aggregates should be stockpiled on a bed of sand about 300 mm in thickness.
Stockpiles should be built up in horizontal layers not exceeding one metre in thickness
for coarse aggregate and base course materials, or two metres for fine aggregate and
subbase materials. A stationary discharge point should not be permitted as it promotes
the segregation of coarse and fine particles. If an aggregate has non-homogeneities, some
mixing can be achieved by selective placement of material on the stockpile prior to
spreading. When aggregates from two or more sources must be blended to meet a
specified gradation, the aggregates are stockpiled separately and blended through
aggregate feeders. Blending in stockpiles should not be permitted. Stockpiles of
different materials should be sufficiently separated or a suitable partition placed between
them to ensure contamination does not occur. Contamination can also result from
equipment tracking mud onto a stockpile, or from ice and snow during late fall
operations. Crawler tractors operating on the stockpile and other handling procedures
must not crush or otherwise degrade the aggregate particles.
Asphalt or Portland cement concrete production should not be permitted to start until
sufficient aggregate meeting specifications has been produced and stockpiled. If the
aggregate is coming from a new or infrequently used source, stockpiles should be built to
50% of total requirements before plant production begins. This requirement may be
reduced to 30% or even less for very large projects. At a fixed-location, continuously
operating plant with no record of aggregate problems, stockpiles should be maintained
for at least two days of continuous plant operation. Plant operations should not be
permitted to start in the morning if the aggregate stockpiled is not sufficient for the days
production.
Clean-up
Following work completion, work areas should be cleaned and tidied to the satisfaction
of the Engineer. Where excavation has occurred on airport property, there should be a
specification requirement to dress side slopes and grades as necessary for drainage and to
prevent standing water. Ramps and piles of discarded materials should be leveled.
4.3.2 Material Weighing
On contracts where materials are paid by weight, weigh tickets must be collected from
truck drivers as they arrive on grade to deliver their load. The contract specifications
may require the Contractor to supply heavy-duty truck scales and a scale house, and erect
and maintain these facilities in a location approved by the Engineer. Alternatively, public
scales may be used if the Contractor can arrange suitable access. The scales must have
the capacity to weigh loaded vehicles in a single operation; split weighing is illegal.
Before using the scales, the Engineer must ensure they have been inspected and certified
accurate by an appropriate agency. The inspection certificate should be displayed in a
prominent location. The contact documents should specify the Contractor must have the
- 4.12 -
scales re-certified during the course of the work on request of the Engineer and
certification testing should occur at least once every month.
Truckloads of materials are weighed by a scaleman employed by the Engineer. After

weighing each truckload, the scaleman fills in the weights and signs a weigh ticket
(Figure 4.02). The weigh ticket (white) has two copies attached: one pink and one
yellow. The scaleman retains the yellow copy and gives the original white and pink copy
to the truck driver. When the truck arrives on grade and delivers the load, the truck
driver gives the white ticket to the grade inspector and keeps the pink copy for the
Contractors records.
The scaleman should determine the tare (empty) weight of all haul trucks at least once a
day at irregular times. When determining the tare weight, the truck should be in the same
condition as when weighed loaded (e.g., driver in truck, accessories such as spare tires
attached, etc.). The truck driver should have only one ticket when he arrives on grade. If
two tickets are produced, the grade inspector should ensure both loads have actually been
delivered before accepting the extra ticket. Otherwise the tickets should be cancelled and
the truck sent over the scales again. If a driver claims to have lost his copy of a ticket, the
ticket should be cancelled on the scalemans records (with an explanation), the truck re-
weighed and another ticket issued.
CHECKERS WEIGH TICKET

NO. _____
Airport ________________________________
Contractor ______________________________
Contract No. ____________ Truck No. _______
Material
Pit Run Gravel __________________________
Crushed Gravel __________________________
Crushed Stone __________________________
Screenings ______________________________
Sand ___________________________________
Stabilized Base __________________________
Hot Mix __________________ Upper _______
Lower _______
________________________________________
Gross _______________ tonnes

Tare _______________ tonnes
Net _______________ tonnes
Date _________________________ 19___

Checker ______________________________
Figure 4.02 : EXAMPLE WEIGH TICKET
- 4.13 -
Tickets are issued in series with sequential numbers to facilitate record keeping.
Cancelled tickets should be kept as an aid in clarifying the records. At the end of each
day, the scaleman and grade inspector should total and compare the weights of the loads
dispatched and received. They should ensure corresponding tickets exist and any
discrepancies should be investigated immediately while conditions can still be recalled.
Weighed quantities should also be checked and agreed daily with the Contractors
records so disagreements can be resolved on an on-going basis.
At job completion, the Contractor is required to remove from the site any supplied scales
and scale house. The supply of scales is an overhead item for which no direct payment is
made to the Contractor.
4.3.3 Density and Compaction Measurements
Compaction Specifications
Compaction is measured as the ratio of two density values, expressed as a percentage.

One value is the measured in-place field density. The second value is determined under
controlled conditions in a laboratory using a specified compaction effort. Construction
specifications require the compaction of materials to a field density not less than some
percent of the laboratory density. Table 4.05 lists a summary of standard compaction
requirements for various materials.
Table 4.05 : Standard Compaction Requirements
Layer Material Type Minimum Percent

Compaction
Graded Areas cohesive soil 90

- common fill non-cohesive soil 90
Pavement Embankment cohesive soil 90

- common fill non-cohesive soil 95
Subgrade cohesive soil 93

non-cohesive soil 98
Subbase unbound 98
Base unbound 100

cement stabilized 97
Surfacing Asphalt concrete 98
Notes:
(a) Subgrade compaction is 150 mm deep in cohesive soils and 300 mm deep in
non-cohesive soils.
(b) For compaction purposes, non-cohesive soil is defined as:
(i) all soils having less than 20% passing the 75-m sieve;
(ii) soils having between 20% and 50% passing the 75-m sieve
and having a liquid limit less than 25 and a plasticity index less than 6.
- 4.14 -
Laboratory Density Measurement
For unbound soil and aggregate materials, the laboratory density specified is the
corrected maximum dry density determined by:
D = (F1 x D1) + (0.9 x F2 x D2) .... Eq. (4.1)
where D = corrected maximum dry density, kg/m3 ;

F1 = fraction (decimal) of the total field sample passing the 4.75-mm sieve;
F2 = fraction (decimal) of the total field sample retained on the 4.75-mm sieve;
D1 = modified maximum dry unit weight, kg/m3, of material passing the
4.75-mm sieve, determined with Method A of ASTM D1557.
D2 = bulk density, kg/m3, of material retained on the 4.75-mm sieve, equal to
1000 G, where G is the bulk specific gravity (dry basis) of the material
when tested to ASTM C127.
Another formula sometimes specified for determining corrected maximum dry density is
provided in ASTM D4718:
D= ( D1 D2 ) / ( F1 D2 + F2 D1 ) ...... Eq. (4.2)
where the symbols are as previously listed. The first equation is an empirical
approximation. The latter equation can be derived theoretically assuming the oversize
particles are suspended in a fines matrix and all voids are associated with the fines
matrix. The latter equation however is not considered suitable for coarser gradations
having more than 30% of the material retained on the 19.0-mm sieve.
The modified Proctor test, ASTM D1557, Method A, involves compaction of the material
fraction passing the 4.75-mm sieve in a 100 mm diameter mold. The material is
compacted in the mold using a specified number of blows with a specified compaction
hammer and dry density is then measured. The test is repeated with the material at
different moisture contents and the dry density obtained under the specified compaction
effort varies with the moisture content of the material. As illustrated in Figure 4.03, the
obtained dry density at first increases with increasing moisture content until a maximum
value is reached, and then decreases with further increases of moisture content. The
initial increase is due to the lubricating effects of the moisture. The subsequent decrease
is due to the material approaching saturation with most voids being filled with water and
not available for further compaction. The moisture content at which the maximum dry
density is achieved is referred to as the optimum moisture content.
The modified Proctor test, ASTM D1557, also details two other variations of test method.
Method B involves compaction of the fraction passing the 9.5-mm sieve in a 100 mm
diameter mold. Method C involves compaction of the fraction passing the 19.0-mm sieve
in a 150 mm diameter mold. If the contract specifications do not identify the method to
follow, the test method dictates the method on the basis of material gradation with
Methods B and C being used for coarser gradations. With Methods B and C, appropriate
modifications to the definition of oversize are needed in the correction formula.
- 4.15 -
2000
maximum density = 1961 kg/m3
1950
compaction curve for
optimum moisture content = 12 %

modified Proctor compaction effort
1900
Dry Density kg/m3
100 % saturation curve

(assuming specific gravity of solids G s = 2.66)
1850
1800
90 % compaction
1750
1700
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Moisture Content %
Figure 4.03 : MODIFIED PROCTOR DENSITY CURVE
For cement stabilized base layers, the laboratory density specified is determined by test
ASTM D558, Method B, using the compaction effort of ASTM D1557.
For asphalt concrete, the laboratory density specified is the density of Marshall briquettes
molded in accordance with ASTM D1559 using plant-mixed asphalt concrete samples
and the number of compaction blows indicated in the specifications.
Field Density Measurement
Alternatives for measuring the in-place field density of soil and aggregate materials are:
ASTM D1556, Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by the Sand-
Cone Method
ASTM D2167, Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by the
Rubber Balloon Method
and a combination of:
ASTM D2922, Test Methods for Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in Place by
Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth)
ASTM D3017, Test Method for Water Content of Soil and Rock in Place by Nuclear
Methods (Shallow Depth)
Measurements using nuclear density gauges are quite common because of the high
productivity of the devices. When nuclear density gauges are used on a project, their
calibration should be checked at the start of the project by comparing measurements to
those obtained with sand cone or rubber balloon equipment.
- 4.16 -
Density
Measurement
by
Nuclear Gauge
The field density of cement-stabilized materials may also be measured by sand cone,
rubber balloon or nuclear density gauges, with the measurement performed while the
material is still plastic.
While nuclear gauges may be used as a quick indication of density during asphalt
compaction, field density measurements for acceptance purposes should be made on core
samples.
4.3.4 Straightedge Measurements
Straightedges are used to check for surface depressions during paving operations. They
normally have a specified length of 4.5 m for airfield paving and 3 m for road paving.
Straightedges may be constructed of well-seasoned wood of about 25 mm thickness and
200 mm height at the centre, tapered to 100 mm at the ends to reduce weight.
Alternatively, a metal beam may be used, such as a 50 mm x 100 mm square aluminum
tube. A string line can also serve as a straightedge in some situations if placed under the
foot of a person on each end and pulled tight.
Paving specifications usually require airfield pavement surfaces have no irregularities

exceeding 6 mm when checked with a 4.5 m straightedge, and road pavement surfaces
have no irregularities exceeding 3 mm when checked with a 3 m straightedge. These
requirements are not based on the immediate needs of traffic but reflect workmanship
possible with a good paving operation and provide an allowance for the increase in
surface irregularities with age. As outlined in the chapter on quality evaluation, aircraft
can tolerate surface irregularities substantially in excess of the construction limits
normally specified.
- 4.17 -
To make a formal straightedge measurement, the straightedge is placed on the pavement

surface and the largest gap is measured between the surface and the underside of the
straightedge. The gap can be measured most easily by inserting a wedge under the
straightedge with the sloped part of the wedge scaled to indicate gap depth. Gaps should
be measured only between points where the straightedge is in contact with the pavement
surface. However, the straightedge may be placed in any position or direction to give the
greatest gap.
The paving crew and the paving inspector should have ready access to a straightedge at
all times. The straightedge should be used frequently without formal measurement to
visually check surface irregularities across joints and at slab edges. The interior of
paving lanes should be checked occasionally. If needed, surface corrections must be
effected immediately behind the paver before rolling or finishing operations are carried
out.
Straightedge Measurements
- 4.18 -
4.4 EARTHWORK AND SUBGRADE
4.4.1 Materials
A wide range of soil is suitable for pavement embankment and subgrade construction.
Economics usually dictate in-situ or locally available materials be used. Consequently,
contract specifications do not specify material characteristics but simply require the
material be suitable and approved by the Engineer. In general, embankment material
must be free of frozen lumps and organic matter.
Materials that may be uncovered in subgrade cuts and normally be considered unsuitable
are pockets of highly frost-susceptible, fine-grained soils and materials of high
compressibility or low bearing strength. The grade inspector should advise the Engineer
whenever material suspected of being unsuitable is encountered and the Engineer must
make a decision on excavation and replacement. No material in graded areas needs
removal except as necessary to provide for lateral stability of the pavement embankment.
Frost-Susceptible Soil
Highly frost-susceptible soil existing in pockets surrounded by soil of a lesser degree of

frost susceptibility should be classified as unsuitable and removed. Removal is to the
depth of frost penetration or 1.25 m below subgrade level, whichever is less, as illustrated
in Figure 4.04. The material may be excavated to full depth if only small quantities are
involved or if the depth of the material does not greatly exceed the normal depth of
excavation. The excavation should be back-filled with material similar in nature to the
surrounding material.
Weak/Compressible Soils
Materials classified as unsuitable because of high compressibility and low bearing

strength are generally soils with significant organic content. Highly organic materials
such as peat and muskeg are easily recognized by their low unit weight, high
compressibility and generally very high moisture content. Topsoil should also be
removed if significantly more compressible than the underlying parent material, as
evidenced by behaviour under mobile equipment loads or by higher moisture and organic
matter content. Certain surface soils, especially the more sandy soils, may be discoloured
by organic material or have plant roots to considerable depth, but these materials need not
be replaced if the organic material present does not significantly affect the engineering
behaviour of the soil in terms of strength and compressibility.
Wet Soils
Normally, soil is not removed simply because of high moisture content. Drier
replacement soil of a similar type would likely reach the same moisture content after a
few years and any strength gain from replacement would be temporary. Efforts should be
made to dry the soil out sufficiently to permit compaction and provide an area in which
construction equipment can work. In some cases, project time restrictions may prevent
this approach, and to facilitate construction, consideration may be given to replacement,
- 4.19 -
graded area
graded area
1.5 m
1.5 m
suitable common
0.3m -0.6m
original surface
of organic
original grade
excavate organic and replace with

suitable common fill in this area
backslope excavation as required

surface of suitable
native soil
Treatment of Fills Through Organic Areas
pavement surface
depth of frost penetration
or 1.25 m below subgrade level
(whichever is less)
subgrade
1 1.25 m 1
10 10
non-frost-susceptible non-frost-susceptible
soil frost-susceptible soil soil
excavate hatched area and backfill
with non-frost-susceptible soil
Treatment of Pockets of Frost-Susceptible Subgrade Soil
Figure 4.04 : REPLACEMENT OF UNSUITABLE SUBGRADE MATERIALS
increasing the depth of subbase, or modifying the material with lime or cement. Such
decisions are managerial rather than technical in nature and depend on time and cost
factors.
Replacement Soils
When replacing unsuitable materials, every effort should be made to choose replacement
material similar in type to the surrounding material to achieve uniformity in subgrade
conditions. The effect on sub-surface drainage patterns must also be considered. A
pocket of granular material in an impervious subgrade material may trap free water.
Disposal of Unsuitable Materials
Unsuitable material excavated from pavement areas may be wasted in graded areas or
other designated areas. Avoid disposal in areas of possible future development.
- 4.20 -
4.4.2 Excavation
Earth Movement Plan
Extensive site soils information from soil investigations and materials surveys conducted
in the project planning stages should be available when construction begins. As a project
planning aid and to make the best possible use of available materials, this information
should be used to develop an inventory plan showing required and available common
materials.
The plan is based on approximate quantities at the start of the project and revisions are
required during the course of the work. The plan should identify:
boundary of the different soil types at the site,
location and volume of fill sections,
location and volume of cut areas,
location and volume of possible borrow areas.
On the basis of this information, a strategy for the movement of earth volumes can be
developed to achieve the following objectives:
Use the most suitable soil in the most critical areas such as near the surface of fills
under paved areas, and use marginal soil in less critical locations such as graded areas
and backslopes.
Maximize uniformity in subgrade soil type and conditions.
Minimize haul distances.
Minimize the use of borrow material and the wasting or re-handling of excavated
material. Where double handling is directed, double payment may be required.
Locate borrow pits and waste areas to avoid interference with aircraft traffic and
future development. Resources of good borrow or granular material at the site should
be protected for future use when designating waste areas.
The inspector of earthwork operations should ensure the placement of excavated

materials in accordance with the developed plan and revise the plan as required by
conditions encountered during the course of the work.
Classes of Excavation
Only two classes of excavation are normally specified and recognized for payment:
common and rock. The definition of both common and rock excavation should be
provided in the contract documents and may vary depending on the type of work being
done. The excavation of partially cemented materials is sometimes difficult to classify
but, in general, the operation is common excavation if the material can be ripped with
heavy construction equipment and rock excavation if blasting is essential. On occasion,
unclassified excavation may be specified to cover the excavation of all materials.
- 4.21 -
The survey crew must be notified whenever unexpected changes occur in the material
being excavated or when rock excavation is undertaken. Separate quantity measurements
and records are needed for common excavation and solid rock excavation since payment
is at different rates. If a change in the excavation material causes the Contractor to
change his work methods, separate records may be required on the quantities excavated
and the equipment and time needed for excavation, in case a dispute arises and the
Contractor submits a claim for extra payment.
Stripping
At the beginning of earthwork operations, topsoil should be stripped and conserved by

placing on the surface of areas to be grassed or by stockpiling for later placement. Direct
placement is preferable as stockpiling with later placement involves double handling of
the material. If double handling is necessary, double payment is usually specified so the
Contractor has incentive to conserve rather than waste topsoil. Double payment means
payment for both the original excavation and excavation from the stockpile.
Underground Utilities
Record plans should be examined and all reasonable efforts made to locate and stake
underground utility and service lines prior to undertaking excavation.
Rock Excavation
Blasting methods for solid rock excavation must ensure no depressions are left on the
rock surface to collect and retain water under pavement surfaces. In general, the
following procedures should be observed:
The maximum horizontal drill hole spacing should be at least 0.3 m less than the
depth of the drill holes.
Drill holes should extend to a uniform depth below the rock-cut grade to provide an
evenly graded surface at the bottom level of the shattered rock.
The last row of holes at the edge of the cut section should be slightly deeper than the
rest to ensure the bottom level of the shattered rock does not dip upward at the edge
and thereby trap water on the rock surface.
Provincial and federal environmental protection requirements governing blasting

operations must be observed.
Finished Surface Tolerances
Finished subgrade surfaces are normally required by specification to be within 25 mm of

design grade but not uniformly high or low. The finished surface should be well
compacted, and free of ruts and loose material prior to the placing of subbase material.
In graded areas, finished surfaces are normally to be within 30 mm of design elevation.

Graded area surfaces should be free of ruts, depressions, rocks or debris, and should be
- 4.22 -
rolled to a tight dense condition. The top 100 mm of soil in graded areas should not
contain stones larger than 50 mm as they may rise to the surface during maintenance
operations and damage grass cutting equipment.
Discovery of Archaeological Sites
The Engineer is responsible for the proper handling and preservation of all items of
archaeological or historic value discovered during construction and is to be notified if
such items are encountered during excavation.
4.4.3 Placement
Common Fill
The placement of common fill materials should observe the following practices:
Build up fills in a systematic manner in uniform layers parallel to the finished grade
to provide drainage and facilitate proper compaction control.
Construct each layer to the full width of its cross-section and blade smooth before
placing the next layer.
Do not place frozen material.
Avoid disturbance to underground structures and utilities, which should be located
and marked before grading starts.
Route hauling equipment so traffic is distributed over the full width of the area to
provide a uniform degree of compaction.
Control the depth of each lift to a thickness the compaction equipment being used can
effectively compact.
Do not place stones larger than 150 mm in diameter within 500 mm of the subgrade
surface.
Do not place stones larger than 50 mm in diameter within 100 mm of the finished
grade in graded areas.
Rock Fill
Compaction measurements are not possible with rock fills, and construction of a solid,
incompressible embankment must be ensured through placement procedures:
Construct layers in depths sufficient to contain most maximum sized rocks but do not
exceed one metre. Isolated rock fragments up to 1.5 m may be placed provided their
vertical dimension does not exceed one-third the fill section depth.
Carefully distribute rock material and fill voids with smaller fragments to form a
compact mass.
- 4.23 -
Roll each layer with a heavy vibratory roller, or subject to heavy crawler loading, to
seat the rocks and compact to the greatest extent possible.
Construct the embankment to full width and true to cross section as the work
progresses. Do not permit dumping over the side of the embankment.
Keep advancing ends of rock embankments to a concave face with shoulder corners
well in advance of the centre.
Avoid inclusion of frozen lumps of fine-grained material.
Do not place stones exceeding 150 mm in diameter within 500 mm of the subgrade
surface.
4.4.4 Compaction
Layer Placement Depth
The depth of fill layers to achieve proper compaction is generally in the order of 200 mm
loose thickness. This thickness can vary depending on soil type and compaction
equipment used. In the case of granular fill materials, heavy vibratory compactors may
be capable of compacting layers of substantial thickness. When thick fill layers are
placed, testing procedures should be established to ensure compaction is being achieved
at the bottom of the layer.
Moisture Content
For cohesive soils under proposed paved areas, compaction should be carried out at
moisture contents near the optimum since difficulty is experienced in obtaining the
specified compaction at other moisture contents. An examination of the 100% saturation
curve in Figure 4.03 is instructive. This curve forms an upper limit for the maximum
density possible at a given moisture content because at this combination of density and
moisture content, no air voids are left for further compaction. As this limit is approached,
further compaction can be achieved only by reducing water content. As may be seen
from Figure 4.03, clay fill soils of high moisture content may need substantial drying to
achieve even the relatively low compaction level of 90%.
For granular soils and for cohesive soils in graded areas, the moisture content need not be
controlled closely for compaction purposes provided the specified compaction is
obtained. After some experience with the materials, moisture content can be roughly
estimated from textural appearance.
Compaction Methods
The contractor may exercise choice of compaction equipment provided specified

densities are achieved. Sheepsfoot rollers are generally most suitable for the compaction
of cohesive soils while rubber-tired rollers and vibratory equipment are usually most
suitable for the compaction of non-cohesive soils.
- 4.24 -
As the job progresses, a general relationship can be developed between obtained density
and the number of passes provided by the compaction equipment. Some control of
compaction can then be exercised by ensuring a sufficient number of passes. Compaction
should be uniform over the total area, including areas near structures and survey stake
lines.
Fills on Weak Soils
On occasion, fills are placed over soft, weak soils. To provide a working platform for
equipment in these situations, a relatively thick initial layer of fill, 0.25 m to 0.50 m in
depth, should be pushed over the weak surface by end dumping. The minimum thickness
of the first layer is controlled by the need to prevent equipment from punching through
the fill layer or disturbing the layer to an extent where the underlying weak soil boils up
into the fill. Boils destroy the strength and uniformity of the pavement structure, and
excavation and backfilling are difficult. Also, the soil intruded into the fill is frequently
frost susceptible and may cause severe frost heaving in the completed pavement.
The maximum thickness of fill lifts is determined by the need to consolidate the fill so
consolidation does not occur at a later date under traffic. Adequate consolidation may
not be possible and compaction requirements may have to be reduced or waived.
Nevertheless, this initial layer on weak soils should be rolled with wide based, low
pressure tires or crawler tractors that compress the fill vertically without causing
appreciable rutting or shearing deformation. Compaction should be stopped if
deformation under the compaction equipment begins to increase under successive passes
or moisture begins to appear at the surface. Subsequent lift thicknesses should be
reduced to better permit compaction.
Subgrade Compaction
The top 150 mm in cohesive subgrades and 300 mm in non-cohesive subgrade soils are
compacted to a denser state than common fill materials. Subgrade compaction is
normally specified and paid as a separate item. As an initial step, the subgrade is
scarified to the specified depth of compaction to mix the materials and achieve more
uniform conditions. Manipulation with disc harrows or plows after scarifying may be
necessary to obtain uniformity. Boulders larger than 150 mm in diameter encountered
during the scarifying operation should be removed. With suitable equipment, the
specified subgrade compaction can be achieved to a depth of 150 mm in cohesive soils
and 300 mm in non-cohesive soils by compaction operations on the subgrade surface. If
difficulties arise, the upper portion of the subgrade may have to be removed temporarily
to achieve compaction at lower levels.
Certain subgrade soils are extremely difficult to compact in the field. Examples are silts,
silty clays and sensitive clays, which have very high moisture contents to a considerable
depth. When these soils are saturated, their density can only be increased after some
moisture has been removed. Under suitable weather conditions, the surface may dry out
and form a crust. However, shear strains induced in the soil under the action of
compaction equipment cause moisture to migrate upward in the case of silts and silty
- 4.25 -
clays, leaving these soils in a saturated and weakened condition with no significant
increase in density.
Various actions are available to meet difficult subgrade compaction situations, such as
reducing compaction requirements, increasing the depth of subbase, or modifying the
material. Before taking one of these actions, investigate:
Can the soil be compacted at its natural moisture content? To examine this
possibility, compact the soil at its natural moisture content in the laboratory and
compare the density achieved with the specified density. Obtaining a field density in
excess of the laboratory density is generally not possible.
If the soil can be dried at the surface, determine by field trial if the action of
compaction equipment causes moisture to migrate upward and re-saturate the surface
layer before it is compacted.
Determine the difference between the strength of the undisturbed soil at its natural
moisture content and the remoulded soil at optimum moisture and specified density.
The strength difference may be determined by California Bearing Ratio tests or by
unconfined compressive strength tests. In the case of remoulded soils, some
allowance can be made for a possible increase in strength with time.
Swelling Soils
When overcompacted, certain soils swell due to the absorption of moisture and this
swelling can cause considerable roughness in pavements and structural damage to
buildings. Swelling soils usually fall within the MH or CH soil classifications and are
frequently encountered in the prairie provinces of Canada.
During the laboratory determination of moisture-density relationships on cohesive soils

of high liquid limit, swell potential should be checked by procedures used in the
laboratory CBR test, ASTM D1883. If swell potential is high, the soil should be avoided
as a fill material. If encountered as subgrade in a cut section, a study should be
conducted to establish the relationship between swelling characteristics, density and
moulding moisture contents. Compaction control should be oriented to limiting post-
construction swell to acceptable levels and this may require a higher than optimum
moulding moisture content and perhaps a control density lower than the specified density.
Alternatively, modification of the soil by the addition of lime may be considered.
4.4.5 Soil Modification
A distinction is sometimes made between soil modification and soil stabilization.

Modification refers to the addition of lesser amounts of lime or Portland cement, as
needed to provide a dryer and more stable subgrade surface on which equipment can
work. Stabilization refers to the addition of more substantial amounts of lime or Portland
cement to produce a hardened layer contributing to pavement bearing capacity. Lime
modification of clay soils is occasionally advantageous to facilitate construction or alter
the characteristics of swelling soils. Soil stabilization is not worth the cost in most
- 4.26 -
instances but may be an economic proposition in areas where subbase granular materials
are scarce.
Lime effectively modifies the characteristics of most clay soils having a plasticity index
greater than ten. The addition of lime decreases the plasticity index and dries up the soil.
For modification, the appropriate lime content is in the range of 3% to 8% by weight of
dry soil. Construction procedures are outlined in the appended specification for lime
modification of subgrade soils. Hydrated lime is less caustic than quick lime and
normally the type used for soil modification.
With soils of a lower plasticity index, the addition of lime may not have substantial
effects and modification with cement may be considered. Soil modification is usually
achieved with a cement content in the range of 2% to 6% by weight of dry soil.
Vibratory
Roller
Sheepsfoot Roller
for Compaction of
Cohesive Subgrades
- 4.27 -
4.5 SUBBASE AND BASE
4.5.1 Material Placement
The maximum lift thickness permitted by specification for the placing of subbase and
base material is in the range of 150 mm to 200 mm compacted thickness. Provision is
usually made for thicker lifts if the Contractor can demonstrate an ability to compact the
thicker lift. Subbase and base material should be placed in a uniform layer to its full
cross-section width to provide drainage and facilitate control of compaction. Frozen
material should not be placed.
If the subgrade is a silt that might migrate into a coarse subbase material, a minimum
150 mm thick layer of sand or sandy gravel should first be placed on the subgrade as a
filter. This layer of filter sand should be treated as a separate pay item and not included
for payment with subbase. Truck loadings may have to be restricted when placing the
initial lift of subbase if excessive deflection or rutting of the subgrade occurs.
With a sand subbase or subgrade that shears under the tires of construction equipment,
special precautions may be necessary during the laying of the base to ensure the base
material does not become contaminated by the sand. Contamination is difficult to correct
and may later cause localized pavement failures. Grading equipment with low tire
pressures may be required.
Finished subbase and base surfaces should be within 15 mm and 10 mm respectively of

design grade but not uniformly high or low. Finished base surfaces should be inspected
to ensure segregation has not occurred during fine grading and compaction. A layer of
fine material at the surface of a base course may fail an overlying asphalt layer due to
moisture absorption and low shear strength. If a layer of fine material has formed at the
surface of the base course, it must be swept or scrapped off and replaced. A layer of fines
may also form due to the degradation of soft friable particles under construction traffic.
Contract specifications normally allow the use of smaller maximum-size crushed gravel
or stone to level shallow depressions of limited extent in base course surfaces. The
levelling material should not be used over an extensive area.
4.5.2 Compaction
The Contractor should be given wide freedom to choose compaction equipment as long
as the equipment is capable of producing the required compaction. Normally, rubber-
tired rollers or vibratory equipment are used for the compaction of subbases and bases.
Close moisture control is not needed although compaction at or near optimum moisture
content is to the advantage of the Contractor, as required densities are achieved more
easily.
Some subbase materials, such as clean, uniform sand, possess low shear strength when in
an unconfined state and therefore tend to shear under the wheels of compaction
equipment. As a result, the top material remains loose while compaction at lower levels
is satisfactory because the material is confined. It may be advisable in such cases to
- 4.28 -
immediately place the next lift to confine the loose surface of the lower lift.
Alternatively, these materials may be compacted by pad or drum type vibratory
equipment and the liberal use of water.
4.5.3 Proof Rolling
Proof rolling is conducted at some level in the subbase or base course to check the
adequacy and uniformity of subgrade bearing strength. A heavy roller is used and, if
possible, rolling is carried out at a depth of granular material resulting in a subgrade
overload ratio of about two. If isolated areas of excessive weakness are identified by
proof rolling, the areas are reconstructed to increase the significant strength and
uniformity of the pavement structure. As a side benefit, proof rolling provides additional
compaction to the pavement subbase and subgrade layers.
The standard vehicle used for proof rolling is a rubber-tired roller with four wheels
abreast, a total weight of 445 kN, maximum centre-to-centre wheel spacing of 920 mm,
and a tire inflation pressure of 0.6 MPa. Figure 4.05 gives design curves for the standard
proof roller for various values of overload ratio. In most instances, proof rolling is
carried out on the first lift of subbase. If proofing rolling at this level results in an
overload ratio greater than two, then proof rolling is performed at a higher level. In the
case of pavements without a subbase, proof rolling should be carried out on the first lift
of base course.
600
Loading by Standard Proof Roller
Weight - 445 kN
500 Tire Pressure - 0.6 MPa
Tires - 4 abreast @ 920 mm spacing
400
Depth of Granular
300
overload ratio
200 1.0
1.25
1.5
100 2.0
0
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Subgrade Bearing Strength S (kN)
Figure 4.05 : LEVEL OF PROOF ROLLING
- 4.29 -
The Contractor may request the use of alternate proof rolling equipment, particularly on
smaller projects where the provision of a standard proof roller may be too costly. Also,
with less stable subbase materials, reduced tire pressures may be necessary on the proof
roller to prevent shearing of the surface. The designer should be consulted when
approving changes to standard proof rolling equipment as changes may also be necessary
to the level at which proof rolling is carried out.
During proof rolling, all points on the surface are subjected to three coverages by the
roller. The surface under the roller should be observed continuously noting any signs of:
deflection of the surface,
crack formation in tightly compacted surfaces,
shear failure in the surface of bases,
progressive manifestation of any of these effects under successive passes,
variation in these effects from location to location over the total area.
Cause should be investigated if isolated areas show significantly more distress than other
areas. Excessive deflection or cracking of subbases over cohesive subgrades should be
investigated by shallow auger holes, and the subgrade material from defective and good
areas should be compared for gradation, Atterberg limits and moisture content. If the
subgrade showing distress is a pocket of silt with relatively high moisture content,
consideration should be given to replacement. If the soil type in the two areas is the same
and the distress is due to higher moisture content, replacement may not be necessary,
particularly if the pavement being constructed is concrete. If the weak area is located
under an asphalt pavement in an area subject to channelized traffic, the designer might be
consulted on the advisability of increasing subbase thickness. When settlement occurs
under the proof roller and the subgrade is granular, the cause may be inadequate
compaction and in such cases, rolling should continue until no further compaction occurs.
Proof Rolling
- 4.30 -
Where proof rolling is carried out on base course, the base material should never show
signs of shear failure. If shearing is encountered, the base course material should be
investigated for compliance with specification requirements, specifically gradation and
crushed content. Replacement of defective base course material is carried out at the
Contractors expense.
4.5.4 Cement Stabilized Base
The thickness of cement stabilized base courses for concrete slabs is usually 200 mm. At
this thickness, the base can be constructed in one layer if suitable equipment is used and
if the underlying subbase or subgrade provides an adequate working surface for
equipment. Construction in layers is generally necessary for a stabilized base thickness
greater than 200 mm.
Principles governing the compaction of cement stabilized bases are the same as those for
compacting soils without cement treatment. The mix should be compacted at optimum
moisture to specified density and finished immediately after placing. Excessive moisture
losses by evaporation during compaction, as indicated by the lighter colour of the surface,
should be replaced by a light application of water. Evaporation over a period normally
required for compaction on a bright summer day is approximately 0.5% by weight.
Finished stabilized base surfaces should be within 10 mm of design grade but not
uniformly high or low, and finishing operations should be completed within two hours
from the start of mixing. Irregularities should be regraded while the mix is still plastic.
The final finishing operation usually consists of a light application of water and rolling
with a pneumatic roller to seal the surface.
Cement stabilized granular base may be placed in lanes with or without the use of forms.
Where forms are not used and the placing of adjacent lanes is more than 30 minutes
apart, the edge of the initially placed lane should be cut back to form a vertical face of
fully compacted material. At the end of each day and prior to continuing the next day, a
transverse construction joint should be formed by cutting back to expose a vertical face of
sound material.
Completed cement stabilized base is cured with an asphalt emulsion curing membrane
applied as soon as possible after the completion of final rolling. The surface should be
kept moist until the seal is applied. The curing membrane is applied in sufficient quantity
to provide a continuous film over the base and should be maintained for at least seven
days. Traffic on cement-stabilized bases by heavy construction equipment should be kept
to a minimum.
- 4.31 -
4.6 ASPHALT PAVING
4.6.1 Mix Production
Batch and Continuous Mixing Plants
Asphalt batch and continuous mixing plants should meet the requirements of ASTM
D995. Newly erected plants should be inspected to ensure all required elements are
present and in good working condition. Particular attention should be paid to the
following features:
separate cold feeder provided for each stockpile;
feeders capable of accurate calibration;
dust collector in good working condition and capable of returning the fines to the
aggregate;
gradation unit with three bins suitably located and in good working order, samples
easily obtainable from the bins;
overflows clear and positioned to prevent material overflow from one bin to another
or a build up to screen level;
bins tight and free of dead corners;
screens and baffles in good condition, free of holes and arranged so each screen
discharges into only one bin;
pugmill gates close tightly and discharge vertically, wear of paddles and liners
inspected, number and position of spray nozzles examined;
sensing elements of recording pyrometers located in a suitable position;
capacity of asphalt storage tanks measured;
asphalt heating coils checked for leaks.
All weigh bins in a batch plant should hang freely and scales should be of sufficient
sensitivity. Screen sizes used in the gradation unit are selected on the basis of the
aggregate gradation and bin capacity. For example, in a three-bin gradation unit having
one large bin and two small bins of equal size, screens are selected to give approximately
50% of the hot dried aggregate in the large bin and 25% in each of the other two bins.
The smallest screen size normally used in a gradation unit is a 4.75-mm mesh. Screens
used in asphalt plants sieve approximately the same material sizes as a lab screen having
openings 1.5-mm smaller. Thus, a 6.3-mm screen in the plant gives the same separation
as a 4.75-mm screen in the lab.
If not available or current, calibration curves for aggregate feeders should be developed.
To develop the calibration curves, at least three different gate openings should be used
and the rate of material discharge measured for each opening. Figure 4.06 illustrates
calibration curves obtained by the plotting of discharge rates. During calibration, care
must be taken to ensure a uniform loading of aggregates in the bins being calibrated so
the rate of discharge truly represents conditions expected during plant operations.
- 4.32 -
1100 1500
Cold Feed Calibration Hot Bin Calibration Bitumen Pump Calibration
kg of Bitumen at Normal Operating Pressure and

1000 1400
150
1300
900 140
hed
1200
ate
rus
800
re g
1100 130
Required Temperature
%c
Rate of Feed kg/min
Rate of Feed kg/min
agg
700 1000
100
120
m
pile
6-m
600 900
110
tock
ate
sing
500 800
reg
ms
pas
100
agg
700
5-m
400
-mm
600
12.
nd 90
300
sa
n6
500
m
80
do
riu
200
400
ato
ine
2 bin split using calibration temperature - 110C
n
70
reta
sa
100 300 6- mm screen sp. gr. = 1.0291@ 5C
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 10 11 12 13 14

Gate Opening - mm Gate Opening - mm Valve Setting
Figure 4.06 : EXAMPLE OF ASPHALT PLANT CALIBRATION CURVES
In a continuous mixing plant, the bitumen pump should be calibrated even if the
manufacturers calibration curves are available. To calibrate the pump, a bypass valve is
installed near the spray bar and when the bitumen is at normal operating temperature and
pressure, a quantity of bitumen is discharged into a container with a capacity of 1000 to
1500 litres. The time or number of revolutions of a sprocket required for the discharge is
observed. Three trials should be made and averaged for each sprocket or valve setting.
Figure 4.06 illustrates a pump calibration obtained by plotting discharge rate against
sprocket or valve setting. If the plant has a bitumen meter, the meter should be calibrated
at this time also.
All temperature recording devices should be checked against accurate thermometers over
a range of temperatures corresponding to those used in the plant by immersing the
sensing elements in heated oil.
Plant production rate permitted is usually based on the manufacturers recommendations

and should allow for continuous plant operations. The gate setting for aggregate feeders
is selected from the calibration curve based on the gradation required for the job mix, the
gradation of the materials within each bin and the production rate selected. To ensure the
accuracy of gate settings, a combined sample check should be made by running two or
three tonnes of dry heated aggregate through the plant into a truck. By taking time or
revolutions against this large a quantity, an accurate check is obtained on the gate
settings.
The bitumen pump setting is selected from the calibration curve. If an adjustable
bitumen valve is used, the setting can be computed for the production rate selected. If the
bitumen pumping rate is varied by changing sprockets, select the sprocket giving a
pumping rate nearest that desired and compute a new production rate.
- 4.33 -
At the start of the operation, the plant inspector should become familiar with the normal
appearance of the mix (texture, colour, greasy appearance, slumping action in the truck
box, etc.), the appearance of the stack exhausts, and the appearance of the aggregate in
the feeders and on the conveyors. Any change in the appearance of these items generally
reflects a change in plant operation, temperature, or proportions of the mix, and should be
investigated.
Dryer Drum Plants
Dryer drum plants differ from batch and continuous mixing plants as aggregates go
directly from the cold feed into the mixing drum where they are dried and then
immediately mixed with asphalt cement. Since there is no pre-drying (unless a pre-dryer
is added), sieving or controlled recombination of the aggregates, specifications for dryer
drum plants should require the aggregate be sieved and stockpiled into fine and coarse
fractions and fed through the cold bins separately.
The plant should be inspected immediately after erection to ensure all the elements
required by the contract specifications are present. The plant is electronically controlled
and familiarity with settings on the plant control board is necessary as the setting should
be monitored during production.
The plant has variable speed belts feeding aggregate from each cold bin onto a combined
aggregate conveyor belt. The combination aggregate belt is equipped with a weighing
system monitoring the rate of aggregate flow. The bitumen pump is variable speed and
interlocked with the aggregate weighing system so when the control setting is fixed, a
constant proportion of asphalt cement to aggregate is maintained. All feeders should be
interlocked with an automatic shutdown feature that activates if the flow of bitumen or
aggregate from any of the bins stops.
For plant calibration, the aggregate gradation within each bin is determined and the
relative aggregate proportions are calculated to give the design mix gradation. The plant
operator provides these proportions and the required bitumen content by appropriate
settings on the plant control board. These settings should be checked during initial
production by running the plant at three production rates spanning the anticipated
production range. At each production rate, samples of the mix and samples of the
combined cold feed aggregate should be obtained and analyzed for conformance with the
design mix requirements. Some adjustment to the initial control board settings may be
necessary to meet these requirements.
The bitumen feed rate is tied to the aggregate feed rate and this latter measure includes
weight of the aggregate moisture. If the aggregate moisture content changes substantially
during production, a change in the bitumen feed rate may be necessary to maintain a
constant percent of bitumen in the final mix. Generally, once finalized, control board
settings should be recorded and not changed by the plant operator during production
without consultation.
- 4.34 -
The aggregate is introduced to the mixing drum at the burner flame end. As the drum
rotates, the aggregate is moved by flights down the drum to the discharge end. The spray
bar discharging bitumen into the mix should be located about one-third the distance down
the drum. Location of the spray bar is critical as the aggregate must travel a sufficient
distance to be dried prior to being sprayed with bitumen and, after spraying, a sufficient
distance must remain for thorough mixing. Also, if spraying occurs too close to the
flame end, excessive oxidation of the bitumen may occur. A shield is located about mid-
way down the drum to prevent the fines from being blown through the drum.
On leaving the mixing drum, the asphalt mix is transferred to a surge bin or storage silo
where it is stored until drawn off by truck. Improperly designed storage tanks can lead to
considerable segregation of the mix and at the start of plant operations, the mix being
discharged from the tank should be monitored for segregation. The mix can be
maintained in a well-designed storage silo for a considerable period of time (up to
24 hours or more) and still retain a temperature adequate for paving. During startups, the
initial output from the drum may not be in proper proportions and there should be
provision for wasting this material prior to entry to the storage tank.
The plant production rate is usually determined by the plant manufacturers rated output
capacity for the necessary percent of moisture to be removed from the aggregate, with a
slight adjustment as necessary to obtain the specified mix temperature. The specified
moisture content for a dryer drum mix is usually 1% maximum. However, mix moisture
content is difficult to measure and reliance has to be placed on visual inspection of the
discharged mix. If the mix discharged from the drum appears to have excessive moisture
content as evidenced by vapour bubbles appearing on the coated aggregate particles,
plant production rate should be decreased until bubbling is essentially eliminated.
Production Inspection
During plant calibration and initial production, supervision staff should be actively and
closely involved until all adjustments are made to obtain the specified mix. When the
plant is running smoothly, gate and valve settings on batch and continuous mixing plants
should be checked periodically to ensure no change. On dryer drum plants, control board
settings should be checked on each startup and at hourly intervals. Mix temperatures on
discharge from the plant and from storage tanks should be checked at half-hour intervals.
Under normal circumstances, the mix should be produced within 5C of the temperature
require to give the asphalt cement a kinematic viscosity within the range 150 to 300 cSt.
This temperature can be determined from the viscosity-temperature chart for the bitumen
being used, which should be in the possession of the quality control testing crew. In cool
weather or in the case of hard-to-finish mixes, the temperature may be increased to the
temperature required to give a viscosity of 100 cSt, or to 160C, whichever is lower.
Avoid overheating the bitumen as it promotes oxidation, hardening and a less durable
mix.
- 4.35 -
Aggregate handling procedures should also be monitored to ensure there is no

contamination of the aggregate being withdrawn from stockpiles and no overflowing of
aggregate from one bin into another.
The fines collector should be in good working order and not result in excessive stack
emissions. The amount of fines to be returned to the mix is determined by the Engineer
and quality control testing crew. Any mineral filler being added to the aggregates must
be dry and free flowing, otherwise balling in the dryer may lead to ravelling of the
finished pavement surface.
Bitumen Records
The plant inspector is responsible for keeping a daily record of bitumen used and, if the
Engineer is supplying the bitumen, the inspector is also responsible for receiving
shipments. The volume of bitumen on hand at the start of each day should be determined
from the depth of bitumen in the storage tanks. By subtracting this amount from the
previous days figures and making allowance for any shipments received, the volume of
bitumen used during the previous day may be calculated. The amount of mix produced
during each day should also be recorded and the average mix bitumen content determined
from the amount of mix produced and the amount of bitumen used. Figure 4.07
illustrates a daily record form.
PLANT INSPECTORS RECORD OF BITUMEN USAGE AND ASPHALT MIX PRODUCTION
Bitumen in Plant At Bitumen in Plant at

Bitumen Delivered
Start of Days Finish of Days
Hot Mix Produced
and Put in Plant
Operation Operation
Aggregate Used
Bitumen in Mix
Bitumen Used
Invoice No
Date
Amount
Tank A
Tank A
Tank B
Tank B
Total
Total
Total
Tonnage %
5/6 18.2 15.3 35.5 7421 18.3
7422 19.1 37.4 17.4 16.2 33.6 37.5 677.5 640.0 5.9
6/6 17.4 16.2 33.6 7423 17.0
7423 18.1 35.1 14.7 13.4 28.1 40.6 750.6 710.0 5.7
7/6 14.7 13.4 28.1 7425 19.0
7426 18.5 37.5 11.6 11.8 23.4 42.2 774.2 732.0 5.8
Figure 4.07 : BITUMEN DAILY USAGE RECORD
- 4.36 -
4.6.2 Prime and Tack Coats
Prime and tack coats are sprayed on surfaces receiving new asphalt to improve the bond
between surface and asphalt. Prime coats are applied to the surface of granular bases and
tack coats are applied to asphalt and concrete surfaces. Normally, cutback liquid asphalt
is used for prime coating and emulsified liquid asphalt is used for tack coating.
Emulsified asphalt may be used for prime coating rather than cutback asphalt but the
cutback gives better penetration of a granular base surface. Hot asphalt cement may be
used for tack coating in areas such as joint faces where new asphalt is being placed within
minutes.
Before priming, inspection is needed to ensure base surfaces are tightly compacted and
true to grade. The paving operation should not be relied on to correct irregularities in
grade and base course surface irregularities should be corrected before paving starts. If a
thin layer of dust exists on the base surface, sweeping with a power broom improves the
bond between the base and asphalt. Base course prime coats should be applied 24 hours
or more before paving operations to allow the material to penetrate and ensure complete
evaporation. In general, as much primer should be applied as the base can absorb, except
as limited by the maximum permitted by the specifications. Brooming with sand can be
used to dry any areas with excess primer.
When overlaying older pavement surfaces with asphalt, concrete surfaces should be
lightly tack coated and weathered asphalt surfaces should receive a slightly heavier tack
coat. Tack coating must occur sufficiently in advance of the paving operation for the
emulsion to break and be absorbed by the surface, typically a period of one to three hours
depending on weather conditions. Tacking between asphalt lifts is generally not needed
but may be necessary if the surface of the lower lift is soiled by traffic or is very tight.
Tack coats should be kept on the light side, particularly with pavements serving large
aircraft, as a heavy tack coat promotes shearing at the interface and distortion of the
asphalt surface during hot weather.
4.6.3 Placement
Mix Delivery
Haul trucks should have non-absorbent metal boxes and lubricant on the box surface
should not be excessive. Trucks travelling at high speed or turning sharply may produce
ravelling of the primed base surface and is to be avoided. The mix should be suitably
covered while being transported so after laying and before rolling, mix temperature is not
below the minimum placing temperature given in Table 4.06. Any changes in the mix
being delivered should be immediately reported to the plant inspector.
If the asphalt is being paid by weight, weigh tickets are collected from each truck on
delivery at the paver.
- 4.37 -
Table 4.06 : Minimum Placing Temperatures for Asphalt Concrete
Temperature of Base Mat Thickness (mm)

Layer
(C) 10 20 30 40 50 75+
0 to 5 - - - 155 150 140
5 to 10 - - 155 150 145 135
10 to 15 - 155 150 145 140 130
15 to 20 155 150 145 140 135 127
20 to 25 150 145 140 135 130 127
25 to 30 145 140 135 130 127 125
30+ 140 135 130 127 125 122
Trial Paving Strip
The paving operation should commence with the construction of a trial paving strip in a
non-critical area designated by the Engineer. Asphalt produced during the initial startup
of plant operations may not fully meet requirements of the design mix and one purpose of
the trial strip is to avoid the placing of this material in a critical traffic area. The quality
control testing crew should be very active during paving of the trial strip to determine the
properties of the mix being produced and any adjustments required to plant settings.
Some minor adjustments to the design mix may also be made at this time.
Another purpose of the trial strip is to demonstrate the suitability of the construction
equipment and methods for the paving operation, particularly compaction methods.
Some experimentation may be required with the type and sequencing of rollers to achieve
the specified compaction, and asphalt densities obtained should be determined as a
function of the number of roller passes. The trial strip should be constructed in more than
one lane so jointing practices and compaction at the joints can be demonstrated.
Paving Operations
The initial paving lane should span the crown or be located along the high side of a cross-
fall grade so surface drainage is not impaired in the event of rain. Particular attention
must be paid to the alignment and grade of the first lane as the alignment and grade of
adjacent lanes is affected. Paver speed should be coordinated with the mixing plant
operation so continuous motion is achieved rather than start and stop operations. If
operation at this speed produces an unsatisfactory mat, the paver speed should be reduced
and the plant production rate reduced to provide a uniform flow of materials.
Alternatively, a second paver can be used. The separation of pavers operating in echelon
should not exceed 30 m.
- 4.38 -
Various types of deficiencies may be encountered during paving:

Starving of the mat so spots or holes appear can have several causes, but the most
common cause is asphalt material arriving at the paver too cold. If it is below the
required placing temperature, the material should be rejected. If the screed
temperature is colder than the temperature of the mix, then heat should be applied to
the screed to give a smooth, even surface to the mat.
Surface tears which look as if some object has been dragging or scuffing the
compacted surface are known as screed tears and are caused by material sticking to
and building up on the screed or tamping bar. Heating the screed should solve the
problem. Sometimes screed tears can be caused by the tamper bar being adjusted too
low or by the screed being warped.
Cracks 10 mm to 12 mm apart and extending down 10 mm to 20 mm, which are not
consistent but come and go in different places across the mat, are usually caused by a
dry mix. Instead of compacting under the tamper, the mix is being dragged forward
before being struck off. The bitumen content is usually the cause and should be
checked. If the bitumen content is not at fault, apply more heat to the screed.
If the mat appears scuffed at the edge, the cause is a lack of heat at the edge of the
screed. This effect may be caused by a cooling wind or a hot air chamber blockage at
the edge of the screed. The scuffing can be remedied by adjusting the flame,
covering the edge of the screed with canvas or removing the blockage.
A sufficient number of alert rakers should accompany the paver. Imperfections in the
mat such as holes, segregated material, surface inequalities and mismatched joints should
be corrected with hot asphalt mix before initial rolling. Some raking may be necessary
after breakdown rolling. All patches should be raked to provide an even surface.
Material raked out of the mat should be wasted or at least returned to the paver hopper to
be mixed with hot material. It should not be scattered over the surface of the freshly laid
mat.
Irregularities and deficiencies in cold pavement should be corrected by cutting out and
removing the area affected, and replacing the removed material with fresh mix.
Joints
A common cause of airfield asphalt pavement failure is the opening of paving joints with
age and subsequent breakdown of the surface along these open joints. To minimize this
type of deficiency, attention must be paid during construction to obtaining hot joints and
adequate compaction at the mat edge.
To form a warm longitudinal joint between paving lanes, paving along a given lane
should not proceed more than 500 m before returning to commence the adjacent lane. If
a cold joint occurs in the wheelpath areas of a runway, the specifications may require
asphalt on the cold side of the joint be cut back about 150 mm to form a vertical face
prior to placing the adjacent lane. A cold joint is considered to occur if the temperature
of the asphalt in the initially placed lane falls below 100C. If proposed for use, joint
- 4.39 -
heating devices should be checked to ensure they do not cause significant oxidation of the
asphalt.
The location of transverse joints in adjacent lanes should be staggered by at least three
metres unless the paving is taking place on a live runway, in which case transverse joints
may not be staggered. Transverse joints should be cut back to provide a level surface and
a vertical face before the lane is extended and, if cold, the vertical face should be painted
with a thin coat of hot asphalt. Transverse joints should be checked with a straightedge
or string line:
before the lane is continued, to ensure the previous lane is cut back to a level
grade;
after the mat is laid and before rolling, to ensure sufficient material has been
deposited in an even layer to allow for compaction;
after rolling, to check for irregularities.
Longitudinal joints in a second lift should be offset by at least 300 mm from longitudinal
joints in the lower lift. The asphalt mix along the free edge of a paving lane should be
butted and formed with rakes or lutes so it is slightly elevated with a vertical face of
proper alignment. When paving an adjacent lane, the paver should overlap the joint by
50 mm to 100 mm. The coarse stone in the overlap material is raked out and discarded,
the remaining fines are pushed back using rake or lute onto the newly placed surface, and
the joint is immediately rolled.
Joints between rigid and flexible pavement construction should be formed and sealed
similar to concrete joints. A smooth joint between rigid and flexible pavement
construction can be achieved more easily if one or two lane widths of lower course
pavement are laid in a transverse direction parallel to the joint. An extra lift of asphalt
may also be placed in this location to lessen the abrupt change in pavement stiffness
across the joint. The surface course is laid in the usual manner with the end of the lane
butting against the concrete.
In-service Runways
When resurfacing runways, paving may be carried out during off-hours with the runway
returned to service between work periods. At the end of each work period, the asphalt
mat must be temporarily ramped in a manner to permit aircraft operations. Details of the
temporary ramping and finishing off are given in the appendix of standard drawings.
Paving Record
A record should be kept of daily paving progress. The record should include the paving
lane, start and end chainages of the days work, tonnage laid, calculation of average
thickness and notes on any problems experienced.
- 4.40 -
Asphalt
Paving
infra-red heating of cold joint
4.6.4 Compaction
.
Asphalt compaction equipment comes in three basic types: pneumatic-tired rollers, static
steel-wheeled rollers, and vibratory rollers with steel wheels that can operate in either
vibratory or static mode. The Contractor may choose the type and weight of rollers
provided the equipment is demonstrated as capable of achieving specified density.
Asphalt rollers should be self-propelled and, as a general rule, two-axle tandem steel-
wheel rollers should have a mass of at least 10 tonnes, three-axle tandems at least
13 tonnes and pneumatic rollers at least 20 tonnes. The wheel tracks of pneumatic rollers
should overlap to provide a complete coverage with each pass and wheel oscillation
should be in a vertical plane only. Wobbly wheel pneumatic rollers should not be used
on asphalt. At least two rollers should be available at all times. The equipment should be
inspected at the beginning of the work to ensure the rollers are in good mechanical
condition, run smoothly, reverse without jerking, and have smooth and unpitted surfaces.
Older rollers may display evidence of worn bearings on the roll shafts, especially in the
tiller wheel. Rollers in unsatisfactory condition should be rejected.
Rolling a newly laid asphalt mat is commonly divided into three phases: initial or
breakdown rolling, secondary or intermediate rolling, and finish rolling. Most of the
density requirement should be achieved during breakdown rolling. Intermediate rolling
provides further compaction and sealing of the surface. Finish rolling removes tire marks
and other surface imperfections left by previous rolling. Breakdown rolling is
traditionally done with a static steel roller but can also be done with a pneumatic-tired
roller, particularly if tire pressures can be adjusted to account for mix sensitivity and to
prevent pushing or shoving of the mat. Heavy (2260 kg wheel load or greater) pneumatic
rollers with high tire pressures (0.6 MPa or higher) are particularly effective in producing
high densities and are often preferred for intermediate rolling. Finish rolling should be
accomplished with steel-wheel rollers while the material is still sufficiently workable for
the removal of roller marks.
- 4.41 -
Vibratory rollers may be used for all three rolling phases, operating in static mode for
finish rolling and for the first pass or two during breakdown rolling. Two to four passes
with vibration are frequently sufficient to produce the specified density. Vibratory
rollers, however, should not be the only type of roller on the job but should be
accompanied by either a pneumatic or static steel-wheeled roller. Vibration should not be
used on cold asphalt and the amplitude of vibration may have to be reduced with thinner
lifts.
When paving adjacent to previously laid asphalt, transverse and longitudinal joints are
rolled first, directly behind the paving operation. The roller is positioned on the cold
asphalt surface, overlapping the joint and extending about 150 mm onto the hot asphalt.
Roller passes are made along the joint, gradually shifting roller position across the joint
until the material on the hot side of the joint is thoroughly compacted.
Initial or breakdown rolling is done as soon as possible after the paver has laid the mat
and a rolling pattern should be established that provides for uniform coverage across the
mat. Asphalt mixtures tend to migrate toward the low side of a mat under the action of a
roller and consequently, the rolling pattern usually involves an initial pass along the low
side of the paving lane with subsequent passes progressing towards the high side.
Subsequent passes are made moving forward and backward along longitudinal paths
equal to the roller width. Backward motion is along the same path as the preceding
forward motion with the roller shifted laterally to the next path when it has returned to
previously compacted asphalt. When the full width of the paving lane has been covered
in this fashion, the roller returns to the first path to commence the next coverage. The
low side of a paving lane is normally an unsupported edge and, with thicker lifts, the first
pass should be offset about 300 mm from the edge. The material along this edge strip is
then compacted during subsequent coverages when there is sufficiently stable surface at
the mat interior to support the roller and minimize lateral displacement at the free edge.
Little or no benefit is likely realized if there is a tendency for the mix to push or shove
after initial rolling. Pushing or shoving may result from a mix of borderline stability, too
low an asphalt content, too heavy a roller, too hot a mix, or a combination of these
conditions, and appropriate corrective action is needed. In some cases, excessive roller
speed contributes to pushing or shoving. Rollers should move at a slow uniform speed
with the drive roller or wheels nearest the paver, and speed should not exceed 5 km/hr for
steel wheeled rollers (static or vibratory) or 8 km/hr for pneumatic rollers. Speed should
be sufficiently slow at all times to avoid displacement of the hot mix.
If heat checking occurs in the rolled mat, the mat is too hot and should be allowed to cool
prior to the commencement of rolling operations. Checking and transverse cracking after
the initial pass may be caused by the surface of the mixture cooling much more rapidly
than the mass below, resulting in differential movement under the roller. While the
structural quality of the mat may not be seriously affected, these defects should be
avoided. If checking or cracking appears, rubber tired rollers should be used for further
rolling. If further rolling is delayed until the mat has cooled sufficiently to prevent
checking under steel rollers, the specified compaction may be difficult to achieve.
- 4.42 -
During the rolling operation, the roller should not stop in the same transverse location
with each pass. Likewise, the roller should not stop or reverse too suddenly, nor be
allowed to stand in one spot on the newly laid asphalt concrete for too long a time. Such
procedures have a tendency to cause differential compaction in the mat and leave
indentations difficult to remove. The line of rolling should not be changed suddenly, nor
should the direction of rolling be suddenly reversed, thereby displacing the mix. Any
pronounced change in direction of the roller should be made on stable material. If rolling
causes material displacement, the affected areas should immediately be loosened with
rakes and restored to original grade with loose material before being re-rolled.
Roller wheels should be kept moist with only enough water to avoid picking up the
material during the rolling operation. Non-foaming detergent or some other surface
tension decreasing agent may be added to the water. Fuel oil should not be used.
All rolling should be completed while the mix is still hot and workable. The following
rolling temperatures serve as a general guide although atmospheric conditions, viscosity
of the mix and equipment variations may alter these temperatures:
breakdown rolling at 150C 10C
pneumatic tire rolling at 70C 10C
finish rolling at 55C 5C
Heavy equipment, including rollers, should not be permitted to stand on the finished
surface before it has thoroughly cooled.
4.6.5 Cold Weather Paving
Problems are frequently encountered when placing asphalt concrete during cold weather.
If asphalt setting is noticeable at the sides or bottom of the truck box, the box should
be insulated.
All truck loads should be covered to prevent heat loss.
A continuous paver operation should be maintained.
In general, less time is available for placing and compaction operations. Additional
equipment may be required or shorter runs made.
The screed heaters should be in excellent operating condition. The screed should be
heated before starting and whenever necessary to avoid tearing the mat surface.
A hot joint is always better than a cold one and joint heaters facilitate the forming of
better bonded joints. Joint heaters may be considered but their use may cause
excessive oxidation of the asphalt.
Cold weather problems are greatly increased by wind. Wind barriers may be needed
for the spreader.
The plant dryer temperature must be increased to allow for temperature losses from
the aggregate in the conveyor and gradation unit.
- 4.43 -
If difficulties are encountered in laying a mix and compacting at the normal mixing
temperature after all cold weather precautions are taken, the mixing temperature should
be increased. The mixing temperature should be increased only enough to permit proper
laying and rolling. In no case should the temperature corresponding to a kinematic
viscosity of 100 cSt or 160C be exceeded. A change in bitumen temperature produces a
change in specific gravity and if the bitumen is proportioned on a volumetric basis, the
bitumen pump setting needs adjustment.
4.6.6 Cold Mix and Surface Treatments
Mixed-in-Place Asphalt
A lower quality, but less expensive asphalt surfacing can be constructed using mix-in-
place asphalt paving methods. Mixed-in-place asphalt, or cold mix, is produced by
mixing liquid asphalt with aggregate on grade. The liquid asphalt generally used is a
slow-setting grade SS-1 anionic emulsion. Cationic emulsions may perform better with
some aggregates. Cut-back asphalt is rarely used for mix-in-place paving as the
extensive evaporation of solvents from cut-back asphalt is not compatible with current
environmental and energy concerns. Mix proportions are usually based on experience or
informal laboratory testing of samples prepared at different asphalt contents. In general,
sufficient liquid asphalt should be incorporated to provide a residual asphalt cement
content of 5% to 6%.
Construction involves the initial placement of the aggregate in windrows on the base
surface along the facility right-of-way. The amount of aggregate placed is calculated
from the design thickness and width of the mix-in-place asphalt layer. If necessary, the
aggregate is aerated to bring to an air-dried state. Best construction technique utilizes a
self-propelled travelling pug-mill to pick up the aggregate windrow, mix in the desired
amount of liquid asphalt and place the mixed material on grade at design thickness for
rolling. A less preferred method of construction involves spraying liquid asphalt on the
aggregate windrow and using a grader or similar piece of equipment for mixing by
blading the material back and forth across the grade.
Mix-in-place asphalt paving is less durable than hot-mix paving and may exhibit some
surface ravelling within five to ten years. However, the technique has been used at some
small airports and at some remote airports where the importation of a hot-mix plant is
prohibitively expensive.
Surface Treatments
Surface treatments may be used for such purposes as providing a bound water-proof
wearing surface, sealing ravelling or badly cracked surfaces or providing a fuel resistant
surface. The various types of surface treatment available and their application are
addressed in the chapter on maintenance and restoration.
- 4.44 -
4.7 CONCRETE PAVING
4.7.1 Mix Production
Concrete mix production involves batching of the component materials, followed by

mixing and transporting to the location of paving. Unless otherwise specified, mixing
may be performed in a stationary mixer, in mobile truck mixers, or partly in a stationary
mixer with completion in truck mixers. Transporting trucks may or may not provide
agitation. Batching, mixing and transporting equipment should meet the requirements of
CSA Standard A23.1 and, more generally, ASTM C94.
The equipment should be inspected frequently during operations to ensure mix

production is consistent and accurate. The inspector should be familiar with the
appearance of the mix and immediately investigate any changes occurring in visual
characteristics. Most modern concrete plants are fully automated and the inspector needs
to become familiar with the computerized control systems and settings.
Batching Plant
Prior to the start of concrete production, the plant should be inspected to ensure
equipment requirements are met.
Inspect bins for the possibility of material overflowing from one bin to another.
Inspect weigh hoppers to ensure capacity is adequate for the batch weights and they
discharge cleanly.
Check the suspension system of the weigh scales to ensure there is no binding of
moving parts. Where required, check over- and under-indicators for sensitivity.
Check weigh scales with standard weights that should be available at the plant.
Figure 4.08 gives example results of a weigh scales check.
Calibrate the water gauge by draining the water tank into a barrel or similar container.
Obtain the volume of water by actual measurement or as calculated from weight.
Repeat for several gauge settings, covering a range somewhat wider than the range
used in practice. These volumes should coincide with the water gauge setting;
otherwise, plot a calibration curve to show what water gauge setting must be used to
yield the required amount of mixing water. Note some gauges read in U.S. gallons.
Make certain the valves open and shut completely and siphoning does not occur.
Check admixture dispensers for reliability and then calibrate. Replace unreliable
dispensers.
Inspect storage provided for materials such as cement and admixtures to ensure the
storage is adequate and safe from losses by theft and weather. Cement should be stored
in a dry, water-tight structure having adequate provision for preventing the adsorption of
moisture. Bulk cement should be stored in metal bins designed to avoid dead storage in
angles and corners. Sacked cement should be stacked close together to prevent air
circulation and if the sacks are to be stored for a long period, a covering of tarpaulins may
- 4.45 -
(EXAMPLE)
CHECK ON ACCURACY OF CONCRETE PLANT HOPPER WEIGH SCALE
Inspector : _______________________ Contractor : ___J. Doe Co. Ltd.________

Date : _______________________ Batch Plant: ___2 m3 capacity_________
Location : _______________________ Make : ___Johnson-Harrison______
Contract No : _____________________ Serial No : ___5JWXYZ2___________
Procedure :
The bin was filled to capacity with aggregate on the day prior to test. Before commencing
the accuracy check, the lever system, knife edges and bearings were inspected and found
to be clean with no moving parts binding. The standard weights, totaling 250 kg and
provided by the Contractor, were centred as nearly as possible on the hopper and the exact
beam reading recorded. The weights were removed and aggregate was added to balance
exactly the recorded beam reading. The check weights were again added, the reading
recorded, weights removed, the reading exactly balanced with additional aggregate, and so
forth. Records were as follows:
Cumulative Scale
Increment Weight in Hopper Reading Difference Difference
(kg) (kg) (kg) (%)
0 0 0
1 500 501 +1 +.02
2 1000 1002 +2 +.02
3 1500 1500 Nil Nil
4 2000 1998 -2 -0.1
5 2500 2495 -5 -0.2
6 3000 3009 +9 +0.3
7 3500 3507 +7 +0.2
8 4000 4008 +8 +0.2
9 4500 4518 +18 +0.4
10 5000 5020 +20 +0.4
The scales are accurate within 0.5% of any load and are therefore acceptable.
Figure 4.08 : CONCRETE PLANT WEIGH SCALES CHECK
be needed for additional protection. Cement should never be stored in direct contact with
the ground. To reduce the possibility of damage from poor storage conditions, cement
should be used in the chronological order in which it is received. When ordering cement,
due account should be taken of expected periods when cement is not needed, such as
seasonal shutdowns, to avoid unnecessary carry-over and possible deterioration during
storage. All cement should be examined when removed from storage for use. The
cement should be free flowing and free of lumps.
Difficulties are likely to be encountered in using hot cement, as may happen if delivery
occurs immediately after manufacture. The use of hot cement may result in a flash set or
contribute to early concrete stiffening with higher water requirements to produce a
- 4.46 -
workable mix. Shipments of hot cement should be allowed to cool to ambient

temperatures prior to use.
Concrete Mix Uniformity
Concrete mixers, both stationary and mobile, should bear a rating plate in a prominent
location indicating:
gross volume of the drum,
rated maximum mixing capacity,
rated maximum agitating capacity,
minimum and maximum mixing and agitating speeds for the drum, blades or paddles.
These ratings should be observed unless testing demonstrates they can be exceeded
without adversely affecting the within-batch uniformity of the concrete.
Mixing time, or number of mixing revolutions in the case of truck mixers, is another
factor affecting concrete uniformity and once established, the inspector should ensure
adherence to proper mixing times. In the absence of mix uniformity measurements,
mixing time for stationary mixers is sometimes specified as not less than 60 seconds for
batches of 0.75 m3 or less, with an increase of 15 seconds for each 0.75 m3 or fraction
thereof. Lesser mixing times generally suffice but must be proven suitable by batch
uniformity measurements. Truck mixers generally require about 70 to 100 revolutions at
mixing speed.
Mixers should also be inspected daily for the accumulation of hardened concrete and
excessive wear of mixing blades that may adversely affect mix uniformity.
Stationary and mobile concrete mixers should be checked for uniformity of mixing in
accordance with CSA Standard A23.1 at the beginning of the job and spot-checked as
considered necessary during the project. A within-batch uniformity check requires three
samples of the concrete taken as the batch is discharged from the mixer. The samples
should be taken as the discharge reaches approximately 15%, 50%, and 85% of the batch
quantity. The variation in sample test results should not exceed the limits specified in
CSA Standard A23.1 or in the contract document, with the latter requirements
superceding the former if there is a difference. Table 4.07 gives typical requirements.
Table 4.07 : Typical Requirements for Concrete Batch Uniformity
Property Maximum Within-Batch Variation
Density 30 kg/m3
Air Content 1%
Slump 20 mm
- 4.47 -
Corrective action should be taken if batch uniformity requirements are not consistently
met. The action needed may be smaller batches, longer mixing time, mixing blade
replacement or other equipment modification, or, ultimately, rejection of the mixer.
Concrete Strength
Consistency of the mix production process is also reflected in the variation of strength
values. The distribution of flexural strength test results should have an average of not
less than 4.0 MPa and a standard deviation not exceeding 9% of the average. A standard
deviation in excess of 9% of the average indicates a mix production process of
insufficient consistency and the factors affecting mix uniformity should be reviewed. An
increase in cement content to increase average strength may also be required to
compensate for insufficient consistency.
Concrete flexural strength is usually measured by breaking beams subjected to third-point

loading, ASTM C78. On smaller projects where a beam breaker is not readily available,
cylindrical samples of concrete may be prepared and tested for splitting tensile strength to
ASTM C496, or, less preferably, tested for compressive strength to ASTM C39. These
latter two test methods can also be conducted on cores taken from a constructed slab.
Figure 4.09 provides some relationships which may be used to estimate flexural strength
from split tensile and compressive strength measurements.
cylinder compressive strength fcy MPa
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
cube compressive strength fcu MPa
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
beam flexural strength fbf MPa
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
split tensile strength fst MPa
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6
elastic modulus E MPa

20000 25000 30000 35000
average relationships
fcy vs fcu relationship from Neville, "Properties of Concrete," 1983
fbf = 0.75 fcy from PCA, "Design of Concrete Airport Pavements," 1973
fst = 0.70 fbf Transport Canada internal data
E = 5000 fcy from Canadian Portland Cement Association, "Design and Control of Concrete Mixes," 1991
Figure 4.09 : MEASURES OF CONCRETE STRENGTH
- 4.48 -
Mix Adjustments
Changes in batch weights should be made when required by changes in the moisture
content of the aggregates. Varying the mixing water to maintain the slump at required
levels is often sufficient.
For a typical mix, a one percent increase in the moisture content of the stone causes the
slump to increase by nearly 75 mm, while a one percent increase in the moisture content
of the sand cause slump to increase by nearly 50 mm. Consequently, the slump cannot be
controlled within acceptable limits unless the aggregate is handled in such a manner that
the moisture content is uniform and changes in moisture content can be anticipated.
Before using the aggregate, wet aggregate stockpiles should be allowed to drain until the
moisture content reaches a stable equilibrium.
Changes in the amount of entrained air in the concrete may also cause changes in slump.
Hence, entrained air should be checked before correcting slump by varying the amount of
mixing water.
If the moisture content of the aggregate changes by less than one percent, a change to the
amount of mixing water may be used in compensation. If the change in moisture content
of the aggregate is more than one percent, a corresponding change should be made in the
batch weights for the aggregates. The form in Figure 4.10 may be used to compute the
corrected batch weights. A fast method of obtaining aggregate moisture contents should
be available.
In hot weather, additional water may be needed to compensate for evaporation losses
during mixing and transporting. In this case, the amount of mixing water should be
increased to provide the necessary slump for placing and finishing, but the other batch
weights should remain unchanged.
If the gradation or particle shape of the aggregate changes, a change in batch proportions
may be required. In general, a change of 0.20 or greater in the fineness modulus of the
sand requires a change in the percent of fine aggregate. Changes in coarse aggregate
gradation does not greatly affect the mix unless a change in the amount of undersize is
also involved, especially if the undersize consists of crushed particles. A major change in
particle shape of the coarse aggregate (as may occur if changing from crushed quarry
rock to crushed gravel) affects mix properties and new trial mixes may be required.
Truck Mixers
Truck mixers are equipped to mix concrete en-route between the batching plant and the
paving site. Quality control of truck-mixed concrete presents some unique problems.
Unless adequate precautions are taken, troublesome conditions such as segregation and
variations in consistency may occur to such an extent that control of the water/cement
ratio may be lost.
- 4.49 -
CONCRETE AGGREGATE MOISTURE DATA AND BATCH WEIGHT CORRECTION
Airport: ____________________ Sampled by: ____________ Date: ________ Time: _________

Project: ____________________ Sampling Location: _____________________________________
Contract: ____________________ Tested by: ______________ Date: ________ Time: _________
Mix Designation: _____________ Batch No: 795 to 1673
These Batch Weights Used: From: 9:00 hours 08/08/91 To: 18:00 hours 08/08/91
Fine Coarse
Material Sand Water Cement
Stone Stone
o
Tare N I II III
Weight of Sample + Water + Tare 528.6 1068.6 1967
Weight of Sample + Tare 513.6 1050.6 1947
Weight of Tare 93.4 130.2 141
Weight of Water 15.0 18.0 20.0
Weight of Sample 420.2 920.4 1806
Percent Moisture A 3.56 1.96 1.11
Percent Absorption B 1.4 1.6 1.6
Batch Weight (S.S.D.) C 657.3 498.4 747.6 139.6 310
Moisture Correction + or - +14.0 +1.8 -3.6 -12.2
Corrected Batch Weight 671.3 500.2 744.0 127.4 310
Obtain B and C from Mix Design Sheet Air Entraining Agent: 186 g A.I.R. Single
C
Moisture Correction = (A B) Admixtures: Nil
100 + B
Figure 4.10 :
BATCH WEIGHT CORRECTION FOR CONCRETE AGGREGATE MOISTURE
Where truck mixers are used, the following procedures should be observed and
precautions taken to promote uniform concrete from batch to batch:
The mixer should be equipped with an accurate water meter between the supply tank
and the mixer, with the meter having indicating dials and a totalizer.
The mixer should be equipped with a reliable revolution counter, which can be reset,
to indicate the amount of mixing.
The mixer should meet the specified requirements for mix uniformity when mixing
for not less than 70 or more than 100 revolutions at mixing speed.
The initial mixing water should be limited, to preclude any possibility of exceeding
the required slump.
The batch should be mixed only 75% of the required number of revolutions at mixing
speed prior to inspection for consistency. The additional revolutions required should
be performed at the point of delivery, with additional water not to exceed the amount
required for the established water/cement ratio and slump.
Every effort should be made to ensure the same proportions of mortar and aggregate
are maintained throughout the discharging operation.
- 4.50 -
Transporting
Depending on weather conditions and mix composition, concrete transported in a truck

mixer may be kept plastic and workable for as long as 90 minutes by occasional turning
at agitating speed. If transporting from a stationary mixer in a truck without agitation, the
mix should be deposited on grade within 30 minutes from the start of mixing.
With a truck mixer, the addition of water and further mixing at the point of delivery
should be carefully controlled.
The additional mixing should occur within 60 minutes of the time of batching;
The additional water added should not exceed 10% of the total, and the water/cement
ratio of the design mix should never be exceeded;
Following the addition of water, additional mixing should consist of at least 30
revolutions at mixing speed, or until uniformity requirements are met.
With off-site concrete production, each truck load of concrete arriving on grade must be
accompanied by a delivery slip providing information on the volume of concrete being
delivered and several other items as specified in CSA Standard A23.1. The delivery slips
are collected by the grade inspector for record purposes.
Paving Records
The plant inspector should keep a record of daily concrete production and cement usage.
Figure 4.11 illustrates a typical form for keeping such records. The amount of cement
used per unit of concrete produced, as indicated by these records, should correspond to
the design mix value. The volume of concrete produced at the plant should be compared
to the volume placed in the field, as calculated from area paved and slab design depth.
Over the total job, the two volumes should agree within one percent. Admixture
dispensers should be checked daily and the amount of material actually used compared to
the amount that should have been used.
PLANT INSPECTORS RECORD OF CEMENT USAGE AND CONCRETE MIX PRODUCTION
Notes: 1. 0.765 m3 per batch; 310 kg cement per m3.

Record of Concrete and Cement Quantities 2. Calculate placed and batched quantities daily.
Airport :______________________ 3. Determine quantity of cement actually on hand by measuring
bins or counting bags at least once each week.
Project : ______________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
Contract No : __________________ paving inspector plant inspector resident engineer
CONCRETE SLAB IN PLACE BATCHED QUANTITIES CEMENT

Volume m3 Concrete m3 Cement kg Received Used
No. of On
Date Item Station Offset
Batches This Hand This
Today Total Today Total Today Total Today Total Total Period
Period
Carried forward 7911.0 7952.2 2465182 2694384 224532 2469852

5+540
8/8 24 Ext 6L12L 675.0 8586.0 887 678.6 8630.8 210366 2675548 226800 2921184
5+840
5+396
9/8 24 Ext 18L-24L 553.5 9139.5 727 556.2 9187.0 172422 2847970 382788 nil 2921184 63500 2857684 387832
5+642
Figure 4.11 : CEMENT DAILY USAGE RECORD
- 4.51 -
Engineer Supplied Cement
On projects where the Portland cement is supplied by the Engineer, the plant inspector is
responsible for receiving shipments and inspecting for damage or contamination. The
quantity delivered should be checked against the shipping notice. In the case of sacked
cement, the sacks may be counted; in the case of bulk carrier delivery, an occasional
truck may be weighed. Bulk cement carriers should be checked to ensure they have been
emptied completely.
Occasionally a check should be made on the weight of sacked cement. Packages varying
by more than 5% from the specified weight may be rejected and if the average weight of
packages in any shipment, as determined by weighing 50 packages taken at random, is
less than specified weight, the entire shipment may be rejected. The frequency of weight
checks depends on the ease of making the checks. If necessary, the weight of each
shipment should be checked.
4.7.2 Placement
Preparations for Paving
Where fixed form paving is employed, forms should be checked for grade, alignment and
stability after being placed. Elevation should be within 3 mm of design grade and should
be checked by level every five to six metres. Grade should also be checked visually by
sighting along the top of the rails and by sighting across adjacent rails and completed
slabs. The horizontal alignment should be within 10 mm of design line and should be
checked visually by sighting along the rails and by measurement from reference points.
The forms should be supported on a uniformly firm foundation for their entire length.
The placing of stones or wood shims under the forms to bring them to proper elevation
without tamping sand under the rails to provide firm uniform support should not be
permitted. The forms should be checked to ensure they are properly interlocked and the
full number of form pins have been used and fastened. If any doubt exists as to vertical
or lateral stability, the spreader should be passed over the forms and the forms observed
for deflection. The forms should also be observed for deflection occasionally when the
spreader is under load.
Forms should be painted lightly with a bond breaking oil before the concrete is placed.
The bond breaker is required to prevent the concrete from adhering to the forms and to
facilitate form removal.
Where slip form paving is employed, the Contractor is normally responsible for erecting
string lines for vertical and horizontal control of the paver. The vertical and horizontal
alignment of the string lines should be checked. The inspector should ensure the spacing
of string supports and tension on the string lines is sufficient to prevent sagging of the
string lines between supports.
The keyway on forms should be checked to ensure conformance with the dimensions
shown on the drawings. Crack control steel should be installed at mismatched joint
- 4.52 -
locations and around slab openings for manholes or other intrusions, as detailed on
standard construction drawings.
Before paving, the inspector should ensure the base course is tightly compacted and
trimmed to grade. The base surface should be within 10 mm of design grade, not
uniformly high or low, and irregularities exceeding this value should be corrected prior to
paving. With fixed forms, base surface irregularities can be checked with a scratch
template run along the rails.
Unless a vapour barrier is present, such as an asphalt curing membrane on a cement

stabilized base, the base surface should be wetted prior to placing the concrete to prevent
loss of moisture at the bottom surface of the slab. The base surface should be free of
foreign matter, waste concrete and debris at all times.
Paving Operation
During the paving operation, inspection is required of the procedures and techniques used
for placing, spreading, consolidating and finishing. The mix should be deposited
uniformly and evenly distributed across the face of the spreader in a manner requiring a
minimum of spreading or redistribution. The mix should be placed to a depth providing
proper excess for the finishing operation but not resulting in a substantial amount of
material being carried forward by the spreader. Concrete should not be placed faster than
it can be properly spread, consolidated and finished, particularly in hot weather.
Spreading techniques should be observed to ensure segregation is minimized. Mechanical

spreading by auger or belt should be employed. Hand spreading by square edge shovel
may be permitted in small irregular areas where mechanical equipment cannot be used.
Spreading by rakes or vibrators should not be permitted. On small projects where
standard specifications do not apply, spreading may be permitted by such means as
powered strike-off, hand tools or planks.
With slab depths of 300 mm or more, consolidation of the concrete should be

accomplished using internal vibrators mounted on a frame spanning the slab. Vibrator
spacing should not exceed 750 mm and they should clear side forms by at least 50 mm.
The vibrators are usually angled with the top set 50 mm below slab surface and the
bottom set 50 mm above subgrade surface. Optimum operating frequency for internal
vibrators ranges from 7000 to 9000 cycles per minute.
With slab depths less than 300 mm, consolidation of the concrete may be accomplished
using surface vibrators. The surface vibrators should cover the full width of the slab
without coming into contact with the forms and should have a bull-nose leading edge.
The optimum frequency for the operation of surface vibrators is in the range of 3500 to
5000 cycles per minute and may vary from one mix to another. Where more than one
vibrating unit is used, they should be synchronized.
Care must be exercised to prevent excess vibration and over-finishing leading to the
accumulation of a layer of fines and water at the surface of a slab. A surface layer of
mortar with high moisture content later peels and results in surface scaling. Vibrators
- 4.53 -
should be in operation only when the paver is in forward motion as segregation occurs if
they continue to vibrate when the paver is stationary. Concrete along joints or forms
requires vibration or spading to eliminate honeycombing.
With equipment other than extruder-type slip form pavers, spreading and consolidating
are normally followed by a finisher having two screeds oscillating transversely. The
spreader and the finishing screeds should be adjusted so the front screed carries a uniform
roll 100 mm to 150 mm in diameter and the rear screed carries a uniform roll 25 mm to
50 mm in diameter. Material in excess of these amounts may flow under the screed and
result in surface irregularities, and lesser amounts of material may result in low spots. If
the roll in front of the screed is irregular, the spreading and compaction operations should
be checked for uniformity and the screeds checked for warping. Some finishers may
employ an eccentric roller rather than screeds.
The optimum adjustment of the finisher depends on mix properties and experimentation
may be required. To prevent surface tearing, the leading edge of the front screed should
be raised about 6 mm above the trailing edge for harsh mixes and about 3 mm for more
workable mixes. The second screed should be nearly flat for workable mixes. Stiffer
mixes may require a slowing in the forward motion of the finisher and an increase in
screed stroke and speed. Two passes with the finisher may be required.
All parts of the equipment coming into contact with fresh concrete or with previously laid
concrete must be kept clean. Accretions of hardened concrete on the screeds or vibrating
pads mar the surface. Concrete on the rails or on the wheels of finishing equipment
causes the level of the screeds to vary and result in an uneven surface. Where the wheels
of equipment operate on previously placed concrete, the wheels should be equipped with
rubber tires, or rubber pads should be laid for crawler tracks to prevent damage to the
surface.
With slip form pavers, the ends of the screed require adjustment so paving lane edges are
formed slightly high to compensate for slumping of the concrete on extrusion from the
trailing forms. The correct adjustment depends on mix slump, and once established, it is
essential the mix being delivered to the paver have a high degree of consistency to avoid
irregular edge slumping. Edge slumping should be continuously checked by straightedge
behind the paver. In the event of excessive edge slumping, temporary forms may have to
be placed for repairs.
Almost all finishers are equipped with a mechanical float. The float oscillates in a
longitudinal direction while moving transversely across the slab and is used to smooth
out minor surface irregularities. The float forward speed should be coordinated with
transverse movement so all areas are covered twice. The float should carry a small roll of
concrete in front of the forward half that tapers out toward the rear end. The presence of
a heavy roll is an indication the equipment is not in proper adjustment or the preceding
finishing or consolidating operations have not been performed properly.
All elements of the paving train should be kept moving forward at a speed as uniform as
possible with stops and starts held to a minimum. Vibratory and tamping elements
should be turned off immediately when forward motion is stopped. A transverse
- 4.54 -
construction joint should be formed if paving is halted for more than 30 minutes. If
halted for a shorter period, the old and new concrete should be thoroughly mixed with the
spreader or sliced with shovels to avoid a cleavage plane. When completing work for the
day, paving should be carried to a transverse joint and a keyed construction joint formed
at this location.
Straightedge
The inspector should frequently make straightedge measurements during paving to ensure
procedures and equipment are producing a satisfactory surface. Points of particular
interest are slab edges and the construction joint between slabs. Visually apparent
irregularities should be measured and if excessive, corrected while the concrete is still in
a plastic state.
fixed form paving
slip form paving
- 4.55 -
4.7.3 Texturing
The texturing of newly constructed Portland cement concrete surfaces is an important

operation for the attainment of good skid resistance. Several texturing methods are
available and the contract documents should identify the method to be used for the
project. The most common method for major projects is a longitudinal burlap drag
followed by transverse combing. The burlap should weigh at least 0.5 kg/m2, and have
transverse threads removed for approximately 300 mm from the trailing edge. The teeth
of the comb leave parallel transverse grooves in the surface of the plastic concrete about
5 mm wide and 3 mm deep, on 50 mm centres. On some projects, only the burlap drag
may be specified. Another texturing method sometimes used is transverse brushing.
Whatever method is used, the surface texture produced should be of a depressed nature,
as raised textures tend to be worn off relatively quickly by traffic, and by winter plowing
and sweeping operations.
If the texturing appears inadequate, the inspector should measure texture depth. The
texture depth should be not less than 0.3 mm, and preferably not less than 0.5 mm.
Methods of measuring texture depth are covered in the chapter on quality evaluation.
burlap drag
transverse
combing
- 4.56 -
4.7.4 Curing
During curing, the concrete moisture content and temperature must be maintained at
levels permitting the concrete to harden and gain strength. On major projects, the
application of a liquid membrane curing material is normally specified to prevent
moisture loss. A white pigmented curing compound is preferable for its heat and light
reflecting properties. The compound should be applied in two spraying operations each
at a rate at least equal to the application rate recommended by the manufacturer. The
second application should be within 24 hours of the first application. The material should
be thoroughly agitated prior to application to ensure a uniform consistency and dispersion
of the pigmentation. A mechanical spraying apparatus should be used; hand spraying
should be limited to areas inaccessible to the mechanical spray. Any areas in the
membrane having pinholes, discontinuities or abrasion should be re-sprayed. All
exposed surfaces are to be sprayed, including free slab edges.
The curing membrane should be applied immediately after the surface water film has
disappeared and before any drying of the surface concrete has occurred. The proper
application time depends on temperature, humidity and wind condition. The membrane
should remain intact and vehicles kept off the area for at least 4 days. Paving forms
should remain in place at least 24 hours, and, where forms are removed before the curing
period is complete, the slab edges should be sprayed with curing compound.
On smaller projects, the specifications may allow curing by the application of a water
absorbing material such as burlap which must be kept moist during the curing period. An
alternative is placing waterproof paper or polyethylene on all exposed surfaces.
The concrete should also be protected against freezing for at least 7 days after placing.
Where freezing conditions are forecast during this period, a layer of straw should be
placed on the concrete surface.
4.7.5 Joints
Transverse contraction joints are usually sawn and the initial, or green, cut is made
using a single blade of about 3 mm in width. The initial cut depth is slightly in excess of
one quarter the depth of the slab. At a later time, the sealant reservoir or kerf at the
pavement surface is cut to the width and depth specified along both the transverse
contraction joints and the longitudinal construction joints.
Particular attention has to be paid to the timing of the initial cut for transverse joints.
Sawing must be delayed until the concrete has hardened sufficiently so the saw does not
loosen aggregate particles at the surface and cause spalling. If delayed too long, the slab
cracks at irregular intervals. The proper time for sawing after placing may vary from four
to six hours in good curing weather and up to twenty-four hours in cooler weather. A
slight amount of ravelling is not objectionable and is a good indication sawing is being
performed at close to the right time. Sawing is too late if cracking occurs ahead of the
saw. If cracking is experienced, every second joint should be sawn to the end of the run
and the intermediate joints then completed. Sufficient sawing equipment must be
available to keep up with the rate of paving with at least one additional saw held in
- 4.57 -
reserve. The initial cut for transverse joints should be hand sprayed with curing
compound.
Forming of transverse contraction joints was common at one time but the practice has
generally ceased. A proposal to form rather than saw transverse joints, or to use some
other method, should be evaluated carefully to ensure ride quality is not adversely
affected.
Some time generally elapses between slab placement and joint sealing. If construction
traffic is allowed before joint sealing occurs and the slab surface gets covered with
gravel, truck tires acting on gravel particles caught in the joints cause spalling along the
joints. Consequently, joint kerf sawing should be delayed until just before the sealing
operation and traffic restricted until sealing is completed.
No aspect of concrete paving is more prone to post-construction performance problems

than joint sealant. It is imperative the walls of joint kerfs be clean and dry when applying
sealant, otherwise failure of the sealant bond inevitable follows soon after application.
After sawing, joint kerfs should be cleaned of laitance left by the sawing operation using
wire brush, pressurized water, sand blasting, vacuum suction, or similar methods. The
joint kerf should receive a final cleaning and drying with compressed air, followed by
placing tape or backer rod at the bottom of the kerf, immediately before sealant
application. Kerf wall cleanliness and dryness should be checked by swiping with finger
or cloth. A check is needed in early morning to ensure no dampness from condensation.
Concrete joints are generally filled with jet fuel resistant sealants in apron areas subject to
fuel spills and with less expensive hot-pour asphalt based sealants in other areas. Some
discussion on sealant types and performance is given in the chapter on maintenance and
restoration.
Sealant failures are common. Only proven products should be used on larger projects and
installation procedures recommended by the sealant manufacturer must be strictly
observed. The sealant should be applied in a manner to prevent air bubbles and so it
slightly underfills the joint (but not more than 5 mm below pavement surface). With hot-
poured sealants, the pouring temperature may be critical for bonding and the inspector
should insure the pouring temperature is consistent, and is as recommended by the sealant
manufacturer or as determined by laboratory bonding tests.
In cases of joint sealant failure after construction, disputes often arise as to whether the
material was at fault (manufacturers responsibility) or whether the application technique
was inadequate (Contractors responsibility). Inspection during the sealing operation
must be sufficiently thorough for the inspector to certify installation by the Contractor
was strictly in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations. Specifications may
require a sealant manufacturer representative be on site for the first few days of the
sealing operation to ensure proper application technique.
- 4.58 -
Joint Construction
joint sawing gang blade for cutting kerf
cleaning joint with pressurized water placing tape backup
placing sealant
- 4.59 -
4.7.6 Defective Work
Concrete work may be defective for a variety of reasons, such as honeycombing, weak
concrete, insufficient slab depth or surface irregularities. Surface irregularities may be
correctable by diamond grinding, but grinding should be delayed until the concrete has
cured for at least 14 days. When correcting defective work by panel replacement, the
panel should be replaced for its entire width and if more than half the panel length
requires replacement, the full panel should be replaced. Badly spalled edges or broken
concrete along joints should be cut out and patched with concrete. Uncontrolled
transverse cracks occurring between contraction joints should be stitched, routed and
sealed. Repair methods are detailed in the chapter on maintenance and restoration.
4.8 CONSTRUCTION CONTRACT RECORDS
4.8.1 Supporting Details
The following contract records should be placed in secure storage on completion of a

pavement construction project:
a copy of the signed tender and contract documents, including addenda
copies of change orders
copies of contract security documents
the workers compensation board release, where required by regulation
the final statutory declaration
copies of provincial/municipal permits and inspection certificates
the acceptance board preliminary and final reports
the Engineers interim and final certificates of completion
quantities documentation, as required to recalculate quantities if required
project data such as correspondence, diaries, construction photographs, extended
warranties and shop drawings
as-built drawings
technical records listed in the following section
4.8.2 Technical Records
Design Brief
The design brief is a report containing details of the pavement design, including:
construction history and bearing strength data for existing pavements
subgrade soils information with a summary of classification and strength data
design aircraft, and assumptions with respect to future traffic if applicable
climatic statistics such as site freezing index, high and low temperatures
design methodology followed, with calculations
alternatives considered and life-cycle costing of alternatives
- 4.60 -
Engineers Report
The Engineers project report should summarize items of technical interest, including:
prime contractor, sub-contractors and their areas and quality of work
supervision personnel, resources and costs
contract dates, including start and completion dates for major work phases
explanation of any delay to the tendered contract completion date
unit prices, estimated and final quantities, and costs
reasons for any significant quantity over/under runs (deviations exceeding 15%)
listing of change orders and reasons for each
list of equipment used by the contractor
description of any unusual equipment or techniques used by the contractor
a general summary of climatic conditions during the project and an outline of areas of
possible deficiencies due to drainage problems
a general discussion of quality control, investigation and inspection results
outline of problems encountered with specifications or standard practices along with
recommendations for change based on project experience
Quality Control Testing Records
Trade products include a listing of manufacturer and supplier; manufacturers product

data and laboratory test results for:
asphalt cement
cut-back asphalt
emulsified asphalt
Portland cement
joint sealant
curing compound
air entraining agent
Aggregate sources include source identification and acceptance test results for:
subbase aggregate
base aggregate
asphalt concrete aggregate, each source
Portland cement aggregate, coarse and fine
Aggregate stockpiling include test results for:

base course
asphalt concrete, each aggregate source
Portland cement concrete, coarse and fine aggregate
- 4.61 -
Mix designs include contractors submissions, trial mix results and final design mix for:
asphalt concrete mixes
Portland cement concrete mixes
cement stabilized bases
Plant production include test results for:

asphalt concrete plant Marshall tests
Portland cement concrete, slump and air content
Portland cement concrete, flexural strength
Field testing include test results for:

common fill, density and compaction
subgrade, density and compaction
subbase, density and compaction
subbase, gradation and Atterberg limits
base course, density and compaction
base course, gradation and crushed content
asphalt concrete, density and compaction
straightedge measurements
Paving records include daily cement usage, quantity placed, paving lane start and end
chainages for:
asphalt concrete paving
Portland cement concrete paving
Subgrade Soils Record
A record should be kept of cut depths and fill material placed under airfield pavements so
a subgrade soil profile is available for record purposes. Figure 4.12 illustrates a subgrade
soil profile of the finished pavement structure showing the soil strata beneath the
pavement.
Construction History
A construction history is a concise record of construction details for the airfield

pavements. The history generally comes in two parts: a site key plan showing the
location of each area of separate construction, and a listing of the construction
thicknesses and bearing strength details for each area. Figure 4.13 gives an example.
Construction histories are an invaluable aid for future technical studies, and the history
should be updated after each construction contract. The pavement load rating chart for
the airport should also be updated, as outlined in the chapter on quality evaluation.
- 4.62 -
60 m 120 m
LIN E B
17 18 19 20 21
121+20
120+00
100+60
101+80
103+00
100+00
90 m
LIN E A
45m
1 2 3 4
120 m
90 m
30 m grid
120 m typic a l
LIN E C
3 4 60 m 60 m 35 36 37 38
a pprox. limits of s w a mp
w e ll
LEG EN D TEST PIT
B O R E H O LE
N
PR O B E (in s w a mp)
PLAN
1082. 1
N WN
ELEV 1082.0 NOTES :
300 mm Por t l and cement concr et e or i gi nal ground sur face Topsoi l (0. 1 m) 1 . N i - b lo ws p er 1 5 2 mm ach iev ed with M ich ig an P en etro meter, 9 .0 7 k g , 8 6 3 mm d ro p
- 4.63 -
150 mm cr ushed gr avel dept h of cut l i ne
450 mm granul ar subbase N - b lo ws p er 3 0 5 mm ach iev ed with S tan d ard S p ilt Barrel S amp ler, 6 3 .5 k g , 7 6 2 mm d ro p
12
150 mm subgr ade compact i on 29. 4 br own CLAY ( CH) W L - liq u id limit, I P - p lasticity in d ex , WN - n atu ral mo istu re co n ten t
WL 64. 3 st i f f , moi st
1080. 5 10 I 2 . All b o reh o les d rilled u sin g tru ck mo u n ted 2 0 3 mm d iameter au g er.
P 41. 3
N W 3 . Co n tracto r to tak e in to acco u n t g ro u n d water tab le flu ctu atio n s an d /o r so il mo istu re co n ten t
ELEV 1080.5 N Topsoi l (0. 1 m) 23. 9
1080. 1 WL 60. 6 v ariatio n as related to seaso n an d climatic en v iro n men t.
Ni WN I 42. 2 4 . S o il classificatio n s are field d escrip tio n s mo d ified b y lab o rato ry test resu lts.
Topsoi l ( 0. 1 m) P
13
sandy GRAVEL (GW) 5 . Th e p ercen tag e o f co mp o n en t materials in th e min u s 7 5 mm material are b ased o n weig h t.
25. 0 1079. 4
si l t y CLAY ( CL) 3. 0 74% gravel , 20% sand 32. 0 medi um wet
2 t o 5% cobbl es N 12 6 . Th e p ercen tag e o f co b b les an d b o u ld ers is b ased o n th e estimated v o lu me o f th e o v erall
WN 6% cobbl es
12 st i f f, moi st i Topsoi l (0. 15 m) dense, moi st samp le an d are ap p ro x imate o n ly .
ELEV 1079.0 WL 20, si l t y cl ayey SAND ( SC) hol e dr y af t er 24 hr s 7 . Classificatio n o f matrix b ased o n material smaller th an 7 5 mm.
11 I
P 6
85% sand, 15% fi nes 14 4
8 . All water tab le o b serv atio n s mad e 2 4 h rs. after each test h o le was co mp leted , o r as in d icated .
si l t y CLAY 8. 0 dense, moi st 26. 0 becomes sat ur at ed
29. 0 5% cobbl es sandy SILT ( ML) 9 . F ield wo rk p erfo rmed b etween 0 3 .0 1 . 7 0 an d 2 2 .0 1 .7 0 .
9 95% si l t , 5% sand
dense, moi st , non- pl ast i c sandy GRAVEL ( GW)
8. 0 22. 0 75% gravel , 10% sand
Boul der s t o 0. 6 m, wi t h 15% boul der s t o 0. 3 m
brown CLAY si l t y gr avel mat r i x ( GM) dense, moi st
ELEV 1077.5 38. 0
st i f f, moi st dense, sat ur at ed
70% boul der s. 30% mat ri x
8. 0 sandy GRAVEL (GP) mat ri x 60% gr avel ,
75% gr avel , 25% coarse sand 3
30% f i nes, 10% sand
1 l oose, moi st
10. 0 NOTE: Geo d etic Ben ch mark No .
hol e dr y af t er 24 hr s.
Elev . 1 0 8 0 .5 u sed in su rv ey Figure 4.12 :
2 Lo cated at
ELEV 1076.0
SUBGRADE SOILS PROFILE
SOIL PROFILE LINE A CONSTRUCTION RECORD
(for line s B a nd C s e e D w g N o. )
Chapter 4 : Construction Contract Supervision
19
4
55
20
N
6+
I
24
18
5
12
14 B 15
0
5+00
16 4
6 17 A
7
3
8
9
13
9
10
11
30
6+829
12
2
0
00
5+
AIRFIELD PAVEMENT INVENTORY

Airport:
06
1
Operator:
06-24 1554 x 60 0 250 500
12-30 1829 x 60 Revision Date:
scale - metres
Page: 1 of 3 AIRFIELD PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION HISTORY

Airport: Region: Revised:
FACILITY DIMENSIONS CONSTRUCTION HISTORY PAVEMENT STRENGTH
Pavement Plan Chainage Width Area Layer Thickness (mm) Contract Year Strength PLR
Facility Code (m) (m) (m 2 x 10 3) PCC AC B SB No Built Code Ac/Ass
Runway 1 5000 60 3.60 180 100 45942 1950 k79hd330 11/12

06-24 5060 100 QM-1278 1975
50 QM-2813 1987
Runway 2 5060 60 54.00 65 200 45942 1950 S169t640 12/12

06-24 6150 65 58294 1957
40 QM-1278 1975
50 QM-2813 1987
Runway 3 6150 60 3.00 180 100 45942 1950 k79hd330 11/12

06-24 6200 65 58294 1957
40 QM-1278 1975
50 QM-2813 1987
Runway 4 6200 60 18.00 90 200 300 58294 1957 S151t860 12/12

06-24 6500 40 QM-1278 1975
50 QM-2813 1987
Runway 5 6500 60 3.24 230 100 250 58294 1957 k79hd380 12/12
06-24 6554 100 QM-1278 1975
50 QM-2813 1987
Runway 6 5000 60 3.60 200 100 53888 1955 k79hd350 12/12

12-30 5060 50 62603 1959
50 QM-1278 1975
50 QM-2813 1987
Runway 7 5060 60 7.50 65 200 53888 1955 S151t630 11/12

12-30 5185 50 62603 1959
Figure 4.13 : CONSTRUCTION HISTORY RECORD
- 4.64 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Chapter 5 : Quality Evaluation
CHAPTER 5
QUALITY EVALUATION
Section Page
5.1 Introduction . 5.3
5.2 Bearing Strength

5.2.1 Description . 5.4
5.2.2 Measurement Methods 5.5
5.2.3 Measurement Programming . 5.11
5.2.4 Pavement Strength Codes 5.12
5.2.5 Pavement Strength Reporting (ACN/PCN System) 5.14
5.3 Skid Resistance

5.3.1 Description .. 5.19
5.3.2 Major Factors Affecting Skid Resistance 5.19
5.3.3 Summer Measurement (Normal Wet State) . 5.26
5.3.4 Winter Measurement (Solid State) .. 5.31
5.3.5 Hydroplaning 5.33
5.4 Ride Quality

5.4.1 Description .. 5.34
5.4.2 Riding Comfort Index . 5.34
5.4.3 Profile Analysis Methods ... 5.34
5.4.4 Roughness Measuring Devices ... 5.38
5.4.5 Measurement Programming . 5.43
5.4.6 Performance Trends . 5.43
5.5 Structural Condition

5.5.1 Description . 5.45
5.5.2 Inspection Methods . 5.45
5.5.3 Inspection Programming .. 5.46
5.5.4 Performance Trends 5.46
- 5.1 -
Tables
Table 5.01 Tire Pressure Ratings .. 5.17

Table 5.02 Example of Test Tire Calibration Results .. 5.28
Table 5.03 Tabulation of Runway Skid Resistance .. 5.30
Table 5.04 Example Listing of Runway Skid Resistance Standards 5.31
Table 5.05 Tabulation of Runway Ride Quality .. 5.40
Figures
Figure 5.01 CBR Field Testing Set Up . 5.9

Figure 5.02 Pressuremeter Testing Set Up ... 5.10
Figure 5.03 ICAO Pavement Strength Reporting System .. 5.15
Figure 5.04 PCN Determination ... 5.16
Figure 5.05 Pavement Load Rating Chart .... 5.18
Figure 5.06 Evaluation of Aircraft Operations by ACN/PCN Comparison . 5.18
Figure 5.07 Effect of Surface Texture on Skid Resistance ... 5.20
Figure 5.08 Texture Depth Measurement by Sand Patch . 5.21
Figure 5.09 Average Texture Depth vs Age of Asphalt Surface .. 5.22
Figure 5.10 Effect of Rain-Days on Runway Skid Resistance .. 5.23
Figure 5.11 Comparison of Different Types of Friction Test Tire ... 5.24
Figure 5.12 Effect of Wheel Slip Ratio on Skid Resistance .. 5.25
Figure 5.13 Skid Resistance Test Procedure . 5.28
Figure 5.14 Runway Skid Resistance Profile 5.29
Figure 5.15 Riding Comfort Index Rating ..... 5.35
Figure 5.16 Individual Bump Criteria ... 5.37
Figure 5.17 Ride Quality Indices ... 5.39
Figure 5.18 RCI vs IRI and RMSVA ..... 5.39
Figure 5.19 Ride Quality Performance Chart 5.43
Figure 5.20 Ride Quality vs Surface Age ... 5.44
Figure 5.21 Average Structural Condition vs Age . 5.47
- 5.2 -
CHAPTER 5
QUALITY EVALUATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers methods of measuring and evaluating the major pavement attributes
defining operational quality: bearing strength, skid resistance, ride quality and structural
condition. The methods presented are oriented toward pavements serving aircraft traffic.
Most of the methods are also suitable for road pavements although some adjustment in
test procedures and evaluation criteria may be necessary to accommodate the difference
in traffic conditions.
Airfield pavement quality monitoring provides the information needed to support a

number of objectives:
verification the pavement facilities are of satisfactory quality for the safe operation of
aircraft,
publishing bearing strength information required by the aviation industry,
planning and programming maintenance and restoration measures,
identification of deficiencies influencing the design of restoration measures.
Pavement Inspection
- 5.3 -
5.2 BEARING STRENGTH
5.2.1 Description
The bearing strength of airfield pavements rarely leads to an overt problem of operational
safety in the sense aircraft wheels may break through the pavement surface. The
common effect of repeated aircraft loads significantly in excess of those for which the
facility was designed is an acceleration of pavement deterioration. The deterioration may
occur in the form of surface rutting, distortion or cracking, and may ultimately result in
surface breakup or excessive roughness. Inadequate bearing strength may eventually
present an economic problem to the airport authority in the form of unplanned
expenditures needed for unexpected restoration and strengthening measures. Safety
problems arising from inadequate bearing strength are generally indirect and are related
to excessive roughness or the potential for foreign object damage (FOD) to aircraft from
spalling chunks of surfacing material.
Based on the structural design and evaluation methods presented previously and
assuming the pavement materials meet normal construction standards, the bearing
strength of airfield pavements depends on:
flexible pavements: rigid pavements:

subgrade plate bearing strength (S) bearing modulus (k)
pavement equiv. granular thickness (t) slab thickness (h) or equiv. thickness (hd)
Post-construction strength measurement programs are undertaken only on flexible

pavement structures with the primary purpose of determining a value for subgrade plate
bearing strength. Rigid pavement bearing modulus is not measured under normal
circumstances but is calculated from subgrade plate bearing strength and base thickness
information as outlined in the chapter on structural design and evaluation. Information
on the pavement thickness parameters should be available from construction records.
However, records are not always accurate and a borehole investigation in conjunction
with strength measurement programs is often desirable to confirm the thickness of
pavement layers.
- 5.4 -
5.2.2 Measurement Methods
Non-destructive methods of measuring pavement bearing strength at the surface of

flexible pavements include bearing plate, falling-weight deflectometer, and Benkelman
beam testing. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and pressuremeter testing can be used to
measure subgrade strength characteristics, although these test methods require access to
the subgrade through test pits for CBR testing or through bore holes for pressuremeter
testing. Detailed test procedures are given in the appendix on bearing strength
measurement, and plate bearing strength can be estimated from the results of these test
methods using correlation data included with the test procedure. Although plate bearing
measurement is the preferred test method, equipment for the test is no longer readily
available in Canada. The recommended alternative is pressuremeter testing.
The number of tests conducted depends on the method of testing, but test locations are
typically spaced at intervals of 50 to 300 m. At least three measurements should be made
in each differently constructed area. Testing is usually conducted in the aircraft wheel-
paths with test locations alternately offset left and right of centreline.
Plate Load Testing - Repetitive Static Loading
The standard plate bearing strength measurement is the load giving an accumulated
deflection of 12.5 mm after 10 load repetitions when the load is applied to the test surface
through a 750 mm diameter circular rigid plate. The measure is obtained using repetitive
static load application.
Plate load testing requires a reaction load which is commonly provided by water-filled
tanks on tractor-pulled trailers. Tank capacity of the units shown in the photo is about
45,000 litres so when filled, each tank provides a reaction load of about 450 kN, or
- 5.5 -
approximately equal to the maximum load on a dual-wheeled aircraft gear. The two units
shown can be combined by placing a loading bridge beneath the two trailers to give a
reaction load about equal to the maximum load on a dual-tandem aircraft gear.
A rigid circular steel bearing plate is placed on the pavement surface being tested and
load is applied by a jacking arrangement installed between the plate and the reaction load.
Deflection of the pavement surface under load is measured using a reference beam as
zero datum. Repetitive static plate load tests are conducted using three load levels
producing pavement deflections of approximately 1, 5 and 10 mm. The lowest level of
load is applied and released six times, followed by six applications and release of the
second, and then third load. Accumulated and residual deflections are recorded after
each application and release of load when the rate of movement has fallen below
0.025 mm per minute. During data reduction, extrapolations are made to a higher
number of load application.
The use of a 750 mm diameter bearing plate is preferred to obtain a direct measure of
plate bearing strength. On strong pavements, required deflections may not be reached
with a 750 mm diameter plate because the reaction load available is not sufficient.
Smaller bearing plates are required to obtain suitable deflections and in order of
preference, bearing plates of diameter 600 mm, 450 mm and 300 mm may be used. For
test results obtained using plate sizes other than 750 mm diameter or when desired
deflections are not reached, the standard measure of bearing strength is estimated using
established conversion factors.
Plate Load Testing Non-Repetitive Static Loading
The repetitive static plate load test provides detailed information on the elastic, viscous
and plastic deformation characteristics of a pavement structure, but most of a full
working day is required to complete one test. A non-repetitive static plate load test can
be completed in one to two hours and involves load application in increments, without
load release, until the maximum load is reached. Each load level is held constant and the
corresponding deflection is recorded when the rate of settlement decreases to 0.025 mm
per minute or less. The non-repetitive static plate load test does not provide a direct
measure of the plastic deformation accumulating under repeated loads, but an
approximation of the standard measure of plate bearing strength can be obtained through
Plate Load Testing Constant Rate of Loading
The constant rate of loading (CROL) plate test can be completed in 15 to 20 minutes and
was developed to provide a quick approximation of the standard measure of plate bearing
strength. CROL plate bearing measurements are conducted with the same equipment
used for repetitive static plate load testing except an electronically controlled,
hydraulically powered jack is needed. Load is applied continuously to the bearing plate
at a constant rate of one kiloNewton per second (60 kN/min) and deflections are recorded
at about one minute intervals as the load increases. The result is a single load-deflection
curve from which the standard measure of plate bearing strength can be estimated using
- 5.6 -
Falling Weight Deflectometer
As implied by the name, a Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) measures the load-
deflection characteristics of pavements under an impulse load generated by a falling
weight. The weight is lifted to a selected height and dropped onto a buffering system
transferring a load impulse to the pavement surface through a circular plate. A load cell
is used to measure peak load and geophones are used to measure the corresponding
deflection of the pavement surface under the plate and at various offsets from the plate.
The equipment is trailer mounted, with computer equipment in the tow vehicle
controlling the testing sequence and recording the measurements.
FWDs are available in different sizes and models. Strength testing on airfield pavements
should only be performed with a heavy weight version (HWD) with a peak impact load
of 250 kN or more. Three or four load levels are applied during a test in approximately
equal increments up to the maximum load. At least three individual tests separated by at
least one metre are performed at each test location and the results are averaged. A 450
mm diameter bearing plate is used.
A correlation between plate bearing strength and HWD deflection under a 250 kN load is
given with the appended detailed test procedure. By the nature of the test, measurements
made with a FWD reflect only the elastic component of pavement response to load.
Some pavement structures exhibit significant time dependent deformation under static
load not well related to elastic deformation, and as a result, the bearing strength of these
- 5.7 -
pavements may register considerably lower under static loads than under dynamic loads.
Strength measurement under dynamic loads, such as produced by a FWD, are suitable for
highway pavements where traffic loads are transitory in nature. Static or slowly applied
loads are preferred for airfield pavement bearing strength measurement as aircraft are
often stationary or slow moving.
Benkelman Beam
Benkelman beam testing is a means of measuring road pavement bearing strength but this
method of test may also be used on pavements of lower bearing strength intended for
light aircraft. The method is particularly applicable at small remote airports not easily
accessible to other strength testing equipment.
Benkelman beam testing requires the use of a truck with a single rear-axle having dual
tire wheels. The dual tires should be 10.00x20, 12 ply, spaced 320 mm centre to centre,
and inflated to 550 kPa. The truck is loaded so the rear axle carries 80 kN equally
distributed on the two wheels. The rebound deflection of the pavement surface under this
truck loading is measured with the Benkelman beam. The truck is stationed at the test
location and the Benkelman beam probe is inserted at mid-point between the dual tires, in
contact with the pavement surface. After settlement under the truck loading is essentially
complete, initial dial readings are taken and the truck is driven forward. A measurement
is then taken of pavement surface rebound after load removal.
- 5.8 -
On airfield pavements, six rebound measurements are made in the vicinity of the test
location and the average is taken to characterize bearing strength at the location. On
roads, the usual procedure is to make single-point determinations in the outer wheelpath
along the length of the roadway.
A correlation between Benkelman beam rebound deflection and plate bearing strength is
given with the detailed test procedure appended. With stronger pavement structures, little
correlation exists between Benkelman beam deflection and plate bearing strength as the
magnitude of load involved in Benkelman beam testing is insufficient to produce
significant deflections in strong pavements.
California Bearing Ratio
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is a measure of pavement subgrade soil strength widely
used internationally. CBR testing consists of penetrating the subgrade soil at a controlled
rate of strain with a flat-faced cylindrical piston approximately 50 mm in diameter. The
resulting load-penetration relationship is compared to the relationship obtained on a
standard crushed limestone, and CBR is the ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the loads
giving a specified penetration.
Two methods of CBR testing are practiced. CBR field testing involves the opening of a
test pit to expose the subgrade and the test is conducted on the subgrade soil in its
existing in-situ state. CBR field testing of operational pavement facilities is not often
performed due to the destructive nature of the test and facility down-time required.
I-beam mounted on a truck
swivel
reaction load reaction load
mechanical screw jack (35 kN min.)
proving ring
pipe extensions
penetration piston
(bearing area 1935 mm2)
test deflection dial
pit surcharge plate & weight (13.5 kg)
support beam for

deflection dial
test surface
Figure 5.01 : CBR FIELD TESTING SET UP
- 5.9 -
Laboratory CBR testing of remolded soil samples is commonly performed in many

countries for pavement design. Samples of the subgrade soil are brought into the
laboratory and CBR specimens are prepared by compacting the soil in molds at moisture
contents and to densities corresponding to those specified in construction documents. For
a conservative measure of CBR design value, the laboratory specimens are normally
soaked in water for four days prior to testing.
Correlation data between subgrade plate bearing strength and field CBR values measured
under in-situ conditions is given in the appended CBR test procedure. If the relationship
is used to predict plate bearing strength from laboratory soaked CBR values, an
appropriate spring reduction factor should be applied to arrive at a plate bearing strength
suitable for design and evaluation purposes.
Pressuremeter
Pressuremeter testing provides an in-situ measure of the stress-strain characteristics of

subgrade soil. The loading component is a balloon-like probe lowered into a test hole to
a desired depth and expanded against the walls of the test hole. Pressure is increased in
increments with probe volume recorded after the pressure has been held constant for 60
seconds at each level. The resulting pressure-volume curve normally
control panel
coaxial tubing
compressed
gas bottle
ground surface
probe
test hole
Figure 5.02 : PRESSUREMETER TESTING SET UP
- 5.10 -
identifies a failure limit beyond which plastic deformation increases rapidly. A

pressuremeter modulus, approximating an elastic modulus, can be calculated from the
elastic portion of the pressure-volume curve preceding the onset of plastic deformation.
Pressuremeter testing was developed primarily for the design of building foundations but
characteristics of the test method support use of the pressuremeter for the measurement of
pavement subgrade strength. The testing can usually be performed in off hours with
minimum disruption to traffic, and subgrade deformation characteristics are measured
under relatively static loading conditions. Development work directly relating
pressuremeter measurements to plate bearing strength has not been carried out to date but
a method of calculation to estimate plate bearing strength from pressuremeter modulus
values is given with the appended test procedure.
Borehole Investigations
Quantification of the pavement strength parameters requires information on the thickness

of pavement component layers and the type of material comprising these layers. A
borehole survey to confirm construction records is usually desirable in conjunction with a
bearing strength measurement program, and is mandatory if reliable construction records
are not available. Survey requirements are generally minimal and consist of measuring
the thickness of layers, identifying the material in these layers, and taking subgrade soil
samples for moisture content and classification purposes. Requirements for borehole
investigations are provided in the appendix on bearing strength measurement.
Borehole investigations are also required at times because of suspected construction

material deficiencies. In characterizing pavement strength by the parameters listed
previously in this chapter, the assumption made is the pavement surfacing, base and
subbase materials meet or exceed normal construction standards. Operational
performance problems may arise that suggest material deficiencies and boreholes are
necessary to obtain samples for laboratory testing and comparison against construction
specification standards. Requirements for such investigations vary depending on the
deficiency suspected. If a significant deficiency is found, adjustments based on
engineering judgement may be needed to normal structural analysis methods.
5.2.3 Measurement Programming
Although subgrade strength data may be available from investigations made at the time of
design, post-construction testing of flexible pavements is desirable to measure the actual
bearing strength of the constructed facility. Post-construction testing is usually delayed
for at least two years to permit moisture contents and other subgrade conditions to
stabilize. One set of measurements should be adequate for the service life of the
structure. Re-testing may be performed for the design of major restoration measures, or if
unexpected performance problems develop.
Subgrade bearing strength is cyclical on an annual basis, weakest in the spring and
highest when frozen during winter. Measurement programs are usually undertaken
during the summer or fall months with a reduction factor applied to the measurements to
- 5.11 -
estimate spring values. Under special circumstances, tests may be conducted during the
spring to obtain a direct measure of spring-reduced bearing strength.
If a measurement program cannot be undertaken for some reason, subgrade plate bearing
strength may be estimated from subgrade soil characteristics as outlined in the chapter on
structural design and evaluation. Estimation generally involves a degree of conservatism
that may impose undue restrictions on aircraft movements or excess costs from the over-
design of future construction. Measurement is preferred.
5.2.4 Pavement Strength Codes
Pavement strength parameter values may be recorded in data inventories in the form of
strength codes which are subsequently used for the determination and reporting of
bearing capacity. Pavement strength codes are in the form Sxxtxx for flexible pavements
and kxxhxx for rigid pavements. For example, the code S90t650 denotes a flexible
pavement with a subgrade plate bearing design strength of 90 kN and an equivalent
granular thickness of 650 mm. The code k50h300 denotes a rigid pavement with a base
bearing modulus of 50 MPa/m and a slab thickness of 300 mm. In the rigid pavement
strength code, the symbol hd may appear to denote an equivalent single slab thickness
of a composite pavement structure. Code derivation is described below and examples are
given in the appendix on bearing strength measurement.
Flexible pavements
Pavement sections of different construction are analyzed separately and the bearing
strength measurements available are grouped accordingly. The following procedure is
followed for each group of measurements:
(a) Calculate the equivalent granular thickness of the pavement structure at each test
location. Use borehole information on the thickness of pavement layers if available;
otherwise, use nominal thickness values from construction records.
(b) Convert strength measurements, as necessary, to the standard measure of plate
bearing strength (750 mm diameter plate, 12.5 mm deflection, 10 load repetitions).
Conversion methods are given with the appended detailed test procedures.
(c) For measurements made on pavement surfaces, calculate the subgrade plate bearing
strength at each test location:
-t/1650
S = P x 10
where S = subgrade plate bearing strength (kN), measured with a 750 mm

diameter plate, 12.5 mm deflection, 10 load repetitions;
P = pavement surface plate bearing strength (kN) measured with a 750 mm
diameter plate, 12.5 mm deflection, 10 load repetitions;
t = equivalent granular thickness (mm) of the pavement structure.
- 5.12 -
(d) Calculate the lower quartile value of the subgrade plate bearing strengths determined
for the pavement section. The lower quartile value is equal to - 0.675, where is
the average of the measurements and is their standard deviation.
(e) Determine an appropriate spring reduction factor and reduce the subgrade lower
quartile bearing strength accordingly.
(f) Assign a strength code to the pavement area. The t parameter is the average of the
pavement equivalent granular thickness values determined in (a). The S parameter
is the spring reduced, lower quartile, subgrade plate bearing strength of the area, as
determined in (e). If no tests were conducted in an area of distinctly different
construction, select an appropriate S value from adjacent tested areas.
Single slab concrete pavements
One of the bearing strength parameters of a simple concrete pavement, slab thickness h,
should be available directly from construction records. The other parameter, bearing
modulus k, is calculated from a representative subgrade plate bearing strength and base
thickness information, using methods presented in the chapter on structural design and
evaluation.
Pavements with overlays
(a) Asphalt pavement overlaid with flexible construction (asphalt surfacing with or
without a granular base sandwich course).
The pavement structure is flexible and strength code analysis proceeds as outlined for
flexible pavements, using appropriate granular equivalency factors to convert the various
pavement layers to an equivalent granular thickness.
(b) Asphalt pavement overlaid with a concrete slab.
The pavement structure is rigid and strength code analysis proceeds as outlined for
single-slab concrete pavements. The original asphalt layer is part of the base and
granular equivalency factors must be used when calculating the thickness of base and
subbase to estimate the bearing modulus k. If plate bearing tests were conducted on the
asphalt surface prior to the slab overlay, these measurements may be used to calculate the
bearing modulus directly.
(c) Concrete pavement overlaid with flexible construction.
The pavement structure may be considered as flexible or rigid depending on the thickness
of overlay:
(i) If the overlay of flexible construction is greater than 250 mm in thickness or

greater than the thickness of the slab, the pavement is considered to be flexible
and strength code analysis proceeds as outlined for flexible pavements, using
appropriate granular equivalency factors for the various layers.
- 5.13 -
(ii) If the overlay of flexible construction is less than 250 mm in thickness and less
than the thickness of the slab, the pavement is considered to be rigid. For
strength coding purposes, the thickness of slab and asphalt overlay are converted
to an equivalent slab thickness (hd) as outlined in the chapter on structural design
and evaluation.
(d) Concrete pavement overlaid with concrete.
The pavement structure is rigid, but is analyzed in one of two ways depending on the
thickness of base course placed between the two slabs:
(i) If the separation course is equal to or less than 150 mm in thickness, the
thickness of the two slabs is converted to an equivalent slab thickness (hd) as
outlined in the chapter on structural design and evaluation.
(ii) If the separation course is greater than 150 mm in thickness, the upper overlay
slab is considered to act independently as a single slab, with the lower slab
forming part of the base course. Strength coding analysis proceeds as for a
single-slab concrete pavement, with an appropriate granular equivalency factor
applied to the lower concrete layer when computing the bearing modulus, k.
5.2.5 Pavement Strength Reporting (ACN/PCN System)
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) requires member States to publish
information on airfield pavement bearing strengths, and specifies the reporting be in
terms of the ICAO ACN/PCN system. An aircraft classification number (ACN) is a
number reflecting the relative severity of loading by the aircraft. The classification
number assigned to a pavement (PCN) indicates aircraft with an ACN equal to or smaller
than the assigned PCN can operate on the pavement without restriction (subject to tire
pressure limitations, if any). Specific approval from the Airport Authority is required for
the operation of an aircraft on an airfield pavement if the aircraft ACN exceeds the
published pavement PCN.
ACN can be defined in terms of a reference aircraft supported on two legs with each leg
having a single tire inflated to 1.25 MPa pressure. The ACN of an aircraft is the weight
in megagrams of this reference aircraft resulting in the same pavement thickness design
requirement as the aircraft being classified. For concrete pavements, slab thickness
requirements are determined by the design methods of the Portland Cement Association
assuming an allowable design stress of 2.75 MPa for the concrete. For flexible
pavements, thickness requirements are determined by the CBR design method of the
FAA assuming 10,000 load repetitions. ACN varies with pavement subgrade strength
and ACN values are published for four levels of subgrade strength: high, medium, low
and ultra low. Computer programs for ACN calculation are provided by ICAO and are
available from other industry sources.
Figure 5.03 details the PCN coding of pavement structures. The numerical value of PCN
contained in the PCN code may be determined from Figure 5.04, using the pavement
- 5.14 -
Pavement Classification Number (PCN) Coding
Example PCN Code :
PCN 60 / F / B / X / T
code indicating evaluation method

code indicating maximum allowable tire pressure
code indicating subgrade strength category
code indicating pavement type
pavement classification number indicating maximum size of aircraft
pre-authorized to operate on the pavement
Pavement Classification Numbers:
See text for explanation, and Figure 5.04 for PCN value determination.
See aircraft data for corresponding Aircraft Classification Numbers (ACNs).
Pavement Type Codes:
F - flexible pavement
R - rigid pavement
Subgrade Strength Category Codes: Flexible Pavement CBR Rigid Pavement k (MPa)
Typical Range Typical Range
A - high strength 15 > 13 150 > 120

B - medium strength 10 8 to 13 80 60 to 120
C - low strength 6 4 to 8 40 25 to 60
D - ultra low strength 3 <4 20 < 25
Maximum Tire Pressure Codes:
W - high, no pressure limit

X - medium, pressure limited to 1.50 MPa
Y - low, pressure limited to 1.00 MPa
Z - very low, pressure limited to 0.50 MPa
Evaluation Method Codes:
T - technical evaluation: representing a quantitative study of pavement characteristics and

application of pavement behaviour technology.
U - using experience: based on aircraft currently using the pavement without problem.
Figure 5.03 : ICAO PAVEMENT STRENGTH REPORTING SYSTEM
- 5.15 -
ICAO Subgrade Strength Category

D C B A
2000
100 Flexible Pavements
1800 90
Example PCN Determination

80 For a pavement with strength
1600 70 parameters: S = 100 kN
60 t = 950 mm
Plot point (S,t) as shown
1400 50 PCN = 60
40 ICAO subgrade strength code = C
1200
30
1000
20
800 PCN
120
600 10 100
80
PCN
400 60
40
200
0 20
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
D C B A
550
120 Rigid Pavements
500 110
10
100 PCN
90
P.C. Concrete Slab Thickness h mm
450 120
80 110
70 100
400 90
60 80
350 50 70
60
40
300 50
30 40
250 Example PCN Determination 30
20 For a pavement with strength
200 parameters: k = 110 MPa/m
h = 375 mm 20
Plot point (k,h) as shown
10
150 PCN = 77
10
ICAO subgrade strength code = B
PCN
100
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Bearing Modulus k MPa/m
Figure 5.04 : PCN DETERMINATION
- 5.16 -
strength parametric values. Table 5.01 gives suggested ratings for maximum tire
pressure. If a traffic route (runway, taxiway, apron) contains a number of different
pavement structures, only the controlling PCN code should be reported for the entire
route. If measured data are not available, pavement load ratings can be based on
experience by selecting the most critical aircraft currently operating at the airport with no
problems evident, and assigning the ACN of the aircraft as pavement PCN.
Pavement load ratings and PCN codes can be presented in the form of an airfield
pavement load rating chart as shown in Figure 5.05. The load and tire pressure ratings
indicated on the chart are not intended as absolute loading limits that cannot be exceeded.
The ratings are intended as a relatively simple expression of loading levels at which an
engineering study should be initiated before a more critical operation is approved.
The screening of a proposed aircraft operation involves a comparison of the aircraft ACN
with the PCN values reported for the site. Using published tables, the aircraft ACN is
first determined for the pavement structure type and subgrade strength category reported
in the PCN code. If ACN exceeds PCN, a more detailed engineering study should be
initiated to assess the potential impact of overload operations. A slightly more accurate
screening procedure is to perform the ACN/PCN comparison graphically as shown in
Figure 5.06. The evaluation of overload operations is outlined in the chapter on structural
design and evaluation in terms of overload ratios.
Proposed operations should also be examined in some detail if the aircraft tire pressure
exceeds the level indicated in the load rating chart. Tire pressures in excess of those
indicated in Table 5.01 should be acceptable if the pavement surface is in a basically
sound condition and overload ratios are not excessive. Cautionary measures may be
required if the surface is in poor condition or if overload ratio is in the marginal range.
Table 5.01 : Tire Pressure Ratings

Asphalt Crushed Granular Base Course Thickness (mm)
Thickness
(mm) 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
50
55 Restricted to 0.5 MPa
60 (Code Z)
65
70
75
80
85 Restricted to 1.0 MPa
90 (Code Y)
95
100
105
110 No Restriction
115 (Code W)
120
125
Note: No tire pressure restriction for concrete pavements
- 5.17 -
AIRPORT : DATE : March 1993

REGION : Western SITE NO : W120
OPERATOR : Municipality TEL : 403-519-2570
11
25
07
A
II
B A
I
0 250 500
scale - metres
A
07 - 25 1890 x 60 m
29
11 - 29 1980 x 60 m
AREA LOAD RATING TIRE PRESSURE ICAO CLASSIFICATION CODE

10 none 54/F/C/---MPa/T
11 none 71/R/C---MPa/T
8 1.0 MPa 38/F/D/1.0MPa/T
5 0.5 MPa 12/F/C/0.5MPa/T
not evaluated
Note : Specific authorization must be obtained from the airport operator for the operation of aircraft with a load
rating or ACN value exceeding the values shown.
Figure 5.05 : PAVEMENT LOAD RATING CHART

D C B A
2000
120
100 Flexible Pavements

1800
80 ACN curve for B747-400 @ 3880 kN
1600 a) Pavement : S = 100 kN, t = 950 mm, PCN = 61
60 b) Aircraft : at S = 100 kN, ACN = 74
1400 50 Aircraft ACN exceeds pavement PCN,
detailed evaluation study required
for operation
1200 40
1000 30
PCN
800 20
120
600 100
10 80
400 60
PCN
200 40
0 20
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Figure 5.06 :
EVALUATION OF AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS BY ACN/PCN COMPARISON
- 5.18 -
5.3 SKID RESISTANCE
5.3.1 Description
Skid resistance is more critical on runways than on taxiways and aprons as the friction
developed at the tire/pavement interface is a major factor controlling stopping distance
and hence the length of runway needed for landing aircraft. The length of runway
required for take-off is also affected as the balanced field length for a rejected take-off
requires sufficient distance for the aircraft to first accelerate to decision speed, and then
decelerate to a stop. In addition, an adequate level of skid resistance is required for the
directional control of aircraft under high cross-wind conditions. Skid resistance levels
are of particular interest for runways serving jet and turbo prop aircraft having relatively
high landing and take-off speeds.
Runway skid resistance is measured in terms of the coefficient of friction between a

braking tire and the pavement surface. The measurement depends on a number of
factors, some related to characteristics of the pavement surface and others related to
characteristics of the vehicle and vehicle tires. A range of coefficients can be measured
simply by changing the conditions of measurement. Nevertheless, a comparison can be
made of the relative skid resistance of different runways if the conditions of measurement
are adequately specified and controlled. When a value is reported for runway coefficient
of friction, remember the value is relative to a particular set of measuring conditions and
does not necessarily represent the coefficient of friction developed by aircraft.
The relative value of runway skid resistance is greatly affected by surface contaminants
such as water, snow and ice, and measurements are segregated into summer and winter
periods with different methods used during each of these periods. Summer
measurements are normally made on a runway surface covered by a thin film of water
and the resulting values are referred to as the coefficient of friction measured under
normal wet conditions. Winter measurements are made on surfaces covered by ice or
compacted snow and are referred to as the coefficient of friction measured under solid
state conditions. Skid resistance measurements made during summer and winter periods
are sometimes referred to as maintenance testing and operational testing, respectively.
5.3.2 Major Factors Affecting Skid Resistance
Pavement Surface Texture
Skid resistance is very dependent on the texture of a pavement surface and texture
characteristics are referred to in terms of macrotexture and microtexture. Macrotexture
refers to the coarse scale roughness or unevenness of the pavement surface created by the
hills and valleys formed by aggregate particles. The hills formed by individual
aggregate particles project above a thin film of water into contact with the tire. With
thicker films of water, the valleys between aggregate particles provide an escape route
for water trapped beneath the tire.
- 5.19 -
good microtexture
goo , good macrotexture
d mic
rote
xtur
e, poo
Coefficient of Friction
rm
acro
text
u re
poo poor microte
rm xture, good
icro macrotextu
te xtur re
e, poo
rm
acro
text
ure
Slip Speed
Figure 5.07 : EFFECT OF SURFACE TEXTURE ON SKID RESISTANCE
Microtexture refers to the fine scale sharpness of the edges and surface of individual
aggregate particles. It may not be visible but should be apparent to the touch.
Microtexture enables a tire to break through the residual water film remaining after the
bulk of the water has been displaced, leaving points of dry contact between the tire and
aggregate particle.
Figure 5.07 illustrates the general effect of macrotexture and microtexture on pavement
skid resistance under wet conditions. Microtexture has a predominate influence at low
speeds. Macrotexture controls the rate of decay of skid resistance with increasing slip
speed between tire and the pavement surface.
Figure 5.08 illustrates the measurement of surface texture depth by the sand patch
method. In this test procedure, a known volume of sand is placed on the pavement
surface, and spread in a circular pattern using a straightedge so the sand fills the valleys
between the aggregate particles. The average texture depth is determined by dividing the
volume by the area of the spread sand. Pavement surface texture having an average depth
0.2 mm to 0.3 mm is usually attained with standard construction practices. Provided
traffic is not heavy, minor ravelling causes asphalt surfaces to increase in texture depth
with age, as illustrated in Figure 5.09.
Under heavy traffic, tire spin-up and braking may cause wear and polish in the wheel
paths of runway touch-down zones, with a resulting decease in texture and skid
resistance. Shot blasting, as described in the chapter on maintenance and restoration,
may be used to improve the texture of worn and polished surfaces providing an
inadequate level of skid resistance under wet conditions.
- 5.20 -
container PROCEDURE
volume V
V to be in range of 1. Clean the surface to be tested.
15,000 to 25,000 mm 3
2. Place the container on the surface as shown,
and fill with sand:
- tap sides of container to settle sand
sand - strike off top with flat edge
grain size
300 m to 150 m 3. Remove the container and spread the sand
in a circular area using a straight edge.
4. Spread until texture 'valleys' are filled

and sand is level with 'peaks'.
diameter D 5. Measure diameter of sand patch and
calculate:
average texture depth = 4 V / D2
Figure 5.08 : TEXTURE DEPTH MEASUREMENT by SAND PATCH
- 5.21 -
1.0
Notes: - measurements made at Canadian airports on asphalt pavements not subject to wear and polish
- each point shown is the average of measurements on a number of runways
- total number of observations = 966
Average Texture Depth - mm
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Age of Asphalt Surface - years
Figure 5.09 : AVERAGE TEXTURE DEPTH vs AGE OF ASPHALT SURFACE
Surface Contaminates
Bare and dry pavement surfaces almost always provide adequate skid resistance and
surface contaminates are generally the reason for inadequate skid resistance. Snow, ice
and slush are the contaminants causing poor skid resistance during winter. Water is the
primary contaminant causing low skid resistance during summer, usually in combination
with other contaminates or poor surface texture. Water acts as a lubricant at the
tire/pavement interface and promotes hydroplaning if present in films of sufficient
thickness.
The detrimental effects of water on a pavement surface are magnified by other

contaminates that depress or eliminate surface texture. The most common of these
contaminates is the rubber deposited during wheel spin-up in runway touchdown zones.
The build-up of rubber occurring on heavily trafficked runways may require a
maintenance program of periodic rubber removal. Studies at Canadian airports have
suggested runways require an annual rubber removal program when landings by large jet
aircraft exceed 7500 per year (20 per day average). Runways with landings in the order
of 5000 to 7500 per year may experience reduced levels of deterioration and may need
rubber removal on a less frequent basis.
Surface paint effects skid resistance in a manner similar to rubber deposits and the
amount of paint used for surface markings should be kept to a minimum. In particular,
striated line rather than solid block painting should be used for centreline markings.
Bitumen applied to a pavement surface as a fog seal without the addition of mineral
aggregate also degrades surface microtexture properties and acts as a lubricant. Fog seals
are sometimes promoted as a method of rejuvenating pavement surfaces but, in most
instances, they should not be used on runways due to the detrimental effect on skid
resistance.
- 5.22 -
100
Vancouver Airport Runway 08-26
Runway Average Coefficient of Friction. Weekly Coefficient of Friction Measurements During Summer of 1986
90
(normal wet)
80
70
Coefficient of Friction measured under
normal wet conditions decreases during
dry period due to engine exhaust deposits
on the runway surface.
60
0
(mm - log scale)
Rainfall
10
100
22 29 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 31 7 14 21 28 5 12 19 26 2 9
July Aug Sept Oct
Figure 5.10 : EFFECT OF RAIN-DAYS ON RUNWAY SKID RESISTANCE
On heavily trafficked runways, surface deposits from engine exhaust can build up over a
prolonged dry period and these deposits promote slippery conditions during the initial
stages of rain following the dry period. This effect is shown in Figure 5.10, which is a
plot of skid resistance measurements made on a major runway at weekly intervals over a
summer period that included a two month dry spell.
Tires
The coefficient of friction developed between a braking tire and a wet pavement surface
depends on a number of factors related to tire characteristics. One of these characteristics
is the tire tread pattern and it is common knowledge a bald tire is much more susceptible
to skidding than a tire with a grooved tread. Tire tread pattern serves the same purpose as
pavement surface macrotexture. It increases effective contact pressure at the
tire/pavement interface and provides an avenue of escape for water trapped beneath the
tire.
Some different types of test tire are shown in the photo below. The standard test tire is
specified in ASTM E1551 and is manufactured from synthetic rubber, has a smooth tread
and is inflated to 0.21 MPa. A second test tire is similar to the standard ASTM test tire
except for a ribbed tread. The AERO high pressure test tire is manufactured from natural
rubber, has a ribbed tread and is inflated to 0.69 MPa. Figure 5.11 shows a comparison
of coefficient of friction values measured with the ASTM tire, the high pressure tire and a
commercially available trailer tire. The commercial trailer tire gives higher readings than
- 5.23 -
1.0
runway average runway average
low 100 m low 100 m
C.O.F. - Standard (Bald) ASTM E1551 Test Tire
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1
1
1:
1:
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Commercial Trailer Tire - Coefficient of Friction - High Pressure Test Tire
Figure 5.11 : COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF FRICTION TEST TIRE
- 5.24 -
the standard ASTM tire due to a ribbed tread and possibly due to a harder rubber. The
high pressure test tire gives lower readings due to the softer rubber composition.
Major differences between two test tires can exist even when the tires are of the same
manufacture, unless the manufacturing process is tightly controlled. Consequently, all
test tires should be subject to calibration testing at the beginning and end of a testing
season.
Wheel Slip Ratio and Slip Speed
Wheel slip ratio is a measure of the degree of braking and is defined as:
Slip Ratio (%) = 100 (1- wheel peripheral speed / wheel centre speed)
An unbraked, free rolling wheel has a peripheral speed equal to the vehicle speed and the
slip ratio is zero percent. A fully locked wheel has zero peripheral speed and the slip
ratio is 100%. Slip speed, or the speed at which the tire is skidding over the pavement
surface, is equal to vehicle speed times the slip ratio.
The coefficient of friction developed at the tire/pavement interface depends on the wheel
slip ratio and slip speed, as illustrated in Figure 5.12. During wheel lock-up, as the slip
ratio increases from zero to 100%, maximum friction is developed when the wheel slip
ratio is in the order of 10% to 30%. Large modern aircraft have automated braking
systems designed to cycle about a slip ratio giving maximum friction. Similar ABS
equipment has been incorporated into automobiles. Continuously recording friction
measuring devices generally operate with the test wheel at a slip ratio in the vicinity of
the ratio giving maximum friction.
full skid C.O.F. developed by vehicle as slip speed decreases

fmax
Coefficient of Friction
Maximum coefficient of friction occurs in a slip ratio range of about 10% to 30%
depending on conditions at the sliding interface; in lower part of the range for
bare and dry surfaces, and at a higher slip ratio for snow covered surfaces.
C.O.F at full skid depends on

rate of rise increases with pavement surface macrotexture
hardness of tire rubber and vehicle speed
0 20 40 60 80 100
free wheel rotation locked wheel
Wheel Slip Ratio (%)
Figure 5.12 : EFFECT OF WHEEL SLIP RATIO ON SKID RESISTANCE
- 5.25 -
5.3.3 Summer Measurement (Normal Wet State)
Monitoring Frequency
The skid resistance of runways should be measured during the summer period at least
once annually if the runway receives more than 5000 large jet aircraft movements yearly.
The testing of other runways serving jet aircraft is required only if visual evidence
suggests the need or if complaints are received. A major objective of friction monitoring
is to identify those runways needing a rubber removal program and to determine the
required frequency of rubber removal. Once identified, rubber removal requirements
remain relatively static from year to year.
Certain situations may dictate a special requirement for measurement. For example,
measurements may be desirable immediately following rubber removal to evaluate the
effectiveness of the removal technique employed, or to check for wear and polish of the
underlying surface. Another example is the visual identification of excess bitumen on a
runway surface as might result from a fog seal or bleeding asphalt. Friction measurement
is also needed if an aircraft incidence occurs and inadequate skid resistance may be a
possible contributory cause.
Equipment
Summer skid resistance measurement should utilize equipment continuously recording

the coefficient of friction generated between a pavement surface and a partially braked
tire. A number of devices are available for this purpose. The device used should
incorporate apparatus to spray water on the pavement surface to create a film of water of
specified depth in front of the test tire. The water film depth specified for testing in the
normal wet state ranges from 0.5 mm to 1 mm.
The test equipment should be periodically calibrated against a standard test unit to
promote test results consistent with other test devices. Test tires, in particular, require
certification testing to ensure consistency of measurement. The certification consists of
comparing measurements by the test tire against the measurements of reference tires
reserved for the calibration process. Table 5.02 gives example results from some
calibration trials. If retained for a testing program, a testing agency should satisfy the
Airport Authority as to calibration and certification of their equipment and test tires.
Another type of friction testing device is the British Pendulum. This device gives a spot
measurement and conditions of test are substantially different from those of a braking
tire. Nevertheless, measurements by a British Pendulum tester can be used for relative
comparisons and the device is particularly useful for making friction measurements in the
laboratory.
- 5.26 -
- 5.27 -
Table 5.02 : Example of Test Tire Calibration Results
Tire Co eff icien t of Fr iction

Nu mb er Pre-Season Po st-Season
Rn y Low Rn y Low
Avg 100m Avg 100m
Ref. #1 80 46 84 38
Ref. #2 79 44 83 37
93-01 81 47 82 38
93-02 92 51 94 47
93-03 82 45 83 35
93-04 91 51 93 46
93-05 80 45 80 32
93-06 83 47 80 34
93-07 82 45 82 38
No tes: a) Tr ia ls condu cted at Mir abel, Rny 01-19 , u s ing SAAB SFT #2
b) Tir es 93-02 and 93-04 r ej ected du e to h igh read ing s
c) No wear on tir e 93 -07
Procedure
Figure 5.13 gives a procedure for measuring runway skid resistance. The procedure
involves testing under normal wet conditions at a constant test speed of 65 km/hr. Four
runs are made along the length of the runway; two runs each at offsets of 3 m right and
3 m left of centreline. The procedure outlined was used by Transport Canada at Canadian
airports, and is based on Surface Friction Tester (SFT) apparatus. Some modification of
procedure may be required for other testing devices.
run #1 3m left CL
run #2 3m right CL
low high
leave 200m each end for acceleration/deceleration
end end
run #3 3m left CL
run #4 3m right CL
1. Use a continuous friction measuring vehicle or trailer. The equipment should measure
friction at a test tire slip ratio in the 10% to 20% range. The equipment should be calibrated
against a national standard testing device.
2. Use a smooth-faced (bald), calibrated test tire meeting ASTM E1551, inflated to 0.21 MPa.
3. Testing to be conducted when the runway surface is dry, or no more than slightly damp.
4. Make four test runs along the length runway in the pattern shown above.
5. Spray water to a depth of 0.5 mm on the runway surface in front of the test wheel.
6. Maintain a constant test speed of 65 km/h throughout the test run.
Figure 5.13 : SKID RESISTANCE TEST PROCEDURE
- 5.28 -
Results
The testing apparatus should provide a coefficient of friction profile for the runway as
illustrated in Figure 5.14. The example shown was chosen to illustrate a friction profile
obtained on a runway experiencing significant rubber deposits in the touchdown zone.
The runway in this example requires a rubber removal program. The test results should
also be compiled as shown in Table 5.03 to provide average coefficient of friction values
for 100 m segments along the length of the runway.
ICAO recommends member States publish standards with respect to runway skid
resistance. In Canada, the standards are presented in Aerodrome Standards and
Recommended Practices published by the Aerodrome Safety Branch of Transport
Canada. The latest edition of this document should be consulted for current standards.
Table 5.04 gives a typical statement of standards.
Airport: example Run: 1 Date: 15/07/1984

Runway: 16-34 Offset: 3mL Temperature: 20C
100
90
Coefficient of Friction (x 100) (Normal Wet State)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
area of area of
rubber build-up rubber build-up
10
0
5+000 6+000 7+000 8+000 9+000
Runway Chainage (m)
Figure 5.14 : RUNWAY SKID RESISTANCE PROFILE
- 5.29 -
Table 5.03 : Tabulation of Runway Skid Resistance
Airport: example Runway: 06R 24L Date: 16/06/92

Weather: partial cloud Temperature: 20C Wind: SW, 10 km/h
Test Unit: SAAB SFT Unit #2 Test Tire: ASTM 92-15 Test Speed: 65 km/h
Chainage Coefficient of Friction

From To Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 Average
5+200 5+300 0.81 0.78 0.77 0.86 0.81

5+300 5+400 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.78 0.73
5+400 5+500 0.69 0.71 0.69 0.76 0.71
5+500 5+600 0.65 0.69 0.64 0.78 0.69
5+600 5+700 0.68 0.73 0.71 0.76 0.72
5+700 5+800 0.68 0.66 0.72 0.62 0.67
5+800 5+900 0.59 0.55 0.66 0.63 0.61
5+900 6+000 0.67 0.65 0.69 0.68 0.67
6+000 6+100 0.72 0.71 0.75 0.71 0.72
6+100 6+200 0.74 0.72 0.78 0.75 0.75
6+200 6+300 0.73 0.77 0.75 0.76 0.75
6+300 6+400 0.71 0.77 0.75 0.77 0.75
6+400 6+500 0.75 0.71 0.75 0.76 0.74
6+500 6+600 0.66 0.69 0.67 0.74 0.69
6+600 6+700 0.73 0.68 0.78 0.70 0.72
6+700 6+800 0.61 0.66 0.65 0.69 0.65
6+800 6+900 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.64
6+900 7+000 0.51 0.59 0.54 0.61 0.56
7+000 7+100 0.60 0.65 0.59 0.67 0.63
7+100 7+200 0.69 0.65 0.75 0.71 0.70
7+200 7+300 0.66 0.65 0.69 0.73 0.68
7+300 7+400 0.61 0.71 0.65 0.72 0.67
7+400 7+500 0.56 0.70 0.62 0.70 0.65
7+500 7+600 0.61 0.74 0.66 0.75 0.69
7+600 7+700 0.73 0.85 0.66 0.82 0.77
Remarks: Rubber deposits removed 10/06/92 Runway Average : 0.69

Surface is relatively clean
Lowest 100 m Section : 0.56
Tests also conducted with HP tire
Runway Average Low 100 m Section

Maintenance Guidelines
ASTM Tire HP Tire ASTM Tire HP Tire
Program Corrective Action < 0.60 < 0.50 < 0.40 < 0.35
Take Corrective Action < 0.50 < 0.45 < 0.30 < 0.25
- 5.30 -
Table 5.04 :
Example Listing of Runway Skid Resistance Standards

(Normal Wet State)
1. No action is required when a measured runway coefficient of friction is above 0.60.
2. Corrective action shall be programmed when:

(a) the average coefficient of friction of a runway is below 0.60.
(b) any area of a runway surface 100 m or greater in length has an average coefficient
of friction less than 0.50.
3. Aircraft operators shall be advised and corrective action shall be taken when the average
coefficient of friction of a runway is below 0.50.
4. Corrective action shall be taken when a local area of a runway surface 100 m or greater
in length has an average coefficient of friction less than 0.30
Notes:
(a) Refer to publications of the Aerodrome Safety Branch of Transport Canada for the most recent listing of Canadian
runway skid resistance standards.
(b) Listed coefficient of friction values apply to measurements with the standard SAAB SFT vehicle using ASTM
specified test tires. Values may vary if testing is with other devices or test tires.
5.3.4 Winter Measurement (Solid State)
Monitoring Frequency
Major deterioration of runway skid resistance can occur in a relatively short period
during snowstorms and under freezing rain conditions. Skid resistance must be
monitored frequently during such periods to keep pilots advised of the operational state
of the runway surface. More specifically, operational friction testing during winter
should be undertaken:
at least once every 8 hour shift if ice or snow cover more than 10% of the central
width of the runway;
if pilot reports or visual inspection suggest surface conditions may be changing;
after sanding or the application of anti-icing/deicing chemical;
if an incident occurs where runway surface condition may be a factor;
Equipment
Winter friction measurements are usually made with a relatively inexpensive,

deceleration measuring device installed on the floor of an airport maintenance vehicle.
The device measures deceleration as the vehicle is braked to a locked-wheel condition on
a snow- or ice-covered surface. This deceleration depends primarily on the friction
developed between the vehicle tires and the surface. It should be noted skid resistance of
- 5.31 -
runway surfaces covered by ice or compacted snow is predominately influenced by the

characteristics of the ice or snow surface, and other variables such as vehicle tire
characteristics and speed have much less effect. Consequently, details of the measuring
equipment are less important than when measurements are made on bare pavement
surfaces.
The original deceleration type of friction measuring device was the James Brake
Decelerometer and the measurement was commonly referred to as the James Brake Index
(JBI). The James Brake Decelerometer was subsequently replaced with the Tapley meter
or the Bowmonk meter. More recently, electronic recording decelerometers have been
developed that record the deceleration profile and remove artificial peaking of
deceleration resulting from vehicle pitching when the brakes are first applied. Although
the equipment has changed, the measurement is still frequently called the JBI reading.
The term Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) is also used.
The vehicle in which the decelerometer is installed may be an intermediate or full-sized

sedan or station wagon, or a utility passenger/cargo truck. The vehicle should be in good
mechanical condition, have a mass between 1000 and 2000 kg, and ballasted, if
necessary, to achieve a front to rear axle weight distribution between 60/40 and 48/52.
Front-wheel and rear-wheel drive systems are both acceptable, but not an anti-lock
braking system (ABS). ABS equipped vehicles must have the ABS disabled while
friction measurements are made. All four tires must be of the same type, properly
inflated and replaced when wear exceed 75 %. Equipment calibration should be checked
on a tilt table each testing season.
- 5.32 -
Test Procedure
Friction measurements with vehicle deceleration meters should be performed only on

runway surfaces covered with ice, slush on ice, compacted snow, or loose dry snow not
exceeding 25 mm in thickness. The equipment is not suitable for measurements on bare
pavement surfaces as the abrupt deceleration causes difficulties for the vehicle operator
and equipment wear is significant.
Test procedures require the test vehicle to be fully braked from a speed of 50 km/h.
Measurements are made along the length of the runway at intervals not exceeding 300 m
with the measurements alternating right and left of centreline in the aircraft wheel paths.
The average of the measurements is reported as the runway friction index. Areas with a
friction index significantly lower than the average should be identified separately.
Friction values less than 0.4 may be the subject of a NOTAM (notice to airmen), with
values less than 0.3 reported directly by voice advisory to inbound flights.
Braking technique is important for the repeatability of measurements, particularly for the
mechanically based Tapley and Bowmonk meters. The general instruction is to apply the
brakes increasingly firmly to smoothly arrive at a locked-wheel condition. Full skid
need be held only briefly but duration must be sufficient to obtain a reading of the
maximum deceleration. Braking instructions should be available in the equipment
operations manual.
5.3.5 Hydroplaning
A braking aircraft can experience hydroplaning if the water film thickness is of sufficient
depth and certain other conditions are present. During hydroplaning, aircraft tires are
lifted out of contact with the pavement surface by hydrodynamic forces generated in the
water film. The tire rides on top of the water film in a manner similar to water-skiing and
skid resistance is virtually eliminated. Hydroplaning increases stopping distance and the
possibility of over-run, and may impair aircraft directional control. Fortunately, serious
cases of hydroplaning are rare and if it occurs, hydroplaning is usually limited to a short
distance or is sporadic along the length of the runway.
Besides water film thickness, aircraft speed and tire pressure have a major influence on
hydroplaning. For the case of tires with little tread and a pavement surface with little
texture, approximate velocity required to initiate hydroplaning is given by the equation:
v = p . Eq. (5.1)
where v = hydroplaning initiation velocity (km/h)

p = tire pressure (MPa)
= a constant, approximately equal to 200 if the aircraft wheels are spun up,
or 170 if the wheels of a landing aircraft are not yet spun up
However, real situations are complex as the initiation velocity and water film thickness
required for hydroplaning also depend on tire tread and pavement surface macrotexture.
Once initiated, hydroplaning may continue at a lower than initiation velocity.
- 5.33 -
The results of normal wet skid resistance tests should not be confused with hydroplaning
conditions. Normal wet testing does not indicate hydroplaning potential, and if
hydroplaning occurs, skid resistance is at or near zero. At the present time, hydroplaning
potential can only be assessed subjectively by the presence of conditions promoting
hydroplaning, or from pilot reports. Runways with poor surface drainage and
macrotexture, located in areas subject to heavy rainfall, and serving frequent jet aircraft
traffic, are the prime candidates for problems. Runway surface grooving, as described in
the chapter on maintenance and restoration, is the corrective action normally undertaken
if hydroplaning potential is judged to be a problem.
5.4 RIDE QUALITY
5.4.1 Description
Measurement and evaluation of runway surface ride quality must consider two
characteristics of the runway profile: maximum bump size and the average level of
profile roughness. Individual bumps of excessive magnitude may alarm passengers
during take-off or landing due to excessive g forces, or may cause an aircraft to become
prematurely airborne during take-off. Structural damage to aircraft is also a possibility in
the event of a very severe bump. Excessive average roughness levels may cause
passenger discomfort, cockpit instrument vibration and interference with aircraft control.
Ride quality deteriorates with the age of a pavement due to differential heaving or
settlements of the pavement structure, or to distortion or breakdown of the surfacing
material. Patching and localized reconstruction are maintenance measures used to correct
localized defects causing ride deficiencies. Resurfacing overlays are needed to correct
extensive ride-related deficiencies.
5.4.2 Riding Comfort Index
The most basic method of assessing ride quality is to subjectively rate the ride while
driving the pavement in an automobile. Rating is on a scale of 0 to 10, as shown in
Figure 5.15, and the measure is referred to as the Riding Comfort Index (RCI). To
promote repeatability, RCI should be establish by a panel of raters, but consistency is still
difficult to achieve between different geographical areas as the judgement of raters tends
to depend on what they are use to. In addition, RCI does not indicate the presence of
individual bumps of excessive magnitude. The ability to detected excessive individual
bumps in a runway profile by automobile is limited as aircraft respond to profile
irregularities of longer wavelength not affecting automobile ride.
Although the RCI measure represents the subjective assessment of ride quality by
automobile passengers, general experience indicates pilots judge the average level of ride
quality on runways in much the same manner. In particular, pilot complaints concerning
ride quality can be expected when the RCI of a runway surface falls below 5.0, and
complaints are almost certainly received if the RCI is below 4.0. If pilot complaints of
runway ride quality are received and RCI is at a satisfactory level, the runway profile
should be evaluated for individual bumps of excessive magnitude.
- 5.34 -
Rater: Date: Vehicle:

Rating Scale Instructions:
10
Section Ride Restoration 1. Riding Comfort Index is the average rating by a panel of 8 or more raters.
very No. Rating Needed? 2. Sections being rated should be:
good 9
- 300 to 500 m in length
1
- of relatively straight alignment
8 2 - relatively uniform in roughness throughout
3 3. The test vehicle should be a standard production, late model passenger
good 7 automobile in good mechanical repair.
4
4. Drive the test sections at a speed of 80 km/h and assign a rating to the
5 closest 0.1 value immediately after completion of the run. Rate only
6
6 comfort of ride; ignore pavement appearance, aesthetics and geometrics.
5. For guidance in rating:
fair 5 7
- new asphalt paving generally falls in the RCI range of 8.5 to 9.5
8 - pavements rated below 4.5 generally need restoration
4 9 - pavements with RCI of 2 or less may cause vehicle damage at a test
speed of 80 km/h
10 6. If possible, rate the best and the worst sections near the beginning, to
poor 3
11 establish the range of rating.
2 12
Comments:
13
very
1 14
poor
15
0
Figure 5.15 : RIDING COMFORT INDEX RATING
5.4.3 Profile Analysis Methods
A current trend is to evaluate the ride quality of runway surfaces through a computer
analysis of the runway surface profile. The use of a defined method of mathematical
analysis promotes results consistent from one geographical area to another, and ratings
unchangeable with time. The reproducibility of results therefore depends only on the
ability to measure a runway profile with a sufficient degree of accuracy.
Profile Measurement
For purposes of analysing ride characteristics, the profile of a runway is normally

measured at 3 m left or right of centreline. This offset represents the approximate main
gear wheelpath of moderately sized aircraft. Profiles along other offset lines may be
measured for special purposes, such as along centreline to determine nosewheel effects,
or at an offset of 5 or 6 m to approximate the outer gear wheelpath of wide-bodied
aircraft such as the B747. A full analysis of ride characteristics requires a profile defined
by elevations measured at an interval spacing not exceeding one-third of a metre.
Measuring runway profiles for roughness analysis requires the use of a Class I measuring
device. Quantitative definitions have been published for the Class I, Class II and Class
III profiling device categories. In general, Class I implies device measurements of
relatively high accuracy, precision and low bias. The traditional surveyor's rod-and-level
is Class I profile measuring equipment and is usually the standard against which other
devices are ultimately compared. However, traditional rod-and-level methods are too
slow for other than short profile lengths.
The DipStick is a relatively inexpensive Class I profiling device initially marketed during
the 1980s. The device first made feasible the profiling of runways to a detail and
accuracy sufficient for ride quality analysis. The DipStick is essentially a level supported
- 5.35 -
on legs spaced at 300 mm and the read-out gives the difference in elevation of the
pavement surface at the two points of contact. The device is then swivelled 180 degrees
about the front support leg and the difference in surface elevation is determined for the
next 300 mm. The DipStick is 'walked' down the runway in this fashion and, on
completion, the differences in elevation at 300 mm intervals are summed to determine the
profile.
- 5.36 -
Although relatively slow, DipStick profiling is still suitable for many situations. Rolling
profilers, such as the ARRB Walking Profiler shown in the photo, are similar to the
DipStick, but productivity is higher. Other versions of Class I profiling devices are being
developed. The Auto Rod & Level shown in the photo has been used for runway
profiling at some airports although measurement accuracy does not qualify for Class I
status.
Profile Evaluation of Individual Bumps
Individual bumps are measured as the deviation from a straight line joining two points on
the profile, as illustrated in Figure 5.16. The magnitude of allowable deviation is a
function of the distance over which the deviation occurs, increasing as the base length of
the bump increases. Figure 5.16 gives criteria defining the magnitude of deviations
considered acceptable, undesirable, excessive and unacceptable.
Construction criteria for profile deviations should be considerably less than the
operational criteria given in Figure 5.16 to allow for age-related increases in roughness.
Common construction criteria widely used in the past require newly paved surface
deviations not exceed 3 mm under a 3 m straightedge for roadways, or 6 mm under a
4.5 m straightedge for airfield pavements.
160
Boeing Aircraft Company
140 Individual Bump Criteria
120
Bump Height H (mm)
100 unacceptable
80 excessive
60 undesirable
40 Bump Definition
acceptable
L L
20
construction standards H H
maximum deviation
from straight edge
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Bump Length L (m)
Figure 5.16 : INDIVIDUAL BUMP CRITERIA
- 5.37 -
Profile Roughness Indices
A number of indices may be computed from a runway profile to measure the average
level of roughness. Two commonly used indices are defined in Figure 5.17. The Root
Mean Square Vertical Acceleration (RMSVA) is a measure of the average square of
deviations from a 3 m straightedge. The International Roughness Index (IRI) utilizes a
quarter-car model (a mass supported on a single tire through a spring/shock suspension
system) and IRI is the computed accumulated vertical movement between the sprung and
unsprung mass of the model, per unit distance of simulated travel over the profile.
Computed values of RMSVA and IRI can be converted to equivalent RCI values through
the correlations given in Figure 5.18, and the two RCI values should then be averaged to
represent the level of profile roughness. Table 5.05 is an example tabulation of ride
quality determined from the analysis of a runway profile.
Aircraft Simulation
The individual bump criteria in Figure 5.16 are based on limiting the vertical acceleration
experienced by aircraft to a value of less than approximately 0.4 g's during a take-off or
landing. However, for a given bump, the vertical accelerations experienced depend on
the aircraft type involved. Response also depends on aircraft velocity when the bump is
encountered, which in turn depends on the location of the bump along the take-off or
landing roll of the aircraft.
The mathematical simulation of aircraft response to a runway profile provides a more

precise evaluation of individual bumps in the profile. Proprietary computer software is
available for these computations. The runway profile data needed as input is the same as
previously described and the software computes the vertical acceleration forces
experienced by various types of aircraft during a take-off or landing operation. Another
program computes peak g forces experienced while the aircraft transverses the pavement
at different constant speeds, and derives an aircraft Ride Quality Index (RQI) from these
values.
5.4.4 Roughness Measuring Devices
Several devices giving various measures of pavement ride quality are available. These
devices usually have significant limitations and their measurements normally reflect only
the average level of ride quality. However, the Class I profiling devices currently
available are too slow for monitoring ride quality on extensive road networks and their
use may not be compatible with heavily trafficked airport runways where access time is
severely limited. High-speed ride quality measurement devices may be usefully
employed under such circumstances.
Inertial profilometers are high-speed profiling devices utilizing a bumper-mounted

platform to carry a laser or acoustic equipment measuring distance from the platform to
the pavement surface, and an accelerometer (signal double integrated) tracking elevation
of the platform. When combined, these measurements give a profile but accuracy is
limited to Class II or Class III levels.
- 5.38 -
Root Mean Square Vertical Acceleration International Roughness Index
b b Parameters sprung
1.5m 1.5 m mass mS
mU
mS = 0.15 (--)
kS cS
kT -2
mS = 653 (s ) unsprung Z
mass mU
y (i-k) kS -2 X
mS = 63.3 (s )
y (i+k)
y (i) cS -1
mS = 6.0 (s ) kT
n-k
2 IRI Quater-Car Model
A(i)
RMSVA = Equations of motion:
i = k+1
mSzS + cS (zS - zU) + kS (zS - zU) = 0
n - 2k
mUzU - cS (zS - zU) - kS (zS - zU) + kT (zU - zP) = 0
A(i) = { y (i+k) + y (i-k) - 2 y (i) } / b2
International Roughness Index, IRI, is the accumulated displacement
between the sprung and unsprung masses, per unit distance of travel.
where:

L/V
1
| zS - zU | dt
i.e: IRI =
RMSVA = root mean square vertical acceleration L 0
where:
(base length b) (mm/m2)
zS = vertical displacement of the sprung mass
A(i) = vertical acceleration at profile point i zU = vertical displacement of the unsprung mass
n = number of elevation points in the profile zP = vertical displacement of the profile
i = index, designating ith profile elevation measure mS = sprung mass
k = b / dx mU = unsprung mass
dx = distance between elevation points cS = suspension damping constant time t is related to longitudinal
b = base length used (m) (1.5 m preferred) kS = suspension spring constant distance x by t = x/V
y(i) = elevation at profile point i kT = tire spring constant time derivatives are designated

V = forward velocity of the vehicle by a dot (e.g. zs)
L = length of profile traveled
Figure 5.17 : RIDE QUALITY INDICES

10
RCI = 10 e-0.255 IRI RCI = 10 e-0.366 RMSVA
9
8
Riding Comfort Index RCI
2
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
International Roughness Index Root Mean Square Vertical Acceleration
IRI (mm/m) RMSVA (mm/m2)
Figure 5.18 : RCI vs IRI and RMSVA
- 5.39 -
Table 5.05 : Tabulation of Runway Ride Quality
Airport : example Date of Profiling : June 1992

Runway : 06R 24L Profiling Method : DipStick
3 m Left of Centreline 3 m Right of Centreline Runway

Chainage
Average Average Average
From To IRI / RCI MVA / RCI IRI / RCI MVA / RCI
RCI RCI RCI
5+200 5+300 1.75 / 6.4 1.12 / 6.6 6.5 1.41 / 7.0 0.94 / 7.1 7.1 6.8
5+300 5+400 1.81 / 6.3 1.26 / 6.3 6.3 1.67 / 6.5 1.23 / 6.4 6.5 6.4
5+400 5+500 1.74 / 6.4 1.20 / 6.4 6.4 1.69 / 6.5 1.26 / 6.3 6.4 6.4
5+500 5+600 1.86 / 6.2 1.42 / 6.0 6.1 1.63 / 6.6 1.15 / 6.5 6.6 6.3
5+600 5+700 1.88 / 6.2 1.26 / 6.3 6.3 1.48 / 6.8 1.06 / 6.8 6.8 6.5
5+700 5+800 2.05 / 5.9 1.43 / 5.9 5.9 2.01 / 6.0 1.34 / 6.1 6.1 6.0
5+800 5+900 3.22 / 4.4 2.00 / 4.8 4.6 2.60 / 5.1 1.90 / 5.0 5.1 4.8
5+900 6+000 3.15 / 4.5 1.95 / 4.9 4.7 2.74 / 5.0 1.93 / 4.9 5.0 4.8
6+000 6+100 3.30 / 4.3 2.16 / 4.5 4.4 2.79 / 4.9 2.06 / 4.7 4.8 4.6
6+100 6+200 3.35 / 4.3 2.33 / 4.3 4.3 2.83 / 4.9 2.10 / 4.6 4.8 4.5
6+200 6+300 3.20 / 4.4 2.42 / 4.1 4.3 3.11 / 4.5 2.04 / 4.7 4.6 4.4
6+300 6+400 3.23 / 4.4 2.11 / 4.6 4.5 2.77 / 5.0 1.80 / 5.1 5.1 4.8
6+400 6+500 3.16 / 4.5 2.14 / 4.6 4.6 2.89 / 4.8 2.02 / 4.7 4.8 4.7
6+500 6+600 3.22 / 4.4 2.13 / 4.6 4.5 3.07 / 4.6 2.00 / 4.8 4.7 4.6
6+600 6+700 3.04 / 4.6 2.00 / 4.8 4.7 3.02 / 4.6 2.11 / 4.6 4.6 4.7
6+700 6+800 2.98 / 4.7 2.10 / 4.6 4.7 3.14 / 4.5 2.27 / 4.4 4.5 4.6
6+800 6+900 3.13 / 4.5 2.29 / 4.3 4.4 2.76 / 4.9 2.19 / 4.5 4.7 4.6
6+900 7+000 3.37 / 4.3 2.32 / 4.3 4.3 2.90 / 4.8 1.91 / 4.9 4.9 4.6
7+000 7+100 1.85 / 6.2 1.44 / 5.9 6.0 1.75 / 6.4 1.01 / 6.9 6.7 6.4
7+100 7+200 1.65 / 6.6 1.11 / 6.6 6.6 1.47 / 6.9 0.88 / 7.2 7.1 6.8
7+200 7+300 1.47 / 6.9 1.10 / 6.7 6.8 1.45 / 6.9 1.00 / 6.9 6.9 6.9
7+300 7+400 1.67 / 6.6 1.20 / 6.4 6.5 1.52 / 6.8 1.11 / 6.7 6.8 6.6
7+400 7+500 1.50 / 6.8 1.05 / 6.8 6.8 1.26 / 7.2 0.96 / 7.1 7.2 7.0
7+500 7+600 1.55 / 6.7 1.12 / 6.6 6.7 1.34 / 7.1 0.84 / 7.3 7.2 6.9
7+600 7+700 1.64 / 6.6 1.14 / 6.6 6.6 1.21 / 7.3 0.86 / 7.3 7.3 7.0
Remarks: Joint stepping prevalent throughout the Runway Average : 5.7

central portion of runway length. Lowest 100 m Section : 4.4
Jet Aircraft Propeller Aircraft

Restoration Guidelines
Runway Taxi Runway Taxi
Desirable < 5.0 < 4.0 < 4.0 < 3.0
Program < 4.0 < 3.5 < 3.0 < 3.0
- 5.40 -
Devices based on recording some aspect of vehicle response to pavement roughness are
widely used, such as the PURD unit which utilizes a vertical acceleration sensor mounted
on a trailer axle to measure ride quality. Another type of vehicle response device, the
Mays meter, records the relative vertical movement between the body and the axle of the
vehicle in which it is mounted. The calibration of vehicle response meters should be
checked frequently as measurements are altered by changes to the vehicle's suspension
system, as may result from maintenance greasing, tire pressure adjustment or wear to
shocks. The calibration of vehicle response meters tends to be more stable when the
device is mounted in a trailer rather than an automobile or truck.
The US Bureau of Public Roads Roughometer has been in use for many years and is the
approximate physical equivalent of the simulated quarter-car model used for IRI
calculation. The Roughometer is a one-wheeled trailer with the wheel supporting a mass
through a spring/shock suspension system. The Roughometer accumulates the relative
vertical movements occurring between the axle of the wheel and the supported mass as
the unit is towed behind a vehicle during a test run.
Manually-operated straightedge type profilometers are available in various

configurations. A notable device in this category is the California Profilograph which has
been frequently used for construction quality control purposes. The California
Profilograph records and accumulates profile deviations from a straightedge formed by a
metal truss frame about 7.5 m in length and supported on a wheel assembly at each end.
Profilometers of this type give highly filtered and distorted versions of actual profiles.
These roughness measurement devices give measurements susceptible to change from

time to time depending on the condition of the device and other operational variables, and
the measurements of one device can be compared to those of another only if correlations
are established between their measurements. Also, the type of device used by an
organization tends to change over the years as better devices become available.
Comparisons between current measurements and the measurements of previous years
may be difficult unless a constant base of measurement is maintained. RCI is a
convenient constant base of measurement and to be utilized as such, roughness
measurement devices should be calibrated as follows:
Establish 10 to 20 pavement sections ranging from good to poor in riding
characteristics. The sections should be 300 to 500 m in length, have straight
alignment, and present uniform ride characteristics throughout the section.
Measure the profiles of these sections using a Class I profiling device. Compute
RMSVA and IRI values, convert to equivalent RCI values using the relationships of
Figure 5.18, and average the two RCI values.
Measure the ride quality of each section using the device and correlate the device
measurement against the RCI value.
The correlation may be used to convert device measurements to equivalent RCI values
for reporting and recording purposes. Calibrations should be checked at least yearly, and
more frequently if changes in device condition or operation are suspected.
- 5.41 -
- 5.42 -
5.4.5 Measurement Programming
The ride quality of runways serving large aircraft should be measured annually. Runway
profiles should be measured immediately following construction to a detail and accuracy
sufficient for ride quality calculation, and the profiles should be updated at least every
five years. In the intervening years, ride quality can be monitored through profile
measurement or through the use of roughness measurement devices.
For reasons of practicality, ride quality is usually measured during summer or fall
months. Unless otherwise stated, published data represents conditions existing during
these periods of the year. Ride quality can change significantly between summer and
winter with maximum roughness reached just before or during spring thaw, and spring
measurements may be desirable if pilot reports suggest significant seasonal roughness at
this time of year. Most measurement equipment cannot operate at below freezing
temperatures and measurements can be performed only on days of thaw.
5.4.6 Performance Trends
As they deteriorate with age, a significant number of airfield pavements eventually

become unsuitable for operations because of poor ride quality. A ride quality
performance chart, as illustrated in Figure 5.19, is a useful tool to track the deterioration,
and by the extrapolation of past trends, to predict when unsuitable levels of riding
comfort index will be reached.
RUNWAY RIDE QUALITY PERFORMANCE CHART

AIRPORT: Example RUNWAY: 11 - 29
1970 1980 1990 2000

72 74 76 78 82 84 86 88 92 94 96 98
restoration
guidelines
very
9
good jet propeller
aircraft aircraft
8
runway resurfaced
good 7
desirable
necessary
desirable
6
necessary
fair 5
poor 3
Notes: (a) RCI measurements are repeatable within ~ 0.5 units.

(b) Measurements made during the summer; ride quality may deteriorate during winter months.
(c) RCI reflects short wavelength roughness; a separate profile analysis is needed to detect longer wavelength roughness.
Figure 5.19 : RIDE QUALITY PERFORMANCE CHART
- 5.43 -
10
concrete surfaces original asphalt surfaces overlay asphalt surfaces
100 mm overlays
50 mm overlays
8
- 5.44 -
Riding Comfort Index - RCI
4
Data from airport pavement data inventory

Canadian National Airport System
2
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Age of Surface - years
Chapter 5 : Quality Evaluation
Figure 5.20 : RIDE QUALITY vs SURFACE AGE

Figure 5.20 shows average performance curves for the ride quality of pavement surfaces
based on ride quality measurements made at Canadian airports over a thirty year period
commencing in the 1960s. Based on roughness criteria, the data suggest average service
lives in the order of 30 years for concrete and original asphalt surfaces and about 20 years
for overlay asphalt surfaces. Actual average service lives are less than these values as a
majority of pavement surfaces are restored earlier for reasons other than poor ride quality.
5.5 STRUCTURAL CONDITION
5.5.1 Description
The structural integrity of airfield pavement surfaces is the operational quality attribute
most commonly giving rise to a requirement for restoration. As a pavement ages, the
surfacing material is weakened by processes such as stripping or oxidation in asphalt, and
frost effects or alkali reactions in concrete. Cracking of one type or another usually
develops. These defects ultimately weaken the pavement surface to a point where
breakdown begins, with the rate of breakdown depending on the magnitude and
frequency of traffic loads. The breakdown leads to spalling and loose chunks of
surfacing material capable of damaging aircraft bodies and engines. FOD potential is a
major consideration in a majority of restoration decisions.
Structural condition assessment is wider in scope than the evaluation of FOD potential. It
includes the identification of defects suggesting poor riding quality, low skid resistance
or inadequate bearing strength for current aircraft traffic. Other types of defect, if
present, may suggest construction material deficiencies and the need for sampling and
laboratory analysis.
Structural condition inspections involve subjective judgements to a significant degree.

However, if performed by a well-qualified individual, structural condition inspections are
a most useful tool for the technical management of pavement facilities.
5.5.2 Inspection Methods
A detailed procedure for airfield pavement condition inspection and evaluation is

appended. An inspection report should include:
a general structural condition rating for each distinct pavement facility at the airport,
identification of the structural defects present and a rating of their extent and severity,
judgments on the cause of defects and their implications with respect to future
performance,
recommendations on additional investigation requirements,
recommendations on maintenance and restoration requirements.
General structural condition rating is on a scale of 10 to 0, with the ranges 10-8, 8-6, 6-4,
4-2, 2-0 respectively representing excellent, good, fair, poor and very poor conditions.
- 5.45 -
Inspection may be performed from a slowly driven automobile if the pavement surfaces
are in good condition. A closer inspection on foot should be conducted if pavements are
in fair or poor condition. An experienced inspector can usually provide suitable ratings on
the basis of visual impressions, but quantitative measurements of the extent of the
predominate type of defect present are desirable when restoration is recommended.
The inspector responsible for a formal structural condition inspection should have a good
background in airfield pavement design and construction technology. Defect recognition
and rating skills can be taught, but the ability to interpret causes and their implications for
future behaviour is more difficult to acquire. The airport maintenance organization
should also be represented in an inspection party to provide advice on problem areas and
past maintenance.
5.5.3 Inspection Programming
Aircraft operational surfaces at international airports should receive a formal structural

condition inspection annually. Other airports having scheduled airline services should be
inspected at least every two years. Structural condition inspections may be required on a
more frequent basis if a pavement structure is subject to aircraft loads exceeding the loads
for which the facility was designed, or if the pavement is exhibiting load-related distress.
An inspection of pavement facilities at a small, single-runway airport is normally

performed in a half day, whereas three to five days may be required for the complete
coverage of facilities at a large airport. Two hours to a full day may be required for a
major runway depending on the amount of quantitative measurement undertaken and
arrangements may be required to NOTAM the facility. If possible, the inspection of
major runways should be scheduled to coincide with closures for maintenance works.
5.5.4 Performance Trends
Figure 5.21 shows the average performance of pavements at Canadian airports with
respect to structural condition. Restoration measures are generally undertaken when
general condition ratings are in the range of 5 to 4, although lower ratings may be
accepted for minor secondary facilities serving small aircraft. A comparison of the data
in Figures 5.20 and 5.21 indicates the structural condition and ride quality of concrete
surfaces reach unsatisfactory levels over the same time period of about 30 to 35 years.
However, the structural condition of typical asphalt surfaces reaches unsatisfactory levels
at an earlier period than unsatisfactory ride quality. It may also be noted that on the basis
of structural condition, the average service life of 20 to 25 years for original asphalt
surfaces is about five years greater than for overlay asphalt surfaces. This difference is
undoubtedly due to reflection cracking in overlays.
- 5.46 -
10
Based on data from airport pavement data inventory
Canadian National Airport System
9
8
Average General Condition Rating
7
con
cre
6 t es
ori urf
gin ace
al s
ov a
erl sph
5 ay al t
as sur
ph f ace
alt
su s
rfa
4 c es
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Age of Surface - years
Figure 5.21 : AVERAGE STRUCTURAL CONDITION vs AGE
- 5.47 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Chapter 6 : Maintenance and Restoration
CHAPTER 6
MAINTENANCE AND RESTORATION
Section Page
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Structural Maintenance vs Restoration 6.3
6.1.2 Types of Treatment ...... 6.3
6.1.3 Scheduling and Programming .. 6.4
6.1.4 Materials and Specifications . 6.5
6.2 Structural Maintenance of Asphalt Pavements

6.2.1 Crack Sealing 6.6
6.2.2 Replacement Patching ................................... 6.11
6.2.3 Pothole Patching ... 6.14
6.2.4 Heater Scarifying ... 6.14
6.2.5 Other Repairs ..................... 6.15
6.3 Structural Maintenance of Concrete Pavements

6.3.1 Joint Resealing and Crack Sealing ..................................... 6.17
6.3.2 Surface Patching ................................. 6.21
6.3.3 Panel Replacement ......................... 6.25
6.3.4 Other Repairs ..... 6.30
6.4 Operational Surface Maintenance

6.4.1 Pavement Markings ... 6.34
6.4.2 Rubber Removal, Surface Retexturing and Grooving ... 6.37
6.4.3 Gravel Surfaces ..... 6.41
6.4.4 Turf Surfaces . 6.44
6.4.5 Snow Removal and Ice Control 6.46
6.5 Pavement Restoration

6.5.1 Requirement .. 6.53
6.5.2 Overlays 6.53
6.5.3 Reconstruction and Replacement .. 6.56
6.5.4 Surface Treatments 6.58
- 6.1 -
Figures
Figure 6.01 : Concrete Surface Patching .. 6.24

Figure 6.02 : Partial Panel Replacement .. 6.27
Figure 6.03 : Panel Replacement Using Precast Panel 6.30
Figure 6.04 : Concrete Pavement Crack Stitching 6.33
Figure 6.05 : Grading of Gravel Runway Surfaces ... 6.42
Figure 6.06 : Snow Clearing in Graded Areas .. 6.49
Figure 6.07 : Runway Surface Winter Condition Report Form 6.52
- 6.2 -
CHAPTER 6
MAINTENANCE AND RESTORATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.1.1 Structural Maintenance vs Restoration
The development of structure defects is a normal part of pavement aging. Initially, the
defects require limited and isolated treatments to maintain safe operating conditions and
prevent accelerated deterioration. Eventually, the defects become sufficiently widespread
or develop at such a rate that more extensive restoration measures must be undertaken to
correct the deterioration and return the facility to a near-new condition.
At one time, the distinction between structural maintenance and restoration was relatively
clear. Maintenance was minor repair-type work done by the site field staff and financed
from the airport operations and maintenance budget. Restoration was major work that
was contracted, required closure of the facility for the duration of the work and was
financed from the capital budget. The distinction is much less clear today. Maintenance
is increasingly done by contract to access specialized equipment and work skills.
Extensive repair work is sometimes undertaken on older pavements with the limited
objective of extending service life by perhaps three to five years, and such work may be
regarded as either major maintenance or partial restoration. The performance of
restoration work in off-hours has emerged as a significant option in recent years and
while costs are higher, the practice permits air services to continue during normal
operation hours. The most distinguishing feature between structural maintenance and
restoration is perhaps cost; maintenance projects are generally under $100 thousand while
restoration projects normally exceed $1 million.
Airfield pavements represent a major investment, ranging from perhaps 30% of total
investment at a large airport to 70% or 80% of the investment at a small airport. As
illustrated in the section on life-cycle costing, maintenance costs are small compared to
restoration and initial construction costs. Comprehensive and timely structural
maintenance can extend the service life of pavement facilities by a number of years and
significantly reduce overall costs.
6.1.2 Types of Treatment
Although several variations exist, structural maintenance methods divide into the three
major categories of crack/joint sealing, replacement patching (localized reconstruction),
and surface patching (skin or spray patching). Generally, surface patching should be
avoided as a form of maintenance for airport pavements. Crack sealing and concrete
pavement joint resealing apply to open surface cracks and joints and are preventive
maintenance measures. Consequently, some form of replacement patching is the
maintenance measure undertaken for most isolated defects requiring repair.
- 6.3 -
Another type of maintenance involves tasks such as the periodic repainting of surface
markings, runway rubber removal for the improvement of skid resistance, and the grading
of gravel surfaces. Work of this nature is generally referred to as operational surface
maintenance.
Restoration methods divide into overlays, reconstruction and surface treatments.

Overlays are the most common form of restoration although some type of treatment or
replacement of the existing surface may be combined with the overlay. Full depth
reconstruction is rarely cost effective. Surface treatments should generally be avoided for
airfield pavements, with the exception of fuel resistant seal coats for asphalt apron
surfaces.
The person deciding treatment method should be thoroughly familiar with the various
types of pavement defects, their probable cause and implications with respect to future
performance. Some guidance on these matters is given in the appendix on structural
condition survey. In many situations, maintenance and restoration measures should
attempt to address and correct the cause of defects rather than simply treat the effect.
Some defects, such as wheel path alligator cracking in asphalt pavements or D-cracking
in concrete pavements, tend to develop extensively in a relatively short period of time
and restoration rather than maintenance should be planned at the initial appearance of
such defects.
6.1.3 Scheduling and Programming
Structural maintenance primarily involves crack sealing and patching, and the frequency
at which such work is required depends on the type and age of the pavement surface.
Some facilities may require structural maintenance within a year following construction
as a result of construction deficiencies, but such work should be covered by construction
contract warrantee and should be handled as part of the construction contract. Assuming
suitable construction quality, asphalt pavements typically require a crack sealing at three
to five year intervals, with a need for patching becoming increasingly probable toward
the end of service life. Concrete pavements may require a limited amount of minor
patching, but usually are relatively maintenance free for the initial 10 to 15 years of
service. However, major and expensive maintenance requirements such as joint resealing
or panel replacement can be expected with older concrete pavements. Small airports may
need a pavement maintenance program carried out every three to five years; larger
airports may have an annual crack sealing and patching program with alternating portions
of the inventory covered on a three to five year cycle. A comprehensive maintenance
program is often needed as the initial stage of a restoration project.
Weather conditions have a major influence on the subsequent performance of pavement

repairs, and structural maintenance programs should be planned for the summer months
when warm and dry conditions prevail. A possible exception is crack sealing. As long as
conditions are dry, there is some advantage to sealing cracks during the early spring
months when the cracks are still open. Also, emergency repairs may occasionally be
necessary during winter or spring months under conditions of inclement weather, but
these repairs may have to be redone on a more permanent basis during a subsequent
planned program.
- 6.4 -
A planned structural maintenance program is developed through visual inspection,

following methods similar to but not necessarily as formal as an engineering structural
condition survey. During the inspection, defects requiring maintenance are identified,
maintenance methods are decided, and work quantities are estimated. In planning the
maintenance program, consideration should be given to:
durability of the repair relative to pavement age and traffic,
operational requirements and down time required for the repair,
expected weather conditions,
availability of materials and funds.
Operational surface maintenance is performed annually or biennially as conditions

warrant and is frequently scheduled for late spring or fall months.
Restoration programming is a part of the structural condition survey process,

supplemented in some instances by the monitoring of ride quality. The subject is
discussed under planning and programming in the chapter on miscellaneous topics.
6.1.4 Materials and Specifications
Most materials used in pavement structural maintenance are the same materials used in
pavement construction as covered in Chapter 2. In addition, proprietary trade products
for patching asphalt and concrete surfaces are also available. Published industry
standards are not available for these latter materials and users must rely on past
experience with specific products. Trade products should be accompanied by a
manufacturers data sheet and the handling, storage and application of the material should
be in accordance with the recommendations given in the product data sheet.
Example contract specifications for various types of maintenance work are appended.
The construction contract specifications previously presented apply to restoration work as
well as to new construction. The material in this chapter expands on the requirements
outlined in these specifications.
PCC Panel
Replacement
- 6.5 -
6.2 STRUCTURAL MAINTENANCE OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
6.2.1 Crack Sealing
Cracks develop in asphalt pavement surfaces from a number of causes, the most prevalent
being thermal contraction and the shrinkage of asphalt with age. Water entering open
cracks can have a number of detrimental effects, including weakening of the pavement
structure, stripping of adjacent asphalt, settlement from the washing away of subsurface
fines, or heaving due to freezing and the build-up of subsurface ice. Discrete open cracks
should be sealed to restrict the entry of water and limit the occurrence of such
deficiencies. Major cracks exhibiting significant secondary cracking, breakdown or
settlement are more properly cut out and patched rather than sealed. Crack sealing is not
a suitable treatment for closely spaced pattern type cracking, such as alligator cracking.
Sealant Materials
Materials most frequently used for the sealing of cracks in asphalt pavements are:
hot-pour rubberized asphalt sealant products meeting specification ASTM D6690, or
cold-pour rubberized asphalt emulsion crack sealants (physical requirements detailed
in maintenance specification M3130).
Hot-pour sealant is preferred to cold-pour. Although the work is more involved and
costly, a suitable hot-pour sealant properly installed can be expected to last at least three
to five years. A crack filled with cold-pour emulsion sealant is unlikely to remain water
tight beyond the first winter. At remote sites where the equipment required for hot-pour
application is not readily available, cold-pour emulsion sealant may be the only choice.
Cold-pour emulsion sealants frequently cause difficulties if the pavement is eventually

restored with a hot-mix asphalt overlay. When the hot asphalt is placed, the cold-pour
sealant re-liquefies and bleeds up through the overlay, resulting in material unstable
under compaction rollers. Some hot-pour sealant products using a softer grade of base
asphalt have the same effect, although to a lesser extent. Crack sealing carried out within
two to three years of a planned overlay should utilize a thermally setting hot-pour
sealant not readily re-liquefied after application.
For the acceptance of sealant products, the manufacturer or supplier should be requested
to provide test results from an independent laboratory proving the material meets
specification requirements. In addition, for large sealing projects, references should be
requested from at least two projects where the sealant product was successfully applied in
recent years. If a resealing operation involves toping-up by placing new sealant over
old sealant, tests should be conducted to ensure the materials are compatible and the new
sealant bonds to the old sealant.
Other materials are available for the filling and sealing of cracks but these materials are
usually not employed in normal situations because of cost or performance considerations.
Very wide cracks may be filled using a sand-emulsion slurry, hand mixed and applied; a
practice common in preparation for an overlay.
- 6.6 -
Crack Sealant Bleeding Through Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Overlay
Sealant Application Equipment
Kettles used to heat and liquefy hot-pour sealants should conform to the following
specifications:
a double-walled boiler of the indirect heating type using a high flash point oil
(minimum 315C ) as the heat transfer medium,
a mechanical agitator capable of keeping the sealant material under constant
movement in the kettle during and throughout the sealing operation,
thermometers and controls to maintain the temperature of both the sealant material
and the heat transfer oil within a temperature range specified by the sealant
manufacturer,
equipped with applicator wand.
It is essential liquid sealant in a kettle be maintained at the temperature recommended by

the product manufacturer. Kettles employing direct heating of the sealant should be
avoided due to the difficulty of maintaining temperatures at a uniform, specified level.
Discard burned or overheated sealant material as use results poor performance.
Thermosetting hot-pour sealants not easily re-liquefied should not be re-heated, and
unused portions remaining in the kettle at the end of a work shift should be discarded.
Cold-pour emulsified sealants are best applied using a pressurized tank. If pressurized
applicator equipment is not available, simple pour pots may be used.
- 6.7 -
Crack Preparation
Some cracks may be routed in preparation for sealing. Routing is the cutting of a kerf in
the pavement surface along the length of the crack, using a rotary impact router equipped
with carbide tipped bits or a vertical spindle router with a diamond bit. The vertical
spindle router is more manoeuvrable and less likely to damage the pavement than the
rotary impact router, but operation is considerably slower. Random crack saws with
small diameter (150 mm to 200 mm) diamond tipped blades of are normally used on
concrete surfaces but may also be used to rout asphalt surfaces if the cracks are relatively
straight. The routing equipment must be capable of cutting the asphalt aggregate clean
and neat with minimal damage, and producing a kerf with vertical faces and a 1:1 depth
to width ratio. The equipment must be capable of following random cracks without
undue cutting or excessive widening. Impact routers equipped with steel rather than
carbide tipped bits and those equipped with V shaped bits should not be used.
The purpose of routing is to provide a reservoir and a desirable depth to width ratio for
the applied sealant. However, sealing costs are increased and the practice is sometimes
criticised as making big cracks out of little cracks. Use should be selective and limited
to cracks with widths in the range of 5 mm to 20 mm. Theoretically, routing should also
be restricted to thermally active cracks (cracks that open and close with changes in
ambient temperature). However, the identification of cracks as being thermally active or
non-active is difficult, although transverse cracks tend to be active and longitudinal
cracks tend to be non-active.
All cracks must be cleaned prior to sealant application to remove incompressible

materials and to provide sound bonding surfaces free of dust, moisture and other
contaminants. Dust or dampness on crack sidewalls impede sealant bonding and are a
frequent cause of application failure. Commonly used methods to clean and dry cracks
include:
high-pressure air to blow the cracks clean and dry immediately prior to application of
the sealant. The compressor should be equipped with oil and moisture filters and give
an air jet with minimum flow of 4 cubic metres per minute at minimum nozzle
pressure of 690 kPa. Air blowing is a minimum requirement and may be sufficient if
the cracks are open and free of incompressible materials such as stones and sand.
hot compressed air lance to heat, clean and dry the cracks prior to sealant application.
Hot air lances are generally preferred to simple compressed air and should be
employed if the pavement surface is damp or if ambient temperature is less than
10C. However, hot air lances must be used with great care to avoid burning and
oxidizing the asphalt adjacent to the crack. Hot air lances should be operated at
temperatures not exceeding 500C with the tip 50 mm to 100 mm from the crack.
Dwell time must be strictly controlled to avoid burning. Proper heating produces a
slightly darkened colouring; overheating results in a black colouring and a gritty
texture. Open flame should never be applied to an asphalt surface.
high-pressure water jet, joint/crack plough, or simple hand tools such as hooks or
large screwdrivers to remove foreign materials from the crack, including loose frag-
ments of asphalt and old sealant. High-pressure water, and perhaps sandblasting, may
- 6.8 -
also be required to remove the slurry produced if routing is performed using a saw.
The use of such equipment is followed by the application of high-pressure air or hot
air lance. Where bond (adhesion) failure exists in previously sealed cracks, the old
sealant should be blown out or otherwise removed in preparation for re-sealing.
Where wide cracks extend into the base course or subsurface voids have formed due to
water infiltration, the voids should be filled to the underside of the asphalt with clean, dry
sand prior to sealing.
Some sealant products are designed for resealing in-place by the application of high
temperature air or flame. The process of heat resealing is quite slow and usually not cost
effective. If employed prior to "topping-up," heat resealing should be followed
immediately by application of the new sealant.
Application
Sealant application should proceed immediately after air blasting. If some time has
elapsed since the cleaning operation, air blasting should be repeated just prior to sealant
application. Hot-pour sealants must be applied in accordance with manufacturers
instruction, particularly with respect to melting and application temperatures. To the
extent possible, application in the crack should proceed from the bottom up to avoid
entrapping air. If bubbles appear in the sealant immediately after application, they may
indicate moisture in the crack and the sealing operation should be halted until the crack is
properly dried. Any under-sealing should be topped up as soon as possible.
Overbanding is a sealing technique involving a slight overfilling of the crack, followed

by the application of a v-shaped or u-shaped squeegee to strike-off and spread a narrow
band of sealant on either side of the crack. Overbanding must be squeegeed to a very thin
layer, not more than 1 mm or 2 mm in thickness, or else the overbanding is subject to
peeling under the action of sweepers and ploughs. Width should be approximately
15 mm on either side of the crack. Avoid excessive widths due to cost and because
excessive sealant material on the pavement surface may be tracked by tires in hot weather
and may present a problem when overlaying. Overbanding helps to ensure a crack is
fully sealed, and fills in minor voids left by ravelling or chipping along the crack edge.
Overbanding is recommended for unrouted cracks. With routed cracks, the kerf should
be filled to slightly below the pavement surface.
Cold-pour sealant must be stirred until homogeneous prior to application. Cracks should
be filled to slightly below the pavement surface and two or three applications may be
needed due to volume shrinkage during curing. Repeat applications should be made on
successive days so the prior application has had time to set. Cure time depends on
weather conditions and viscosity of the emulsion, but is generally less than six hours.
The area should be protected from traffic during the cure period.
- 6.9 -
Rotary Impact Router Routed Crack
Hot Air Blasting Sealant Application
Squeegee and Overbanding Sealant Application using Pour Pot

(note: overbanding too wide)
Asphalt Pavement Crack Sealing
- 6.10 -
6.2.2 Replacement Patching
Replacement patching involves the removal and replacement of an asphalt layer to full or
partial depth, for the purpose of re-establishing grade or replacing fractured or
disintegrating surface material posing a FOD risk. The repair may be extended to greater
depths to include the replacement of base and subgrade if material deficiencies exist in
these layers. Trenches for the installation of service lines are excavated and restored by
similar methods.
Materials
The preferred patching material for asphalt pavements is hot-mix asphalt meeting the
normal construction standards for surface mixes. Excavated base and subbase should be
replaced with crushed gravel or stone conforming to normal construction standards for
base material. If a significant volume of subgrade is removed, backfill should be a soil
similar in nature to the surrounding subgrade material to establish uniformity of
conditions. Excavations of significant depth into granular base and subgrade should not
be backfilled with asphalt.
Cold-mix asphalt patching materials consist of liquid asphalt mixed with a small sized
asphalt aggregate (100% passing the 9.5-mm sieve). Proprietary asphalt patching
products giving superior performance are available commercially in bags or drums, and
these products are basically cold mixes with additives to enhance bonding and other
characteristics. A cold-mix patching product is a suitable alternative when hot-mix is not
available or when required quantities are small.
Removal
The patch should be rectangular in shape with sides parallel and perpendicular to the
direction of traffic. The patch area should extend a minimum 300 mm beyond the
damaged surface being replaced and must be sufficiently large to accommodate the
compaction equipment being used.
When patching to full depth of the asphalt, the perimeter is cut and the asphalt is
excavated from the patch area using jack hammer, back hoe, front-end loader or similar
equipment. The cut perimeter face should be vertical to full depth of the asphalt and
corners should be square. The cutting may be done with asphalt disc cutters, diamond or
carbide bladed saws, or jack hammers equipped with asphalt cutting bits. If patching to
only partial depth of the asphalt, the saw cut around the patch perimeter should be at least
30 mm deep and the asphalt is commonly removed with milling equipment.
With full-depth patching, the surface of the base course previously penetrated by prime
likely adheres to and is removed along with the asphalt, so replacement asphalt in the
patch area is slightly thicker than the asphalt layer removed. Where contamination,
degradation or other deficiency is present in base or subbase, these layers should be
removed down to subgrade level. Base excavation should be offset by at least 200 mm
from the edge of the patch, to protect against undercutting or loosening of the base under
the asphalt adjacent to the patch.
- 6.11 -
About 100 mm of subgrade should be removed if the top is found to be wet after removal
of base and subbase. Deeper excavation of the subgrade is required if a problem-causing
deficiency is present, such as a boulder raised by frost action and producing a heave at
the pavement surface. The replacement of silt or organically contaminated soil pockets
causing localized settlement or frost heaving may be beyond the capabilities of routine
maintenance. These latter situations are likely to need local reconstruction utilizing full-
scale construction equipment and should receive engineering investigation and design
prior to the work being undertaken.
Backfilling
Backfilling of subgrade and base should proceed in layers not exceeding 150 mm in
thickness with each layer thoroughly compacted using vibratory roller or plate
compaction equipment. Materials are best compacted at optimum moisture content,
which may be approximated as the moisture content producing caking but no free water
when the soil fines are squeezed by hand. If base excavation is not involved, the surface
of the existing base should be levelled and compacted prior to replacement of the asphalt.
Following compaction of the base surface, a light tack coat is applied to asphalt faces
where a bond is needed with the new asphalt. A prime coat may also be applied to the
surface of the granular base. If both tack and prime are applied, then an RC-70 or MC-70
grade of cut-back asphalt may be used for both coatings. If tack only is applied, then an
SS-1 or CSS-1 grade of emulsion mixed with an equal volume of water is probably better
suited to the work. Tack and prime may be applied by spraying or by brushing if spray
equipment is unavailable.
After tack and prime coats have cured to a tacky condition, the asphalt patching material
should be placed and compacted in layers with a compacted thickness not greater than
60 mm and not less than twice the maximum size of the aggregate. Placing should be by
shovel or some other method that avoids segregation. In general, replacement material
should first be deposited around the edges of the patch area. Avoid raking of material
from the centre of the patch area to the edges. The top lift in loose state is raked level at
some elevation slightly above the pavement surface so a smooth and level grade results
after compaction. Experience is needed to determine the amount of overfilling required
but, as a rule of thumb, the lift in loose state should be 25% to 40% greater than the
thickness needed after compaction. Finished grade should be checked with a straightedge
or a stretched string. If correction is needed to produce a level surface, the patch surface
should be immediately loosened, patch material added or subtracted, and the surface
recompacted. With large patches, asphalt placing is preferably done with an asphalt
paver to obtain a smooth and level surface.
With a hot-mix patching material, compaction should commence as soon as the patch
material can bear the weight of the roller without undue displacement or hair cracking, at
a temperature not less than 85C. Three to eight coverages are generally required for
adequate compaction. The face of compaction equipment coming into contact with hot
asphalt may be moistened with water to prevent material pickup. For the surface lift, the
patch material should first be pinched around the perimeter of the patch area and the
roller or plate then shifted about 150 mm onto new material for each subsequent pass. If
- 6.12 -
the surface has a grade, subsequent passes should progress from the low side to the high
side. Uniform compaction of asphalt patching material is difficult to achieve. One
method is to first roll the asphalt, re-rake immediately to fill in soft or low spots and then
re-roll. Every effort must be made to come as close to the original grade as possible to
avoid bumps or birdbaths.
The importance of thorough backfill compaction during patching cannot be over

emphasized. Settlement and rough surfaces inevitably follow if compaction is
inadequate. If possible, compaction should be checked during the work using a nuclear
densometer, and compaction continued until the device indicates little or no increase in
density under additional compaction effort. Adequate compaction is difficult to achieve
in the bottom of deep, narrow trenches excavated for the installation of utilities, and
backfilling to subgrade level with a cement modified material may be necessary in areas
of hardsurfaced pavement to avoid future settlement.
While working on the repair, avoid the rolling of heavy equipment or vehicles over the
cut asphalt edge. Keep traffic off the completed patch area until the asphalt has cooled
and is no more than warm to the touch.
Placing of Insulation in Localized Reconstruction of Frost Heave Area
- 6.13 -
6.2.3 Pothole Patching
Pothole patching involves filling holes in the pavement surface created by the spalling or
ravelling out of surface material. If conditions permit, patch potholes using the
replacement patching procedures previously outlined.
Occasionally, potholes have to be patched under conditions of urgency in poor weather,

and these conditions often occur during the spring thaw period. The following
procedures apply to patching potholes under these conditions:
pothole to be filled should be dry and cleaned of loose material;
use a cold-mix patching product with a proven performance record;
tack coat if needed some patching products do not require a tack coat;
fill pothole and compact in layers not exceeding 60 mm in thickness using a vibratory
plate, or a manual tamper in areas too small to access with vibratory equipment;
final grade should be 2 mm to 3 mm above the pavement surface to compensate for
additional compaction under traffic.
Patching potholes by simply filling in the hole full depth and then rolling with a truck tire
(throw-and-roll) results in a patch unlikely to last very long. Patches made under
inclement conditions and to a less than satisfactory work quality should be programmed
for replacement with more permanent repairs when better conditions prevail.
6.2.4 Heater Scarifying
Heater scarifying involves the use of infrared heating equipment to heat the asphalt to a
temperature that permits loosening, re-mixing, levelling and re-compaction of the asphalt
surface. Exercise caution to avoid excessive oxidation of the asphalt by the heating
process.
Surface remoulding may be used to repair asphalt pavement defects such as deteriorated
cracks, potholes, small-scale surface settlements, and irregular grades around manholes
and catch basins. The heating units are available in various shapes for different
applications. A heated storage bin is usually included to maintain hot-mix patching
material at a constant and uniform temperature of 150C 5C for a minimum period of
48 hours. The equipment can be used for emergency repairs during winter.
The pavement area being repaired is heated using an appropriate heating plate to a
temperature in the range of 125C to 160C. Heating temperature should be kept on the
low side but must be sufficient to allow scarifying of the asphalt. Infrared heating
equipment softens the asphalt to a depth of 25 mm to 75 mm. If a greater repair depth is
needed, the softened asphalt at the surface is removed and the heating process is repeated
on sub-layers. The heated area should include a non-scarified transition zone of about
100 mm around the patch perimeter to provide a blending of the patched area with the
existing surface. Crack sealant, if present, is removed from cracks in the patch area and
disposed of either before or after heating but prior to scarifying.
- 6.14 -
Existing asphalt in the patch area is likely to be oxidized and brittle due to age, and the
heating process further oxidizes the material. Preferably, the old material is discarded
entirely and new hot-mix is used to complete the patch. If new hot-mix is not available
due to the season or remoteness of the site, the existing asphalt has to be re-used and
supplemented, if necessary, with asphalt taken from a non-critical area at the site.
Consider the addition of a rejuvenator if old asphalt is used as the patching material.
After heating, the softened asphalt is scarified to the required depth, and removed and
replaced with new hot-mix, if available. If reused, the scarified asphalt is well mixed and
blended in place by rake. The patch area is then levelled with the subtraction or addition
of patch material as required for grade purposes. Compaction with a roller or vibratory
plate should occur while the patch material is still at a temperature of not less than 85C.
Compaction should commence around the perimeter of the patch area, and progress
toward the centre with the compactor shifted 150 mm onto new material with each pass.
The surface of the completed patch should be within 3 mm above adjacent surface grade
and should be protected from traffic until cooled.
6.2.5 Other Repairs
Skin Patching
Skin patching involves placing new asphalt over a limited area of the existing surface,
providing minor corrections to grade or covering and tying-in fractured or ravelling
asphalt. Skin patches are often relatively thin and feathered at the edges and, in these
circumstances, sand asphalt mixes are used as the patching material. Sand asphalt is hot-
mixed using aggregate with 100% passing the 6.25-mm sieve and asphalt cement content
in the order of 9%.
The patch area surface is initially cleaned by brooming and, possibly, flushing to remove
debris, dust and other contaminates. Following cleaning, the surface is tacked by
spraying or brooming asphalt emulsion at a rate of about 0.5 L/m2 for rough textured
surfaces and 0.25 L/m2 for smooth surfaces. The sand asphalt mix should arrive on site at
a temperature of 125C to 160C and should be placed while the temperature is still in
this range. Normally, patch thickness does not exceed 15 mm to 20 mm. After levelling
and feathering to zero at the edges, compaction is performed by rolling the surface while
the mix is still hot. Skin patches tend to ravel at feathered edges and are subject to
peeling and being blown off by jet blast. Consequently, this type of patching should be
restricted to pavements serving small propeller aircraft only. Performance is improved if
the patch is sufficiently thick to use patching asphalt containing a coarser aggregate, and
if a trench about 25 mm deep is milled around the perimeter to form a butt joint that
replaces the feathered edge.
Replacement patching is preferable to skin patching, and is mandatory for pavements

serving larger aircraft.
- 6.15 -
Skin Patch Peeling
Surface Sealing and Spray Patching
Highly oxidized asphalt surfaces and surfaces that are ravelling or severely fractured with
pattern cracking may be provided with a seal coat. Various types of seal coat may be
considered, such as fog seals, sand seals and slurry seals. Seal coating methods are
discussed under restoration methods, as the area requiring treatment is likely to be
extensive rather than localized, and beyond the capabilities of maintenance forces.
Spray patching is the localized sealing of a surface by the application of a bitumen spray
followed by the broadcasting and rolling in of an aggregate cover. Spray patching may
be applied on pavements serving light traffic in an effort to tie in small local areas of
disintegrating surface.
Bleeding Surfaces
Serious asphalt surface bleeding is not common. If encountered, excess asphalt cement
on the surface of an asphalt pavement as a result of extensive and severe bleeding is
perhaps best removed by shot blasting, a treatment described under rubber removal. The
problem may also be addressed by spreading ice control sand over the excess asphalt
cement, and rolling in the sand with a rubber-tired roller during a period of high ambient
temperature. Effectiveness is improved if the sand is heated to about 150C prior to
application.
- 6.16 -
6.3 STRUCTURAL MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
6.3.1 Joint Resealing and Crack Sealing
The decision to seal cracks in a concrete pavement or to reseal the joints requires
judgement. The purpose of the procedure is to prevent surface water from reaching
pavement sub-layers and to keep incompressibles from entering the crack or joint. Water
penetrating to sub-layers can lead to pumping and the erosion of base material, or result
in differential heaving during the freezing season. These processes cause localized loss
of bearing support for the concrete slab and promote slab cracking. Incompressibles
(dust, ice control sand, stones, etc.) may enter unsealed joints when they are open during
the winter and prevent the joint from completely closing again during summer expansion.
The resulting compression stresses in the concrete slab may increase bearing capacity to a
degree but can cause compression buckling (generally limited to thinner slabs) or produce
lateral movement and damage to interior or adjacent appurtenances such as manholes and
foundations. After a number of expansion/contraction cycles, the build-up of
incompressibles in joints can cause a concrete pavement to grow in area, with untied
perimeter panels moving outward and on occasion walking away from the pavement
proper.
These arguments for sealing and resealing cracks and joints in concrete pavements must
be tempered by the experience sealed joints do not remain watertight for long, although
some sealants perform better than others. A significant portion of the sealant throughout
a pavement area can be expected to experience bond failure within three to five years
following installation. However, as long as bond failure is confined to one side only, the
sealant remains in the kerf and, at least, reduces the entry of water and incompressibles.
Concrete pavement cracks spalling along the crack edges should be routed and sealed.
Open cracks with no spalling may be considered for sealing, but normally are not routed.
Hairline cracks with no visible gap should be left unsealed. An exception is uncontrolled
transverse cracks that sometimes occur during construction. These cracks may be
tolerated as long as occurrence is low, but they should be stitched, routed and sealed
while construction equipment is still readily available on site and the defect is still
covered by construction contract warrantee.
Joint resealing in a concrete pavement is expensive, and the operation is performed

infrequently. If a concrete pavement reaches an age of 20 to 25 years and is still in
relatively good condition, joint resealing may be considered to further extend service life.
Resealing on a periodic basis may be required in areas of aircraft de-icing to contain the
de-icing fluid and prevent vacuum sweepers from sucking sealant out of the joints.
Resealing is a necessity if complete failure is experienced shortly after installation, with
the sealant de-bonding and being lost from the joint kerf throughout the paving project.
- 6.17 -
Materials
The sealant products most commonly used for sealing and resealing cracks and joints in
concrete pavements are:
cold-applied, jet fuel resistant, to CAN/CGSB-19.20;
hot-applied, jet fuel resistant, to ASTM D3569;
hot-pour rubberized asphalt sealant to ASTM D6690.
A jet fuel resistant sealant should be used to seal cracks and joints in apron areas subject
to fuel spills. The sealant used in other areas may be decided by cost and this factor
favours hot-pour sealants meeting specification ASTM D6690.
Average failure rates for different types of sealants are listed below, as determined in a
survey conducted at Canadian airports. The cold-pour sealants (two component and
silicone) perform moderately better than hot-pour sealants but are usually two to three
times more expensive. Personal judgement is needed on whether the moderate
improvement in performance is worth the additional cost.
Type of Installation (no. of projects surveyed*) Average Failure Rate (%)
hot-pour, no backup (7) 48

hot-pour, rubber foam backup rod (10) 69 **
two component cold pour, ethafoam backup rod (10) 33
silicone cold pour, ethafoam backup rod (7) 34
Notes :
* Projects 2 years or more in age.
** Backup material used at the time was a sponge rubber subsequently found to contribute to sealant bond
failure due to water absorption. Performance would have been better with a closed-cell backup material.
For the acceptance of sealant products, the manufacturer or supplier should be requested
to provide test results from an independent laboratory proving the material meets
specification requirements. In addition, for large sealing projects, references should be
requested from at least 2 projects where the sealant product was successfully applied in
recent years.
Other sealing products available are:

preformed neoprene seals - to ASTM D2628. Preformed seals may be considered for
special applications but general use is usually precluded because of cost.
rubberized cold-pour emulsified crack sealants - these materials are not as suitable as
other types of sealant but may be used where the specialized equipment required for
the installation of other sealants is not available.
asphalt impregnated foam - a compression type of seal easily compressed for
installation into a joint kerf or open crack. A material of this nature may be used for
sealing cracks or joints exhibiting large seasonal movement.
- 6.18 -
Backer material is usually placed on the bottom of a joint kerf to break bond on the
bottom of the kerf so sealant elongation occurs across the full width of the kerf rather
than being concentrated at the crack. Tape is preferred as a backer material, and simple
masking tape is suitable. If the depth to width ratio of the existing joint kerf is greater
than two, a backer rod may be used to reduce the amount of sealant required and improve
the sealant shape factor. The diameter of the backer rod should exceed the width of the
kerf by about 5 mm. Backer rod should meet ASTM D5249, Type 1 for hot-pour sealants
and Type 3 for cold-pour sealants.
Application Equipment
Kettles used for heating and liquefying hot-pour sealants should have the following
features:
a double-walled boiler of the indirect heating type using a high flash point oil
(minimum 315C ) as the heat transfer medium,
a mechanical agitator capable of keeping the sealant material under constant
movement in the kettle during and throughout the sealing operation,
thermometers and controls to maintain the temperature of both the sealant material
and the heat transfer oil within a temperature range specified by the sealant
manufacturer,
equipped with applicator wand.
Equipment for proportioning, blending and applying two-component cold applied

sealants is custom made. Preferably, the two components are of different colour so
proper proportioning can be verified by visual inspection of the blended material.
Single-component, cold-applied polyurethane or silicone sealants are applied with a bulk

caulking gun, air-powered pump or by hand.
Cold-pour emulsion sealants are applied with a pressurized applicator or pour pots.
Preparation of Joints
Removing old sealant and cleaning kerf walls are major preparatory tasks in resealing
concrete pavement joints. Most frequently, the bulk of the old sealant is removed with a
joint plow, kerf walls are cleaned by sand-blasting, and the joint is blown with
compressed air to remove all dust and debris. A vacuum sweeper should be available to
remove cleaning debris from the pavement surface. Other cleaning methods may be
employed as long as the result is a clean, dry, undamaged joint kerf awaiting sealant
application.
The joint plow should have a rectangular face slightly narrower than the joint kerf, and
the plow should be equipped with a spring or hydraulic mechanism that releases if an
obstruction is encountered. V-shaped plows should not be used as they tend to damage
the kerf. Sand-blasting equipment includes an air compressor having a hose with a shut-
off valve and a venturi-type tungsten nozzle of proper shape and size for the joint kerf.
Sand-blasting should include at least two passes with the nozzle oriented on opposite kerf
- 6.19 -
walls on alternate passes. An adjustable guide should support the nozzle about 25 mm
above the pavement surface at the desired inclination and orientation. The air compressor
used for sand-blasting and air-blasting should deliver about four cubic metres of air per
minute at a minimum line pressure of 690 kPa. The compressor must have in-line traps
to maintain the air free of oil and moisture that would contaminate the kerf walls.
Water-blasting is an acceptable alternative to sand-blasting for cleaning kerf walls.

Water-blasting equipment includes a trailer-mounted water tank, pumps, high-pressure
hoses, and a wand with a safety release cut-off control and a nozzle of proper size for the
joint kerf. The equipment should be capable of delivering water at pressures and rates of
up to 70 MPa and 20 litres/min respectively. Like sand-blasting, water-blasting should
proceed with at least two passes with opposite kerf walls cleaned on alternate passes.
Sawing may also be used for cleaning kerf walls. Conventional concrete saws with
blades gang-mounted on the blade arbor may be used, or a random crack saw of the type
used to cut kerfs in concrete pavements. Sawing methods should result in minimum
concrete removal and minimum kerf widening. Both water-blasting and sawing involve
the use of water and a drying period is needed prior to sealant application.
Wire brushes should not be used for cleaning joint kerfs as they tend to smear residual
sealant on the kerf walls rather than remove it.
Crack Preparation
If specified, the routing of cracks in concrete pavements in preparation for sealing is

usually performed with a random crack saw. These saws are self-propelled and have
castor wheels for greater manoeuvrability. The diamond blade is small with a diameter
of 125 mm to 200 mm. Alternatively, a vertical spindle router with diamond bit may be
used. Rotary impact routers used on asphalt pavements should not be used for routing
concrete pavements as they tend to spall the kerf edge.
Cracks, routed or not, are blown with compressed air to remove dust and debris, and to
dry bonding surfaces prior to sealant application.
Sealant Application
Bond failure is likely if kerf walls are not thoroughly clean and dry when sealant is
applied. The kerf walls should be swiped by finger or cloth to check they are free of dust.
Dampness can occur from early morning condensation and the absence of rainfall is not a
guarantee of dryness. A final cleaning and drying by blowing with compressed air and
installing backer material should take place just prior to sealant application.
Application methods depend on the sealant type being applied and recommendations
provided by the product manufacturer should be observed. Regardless of sealant type,
filling should proceed in a continuous operation and the crack or joint kerf should be
filled from the bottom up to just slightly below the pavement surface. Under sealing or
over sealing should be corrected with little delay. Spilled or overfill sealant should be
removed by scrapping, and the pavement surface cleaned.
- 6.20 -
Hot-pour sealants must be maintained and applied at the temperatures recommended by

the manufacturer. Discard overheated and burnt sealant. Some cold-pour sealants
require the application of a lubricant adhesive, or primer, on kerf walls prior to
application of the sealant. With two-component cold-pours, care must be taken to ensure
the two components are blended in the proper proportion and thoroughly mixed prior to
application, else the material may not cure properly.
6.3.2 Surface Patching
Surface patching involves repairing a localized area of pavement surface where concrete
is badly fractured or has already spalled out to form a pothole. The requirement for
surface patching most commonly occurs due to spalling along the edges or at the corners
of a concrete panel. On occasion, surface patching may be needed at an interior location
due to surface spalling or severe scaling, or to spalling along a crack.
Full-depth slab replacement rather than surface patching should be performed if the depth
needing repair exceeds half the slab depth. Coring may be required at the project
planning stage to determine the depth of deteriorated concrete and the appropriate repair
method. As an example, surface patching is not a suitable repair for D-cracking which is
initially manifest by a series of fine cracks running along and parallel to a joint, as this
type of cracking inevitably indicates badly deteriorated concrete at the bottom of the slab.
Patching Materials
Four types of patching material may be used for concrete pavement surface patching:
hot-mix asphalt meeting normal construction standards for surface mixes,
cold-mix asphalt patching product may be used in place of a hot-mix if required
quantities are small,
Portland cement concrete meeting normal construction standards for concrete
pavement,
polymer concrete patching product proprietary products available commercially.
Patching with an asphalt material is generally preferred as the procedure is simpler, less
expensive and minimizes downtime. In addition, the durability of asphalt patches is quite
adequate with an expected life in excess of five years. Patching with a Portland cement
or polymer concrete material is sometimes performed for reasons of aesthetics or because
the facility is relatively new and a patch lasting for the remaining pavement life is
desired. Patches made with Portland cement concrete or a polymer concrete patching
material sometimes fail within a matter of months due to improper patching technique,
particularly when the patching is done by inexperienced personnel.
Portland cement concrete patching material is commonly mixed on site when the
quantities required are small. A 1-2-3 mix is usually suitable, in which the mix
proportions are one part Portland cement, two parts fine aggregate (sand) and three parts
coarse aggregate (stone). Alternatively, bagged dry mixes of properly proportioned
cement and aggregate to which only water need be added for mixing can be use. The
quantity of water used should be just sufficient to produce a stiff working consistency
- 6.21 -
when thoroughly mixed, and a little liquid soap may be added for some air entrainment
and workability. Hot water may be needed for mixing during cool weather, and cold
water or ice during hot weather. Small drum or paddle-type powered mixers are
available with batch capacities of 0.2 to 0.5 m3 or greater. Alternatively, hand mixing can
be employed for small quantities.
A variety of polymer concrete patching products is available and the use of a particular
product for other than minor applications should be dependent on prior successful field
experience. The proprietary patching products are relatively expensive but they have
improved properties when compared to Portland cement concrete patching materials,
such as stronger bonding or shorter curing time.
Preparation
Mark out the area to be repaired with perimeter lines forming a rectangular shape with
the sides parallel and perpendicular to the direction of traffic. The perimeter should
exceed the area of defective concrete by a minimum 50 mm. A vertical cut around the
perimeter is made with a diamond bladed concrete saw to a depth of at least 50 mm. The
cut has to overshoot at the corners by 50 mm to 75 mm so full depth is obtained at the
corner. Depending on the location and size of the patch area, a series of parallel and
transverse saw cuts within the patch area may facilitate subsequent material removal.
The slurry produced by the cutting operation should be washed away or otherwise
removed before it has the opportunity to set. Sawing may be performed some time in
advance of removal and patching to allow time for drying.
Material within the patch area is removed down to sound concrete or to a minimum depth
of 50 mm. All loose, fractured or otherwise defective concrete within the repair area
should be removed using a light jackhammer, working from the centre of the patch area
to the edge. A jackhammer of up to 15 kg may be used for removal in the central patch
area, but near the edges, the hammer should not exceed 10 kg in weight and should be
equipped with a spade bit. The use of a heavy jackhammer should be avoided as such
equipment has been shown to cause micro cracking in the surrounding concrete, which
may subsequently lead to patch failure. In some instances, depending on patch location
and size, small-scale milling equipment may be used for material removal from the patch
area. Manual equipment such as hammer and chisel may be needed to square up sides
and corners, or for removal in small patch areas. When removal is completed, soundness
of the underlying concrete can be checked by tapping the surface with a steel rod or ball-
peen hammer and listening for a dampened ring or hollow sound.
The removal operation produces substantial dust, loose particles and other debris. All
bonding surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned by sweeping and by blowing with
compressed air. The air compressor should be checked to ensure the compressed air
contains no oil, as any contamination of the bonding surfaces impedes bonding. Sand-
blasting may be specified to ensure cleanliness of the bonding surfaces. The surrounding
pavement surface should be thoroughly cleaned of debris before placing patching
material.
- 6.22 -
Patching with Asphalt
Patching concrete pavement surfaces with hot-mix asphalt proceeds in the same manner
as patching asphalt pavement surfaces. A diluted SS1 emulsion is applied as a tack coat
to the surface of the patch area. The light tack is applied by spraying or brushing, and an
appropriate application rate is 0.25 to 0.5 L/m2.
After the tack material has cured to a tacky state, the asphalt patching material is placed
and compacted in layers having a compacted thickness not greater than 60 mm. Placing
should be by shovel or other method not producing segregation. Avoid excessive raking.
The top lift in loose state is raked level at some elevation slightly above the pavement
surface so a smooth and level grade results after compaction. As a rule of thumb, the lift
in loose state should be 25% to 40% greater than the thickness needed after compaction.
Finished grade should be checked with a straightedge or a stretched string. If correction
is needed to produce a level surface, the patch surface should be immediately loosened,
patch material added or subtracted, and the surface recompacted.
Compaction should employ a small vibratory roller or a vibratory plate, or in restricted

areas, manual tamping equipment. Compaction should commence as soon as the patch
material can bear the weight of the equipment without undue displacement or hair
cracking, but in any case, at a temperature not less than 85C. The face of the
compaction equipment coming into contact with the hot asphalt may be moistened with
water to prevent material pickup. For the top lift, the patch material should first be
pinched around the perimeter of the patch area, and the roller or plate then shifted about
150 mm onto new material for each subsequent pass. If the surface has a grade,
subsequent passes should progress from the low side to the high side, and three to eight
coverages are generally required for adequate compaction. Patching with a cold-mix
asphalt patching material proceeds in a similar manner, modified as required by
recommendations from the product manufacturer. Some proprietary cold-mix patching
products do not require a tack coat prior to application.
The patch area should be protected and kept free of traffic until hot-mix patching material
has cooled, or cold-mix has set.
Patching with Concrete
If a joint forms a side of the patch and the patch void is filled entirely with rigid patch
material, then high compressive forces are generated in the patch material when the slab
expands and the joint tries to close during hot weather. These compressive forces are
usually sufficient to pop the patch or crush the patch material. Consequently, a 10 mm
thick sheet of joint filler must be placed against the face of the adjacent panel as
illustrated in Figure 6.01, to provide some capacity for future joint closing. A joint filler
insert should also be placed when patching at a crack. The joint filler insert is not needed
if an asphalt patching material is employed because the asphalt has sufficient capacity to
deform without causing patch failure.
- 6.23 -
slab surface scalling/spalling
50 mm min
scalled areas
saw cut
patching material
slab joint
parallel cuts
to facilitate removal
panel edge patching with concrete
slot cut for section A-A

filler insert
spalling direction joint sealant
concrete 10 mm of finish
saw cuts 50 mm
75-mm
25 mm
filler insert patching
A A material
50mm
min 3. Remove defective material down 6. Place patching material and
to sound concrete. consolidate.
4. Place joint filler insert. 7. Screed and finish surface level.
5. Wet bonding faces and thoroughly 8. Texture surface and paint around
coat with cement slurry or other perimeter with cement slurry.
1. Saw cut 50 mm deep around bonding agent. 9. Apply curing medium and
defective concrete. Make cuts protect for at least 7 days.
parallel and perpendicular to joints.
10. Saw out top of filler and seal.
2. Cut slot for joint filler insert.
Figure 6.01 : CONCRETE SURFACE PATCHING
The joint filler insert should be a closed-cell, non-absorbing material sufficiently stiff to
resist major deformation as the patch material is placed but still capable of compression
and rebound as the joint closes and opens. Suitable materials include fibreboard,
polystyrene and polyethylene. The filler insert should be placed in a cut slot so it extends
25 mm below the bottom of the patch void and 75 mm beyond the ends, as shown in
Figure 6.01. After positioning, some sealing using latex caulking or other material may
be required around the filler insert to plug holes through which patch material might
extrude into the joint void. On completion of the patch, the top 10 mm of filler insert
should be removed by sawing or other procedure, and be replaced with joint sealant.
- 6.24 -
To patch with Portland cement concrete patching material:

wet the bonding surfaces in the patch void (but no standing water) to limit adsorption
from the patch material after placing;
apply a thin coating of freshly mixed 1:1 sand-cement slurry to the concrete bonding
surfaces using a stiff brush or similar instrument apply vigorously so all crevices
and nooks are filled;
fill the patch void with patching material by shovel to slightly above pavement
surface grade before the slurry coating dries;
consolidate the patch material using a small spud vibrator or by rodding;
screed the surface level with the adjacent pavement grade using a straightedge or
other suitable tool - screed from centre of the patch area toward the perimeter;
use excess mortar to fill saw cut run-outs extending beyond patch corners;
paint around the perimeter of the patch with a cement slurry to ensure no gap exists at
the junction of old and new concrete;
lightly texture the surface of larger patches using a brush or broom;
cure by applying curing compound to the surface or by covering the surface with a
sheet of plastic or wet burlap;
protect from traffic for at least seven days or until design strength is obtained;
saw out the top of the joint filler insert and seal with a joint sealer.
A similar procedure is followed when using a polymer patching compound, with

modifications as needed to suit the application recommendations of the manufacturer.
6.3.3 Panel Replacement
Concrete panel replacement, in whole or in part, may be required because of defective

concrete too extensive for patching. Panel replacement is normally carried out to the full
width of the panel, and if the portion needing replacement exceeds half the length of the
panel, the entire panel should be replaced. Smaller, full-depth sections may used on
occasion to replace a broken and disintegrating corner.
Panel replacement may also be undertaken when a panel is cracked into three or more
sections and the sections exhibit vertical movement relative to one another as evidenced
by stepping or spalling along the cracks. On concrete aprons where overlays are not
possible due to tightly restricted surface grades, restoration is commonly achieved
through major maintenance programs replacing blocks of panels from time to time.
This section outlines panel replacement using cast-in-place methods. Panel replacement
using a precast panel is also possible and is addressed under other repairs.
Materials
Portland cement concrete meeting normal standards for concrete pavement construction
is used in most instances of panel replacement. A disadvantage of using this material is
the minimum four to seven days of curing required before the repaired area can be
opened to traffic. This length of shutdown can be a very inconvenient and expensive
requirement when repairing critical pavement facilities at a major airport.
- 6.25 -
The following methods are available to reduce concrete curing time, although repair costs
are increased and/or durability of the concrete may suffer:
use a high early strength (Type 30) Portland cement;
increase mix cement content so the design strength level is reached in less time;
add a mix plasticizer and decrease the water-cement ratio to increase strength levels;
add a cure accelerating admixture to the mix;
insulate the surface to retain the heat of hydration so the rate of cure increases due to
the higher temperature.
There are also proprietary cementing products producing concrete that cures to high
strength levels within a few hours. Past trials with such a product at one airport were not
successful due to severe cracking of the replacement panel during curing or shortly after
the cure period. With such a material, however, the potential exists for overnight panel
replacement if improved methods can be developed.
Removal
Methods used to remove the old concrete panel must ensure no damage is done to the
adjacent concrete panels, particularly to keyways. To meet this objective, the interior
portion of the panel being removed should first be isolated from adjacent panels by
making a full-depth boundary cut, inset by about 300 mm from the joints. Full-depth
cutting may be difficult in hot weather as the saw blade may bind if the concrete slab is
under compression. If binding is experienced, delay or advance the sawing to a cooler
period during the night or early morning.
Removal by lift-out is preferred as the potential for damage to adjacent concrete and the
base course is minimized. Lifting pins may be installed or the panel cut into small
sections, and the concrete may then be lifted out using a crane or similar equipment.
Alternatively, the concrete interior to the boundary cut can be broken up using pavement
breaking equipment such as a jack hammer, drop hammer, or hydraulic ram, and removal
of the broken concrete may then be effected with a front-end loader or backhoe. Break-
up should commence at the centre of the removal area and impact energies should be
reduced as the perimeter is approached. After removal of the interior section, the final
300 mm width adjacent to joints can be removed by jackhammer or by a light tap with
the breaking equipment so the keyway is not damaged.
With partial panel replacement, the edge of the partial panel should be parallel to a joint.
The isolating boundary cut should be made about 50 mm from the edge of the remaining
partial panel and the isolated section removed as above. The edge of the remaining
partial panel is then cut to one-quarter the depth of slab and the 50 mm edge width is
removed using a light jackhammer (not heavier than 7 kg), so a roughened bonding face
with a minimum 25 mm of batter is provided as illustrated in Figure 6.02. Deformed tie
bars, 15 mm in diameter and 750 mm in length, should then be installed on 750 mm
centres at mid-height of the partial-panel bonding face.
- 6.26 -
construction contraction joints

joints 300 mm
broken portion of
panel to be replaced
isolating saw cuts full depth to facilitate

removal without damage to adjacent panels
keyway
saw cut 1/4 slab depth
new concrete
300
25 mm min
batter 300 300
adjacent panel faces
tie bars installed coated with bond breaker
15 mm dia., 750 mm long concrete haunch if needed
on 750 mm centres to replace disturbed base
or for load transfer
Note: Not to scale
Figure 6.02 : PARTIAL PANEL REPLACEMENT
Some designers specify the installation of dowels along the construction joints of
adjacent slabs if the keyway has been lost during concrete removal. The need for dowels
with airfield pavements is questionable, and improper installation has frequently caused
seizing of the joint with the replacement panel then cracking down the middle during cure
shrinkage. If dowels are installed, they should be smooth bar 30 mm in diameter,
500 mm in length and placed at mid-slab height with a 375 mm spacing.
Tie bars and dowels are installed in sockets drilled to half-length of the bar with a
diameter 1.5 mm greater than the bar diameter. The socket is cleaned of debris using
compressed air and the bar is grouted into the socket using a non-shrink grout to ensure
solid encasement. The protruding portion of dowels is coated with a lubricant grease to
break bond with the replacement concrete. In contrast, the protruding portion of tie bars
must be clean to ensure good bond. Dowels must be parallel to the pavement surface and
perpendicular to the joint alignment, within one degree of proper alignment.
Base Preparation
If deficiencies exist in base or subgrade layers, excavation is undertaken to remove the

deficiency. If a significant subgrade volume is removed, backfill should consist of a
material similar in nature to the surrounding subgrade soil. Excavated base should be
replaced with material meeting normal standards for concrete paving base course.
Backfill should be placed in layers of 150 mm compacted thickness with each layer
compacted to normal construction standards.
- 6.27 -
Base excavation, if undertaken, should leave a width at least 300 mm of undisturbed

material next to adjacent slabs. If base excavation is flush with an adjacent slab, then the
adjacent base material may be loosened and a concrete haunch should be formed under
the adjacent slab as part of base reconstruction, as illustrated in Figure 6.02. Also, the
surface of the haunch should be treated with bond breaker to minimize resistance to
horizontal movement of the overlying slab. If no excavation is necessary, the base
surface is cleaned of debris and repairs made to any damage resulting from removal of
the overlying concrete. The base surface is then compacted to a minimum 100% of
modified Proctor density.
Full Depth
Concrete Saw
Removal by Lift Out
Break-up for Removal
- 6.28 -
Concrete Replacement
Procedures for new concrete pavement construction are observed in general for the
replacement of removed concrete, although some modifications are needed because of the
restricted scale of work. Once started, the replacement panel should be completed in one
pour.
At pavement edges, install a form along the free edge. Ensure the form is properly
aligned, strongly supported, and coated with a bond-breaking form oil or grease on
the interior face.
Coat the vertical concrete faces at the joints with adjacent panels with a bond breaker,
such as form oil or curing compound.
Thoroughly wet the surface of the base course. In the case of partial panel
replacement, the concrete face to be bonded should also be wetted or coated with a
bonding agent.
Place the concrete mix in a manner minimizing redistribution requirements. Start at
one end and pour full depth, working toward the other end in the direction of traffic.
If required, spread laterally by shovel; do not spread by vibrator, rake, or other
method causing segregation of the mix.
Consolidate with spud vibrators. Insert the vibrators at intervals providing for an
overlap of their radius of influence and do not leave in place more than 5 seconds.
The vibrators should be held at an angle of 15 to 30 to the vertical and lifted up and
down but not moved horizontally in the concrete. Consolidation is adequate when
settlement stops, air bubbles cease to emerge and a smooth layer of mortar appears on
the surface.
Use a self-propelled roller screed to strike-off and consolidate the surface of
full-width replacement panels more than 2 m in length. With smaller replacement
panels, strike-off manually using a back and forth motion with a straightedge wider
than the replacement panel. Advance strike-off in the direction of traffic, carrying a
small roll of concrete in front of the strike-off bar.
Float finish and lightly texture the surface transversely using a brush or broom.
Apply curing compound to the surface after disappearance of the bleed water. Apply
in two coats separated by not more than 24 hours. With small areas, curing can be
achieved by covering with plastic sheeting or wet burlap rather than through the
application of curing compound.
Protect from traffic for at least 7 days or until design strength is reached. Forms may
be removed after 24 hours. Do not use pry bars against fresh concrete or sledge
hammers for removal of forms.
Saw a kerf 12 mm wide by 15 mm deep along joints with adjacent slabs and seal
using previously outlined methods.
- 6.29 -
6.3.4 Other Repairs
Panel Replacement Using Precast Panel
To minimize downtime, concrete panel replacement can be accomplished using precast

panels. Figure 6.03 illustrates the replacement technique used on the apron of a major
Canadian airport. Some major features of the project were:
Casting replacement panels off-site, with transportation to the airport and storage on-
site shortly before commencement of the on-site work. The precast panels were
heavily reinforced with a double layer of steel and were designed for lifting by crane.
Removal of the panels being replaced by the methods previously described in
cast-in-place panel replacement. Boundary isolation cutting was done the night
previous to the actual removal work.
Placing a number of support shims about 30 mm in depth on the surface of the base
course and lowering the precast panels into place to sit on the shims. If the surface
of the precast panel was not level with the adjacent pavement, the precast panel was
lifted out, the depth of the support shims adjusted, and the precast panel replaced.
Grouting the 30 mm void under the precast using grout ports formed in the precast
panel.
glued joint cold pour

joint sealant
sandblasted face
battered face grout injection ports (~1200 c/c)
existing PCC slab with bond
breaker
pre-cast panel
reinforced for
lifting
350
380
150
30
stacked shims
for grade
adjustment
230
pumped high
early strength
grout
existing cement existing reinforcement high early
stabilized base granular bars strength concrete
sub-base 300 c/c (haunch area)
Note: Dimensions in millimetres.
Figure 6.03 : PANEL REPLACEMENT USING PRECAST PANEL
- 6.30 -
Precast panels
delivered to
site
Placing
precast
panel
Levelling panel
Surface Replacement
The surface of concrete panels has been replaced to limited depth on occasion to repair
deteriorated surfaces. On one apron project, the work was undertaken because of an
alkali-reactivity problem that produced severe crazing of the surface concrete and the
eventual development of extensive and severe surface spalling. A 100 mm depth of the
existing surface was removed by milling, and, at this depth, no visual evidence remained
of the crazing. The 100 mm depth of surface was replaced using a concrete mix to which
self-fibrillating monofilament synthetic fibres were added. The work is an on-going
project with selected panels repaired periodically as local conditions deteriorate, and the
original repairs have served well for over 10 years. A similar project was undertaken on
a concrete holding area at another airport where severe surface spalling was occurring in
places. As the location was not heavily used and a fuel-resistant surface was not a
concern, the surface of selected concrete panels was replaced to a depth of 100 mm using
hot-mix asphalt. The repairs performed satisfactorily for a number of years.
- 6.31 -
Diamond Grinding
Diamond grinding equipment is used to remove irregularities in a pavement profile. The

equipment has a cutting head on which diamond saw blades are gang mounted, to provide
a total cutting width of 900 mm to 1200 mm. Grinding is performed in the longitudinal
direction and removes 4 mm to 6 mm from a surface along with short wavelength bumps.
Diamond grinding is sometimes specified as a corrective procedure for excessively rough

new construction. The procedure may also be used to improve rough older surfaces
although the resulting extension of service life may be limited. As an example, at a major
airport, diamond grinding was used to treat the surface of a concrete runway that
developed unacceptable roughness from slab stepping after approximately thirty years of
service. The treatment was successful with an increase of Riding Comfort Index (RCI)
from 3.5 to 7.5. The treatment remained effective for about five or six years, by which
time the stepping had reappeared and the RCI had fallen below 4.5. The year following
the diamond grinding treatment, numerous edge spalls occurred at transverse contraction
joints, and it is evident the grinding produced some micro-cracking in the concrete as the
equipment passed over these joints.
Undersealing and Slab Jacking
Undersealing consists of filling voids beneath concrete slabs resulting from pumping or
subgrade settlement. The sealing is accomplished by drilling a pattern of holes through
the slab and then pumping grout through the holes to fill the void beneath the slab. The
grout port holes are drilled at intervals not exceeding 1.5 m to 2 m and are offset from
joints and cracks by at least 400 mm. Various grouting materials are available, but the
standard is free-flowing slurry consisting of 1 part Portland cement to 3 to 7 parts fine
sand or finely ground limestone, with sufficient water added to bring the mix to a desired
consistency. Wetting agents may be incorporated along with various other additives to
control flexibility, setting time or other property.
For undersealing, the grout is pumped through one port until it can be observed exiting
adjacent ports, whereupon the port is temporarily plugged and the injection hose is
moved to an adjacent port. This process is repeated until the entire void is filled. The
port holes are permanently sealed after the grout has set. The treatment may be
applicable under special circumstances, but if voids exist beneath an airfield concrete
pavement due to pumping, the defect is likely too widespread for undersealing to be an
economic consideration.
Settled concrete panels, or portions thereof, can be raised by increasing the pressure in
the undersealing grout, a process referred to as slab jacking or mud jacking. Slab jacking
utilizes a mix of stiffer consistency, and pumping commences at the low point. Pumping
alternates between ports with the slab raised no more than 5 mm while pumping into any
one hole at any one time. Slab jacking can be a convenient means of levelling the surface
of a concrete pavement with a severe localized settlement, and the procedure is less
expensive than panel replacement. However, uniform bearing is difficult to achieve
beneath a jacked panel and future cracking is likely if the panel is located in an area
subject to heavy traffic.
- 6.32 -
Crack Stitching
Crack cross-stitching involves the installation of tie bars along the length of a crack in a
concrete panel. A crack across one panel frequently reflects eventually into adjacent
panels as the slab undergoes thermal expansion and contraction cycles. The installation
of tie bars prevents the crack from opening and closing, and thus stops the growth of
cracks into adjacent panels through sympathetic cracking. In holding a crack tightly
closed, tie bars also promote aggregate interlock and load transfer across the crack. For
these reasons, stitching is sometimes used as a corrective measure for the premature
transverse slab cracks that occur on occasion during construction. Stitching can also be
used to tie in outside edge panels that, on rare occasion, gradually become displaced
outward as the pavement undergoes expansion and contraction cycles.
The tie bars used for stitching should be deformed bar, 20 mm in diameter and spaced at
intervals of about 750 mm. As illustrated in Figure 6.04, slot-stitching is effected by
cutting slots to half-slab depth, inserting the bars, and then sealing the slots with a non-
shrink grout. Alternatively, a cross-stitching technique may be employed in which
installation holes are drilled at an angle to the vertical so they intersect and cross the
crack at about mid-slab depth.
Top View
angled holes drilled
on alternate sides of crack
min min
Cross-Section View
~ 750 750 ~750 750
mm mm mm mm
epoxy grout
20 mm dia. tie bar 750 mm x 20 mm dia. tie bar
into drilled hole o o concreted into sawn slot
35 - 45
t
25 mm
slab slab t/2
crack
base base
Cross-Stitching Slot-Stitching
Figure 6.04 : CONCRETE PAVEMENT CRACK STITCHING
- 6.33 -
6.4 OPERATIONAL SURFACE MAINTENANCE
6.4.1 Pavement Markings
Various markings are painted on airfield pavement surfaces to guide the movement of
aircraft and ground vehicles. Surface markings are painted on all new surfaces shortly
after construction. Repainting is needed at least once a year to maintain the markings in a
clear and visible state, and more frequent repainting may be needed depending on traffic
frequency and pavement surface texture. Surfaces requiring painting more than once per
year should be scheduled for one of the applications just prior to the onset of cold
weather so the markings remain visible all winter. Repainting should be avoided in the
months preceding an overlay or surface treatment.
Marking Types
Primary markings applied to paved aircraft operational surfaces are:
Runways:
threshold
runway designation
centre line
aiming point (fixed distance)
touchdown zone
edge stripe (where runway edge is not clearly distinguishable)
displaced threshold (where threshold is displaced)
Taxiways:
centreline
holding position
taxiway intersection *
Aprons:
taxi guideline
aircraft stand (including lead-in, stop bar, stand identification, push-back, turning,
and/or other lines as dictated by parking configuration)
vehicle corridor *
passenger walkway *
boundary of vehicle parking and equipment storage area *
Roads with access to runway:

holding position
(Note: * indicates recommended rather than required.)
- 6.34 -
Marking details are shown in drawings contained in the appendix of standard drawings,
but current marking regulations and standards should be checked prior to using the
appended drawings. Regulatory marking requirements for Canadian airports are
specified in Aerodrome Standards and Recommended Practices issued by Transport
Canada. The Canadian standards are essentially the same as the international standards
published by the International Civil Aviation Organization.
Runway block markings may be solid in colour or may be striated with a series of parallel
painted stripes. The striated option is preferable to lessen the impact on surface friction
and to reduce the quantity of paint needed.
Colours
Generally, runway (and heliport) markings are white and taxiway markings are yellow.
Apron taxi guidelines and stand markings are yellow, while apron vehicle corridor,
passenger walkway and parking area boundary lines are white.
Where desired, markings may be outlined with black to enhance visibility. A 150 mm
wide red line may be added on the apron side of parking area boundary lines to reinforce
the prohibition of parking beyond the line.
Materials
Paint used for pavement markings should be alkyd traffic paint conforming to CGSB
1-GP-74M. An oil-based paint rather than alkyd paint may be needed for surfaces sealed
with coal tar as the alkyd paint does not readily bond to coal tar.
If required, paint thinners should be a "Low Flash, Petroleum Spirits Thinner"

conforming to CGSB 1-GP-5M. Other types of thinners should not be used unless no
damage to asphalt surfaces is demonstrated.
Glass beaded paint has been used on occasion to enhance visibility for ground traffic.
Glass beads may be added by sprinkling on the wet paint via a hopper following the spray
nozzles. Other pavement marking materials, such as traffic tapes and thermoplastic
materials, are not normally economical and may present a potential FOD problem on
airside pavements.
Equipment
Pavement marking equipment should be capable of:

applying paint at the recommended rate,
producing paint markings with clean sharp edges,
easy starting and stopping,
easy cleaning,
multi-line application.
- 6.35 -
Painting equipment should be cleaned immediately after use for best performance. The
thinners (1-GP-5M) may not be strong enough to thoroughly clean inside the paint line
hoses and a cleaner suggested for this purpose is the XYLENE (XYLOL) solvent
thinners conforming to CGSB 1-GP-94M. Occasionally, a commercial paint remover
may be required to clean and flush hoses.
Application
Pavement surfaces should be cleaned of dust and foreign material immediately prior to
the painting operation. The paint should be applied when the air temperature is greater
than 10C and rising, and when no rain is forecast.
In general, an application rate of one litre of paint per three to four square metres of
pavement surface should be adequate. The first coat on newly paved asphalt surfaces
need not be fully opaque.
Marker Painting with Glass Bead Application
- 6.36 -
6.4.2 Rubber Removal, Surface Retexturing and Grooving
As previously noted, the most common cause of low skid resistance on runways during
summer is tire rubber deposits occurring in the touchdown zones of heavily trafficked
runways. These rubber deposits generally need to be removed once or twice a year to
maintain a suitable level of skid resistance. Removal methods employed at Canadian
airports are described below.
After the introduction of rubber removal programs, repeated removal of rubber from a
given runway was found to produce progressively less improvement, and eventually to
give little increase in skid resistance. Investigations revealed wear and polish of the
pavement surface was occurring in aircraft wheel paths because removal of the rubber
results in direct contact between the pavement surface and braking aircraft tires. The
smooth surface produced by wear and polish not only reduces skid resistance
substantially, but also increases the rate at which the rubber is re-deposited. Retexturing
the pavement surface eventually becomes necessary to restore micro-texture and skid
resistance.
General Procedures
The following general procedures apply regardless of the method of rubber removal:
Preferably, skid resistance should be measured before and after rubber removal. If
measuring equipment is not immediately available, the treated area should be visually
inspected to confirm adequate removal of the rubber with skid resistance
measurements conducted at a later time.
A minimum removal rate should be specified, typically in the range of 1350 m2/hr, to
minimize runway downtime. If possible, the removal rate should allow for the
completion of removal from an entire runway end overnight.
Trials should be conducted at the start of the work to confirm suitability of the
proposed removal methods and to demonstrate no damage results to the pavement
surface.
Depending on the method being used, removal should generally proceed in paths
alternating on each side of centreline and progressively moving outward. The
objective is to maintain a surface with uniform braking conditions for aircraft.
Runway Rubber Using Chemicals and Pressurized Water
The method most commonly used at Canadian airports for the removal of rubber deposits
involves the use of chemicals and pressurized water. The chemical is first sprayed on the
contaminated surface and allowed to stand for 20 to 30 minutes to soften and de-bond the
rubber. Pressurized water is then used to flush the rubber from the pavement surface.
Chemicals used successfully are listed in appended example specifications for rubber
removal. Other proprietary products for the removal of rubber deposits are available and
may be used based on local experience. The material must conform to environmental
regulations, be non-corrosive with respect to aircraft components, and have no
detrimental effects on pavement construction materials.
- 6.37 -
The pressurized water units for removal of the softened and de-bonded rubber are custom
made and contractors with such equipment and who have performed the work at
Canadian airports are also listed in the example specifications. For the pressurized water
applicators involved, water pressures should not exceed 40 MPa for asphalt surfaces and
50 MPa for concrete surfaces, to prevent damage to the pavement surface. Additional
measures to avoid damage include application of the pressurized water through a rotary
spray bar and the automatic stopping of water application if forward movement of the
unit ceases.
Removal procedure includes:

Conduct trials to determine an appropriate application rate for the chemical, needed
reaction time, and maximum allowable speed of the pressurized water unit for
effective removal of the rubber. Trials should be performed in daylight.
Undertake removal when air temperature is above 5C, the runway surface is dry or
no more than slightly damp, no rain is forecast and wind velocity is less than 15 km/h.
Establish an appropriate length for longitudinal runs so removal can be completed
over the full width to be cleaned during the same work period.
Dilute and apply chemical to the runway surface at the concentration and rate
specified by the manufacturer or as determined during trials.
Allow a chemical reaction time as determined during trials, but not less than
20 minutes.
Apply pressurized water and remove rubber in longitudinal cleaning runs starting at
the runway centreline. Alternate subsequent runs from one side of the runway
centreline to the other until the rubber is removed full width.
Keep the water applicator moving forward, but do not exceed the maximum speed for
effective rubber removal as determined during test trials.
Inspect the pavement surface regularly and adjust the water applicator speed until
satisfactory results are obtained. There must be no damage to the pavement surface or
runway lights and other fixtures.
Flush the pavement surface thoroughly with water following the pressurized water
treatment to remove all traces of rubber, chemicals and other FOD.
Runway Rubber Removal Using Chemicals Only
Rubber deposits may be removed from runway surfaces using an application of rubber
removal chemical combined only with a scrubbing using airport sweepers. Advantages
are lower costs, as the work can be performed by airport staff, and the rubber can be
removed periodically, one section at a time, during off-peak hours. Disadvantages
include low productivity and considerable wear and tear on the sweepers. Avion 50 is
the chemical normally used for both PCC and asphalt pavements. Normally, test sections
are not required as the scrubbing action is effected by sweepers not having the same
potential to damage the pavement surface as pressurized water.
- 6.38 -
Removal procedure includes:

Spray-coat scrubbing equipment (sweepers) with an anti-adhesion fluid to prevent the
resulting black sludge from sticking.
Apply the chemical to the designated runway pavement surface at the rates and
concentration specified by the manufacturer. Apply chemical only to an area of the
contaminated surface that can be cleaned within the available work period.
Begin scrubbing with the runway sweepers immediately after application of the
chemical. Scrub continuously for at least 30 minutes or as required, periodically
changing sweeper direction and adding water to keep the pavement surface wet.
Flush the pavement surface thoroughly with water using fire trucks or a street
flushing unit to remove all traces of rubber and chemicals.
Runway Rubber Removal Using Ultra High Pressure Water Blasting
Rubber has also been removed with a proprietary cleaning unit using very high water
pressures. Although water pressures up to 250 MPa are employed, the water is
discharged in very small quantities so no damage results to the pavement surface. The
contractor employing the unit is listed in the example technical specifications. In general,
removal procedures follow the same steps as previously outlined.
Runway Rubber Removal and Retexturing by Shotblasting
Shotblasting abrades and etches the pavement surface through the use of steel shot pellets
accelerated and projected onto the surface at high velocity by radial blades in centrifugal
blast wheels. The steel shot and dislodged surface material are recovered by vacuum.
Power settings can be altered to control the depth of surface material removed, and at
high power settings, the units can be used to remove defective asphalt or concrete.
Shotblasting restores a good level of texture to smooth pavement surfaces and rubber
removal can sometimes be suspended for a couple of years following the treatment.
<= Rubber removal using

chemical and pressurized water
Rubber removal and

retexturing by shotblasting =>
- 6.39 -
Shotblasting procedure includes:

Conduct trials to determine the optimum power setting and forward speed of the unit
satisfactorily meeting rubber removal and surface re-texturing objectives, while also
minimizing loss of material from the pavement surface. Trials should be performed
during daylight hours.
Shotblasting of asphalt surfaces should be conducted when the air temperature is
below 10C (to be verified with the contractor). Temperature is not critical for
cleaning concrete surfaces.
Shotblast designated runway areas in longitudinal cleaning runs starting at the runway
centreline. Alternate subsequent runs from one side of the runway centreline to the
other until the pavement surface is re-textured and the rubber is removed to full width
of the designated area.
Keep the shot-blasting unit moving forward, while inspecting and adjusting the speed
and the power setting to ensure effective surface re-texturing and rubber removal.
Continuous monitoring is required to ensure no damage to the pavement.
Use runway sweepers to clean the pavement surface at the end of each work period.
Remove all traces of rubber, fines and steel shots.
Surface Grooving
Runway grooving consists of cutting a pattern of transverse grooves in the pavement

surface. The pattern generally consists of grooves 6 mm in width and 6 mm in depth,
with a centre-to-centre spacing of 35 mm. The grooves provide a channel for subsurface
water flow and prevent water from being trapped under braking aircraft tires. Grooving
is used primarily as a measure to reduce hydroplaning potential. Grooving may also
provide some benefits in draining birdbaths and in reducing water spray behind
fast-moving aircraft tires. Some countries include runway grooving as an integral part of
the construction of major runways. In Canada, grooving has traditionally been regarded a
maintenance measure undertaken only in response to complaints of hydroplaning or other
problems related to poor surface drainage.
Grooved Runway
Surface
- 6.40 -
6.4.3 Gravel Surfaces
Gravel pavement surface maintenance primarily involves periodic grading to remove the
surface irregularities developing with time and to re-establish grades for drainage
purposes. Occasionally, new gravel has to be added to replace lost material and localized
reconstruction may be needed to eliminate soft spots or areas of heave. Depending on
operational requirements and the severity of dust problems, dust suppression measures
may be needed during summer months.
Grading and Compaction
Gravel surfaces should be graded and compacted as soon as conditions permit following
the spring thaw, and preferably again in the fall in preparation for winter operations.
Additional grading to maintain smoothness may be required during the summer months,
depending on the rate of surface degradation experienced under site weather and traffic
conditions.
Grading should not cause abrupt changes to gradients and every effort should be made to
maintain grades as close to the original design grade as possible. To promote surface
drainage and prevent ponding, transverse grades should be at least 2% on gravel runways
and taxiways, and preferably, should be at the maximum permitted by geometric
standards. Flatter grades are required on parking aprons and refuelling areas. Low spots
trapping or impeding the flow of water should be graded out. Cleaning and re-shaping of
ditches may occasionally be needed in conjunction with pavement grading operations.
Grading operations should eliminate surface depressions, ruts, soft spots and potholes.
During normal grading operations, the surface is scarified to the depth of these defects
and the material blended, re-graded and re-compacted. Care should be taken to perform
the grading operation with the blade always parallel to the desired slope of the surface, to
promote a consistency in slope.
To maintain a correct and full crown, grading should proceed from runway edge to
runway edge across the crown as illustrated in Figure 6.05. The next grading should be
started on the runway side opposite to the previous grading. The final pass with the
grader should not leave a windrow but a reasonably level surface. If the surface is graded
from the crown to the edge, the crown is eventually diminished.
The amount of surface material removed by the grader during grading operations should
be minimal. Remove large stones if uncovered by the operation. Runway grading should
extend beyond the runway lights to include all portions of the graded area where snow
removal is carried out.
Following grading operations, or gravelling and grading, the surface should be

compacted and rolled to a tight condition using a rubber-tired roller. The gravel should
be near optimum moisture content for compaction. Rolling after a rain shower or
spraying the surface with water from a tanker truck promotes best results.
- 6.41 -
First Grading
graded area
final run
overshoot runway
4th run
3rd run
2nd run
1st run
graded area
Grading procedure - start at edge of runway and carry windrow across to theother edge .
Second Grading
graded area
st
1 run
2nd run
3rd run
4th run
overshoot runway
final run
graded area
For the second pass, grading should start from the edge of the runway at the other side.
Second pass should be carried out only when additional smoothing is required.
Transverse Grade
runway
graded area
Runways are usually constructed with the highest part (crown)

along the centreline. The surface grade then drops to either side
to provide surface drainage away from the centre of the runway.
Transverse slopes are preferably at the maximum permitted by
geometric standards.
Figure 6.05 : GRADING OF GRAVEL RUNWAY SURFACES
- 6.42 -
Following compaction, the surface should be smooth, close to line and grade when
measured with a 4.5 m straightedge, and free of loose stones larger than 25 mm in size.
The surface of depressions occurring during the rolling operation should be lightly
loosened, levelling material added, and the area re-compacted.
Gravel Replacement
Material is gradually lost from gravel surfaces due to grading operations and the erosion
effects of traffic, wind and rain, and thickness may be lost from contamination by the
subgrade soil. A rule of thumb estimates losses at about 25 mm of depth per year for
uncrushed gravel surfacing material, and at about half that rate for crushed gravel. A
common construction practice is to leave a maintenance stockpile of gravel at a site to
cover at least 10 years of gravel losses.
Local availability may dictate the gravel material used for maintenance. Preferably, the
material should meet the requirements for gravel surface aggregate given in Chapter 2. If
the fines have been eroded from the current surface, the fines content of replacement
gravel may be increased above the maximum indicated in Chapter 2. New material
added during a grading operation should be incorporated into a loosened surface and the
resulting mixture compacted in homogeneous lifts 50 mm to 75 mm in thickness. This
procedure ensures bonding between layers and is preferable to simply adding new
material to an existing surface. The addition of fresh gravel should replace lost fines and
fill local depressions such as those frequently experienced in aircraft run-up areas near
the runway threshold.
Local Reconstruction Repairs
Occasionally, localized reconstruction may be needed to eliminate deficiencies such as

soft spots or areas of frost heave. Such repairs consist simply of excavating to the depth
of the problem material, backfilling with granular material and compacting in layers not
exceeding 200 mm in thickness.
Dust Control
Calcium chloride and other salt-based materials used for dust control on roads and
highways are not to be used on airside pavements due to the corrosive nature of these
chemicals and their potential damaging effect on aircraft components.
Dust control may be effected by a light spray of liquid asphalt, such as a slow setting
emulsion SS-1 diluted up to five parts water to one part emulsion. Application rates are
generally 0.5 litres to 3 litres per square metre, with the lower rate applying to tight
surfaces with a high clay content. Avoid an excessive quantity of oil that could be
washed into adjoining drainage systems and pollute nearby streams. Local pollution
control authorities may not permit the use of reclaimed engine oil.
Other types of dust palliatives are commercially available and their use depends on cost
and local experience with respect to effectiveness. Materials used must be certified as
non-corrosive relative to aircraft metals.
- 6.43 -
6.4.4 Turf Surfaces
Turf surfaces are sometimes provided for operations involving small aircraft with tire
pressures not exceeding 0.35 MPa and loading characteristics not exceeding those of an
automobile. Aggregate-turf strips provide an aggregate base under the turf to support
operations under more adverse weather conditions and by aircraft with higher tire
pressures. The following aggregate gradation may be used for the construction of
aggregate-turf strips:
Sieve Size Percent Passing
minimum maximum
25.0-mm 100
19.0-mm 70 100
2.00-mm 40 70
425-m 20 45
75-m 10 20
The normal maintenance work required for turf surfaces consists of rolling and minor
repairs during spring, grass cutting in the summer, and snow compaction and removal in
the winter. Preventive maintenance measures promoting good growth of a uniform grass
cover that resists erosion include:
fertilizing and aerating the soil annually,
maintaining grass height in a range of 50 mm to 100 mm,
keeping the grass free of noxious weeds.
Spring Maintenance
Turf airstrips should be rolled each spring while the soil is still moist. The combination
of roller weight and soil moisture content is an important consideration. Too heavy a
roller may rut the surface or reduce soil drainage due to over-compaction. On the other
hand, rolling soil that is too dry has little or no effect. The roller weight selected should
be suitable for returning grass plants displaced by frost heave to their original position.
A longitudinal rolling pattern should be followed, starting at one end of the strip and
proceeding towards the opposite end with successive passes being made parallel to the
centreline of the strip. Stones and rocks on the surface should be raked and removed.
Areas in which there is winter kill, wheel ruts or other grade irregularities should be
cultivated and brought to a loose and friable condition. Topsoil added to bring these
areas to grade should be mixed with existing soil before rolling, to be followed by
seeding or sodding. Where large quantities of material are required to alter grade,
replacement of subsoil may be necessary before adding topsoil.
Longitudinal and transverse grades should be re-established if ponding occurs or wet

areas develop. The strip should be crowned on centreline and have transverse slopes of
2% to 3%. Ditching should be cleaned as needed to maintain good surface drainage.
- 6.44 -
Seeding
Seeding and over-seeding are sometimes required to repair damaged areas or to reinforce
the grass. The seed mixture employed should promote grass that:
does not grow in tufts,
spreads rapidly forming a well-knitted turf,
grows under dry, sunny conditions.
The seed mixture needed depends on site location and climatic conditions. An
agricultural representative should be consulted to determine an appropriate mixture. A
basic seed mixture is:
Creeping Red Fescue: 60% to 70%
Kentucky Blue Grass: 20% to 30%
Perennial Rye Grass: 10%
Winter Maintenance
If the landing strip is to be used in winter, a compacted snow surface should be

established that supports aircraft without rutting. Successive snowfall can then be
removed from the compacted surface. Snow compacted airstrips may require edge
markings, and some marking details are provided in the appendix of standard drawings.
During spring run-off, the grass surface must be allowed to dry and operations should be
suspended until the surface is able to support an automobile.
Gravel Surface
Grading
&
Rolling
- 6.45 -
6.4.2 Snow Removal and Ice Control
Snow, slush and ice on operational surfaces reduce friction levels, and snow and slush of
significant depth on runways induce a drag on moving aircraft that impedes takeoff. Wet
snow and slush splashed upward by the landing gear may adhere to aircraft surfaces and
degrade flight control.
A winter maintenance program of snow removal and ice control is required to maintain
safe operating conditions. Snow removal and ice control includes such actions as
plowing, sweeping, blowing, loading and hauling snow; spreading anti-icing/deicing
chemicals to reduce ice or snow buildup, or applying sand to ice surfaces for friction
improvement. Airside surfaces must be monitored and operational conditions reported to
pilots during periods of snowfall or ice formation.
Snow removal and ice control is subject to regulation and the regulatory authority should
be consulted to determine current requirements.
Winter Maintenance Preparations
Winter maintenance operations are usually coordinated by an airport snow committee

that at larger airports includes representatives from airport administration, field
maintenance, the airlines, meteorological services and air traffic services. The committee
is responsible for the preparation of a snow action plan that includes:
communications between field maintenance, air traffic and meteorological services;
designation of priority areas for snow removal and levels of service;
methods, procedures and training of staff;
specifications for equipment, materials and contracted services;
runway condition reporting;
environmental protection program;
resolution of problems experienced during the previous years operation.
Typical airside snow removal priority areas and associated levels of service are:
Priority I Area - maximum snow accumulation, 12.5 mm:
- the active runway (or set of parallels);
- the active runways principal taxiway and connectors;
- minimum apron areas required for operations;
- access roads needed for emergency services.
Priority II Area - maximum snow accumulation, 50 mm:
- secondary runway and connecting taxiway.
Priority III Area - maximum snow accumulation, full storm:
- all other operational surfaces;
- shoulders, pre-threshold areas and glide path sites;
- service roads and all other areas need for airport operations.
Similarly, groundside roads and carparks are divided into Priority I areas with a
maximum snow accumulation objective of 50 mm, and Priority II areas where full storm
accumulation is accepted.
- 6.46 -
A site plan should be available and displayed in appropriate work areas showing the snow
removal priority areas and other features related to the snow removal plan.
Other preparations for winter maintenance include:

inspection of snow removal and ice control equipment, and repair or renovation as
required to bring the equipment to full operational status. Equipment preparation
includes the stocking of spare parts and maintenance of radio communications
equipment.
stockpiling of ice control chemicals and sand. Amounts stockpiled depend on past
consumption and ability to replace used quantities during the winter period.
Storage facilities are needed that keep these materials dry, and a heating system
may be required for the sand.
marking of edge lights to identify the edge of operational surfaces and the location
of lights under winter storm conditions. The most commonly used marker is a
triangular orange flag mounted on a flexible shaft affixed to light standards.
Markers must be frangible and not exceed a height of 1.2 m for runway lights or
0.3 m for taxiway and apron lights.
installation of snow fencing when used to control snow drifting. Fencing location
depends on site experience; generally fencing is installed about 30 m back from the
cleared area but may be placed as far back as 90 m. Trenching and rolling may also
be employed during the winter period to control snow drifting.
installation and maintenance of pavement surface condition sensors. Major airports
may install sensors to provide a remote readout of pavement surface and ambient air
temperatures, and other factors related to icing conditions. The sensors warn of
incipient icing and the need to implement anti-icing measures.
Snow Removal
Snow removal and ice control equipment includes sweepers, plows, blowers, dump
trucks, loaders, graders, spreaders, snow rollers and drags. These units are available in
many models and production capacities; refer to FAA advisory circular AC150/5220-20.
On runways with in-pavement lights, rubber or polyurethane blades must be used,
supporting attachments must be non-damaging to the in-pavement lights, tire chains are
prohibited, and the metal underbody of plows and blowers must have a minimum
clearance of 40 mm.
The airport should be equipped and staffed, or have contracted services, to meet the
maximum snow accumulation objective for the various priority areas for at least 90 % of
storm severities experienced at the site. The removal objective in most instances is to
obtain a bare pavement surface. When used, contracted services are frequently confined
to apron and groundside areas as airport staff well trained in airside operations are
preferred for work on runways and taxiways.
Conventional snow removal uses plows or plow/sweepers to make numerous passes

down the runway, moving the snow toward the runway lights in a windrow that is
subsequently blown clear of the operational area. A backcut along edge lights ensures
the windrow does not cover the lights and no damage occurs during the blowing
operation. Generally, plows towing a high speed sweeper are used on Priority I and
- 6.47 -
Priority II areas, and plow/graders on Priority III areas. Snow clearing commences on
Priority I area with the beginning of snow. Initially, and under light snow conditions,
sweepers alone may be sufficient for removal. Plows and blowers supplement the
sweeping operation when sweepers can no longer efficiently remove the accumulation.
Aprons are often plowed one way because of abutting facilities, and a reversible or
rollover plow is advantageous so that a cut can be made on the return leg.
Gang plowing may be employed on major runways where occupancy time for snow
clearing must be minimized. In this operation, a number of plows operate in echelon
with the team anchored by a medium or high-speed blower that immediately casts the
windrowed snow well clear of the runway.
Clearing generally begins along the centreline of Priority I runways and taxiways with
the snow moved toward both edges. Clearing may begin on the windward side of Priority
II runways and taxiways to take advantage of wind conditions. The objective is to
remove snow to full runway width but this objective may not be met at times due to the
intensity of snowfall or the length of time available between aircraft movements. Surface
condition reporting must keep pilots advised of cleared widths and a NOTAM is needed
if cleared width falls below 30 m. At no time should equipment retire from a runway
leaving a windrow, snowdrift or slush on the surface. Windrows in the uncleared width
and the buildup of snow at intersections or taxiway exits are not allowed.
Snow removal requirements behind edge lights and in pre-threshold and glide path areas
are shown in Figure 6.06. This work is generally undertaken during Priority III
operations. Further removal behind edge lights may be required if needed to provide
adequate clearance for the wings of aircraft operating at the site, and the snow should be
pushed well back at intersections where aircraft turning movements occur. Vertical snow
faces are to be avoided and should be rolled or leveled to form a smooth, flat slope from
the cleared area to the snow disposal area.
Edge lights, guidance signs and other visual aids such as VASIS and R.E.I.L. installations
need to be maintained for high visibility. Clearing around edge lights may be
accomplished with a truck mounted air-blast unit, air blast from a broom, spraying with a
deicing chemical, or manually. Deicing chemical may be needed around in-pavement
lights where ice tends to form due to the freezing of melt-water created by heat from the
lights. Snow clearing at the site of electronic aids must be coordinated with the manager
of NAVAID facilities.
A compacted snow surface is frequently constructed for winter operations on gravel

surfaced pavements and sometimes on paved facilities at small airports serving a low
volume of non-jet traffic. Compaction begins with the first significant snowfall after the
surface is frozen. Graders and plows are set to allow some snow to pass under the blade
and this snow layer is compacted with a snow roller. A tractor-drawn snow drag and
snow rollers can also be used. The operation is repeated during successive snowfalls until
a compacted depth of 50 mm to 100 mm is reached. Full snow removal is then carried
out on the compacted surface. Compacted surfaces should extend into graded areas.
Temporary centreline and threshold dye markings for compacted snow surfaced runways
are illustrated in the appendix of standard drawings.
- 6.48 -
edge lights
750mm max 750mm max
runway
7.5m 7.5m or 7.5m 7.5m
taxiway
(a) snow clearing behind edge lights
threshold
notes:
- length of cleared pre-threshold area reduced
to 30 m for non-instrument runways less
than 800 m in length (Code 1)
60 m runway
- width of cleared pre-theshold area snow contro
same as (a) above l surface
max slop e 's'
- maximum slope 's' for runway length
2.0% < 1200 m
1.5% 1200 m - 1800 m
1.25% > 1800 m
(b) snow clearing in pre-threshold area
glide path offset

notes: 40 m 40 m
runway threshold
- maximum depth for snow accumulation
Area A 200 mm
Area B 500 mm
Area C 1800 mm
- do not blow snow in front of the glide path
during runway clearing operations. Area B
monitor
antenna
10 m
Note: Area
Area C A
Check with regulatory authority for current transmitting
requirements. antenna
Coordinate snow removal requirements and
activities with NAVAIDS manager. shelter
15 m
(c) snow control in glide path area
Figure 6.06 : SNOW CLEARING IN GRADED AREAS
- 6.49 -
Ice Control
Ice may form on pavement surfaces from the freezing of wet snow, slush or melt-water,
or as a result of freezing rain, sleet or heavy frost. Control methods involve chemicals
that depress the freezing point of water. Anti-icing consists of applying an ice control
chemical prior to ice formation to prevent formation. Deicing is the application of an ice
control chemical to assist in the removal of ice after the ice has formed. Anti-icing is a
more efficient operation than deicing and is implemented whenever possible to avoid
deicing.
The ice control chemical normally used on Canadian airport pavements for both
anti-icing and deicing purposes is Airside Urea. The material is applied as spherical
pellets between 1 mm and 3 mm in diameter. The pellets may be coated with clay or
mineral oil to prevent caking and the material can be applied with conventional sand
spreaders. Urea is spread at a rate of about 15 gm/m2 for anti-icing purposes and
treatment is generally limited to the central 30 m of a runway when crosswinds are less
than 15 km/h. A wider treatment may be needed under strong crosswind conditions.
When applied to a cold dry surface, Urea may be windblown or scattered by traffic.
Application may have to be delayed until the pavement surface is wet, or the Urea
particles may be wetted during spreading.
For deicing, surface snow and ice is first removed to the extent possible by plowing and
sweeping, with Urea then spread at a rate of about 30 gm/m2. Higher application rates
may be required depending on ice thickness, temperature, wind and solar radiation.
Monitoring is required after a deicing application to detect the development of slush that
should be expeditiously removed by sweeper or plow.
The melting effectiveness of Urea decreases with decreasing temperature and the material
is basically ineffective at temperatures below 10C. Once applied, the material has a
prolonged residual potential lasting several days. Liquid ice control products based on
chemicals such as potassium or sodium acetate or formate may be used for anti-icing at
some airports (glycol based products are used for aircraft anti-icing/deicing). A liquid
product has the advantage of not being blown off and lost when applied under windy
conditions, and may be effective at temperatures below the effective range of Urea.
When applied to ice surfaces for deicing purpose, a liquid product may cause a very
slippery condition that inhibits aircraft traffic for an extended period.
Any ice control chemical used on aircraft pavements must be certified by a recognized
authority as being non-corrosive and safe for use with aircraft metals. Specifically,
sodium and calcium chloride (road salts) must not be used on aircraft pavements due to
their corrosive effect. Deicers/anti-icers should also be compatible with pavement
materials and in particular with Portland cement concrete. General experience indicates
significant problem are not often encountered with the high quality concrete normally
incorporated in airport pavements, but substantial scaling and spalling may be
experienced with low quality concrete. Deicers/anti-icers tend to have a negative
environmental impact as they deplete oxygen levels and may promote algae growth on
reaching rivers and lakes. Regulatory authorities may require airports to control chemical
runoff.
- 6.50 -
Sand is spread to improve slippery ice surfaces when temperatures fall to a level too low
for the effective use of a deicing chemical. Coarse sand particles are desirable for friction
improvement but particles that are too coarse cause FOD problems. Particles that are too
fine are generally ineffective and may erode turbine blades. Considering these factors,
the gradation specification currently suggested for ice control sand is:
Sieve Size % Passing

4.75 mm 100
1.18 mm 10 65
180 m 02
It should be noted the U.S. specification requires 100% passing the 2.36 mm sieve. Ice
control sand should be free flowing with a moisture content not exceeding 3%. The pH
of a water solution containing the material should be approximately neutral (pH 7.)
Spreading rate for sand is typically in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 kg/m2. Experimentation is
needed as application rates to achieve the same level of friction can vary widely for sands
from different sources. Only the central 30 m of runway is usually treated; a wider
treatment may be needed under strong crosswinds. If the sand is unheated, an application
of Urea just prior to spreading may assist the bonding of sand to the ice surface.
Alternatively, bonding may be improved by wetting of the sand particles during
spreading, if the spreader is equipped with a wetting device. Ice control sand should be
removed expeditiously by sweeping once its purpose has been served.
Scarifying and scraping may be employed on occasion for ice removal. Compacted snow
surfaces that have iced may be roughened/grooved with a serrated grader blade. Such
treatment should be made perpendicular to the direction of traffic for improved breaking.
Winter Condition Reporting
A NOTAM is generally required under the following conditions:

slush on the runway;
loose snow on the runway exceeding 25 mm in depth;
cleared runway width below 30 m;
runway friction index below 0.40.
Information on winter operational conditions must remain current. During the winter
season, for voice advisory purposes and the identification of NOTAM conditions, the
operators of airports with ground-to-air communications are obligated to provide an
Aircraft Movement Surface Condition Report (AMSCR) to the appropriate air traffic
services unit:
at least once every 8 hour shift during the published hours of operation;
if pilot reports or visual inspection suggest surface conditions may be changing;
after sanding or the application of anti-icing/deicing chemical;
if an incident occurs where runway surface condition may be a factor;
on reasonable request by a carrier or a pilot;
runway cleared width falls below 30 m.
- 6.51 -
Airport : Report No:

Runway _________ Runway _________
Runway Surface Condition
Cleared Remaining Cleared Remaining
Width Metres
Bare & Dry %
Bare & Wet %
Compacted Snow %
%
Loose Snow
Depth (mm)
%
Snow Drifts
Depth (mm)
%
Slush
Depth (mm)
Frost %
Ice Patches %
Ice Control Sand
Material Applied Chemical
Time (Zulu)
Average JBI/Tapley Reading
Ambient Temperature C
Figure 6.07 : RUNWAY SURFACE WINTER CONDITION REPORT FORM
The type of information provided in an AMSCR is shown in Figure 6.07. The

Regulatory Authority should be consulted for current reporting requirements and
terminology. Example reporting terminology to describe winter conditions:
runway bare and dry (give percentage);
runway bare and wet (give percentage);
runway has loose snow (give percentage and depth);
runway has compacted snow (give percentage);
runway has snow drifts (give percentage and depth);
runway has slush (give percentage and depth);
runway has frost (give percentage);
runway has ice patches (give percentage);
ice control chemicals applied (indicate sanded and/or urea treated if applicable;
indicate removal in progress if applicable).
Runway friction measurements form part of AMSCR requirements and winter friction
testing procedures are covered in the chapter on quality evaluation. Friction readings of
0.30 or less are forwarded immediately to air traffic services for relay to inbound flights.
- 6.52 -
6.5 PAVEMENT RESTORATION
6.5.1 Requirement
Pavement restoration is undertaken when a widespread need exists to restore or upgrade

operational quality attributes to acceptable levels. Structural integrity deficiencies are the
most frequent justification for restoration measures. Surfacing material breakdown, or
the potential of breakdown, reaches such an extent and severity that routine maintenance
measures cannot prevent an unacceptably high risk of FOD and facility closure. The loss
of structural integrity and the need for restoration are identified through structural
condition surveys.
Occasionally, ride quality deficiencies may serve as the justification for restoration
measures. Excessively rough surfaces may be identified through ride quality monitoring
programs or through pilot complaints verified by the analysis of profile measurements.
Skid resistance deficiencies are encountered most frequently on runways and are
identified by periodic measurement of runway surface coefficient of friction. Skid
resistance deficiencies are usually corrected through maintenance procedures as
previously outlined and the attribute is rarely a consideration in restoration planning.
A bearing capacity deficiency normally does not by itself justify restoration measures.
As long as overloading is not extreme to the point of safety being jeopardized, operations
by new and heavier aircraft are usually accepted with an increased frequency of structural
condition inspection, and restoration is delayed until structural integrity deteriorates to an
unacceptable level. Bearing capacity determination is not an exact science and the most
reliable means of determining needs is by observing the actual effects of traffic.
Restoration measures should address the deficiencies present and their cause. Options
are frequently available and a life cycle cost analysis should be performed to compare the
options and assist in the selection of the most appropriate restoration treatment. A life
cycle cost analysis requires a value for the service life of the treatment being considered,
and subjective judgement must frequently be exercised. As a minimum, life cycle cost
analysis can be used to determine the service life necessary for the treatment to be
economically viable, and judgment can then be exercised on whether this service life is a
reasonable assumption.
6.5.2 Overlays
Asphalt Overlays
The most common method of restoring airfield pavements is to overlay the existing
structure with new asphalt, or with asphalt plus granular base. An asphalt overlay is
normally the low cost option. Also, the work can often be performed during night off-
hours with operations resumed during the day, although night work may increase costs by
up to 25% and result in a lower work quality. Generally, an asphalt overlay is the
- 6.53 -
standard against which other options should be compared, but an asphalt overlay is not a
viable option under the following situations:
Parking areas for large aircraft should be maintained with a concrete surface, as
asphalt tends to rut in these locations and may be degraded by the spillage of fuel, oil
and other contaminants. The restoration of these areas requires reconstruction, or
overlaying with a concrete slab.
Apron areas where surface grades are tightly restricted due to a tie-in with the
elevation of buildings and other structures. Restoration of these areas generally
involves replacement of the existing surface.
The existing pavement has a subsurface problem to a degree preventing satisfactory
performance by an overlay and reconstruction is required to correct the problem.
Full-depth reconstruction is rarely viable from an economic viewpoint.
The first task in the design of restoration measures is to check the bearing capacity of the
existing structure and determine whether strengthening is required or whether only
resurfacing is adequate. Thickness design for the strengthening of a pavement structure
is presented in the chapter on structural design and evaluation. If the thickness of asphalt
overlay required for strengthening purposes exceeds 150 mm, the overlay should consist
of 100 mm of asphalt plus sufficient granular base to meet strength requirements. This
latter construction is referred to as a sandwich overlay and is not recommended by some
authorities for fear of poor performance due to water trapped in the granular base.
However, sandwich overlay construction has been used frequently in the past at Canadian
airports and has performed well.
If the bearing capacity of the existing structure is adequate for future traffic, then only a
resurfacing overlay is needed. The usual practice is to place a single lift of asphalt 40
mm to 50 mm in thickness on pavements serving small aircraft, and a double lift of
asphalt 90 mm to 100 mm in total thickness on pavements serving large aircraft. If a
pavement serving small aircraft has a rough surface, a double lift overlay may be needed
to adequately reduce roughness levels.
A comprehensive maintenance program should precede asphalt overlays, including the

cutting out and replacement of asphalt along cracks exhibiting severe spalling or
settlement. Concrete slabs cracked into three or more pieces and showing evidence of
vertical movement under traffic loads may be considered for replacement. Profiles
should be analysed and, if required, measures should be incorporated to mill bumps, pad
depressions, and vary overlay thickness as needed to eliminate grade irregularities and to
re-establish grades. Grade corrections and levelling should be effected in the lower lift of
multiple lift overlays. If transverse grades are not at their maximum, the thickness of
overlays on runways may be tapered toward the runway edges to improve surface
drainage and reduce overlay quantities.
- 6.54 -
An increasingly popular variation on overlay methods for asphalt pavements consists of

removing the existing surface by milling to a depth of 30 mm to 40 mm, and then
overlaying with a single 35 mm to 50 mm lift of new asphalt. Milling the existing
surface has a number of potential advantages:
elimination of surface contamination posing possible construction difficulties, such as
excess joint sealant;
improvement to surface grades and ride quality;
reduced quantities by using a single-lift overlay in place of double-lift construction;
little or no increase in grade elevation, with savings from a reduction in shoulder
dressing requirements and avoiding the need to raise the tops of manholes and
catchbasins.
Another variation on overlay methods consists of rubblizing the existing surface prior to
placing the overlay. If an existing asphalt surface is badly deteriorated, consideration
may be given to milling or picking up and crushing the material, then re-depositing and
compacting prior to placing the overlay. For concrete pavements, rubblizing equipment
is available to fracture a slab on grade into fragments not exceeding 150 mm in size.
Service life statistics presented elsewhere indicate the average service life of asphalt
overlays is four to five years less than the average service life of an original asphalt
surface and this reduction is due primarily to cracks in the old surface reflecting through
the overlay. Rubblizing is performed in an effort to reduce or eliminate the crack
reflection problem, although it should be noted major pavement cracks often extend
downward into the granular base and even into subgrade. Life-cycle costing methods can
be used to determine whether the cost of rubblizing is worth extending the service life of
an asphalt overlay from about 15 to 20 years.
Another approach to the crack reflection problem when an asphalt overlay is placed on a
concrete pavement is to saw-cut the asphalt over the joints in the concrete. The cuts are
made to a depth of about half the thickness of the overlay and sealed by crack sealing
methods. The purpose is to avoid the occurrence of difficult-to-maintain irregular
reflection cracks. Locating the saw cuts directly over the joints in the overlaid concrete
pavement is difficult and joint reference points must be carefully established prior to
placing the overlay. If the saw cut is not directly over or close to the joint, the reflection
crack surfaces adjacent to the saw cut, forming a chunk of asphalt likely to spall.
Placing strips of fabric over cracks and joints prior to placing overlay asphalt is
sometimes advocated as a measure to control reflective cracking. Trials at Canadian
airports with various types of fabric have been unsuccessful with the best result being a
delay in the appearance of the reflection cracks by a couple of years. When applied to
joints during the overlay of concrete pavements, the technique may actually have
detrimental effects as the reflection cracks ultimately appearing are sometimes much
more irregular and harder to maintain than if the fabric interlayer was not present.
- 6.55 -
Concrete Overlays
Theoretically, a concrete overlay can be used to restore the surface of both asphalt and
concrete pavements. The concrete industry refers to the procedure as white topping
when applied to an asphalt pavement. From a practical viewpoint, a concrete overlay is
rarely competitive with an asphalt overlay based on cost considerations and operational
disruption. One situation where a concrete overlay may be a viable option is in the
restoration of aprons or other areas where the preservation of a concrete surface is
required for operational reasons. An overlay may be the least costly option provided
grade restrictions do not dictate reconstruction.
A concrete overlay on an existing concrete surface may be designed as bonded or

unbonded construction, with the unbonded option being the usual choice. The overlay
slab must be provided with crack control steel, and joints should be offset slightly from
joints in the lower slab for load transfer purposes.
6.5.3 Reconstruction and Replacement
Full-Depth Reconstruction
Theoretically, full-depth reconstruction may be required if a problem exists in the

subgrade and the deficiency must be corrected for suitable performance by the pavement
structure in the future. However, full-depth reconstruction is three to five times the cost
of a simple asphalt overlay and the gain in service life from full-depth reconstruction is
rarely commensurate with the increase in cost. Full-depth reconstruction may be required
to effect a major change in grades or to provide transition from new construction to old.
The approach may also be needed in situations where major strengthening is required but
grades are restrained and cannot be raised.
Design options and methods for full depth reconstruction are essentially the same as for
new pavement construction.
Surface Replacement
The replacement of an existing surface may be an appropriate restoration measure for a

number of reasons. The approach is commonly used for aprons where grades cannot be
raised. With concrete aprons, the entire surface slab may be replaced concurrently, or
blocks of panels may be reconstructed at periodic intervals. The latter procedure may be
considered as staged restoration or as major maintenance and is often adopted because a
concrete apron deteriorates more quickly in certain areas, such as along taxi routes or at
parking positions.
The replacement of an existing surface may be advisable when the surfacing material has
suffered major deterioration. Subsurface asphalt layers reverted to an almost granular
state due to stripping should be removed and replaced. Concrete may need replacement
if suffering from alkali reactivity, D-cracking or a similar type of deterioration process.
- 6.56 -
Also, an asphalt surface may be replaced rather than overlaid to avoid the reflection
cracking problem and hence extend the expected service life of the restored facility. An
experimental approach to restoration used on a couple of Canadian runways consisted of
replacing the asphalt along the central trafficked portion of the runway and then placing a
single lift overlay over the full surface. These trials were not particularly successful.
One difficulty with the approach is surface drainage problems during construction due to
the excavated trough in the central portion of the runway.
Recycling
Pavement materials excavated during reconstruction or replacement restoration are

generally suitable for recycling. Granular materials and crushed concrete may be reused
for sub-base in the construction of new pavements. Asphalt may be used in the
production of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) mixes and this option becomes
particularly attractive when the price of asphalt cement peaks to a high level. Generally,
RAP usage is confined to binder course mixes with a RAP content not exceeding 40%.
Surface mixes should be 100% virgin material to ensure durability. RAP recycled during
a contract should be limited to RAP produced by the contract, unless the quality and
uniformity of materials in a RAP stockpile can be guaranteed.
Various types of equipment are available for both cold in-place recycling (CIR) and hot
in-place recycling (HIR) of asphalt surfaces. Separate units of different function may be
operated in tandem to form an in-place recycling train. Badly fractured or ravelling
asphalt surfaces are candidates for in-place recycling provided the existing asphalt is not
seriously deficient as a material and the existing pavement structure does not require
major strengthening. Mix design for recycling work is relatively complicated and
requires extensive laboratory analysis. Recycling projects should be done during warm,
dry weather, and excessive joint sealant should be removed from the existing pavement in
advance of the work. In-place recycling is more applicable to road pavements, but may
be considered for light duty airport pavements.
An advanced cold in-place recycling process features the following:

cold milling the existing deteriorated asphalt surface to depths typically in the range
of 75 mm to 100 mm;
picking up milled cuttings off grade, screening and crushing oversize to specified
maximum aggregate size (37.5-mm or 25.0-mm);
optionally, the addition of 10% to 25% new aggregate to correct gradation
deficiencies (may be windrowed on grade prior to milling);
addition of conventional or polymer modified high float emulsion (~1.5% to 2%),
plus water (emulsion plus water content ~ 4% to 4.5%);
mixing, and spreading mixture on grade with paver-type equipment;
after about a 30 minute cure/dry time, compaction with a large rubber tired roller
(28 tonne typical) followed by compaction with a vibratory roller;
after a curing period of about 2 weeks, placement of a new hot-mix asphalt wearing
course of thickness 30 mm to 50 mm.
- 6.57 -
Besides possible cost reduction, cold mixes are less susceptible to thermal cracking as the
mix is free of the micro-cracking occurring during the cooling process when hot mix is
placed. However, stability and durability characteristics of cold mixes do not match
those of hot mixes. Lower durability effects can be mitigated by adding a wearing course
of new hot mix, but lower stability may lead to rutting under traffic by large aircraft with
high tire pressures. Hence, consideration of cold in-place recycling should be confined to
small airports only.
Hot in-place recycling may be performed as a simple heater-scarification process, or as a

more advanced milling-remixing process. Heater-scarification typically consists of one
or more units heating the pavement surface (usually propane radiant heaters), followed by
surface scarification, possibly addition of some new fine aggregate, addition of a
rejuvenating agent, mixing and levelling, and recompaction. A more advanced
milling-remixing process has similar stages, except two units operating in tandem are
used to heat and then mill the asphalt surface, with each unit milling to a maximum depth
of about 30 mm, for a total recycling depth of up to 60 mm. The milled cuttings are
picked up off grade, transferred to a travelling pugmill, and thoroughly mixed with
rejuvenator and possibly some new aggregate before being replaced on grade with a
paver unit. Hot in-place recycling equipment may also have the capability to place a thin
(20 mm to 25 mm) lift of new asphalt wearing course immediately following placement
of the recycled material, with the two materials then compacted together to form a
monolithic lift.
6.5.4 Surface Treatments
A variety of surface treatments may be applied to asphalt and gravel surfaced pavements.
The term seal coat may also be used when a treatment is applied to an asphalt surface.
A brief outline of various surface treatments is given below, although surface treatments
are not often applied to airport pavements. An exception is the fuel-resistant seal coat
applied to asphalt aprons.
Fog Seals
Fog seals consist of a light spray of a diluted slow setting asphalt emulsion or a coal tar
emulsion on an asphalt surface. Application rate is 0.5 to 0.75 litres per square metre.
Fog seals are sometimes promoted on the basis of rejuvenating the asphalt cement in an
existing pavement surface, although the amount of rejuvenation achieved is questionable.
Proprietary products are available that contain specially formulated mixtures of coal tar
and oils which purportedly give better penetration of asphalt surfaces. Regardless of any
structural benefits, fog seals temporarily improve the visual appearance of a pavement
and this effect should not be depreciated as restoration decisions are sometimes unduly
influenced by visual appearance. Coal tar based materials also provide resistance to
damage from fuel spills.
Fog seals should not be applied to runways as they tend to lower skid resistance to
unacceptable levels. If a coal tar seal is applied to an apron surface for fuel protection
purposes, the application and rolling in of a sand cover should be considered to alleviate
potential problems with slippery surfaces.
- 6.58 -
Dust control spraying of gravel surfaces using a liquid asphalt, and prime and tack coats,
are similar in nature to a fog seal treatment, although application rates vary depending on
purpose of the treatment and the type of surface being treated.
Asphalt-Aggregate Treatments
Asphalt-aggregate treatments consist of spraying liquid bitumen on an asphalt pavement

or a primed granular surface, followed immediately by the spreading and rolling-in of an
aggregate cover. The bitumen employed is normally a rapid setting anionic or cationic
emulsion, although a penetration grade asphalt cement heated to spraying temperature
may also be used. The aggregate should consist of hard and durable material, and contain
crushed particles if surface friction is a consideration. Surface treatments may be applied
as a single application or as a multiple application in which two or more layers are placed
for greater durability. Proper application rates for the emulsion and aggregate depend on
a number of factors, including condition of the pavement surface and the nature of the
aggregate being used. Trial sections at the start of a project may be used to confirm
appropriate application rates.
A sand seal is a treatment applied to an asphalt surface in which the aggregate used is a
clean sand or sand-size screenings. A sand seal may be applied to bind and waterproof a
ravelling surface or to improve friction. Sand seals constructed by the separate
application of bitumen and sand are not often employed as bleeding problems sometimes
result from the treatment. More commonly, the sand and emulsion are premixed and
applied as a slurry, in which case the treatment is referred to as a slurry seal (see below).
Chip seals are the most frequently used type of asphalt-aggregate treatment, and the name
derives from the use of uniformly sized stone particles. Maximum particle size is 10 mm
to 15 mm, and the size of most particles is not less than one-half the maximum. Chip
seals are commonly applied to granular surfaces or previously treated granular surfaces to
provide a wearing surface and for waterproofing purposes.
A graded aggregate may also be employed, in which case a multiple application of two or
three layers is generally constructed with the aggregate in subsequent layers having a
finer gradation than in the previous layer. A multiple application graded aggregate
treatment is an inexpensive means of constructing a surface approaching cold mix asphalt
concrete.
Surface treatments are not often employed on airfield pavements because of low
durability and a tendency to peel or pothole, with maintenance then becoming a major
problem, particularly at remote sites.
Slurry Seals
A slurry seal is similar to a sand seal except the materials are pre-mixed and applied to
the pavement surface as a slurry. Pre-mixing of the component materials in place of
separate application improves durability of the seal coat. Slurry seals may be applied for
various reasons, including waterproofing, covering a ravelling or worn surface, or to
- 6.59 -
improve friction characteristics. Protection against fuel spills may also be an objective,
in which case a coal tar emulsion rather than asphalt emulsion is used as a binder.
Asphalt emulsion slurry seals are a mixture of asphalt emulsion, sand aggregate, filler,
and water. Polymer additives may be added to modify properties of the asphalt
component, or chemicals added to modify the setting time. Emulsions of grade SS-1h
(anionic) or CSS-1h (cationic) are normally used, although quick-set emulsions, grade
QS-1h or CQS-1h, may also be employed. The aggregate is a graded material with a
specified maximum size of 1-mm to 10-mm. A finer gradation is used if a greater
penetration and sealing of cracks is desired, and a coarser gradation is employed if a
thicker seal or improved macro-texture is the objective. The aggregate should be a
manufactured product, 100% crushed, if friction characteristics of the finished surface are
of concern. Portland cement or hydrated lime may be used as a filler to modify set times,
modify aggregate gradation or improve workability. Mix design requirements and test
methods are outlined in ASTM D3910.
The material components are proportioned, combined and mixed in a mobile, continuous
flow mixing unit, and the mixture is discharged into a spreader box towed behind the
mixer. A flexible strike-off spreads the slurry to a uniform covering of proper thickness.
On airfield pavements, a minimum of five coverages by a pneumatic roller should be
provided after the surface has set sufficiently to support the rolling operation. A double
application of slurry seal is normally specified for airfield pavements. The second
application should be placed in lanes perpendicular in direction to the lanes of the first
application.
Slurry seals are considerably less costly than hot-mix overlays, but also have a shorter
service life. An effective slurry seal service life of 3 to 5 years may be assumed for
comparison purposes although the industry generally claims a 5 to 8 year life span. A life
cycle cost comparison may reveal a hot-mix overlay is the least expensive option in the
long run.
Micro-Surfacing
Micro-surfacing is a form of slurry seal except a polymer modified asphalt emulsion is

used and the slurry is placed to a greater thickness than normal seal coats. A normal seal
coat has a thickness of 1 to 1 times the maximum aggregate size, whereas micro-
surfacing is placed to a thickness of 2 to 3 times the maximum aggregate size. To
support the greater thickness, the asphalt must be polymer modified to stiffen the cured
material against deformation under traffic. Polymer additives can provide other benefits
as well, such as increase flexibility or improve bonding and resistance to wear. Mix
design requirements and test methods are given in ASTM D6372.
Micro-surfacing may be employed when a thicker, longer lasting wearing surface is

desired than would be achieved with a normal slurry seal. Micro-surfacing may also be
used to fill ruts and level surfaces when rutting or deformation occurs in road pavements.
- 6.60 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Chapter 7 : Miscellaneous Topics
CHAPTER 7
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Section Page
7.1 Planning and Programming . 7.2
7.2 Life Cycle Costing 7.5
7.3 Drainage 7.7
7.4 Pavements in Permafrost Areas 7.10
7.5 Subgrade Elastic Modulus ... 7.14
Tables
Table 7.01 Life Cycle Cost Comparison of Asphalt vs Concrete Pavement . 7.6
Table 7.02 Plate Elastic Modulus of Subgrade Soils ...... 7.16
Figures
Figure 7.01 Average Aircraft Delay . 7.3

Figure 7.02 Service Life of Pavement Surfaces 7.4
Figure 7.03 Pavement Edge Drainage ... 7.8
Figure 7.04 Continuous Flexible Edge Drains .. 7.8
Figure 7.05 Apron Drainage .. 7.9
Figure 7.06 Permafrost Regions of Canada 7.10
Figure 7.07 Thawing Index Map of Canada ...... 7.11
Figure 7.08 Thaw Penetrations vs Air Thawing Index .. 7.12
Figure 7.09 Static Repetitive Plate Load Test Diagram .. 7.15
Figure 7.10 Plate Bearing Strength vs Elastic Modulus . 7.17
Figure 7.11 Average Relationship between Various Measures of Subgrade Strength 7.17
- 7.1 -
CHAPTER 7
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
7.1 Planning and Programming
Most airports are established to support national or regional development objectives.

Although airports serving larger centres eventually evolve into self-sustaining
commercial enterprises, many airports in their early years require capital subsidies for
development work and may require operating subsidies as well. The Federal Government
of Canada offers a capital assistance program for airports not owned or operated by the
government, and having regularly scheduled passenger service or serving remote
settlements.
Pavement capital work projects fall into two broad categories, and planning and
programming procedures depend on the category. The first category represents an
expansion of inventory through the construction of new pavement facilities. The second
category involves restoration projects where the work is needed to maintain the existing
system in a condition suitable for operations and no increase in pavement inventory
results.
New Facilities
New airside pavement facilities are justified through an analysis of demand and capacity,
and demonstrating the benefits of constructing a new facility exceed the cost. Airside
capacity is a measure of the maximum number of aircraft operations that can be
accommodated in an hour and is a function of such variables as runway and taxiway
configuration, weather conditions, navigational aids, aircraft mix, and ratio of arrivals to
departures. Annual service volume is a reasonable estimate of the number of operations
that can be accommodated on an annual basis, taking into account normal patterns of
runway use, aircraft mix, weather conditions, etc. Congestion and aircraft delays increase
as demand approaches capacity and average delay increases quite rapidly when demand
exceeds nominal capacity, as illustrated in Figure 7.01. FAA has published methods to
evaluate airport capacities and software is available to simulate airside operations and
investigate a wide range of operational situations.
A basic airport configuration consists of a single runway with turnarounds at the ends, an
apron parking area, and a stub taxiway connecting apron to runway. A cross-wind
runway may also be desirable depending on prevailing weather patterns, traffic levels and
size of aircraft served. This basic configuration is generally suitable for up to 50,000
movements per year. Parallel taxiway development is required when traffic levels reach
50,000 to 100,000 movements per year, and a runway with a well-developed parallel
taxiway system, including intermediate rapid exit taxiways, can accommodate roughly
200,000 to 250,000 movements per year. Traffic volumes in excess of this level require
multi-runway development, and airports of this size should maintain a master plan.
- 7.2 -
8
From:
"Airport Capacity and Delay"
FAA AC 150/5060-5
7
Average Delay per Aircraft (minutes)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Ratio of Annual Demand to Annual Service Volume
Figure 7.01 : AVERAGE AIRCRAFT DELAY
Airport master plans are a long-range projection of traffic levels and the identification of
new facilities or facility expansion needed to accommodate traffic increases. Projections
should be reasonably accurate over the immediate five to ten year period, with high and
low estimates made for the 20 year period. Major new development projects may take
five to seven years to complete; two or three years for pre-construction activities such as
technical studies, design, contract preparation and approvals; and three or four years for
the actual construction. Even longer lead times may be required for environmentally
sensitive projects. Consequently, the airport master plan should be updated at least every
five years.
Restoration Projects
The need for pavement restoration is identified through monitoring and evaluating the
pavement operational attributes of structural integrity, ride quality and skid resistance.
The primary monitoring activity used for the justification and scheduling of restoration
needs is pavement structural condition surveys. When a pavement is newly constructed,
the restoration year may be estimated by adding an average service life for the
construction involved to the year of construction. As the pavement matures and the rate
of deterioration is established through periodic condition surveys, restoration scheduling
is modified to the year in which it is estimated that normal maintenance will be
insufficient to keep the pavement operational.
The service life of a pavement is the time period in years between construction and
restoration of the pavement surface. This variable is important for the preliminary
programming of restoration measures, and for the life cycle cost comparison of different
- 7.3 -
design options. Figure 7.02 gives distributions of service life experienced at Canadian
airports for new concrete surfaces, new asphalt surfaces and asphalt overlay surfaces. For
planning purposes, service lives corresponding to the 50th percentile value should
generally be used; a value closer to the 75th percentile may be used for light traffic
conditions. Less than the 50th percentile should be used if the pavement is deficient with
respect to construction materials, frost protection or bearing strength. A recycled or
replaced asphalt surface may be assumed to have a service life equal to a new asphalt
pavement.
41.3
40
original concrete surface
30
25.3
20
14.7
10
6.7 6.7
2.7 average = 25.7 years 2.7
0
40
original asphalt surface
Frequency (%)
30
25.4
23.7
20 19.3
17.5
10 7.9
3.5 average = 19.6 years
0.9 1.8
0
41.7
40
35.4
asphalt overlay surface
30
20
14.0
10
6.1 average = 15.8 years
1.8 1.0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Service Life (years)
Figure 7.02 : SERVICE LIFE OF PAVEMENT SURFACES
- 7.4 -
7.2 Life Cycle Costing
Alternatives usually exist in a design situation. Asphalt versus concrete construction is a

basic choice facing the designer of a new pavement. Alternatives ranging from a simple
resurfacing overlay to complete reconstruction are available when designing restoration
measures. The choice between alternatives is usually based on cost, although other
factors such as traffic disruption may also be important. Theoretically, economic
decisions should not be made on the basis of initial cost but should consider all costs
incurred over an extended period of time.
The life cycle cost comparison of design alternatives requires a present value analysis.
The present value of a series of expenditures over a number of years is calculated as:
n Mi Rn
PV = C0 +
i
n
. Eq. (7.1)
i =1 (1 + r ) ( 1 + r )
where PV = present value of costs ($)
n = analysis period (years)
C0 = cost of initial construction in year 0
Mi = cost of maintenance or restoration in year i
Rn = residual value of the facility at the end of the analysis period
r = annual discount rate applied to future costs and values
Table 7.01 gives a typical life cycle cost comparison between an asphalt pavement and a
concrete pavement. An analysis period of 30 years is chosen because it is assumed both
pavement structures need restoration at the end of this period, provided the asphalt
pavement receives an interim resurfacing overlay at year 18. Consequently, residual
values are approximately equal at the end of the 30 years and this factor can be
eliminated from the comparison.
The future maintenance costs used in the calculation represent present day dollar value,
and are not inflated to estimate future costs. The application of an annual discount rate
applied to these present day costs when they are expended in the future reflects the
advantages of delaying expenditures. These advantages include the average difference
between interest and inflation rates, possible productivity gains in the future, and a more
accurate assessment of future requirements as time progresses. A 10% annual discount
rate is normally applied to future expenditures and values. Calculations are sometimes
repeated using discount rates of 5% and 15% to determine the sensitivity of the decision
process to this factor.
The life cycle cost comparison given in Table 7.01 serves to illustrate two major points.
The first observation is that future restoration and maintenance costs are not large
compared to initial construction costs, especially when the future costs are discounted.
Consequently, the economic comparison of new asphalt and new concrete pavement
structures can usually be made on the basis of initial construction costs only. The second
observation is that based on typical current costs, concrete construction is about 50%
- 7.5 -
more expensive than asphalt construction irrespective of whether or not future restoration
and maintenance costs are considered. This conclusion is not fixed, as there are periods
when crude oil and associated asphalt prices increase dramatically, and there are other
special circumstances where the cost of asphalt construction relative to concrete
construction is not as favorable as indicated in Table 7.01. The life cycle cost
comparison must be recalculated under these circumstances.
Life cycle costing is more useful for the comparison of restoration alternatives where
there is a variety of design possibilities, along with the frequent development of new
equipment and techniques. In general, the excavation and complete rebuilding of a
pavement structure is three to five times the cost of a simple resurfacing overlay, and the
gain in service life is rarely commensurate unless deficiencies in the current pavement
structure are so severe that a resurfacing overlay serves less than 5 years. There are
intermediate measures, however, such as replacing or recycling the asphalt surface layer,
and life cycle costing can be employed to determine the performance needed to make
these measures cost competitive.
Table 7.01 : Life Cycle Cost Comparison of Asphalt vs Concrete Pavement
Design Assumptions: (Note: Costs shown are 1995 $ value)

Subgrade Bearing Strength SSR = 80 kN
Freezing Index F.I. = 1000 C-days
Design Aircraft ALR = 12
Asphalt Pavement:
construction - 100 mm AC + 300 mm CGB + 900 mm SB cost $60 / m2
restoration - 100 mm AC year 18 cost $16 / m2
maintenance - crack sealing and patching years 5 to 9 cost $0.15 / m2
years 10 to 14 cost $0.20 / m2
Concrete Pavement:
construction - 375 mm PCC + 200 mm CSB + 400 mm SB cost 100 / m2
restoration - nil
maintenance - joint resealing year 20 cost $2.50 / m2
slab replacement year 15 cost $1.60 / m2
year 25 cost $5.00 / m2
crack sealing & patching years 10 to 14 cost $0.20 / m2
Life Cycle Cost Comparison
Year Discount Estimated Cost $/ m2 Year Discount Estimated Cost $/m2
Factor Asphalt Pavement Concrete Pavement Factor Asphalt Pavement Concrete Pavement
Actual Discounted Actual Discounted Actual Discounted Actual Discounted
0 1.000 60.00 60.00 100.00 100.00 15 0.239 0.50 0.120 2.00 0.479
1 0.909 - - - - 16 0.218 0.50 0.109 0.40 0.087
2 0.826 - - - - 17 0.198 0.50 0.099 0.40 0.079
3 0.751 - - - - 18 0.180 16.00 2.878 0.40 0.072
4 0.683 - - - - 19 0.164 - - 0.40 0.065
5 0.621 0.15 0.093 - - 20 0.149 - - 3.20 0.476
6 0.564 0.15 0.085 - - 21 0.135 0.50 0.068 0.70 0.095
7 0.513 0.15 0.077 - - 22 0.123 0.50 0.061 0.70 0.086
8 0.467 0.15 0.070 - - 23 0.112 0.50 0.056 0.70 0.078
9 0.424 0.15 0.064 - - 24 0.102 0.50 0.051 0.70 0.071
10 0.386 0.20 0.077 0.20 0.077 25 0.092 0.50 0.046 6.00 0.554
11 0.350 0.20 0.070 0.20 0.070 26 0.084 1.00 0.084 1.00 0.084
12 0.319 0.20 0.064 0.20 0.064 27 0.076 1.00 0.076 1.00 0.076
13 0.290 0.20 0.058 0.20 0.058 28 0.069 1.00 0.069 1.00 0.069
14 0.263 0.20 0.053 0.20 0.053 29 0.063 1.00 0.063 1.00 0.063
Total for 30 year period 85.75 64.44 120.60 102.76
- 7.6 -
7.3 Drainage
Surface Drainage
Airport surface drainage is effected by contouring surface grades. Runways and taxiways
should be crowned on centreline and transverse grades should be the maximum permitted
by geometric standards. Aprons must be graded away from buildings with grades
between a minimum of 0.5% and the maximum allowable. Graded areas should be
sloped away from pavement areas, preferably at the maximum allowable grade, although,
to avoid large increases to earthwork quantities, flatter grades may be required on
occasion or even backsloping beyond a 3 m shoulder area. Open ditching must be
located outside of graded areas and beyond runway end safety areas. Ditching side
slopes should not exceed 3:1 (4:1 preferable) if grass cutting and other maintenance
equipment is to operate within the ditch.
Subsurface Drainage
Subsurface drainage systems are normally installed around the perimeter of hardsurfaced
airside pavements. The primary purpose of these systems is to provide drainage for
pavement base and subbase layers, but the systems also serve to remove excess surface
water that may be encountered on occasion, such as during spring thaw. Consequently,
for major pavement facilities, edge drainage systems are usually installed even if the
subgrade soil is permeable.
Figure 7.03 gives some standard design details of edge drainage systems installed at
Canadian airports. The drains consist of perforated pipe placed on granular bedding in
narrow trenches and backfilled with a granular filter material wrapped in filter fabric.
Corrugated steel perforated pipe has been used almost exclusively in the past, although
perforated plastic pipe has become an alternative. Pipe of 200 mm diameter is used for
the first 300 m of a run, 250 mm diameter for distances 300 m to 1200 m, and 300 mm
diameter for distances beyond 1200 m of continuous run. Non-perforated pipe of
minimum 300 mm diameter is used for crossings under paved surfaces. Alternating
manholes and catchbasins are placed at intervals of about 60 m in most instances,
although this spacing may be increased to the maximums shown in Figure 7.03. Design
details of manholes and catchbasins are given in the appendix of standard drawings.
The reduced edge drainage installation illustrated in Figure 7.04 may be considered for
small airports where the standard design proves too costly. The reduced system consists
of a continuous run of small-diameter perforated plastic pipe placed to the depth of
subbase. The drainage system has no manholes or catchbasins, but has periodic off-takes
to open ditching beyond the graded area.
Figure 7.05 illustrates some design details of subsurface storm water drainage systems
commonly needed for large apron areas. Where fuel separators or collection systems for
fuel contaminated run-off are installed, the drainage systems must be designed to isolate
contaminated water from uncontaminated discharge.
- 7.7 -
MH Type F CB Type B
RUNWAY
A
A
TAXIWAY
edge of graded area
drainage ditch
operational surface 1200 mm
Minimum subdrain slope 0.2%
Maximum manhole spacing: granular base

D = 200 to 250 m for slopes < 0.5%
D = 250 to 300 m for slopes > 0.5% granular sub-base 100 - 150 mm
above subgrade
Minimum cover equal to the greater of:
(a) maximum seasonal f rost penetration, fine filter material
as specified
(b) depth of pavement construction materials. a
filter fabric
Perforated Pipe Size per Length of Continuous Run b
16 - 9.5 mm coarse a
200 mm first 300 m
filter material
250 mm 300 to 1200 m a b a
300 mm beyond 1200 m Section A - A a = 75 mm min

b = as required
Figure 7.03 PAVEMENT EDGE DRAINAGE
Note: (b) capped end

clean-out or MH
continuous
sub-drain pipe RUNWAY
with filter sock
Note: (b) D
.
.P edge of graded area
.P
N
drainage ditch
Notes:
a) D = 150 to 200 m, pipe with filter material
or according to site conditions filter sock as specified
b) Outlet points - continuous pipe,
'Y' or 'T' connections
Trenching Ploughing
detail granular base detail
granular subbase
Figure 7.04 : CONTINUOUS FLEXIBLE EDGE DRAINS
- 7.8 -
maximum apron slope 1%
B see detail A
edge of pavement
perforated pipe
non-perforated pipe
MH Type L
B
operational surface
Detail A (see Note 2)
1000 min PCC
construction joint
2 or 3 20M bars CSB
min length S + 1200
(see Note 3)
sub-base
A ID 100
contraction joint
non-shrink min
see standard 4
construction joints
S for details
D
opening in PCC slab
A ID 100
lean concrete min
4
D + 200 min
S + 1200 min Section B - B

80 S 80
Notes:
min 80
1. All dimensions in millimetres.
2. Detail A applies when location of
manholes and catchbasins in slab
interiors cannot be avoided.
Preferred location is at slab corner.
min 80
2 or 3 20M bars 3. Use 2 - 20M bars for a slab thickness
each side (see Note 3) of 300 mm or less.
Section A - A
Figure 7.05 : APRON DRAINAGE
- 7.9 -
7.4 Pavements in Permafrost Areas
Figure 7.06 shows the permafrost areas of northern Canada. Airport pavements
constructed in these areas need special consideration. Granular soils of low ice content
are encountered throughout much of the eastern Arctic and such soils do not usually
present major problems. Fine-grained soils with a high ice content, such as frequently
encountered in the Mackenzie River Valley, are likely to be very unstable and produce
large settlements if thawing occurs. Site selection studies, including geotechnical
investigations, need special attention to ensure sites selected minimize permafrost related
problems.
In the far north where the active layer (maximum depth of thaw) is not too deep, the
normal design approach is to construct an insulating embankment as a foundation for
pavements. The embankment is constructed of stable materials and to the depth of the
active layer so post-construction thaw does not penetrate the original in-situ soil to any
significant extent. Thawing index is a variable of interest when estimating the depth of
thaw, and Figure 7.07 gives thawing index isograms for northern Canada. Thawing index
is similar to the freezing index discussed in the chapter on structural design and
evaluation, except thawing index represents the accumulation of daily average air
temperatures over the summer thaw period. Figure 7.08 gives some data on thaw depth
as a function of site thawing index.
co
nti
wi nu
de ou
sp r s pe
ead rm
sca dis afr
tte c on ost
red tin
d u ou
isc s
on pe
tin rm
alpine uo afr
us os t
permafrost sea pe
so rm
na afr
l fr ost
os
tp
en
etr
a tio
n
Reproduced from:
PERMAFROST - Engineering Design and Construction
National Research Council of Canada, 1981
Figure 7.06 : PERMAFROST REGIONS OF CANADA
- 7.10 -
CANADA
250 AVERAGE THAWING INDICES
250 CDAYS
500
750
197 0 - 1999
1000
1250
1750
1500 1500
1750
1750
500
2000
750
2000
- 7.11 -
1000
2250
highly dependent 1250
on elevation in
mountainous region
2250
1500
1750
2500
2000
2250
Figure 7.07 : THAWING INDEX MAP OF CANADA

2500
Note:
Approximate indication only.
Thawing index also dependent on elevation.
Chapter 7 : Miscellaneous Topics
3000
Gravel Surfaced Runways
X = 730 + 88 TI
Number of Observations = 16
2500 Standard Error of Estimate = 110 mm
Depth of Thaw Penetration X (mm)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
100 500 1000 2000 3000
Air Thawing Index TI Cdays
3000
Undisturbed Natural Ground Cover
Depth of thaw determined by soundings.
Number of Observations = 60
2500
Depth of Thaw Penetration X (mm)
2000
maximum X 63 TI
1500
1000
500
0
100 500 1000 2000 3000
Air Thawing Index TI Cdays
Figure 7.08 : THAW PENETRATIONS vs AIR THAWING INDEX
- 7.12 -
In the southern reaches of the permafrost zone, the depth of the active layer generally
renders the deep embankment approach uneconomical. In these areas, the design of
airport pavement structures is based on strength considerations using a subgrade bearing
strength estimated for the thawed subgrade soil. Where thaw penetrates the subgrade soil
to previously unthawed depths following construction, substantial settlements can be
expected in the pavement structure as the subsurface permafrost regime adjusts to a new
state of equilibrium. Gravel surfaced pavements are preferred under these circumstances
as the resulting surface irregularities can be corrected easily and economically through
regrading. Gravel surfaced pavements are also preferred in areas of spotty or
discontinuous permafrost where pockets of ice-rich soil existing at depth may thaw
following construction and produce localized settlement that continues for many years.
Where paving is an operational necessity in such areas, patching for levelling purposes
and possibly resurfacing courses can be expected at frequent intervals.
Experimental techniques to reduce the depth of active layer have been tried, such as
incorporating an insulating layer in the pavement structure, and lightening the colour of
asphalt surfaces to reduce the absorption of solar radiation. Other than using insulation in
the localized reconstruction of frost heave areas, such techniques are best left in the
experimental domain.
Drainage is an important consideration for northern airport pavements. Water acts as a

heat sink and changes to surface drainage patterns should be minimized as they
frequently degrade the permafrost and produce large settlements. Pavement subsurface
drainage is difficult as pipes located at depth provide subsurface drainage for only a short
period of the year. A double layer of pipe may be considered: an upper pipe for drainage
during the early thaw period and a lower pipe for drainage toward the end of the thaw
period.
Excavation can be difficult in ice-rich fine-grained soils. If such soils are allowed to
thaw to depth over an extensive area, construction in the area may have to be halted for a
number of years until the soil dries out. Therefore, excavation proceeds in layers. After
stripping the insulating organic cover, the soil is allowed to thaw to a depth of 100 mm to
150 mm and this thawed layer is removed. The next lift is then allowed to thaw and is
removed, and the process continues in this fashion. Once design grade is reached,
granular backfill is placed before any further thawing takes place. Alternatively, blasting
or ripping operations may be possible during the freezing season.
- 7.13 -
7.5 Subgrade Elastic Modulus
A layered elastic system is frequently used as a model for pavement structures. The
system has of a number of horizontal contiguous layers that are of infinite extent laterally
but of finite thickness vertically, except for the bottom layer which extends infinitely
downward. The material in each layer is assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic and
linearly elastic. The stress and strain analysis of a layered elastic system subject to a
surface load applied through a circular contact area is appended. The model must be
applied with caution as the stress/strain characteristics of pavement construction materials
depart significantly from the assumption of linear elasticity.
A pavement subgrade may be visualized as an elastic system of a single layer (an elastic
half-space.) The following equation derived from elastic theory relates deflection of the
subgrade surface to load when the load is applied to the surface through a circular rigid
plate:
(1 2 ) P .. Eq. (7.2)
=
E D
where = surface deflection (m)

P = plate load (MN)
D = plate diameter (m)
E = subgrade elastic modulus (MPa)
= subgrade Poissons ratio
Rearranging the equation, assuming = 1/3 and for D = 0.750 m :
E = 1.186 P
.. Eq. (7.3)
A load-deflection diagram resulting from a repetitive static plate load test is illustrated in
Figure 7.09. Loads are applied to the subgrade surface through a circular rigid plate.
Three levels of loading are employed with the load at each level applied and released six
times. Each load application and load release is held constant until plate movement
essentially ceases, at which time deflection or accumulated settlement is recorded. As
illustrated in Figure 7.09, the total deflection recorded under a load has two components;
recoverable (resilient) deformation and non-recoverable (plastic) deformation. The
elastic modulus calculated from Equation (7.3) obviously depends on whether total
deflection or the rebound deflection is used for the calculation.
Typical elastic modulus values for various types of subgrade soil are listed in Table 7.02.
Regardless of whether elastic modulus is based on total deflection or rebound deflection,
the modulus of cohesive soils tends to decrease with increasing deflection and the
modulus of non-cohesive soils tends to increase. Figure 7.10 contains a correlation
between subgrade plate bearing strength and the elastic modulus values, EP and Er, where
EP is calculated from the load on a 750 mm diameter plate giving a total deflection of
5 mm and Er is calculated from the load on a 750 mm diameter plate giving a rebound of
2.5 mm.
- 7.14 -
The elastic modulus values of Table 7.02 and Figure 7.10 are derived from the results of
tests where loads are applied statically. Elastic modulus values considerably higher in
magnitude are determined when testing involves loads that are applied dynamically, such
as with the falling weight deflectometer. Depending on the type of material, even higher
modulus values may be obtained from wave propagation testing methods where
deformations are very small in addition to the loads being dynamic in nature.
Pressuremeter testing of subgrades involves the static application of load and elastic
modulus values determined from pressuremeter testing are thought to approximate those
obtained through static plate load testing. Actual data supporting this supposition is
limited to date. However, with this assumption, Figure 7.11 can be used to estimate
subgrade plate bearing strength and other strength characteristics from the elastic
modulus values obtained from pressuremeter testing.
350
total deflection 3rd load 1st repetition
plastic deformation resilient deformation
300 3rd load
250
Load (kN)
200
150 2nd load
100
1st load
50
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
Deflection (mm)
Figure 7.09 : STATIC REPETITIVE PLATE LOAD TEST DIAGRAM
- 7.15 -
Table 7.02 : Plate Elastic Modulus of Subgrade Soils
Soil No. of Modulus Average Elastic Modulus (MPa) at Deflection (mm) of

Type Tests Based on 0.625 1.25 2.5 5.0 7.5 10
CL 78 defln 30.0 24.1 19.9 16.0 14.1 13.0

rebound 37.8 32.8 28.6 26.7
CH 37 defln 27.3 21.5 17.4 13.5 11.6 10.5

rebound 40.0 32.9 26.9 21.4
ML 22 defln 19.9 17.1 15.1 13.1 11.6 10.9

rebound 34.9 30.1 27.0 24.1
SC 12 defln 28.2 24.1 21.3 18.1 17.0 15.1

rebound 40.9 37.6 35.5
SM 38 defln 31.6 28.6 26.8 24.8 23.9 21.8

reboundr 56.2 54.9 55.7
SP 20 defln 61.5 55.5 52.0 44.5 33.9 27.2

reboundr 67.9 73.2 80.4
SW 8 defln 32.3 30.4 28.6 30.2 30.3 29.3

rebound 47.1 52.1 57.9
GC 5 defln 44.2 39.1 35.4 31.8 28.6 27.1

rebound 76.4 70.7 70.6
GM 5 defln 12.9 13.9 15.4 16.6 17.1 17.7

rebound 38.1 39.3 41.3
GW 4 defln 83.0 79.4 79.4 80.1

rebound 107.1 124.3 150.7
Overall 229 defln 32.5 27.8 24.6 21.4 17.7 16.2

Average rebound 46.1 43.3 41.9
Note : Calculated from the results of repetitive static plate load tests using a 750 mm diameter plate.
Rebound deflection based on the average of values measured following the 6 load releases at each loading level.
Poissons ratio = 1/3 assumed.
- 7.16 -
1000
E r - elastic modulus calculated from load on S = 3.5 E r
750 mm plate giving 2.5 mm rebound S = 7 Ep
E p - elastic modulus calculated from load on
500 750 mm plate giving 5 mm total deflection
Subgrade Bearing Strength S (kN)
(750mm plate, 12.5mm defl'n, 10 rep)
300
200
100
50
30
20
3 5 10 20 30 50 100 200 300
Plate Elastic Modulus E (MPa)
Figure 7.10 : PLATE BEARING STRENGTH vs ELASTIC MODULUS
Plate Deflection Elastic Modulus Ep (MPa)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Plate Rebound Elastic Modulus E r (MPa)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Plate Bearing Strength S (kN)
0 100 200 300 400 500

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction k (MPa/m)
0 50 100 150 200

California Bearing Ratio - Field (CBR)
2 5 10 15 20
Figure 7.11
AVERAGE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
VARIOUS MEASURES OF SUBGRADE STRENGTH
- 7.17 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix A : Mathematical Models
APPENDIX A
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Section Page
Bessel Function Notation . A.2
A1 Infinite Thin Plate ... A.4
A2 Multilayered Elastic System . A.17
A3 McLeods Bearing Plate Model ... A.29
- A.1 -
BESSEL FUNCTION NOTATION
References
McLachlan, N.W., Bessel Functions for Engineers, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 1955.
Watson, G.N., A Treatise on the Theory of Bessel Functions, Second Edition, Cambridge University
Press, 1944.
Bessels Differential Equation
A Bessel function of order n is a function that satisfies the differential equation:
d 2y 1 d y n 2
+ + 1 y = 0
d x2 x d x x 2
For n integer, the two independent forms of Bessel function most commonly used are designated Jn(x) and
Yn(x). For A and B constant, the general solution of the differential equation is:
y = A J n (x) + B Yn (x)
Bessel Functions of the First Kind, Jn(x)
2r + n 2
1 x 1 i n i x sin
J n (x) = (1) r

r! (r + n)! 2
=
2 e e d
r =0 0
In particular, for order 0,
2 4 6
1 x 1 x 1 x
J 0 (x) = 1 + + ......
1!1! 2 2!2! 2 3!3! 2
Bessel Functions of the Second Kind, Yn(x) (Webers form)
n 1 n 2r
2 x 1 (n r 1)! 2
for n 1 Yn (x) = + log J n (x)
2

r!

x
r =0
n + 2r
1 (1) r x 1 1 1 1 1 1

r! (n + r)! 2
1 + + + ... + + 1 + + + ... +
2 3 r 2 3 n

+r
r =0
1 1 1
the term in the last series is 1 + + + ... + when r = 0 ; = Eulers constant = 0.5772
2 3 n
2 (1) r x
2r
2 x 1 1 1
for order 0, Y0 (x) = + log J 0 (x)
2

r! r! 2
1 + + + ... +
2 3 r
r =1
- A.2 -
()
Bessel Functions of the Third Kind, H n (x) , Hankel Functions :
(1) 1 (1) (2)

H n (x) = J n (x) + i Yn (x) or J n (x) = H n (x) + H n (x)
2
(2) 1 (1) (2)
H n (x) = J n (x) i Yn (x) Yn (x) = H n (x) H n (x)
2i
Modified Bessel Functions, I 0 (x), K 0 (x) :

1 dy d 2y
Noting that J o ( x ) is a solution of the equation + 2 y = 0 , the modified Bessel
+
x dx dx 2
functions may be used as solutions of Bessels differential equation occurring in the form:
d 2y 1 dy
+ y = 0
dx 2 x dx
2 4 6 2r
1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x
I 0 (x) = J 0 (ix) = 1 + +
1!1! 2
+
2! 2! 2
+ ... =
3!3! 2

r! r! 2

r =0

K 0 (x) = i {J 0 (ix) + iY0 (ix)}
2
2r
x 1 x 1 1 1
= + log I 0 (x) + 1 + + + ... +
2 r! r! 2 2 3 r
r =1
Ber, Bei, Ker and Kei Functions (Bessel real, Bessel imaginary)
1 3
I 0 (x i 2) = ber(x) i bei(x) = J 0 (x i 2)
1 x
4
1 x
8
so that ber(x) = 1 + ...
2! 2! 2 4! 4! 2
1 x 2 1 x
6
1 x
10
bei(x) = + ...
1!1! 2 3!3! 2 5!5! 2
1
and K 0 (x i 2 ) = ker(x) i kei(x)
4 8
x 1 x 1 1 x 1 1 1
ker(x) = + log ber(x) + bei(x) 1 + + 1 + + + ...
2 4 2!2! 2 2 4!4! 2 2 3 4
2 6
x 1 x 1 x 1 1
kei(x) = + log bei(x) ber(x) + 1 + + + ...
2 4 1!1! 2 3!3! 2 2 3
__________________________________________________________________________________
1 1 1 3 3
i i (1 i ) i (1 i )
Note : i = 1 = e2 i 2 = e 4 = i 2 = e 4 =
2 2
1
log (ix) = log (i) + log (x) = i + log(x)
2
- A.3 -
SECTION A1 : INFINITE THIN PLATE
A1.1 References
Timoshenko, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1940.
Wyman, M., Deflections of an Infinite Plate, Canadian Journal of Research, A.28, 1950.
Pickett et al., Deflections, Moments and Reactive Pressures for Concrete Pavements, Kansas State
College, Bulletin No 65, 1951.
A1.2 The Model
Deflections and flexural stresses in a concrete slab (and in floating ice sheets) are traditionally computed
using equations derived from the theory of thin plates. As illustrated in the following sketch, the model
consists of an infinite thin plate resting on a foundation and supporting a load on the surface.
surface load q
plate
thickness h
deflection thin plate
foundation foundation reactive pressure p

directly proportional to
Assumptions:
the plate is of uniform thickness, infinite extent, and consists of a homogeneous, isotropic and elastic
material;
the loads on the top and the bottom of the plate occur in a direction normal to these surfaces;
the range of relative thickness is such that the theory of thin plates may be applied.
The plate deflects under the surface load, and the foundation exerts a reactive pressure on the underside of
the plate as a result of the deflection. The foundation reactive pressure at a given point is assumed to be
directly proportional to the deflection of the plate at that point, and is assumed to be independent of the
deflection of the plate at other points. This latter assumption implies that the foundation acts as a liquid
medium rather than an elastic solid.
- A.4 -
With these assumptions, the following differential equation applies (Timoshenko) :
D 2 2 = q - p .... Eq. A1(1)
d 2 1 d
where 2 = +
d r2 r dr
r = horizontal radial distance
= deflection of the plate, a function of r
D = flexural rigidity of the plate = E h 3 12 (1 2 )
E = Youngs modulus of the plate material (27,500 MPa assumed for concrete)
= Poissons ratio of the plate material (0.15 assumed for concrete)
h = thickness of the plate
q = intensity of surface loading
p = intensity of reactive loading by the foundation on the underside of the plate

= k
k = the foundation spring constant (modulus of subgrade reaction)
Substituting p = k in equation A1.(1) :
D 2 2 + k = q Eq. A1(2)
A1.3 Concentrated Load
If the load acting on the surface of the plate is a concentrated load, P, then for every point on the plate
outside the point of load application :
D 2 2 + k = 0
1
or 2 2 + = 0 ....... Eq. A1(3)
l4
where l = radius of relative stiffness = (D k )1 4
If 2 = (where is a constant with respect to r), then 2 2 = 2 , which is equation A1(3) if

2 4
= -1/l , or = 1 / l 2 = i / l 2 . Consequently any solution of
d2 1d i
+ = 0 ....... Eq. A1(4)
d r2 r dr l2
is a solution of equation A1(3), and the solutions of equation A1(4) are the Bessel functions
J 0 (i 3 / 2 r / l ), J 0 ((i )3 / 2 r / l ), Y0 (i 3 / 2 r / l ), Y0 ((i )3 / 2 r / l )
- A.5 -
where J 0 ( ) = Bessel function of the first kind, of order zero
Y0 ( ) = Bessel function of the second kind, of order zero
As J 0 (i 3 2 r / l ) and Y0 (i 3 2 r / l ) are both infinite when r/l is infinite, it is preferable to use the modified
Bessel function K 0 (i1 2 r / l ) as a second solution since it approaches zero as r/l . Further, it is
convenient to continue development in terms of the modified Bessel functions, ber, bei, ker and kei and to
state the general solution of equation A1(3) in the form :
= A1 ber (r / l ) + A 2 bei ( r / l ) + A 3 ker ( r / l ) + A 4 kei ( r / l ) ........ Eq. A1(5)
where A1, A2, A3 and A4 are arbitrary constants of integration, to be determined from boundary
conditions. As ber (x) and bei (x) oscillate with an amplitude that increases without limit as x , and
ker (x) as x 0, then for the model being considered, A1 = A2 = A3 = 0, and :
= A4 kei (r/l) .. Eq. A1(6)
As the plate is in equilibrium, the total restorative force of the foundation reaction must equal the load P, so
that :

P = k 2 r dr = 2 k A 4 r kei (r l ) dr = 2 k A 4 l 2
0 0
P
or A4 = ........ Eq. A1(7)
2 k l 2
Substituting in equation A1(6) gives deflection of the plate as:
P
= kei (r l ) ............ Eq. A1(8)
2 k l 2
Pl2
= kei (r l ) ...... Eq. A1(9)
2 D
and maximum deflection occurs at the origin where r = 0 and kei (0) = / 4:
Pl2
max = ................ Eq. A1(10)
8D
Equation A1(9) gives plate deflection at a distance r from the point of load application. By the reciprocal
principle, the equation also gives the deflection at the origin due to a concentrated load P acting at a radial
distance r from the origin.
- A.6 -
point of application (r,) of

r concentrated load P
Mr

M x
Mt
With reference to the above sketch, the moments per unit length at the origin are (Timoshenko) :
d 2 d
Mr = D +
d r 2 r dr

d 1 d
2
M t = D +
d r 2 r dr

D d 2 1 d d 2 1 d
M = (1 + ) 2 + + (1 ) cos 2 .... Eq. A1(11)
2 d r r dr
d r 2 r dr

Substituting equation A1(9) for in equation A1(11) and using the notation
kei ( r / l ) = d kei ( r / l ) d ( r / l ) :
Pl 2 d 2 kei ( r / l ) 1 d kei ( r / l ) d 2 kei ( r / l ) 1 d kei ( r / l )

M = (1 + ) + + (1 ) cos 2
4 d r2 r dr d r 2 r dr
P 2
= (1 + ) ker ( r / l ) + (1 ) ker ( r / l ) kei ( r / l ) cos 2 ....... Eq. A1(12)
4 r/l
The tensile stress in the plate, , is related to the moment M by :
2
= 6M/h ........... Eq. A1(13)
where h is the thickness of the plate.
- A.7 -
A1.4 Uniformly Loaded Sector
y
dr
d
R
2 1 x
Consider a uniform load q acting on the surface of an infinite thin plate over a sector bounded by radial
arms of length R and an arc subtended by the angle (2 - 1). The load on an incremental area within the
sector is q dA = q r dr d .
Using equation A1(8) and using the notation kei ( R / l ) = d kei ( R / l ) d ( R / l ) , deflection at the origin
due to the loaded sector is :
R 2
ql2
=
2 D r kei (r / l ) d dr
0 1
q 2 1 R
= 1 + ker ( R / l ) ..... Eq. A1(14)
k 2 l
and using equation A.I.(12)
R 2
q 1
M = r (1 + ) ker ( r / l ) + (1 ) ker ( r / l ) 2 kei( r / l ) cos 2 d d r
4 r/l
0 1
R
(1 + )( 2 1 ) kei( R / l )
q l 2 l

= ... Eq. A1(15)
4 1 R
+ (1 ) (sin 2 2 sin 21 ) kei( R / l ) kei ( R / l )
2 l 4
Tensile stress :
= 6 M h2

(1 + )( 2 1 ) R kei( R / l )
3 q l 2 l

= ..... Eq. A1(16)
2 h + (1 )(sin 2 sin 2 ) 1 R kei( R / l ) kei ( R / l )
2
1
4
2
2 l
- A.8 -
As practiced by the Portland Cement Association, these equations may also be expressed in terms of the
Hankel functions (Pickett et al). The ker and kei functions and their derivatives are related to the Hankel
functions by :
1 (1) 1 1
ker(x) i kei(x) = i H 0(1) (x i 2 ) = i Re H 0 (x i 2 ) + i Im H 0(1) (x i 2 )
2 2
3 2 (1) 1 1 1 1 1
i 2 H (1) (x i 2 ) + i Im i 2 H (1) (x i 2 )
ker(x) i kei(x) = i H (1) (x i 2 ) = i Re 1 1
2 2
where Re = real part of

Im = imaginary part of
H n() = Hankel function of order n
Equating the real and imaginary parts of the above equations, and substituting the resulting expressions for
ker, kei, ker and kei into equations A1(14) to A1(16) gives :
1 1
=
q 2 1 1 + R Im i 2 H (1) R i 2 ...... Eq. A1(17)
1 l
k 2 2 l

R 1 2 (1) R 1 2
(1 + ) ( 2 1 ) i H1 i
ql 2 l l
M = Re
8 1 R 1 1 (1) R 1 2 1
2 (1) R
+ (1 )(sin 2 2 sin 21 ) 2 l i H1 l i + H 0 l i 2
2

. Eq. A1(18)
R 1 (1) R 1
(1 + ) ( 2 1 ) i 2 H1 i 2
3 ql2 l l
= Re
4 h2 1 R 1 (1) R 1 (1) R 1 2 1
+ (1 ) (sin 2 sin 2 )
1 i 2 H i 2 + H i
2
2 1 l 0 l
2 l
....... Eq. A1(19)
- A.9 -
A1.5 Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
Consider a uniform unit load, q, acting on the surface of an infinite thin plate over a circular area of radius
R. The following notation is used :
r R

z z r R

Z Z

M M
(a) origin exterior to loaded area (b) origin interior to loaded area
The load on an incremental area within the loaded circular area is q dA = q r dr d . Using equation
A1(9), the deflection at the origin due to the uniformly loaded circular area is:
R 2
q l2
=
2 D r kei ( z / l ) d d r ....... Eq. A1(20)
0 0
2 2 2
The trigonometric relationship z = Z + r 2rZ cos may be used in the evaluation of the integral in
equation A1(20). It can be shown (Wyman) that :
if x 2 = Y 2 + y 2 2 Y y cos
2
then kei (x) d = 2 {kei (Y) ber (y) + ker (Y) bei (y)} for | y| |Y|
0
= 2 {kei (y) ber (Y) + ker (y) bei (Y) } for | y| |Y| ..... Eq. A1(20)
(a) deflection and moment at a point external to the loaded area, R < Z :
R 2
q l2
=
2 D r kei ( z / l ) d d r
0 0
2 R
ql
=
D r {kei ( Z / l ) ber (r / l ) + ker ( Z / l ) bei ( r / l )} d r
0
qR
= {ker ( Z / l ) ber ( R / l ) kei ( Z / l ) bei ( R / l ) } ........ Eq. A1(21)
k l
and from A1(11) :

D d 2 1 d 2
+ (1 ) d 1 d cos 2

M = (1 + ) +
2 Z dZ d Z2 Z d Z
2
dZ
(1 + ) (kei ( Z / l ) ber( R / l ) + ker ( Z / l ) bei ( R / l ) ) +

2
ql R ( kei ( Z / l ) ber ( R / l ) + ker ( Z / l ) bei ( R / l ) ) +

= cos 2 . Eq. A1(22)
2 l (1 ) 2

( ker ( Z / l ) ber ( R / l ) kei ( Z / l ) bei ( R / l ) )

Z / l

- A.10 -
(b) deflection and moment at a point within the loaded area, Z < R :
The integral is divided into two segments: one where r < Z and the other where r > Z:
ql2 Z 2 R 2

= r kei ( z / l ) d d r + r kei ( z / l ) d d r
2 D 0 0
Z 0
Z
r [ kei ( Z / l ) ber ( r / l ) + ker ( Z / l ) bei ( r / l ) ] d r +

ql2 0
=
D R

r [kei (r / l ) ber ( Z / l ) + ker (r / l ) bei ( Z / l ) ] dr

Z
Z

q l
[ ker ( Z / l ) ber ( Z / l ) kei ( Z / l ) bei ( Z / l ) ber ( Z / l ) ker ( Z / l ) + bei ( Z / l ) kei ( Z / l ) ]

=
k R

+ [ ber ( Z / l ) ker ( R / l ) bei ( Z / l ) kei ( R / l ) ]

l
. Eq.A1(23)
It can be shown (Wyman) that :
x { ker (x) ber (x) kei (x) bei (x) ber (x) ker (x) + bei (x) kei (x) } = 1
and applying this identity to equation A1(23) gives :

=
q
1 +
R
( ber ( Z / l ) ker ( R / l ) bei ( Z / l ) kei ( R / l ) ) ...... Eq. A1(24)
k l
Using equation A1(11) :

D d 2 1 d d 2 1 d
M = (1 + ) + + (1 ) cos 2
2
d Z 2 Z dZ
d Z 2 Z d Z
(1 + )[ bei ( Z / l ) ker ( R / l ) + ber ( Z / l ) kei ( R / l ) ]

q l2 R ( bei ( Z / l ) ker ( R / l ) + ber ( Z / l ) kei ( R / l ) ) +
=
2 l + (1 ) 2 ( ber ( Z / l ) ker ( R / l ) bei ( Z / l ) kei ( R / l ) ) cos 2

Z / l

... . Eq. A1(25)
Maximum deflection and maximum moment occur at the center of the circular loaded area where Z=0 :
q R
max = 1 + ker ( R / l ) ...... Eq. A1(26)
k l
q l2 R
M max = (1 + ) kei( R / l ) ..... Eq. A1(27)
2 l
3 q l2 R
max =
2
(1 + ) kei ( R / l ) = 3 P2 1 (1 + ) kei ( R / l ) .. Eq. A1(28)
h l h R /l
where P is the total load acting on the plate.
- A.11 -
A1.6 Aircraft Gear Loading
Consider the loading of aircraft tires on a concrete slab at a location remote from a slab joint. Assuming
the preceding thin plate theory can be applied to this situation, then the plate is comprised of Portland
Cement concrete and associated variables are:
E = 27,500 MPa
= 0.15
l = radius of relative stiffness = ( Eh3 / 12(1-2)k )1/4 = 6.958 (h3 / k)1/4, metres
h = thickness of the concrete slab, metres
k = modulus of subgrade reaction, MPa/m
If the contact area of aircraft tires is assumed circular in shape, then deflections, moments and stresses due
to aircraft tire loads can be computed using the equations previously derived for a uniformly loaded circular
area. However, for the design of concrete pavements, the imprint of aircraft tires is usually assumed to be
elliptical in shape.
r
a
x
b
The following equations apply for an ellipse with a major axis of length 2a and a minor axis of length 2b :
x2 y2
+ = 1
a2 b2
1 a2
or r2 = = ......... Eq. A1(29)
sin 2 cos 2 a
2

+ 1 + 1 sin 2
b2 a2 b

Area, A, of an ellipse is:
A = ab .. Eq. A1(30)
The elliptical shape commonly assumed for a tire imprint is one with the minor axis equal in length to two-
thirds of the major axis:
b = 2/3 a
1/2
so that a = 0.691 A
1/2
= 0.691 (P/q) where P is the load (MN) carried by the tire and q is the tire pressure (MPa).
- A.12 -
For a uniformly loaded elliptical area, a numerical procedure is needed for evaluation of the integrals
giving plate deflection and moment. The perimeter of the elliptical loaded area can be divided into a
number of points as shown below. By joining these points to the centre of the ellipse, the ellipse is divided
into a number of pie shaped segments that approximate uniformly loaded sectors. Deflections, moments
and stress can then be determined by summing the contributions from the segments.
xn,yn
ri x2,y2
x1,y1
a x0,y0
M
b
As example, suppose the ellipse is divided into 72 segments with each segment subtending an angle of
2 / 72, or 0.087266 radians at the centre of the ellipse. Then using equation A1(29) :
rn = a / 1 + 1.25 sin 2 (0.087266 n) ...... Eq. A1(31)

x n = rn cos (0.087266 n) ...... Eq. A1(32)
y n = rn sin (0.087266 n) ....... Eq. A1(33)
Using equation A.I.(15) and the relationship sin 22 sin 21 = 2 sin (21) cos (2+1), the moment M
in the direction of the x-axis can be determined as:
q l 2 72
M =
4
{1.15 n F1n + 1.7 sin n cos n F2n } ....... Eq A.I.(34)
n =1
where n = n n 1 ( = 0.087266 for ellipse centred on origin as above)
n = n + n 1 ( = 0.087266 (2n-1) for ellipse centred on origin as above)
Rn = (rn + rn 1 ) 2
Rn R
F1n = kei n
l l
1 Rn R R
F2n = kei n kei n
2 l l l 4
and tensile stress in the direction of the x-axis due to the tire loading is:
2
= 6M/h
- A.13 -
If a tire is centered at some point (Xj,Yj) remote from the origin:
imprint of tire j
x2j,y2j
y (Xj,Yj) x1j,y1j
x0j,y0j
Mj
The (x,y) coordinates of the perimeter points can be calculated by adding the centre coordinates (Xj,Yj) to
the perimeter coordinates (x,y) previously calculated for an ellipse centred on the origin. For point i :
x nj = x n + X j
y nj = y n + Yj
rnj = x nj2 + y nj2
The moment at the origin in the direction of the x-axis is determined as before, using equation A1(34):
q l 2 72
Mj =
4
{
1.15 nj F1nj + 1.7 sin nj cos nj F2nj } ..... Eq. A1(35)
n =1
where R nj = ( rnj + r(n 1)j ) 2
y nj x (n 1)j y (n 1)j x nj
sin nj =
rnj r(n 1)j
x nj x (n 1)j y (n 1)j y nj
cos nj =
rnj r(n 1)j
R nj R nj
F1nj = kei

l l
1 R nj R nj R nj
F2nj = kei kei

l 4
2 l l
The summation progresses around the perimeter of the ellipse in a counterclockwise direction. Along the
top portion of the ellipse, n is positive and the sector adds to the moment. Along the bottom of the ellipse,
n is negative and the sector subtracts from the moment. When the summation is completed around the
entire perimeter, the resulting moment calculated is that due to the load on the wheel imprint area.
- A.14 -
Tensile stress at the origin in the direction of the x-axis due to wheel j :
2
j = 6 Mj / h
For a multiwheel gear loading, the origin is taken initially to coincide with the centre of the wheel closest to
the centre of gravity of the gear loading, and the longitudinal axis of the gear is oriented parallel to the x-
axis. A dual tandem gear loading is illustrated below.
Y
X

X
MT
The total moment, MT , at the origin and in the direction of the x-axis is determined by summing the
moments due to each wheel in the gear.
N
MT = Mj
j=1
q l 2 N 72
=
4
{
1.15 nj F1nj + 1.7 sin nj cosnj F2nj } .. Eq. A1(36)
j=1 n =1
where the notation is as defined for equation A1(35).
The maximum moment may occur with the gear at some orientation other than parallel to the x-axis. If the
gear is rotated about the origin by some angle as shown above, then equation A1(36) becomes :
q l 2 N 72
MT =
4
{ (
1.15 nj F1nj + 1.7 sin nj cos nj + 2 F2nj ) }
j=1 n =1
ql2
= ( S1 + S 2 cos2 S3 sin2 ) ...... Eq. A1(37)
4
N 72
where S1 = 1.15 nj F1nj
j=1 n =1
N 72
S2 = 1.7 sin nj cos nj F2nj
j=1 n =1
N 72
S3 = 1.7 sin nj sin nj F2nj
j=1 n =1
- A.15 -
The angle at which the moment reaches a maximum with respect to orientation is obtained by
differentiating equation A1(37) and setting the result to zero.
MT q l2
= 0 = ( 2 S2 sin 2 2 S3 cos 2 )
4
Consequently, the maximum moment with respect to angle of orientation occurs at an angle of :
1 S
= tan 1 3 ...... Eq. A1(38)
2 S2
and is equal to :
ql2
M max = S1 + S 22 + S 32 ...... Eq. A1(39)
4
and maximum tensile stress is :
M max
max = 6 .. Eq. A1(40)
h2
In using equation A138, note must be taken of whether S2 and S3 are individually negative or positive to
determine the appropriate angle.
Although the difference is small, maximum moment due to a multi-wheel gear loading does not occur at
the centre of the most central wheel, but at a slight offset from this wheel centre toward the centre of
gravity of the gear loading. Moments may be calculated with the origin shifted in small increments until
the location of maximum moment and maximum tensile stress is found.
- A.16 -
SECTION A2 : MULTILAYERED ELASTIC SYSTEM
A2.1 References
Burmister, D.M., The General Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Soil Systems,
Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 16, No. 5, 1945.
Mehta, M.R., and Veletsos, A.S., Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems, University of
Illinois, 1959.
Love, A.E.H., A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Dover Publications, New York,
1944.
Timoshenko, S. and Goodier, J., Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1951.
Sneddon, I.H., The Use of Integral Transforms, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1972.
A2.2 The Multilayered Model

th
A multilayered system of n layers is illustrated in Figure A2.01. The lowermost layer, the n , is of infinite
extent horizontally and vertically downward. The n-1 layers above the lowermost layer are of finite
thickness but are of infinite extent horizontally. The thickness of the n-1 top layers may differ from each
other and adjacent layers have different elastic properties. The material in each layer is assumed to be
homogeneous, isotropic and linearly elastic.
This analysis is for a load applied normal to the surface of the system through a circular contact area. Two
conditions of load contact are of interest; flexible contact (wheel load) where pressure is uniform over the
contact area, and rigid contact (plate load) where displacement is uniform over the contact area. In both
cases, stress and displacement components are symmetrical with respect to the axis of the load and the
analysis is made in terms of the cylindrical co-ordinate system shown in Figure A2.01.
Boussinesq provided a stress-strain analysis of the single layer, elastic half-space in 1885. Burmister
published an analysis of two-layer and three-layer systems during the 1940s. Mehta and Veletsos
presented a method of analysis for the general n-layered system in 1959 and their approach is reflected in
the following material.
P
2a
r
p0
z
layer 1 E1 , 1
z1
z2
layer 2 E2 , 2
z3
coordinate system
E3 , 3
zn-2
layer 3
z
zn-1
th
Ei = elastic modulus of i layer
th
vi = Poisson's ratio of i layer
zr
layer n-1 En-1, n-1
rz
layer n En , n r
C
L elemental stresses
Figure A2.01 : MULTILAYERED ELASTIC SYSTEM
- A.17 -
A2.3 Equations of Equilibrium and Compatibility
The differential equations of equilibrium and compatibility for an axially symmetric stress distribution in a
solid of revolution are presented in a number of texts on the theory of elasticity (Timoshenko and Goodier.)
Neglecting body forces:
Equations of equilibrium
r rz
+ + r = 0 ... Eq. A2(1a)
r z r
rz z
+ + rz = 0 ... Eq. A2(1b)
r z r
where r , , and z are the normal components of stress in the r, and z directions respectively, and
rz is the shear stress.
Equations of Compatibility
2 1 2
2 r ( r ) + = 0 ... Eq. A2(2a)
r2 1 + r 2
2 +
2
2
( r ) + 1 1 = 0 ... Eq. A2(2b)
r 1 + r r
1 2
2 z + = 0 ... Eq. A2(2c)
1 + z 2
1 1 2
2 rz rz + = 0 Eq. A2(2d)
r2 1 + r z
where
= r + z +
2 1 2
2 = + + is the Laplace operator in cylindrical co-ordinates for axial symmetry.
r 2 r r z 2
The vertical and radial displacements, w and u respectively, are taken as positive in the positive direction of
their respective axes as indicated in Figure A2.01. The displacements are related to the normal components
of strain z , r and , and to the shearing strain rz by :
w u u u w
z = r = = rz = + ... Eqs. A2(3)
z r r z r
and the strains are related to stresses through Hookes law:
1 1 1 1
z = { (1 + ) z } r = { (1 + ) r } = { (1 + ) } rz = rz
E E E G
... Eqs. A2(4)
where G = E / 2(1+v) is the shear modulus.
- A.18 -
A2.4 Loves Solution
Love presented a solution to these equations that expresses the normal and shear stress components in
terms of a Airy stress function , where is a function of r and z.
2
r = 2 .. Eq. A2(5a)
z r 2

2 1
= .. Eq. A2(5b)
z r r
2
z = (2 - ) 2 .. Eq. A2(5c)
z z 2

2
rz = (1 - ) 2 .. Eq. A2(5d)
r z 2

It may be verified by substitution that these expressions satisfy the equations of equilibrium A2(1) and the
equations of compatibility A2(2) provided the stress function satisfies the biharmonic equation 4 = 0 .
The displacement components are determined from equations A2(3) and A2(4):
1+ 2
2 (1 v )
w = 2 .. Eq. A2(5e)

E z 2
1 + 2
u = .. Eq. A2(5f)
E r z
A2.5 Stress Function
th
The stress function for the i layer of the multilayered system may be expressed in the form:
i = {A e
i
z
Bi e z + z C i e z z D i e z } p

3
J 0 (r)
where Ai, Bi, Ci, and Di are constants of integration,
J0 is a Bessel function of the first kind, zero order
is a dimensionless parameter
p depicts loading intensity
It may be verified by substitution that this stress function satisfies the condition 4 = 0 . Substituting
the stress function into equations A2(5), the following expressions are obtained for stresses and
th
displacements in the i layer:
- A.19 -
( z )i {
= A i e z + B i e z (1 2 i z) C i e z + (1 2 i + z) D i e z p J 0 (r) }
Eq. A2(6a)
( rz )i = {A e i
z
}
B i e z + (2 i + z) C i e z + (2 i z) D i e z p J 1 (r)
Eq. A2(6b)
(w )i =
1
2G i
{
A i e z B i e z (2 4 i z) C i e z (2 4 i + z) D i e z
p

J 0 (r) }
Eq. A2(6c)
( u )i =
1
2G i
{A e i
z
+ B i e z + (1 + z) C i e z (1 z) D i e z } p
J 1 (r)
Eq. A2(6d)
( r )i = {A ei
z
}
+ Bi e z + (1 + 2 i + z) Ci ez (1 + 2 i z) Di e z p J 0 (r)
{A e i
z
}
+ Bi e z + (1 + z) Ci ez (1 z) Di e z p
J1 (r)
r
Eq. A2(6e)
( )i {
= 2 i C i e z D i e z }p J 0 (r)
+ {A e i
z
}
+ Bi e z + (1 + z) Ci ez (1 z) Di e z p
J1 (r)
r
Eq. A2(6f)
A2.6 Boundary and Interfacial Conditions
Equations A2(6) contain constants of integration, 4 for each layer, and these constants are determined from
boundary and interfacial conditions.
At the upper boundary of the system, surface shear stress is zero and analysis is initially performed for a
basic normal load giving a vertical stress at the surface radially proportional to J 0 (r ) :
( z ) z =0 = p J 0 (r) .. Eq. A2(7a)
( rz ) z = 0 = 0 .. Eq. A2(7b)
Equating vertical stress, equation A2(6a), and shear stress, equation A2(6b), at the surface boundary to
these loads:
(A1 + B1 ) (1 21 ) ( C1 D1 ) = 1 .. Eq. A2(8a)
(A1 B1 ) + 2 1 (C1 + D1 ) = 0 .. Eq. A2(8b)
At the lower boundary of the system, stresses and displacements are zero at infinite depth, requiring:
An = 0 .. Eq. A2(8c)
Cn = 0 .. Eq. A2(8d)
- A.20 -
It is assumed that sufficient friction is present between layers to prevent slippage between the layers.
th
Consequently, stresses and displacements are continuous across the interface, and for the i interface
where z = z i :
(z)i = (z)i+1
(rz)i = (rz)i+1
(w)i = (w)i+1
(u)i = (u)i+1
Applying these equalities to equations A2(6), the following relationships exist between the constants of
th
integration at the i interface:
A i e zi + B i e zi (1 2 i z i ) C i e zi + (1 2 i + z i ) D i e zi =
A i +1e zi + B i +1e zi (1 2 i +1 z i ) C i +1e zi + (1 2 i +1 + z i ) D i +1e zi
. Eq. A2(8e)
Aie z i
Bi e z i
+ (2 i + z i ) C i e z i
+ (2 i z i ) D i e z i
=
A i +1e z i
B i +1e z i
+ (2 i +1 + z i ) C i +1e z i
+ (2 i +1 z i ) D i +1e zi
. Eq. A2(8f)
Aie z i
Bi e z i
(2 4 i z i ) C i e z i
(2 4 i + z i ) D i e z i
=
{A i +1e
z i
B i +1e z i
(2 4 i +1 z i ) C i +1e z i
}
(2 4 i +1 + z i ) D i +1e zi K i
. Eq. A2(8g)
A i e zi + B i e zi + (1 + z i ) C i e zi (1 z i ) D i e zi =
{A i +1e
z i
+ B i +1e zi + (1 + z i ) C i +1e zi (1 z i ) D i +1e zi K i }
. Eq. A2(8h)
where zi is the depth from the surface to the interface between layer i and layer i+1 and
Gi 1 + i +1 E i
Ki = =
G i +1 1 + i E i +1
There are four equations for each of the n-1 interfaces and combining these with the four derived at the
upper and lower boundaries of the system, the 4n constants of integration may be evaluated in terms of the
geometric and elastic parameters of the system and the dimensionless parameter . For evaluation,
equations A2(8e) to A2(8h) may be rearranged and expressed in matrix notation as follows:
X i = M i Xi + 1 . Eq. A2(9)
where:
Ai A i +1 mi11 mi12 mi13 mi14
B m
B
1 mi22 mi23 mi24
Xi = i , Xi +1 = i +1 , Mi = i21
Ci Ci +1 4(1 i ) mi31 mi32 mi33 mi34

Di Di +1 mi41 mi42 mi43 mi44
- A.21 -
m i11 = { ( K i 1) + 4 (1 i ) }
m i21 = { (K i 1) (1 4 i + 2 z i ) } e 2 zi
m i31 = 0
m i41 = { 2 (K i 1) } e 2 zi
m i12 = { (K i 1) (1 4 i 2 z i ) } e 2 zi
m i22 = { ( K i 1 ) + 4 ( 1 i ) }
m i32 = { 2 (K i 1) } e 2 zi
m i42 = 0
m i13 = { (K i 1) ((1 4 i 2 z i )(1 2 i+1 ) 2 ( i i +1 )) 2 ( i i +1 ) (3 + 2 z i ) }
{
m i23 = (K i 1) ((1 + 4 i ) (1 2 i +1 ) 2 ( i i +1 ) (1 + 2 z i ) + 2 2 z i 2 ) + 2 ( i - i +1 ) e 2 zi}
m i33 = { (K i 1) (3 4 i +1 ) + 4 ( 1 i +1 ) }
m i43 = { (K i 1) (1 4 i +1 2 z i ) } e 2 zi
m i14 = { (K i }
1)((1 + 4 i ) (1 2 i +1 ) 2 ( i i +1 ) (1 2 z i ) + 2 2 z i 2 ) 2 ( i i +1 ) e 2 zi
m i24 = { (K i 1) ((1 4 i + 2 z i )(1 - 2 i+1 ) 2 ( i - i +1 ) ) + 2 ( i - i +1 ) (3 - 2 z i ) }
m i34 = { (K i 1) (1 4 i +1 + 2 z i ) } e 2 zi
m i44 = { (K i 1) (3 4 i+1 ) + 4 (1 v i+1 ) }
th
Using matrix multiplication, the first layer constants are related to the n layer constants by :
n 1
X1 = Mi Xn
i =1
or
A1 A n n11 n12 n13 n14 0 n12 n14
B B n n 24 Bn n
n 22 n 23 n 24 Bn
1 = N n = 21 = 22 .. Eq. A2(10)
C1 Cn n 31` n 32 n 33 n 34 0 n 32 n 34 D n

D1 D n n 41 n 42 n 43 n 44 D n n 42 n 44
where N is the 4 x 4 matrix equal to the product M1 M2 M3 Mn-1. Substituting these values for
A1, B1, C1 and D1 into the equations Eq. A2(8) resulting from the surface loading condition:
A 1

1 1 (1 2 1 ) (1 2 1 ) B1 1
1 1 =
21 2 1 C1 0

D
1
gives the following values for Bn and Dn :
2
Bn = .. Eq. A2(11a)
1 2 2 1
2
Dn = .. Eq. A2(11b)
1 2 2 1
- A.22 -
where: 1 = n 12 + n 22 (1 2 1 ) n 32 + (1 2 1 ) n 42
2 = n 12 n 22 + 2 1 n 32 + 2 1 n 42
1 = n 14 + n 24 (1 2 1 ) n 34 + (1 2 1 ) n 44
2 = n 14 n 24 + 2 1 n 34 + 2 1 n 44
th
Values of A, B, C, and D for each layer above the n layer can then be determined in succession using
equation A2(9).
A2.7 Surface Loading
The preceding analysis gives stresses and displacements due to a basic normal surface load radially
proportional to J 0 (r) , so that:
( z ) z =0 = p J 0 (r) Eq. A2(12)
Note that equation A2(12) implies that a load acting toward the surface (downward) is to be considered
positive as the resulting compressive stress is then of correct signage (negative.)
Subject to certain mathematical restrictions, an axially symmetric surface load, F(r), may be expressed in a
form similar to the basic load through a Hankel (Fourier-Bessel) transform. The transformation theorem
states (Sneddon):

F(r) = t F(t) J n (t) d t J n (r) d
0 0
Applying this theorem, an axially symmetric surface load, F (r), is related to the basic load:

F(r) = p J 0 (r) d where p = t F(t) J 0 (t) d t .. Eq. A2(13)
0 0
Based on the principle of superposition, the substitution of this expression for p into equations A2(6),
followed by integration with respect to over the range of 0 to , gives stresses and displacements in the
layered system for the surface load, F(r).
Flexible Contact
A tire load, P, may be approximated by a uniform normal pressure, p0 , acting over a circular area of
radius, a, so that P = a 2 p 0 . The surface loading condition, F(r), may then be stated as:
F(r) = p 0 r a .. Eq. A2(14a)

= 0 r >a
The Hankel transform of equation A2(14a) is:
a P
p = t F(t) J 0 (t) d t = p 0 t J 0 (t) d t = a p 0 J 1 (a) = J 1 (a) .. Eq. A2(14b)
0 0 a
Substituting this expression for p into equations A2(6) and integrating with respect to over the range
0 to gives stresses and displacements for the flexible contact load condition.
- A.23 -
Concentrated Load
A concentrated load, P, acting normal to the surface may be a loading condition of interest on occasion.
The Hankel transform of a concentrated load can be derived from equation A2(14b) by allowing the contact
area of the loaded area to approach zero.
P P
p = lim J 1 ( a ) = .. Eq. A2(15)
a 0 a 2
Rigid Contact
When a load, P, is applied through a rigid plate, deflection rather than pressure is uniform over the circular
contact area. As subsequently shown, the loading pattern producing uniform deflection is described by:
p a
F (r) = 0 r a Eq. A2(16a)
2 a r2
2
= 0 r >a
Integration of the expression in equation A2(16a) over the circular contact area gives the total applied load
as P = a 2 p 0 . The Hankel transform of equation A2(16a) is:
p a a a p0 P
p = t F(t) J 0 (t) dt = 0 t J 0 (t) dt = sin (a) = sin (a)
0 2 0 a2 -t2 2 2 a
....... Eq. A2(16b)
Substituting this expression for p into equations A2(6) and integrating with respect to over the range
0 to gives stresses and displacements for the rigid contact load condition.
A2.8 Multilayered System Stresses and Displacements
Making the substitutions = x/a, Z = z/a and R = r/a in equations A2(6), and using the surface load
th
Hankel transforms given above, stresses and displacements in the i layer (zi-1 < z < zi ) of a multilayered
elastic system may be stated as:
Flexible Contact
( z )i = p 0

{ Zx
A i e + Bi e
Zx }
(1 2 i Zx) Ci e Zx + (1 2 i + Zx) Di e Zx J 0 (Rx) J1(x) d x
0
Eq. A2(17a)
( rz )i = p 0

{ Zx
A i e Bi e
Zx }
+ (2 i + Zx) Ci e Zx + (2 i Zx) Di e Zx J1 (Rx) J1 (x) d x
0
Eq. A2(17b)
(w) i =
1+ i
Ei

{ } J (x )
a p 0 A i e Z x B i e Z x (2 4 i Z x) C i e Z x (2 4 i + Z x) D i e Z x J 0 (Rx) 1
0 x
dx
Eq. A2(17c)
(u)i =
1 + i
Ei

{ } J (x)
a p 0 A ie Z x + Bie Z x + (1 + Z x) Ci e Z x (1 Z x) Di e Z x J1 (Rx) 1
0 x
dx
Eq. A2(17d)
- A.24 -
Rigid Contact
( z )i =
p0
2 0
{
Aie
Zx
+ B i e Zx (1 2 i Zx) C i e Zx + (1 2 i + Zx) D i e Zx }J 0 (Rx) sin(x) dx
Eq. A2(18a)
(rz )i =
p0
2 0
{
Aie
Zx
Bie Zx + (2i + Zx) Cie Zx + (2i Zx) Die Zx } J1(Rx) sin(x) dx
Eq. A2(18b)
(w )i =
1+ i ap0
Ei 2 0
Aie {
Zx
B i e Zx (2 4 i Zx) C i e Zx (2 4 i + Zx) D i e Zx }J 0 (Rx)
sin(x)
x
dx
Eq. A2(18c)
( u )i =
1+ i ap0
Ei 2 0
Aie{Zx
+ B i e Zx + (1 + Zx) C i e Zx (1 Zx) D i e Zx } J (Rx) sin(x)
1
x
dx
Eq. A2(18d)
If of interest, expressions for the radial and tangential stresses may be stated similarly.
Computerized numerical analysis methods are normally needed to evaluate the above expressions. One
approach to evaluation of the integrals is to use a quadrature formula between the zeros of the J1(x)
function for equations A2(17), or between the zeros of the sin(x) function for equations A2(18). In the
expressions, Ai, Bi, Ci and Di depend on the variable x as well as the geometric and elastic parameters of
the system, and evaluation as outlined in section A2.6 must be made for each value of x for which the
integrand is calculated.
A2.9 Single Layer System
The simplest example of the layered elastic model is the system having a single layer (elastic half-space).
Evaluating the constants of integration for the layer using equations A2(8) :
A = C = 0 (to make stresses and displacements = 0 at z = )
and B + (1-2) D = 1 (Eq. A2(8a) for ( z ) z =0 = p J 0 (r) )

B + 2 D = 0 (Eq. A2(8b) for ( rz ) z = 0 = 0)
whence B = 2 and D = 1
Flexible Contact
By substituting these values of the layer constants into equations A2(17), the following expressions are
obtained for stresses and displacements in an elastic half-space subject to a uniform normal surface load, p0,
acting over a circular contact area of radius a:
- A.25 -

z = p0 (1 + Zx) e Zx J 0 (Rx) J 1 (x) d x Eq. A2(19a)
0

rz = p 0 Zx e Zx J 1 (Rx) J 1 (x ) d x Eq. A2(19b)
0
1+ Zx J (x)
w = a p0 (2 2 + Zx) e J 0 (Rx) 1 dx Eq. A2(19c)
E 0 x
1+ J (x)
Zx
u = a p0 (1 2 Zx) e J 1 (Rx) 1 dx Eq. A2(19d)
E 0 x
At the surface, Z = 0, equation A2(19b) for shear stress equates to zero, and for normal stress:

( z ) z = 0 = p 0 J 0 (Rx) J 1 (x) d x = p 0 for R = r/a < 1
0
= 0 for R = r/a > 1
which is the surface loading condition being analysed.
The maximum surface displacement occurs at the centre of the loaded area where R = 0, and denoting
surface deflection as (i.e. = wz=0):
1+ J (x) 2 (1 2 )
max = a p 0 (2 2 ) 1 dx = a p0 Eq. A2(20)
E 0 x E
which is the well known Boussinesq equation. The average displacement through the loaded area is given
by:
1 a 16 (1 2 )
loaded area avg = (w) 2 r d r = ap 0 Eq. A2(21)
2 0 3 E
a
The integrals in equations A2(19) can also be evaluated when R = 0 to provide expressions for the stresses
and displacements along the axis of symmetry. In general, for R > 0 and Z > 0, the integrals cannot be
expressed in terms of elementary functions.
Rigid Contact
Stress and displacement equations for the surface loading condition giving uniform deflection can be
obtained by using the expression in equation A2(16b) for p. Limiting attention to the equations giving
normal load and displacement at the surface, for Z = 0:
p p 1 p a
( z ) z =0 = 0 J 0 (Rx) sin( x ) dx = 0 = 0 for R = r/a < 1
2 0 2 1 R 2 2 a2 r2
= 0 for R = r/a > 1
.... Eq. A2(22)
(1 2 ) sin(x) (1 2 )
= a p 0 J 0 (Rx) dx = a p0 for R = r/a < 1
E 0 x 2 E
(1 2 ) 1
= a p 0 sin 1 for R = r/a > 1
E R
. Eq. A2(23)
which verifies the loading pattern assumption made in section A2.7.
- A.26 -
Comparing equation A2(23) to equation A2(20), surface deflection under a rigid plate is theoretically about
80% of the maximum deflection that occurs when the same load is applied by uniform pressure over the
same contact area. The difference is less than 8% if the rigid plate deflection is compared to the average
deflection under uniform pressure.
Equation A2(22) implies that when load is applied through a rigid plate, the normal stress becomes
infinitely large around the perimeter of the plate. In reality, shearing occurs around the plate perimeter
until stresses decrease to a level dictated by the shear strength of the material. For cohesionless materials
such as sand, plate perimeter stress decreases to zero.
theoretical actual stress distribution actual stress distribution

stress distribution cohesive material cohesionless material
A2.10 Two-Layer Plate Load Ratio
When a load, S, is applied to the surface of a uniform elastic layer of infinite depth (a subgrade) through a
rigid plate of radius a, the theoretical load-deflection relationship is given by equation A2(23):
(1 s2 ) (1 s2 ) S
= a p0 =
2 Es E s 2a
If a pavement base layer is then placed on top of the subgrade and a load P is applied to the surface of the
pavement through a rigid plate of radius a, the theoretical load-deflection relationship is:
1 + b a p0 sin(x)
= { Ab Bb (2 4 b ) Cb (2 4 b ) D b } J 0 (Rx) dx
Eb 2 0 x
1 + b P sin(x)
= { Ab Bb (2 4 b ) Cb (2 4 b ) D b } J 0 (Rx) dx
E b 2 a 0 x
Substituting (A b B b ) = 2 (C b + D b ) (from equation A2(8b)):
1 2b P (1 s 2 ) P
= { Cb + Db } J 0 (Rx) sin(x) dx = F Eq. A2(24)
Eb a 0 x Es 2a
1 2b Es 2 sin(x)
where F = { C b + D b } J 0 (Rx) dx Eq. A2(25)
2 E x
1 - s b 0
Comparing equations A2(23) and A2(24), if the loads P and S are measured with the same plate and at the
same deflection, then the ratio of P to S is:
P 1
= Eq. A2(26)
S F
F is a function of the Poissons ratios vs and vb, the modular ratio Eb/Es and the base layer thickness ratio t/a.
The ratio P/S is plotted in Figure A2.02 as a function of Eb/Es and t/a, assuming vs = vb = 0.3.
- A.27 -
n o tes:
- r elatio n sh ip d eriv ed f ro m elastic th eo r y assu min g
5 a Po isso n 's r atio fo r b ase an d su b g r ad e o f 0 .3 . 20
vb = vs = 0 .3 =
Base / Subgrade Plate Load Ratio P/S - p late lo ad ratio fo r p late lo ad s measu red /E s
o n to p o f b ase an d su b g r ad e u sin g same
Eb
e
size o f p late an d at same d ef lectio n . 0
ad
= 1
bgr
4 Es
E b/
/su
se
ba
o
ati
sr
ul
= 5
od
3
E b/Es
cm
sti
ela
2
Eb/Es = 2
1
1 2 3 4
Ratio Base Thickness / Plate Radius t/a
Figure A2.02 : BASE / SUBGRADE PLATE LOAD RATIO
- A.28 -
SECTION A3 : McLEODS BEARING PLATE MODEL
A3.1 References
McLeod, N. W., Airport Runway Evaluation in Canada, Department of Transport, Ottawa, 1947.
A3.2 Plate Load Proportionality
A program of plate load testing commenced at Canadian airports in the early 1940s. Based on the test
results, the observation was made that for a given thickness of base course placed over subgrade, the plate
bearing value at the surface of the base tended to be directly proportional to the bearing value at the surface
of the subgrade. In mathematical terms :
P S
or P = CxS .. Eq A3(1)
where P = plate bearing value at the surface of the base course;
S = plate bearing value at the surface of the subgrade, measured with the same size of plate and
at the same deflection and number of load repetitions as P;
C = constant of proportionality between P and S.
A3.3 McLeods Equation
The McLeod equation relating plate bearing values at the surface of base course and subgrade is developed
by dividing the base course into layers of unit thickness and applying the assumption of proportionality
outlined above.
In Figure A3.01, a base course t units in thickness is divided into levels 1, 2, 3, 4, ., t, with the thickness
of each level being 1 unit. Denoting the plate bearing value on the surface of level n as Pn, and applying the
assumption of proportionality given by equation A3(1) :
P1 = C x S
or C = P1 / S
Considering the surface of level 1 to be a new subgrade surface :

2
P2 = C x P1 = (P1 / S) x S
Considering the surface of level 2 to be a new subgrade surface :

3
P3 = C x P2 = (P1 / S) x S
Continuing in this manner until the surface of the base course is reached :
t
P = Pt = (P1 / S) x S
1 P
or t = log
log (P1 / S) S
- A.29 -
base surface
P = Pt t
Pt-1 t-1
Pt-2 t-2
base
thickness
bearing value
P4 4 t units
P3 3
level
P2 2
P1 1
S = P0 0
subgrade
Figure A3.01 : McLEOD'S MODEL
The value {1 / log (P1 / S)} is designated K and is assumed to be independent of the quality of granular
base course material. McLeods equation is thus stated as :
P
t = K log . Eq. A3(2)
S
or P = S 10 t/K . Eq. A3(3)
A3.4 McLeods Constant K
The constant K in equation A3(2) is a measure of the increase in bearing strength per unit thickness of base
course and the constant has to be of the same dimension as t for the equation to be balanced dimensionally.
From various geotechnical and foundation design theories, it can be deduced that the value of the constant
K has to be dependent on the size of bearing plate used in plate measurements. The function of K versus
size of bearing plate given in Figure A3.02 was determined from field plate bearing tests using plates of
different sizes.
A3.5 Comparison with Layered Elastic Theory
As previously shown, elastic theory applied to a two layer system representing a base course over subgrade
indicates that the load ratio P/S is a function of the thickness ratio t/a and the modulus ratio Eb/Es, where t
is the thickness of the base course, a is the radius of the bearing plate, and Eb and Es are the elastic moduli
of the base course and subgrade respectively. The functional relationship between these variables as
derived from elastic theory is shown in Figure A3.03. Superimposed on Figure A3.03 is the McLeod
relationship of load ratio P/S as a function of thickness ratio t/a.
- A.30 -
2000
300 450 600 750 900 1050
Plate D iameter (mm)
fo r co mp u tatio n al p u rp o ses:
1750
A = 0 to 0 .1 K = 7 3 0 + 2 3 5 0 A
McLeod's Base Course Constant K (mm)
A = 0 .1 to 0 .2 K = 6 9 2 + 2 7 3 0 A
A > 0 .2 K = 1 1 2 5 lo g (A ) + 2 0 2 5
1500
1250 P
to p o f b ase
S t g ran u lar b ase

1000 to p o f su b g rad e
McLeo d 's Eq u atio n :

t/K
t = K lo g (P/S) o r P/S = 1 0
750 w h ere P, S = lo ad s o n th e su rface o f b ase an d su b g rad e
r esp ectiv ely , same co n tact area an d
measu red at th e same d eflectio n
t = th ick n ess o f g ran u lar b ase
500
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
2
Load Contact Area A (m )
Figure A3.02 : McLEOD'S BASE COURSE CONSTANT 'K'
two layer elastic model 20

5 =
Es
McLeod's model P/S = 10 .t/a Eb
/
Plate Load Ratio Base / Subgrade P/S
tio
0
=1
ra
E b/E
mm r
s
e
ar
75 met
ul
od
a
0
4
di
m m
m
a te
0 m
m
45 00
pl
m 5
3 0 m E b/Es =
30
2
Eb/Es = 2
1
0 1 2 3 4
Ratio Base Thickness / Plate Radius t/a
Figure A3.03 :
COMPARISON OF TWO LAYER ELASTIC AND McLEOD'S MODELS
- A.31 -
t/K
Figure A3.03 serves to illustrate some limitations of McLeods model. The equation P = S x 10 implies
the base surface load P continues to increase exponentially with increasing base thickness. Actually, as base
thickness becomes large, P asymptotically approaches a limiting value equal to the bearing value measured
on an infinite depth of base course material. Although not theoretically valid, the trend of P with increasing
t indicated by the McLeod equation is of some benefit as it prevents excessively thick pavements. Another
implication of the McLeod model is that base course placed on subgrade provides an increase in bearing
strength regardless of the bearing value of the subgrade. Obviously, an increase will not result if the
bearing strength of the subgrade is very high; in the extreme, one only has to consider the placing of base
course over rock subgrade. However, minimum pavement thicknesses apply in these latter situations.
Despite the theoretical limitations, the McLeod model is sufficiently accurate for most pavement situations
encountered and its usefulness has been demonstrated over many years of experience.
As illustrated in Figure A3.03, the McLeod model suggests a base to subgrade modular ratio of about 5 for
the usual range of pavement thickness.
- A.32 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix B : Geotechnical Surveys
APPENDIX B
GEOTECHNICAL SURVEYS
Section Page
B1 Surveys for Pavement Construction ... B.2
B2 Soil Description and Classification . B.14
B3 Surveys in Permafrost Areas ... B.22
B4 Ground Temperature and Frost Depth Measurement ... B.26
- B.1 -
B1 SURVEYS FOR PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
B1.1 General
This appendix outlines the normal minimum requirements for geotechnical surveys for pavement
construction projects involving earthworks. Where subgrade soil conditions are relatively uniform and can
be properly represented for design and construction purposes with less information, requirements may be
reduced if the cost of a full survey exceeds 1% of total project costs.
In formulating survey requirements, it may be noted the initial collection of excess information is generally
more economical than having to return to a site to obtain missing data. Inadequate information on
subsurface conditions can have serious consequences for design, and construction contracts commonly
identify unexpected soil conditions as a valid basis for claim.
B1.2 Site Usage
Conduct activities on airport sites as directed by the airport operations manger and in accordance with
approved schedules. In particular, note movements on airside require personnel security passes, and
vehicle operation requires an airside drivers permit or an escort.
If drilling activities are interrupted prior to completion, temporarily seal holes or place barricades where
required to remove safety hazards to aircraft and maintenance equipment. Thoroughly clean debris from
around holes drilled in pavement areas.
B1.3 ASTM Reference Standards
ASTM D 420
Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering, Design, and Construction Purposes
ASTM D1452
Practice for Soil Investigation and Sampling by Auger Borings
ASTM D1586
Test Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils
ASTM D1587
Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils
ASTM D2113
Practice for Rock Core Drilling, and Sampling of Rock for Site Investigation
ASTM D2487
Classification of Soil for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
ASTM D2488
Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)
ASTM D2573
Test Method for Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil
ASTM D2607
Classification of Peats, Mosses, Humus, and Related Products
ASTM D3385
Test Method for Infiltration Rate of Soils in Field Using Double-Ring Infiltrometers
ASTM D3441
Test Method for Deep, Quasi-Static, Cone and Friction-Cone Penetration Tests of Soil
ASTM D3550
Practice for Ring-lined Barrel Sampling of Soils
ASTM D4083
Description of Frozen Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)
ASTM D4220
Practices for Preserving and Transporting Soil Samples
ASTM D4428
Test Methods for Crosshole Seismic Testing
ASTM D4544
Practice for Estimating Peat Deposit Thickness
ASTM D4750
Test Method for Determining Subsurface Liquid Levels in a Borehole or Monitoring
Well
ASTM D5079 Practices for Preserving and Transporting Rock Core Samples
ASTM D5092 Practice for Design and Installation of Ground Water Monitoring Wells in Aquifers
ASTM G51 Test Method for pH of Soil for Use in Corrosion Testing
ASTM G57 Method for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity Using Wenner Four-Electrode
Method
- B.2 -
B1.4 Data Search
As an initial step in planning the survey, conduct a search for available related site information:
aerial photographs
topographic maps
agricultural soil maps
geological maps and publications
previous geotechnical surveys
B1.5 Site Reconnaissance
Conduct a pre-survey reconnaissance of the site and prepare a report on features of interest such as those
listed in Table B1.01. Pay particular attention to the presence of streams or ponds that may suggest the
depth of the water table, to rock outcrops that may indicate the need for rock excavation, and to changes in
surface vegetation that may reflect changes in subsurface conditions.
B1.6 Number, Spacing and Depth of Test Holes
Soil Areas
In soil areas where bedrock and swamp are not encountered, establish a minimum number and pattern of
test holes as indicated in Figure B1.01.
Additional holes may be necessary if the soils stratigraphy is not uniform. In planning the layout of test
holes, pay particular attention to abrupt changes in the existing ground profile that may indicate changes in
the subsurface soils.
On airside, drill test holes to the following minimum depths:
Minimum Depth of Airside Test Holes
Location Cut Sections Fill Sections
3 m below original grade but not less

Pavement Areas 3 m below final construction grade than the depth of fill. In dense or
hard soil, test hole depth may be
reduced to the depth where the
Graded Areas depth of cut standard penetration value exceeds
250 blows per metre.
Borrow Areas depth of cut (not applicable)
For roads and carparks, drill test holes to a minimum depth of 3 m below existing grade.
If large boulders or bedrock are encountered, carry the test hole to refusal and locate a new hole nearby to
establish whether contact is boulder or bedrock.
Increase the depth of test holes if heavy loads are expected or if special conditions so indicate.
Construction of a high fill over soft natural soil is an example of special conditions.
- B.3 -
Bedrock Areas
When subsurface bedrock may be encountered during construction in areas of excavation, make borings on
a 40-m grid, and at intermediate locations as necessary to accurately outline the location and elevation of
the bedrock surface.
At every third test hole on the 40 m grid, core the rock to a depth of at least 1.5 m with at least 80%
recovery of core. The coring is necessary to establish whether contact is bedrock or boulders, and to
determine rock type. Test pits may be necessary in lieu of coring.
Show depths to bedrock surfaces on the soil profile drawing and delineate all rock surface outcroppings.
Describe the type of rock if a factor in excavation methods.
Swamp Areas
Carry test holes in swamp and muskeg areas to a depth of at least 3 m below the soft layer, and determine
the type and physical characteristics of the underlying soil.
Apart from the test holes, make soundings on a 40 m grid and at intermediate locations as necessary to
accurately determine the depth of the soft layer. Make sounding by driving a rigid rod, such as a simple
pipe or an auger shaft.
Test Pits
Open test pits if needed to better identify the soil strata present and the engineering properties of the
materials. Test pits may be needed for special testing and sampling purposes, or to identify:
presence and depth of fill materials;
lateral and vertical extent of an organic or soft clay deposit;
stratification or otherwise of a granular deposit;
percentage of cobbles and boulders;
characteristics of bedrock and cemented or very hard layers, and if ripping or blasting is required for
excavation;
rate of water seepage.
Backfilling
Backfill all test holes and test pits on completion of testing. Use suitable fill materials and ensure adequate
compaction. Restore original pavement structures. Use approved patching material when filling core holes
in asphalt or concrete surfaces, and compact using a Marshall hammer or similar device.
B1.7 Field Testing and Sampling
Soil Strata
Locate boundaries between different soil strata in each test hole and record their depth below surface. Give
a field description for the material within each stratum in accordance with Section B2.
Groundwater Level
Record the presence or absence of water in each test hole. Note the depth at which groundwater is first
encountered, along with observations such as variations in moisture content or the depth at which the test
hole sloughs. Leave the test hole open until the water has risen to its final position, then record level and
date. Try to identify perched water tables, and water table fluctuations over a period of time.
Drill one deep hole in an attempt to find the water table if not encountered during the survey. If directed,
install piezometers or permanent observation wells for groundwater measurements.
- B.4 -
Penetration Tests
Make penetration tests in each test hole at 0.75 m depth intervals to 3 m below estimated final grade, in
both cohesive and cohesionless soil. Do standard penetration testing to ASTM D1586, or obtain approval
for an alternate type of penetration testing.
Additional Tests
Other field measurements, such as the following, do not form part of a normal survey, but may be needed
on occasion for special purposes. Perform if specified by the project Terms of Reference.
Pressuremeter
Field California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
Plate Bearing
Vane Shear or Cone Penetration
Seepage or Pumping
pH Determination
If materials in the construction area are suspected of generating a toxic environment, establish toxicity by
submitting samples to a laboratory specializing in environmental matters. As an example, a toxic
environment may result from surface runoff into water courses.
Samples
Obtain samples for moisture content determination and laboratory analysis and classification, at 0.75 m
intervals in each test hole, with at least one sample obtained from each distinctive soil layer encountered.
Samples for laboratory classification tests should be approximately 2 kg in size for cohesive soils, and 4 kg
for granular soils with maximum particle size up to 19-mm. Larger samples are required for coarser
grained granular soils. Samples for classification testing may be disturbed material gathered off an auger,
obtained from a split spoon, or taken from a test pit. If required for special laboratory testing purposes,
undisturbed samples may be taken by Shelby tube or piston sampling, or other suitable method.
Pack samples in adequate containers and seal tightly against moisture loss. Attach and include
weatherproof identification labels containing the following minimum information:
site;
project name and number;
date sample taken;
boring or test pit number;
sample number;
top elevation of test hole or pit;
depth of sample below surface;
description of material;
where applicable, the number of blows to drive the sampler.
Mark top and bottom of sampling tubes and cores. Place continuous soil and rock cores in partitioned
boxes in the same sequence in which they were obtained from the drill hole.
Field Records
Maintain a field log of each test hole and test pit, as illustrated in Figure B1.02. Record the details and
results of penetration or other field testing in the field book along with the soils log.
- B.5 -
B1.8 Construction Materials Survey
For new construction sites, locate sources of suitable construction aggregates, and borrow materials, if
required for the project. Sample materials for testing against normally specified properties. Provide a plan
showing location and haul routes and determine approximate costs, if possible.
B1.9 Laboratory Testing
Determine moisture content of all samples. Test bulk samples for gradation and/or Atterberg limits, as
required by the classification procedure outlined in Section B2.
If many similar samples are obtained, test all samples from non-cohesive material, and at least one in five
similar samples from cohesive material. Samples may be considered similar if liquid limit variation is less
than 5%.
Laboratory testing for other properties, such as the following, does not form part of a normal survey, but
may be needed on occasion for special purposes. If specified by the survey Terms of Reference, perform
testing for:
laboratory (remoulded and soaked) California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
consolidation characteristics
unconfined compressive strength
triaxial shear strength
permeability
B1.10 Survey Report
Include in the survey report:

a site plan showing the location of items of interest, including test holes, test pits, existing structures,
and geological features;
a written report describing items of interest, including site geological features, subsurface conditions,
and special construction requirements;
photographs of the site;
a test hole log for each test hole and test pit, as illustrated in Figure B1.03;
a summary of laboratory test results, as illustrated in Figure B1.04 (include results of special tests
separately);
subsurface soil profiles, as illustrated in Figure B1.05, suitable for inclusion in contract documents.
- B.6 -
Table B1.01 : Site Features of Interest
Topography
- general relief
- existing vegetation
- bedrock outcrops
- gravel ridges
- quarries
- escarpments
- muskeg
- permafrost (active layer)
Special Terrain Features

- steep slopes and abrupt level changes not apparent from survey data
- presence and elevation of adjacent bodies of water
- possibility of flooding during certain periods
- related geological information
- presence of old fills (particularly if not properly compacted)
- are soils in upper horizon adapted to winter grading
- are soils in upper horizon adapted to wind erosion
- is protection of slopes recommended
- signs of slope failures
- permafrost
Drainage Features
- location and cross-section of streams, rivers, ponds
- direction and quantity of flow
- condition of existing drainage, such as clogged drain pipes, stagnating ditches or manholes, etc.
- location and description of wells (water table, type of construction)
Permafrost Areas
- present thickness of active layer
- nature of ground cover (vegetation or snow)
- description of frozen material (especially presence or absence of ice lenses)
- detailed description of type and performance of existing foundations (state if structures heated)
- description of foundation failures or successes experienced
Muskeg Areas
- type of muskeg (see muskeg description table)
- thickness
- pattern of surface vegetation
- topographic features and water conditions
- description of foundation failures
Existing Structures
- plan and elevation of existing structures adjacent to proposed structures
- description of existing foundation, including notes on construction requirements, demolishing, shoring
- existing roads, walks, waterways, etc.
- underground piping, gas, water, sewage, drainage, telephone and power lines
- easements or legal restrictions on site development
Site Access
- need to build access roads
- difficulty in access to site due to seasonal conditions, trees and bushes
- type of vehicle needed to travel over the site
- need to clear
- B.7 -
120 m typ. 120 m typ.
19
equal
of runway
three times width
60 m 120 m typ.
Note: hole layout for taxi A Note: layout shows minimum number
as for taxi B of holes and maximum spacing
Origin of each strip should be
TAXI A
located so holes occur at even
120 m typ. 120 m typ. stations on the runway chainage
(space holes to suit)
- B.8 -
TAXI B
twice
equal
taxiway
width of
CL
60 m 120 m typ.
APRON I (small)
equal equal
(for large apron use

grid system to suit
R OAD conditions)
ACCESS
to suit
CAR PARK
Figure B1.01 : MINIMUM NUMBER AND PATTERN OF TEST HOLES

CL 120 m typ (small - five holes with spacing
to suit) . . equal
. maximum . . .
.40 metres
(large - use grid system)
AIRPORT example HOLE No. 2

FACILITY NDB STATION
OFFSET CL SURF. ELEV. 972.5 m
DATE 14 January 1986 EQUIPMENT power auger
WEATHER sunny, calm, cold TEMP. -3 C CREW B.D., M.F.
SAMPLE
DEPTH SOIL LAYER FIELD DESCRIPTION
DEPTH
(m) PROFILE DEPTH No.
(m)
Muskeg
0.25
0.5
0.45
10 to Dry, very stiff, brown clayey silt
0.90
1.0
1.35 1.20
11 to
1.5 Moist, medium dense, silty coarse sand
1.65
2.0
1.95
12 to
Wet, medium dense, gravelly silty sand
2.40
2.5 2.45
2.70
13 to Saturated dense gravelly sand
3.00
Figure B1.02 : FIELD BOOK LOG
- B.9 -
AIRPORT example PROJECT 1987 bore hole survey

FACILITY 11-29 STA 5+300 OFF 3mL HOLE No. 2
SAMPLED by BD, MF DATE 27/7/87 DRILLING METHOD power auger
TESTED by JP DATE 17/8/87 SURFACE ELEV 261.35 m
CHECKED by ST DATE 18/8/87 WATER TABLE AT 24 HRS 1.9 m
REMARKS WT. OF HAMMER
HEIGHT OF DROP
WP Wn
WL N
DEPTH SOIL SAMPLE
N FIELD DESCRIPTION MOISTURE CONTENT %
(m) PROFILE No DEPTH
(m) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
asphaltic concrete
0.11
228 0.25 granular base
0.39
0.5 0.5
229 0.60 granular sub-base
230 0.80 highly plastic clay (CH)

5% sand, 10% silt
1.0 6% sand, 14% silt 1.0

DEPTH IN METRES
DEPTH IN METRES
8% sand, 17% silt
1.5
8% sand, 14% silt
water table (24hrs) at 1.90m

2.0 2.0
234 2.17 wet silty clay (CL)
with 14% sand
235 2.53 wet silty clay (CL) 2.5

2.5
with 17% sand

3.0
PENETRATION BLOWS / M
Figure B1.03 : TEST HOLE LOG
- B.10 -
GEOTECHNICAL SURVEY - LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
AIRPORT ex amp le YEAR 1987 SHEET 2 OF
IDENTIFICATION THICKNESS (m) MECHANICAL ANALYSIS SOIL

H S L D
O A A E SUBGRADE % LESS THAN SIZE (mm) CLASS. Wn L.L. P.L. P.I .
L M Y P SUB-
E P E T PAVE. BASE
L R H BASE (USED) % % % %
# # E (m) from to 75 38.1 19.0 9.5 4.75 .425 .075 .020 .005 .001
2 228 B.C. 0.25 0.11 0.28 0.41 0.80 3.00 100 95.2 85.1 33.4 25.6 12.9 2.3 - - - GW 4 - - -
2 229 S.B 0.60 100 96.1 84.8 37.4 29.1 21.1 2.3 - - - GP 3 - - -
2 230 S.G. 0.80 - - - - 100 98.5 95.5 92.0 85.5 70.0 CH 33 79.0 27.2 51.8
2 231 S.G. 0.95 - - - - 100 98.1 94.9 88.0 79.5 56.5 CH 33 68.0 23.8 44.2
- B.11 -
2 232 S.G. 1.26 - - - - 100 97.7 91.8 86.0 75.0 49.0 CH 35 58.0 21.8 36.2
2 233 S.G. 1.56 - - - - 100 97.2 92.4 87.0 78.5 65.0 CH 30 54.1 19.0 35.1
2 234 S.G. 2.17 - - - - 100 95.9 86.0 68.0 51.5 25.5 CL 26 49.1 17.6 31.5
2 235 S.G. 2.53 - - - - 100 94.6 82.5 69.0 52.0 31.0 CL 23 49.0 16.9 32.1
2 236 S.G. 3.00 - - - - - - - - - - CL 28 47.6 17.5 30.1

Figure B1.04 : LABORATORY TEST RESULTS SUMMARY

60 m 120 m
LIN E B
17 18 19 20 21
121+20
120+00
100+60
101+80
103+00
100+00
90 m
LIN E A
45m
1 2 3 4
120 m
90 m
30 m grid
120 m typic a l
LIN E C
3 4 60 m 60 m 35 36 37 38
a pprox. limits of s w a mp
w e ll
LEG EN D TEST PIT
B O R E H O LE
N
PR O B E (in s w a mp)
PLAN
1082. 1
N WN
ELEV 1082.0 NOTES :
300 mm Por t l and cement concr et e ori gi nal ground surface Topsoi l ( 0. 1 m) 1 . N i - b lo ws p er 1 5 2 mm ach iev ed with M ich ig an P en etro meter, 9 .0 7 k g , 8 6 3 mm d ro p
150 mm cr ushed gravel dept h of cut l i ne
- B.12 -
450 mm granul ar subbase N - b lo ws p er 3 0 5 mm ach iev ed with S tan d ard S p ilt Barrel S amp ler, 6 3 .5 k g , 7 6 2 mm d ro p
12
150 mm subgrade compact i on 29. 4 br own CLAY (CH) W L - liq u id limit, I P - p lasticity in d ex , WN - n atu ral mo istu re co n ten t
WL 64. 3 st i ff, moi st
1080. 5 10 I 2 . All b o reh o les d rilled u sin g tru ck mo u n ted 2 0 3 mm d iameter au g er.
P 41. 3
N W 3 . Co n tracto r to tak e in to acco u n t g ro u n d water tab le flu ctu atio n s an d /o r so il mo istu re co n ten t
ELEV 1080.5 N Topsoi l (0. 1 m) 23. 9
1080. 1 WL 60. 6 v ariatio n as related to seaso n an d climatic en v iro n men t.
Ni WN I 42. 2 4 . S o il classificatio n s are field d escrip tio n s mo d ified b y lab o rato ry test resu lts.
Topsoi l (0. 1 m) P
13
sandy GRAVEL (GW) 5 . Th e p ercen tag e o f co mp o n en t materials in th e min u s 7 5 mm material are b ased o n weig h t.
25. 0 1079. 4
si l t y CLAY (CL) 3. 0 74% gravel , 20% sand 32. 0 medi um wet
2 t o 5% cobbl es 12 6 . Th e p ercen tag e o f co b b les an d b o u ld ers is b ased o n th e estimated v o lu me o f th e o v erall
N WN 6% cobbl es
12 st i ff , moi st i Topsoi l (0. 15 m) dense, moi st samp le an d are ap p ro x imate o n ly .
ELEV 1079.0 WL 20, si l t y cl ayey SAND ( SC) hol e dry af t er 24 hr s 7 . Classificatio n o f matrix b ased o n material smaller th an 7 5 mm.
11 I 85% sand, 15% fi nes 14 4
P 6 8 . All water tab le o b serv atio n s mad e 2 4 h rs. after each test h o le was co mp leted , o r as in d icated .
si l t y CLAY 8. 0 dense, moi st 26. 0 becomes sat ur at ed
29. 0 5% cobbl es sandy SILT ( ML) 9 . F ield wo rk p erfo rmed b etween 0 3 .0 1 .7 0 an d 2 2 .0 1 .7 0 .
9 95% si l t , 5% sand
dense, moi st , non-pl ast i c sandy GRAVEL (GW)
Figure B1.05 : SUBSURFACE SOILS PROFILES

8. 0 22. 0 75% gravel , 10% sand
Boul der s t o 0. 6 m, wi t h 15% boul ders t o 0. 3 m
brown CLAY si l t y gravel mat ri x ( GM) dense, moi st
ELEV 1077.5 38. 0
st i ff , moi st dense, sat urat ed
70% boul der s. 30% mat ri x
8. 0 sandy GRAVEL (GP) mat ri x 60% gravel ,
75% gr avel , 25% coarse sand 3
30% fi nes, 10% sand
1 l oose, moi st
10. 0 NOTE: Geo d etic Ben ch mark No .
hol e dry af t er 24 hrs.
Elev . 1 0 8 0 .5 u sed in su rv ey
2 Lo cated at
ELEV 1076.0
SUBGRADE SOILS PROFILE
SOIL PROFILE LINE A
(for line s B a nd C s e e D w g N o. )
P.C. ORGANIC
CONCRETE GRAVEL SAND SILT CLAY SOIL ASPHALT
Particle sizes
boulders : > 300-mm gravel : 4.75-mm to 75-mm silt : < 75-m & non-plastic
cobbles : 75-mm to 300-mm sand : 75-m to 4.75-mm clay : < 75-m & plastic
SANDY GRAVEL SANDY,

OCCASIONAL GRAVELLY SILTY SANDY CLAYEY SILTY
BOULDER SAND SAND SILT SILT CLAY
Some
composite
soils
(density of
symbols
indicates
predominate
soil type)
note : group symbols GP, SM, CL, etc., used in test hole log descriptions
refer to the Unified Soil Classification System
SPECIAL SYMBOLS
DEDROCK LINE FINISHED GRADE
WATER TABLE ORIGINAL GRADE
Figure B1.06 : BASIC TEST HOLE SYMBOLS
- B.13 -
B2 SOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
B2.1 References
ASTM C 136 Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
ASTM D2487 Classification of Soil for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
ASTM D2488 Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)
ASTM D2607 Classification of Peats, Mosses, Humus, and Related Products
ASTM D4318 Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils
B2.2 Soil Types
Soil consists of mineral particles from disintegrated rock, organic material, or a mixture of both. Soil
materials are divided into the following categories (ASTM D2487):
Boulders: particles of rock that will not pass a 300-mm square opening
Cobbles: particles of rock that pass a 300-mm square opening and are retained on a 75-mm sieve
Gravel: particles of rock passing a 75-mm sieve and retained on a 4.75-mm sieve
Sand: particles of rock passing a 4.75-mm sieve and retained on a 75-m sieve
Silt: soil passing a 75-m sieve, is non-plastic or very slightly plastic and exhibits little or no
strength when air dry
Clay: soil passing a 75-m sieve that exhibits plasticity (putty-like characteristics) within a
range of water contents and exhibits considerable strength (cohesion) when dry
Peat: soil composed of vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition, usually with an
organic odour, a dark-brown to black colour, a spongy consistency, and a texture ranging
from fibrous to amorphous
Gravel and sand are further subdivided on the basis of particle size:
coarse gravel : passing a 75-mm sieve and retained on a 19.0-mm sieve
fine gravel : passing a 19.0-mm sieve and retained on a 4.75-mm sieve
coarse sand: passing a 4.75-mm sieve and retained on a 2.00-mm sieve

medium sand: passing a 2.00-mm sieve and retained on a 425-m sieve
fine sand: passing a 425-m sieve and retained on a 75-m sieve
Clay and silt are referred to respectively as organic clay and organic silt if they have sufficient organic
content to influence the properties of the soil. A generally discontinued practice is to refer to silt sizes as
being from 20-m to 2-m, and clay sizes as being finer than 2-m (limits of 50-m and 5-m are
sometimes used). Very fine sand is material finer than 75-m but coarser than silt size.
B2.3 Unified Soil Classification System
Soils are further classified to convey information on their general engineering properties and to indicate
their general suitability as a construction material. A number of classification systems are available. The
Unified Soil Classification System as outlined in ASTM D2487 is generally employed for pavement design
and construction purposes.
Table B2.01 outlines essentials of the Unified Soil Classification System. ASTM D2487 provides further
detail and refinements on group names. Note classification is performed only on material passing the
75-mm sieve. If cobbles or boulders are present, the group names are modified with the phrase with
cobbles, with boulders or with cobbles and boulders.
- B.14 -
The plasticity of samples with significant organic content is greatly reduced when oven-dried due to
irreversible changes in the organic colloids. For laboratory classification purposes, the soil is considered to
be organic if the liquid limit is reduced by more than 25% by oven-drying. In general, however, organic
soils can be recognized by other features. Colour is normally darker than inorganic soils and may range
from black to a dark or drab shade of gray or brown. Odour is frequently quite noticeable, particularly
when heated. Natural moisture contents are usually significantly higher and unit weights are lower in
comparison with inorganic soils.
B2.4 Engineering Description of Soils
Laboratory soil classification is based on properties of either the soil grains or remoulded material. The
classification does not take into account in-situ properties of the soil affecting behaviour of the material
during and after construction. Consequently, survey procedures include a field description to supplement
laboratory classification, and to indicate conditions that may have a major impact on construction. These
latter conditions include the presence of cobbles and boulders in amounts sufficient to hinder excavation,
deposits of very weak or organic material requiring excavation by dragline, and partially cemented
materials requiring blasting or ripping for excavation.
Tables B2.02 and B2.03 provide field description elements and the terms to describe these elements. Table
B2.04 gives some terminology related to organic materials. Other useful descriptive elements and
terminology are outlined in ASTM D2488 and ASTM D2607. The field description should be compatible
with the classification later determined through laboratory analysis. Any differences are to be resolved by
the survey chief.
Soil survey results, including field descriptions, form part of the contract documents. Consequently, a high
degree of uniformity is required in description methods and the work should be performed by competent,
experienced personnel. A cautionary note is usually be added to the contract soil profile plans, to the effect
descriptions reflect conditions found at the time of survey and some features such as water tables and some
elements such as consistency may change with time.
B2.5 Classification of Frost Susceptibility
Frost susceptibility refers to those characteristics of a soil promoting ice segregation and heaving when a
soil freezes. Significant frost heaving is usually differential in nature, producing rough pavement surfaces
and uneven bearing conditions for concrete slabs. Subgrade soils exhibiting major frost heave also have the
highest loss of bearing strength during the spring thaw. Table B2.05 gives a system of classifying soils
according to frost susceptibility.
In general, fine-grained soils are frost susceptible and coarse-grained soils are not. Heaving results not
only from the volume expansion occurring when soil water turns to ice, but more seriously, from water
migrating through the soil to the freezing front where it segregates and forms ice lenses. Fine-grained soils
are frost susceptible because of high capillary suction forces inducing water migration through the soil. Fat
clays are only moderately frost susceptible and the ice lenses forming are thin and closely spaced, because
impermeability of the material prevents significant migration of water. On the other hand, silts and very
fine sands not only exhibit high capillary suction but are also sufficiently permeable to permit the
movement of water. Large ice lenses can develop in these latter soils if a water table, or a capillary zone
above a water table, exists within the depth of frost penetration.
B2.6 Swelling Clays
Some clays exhibit large volume change with changes in moisture content, shrinking with a decrease in
moisture content and swelling with an increase. When differential in nature, these volume changes may
cause roughness at the pavement surface, or uneven bearing for concrete slabs. The swelling characteristic
is related primarily to the mineralogy of the clay particles.
- B.15 -
Figure B2.01 indicates potential for volume change based on plasticity index and percent clay fraction. A
material containing more than 25% clay and with a plasticity index greater 30 has a high potential for
volume change. Materials with a clay content greater than 10% and a plasticity index greater than 10 have
at least a slight potential for volume change. Clays with high volume change potential should tested to
quantitatively measure volume change as outlined in the laboratory CBR test, ASTM D1883. If they
cannot be avoided during construction, swelling clays should be compacted at a moisture content on the
wet side of optimum. Alternatively, lime treatment may be considered.
B2.7 Description of Rock
Rock description is not usually required in soil surveys undertaken for pavement construction purposes.
When encountered in test holes, a notation of bedrock is usually sufficient. If a description is desired,
elements of interest are rock strength, continuity, and weathering and quality of joints in the rock mass.
Table B2.06 gives some descriptive terminology.
100
Plasticity Index of Whole Sample
50
very high potential
high
medium
low
0
0 50 100
% Clay Fraction of Whole Sample
Figure B2.01 :
POTENTIAL SEVERITY OF VOLUME CHANGE FOR CLAY SOILS
- B.16 -
Table B2.01 : Unified Soil Classification System
Soil Classification
Criteria for Assigning Group Symbols and Group Names
(based on laboratory tests performed on material passing a 75-mm sieve) Group Group
Symbol Name
Gravels Clean Gravels
CU 4 and 1 CC 3 GW well-graded gravel
Coarse-Grained Soils More than 50% of less than 5% fines
More than 50% retained on coarse fraction CU < 4 and/or 1 > CC > 3 GP poorly graded gravel
a 75-m sieve retained on a
4.75-mm sieve Gravels with Fines fines classify as ML or MH* GM silty gravel
more than
12% fines fines classify as CL or CH* GC clayey gravel
Sands Clean Sands

CU 6 and 1 CC 3 SW well-graded sand
50% or more of less than 5% fines
coarse fraction CU < 6 and/or 1 > CC > 3 SP poorly graded sand
passes a 4.75-mm
sieve Sands with Fines fines classify as ML or MH* SM silty sand
more than
12% fines fines classify as CL or CH* SC clayey sand
Plasticity index > 7
Silts and Clays Inorganic and plots on or above A line CL lean clay
Fine-Grained Soils Liquid limit Plasticity index < 4
50% or more passing a less than 50 or plots below A line ML silt
75-m sieve
Organic
< 0.75 liquid limit (not dried) OL organic silt
Silts and Clays Inorganic

Plots on or above A line CH fat clay
Liquid limit
50 or more Plots below A line MH elastic silt
Organic
< 0.75 liquid limit (not dried) OH organic silt
Highly Organic Soils primarily organic matter, dark in colour, and organic odour PT peat
Gravels with 5% to 12% fines require dual symbols: Sands with 5% to 12% fines require dual symbols: * If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual
GW-GM well-graded gravel with silt SW-SM well-graded gravel with silt symbols GC-GM or SC-SM
GW-GC well-graded gravel with clay SW-SC well-graded gravel with clay
GP-GM poorly graded gravel with silt SP-SM poorly graded gravel with silt See ASTM D2487 for refinements
GP-GC poorly graded gravel with clay SP-SC poorly graded gravel with clay to group names.
Procedure:
For coarse-grained soils, determine gradation to ASTM C136. For fine-grained soils, determine Atterberg limits to ASTM
Plot gradation and determine CU and CC as shown below (note that D4318. Plot position on plasticity chart shown below.
DXX is the particle size for which xx% is finer than).
Sieve Size (mm)

.075 .106 .250 .425 .850 2 4.75 9.5 19 25 50 75
100 60
Coarse-Grained Soils Fine-Grained Soils

ls
Gradation Chart Plasticity Chart

lin soi
50
e
ve a l
in
80
e
bo tur
Coefficient of Uniformity
'l
ts a r na
'A
CU = D60 / D10
plo t fo
OH
= 18 / 0.15 = 120
ata mi
40
or
f d r li
Coefficient of Curvature D60 = 18

Percent Passing
CH
s i pe
60 CC = (D30)2 / (D60 x D10)

Plasticity Index
ul t up
= (2.5)2 / (18 x 0.15)

res ate
30
ck xim
= 2.31
- c appro
40
he
e-
lin
D30 = 2.5 20
OL
'U'
or
MH or OH
CL
20
10
D10 = 0.15
CL-ML ML or OL
0
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Particle Size (mm) Liquid Limit
- B.17 -
Table B2.02 : Field Description of Coarse-Grained Soils
DESCRIPTION ELEMENTS
1. Constituents : sieve size Name principal component and modify with names
passing retained of minor components.
Boulders --- 300-mm Give approximate percentage of each component or
Cobbles 300-mm 75-mm use following modifiers:
Gravel - Coarse 75-mm 19.0-mm trace - present but < 5%
- Fine 19.0-mm 4.75-mm few - 5 to 10%
Sand - Coarse 4.75-mm 2.00-mm little - 15 to 25%
- Medium 2.00-mm 425- m some - 30 to 45%
- Fine 425- m 75- m mostly - 50 to 100%
Fines 75- m --- Indicate if fines are silt or clay.
2. Particle Shape :
Angular - sharp edges, relatively plain sides, unpolished surface
Subangular - similar to angular but with rounded edges
Subrounded - nearly plain sides with well-rounded corners and edges
Rounded - smoothly curved sides, no edges
3. Gradation :
Uniform - most particles within one size range
Gap-graded - wide range of sizes with some intermediate sizes missing
Well-graded - continuous, wide range of sizes
4. Moisture :
Dry - well below optimum moisture for compaction
Moist - near optimum moisture
Wet - requires drying to reach optimum moisture
Saturated - maximum moisture content
5. Relative Density : standard penetration (N)

Very Loose 0 - 4
Loose 4 - 10
Medium Density 10 - 30
Dense 30 - 50
Very Dense 50 +
6. Colour : Describe colour and shade.
7. Mineralogy : Describe parent rock type for gravel and predominant minerals for sand.
8. Organic : Describe if highly or partly organic, type of organic matter present.
9. Structure :
Stratified - alternating layers of different material
Lensed - inclusion of small pockets of different material
Homogeneous - no structural characteristics apparent
10. Cementation: Describe if weakly or strongly cemented. Note if blasting is required for excavation.
11. Classification : Give Unified Soil Classification Symbol.
Example: Well-graded, gravelly, SILTY SAND, maximum size 200-mm, about 5% cobbles. About 20%
sub-rounded, igneous gravel, 60% sub-rounded to sub-angular quartz sand, and 15% low plasticity fines.
Light-brown colour. Moist, dense, stratified - probably of alluvial origin. SM
- B.18 -
Table B2.03 : Field Description of Fine-Grained Soils
DESCRIPTION ELEMENTS
1. Constituents :
silt - passing 75-m sieve, non-plastic, little or no strength in air dried condition.
clay - passing 75-m sieve, cohesive, exhibits plastic properties over a range of moisture contents,
appreciable dry strength.
Name type of fines and modify with names of minor components if present. See table of description of
coarse-grained soils. Give approximate percentage of boulders, cobbles, gravel and sand if present.
2. Moisture :
Dry - well below optimum moisture for compaction
Moist - near optimum moisture
Wet - requires drying to reach optimum moisture
Saturated - maximum moisture content
3. Consistency : unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

very soft - easily penetrated several centimetres by fist < 24
soft - easily penetrated several centimetres by thumb 24 - 48
medium - can be penetrated several centimetres by thumb with moderate effort 48 - 95
stiff - readily indented by thumb but penetrated only with great effort 95 - 190
very stiff - readily indented by thumb-nail 190 - 380
hard - indented with difficulty by thumb-nail > 380
4. Plasticity :
non-plastic - Describe according to the materials dry strength, dilatency and toughness
slightly plastic
medium plastic
highly plastic
5. Dry Strength :
none - The presence of cementing materials may cause exceptional dry strength
low but can usually be detected from the HCl reaction.
medium
high
very high
6. Colour : Describe colour and shade
7. Organic : Describe if highly or partly organic, type of organic matter present
8. Structure :
Stratified - The presence of special structural characteristics should be noted.
Laminated
Fissured
Slickensided
Blocky
Lensed
Homogeneous
9. Cementation : Describe if weakly or strongly cemented. Note if blasting is required for excavation.
10. Classification : Give Unified Soil Classification Symbol.
Example: CLAYEY SILT, some fine sand. About 10% fine sand, 90% slightly plastic fines. Yellowish brown
colour. Dry. Firm. Non-stratified but with numerous root holes (loess). ML.
- B.19 -
Table B2.04 : Organic Materials Terminology
Terrain Description
Organic Terrain, Muskeg, Peatland
A tract of country, the surface of which is composed of a living organic mat of mosses and/or grasses, with or
without trees and shrub growth. Underneath the surface is a mixture of partially decomposed and disintegrated
organic material in various hydrological conditions and underlying mineral formations.
Bog
A confined area of organic terrain. It is differentiated from general organic terrain mainly in terms of area, and
because variations in surface, topographic and subsurface conditions occur more frequently than in extensive areas
of organic terrain.
Marsh
A low-lying tract of land, with a high water table and usually covered with a native growth of coarse grasses, reeds
and rushes growing directly on mineral terrain. Marsh does not necessarily contain organic material deposits.
Swamp
Similar to a marsh, but supports a growth of trees as well as shrubs and grasses.
Description Elements
a) surface vegetation, such as trees and shrubs, that occurs above the ground;
b) topographic features, such as mosses and grasses, that occur along the ground;
c) composition and structure of subsurface material;
d) hydrologic condition, including water content and level of water table.
Material Description
Peat
Peat is the underlying component or organic terrain consisting of fossilized, fibrous, organic material in various
stages of decomposition, accumulated under conditions of excessive moisture. It is of a spongy consistency and
may vary in colour from light brown to black.
Muck
Muck indicates a higher degree of decomposition of organic material than peat. It is a black ooze without structure,
and contains no identifiable plant remains.
Topsoil
A surface layer, usually 150 to 250 mm in depth, of fertile, arable soil.
Description Elements
Colour, odour, texture, organic content, composition and structure.
- B.20 -
Table B2.05 : Soil Frost Susceptibility Classification

(Source: U.S. Corps of Engineers)
Symbol Description
F-1 Gravelly soils containing 3% to 20% finer than 20-m by weight.
F-2 Sands containing 3% to 15% finer than 20-m by weight.
(a) Gravelly soils containing more than 20% finer than 20-m by weight.
F-3 (b) Sands, except very fine silty sands, containing more than 15% finer than 20-m
by weight.
(c) Clays with plasticity indices of more than 12.
(a) All silts including sandy silts.

(b) Very fine silty sands containing more than 15% finer than 20-m by weight.
F-4
(c) Clays with plasticity indices of less than 12.
(d) Varved clays existing with non-uniform subgrade conditions.
Notes:
(a) Classifications are arranged in increasing order of frost susceptibility.
(b) Soils containing less than 3% of grains finer than 20-m are considered to be frost-free,
meaning no ice segregation and heaving occurs when the soil freezes.
(c) Abbreviation NFS is sometimes used in soil descriptions to indicate Not Frost Susceptible.
Table B2.06 : Descriockptive Terms for R
A) Classification of Intact Rock According to Strength B) Continuity of Formation
Descriptive Strength Unconfined Compressive Strength Descriptive Term Joint Spacing
very high greater than 200 MPa massive greater than 1.8 m
high 100 MPa to 200 MPa blocky 0.3 m to 1.8 m
medium 50 MPa to 100 MPa broken 0.1 m to 0.3 m
low 25 MPa to 50 MPa very broken less than 0.1 m
very low less than 25 MPa
C) Rock Quality Designation (R.Q.D)
Rock Quality R.Q.D (%) Note: Rock Quality Designation (R.Q.D) is determined by
considering hard, sound pieces of core at least 100 mm long.
excellent 90 -100 Percentage ratio between the total length of core recovered
good 75 - 90 and the length of core drilled on a given run is the R.Q.D.
fair 50 - 75 Recommended core barrels are Nwx or Nwn. Core diameter
poor 25 - 50 to be not less than 50 mm for determining R.Q.D.
very poor 0 - 25
- B.21 -
B3 SURVEYS IN PERMAFROST AREAS
B3.1 References
ASTM D4083 Description of Frozen Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure).

Guide to a Field Description of Permafrost for Engineering Purposes, National Research Council of
Canada, NRC7576, Technical Memorandum 79, Ottawa, 1963.
Arctic and Subarctic Construction, Site Selection and Development, Departments of the Army and
the Air Force, Technical Manual No. 5-852-2, Washington D.C, July 1966.
B3.2 Site Reconnaissance
Some details of site reconnaissance require greater attention when surveys are conducted in areas of
permafrost. In general, site topography, organic cover and drainage characteristics need greater
examination and a more detailed description in the survey report. The disturbance of organic cover during
construction usually leads to degradation of the underlying permafrost stratum. The alteration of surface
drainage patterns and the diversion of water flow also causes thaw of underlying permafrost because water
acts as a heat sink. Permafrost degradation may result in soil instability and large settlements, particularly
in fine-grained, ice rich soils.
When conducting surveys for building foundations, attention must be paid to the type and performance of
existing building foundations at the site. Data should be collected on the air space beneath existing
buildings, heating details and effects on the underlying permafrost, the length of piles, and age and
performance.
At remote sites, information is needed on site access and transportation possibilities for the movement of
construction equipment and materials. Details concerning air access, water transport and docking facilities,
and overland travel routes should be explored. At undeveloped locations, information may be needed on
possible locations for a construction camp and water supply.
B3.3 Subsurface Investigation
In addition to the minimum requirements for subsurface investigations in seasonal frost areas,
investigations conducted in permafrost areas should determine the depth of the active layer and where
possible, the depth of the permafrost. Measurements should be made of the total ice content of the soil and
the resulting soil moisture content if the ice were to thaw. A description of ice lensing and segregation is
needed.
In surveys for pavement construction projects, a number of test holes should be carried to a depth sufficient
to determine characteristics of the entire zone where the thermal regime will be altered by the proposed
construction. For buildings, explorations should be carried out to a minimum of 3 m below the theoretical
depth of thaw and to at least 3 m below the base of foundation support.
B3.4 Exploration and Sampling
Drilling
One or more types of drilling can be used to determine the depth to permafrost and, at the same time, obtain
samples of the unfrozen and frozen soil. Samples of frozen soil suitable for water content and classification
tests can be obtained by power auger. Tungsten carbide cutting teeth on the base of augers have proven
satisfactory if the material does not contain an excessive amount of cobbles and boulders. However, a
power auger does not always provide samples sufficiently undisturbed to determine the intensity of ice
segregation. Relatively undisturbed samples of frozen silts, clays and some fine saturated sands can be
- B.22 -
obtained by drive sampling using a pipe with a tempered, sharpened cutting edge, or soil sampling tube, or
by rotary drilling using tungsten carbide saw-toothed core bits or diamond core bits.
Soil appearing to be unfrozen, especially in auger cuttings, may actually be frozen and care should be
exercised in examination. A sample may be warmed and examined for a marked loss in strength
accompanied by an apparent marked increase in water content, indicating the sample was initially frozen.
Borings
Borings are generally done without the use of casing except as necessary to prevent the thawed portions of
the hole from caving in. The test boring may be advanced from one sampling depth to the next, either by
churn drilling using water for drilling fluid with additives as necessary to prevent freezing, or by rotary
drilling with a roller bit using pre-cooled compressed air to blow the cuttings to the surface. Salt is not
desirable as an additive to depress the freezing point of the drilling fluid to a temperature low enough for
drilling and coring, as a considerable amount is required and it dissolves ice in samples and often causes
skin irritation. Arctic grade diesel fuel cooled by ambient air in winter or by mechanical refrigeration in
summer has yielded mechanically and thermally undisturbed core samples of a wide variety of frozen soils
and rock. Although also disagreeable to survey personnel, the use of chilled diesel fuel as the drilling fluid
reduces thermal disturbance to the hole wall, increases wall stability, and markedly decreases the time
required for installed temperature-sensing cables to reach equilibrium. Samples obtained by drive sampling
or cored by rotary drilling methods generally yield adequate information on the nature and degree of ice
segregation and permit an estimate of the magnitude of subsidence resulting upon thawing.
Test Pits
Test pits are a reliable but slow and expensive means of frozen ground exploration. Compressed air tools
and/or drilling and shooting are likely required for excavation. In frozen gravelly soil, pits may be
necessary to determine whether segregated ice exists, either as buried ground ice or in pockets of frost
susceptible soils within the gravel deposit.
Geophysical Prospecting
Geophysical prospecting methods can be used to delineate permafrost bodies, but results should be
supplemented with exploratory drilling. Seismic and resistivity methods have proven most useful because
the frozen interstitial water in soils and rock causes greater changes in seismic velocity and electrical
resistivity than in other measured geophysical properties. Seismic refraction techniques can be used to
determine the extent and depth of the permafrost surface, but attempts to measure the thickness of
permafrost by seismic reflections and surface wave dispersions have not been successful. Theoretically,
resistivity methods can also be used to measure the thickness of permafrost bodies. The reliability of
geophysical prospecting methods depends to a great extent on experience in the interpretation of results.
B3.5 Classification of Frozen Soils
A system for the description and classification of frozen soils is given in ASTM D4083. Figure B3.01
outlines essentials of the system. The system can be used with any type of sample displaying the natural
structure of the frozen material, such as specimens recovered from test holes or test pits, or frozen in the
laboratory. A somewhat different classification may result if the material is inspected in full face in a test
pit rather than as a small sample. Full face test pit inspection gives the most valid results.
Complete saturation of the soil with all of the water frozen is a state frequently encountered with frozen
soils. Figure B3.02 illustrates relationships between soil unit dry weight, water content and ice volume.
- B.23 -
Table B3.01 : Description and Classification of Frozen Soil
Part I
DESCRIPTION OF
SOIL PHASE CLASSIFY SOIL PHASE BY THE UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
(independent of
frozen state)
Pertinent Properties of Frozen
Major Group Sub Group
Materials Which May be Measured Thaw
Field Identification
by Physical Tests to Supplement Characteristics
Description Designation Description Designation Field Description
poorly bonded In-place Temperature

Nf
or friable Density and Void Ratio
Identify by visual examination. To determine presence of usually
a. in frozen state thaw-stable
excess ice, use procedure under Note (iii) and hand b. after thawing in-place
Segregated
magnifying lens as necessary. For soils not fully saturated,
ice is not no Water Content
N estimate degree of ice saturation as Medium or Low. Note
visible by excess Nbn presence of crystals or of ice coatings around larger particles. (total H2O including ice)
eye well ice a. average
Nb
Part II bonded
excess
b. distribution
Nbe
DESCRIPTION OF ice Strength
FROZEN SOIL a. compressive
individual ice b. tensile
crystals or Vx c. shear
inclusions For the ice phase, record the following when applicable: d. adfreeze
Location Size
ice coatings Elastic Properties
Vc Orientation Shape
on particles
Thickness Pattern Plastic Properties
Segregated random or Length Thermal Properties
ice is irregularly Vr Spacing
visible by oriented ice Ice Crystal Structure
formations Hardness per (using optical instruments) usually
eye V Structure Part III
stratified or a. orientation of axes thaw-unstable
(ice 25 mm distinctly Colour below b. crystal size
oriented ice Vs
or less in c. crystal shape
thickness) formations Estimate volume of visible segregated ice present as
d. pattern of arrangement
uniformly percentage of total sample volume.
distributed Vu
ice
Designate material as ICE (Note iv) and use descriptive terms
Part III ice with soil ICE as follows, usually one item from each group, when applicable
Ice inclusions + Soil Type Hardness Structure (Note v) Colour Admixtures Same as Part II above, as applicable
DESCRIPTION OF
(greater than HARD CLEAR (examples) (example) with special emphasis on ice crystal
SUBSTANTIAL ICE SOFT CLOUDY COLOURLESS CONTAINS structure.
ICE STRATA 25 mm in
(of mass, POROUS GRAY FEW THIN
thickness) ice without soil
ICE not CANDLED BLUE SILT
inclusions individual GRANULAR INCLUSIONS
crystals) STRATIFIED
Notes:
(i) The descriptive name of the frozen soil type and a complete description of the frozen material are the fundamental elements of this classification scheme. Additional descriptive data should be added
where necessary. The letter symbols are secondary and intended only for convenience in preparing graphical presentations. Since it is frequently impractical to describe ice formation in frozen soils
by means or words alone, sketches and photographs should be used, where appropriate, to supplement descriptions.
(ii) Frozen soils in the N group may, on close examination, indicate presence of ice within the voids of the material by crystalline reflections or by a sheen on fractured or trimmed surfaces. The impression
received by the unaided eye, however, is that none of the frozen water occupies space in excess of the original voids in the soil. The opposite is true of frozen soils in the V group.
(iii) When visual methods may be inadequate, a simple field test to aid evaluation of volume of excess ice can be made by placing some frozen soil in a small jar, allowing it to melt, and observing the
quantity of supernatant water as a percentage of the total volume.
(iv) Where special forms of ice such as hoarfrost can be distinguished, more explicit description should be given.
(v) In describing ice structure, observer should be careful to avoid being mislead by surface scratches or frost coating on the ice.
(vi) The letter symbols shown are to be affixed to the Unified Soil Classification symbol, or may be used in conjunction with graphic symbols in exploration logs or geological profiles.
Example :- a lean clay with essentially horizontal ice lenses
CL - or Vs
Vs
Definitions :
candled ice - ice that has rotted or otherwise formed into long columnar crystals, very loosely bonded together.
clear ice - ice that is transparent and contains only a moderate number of air bubbles.
cloudy ice - ice that is translucent or relatively opaque due to the content of air or for other reasons, but which is essentially sound and nonpervious.
excess ice - ice in excess of the fraction that would be retained as water in the soil voids after thawing.
friable - a condition under which the material is easily broken up under light to moderate pressure.
granular ice - ice that is composed of coarse, more or less equidimensional, crystals weakly bonded together.
ground ice - a body of more or less clear ice within frozen ground.
ice coatings on particles - discernible layers of ice found on or below the large soil particles in a frozen soil mass. They are sometimes associated with hoarfrost crystals which have grown into voids
produced by the freezing action.
ice crystal - a very small individual ice particle visible in the face of a soil mass. Crystals may be present alone or in combination with other ice formations.
ice lenses - lenticular ice formations in soil occurring essentially parallel to each other, generally normal to the direction of heat loss, and commonly in repeated layers.
ice segregation - the growth of ice within soil in excess of the amount that may be produced by the in-place conversion of the original void moisture to ice. Ice segregation occurs most often as distinct
lenses, layers, veins and masses, commonly, but not always oriented normal to the direction of heat flow.
ice wedge - a wedge-shaped mass in permafrost, usually associated with fissures in polygons.
polygons - more or less regular-sized surface patterns created by thermal contraction of the ground. Two types are common (a) those with depressed centres, and (b) those with raised centres.
poorly bonded - a condition in which the soil particles are weakly held together by the ice so the frozen soil has poor resistance to chipping and breaking.
porous ice - ice that contains numerous voids usually interconnected and usually resulting from melting at air bubbles or along crystal interfaces from presence of salt or other material in the water,
or from the freezing of saturated snow. Though porous, the mass retains its structural unity.
thaw stable - the characteristics of frozen soils that, upon thawing, do not show a loss of strength in comparison to normal, long-time thawed values nor produce detrimental settlements.
thaw unstable - the characteristics of frozen soils that, upon thawing, show significant loss of strength in comparison to normal, long-time thawed values or produce significant settlement, or both,
as a direct result of the melting of excess ice in the soil.
well-bonded - a condition in which the soil particles are strongly held together by the ice so the frozen soil possesses relatively high resistance to chipping or breaking.
- B.24 -
2400 300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2240 280
Volume of Excess Ice
Gravels and % total volume of frozen specimen
Gravelly Sands
2080 260
1920 240
Well-Graded
Sands
1760 220
Uniform
Fine Sands
1600 200
Water Content - % of dry weight

Soil Dry Unit Weight kg/m3
1440 180
Silts
1280 160
excess ice volume
to produce 100%
1120 liquid saturation 140
after thawing
Clays
960 120
100% saturation
800 100
heavy bars indicate normal ranges
of soil dry unit weight without ice segregation
640 80
480 Assumptions: 60
a) soil saturated and all water frozen
b) specific gravity of soil = 2.70
320 40
160 20
percent volume vs water content
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Porosity, n, or Volume of Ice - % of total volume
Example :
Assume specimen of frozen silt with excess ice estimated at approximately 60%. Based on
experience, silt dry unit weight is estimated at 1520 kiloggrams per cubic metre. From chart,
porosity n is 77% (in this case proportion of ice volume). Intersection of vertical 77%
porosity line with 100% saturation line indicates on the left scale the equivalent overall dry
unit weight of 609 kilograms per cubic metre. From curve of "percent volume of
ice vs water content" right scale indicates water content would be approximately 114%.
Figure B3.01 :
SOIL DRY WEIGHT, ICE VOLUME and WATER CONTENT RELATIONSHIPS
- B.25 -
B4 GROUND TEMPERATURE AND FROST DEPTH MEASUREMENT
B4.1 References
Instructions for the Fabrication of Thermocouple Cables for Measuring Ground Temperatures,
National Research Council of Canada, NRC Technical Paper No. 157, Ottawa, 1963.
R. Gandahl, Determination of the Ground Frost Line by Means of a Simple Type of Frost Depth
Indicator, The National Swedish Road Research Institute, Report 30A, Stockholm, 1963.
Estimating the Depth of Pavement Frost and Thaw Penetrations, Canadian Air Transportation
Administration, Department of Transport, Report No. CBED-6-266, Ottawa, 1973.
B4.2 Measurement by Thermistors
Thermistors
Thermistor probes are precision temperature-sensing devices that can be inserted into the ground at various
depths to measure temperature. The tip of each probe contains a thermistor, a rugged semi-conductor in
which a slight temperature change causes a pronounced change in electrical resistance. Accurate
measurement of resistance gives an indication of the temperature at the thermistor position.
Thermistors respond rapidly to slight temperature changes and provide a large change in resistance from
small changes in temperature. These characteristics allow for the use of long leads without a significant
decrease in accuracy. A variety of probe types and temperature read-out instruments covering a wide range
of temperatures are available commercially.
Installation
Refer to Figure B4.01 and install as follows:

Cut the thermistor lead wires about 600 mm from the jack; strip the vinyl covering from the cut ends
and unravel the braided wire. Twist and connect a nico-press fastener to each end.
Cut 5 mm grooves in a 50 X 75 mm or a 50 x 100 mm wood stud of a length to suit installation.
Place the thermistor leads in the grooves and tape in place.
Record colour-coded wire colours of the cable for each thermistor connection.
Connect cable leads to thermistor leads and carefully install in a pre-drilled hole.
Lay the cable in a prepared groove cut across the pavement and connect matching cable wires to the
jacks at a switch box located in weather-proof housing off the pavement area.
Plug the jacks into the appropriate holes in the switch-box. Connect the tele-thermometer to the
switch-box and calibrate the tele-thermometer.
Check each thermistor using the switch-box.
Backfill the hole and compact the backfill in 200 mm layers. Use material excavated from the hole for
backfilling, or use a dry sand as backfill if the original material cannot be replaced close to its natural
state.
Recheck working of the thermistors to ensure no damage occurred during placing of the backfill.
The design of the installation shown in Figure B4.01 protects the thermistor points from damage during
backfilling, ensures the thermistors are installed at the proper depth, and allows speedy installation.
Readings
Normally, temperatures are taken at least once per week. Figure B4.01 illustrates a typical recording form.
A temperature profile can be plotted from the readings to interpolate temperatures at various depths.
- B.26 -
M-100 cold pour

crack filler
fasten with nicopress

fasteners and tape joint
multi-conductor cable
gravel
el switch box to be
grav housed off runway
22 gauge wire
grooved wood 1 2
3 4
5 6
50 mm x 100 mm
switch box
YSI model 4002
thermistors
depths as required connect jack wire to 22 gauge
with nicopress fasteners
tele-thermometer
YSI model 142SC
THERMISTOR RECORDS
SITE : HOLE No :
LOCATION : SURFACE ELEVATION :
RECORDER : LAYOUT
Temperature Records
Thermistor Depth Switch
No (mm) Position Date
Weekly Mean Air Temperature (oC)

Depth to 0oC Isotherm (mm)
Figure B4.01 : THERMISTOR INSTALLATION AND RECORDING FORM
- B.27 -
B4.3 Frost Depth Measurement by Gandahl Indicator
The Gandahl Indicator
During the winter period, and particularly during the spring thaw, a significant depth of ground may be at
or very close to 0C. A limitation of thermistors is that a temperature measurement of 0C does not
indicate whether the soil moisture is in a frozen or thawed state. The Gandahl frost depth indicator is a
more suitable device for measuring the depth of frost penetration.
The indicator was developed by R. Gandahl of the National Swedish Road Research Institute and has been
used at Canadian airports in studies on the depth of frost and thaw penetration. The instruments main
feature is a transparent tube containing a blue dye solution that becomes colourless upon freezing. The
tube is installed vertically in the ground where it reaches thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. When
extracted, frozen layers are indicated by the contrast between the colourless and deep blue solution.
Installation
The Gandahl frost depth indictor illustrated in Figure B4.02 is installed as follows:
Auger a vertical hole with a diameter just sufficient to accept the casing. Avoid excavation and
oversized drilling, followed by excessive backfilling. Do not leave metallic casing or rod in the ground
in the vicinity of the frost depth indicator.
Open a shallow pit about 175 mm x 175 mm x 75 mm for the anchor plate in asphalt pavements. The
anchor plate is not needed in concrete pavements.
Take care to ensure a water tight installation, as any water getting into the casing freezes and prevents
probe extraction. Heavily grease the internal interface of telescopic casing tops using a low
temperature grease. Use greased packing (string, rag, etc.) in areas of high water table. Grease or
apply lubricant tape to the threads of the brass screw cap. Apply grease also to the outside surfaces of
the casing to discourage frost adhesion and heave.
Ensure the telescopic casing top is anchored (or bonded with mortar in concrete pavements) to stay
flush with the surface in paved areas and the pavement surface is neatly refinished. High instrument
tops will be destroyed by snow plows. Low tops will collect water, snow and ice, and be difficult to
extract.
With companion installations in paved and unpaved areas, the instrument in the paved area should be
longer as there is no snow blanket to reduce frost penetration. However, longer casing may be
required in unpaved areas so the wood dowel top is accessible above the undisturbed snow line.
Standard 1.8 m lengths of acrylic instrument tube are available. Butt-joint two sections together to
assemble longer instruments. Avoid thickly taped joints that will not pass inside the casing.
Minimize disturbance to the snow cover in the vicinity of frost indicators installed in snow covered
areas. An observers wooden catwalk can be provided if considered necessary.
Where data on subsoil conditions is desired for correlation with the depth of frost or thaw penetration,
bore a test hole about 3 m from the indicator installation. Subsoil information of major interest is
moisture content, density and classification.
Make a site plan and reference the location of installations to local features.
Change the solution of Xylene Cyanol (0.05% by weight in distilled water) at the beginning of each
new season. The dye powder is readily available through normal commercial outlets.
Readings
Normally, readings are taken at least once per week. Figure B4.03 illustrates a typical recording form.
Water must be prevented from entering the casing during readings as the tube may then become frozen
within the casing. In paved areas, broom away all surface water, snow and slush before extracting the tube.
- B.28 -
Readings are made by uncapping and extracting the instrument, and noting the depth to all blue/white or
white/blue colour changes in the solution column. Minimize warming of the instrument from handling or
exposure to sunlight. Under-cooling may be suspected if the solution remains blue when freezing
conditions are known to exist. If this situation is encountered, tap gently to initiate nucleation of freezing.
If necessary, leave the tube out until entirely frozen and then reinsert to thaw back.
A) Snow Cleared Paved Areas Brass screw cap flush with pavement surface
Latex coupling tube secured at both ends

400 mm to 600 mm
by wire
150 mm x 150 mm anchor plate

Hose clamp to hold anchor plate
25 mm P.V.C. tubing
telescoping assembly to
accommodate frost heaving
slotted screwplug with 25 mm
standard tapered pipe thread 19 mm P.V.C. tubing
to fit flush in end of 25 mm
adapter coupling
10 mm O.D. copper tubing

cut to suit
13 mm I.D. latex tube
coupling secured by wire
Exterior of casing to be greased
washer with O.D. slightly
to discourage frost adhesion
larger than head of screw and heaving
sheet metal screw
Clear, rigid, acrylic tubing

16 mm O.D. x 12.5 mm I.D.
Cap Detail graduated in millimetres
Surgical latex tubing
11 mm O.D. x 8 mm I.D.
Length of instrument to exceed (under tension)
expected frost penetration
Annular space between latex and acrylic plastic
tubing filled with a solution of Xylene Cyanol
(0.05% by weight)
No. 000 solid rubber plug
Tip of casing to be heat sealed and

dipped in solvent cement
B) Snow Covered Areas

Dowel to be sawed off 13 mm
Telescoping assembly is omitted for Top for snow covered areas. above casing top and covered
16mm wooden dowel extension with P.V.C. snow cap
snow covered areas. 19 mm casing cut to length as required planks
is extended above the snow line support
50mm wide heavy nylon trestles
and is supported by an observers stake
strip to be cement with
epoxy resin
catwalk structure. A snow cap is used
to close the top of the casing. observers wooden catwalk
to prevent snow disturbance in uncleared areas
Figure B4.02 : GANDAHL TYPE FROST DEPTH INDICATOR
- B.29 -
SITE: LOCATION YEAR

REMARKS
1.5
Soils Log
snow depth (m)
1.0 Crew
Date
0.5
Loc'n
0
0
0.5
1.0
40
depth of frost penetration (m)
1.5 30
20
weekly mean air temperature OC
2.0 10
2.5 -10
-20
3.0 -30
-40
3.5
1 15 29 12 26 9 23 7 21 4 18 2 16 30 13 27 10 24 10 24 7 21 5 19 2 16 30
JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
Figure B4.03 : FROST DEPTH READINGS
- B.30 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix C : Construction Specifications
APPENDIX C
CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
Section Page
C2010 Cash Allowance for Runway Paving Ride Quality C.2
C2110 Aggregates General C.3
C2120 Compaction Measurement . C.5
C2210 Airfield Grading . C.7
C2220 Lime Modification of Subgrade . C.11
C2310 Granular Subbase ... C.13
C2320 Granular Base . C.15
C2330 Cement Stabilized Base . C.17
C2410 Hot Mix Asphalt Paving . C.21
C2420 Mixed-in-Place Asphalt Paving . C.30
C2440 Asphalt Prime and Tack Coats .. C.33
C2460 Coal Tar Seal Coat C.35
C2470 Asphalt Emulsion Slurry Seal C.38
C2480 Surface Treatment - Single Application C.42
C2510 Portland Cement Concrete Paving . C.46
C2710 Sub-Drainage System C.55
- C.1 -
Section C2010 CASH ALLOWANCE FOR RUNWAY PAVING RIDE QUALITY December 2000
1. Ride Quality .1 Include [ $ ] cash allowance in tender price to cover payment for the
Cash Allowance level of ride quality achieved in runway paving operations.
********************************************************************
Spec Note : A cash allowance in the order of 5% of the cost of a resurfacing course
is suggested..
********************************************************************
.2 Runway surface ride quality to be measured in terms of a Riding Comfort Index
(RCI) as specified in this Section. RCI is calculated from measured runway surface
profiles and is on a scale of 10 (excellent) to 0 (extremely poor).
.3 Cash allowance to be disbursed as follows:

.1 100% for a runway surface RCI of 9.5 or above;
.2 0% for a runway surface RCI of 6.5 or below;
.3 a percentage linearly proportioned between 0 and 100 for a runway surface RCI
between 6.5 and 9.5.
2. Runway Profile .1 Profile measurement by Engineer within one month following completion of paving:
Measurement .1 Profile measured along four lines; at offsets of 3 m left and 3 m right of
centerline, and 10 m left and 10 m right of centerline. Offsets may be
increased by 150 mm if required to avoid a longitudinal construction joint.
.2 Pavement surface swept along each profile line to give a clean surface free of
stones or other debris at the time of measurement. Profile line marked on the
pavement surface using chalk.
.3 Profile elevations measured at intervals of 100 m by survey rod and level
methods.
.4 Profile elevations measured at regularly spaced intervals of 300 mm or 250 mm
by a Profiler measuring device giving an accuracy equal to or better than the
Dipstick Road Profiler manufactured by the Face Company of Norfolk,
Virginia, USA.
.5 Profiler measurements through 100 m segments repeated if profiler elevations
differ from rod and level elevations by more than 50 mm per 100 m.
.6 Profiler elevations adjusted to equal rod and level elevations by linearly
distributing differences through each 100 m segment.
3. RCI Calculation .1 The International Roughness Index (IRI) for each profile line to be calculated in
accordance with ASTM E1926-98, Practice for Computing International Roughness
Index of Roads from Longitudinal Profile Measurements.
.2 The Root Mean Square Vertical Acceleration (RMSVA) index for each profile line
to be calculated as detailed in Root Mean Square Vertical Acceleration as a
Summary Roughness Statistic, by Hudson et al., Measuring Road Roughness and
Its Effects on User Costs and Comfort, ASTM STP 844, 1985. RMSVA to be
computed using a base length of 1.5 m.
.3 RCI for each profile line to be calculated as equal to (RCIIRI + RCIRMSVA) / 2, where
RCIIRI = 10 e-0.255 IRI and RCIRMSVA = 10 e-0.366 RMSVA
.4 Cash allowance disbursement to be based on the average of the RCI values for the
four profile lines.
.5 IRI, RMSVA and RCI calculations to be rounded off to the nearest value giving two
decimal places of accuracy.
- C.2 -
Section 2110 AGGREGATES GENERAL June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers general requirements for the supply of aggregates specified in
other Sections, including those Sections covering the construction of granular
subbase, granular base, hot mix asphalt concrete and Portland cement concrete.
1.2 Source Approval .1 Advise of the proposed source of aggregate and provide access for sampling at least
4 weeks prior to commencing production. Do not commence production until
source approval is received. Allow continual access and sampling during
production.
.2 If aggregate from the proposed source is found to not meet specified requirements,
locate an alternative source or demonstrate material from the source in question can
be processed to meet the specified requirements.
.3 Should a change of aggregate source be proposed during the work, advise of the
change 4 weeks in advance to allow for sampling and testing.
.4 Acceptance at source does not preclude future rejection if the aggregate is

subsequently found to lack uniformity or conformance to specified requirements, or
if field performance is found to be unsatisfactory.
.5 Pay the cost of sampling and testing of aggregates failing to meet specified
requirements.
1.3 Measurement .1 No measurement for payment is made under this Section.

for Payment
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Aggregates .1 Specified in referring Sections.
PART III - EXECUTION
3.1 Development .1 Prior to excavating materials for aggregate production, clear and grub the area to be
of Sources worked, and strip unsuitable surface materials. Clear, grub and strip sufficiently in
advance of extraction operations to prevent contamination by deleterious substances.
.2 When excavation is completed, dress sides of the excavation to a nominal 1.5 to 1

slope, dispose of waste material and leave site in a neat condition. Provide drains or
ditches as required to prevent standing surface water.
3.2 Processing .1 Process, handle and transport aggregates uniformly using methods that avoid
and Handling contamination, segregation and degradation.
.2 Blend aggregates if needed to meet specified requirements for gradation or crushed

content, or as directed to improve mix properties. Use approved equipment and
methods. Do not blend in stockpiles.
.3 Wash aggregates if needed to meet specified requirements. Use approved

equipment and methods. Allow washed aggregates to drain for at least 24 hours
prior to use.
.4 If operating in stratified deposits, use excavation methods producing uniform,

homogeneous aggregate.
.5 Advise Engineer if pit or quarry material appears to be changing.
- C.3 -
Section 2110 AGGREGATES GENERAL June 2000
3.3 Stockpiling .1 Stockpile aggregates in advance of use, in sufficient quantities to meet production
capacities without delay. For asphalt and Portland cement concrete aggregates,
unless otherwise approved, stockpile at least 50% of aggregate quantities required
prior to commencing mixing operations. Stockpiling may be reduced to 30% of
aggregate quantities required if total project requirement exceeds 20,000 tonnes.
Maintain level of aggregate stockpiled throughout mixing operations until the total
project aggregate requirement has been produced.
.2 Stockpile aggregates in an approved location. Stockpile on level, well-drained

surfaces of adequate bearing capacity to support the stockpile and handling
equipment. Do not stockpile on pavement surfaces.
.3 When stockpiling on a contaminating surface, provide a sand base not less than
150 mm in depth. If aggregate is stockpiled directly on a contaminating surface, do
not incorporate the bottom 150 mm of the stockpile into the work.
.4 Stockpile materials in uniform layers not exceeding one metre in thickness and
complete each layer before starting the next. Spot-dump aggregates delivered by
truck and spread as directed. Do not build cones and do not spill material over the
edges of a stockpile.
.5 Separate stockpiles of different aggregate by a distance sufficient to prevent

intermixing, or provide strong, full-depth separating bulkheads.
.6 Do not use intermixed or contaminated materials. Remove and dispose of rejected

materials as directed, within 48 hours of rejection.
.7 On project completion, leave stockpile locations on site in a tidy, well-drained

condition, free of standing surface water. Leave leftover aggregate in neat compact
stockpiles as directed.
- C.4 -
Section C2120 COMPACTION MEASUREMENT June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section provides definitions and methods for the measurement of compaction
of soil and soil-aggregate mixtures. These definitions and methods are employed in
the control of grading and fill operations and in the construction of granular subbase
and base layers.
1.2 References .1 American Society for Testing and Materials:

.1 ASTM C127-88, Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse
Aggregate.
.2 ASTM D1556-00, Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place
by the Sand-Cone Method.
.3 ASTM D1557-00, Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of
Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft3)(2,700 kN-m/m3).
.4 ASTM D2167-94, Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place
by the Rubber Balloon Method.
.5 ASTM D2922-96, Test Methods for Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in
Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth).
.6 ASTM D3017-96, Test Method for Water Content of Soil and Rock in Place
by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth).
1.3 Definitions .1 Compaction:

.1 Compaction of a material is the ratio of measured in-situ density to a reference
density, expressed as a percentage.
.2 Corrected Maximum Dry Density:

.1 The reference density for soil and soil-aggregate mixtures is the Corrected
Maximum Dry Density, D :
D= (F1 x D1) + (0.9 x F2 x D2)
where:
F1 = fraction (decimal) of the total field sample passing the 4.75- mm sieve;
F2 = fraction (decimal) of the total field sample retained on the 4.75-mm
sieve;
D1 = modified maximum dry unit weight, kg/m3, of the material fraction
passing the 4.75-mm sieve, determined in accordance with Method A
of ASTM D1557;
D2 = bulk density, kg/m3, of the material fraction retained on the 4.75-mm
sieve, equal to 1000 G, where G is the bulk specific gravity (dry basis)
of the material when tested to ASTM C127.
.3 Compaction Soil Classes:

.1 Cohesionless soils:
.1 soils having less than 20% passing the 75-m sieve when tested to ASTM
C117, regardless of the plasticity of the fines;
.2 soils containing between 20% to 50% passing the 75- m sieve when tested
to ASTM C117, and having liquid limit less than 25 and plasticity index
less than 6 when tested to ASTM D4318.
.2 Cohesive soils: fine grained soils with properties not classifying as
cohesionless.
PART II PRODUCTS (not utilized)
- C.5 -
Section C2120 COMPACTION MEASUREMENT June 2000
PART III EXECUTION
3.1 In-situ Density .1 Field in-situ density to be measured by the Sand Cone method, ASTM D1556, or
Measurement by the Rubber Balloon method, ASTM D2167, or by nuclear gauge using a
combination of ASTM D2922 and ASTM D3017.
.2 When a nuclear gauge is used, calibration accuracy of the device for the material
being measured to be checked at the start of the project by comparison against sand
cone or rubber balloon measurements.
- C.6 -
Section C2210 AIRFIELD GRADING June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers cut and fill construction and the grading of airfield surfaces to
the lines, grades, dimensions and details shown in the Plans. The work includes the
preparation and compaction of pavement subgrade surfaces.
1.2 References .1 Other Sections:

.1 Section C2120, Compaction Measurement.
.2 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM):

.1 ASTM C117-95, Test Method for Material Finer than 75-m (No. 200) Sieve
in Mineral Aggregates by Washing.
.2 ASTM D4318-93, Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity
Index for Soils.
1.3 Definitions .1 Excavation Classes: only two classes of excavation will be recognized; common
excavation and rock excavation.
.1 Rock Excavation:
.1 Excavation of material from solid masses of igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic rock, that is integral with its parent mass prior to removal and
cannot be removed without blasting.
.2 Boulders or rock fragments having individual volume in excess of one
cubic metre.
.2 Common Excavation: excavation of all materials of whatever nature that are
not included under the definition of rock excavation, including dense tills,
hardpan, frozen soils and any partially cemented material that can be ripped
and excavated with heavy construction equipment.
.2 Unsuitable materials: as designated by the Engineer, including:

.1 excessively weak or compressible materials in pavement subgrades;
.2 highly frost susceptible soils existing in pockets in an otherwise acceptable
subgrade soil.
1.4 Off-Site Borrow .1 Provide sources of suitable borrow material if fill quantities available from cuts and
on-site borrow areas are insufficient for required fill volumes.
1.5 Measurement .1 Cut and fill construction will be measured in cubic metres of excavated material.
for Payment Unless otherwise specified, measurement will be based on calculations from cross-
sections using the average end area method.
.1 Common Excavation:
.1 Common excavation will be calculated from cross sections taken in areas of
excavation.
.2 In cut and borrow areas on airport property, initial cross sections will be
taken after clearing and grubbing, and prior to the stripping of topsoil.
.3 In borrow areas provided by the contractor off airport property, initial cross
sections will be taken immediately prior to the excavation of material to be
incorporated into the work.
.2 Rock Excavation:
.1 The volume excavated from solid rock surfaces will be calculated from
cross-sections of the original rock surface and the design grade line for
excavation. When the design grade line is less than 300 mm below the
original rock surface, excavation depth will be considered as 300 mm below
the original rock surface.
.2 The volume of excavated boulders and rock fragments will be determined
by measuring three maximum mutually perpendicular dimensions.
.3 Quantities will be measured twice if the interim stockpiling of topsoil or other
selected fill material is directed. Measurement will occur on excavation from
original location, and on excavation from the stockpile.
.2 Pavement subgrade compaction will be measured for payment in square metres.
- C.7 -
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Fill Material .1 To the approval of the Engineer.
3.1 Drainage .1 Schedule the construction of drainage channels at an early stage, as required to
provide for the drainage of excavations and other areas of work.
.2 Maintain crowns and cross slopes for the drainage of surfaces. Provide temporary
ditching, drains or other measures as required to prevent accumulations of water
detrimental to the work.
.3 Provide mitigative measures to control erosion, runoff sediment and other

environmental hazards.
3.2 Topsoil .1 Strip topsoil in areas and to depths directed. Commence stripping after clearing and
grubbing, and the removal of cleared materials.
.2 If directed, stockpile topsoil when immediate placement in final location is not

practical. Do not stockpile higher than two metres. Do not mix topsoil with subsoil.
.3 On completion of the project, dispose of unused stockpiled topsoil as directed.
3.3 Excavation .1 General:

.1 Notify at least seven days in advance of excavation operations. Do not
undertake excavation until initial cross sections are taken for quantity
determinations.
.2 Notify whenever unsuitable materials are encountered in cut sections, and
remove unsuitable materials to depths and extent directed.
.3 Where pavement subgrade is in transition from excavation to embankment, or
from earth to rock, treat ground slopes at transition points as indicated or
directed.
.4 Do not disturb the foundation materials of adjacent pavements or structures that
are to remain in place. When encountered, protect underground installations
such as subsurface and storm drainage pipe, conduit, and water and sewer lines.
.5 Dispose of unsuitable materials, and excavated materials in excess of fill
requirements, as indicated or directed.
.2 Rock excavation:
.1 If material encountered during excavation appears to classify as rock
excavation, notify in sufficient time for volume measurements.
.2 Provide drainage to ditches, leaving no undrained pockets under pavement
areas.
.3 Borrow excavation:
.1 For borrow areas located on airport property, exact locations, extent and depth
of cutting will be directed. Shape edges of borrow areas to slopes of one
vertical to five horizontal, and provide drainage.
.2 Trim and leave borrow areas in a condition to facilitate accurate cross section
measurements.
.
3.4 Placement .1 Use suitable excavated material in fill areas before using material from borrow
of Fill areas. Where directed, place excavated materials of better quality in selected
locations, such as the upper layers of pavement embankment.
.2 Do not place fill material when frozen or place on a frozen surface. Do not place fill
material in standing water.
- C.8 -
3.4 Placement .3 With material containing less than 25% by volume of rock fragments larger than
of Fill (Contd) 100 mm maximum dimension:
.1 Place and compact in uniform layers not exceeding 200 mm loose thickness.
Thicker lifts may be approved if specified compaction to full depth can be
demonstrated.
.2 In non-pavement areas, compact fill material to at least 90% of Corrected
Maximum Dry Density, Section 2120.
.3 In pavement embankments, place in layers paralleling surface grade and to full
width before placing succeeding layers. Compact cohesionless fill soils to at
least 95% of Corrected Maximum Dry Density, Section 2120. Compact
cohesive fill soils to at least 90% of Corrected Maximum Dry Density, Section
2120.
.4 Pavement subgrade surface layers require a higher degree of compaction.
.4 With fill material consisting principally of rock:

.1 Place to full width in layers of sufficient depth to contain maximum sized
rocks, but do not exceed a layer thickness of one metre.
.2 Individual rock fragments not exceeding 1.5 m in vertical dimension will be
permitted provided their vertical dimension does not exceed one-third of the fill
section depth.
.3 Carefully distribute rock material to fill voids with smaller fragments to form a
compact mass.
.4 Fill voids in subgrade surfaces with rock spalls or selected material to form an
earth-tight surface.
.5 Compact rock fill layers with a vibratory roller of at least 15 tonnes, or trample
with a crawler tractor of at least 30 tonnes.
.5 Do not place boulders with a dimension exceeding 150 mm within 500 mm of the
surface elevation of pavement subgrades. Do not place stones or boulders with a
dimension exceeding 50 mm within 100 mm of the surface in graded areas.
3.5 Pavement Subgrade .1 After grading is completed, scarify and mix pavement subgrade surfaces to the depth
Compaction specified for subgrade surface compaction. Break down the soil to sizes suitable for
compaction and mix for uniform soil and moisture conditions to the full depth of the
layer. Remove any boulders encountered with dimensions exceeding 150 mm.
Remove and replace any unsuitable materials encountered.
.2 Shape subgrade surface to the required cross section and grade. Bring the moisture
content of the soil to a level required to obtain the specified compaction. Add water
or aerate as needed.
.3 Compact the top 150 mm of cohesive subgrade soils to at least 93% of Corrected
Maximum Dry Density, Section 2120. Compact the top 300 mm of cohesionless
subgrade soils to at least 98% of Corrected Maximum Dry Density, Section 2120.
.4 Temporarily remove the upper portion of subgrade if needed to obtain the specified
compaction requirement in the lower portion. Remove, replace and compact such
material at no extra cost.
3.6 Finishing and .1 Scarify and disk any areas intended for turf that have been heavily compacted by
Tolerances construction traffic.
.2 Blade finish work areas to a smooth surface free of ruts, depressions, rocks and
debris. Roll finished surfaces to a tight, dense condition.
.3 Spread topsoil at locations and to depths indicated or directed. Remove surface

stones, roots and other debris, and leave the surface in a uniform dressed condition.
.4 Finished subgrade surface to within 25 mm of design elevations, but not uniformly

high or low. Finish graded area surfaces to within 50 mm of design elevations, but
not uniformly high or low.
- C.9 -
3.7 Maintenance .1 Maintain finished subgrade surfaces in good condition conforming to the
requirements of this Section until the placing of succeeding material. Regrade and
compact any areas rutted or otherwise damaged by construction traffic.
- C.10 -
Section C2220 LIME MODIFICATION OF SUBGRADE June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the modification of clay subgrade soil with hydrated lime. The
objective is to provide a drier and firmer working surface for construction
equipment. Major work items include the supply of hydrated lime, spreading the
lime on the subgrade surface, and mixing-in and compacting to a specified depth.


.1 ASTM C977-00, Specification for Quicklime and Hydrated Lime for Soil
Stabilization.
1.3 Measurement .1 Supply of lime will be measured in tonnes.

for Payment
.2 Construction of lime modified subgrade will be measured in square metres.
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Lime .1 Hydrated Lime: to ASTM C977.
3.1 Equipment .1 Distribution equipment: capable of distributing lime uniformly at a controlled rate.
.2 Mixing equipment: capable of breaking down the soil and pulverizing clay lumps,
and mixing lime uniformly into the soil.
3.2 Test Section .1 Construct a test section of approximately 500 square metres to confirm an
appropriate rate of lime application, and demonstrate proposed work methods and
timing are satisfactory.
3.3 Lime Application .1 Obtain approval of subgrade surface prior to applying lime.
.2 Apply lime uniformly on subgrade in areas and at a rate indicated or directed.
.3 Do not apply lime under wind conditions that cause loss of lime from the surface.
.4 Apply lime only on areas where initial mixing is carried out the same day.
3.4 Mixing .1 Mix lime into subgrade to a depth giving a minimum thickness of 150 mm of
modified soil after compaction.
.2 Perform initial mixing by loosening and breaking down the soil mass and uniformly
distributing lime to the required depth.
.3 Grade area following initial mixing and lightly compact to maintain a uniform
moisture content during the reaction period.
.4 Commence final mixing after 48 hours, or after the lime has reacted with the soil
sufficiently to allow the pulverization of soil lumps.
.5 Aerate soil or add water during final mixing as required to bring the moisture
content to a level required for compaction.
.6 Continue final mixing until soil lumps are reduced to less than 25 mm maximum
dimension.
- C.11 -
Section C2220 LIME MODIFICATION OF SUBGRADE June 2000
3.5 Compaction .1 Start compaction of the modified subgrade immediately after final mixing. Compact
to at least 95% of Corrected Maximum Dry Density, Section 2120.
3.6 Tolerances .1 Finish the lime stabilized subgrade surface to within 25 mm of design grade, but not
uniformly high or low.
3.7 Curing .1 Allow lime modified subgrade to cure for a minimum of four days prior to placing
subbase or base material. Lightly sprinkle with water during the cure period if
required to prevent excessive loss of moisture.
3.8 Maintenance .1 Maintain the modified subgrade in acceptable condition until succeeding material is
placed, or until acceptance. Allow only essential construction traffic, and restore to
a smooth compacted surface if rutting occurs.
- C.12 -
Section C2310 GRANULAR SUBBASE June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the construction of pavement subbase consisting of a selected
granular material or quarried stone, placed and compacted to the lines, grades,
sections and details indicated in the plans.
.2 The work includes proof rolling to verify subgrade bearing strength and to check for
soft spots.

.1 Section C2110, Aggregates General.
.3 Section C2210, Airfield Grading.

.1 ASTM C117-95, Test Method for Material Finer Than 75-m Sieve in Mineral
Aggregates by Washing.
.2 ASTM C131-96, Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small Size
Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.
.3 ASTM C136-96, Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates.
Index of Soils.
1.3 Measurement .1 Granular subbase will be measured in tonnes.

For Payment
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Granular .1 Granular subbase material supplied to Section C2110:

Subbase .1 Sound, hard, durable gravel or quarried stone, free from thin, elongated or
laminated particles, clay balls, frozen lumps, organic material, and other
deleterious substances.
.2 Gradation within the following limits when tested to ASTM C136 and ASTM
C117:
75-mm 100
425-m 0 - 30
75-m 0- 8
.3 Liquid Limit: to ASTM D4318, maximum 25.
.4 Plasticity Index: to ASTM D4318, maximum 6.
.5 Los Angeles Degradation: to ASTM C131, Gradation A, maximum loss 50%.
.2 Scarified and salvaged old pavement materials may be approved for use as subbase
material, provided the salvaged material meets the requirements specified for
subbase material.
3.1 Placing .1 Obtain approval of the subgrade surface before placing granular subbase.
.2 Place only when temperatures are above freezing, and the materials being placed
and subgrade surfaces are unfrozen and free of ice and snow.
.3 Begin spreading on the crown line, or on the high side of a one-way slope, for
purposes of drainage.
.4 Place in uniform layers not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness. In multi-

layered construction, place in layers of approximately equal depth.
- C.13 -
Section C2310 GRANULAR SUBBASE June 2000
3.1 Placing (contd) .5 Place each layer full width, shape to a smooth contour and compact to the specified
density before succeeding layers are placed.
.6 Use methods that avoid segregation and degradation. Remove and replace subbase
material segregated during placing.
3.2 Compacting .1 Compact to a density not less than 98% of Corrected Maximum Dry Density,
Section 2120.
.2 Shape and roll alternatively to obtain a smooth, even and uniformly compacted
subbase.
.3 Apply water during compaction as necessary to obtain the specified density. If the
subbase material is excessively wet, scarify and aerate until the moisture content is
corrected.
.4 In areas not accessible to rolling equipment, compact with approved mechanical

tampers.
3.3 Tolerances .1 Finish the subbase surface to within 15 mm of design grade, but not uniformly high
or low.
.2 Correct surface irregularities by loosening the surface and adding or removing

material until the specified tolerance is achieved.
3.4 Proof Rolling .1 For proof rolling, use a rubber tired roller having four wheels abreast with a
maximum centre-to-centre spacing of 920 mm, a tire inflation pressure of 620 kPa,
and a total weight of 445 kN. The use of other acceptable proof rolling equipment
may be authorized.
.2 Proof roll at the level indicated. If alternate proof rolling equipment is authorized,
proof rolling at level directed.
.3 Make sufficient passes with the proof roller to subject every point on the surface to
three separate coverages by a loaded tire.
.4 If proof rolling reveals areas of defective subgrade:

.1 remove subbase and subgrade to depths and extent directed;
.2 replace excavated subgrade with approved common material and compact to
the requirements of Section C2210;
.3 replace excavated subbase to the requirements of this Section.
5. If proof rolling reveals areas of defective subbase material, replace at no cost.
3.5 Maintenance .1 Maintain finished subbase surfaces in good condition conforming to the
requirements of this Section until the placing of succeeding material. Regrade and
compact any areas rutted or otherwise damaged by construction traffic.
- C.14 -
Section C2320 GRANULAR BASE June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the construction of base course consisting of a processed
crushed granular material or quarried stone, placed and compacted to the lines,
grades, sections and details indicated in the plans.


Aggregates.
Index of Soils.
1.3 Measurement .1 Granular base will be measured in tonnes.

for Payment
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Granular Base .1 Granular base material supplied to Section C2110:

.1 Sound, hard, durable crushed gravel or stone, free from thin, elongated or
laminated particles, clay balls, frozen lumps, organic material and other
deleterious substances.
.2 Gradation within the following limits when tested to ASTM C136 and ASTM
C117:
Base Base Levelling Material
50-mm 100
37.5-mm 70 - 100
25.0-mm 100
19.0-mm 50 - 75 75 - 100
9.5-mm 40 - 65 50 - 75
4.75-mm 30 - 50 30 - 50
425-m 10 - 30 10 - 30
75-m 3- 8 3- 8
Distribution of particle size to be continuous and without gaps, with gradation
forming a smooth curve without sharp breaks when plotted on a semi-log
gradation chart.
.3 Crushed particles:
.1 For asphalt pavement base courses, at least 60% of particles by weight
within the following sieve ranges to have at least one freshly fractured face.
Passing Retained on
50-mm 25.0-mm
25.0-mm 19.0-mm
19.0-mm 4.75-mm
.2 For concrete pavement base courses, crushed particles not required.
.6 Los Angeles Degradation: to ASTM C131, Gradation A, maximum loss 45%
- C.15 -
Section C2320 GRANULAR BASE June 2000
3.1 Placing .1 Obtain approval of the underlying surface before placing granular base.
.2 Place only when temperatures are above freezing, and materials being placed and
underlying surfaces are unfrozen and free of ice and snow.
.3 Begin spreading on the crown line, or the high side of a one-way slope, for purposes
of drainage.
.4 Place in uniform layers not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness. In multi-

layered construction, place in layers of approximately equal depth.
.5 Place each layer full width, shape to a smooth contour and compact to the specified
density before succeeding layers are placed.
.6 Use placing methods that avoid segregation and degradation. Remove and replace
any base material that becomes segregated.
3.2 Compaction .1 Compact to a density not less than 100% of Corrected Maximum Dry Density,
Section 2120.
.2 Shape and roll alternatively to obtain a smooth, even and uniformly compacted base.
.3 Apply water during compaction as necessary to obtain the specified density.
.4 In areas not accessible to rolling equipment, compact with approved mechanical

tampers.
3.3 Tolerances .1 Finish the base surface to within 10 mm of the established grade, but not uniformly
low or high.
.2 Correct surface irregularities by loosening the surface and adding or removing

material until the specified tolerance is achieved. If approved, base levelling
material may be used for the correction of depressions.
3.4 Maintenance .1 Maintain finished base surfaces in good condition conforming to the requirements of
this Section until the placing of succeeding materials, or until acceptance. Regrade
and compact any areas rutted or otherwise damaged by construction traffic. Keep
the surface moist if needed to prevent dust erosion.
- C.16 -
Section C2330 CEMENT STABILIZED BASE June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the construction of a cement stabilized base course, composed
of a granular material centrally mixed with Portland cement and water. The mixed
material is placed and compacted in the areas indicated, and to the lines, grades,
sections and details shown in the plans.
1.2 References .1 Other sections:

.2 Canadian Standards Association (CSA):

.1 CAN/CSA-A5-98, Portland Cement.
.2 CAN/CSA-A23.1-94, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete
Construction.
.3 Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB):

.1 CAN/CGSB-16.2-M89, Emulsified Asphalts, Anionic Type, for Road
Purposes.

.1 ASTM C88-99, Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium
Sulphate or Magnesium Sulphate.
Aggregates.
.5 ASTM D558-96, Test Method for Moisture-Density Relations of Soil-Cement
Mixtures.
.6 ASTM D559-96, Test Methods for Wetting-and-Drying Compacted Soil-
Cement Mixtures.
.7 ASTM D560-96, Test Methods of Freezing-and-Thawing Compacted Soil-
Cement Mixtures.
.8 ASTM D1557-00, Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of
Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft3)(2,700 kN-m/m3).
.9 ASTM D1633-00, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Molded Soil-
Cement Cylinders.
Index of Soils.
1.3 Submissions .1 At least 4 weeks prior to commencing work:

.1 Furnish copies of manufacturers test data and certification that the Portland
cement and asphalt emulsion delivered to the job site meet the requirements of
this Section.
.2 Submit and obtain approval of a mix design formula for cement stabilized base.
1.4 Delivery .1 Supply aggregates to Section 2110. Stockpile at least 30% of the total aggregate
and Storage required before commencing mixing operations.
.2 Store Portland cement in weather tight bins or silos providing protection from
dampness and easy access for inspection and identification of each shipment.
.3 Store emulsified asphalt in suitable tanks and protect from freezing.
- C.17 -
1.5 Measurement .1 Supply of Portland cement will be measured in tonnes.

for Payment
.2 Supply of emulsified asphalt will be measured in litres of undiluted emulsion at
15C.
.3 Cement stabilized base construction will be measured in square metres.
PART II - PRODUCTS
2.1 Portland Cement .1 Portland cement to CAN/CSA-A5, normal type 10, obtained from a single
manufactured source.
2.2 Emulsified Asphalt .1 Emulsified asphalt to CAN/CGSB-16.2, grade SS-1.
2.3 Aggregates .1 Aggregates to Section C2110, and to the following requirements:

.1 Crushed stone or gravel consisting of sound, hard, durable, angular particles,
free from thin, laminated or elongated particles, clay balls, frozen lumps,
organic material and other deleterious substances.
.2 Gradation within the following limits when tested to ASTM C136 and C117:
37.5-mm 100
19.0-mm 75 - 100
4.75-mm 35 - 65
2.00-mm 20 - 50
300-m 10 - 30
150-m 0 - 10
.5 Los Angeles Degradation: to ASTM C131, Gradation A, maximum loss 50%.
.6 Soundness: to ASTM C88 using magnesium sulphate, maximum loss by
weight; coarse aggregate 12%, fine aggregate 16%.
2.4 Water .1 Water to be clean and free from injurious amounts of oil, acid, alkali, organic matter
or other deleterious substances. Water of questionable quality to be tested to
CAN/CSA-A23.1.
2.5 Mix Design .1 Job mix formula to produce a mixture with the following characteristics:
.1 Cement content : minimum 5% by weight of dry aggregate.
.2 For test specimens prepared to ASTM D558, except with compactive effort to
ASTM 1557:
.1 Compressive strength: minimum 5.0 MPa at 7 days when tested to ASTM
D1633.
.2 Percent of loss under wet-dry cycles not to exceed 14% when tested to
ASTM D559.
.3 Percent of loss under freeze-thaw cycles not to exceed 14% when tested to
ASTM D560.
3.1 Equipment .1 Central mixing plant:

.1 Batch or continuous type with minimum production capacity of 180 tonnes of
mix per hour.
.2 Equipped with automatic metering devices.
.3 Batch mixers:
.1 Separate cement weighing scale, or separate cement compartment within
aggregate hopper.
.4 Continuous mixers:
.1 Interlocking device at mixer to maintain a constant ratio of cement to
aggregate.
.2 Positive signal system indicating level of materials in the storage bins.
- C.18 -
3.2 Weather .1 Suspend operations when air temperature is less than 5C or when rain is forecast
within 2 hours.
3.3 Mixing .1 Ensure no frozen materials are used in mixing.
.2 Do not load mixing unit beyond rated capacity.
.3 Add water to dry mixture at rate and time approved.
.4 Mixing time as directed, but not less than 30 seconds.
.5 Maintain proportion of granular material, cement and water within 5% of mix

design. Mixture exceeding the 5% tolerance will be rejected.
3.4 Placing .1 Obtain approval of the underlying surface prior to placing cement stabilized base.
.2 Haul mixture from mixing plant to spreading equipment in trucks equipped with
protective covers.
.3 Begin placing on the crown line, or on the high side of a one-way slope, for
purposes of drainage.
.4 Place on a surface that is moist but free of standing water.
.5 Place in layers not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness.
.6 Place in parallel lanes of minimum 4.5 m width.
.7 Place within 45 minutes of adding water in the mixer.
3.5 Joints .1 When placing mix against previously placed material, prepare a construction joint
by cutting back the previously placed material to form an aligned, full depth vertical
face of well compacted material. Cutting back not required if the previously placed
material is less than 30 minutes in place, or if fixed forms are used for placing and
compacting.
.2 Thoroughly compact new material against adjacent joint face to obtain a well
bonded interface.
.3 Offset joints at least 250 mm from design locations of joints in the overlying
pavement.
3.6 Compaction .1 Compact to not less than 97% of the density of samples prepared in accordance with
ASTM D558, except using the compactive effort of ASTM D1557. Field in-situ
density measurement to Section 2120.
.2 Commence compaction immediately after placing and complete finished surface

within 2 hours from start of mixing.
.3 Operate compaction equipment back and forth without turning around. Space
successive roller passes so not more than 75% of the width of the rear roller wheel is
on uncompacted material.
.4 Keep surface moist during the compaction operation.
.5 Complete final compaction using pneumatic tired rollers.
- C.19 -
3.7 Tolerances .1 Finish the surface to within plus or minus 10 mm of the established grade, but not
uniformly low or high.
.2 Correct surface irregularities immediately by loosening the surface and adding or

removing material until the specified tolerance is achieved. Dispose of excessive
material; do not use to fill depressions.
.3 When correcting irregularities by adding material to low areas, scarify, remove and
waste at least 50 mm depth of compacted base before bringing to grade with new
material.
3.8 Curing .1 Prior to the application of curing membrane, clean the surface of loose material and
keep moist continuously with a fine spray of water.
.2 Apply a curing membrane of emulsified asphalt within 2 hours after compaction

operations. Apply with a pressure distributor truck at a rate of 1.25 L/m2. Use hand
applicators to cover areas not accessible to the distributor truck.
.3 Maintain the curing membrane intact for a minimum of 7 days following

application.
3.9 Maintenance .1 Prohibit vehicular traffic except essential construction equipment, and maintain the
surface in good condition until acceptance or until succeeding layers are placed.
Restore to a smooth compacted condition if rutting occurs.
.2 Protect cement stabilized base from frost for 7 days after placement.
- C.20 -
Section C2410 HOT MIX ASPHALT PAVING June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the paving of aircraft operational surfaces and road surfaces
with hot mix asphalt concrete. The objective is to provide a durable, skid resistant
and smooth riding surface for the operation of aircraft or road traffic.
.2 Major work items include the supply of aggregates and asphalt cement, hot-mixing
in a central mixing plant, and placing and compacting in accordance with these
specifications and to the lines, grades, sections and details shown in the plans.

.2 Section C2440, Asphalt Prime and Tack Coats.

.1 CAN/CGSB-16.3-M90, Asphalt Cements for Road Purposes.

.3 ASTM C123-98, Test Method for Lightweight Pieces in Aggregate.
.4 ASTM C127-88, Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse
Aggregate.
.5 ASTM C128-97, Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Aggregate.
.7 ASTM C136-96, Test Method of Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates.
.8 ASTM D995-95, Specification for Mixing Plants for Hot-Mixed, Hot-Laid
Bituminous Paving Mixtures.
.9 ASTM D1559-89, Test Method for Resistance to Plastic Flow of Bituminous
Mixtures Using Marshall Apparatus.
.10 ASTM D2419-95, Test Method for Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and Fine
Aggregate.
.11 ASTM D3203-94, Test Method for Percent Air Voids in Compacted Dense
and Open Bituminous Paving Mixtures.
.12 ASTM D4791-95, Test Method for Flat or Elongated Particles in Coarse
Aggregate.
.13 ASTM D4867-92, Test Method for Effect of Moisture on Asphalt Concrete
Paving Mixtures.
.4 Asphalt Institute (AI):

.1 Manual Series, MS-2, Sixth Edition, Mix Design Methods for Asphalt
Concrete and Other Hot-Mix Types.
1.3 Definitions .1 Coarse aggregate is aggregate retained on the 4.75-mm sieve and fine aggregate is
aggregate passing the 4.75-mm sieve. Mineral filler is the aggregate fraction
passing the 75-m sieve.
1.4 Samples and .1 At least 4 weeks prior to commencing asphalt production:

Submissions .1 Advise of the proposed source of aggregates and provide access for sampling.
.2 Submit one 5 litre sample of each asphalt cement proposed for use, and:
.1 a viscosity-temperature chart showing either Saybolt Furol viscosity in
seconds or Kinematic Viscosity in centistokes, for the temperature range of
105 C to 175 C;
.2 the manufacturers test data and certification that the asphalt cement meets
the requirements of this Section.
- C.21 -
1.4 Samples and .2 At least 10 days prior to commencing asphalt production, submit for approval a
Submissions (contd) proposed job mix formula for the asphalt concrete. Mix to be designed by an
approved laboratory using the Marshall Method of Mix Design, as published in the
Asphalt Institute Manual Series, MS-2. Submission to include:
.1 component proportions, including antistripping additive if any;
.2 aggregate sources and test results for specified properties;
.3 details of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), if inclusion is proposed,
including aggregate gradations and penetration of the recovered bitumen;
.4 trial mix test results.
1.5 Delivery .1 Aggregates:

and Storage .1 Deliver to plant site and stockpile to Section C2110.
.2 Stockpile each aggregate separately. Blend only through plant cold feed.
.3 When a dryer drum plant or a plant without hot screening is used, process
aggregate through a 4.75-mm sieve and stockpile fine aggregate separately
from coarse aggregate.
.2 Asphalt cement:
.1 Provide approved storage, heating tanks and pumping facilities.
.2 While producing asphalt mix for this project, do not produce mix for other
users unless separate storage and pumping facilities are provided for materials
supplied to this project.
.3 Furnish copies of freight bills for the asphalt cement as shipments are received.
1.6 Measurement .1 Supply of asphalt cement will be measured in tonnes.

for Payment
.2 Hot-mix asphalt paving with lower course mix will be measured in tonnes.
.3 Hot-mix asphalt paving with surface course mix will be measured in tonnes.
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Asphalt Cement .1 Asphalt cement to CAN/CGSB-16.3:

.1 for runway and taxiway paving - penetration grade [ ], temperature
susceptibility group A based on kinematic viscosity at 135C;
.2 for apron paving penetration grade [ ], temperature susceptibility
group A based on kinematic viscosity at 135C.
************************************************************************
Spec note: select appropriate penetration grade from the following table:
Site Average Freezing Index Penetration Grade for
C-days Runways & Taxiways Aprons
< 500 80 - 100 80 - 100
500 - 1400 120 - 150 80 - 100
> 1400 150 - 200 120 - 150
************************************************************************
.2 For mixes containing reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), select penetration grade of
new asphalt cement so when mixed with bitumen from RAP in design proportions,
penetration of the blend meets the grade specified for normal mixes.
2.2 Aggregates .1 Sound, hard, durable crushed stone or crushed gravel, free from thin, elongated or
laminated particles, clay balls, organic and frozen materials or other deleterious
substances, and free of adherent dust films that would prevent coating and bonding
with asphalt.
- C.22 -
2.2 Aggregates (contd) .2 Physical properties:

.1 Gradations within the following limits when tested to ASTM C136 and ASTM
C117:
_________ Lower Course Surface Course
25.0-mm 100
12.5-mm 75 - 85 100
9.5-mm 75 - 90
4.75-mm 40 - 65 55 - 75
2.00-mm 30 - 50 35 - 55
425-m 15 - 30 15 - 30
180-m 5 - 20 5 - 20
75-m 3- 8 3- 8
Particle size distribution to be continuous and without gaps, with gradation
gradation chart.
.2 Crushed particles: at least 60% of particles by weight within the following
sieve size ranges to have at least one freshly fractured face:
Passing Retained on
25.0-mm 12.5-mm
12.5-mm 4.75-mm
.3 Los Angeles degradation: maximum 25% loss by weight when tested to ASTM
C131, Gradation B for lower coarse, Gradation C for surface course.
.4 Magnesium sulphate soundness: maximum loss by weight when tested to
ASTM C88, five cycles of immersion;
.1 coarse aggregate: 12%
.2 fine aggregate: 16%
.5 Sand equivalent: minimum 50 when tested to ASTM D2419.
.6 Lightweight particles: maximum 1.5% less than 1.95 relative density when
tested to ASTM C123.
.7 Flat and elongated particles with ratio of maximum to minimum dimension
exceeding 5: maximum 8% by weight.
.8 Loss by washing: maximum 1.5% by weight passing 75-m sieve when tested
to ASTM C117.
.9 Absorption: maximum 1.75% by weight when tested to ASTM C127.
.3 Aggregates may be accepted or rejected on the basis of past field performance

regardless of compliance with specified physical requirements. Do not use
aggregates with known susceptibility to polishing in surface mixes.
2.3 Mineral Filler .1 Finely ground particles of limestone, hydrated lime, Portland cement or other
approved non-plastic mineral matter, dry and free from lumps.
.2 Add mineral filler when necessary to meet the job mix aggregate gradation, or as
directed to improve mix properties. Mineral filler to be dry and free flowing when
added to the aggregate.
2.4 Asphalt Mix .1 Mix physical requirements to Table 1.
.2 Maximize asphalt content, consistent with meeting the other specified properties.
.3 Submit and obtain approval of a job mix formula meeting specified requirements.
Do not change the formula without prior approval. Mix formula to be reviewed if
material sources are changed.
- C.23 -
2.4 Asphalt Mix (contd) Table 1 : Physical Requirements for Asphalt Mixes
Property Airfields Roads Test Method
Marshall load (kN) (min) 5.5 ASTM D1559

design tire pressure < 0.35 MPa 4.50
0.35 to 1.40 MPa 6.75
> 1.40 MPa 9.00
Marshall flow index (mm) (min - max) 24 24 ASTM D1559
Air voids (%) (min-max) 35 35 ASTM D3203
Voids in mineral aggregate (%) (min) Asphalt Institute

12.5-mm maximum-sized aggregate 15 15 Manual Series
25.0-mm maximum-sized aggregate 13 13 MS-2
Tensile Strength Ratio (%) (min) 75 75 ASTM D4867

_________________________________________________________________
Compactive effort on briquette specimens

blows each face 50 75
_________________________________________________________________
Notes: (a) Observe methods of Asphalt Institutes MS-2 in general.

(b) ASTM D4867 to include the freeze-thaw conditioning option.
__________________________________________________________________
2.5 RAP Mixes .1 Inclusion of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) in surface course mixes not
permitted. Lower course mixes may contain RAP provided:
.1 the RAP originates from this contract;
.2 RAP content does not exceed 40% by weight.
.2 Crush RAP to 50 mm maximum size, and place in stockpile suitably protected from
rain.
3.1 Equipment .1 Mixing plant:

.1 Batch and continuous mixing plants to ASTM D995.
.2 Dryer drum mixing plants to approval of the Engineer.
.2 Pavers: self-propelled, activated screed heated as necessary, equipped with an

automated grade control system and capable of uniformly spreading the mix within
specified tolerances, true to lines, grades and crown indicated.
.3 Rollers: of adequate number, type and weight to obtain the density specified.
Rollers causing excess crushing of the mix aggregate not permitted. Vibratory
rollers to have a drum diameter not less than 1200 mm, and a maximum amplitude
of vibration (machine setting) of 0.5 mm for lifts less than 40 mm thick.
.4 Haul trucks: of adequate number, size, speed and condition to ensure orderly and
continuous operation, and:
.1 boxes with tight metal bottoms, and insulated contact surfaces for cool weather
or long hauls;
.2 covers of sufficient size and weight to completely cover and protect the asphalt
mix when the truck is fully loaded;
.3 trucks that cannot be weighed in a single operation on the scales supplied are
not acceptable.
- C.24 -
3.1 Equipment (contd) .5 Hand tools:

.1 Lutes or rakes with covered teeth for spreading and finishing operations.
.2 Tamping irons of minimum 12 kg weight and a bearing area not exceeding
31000 mm2, or approved mechanical compaction equipment, for compacting
material along curbs, gutters and in other areas inaccessible to rollers.
.3 Provide heating equipment to keep hand tools free of asphalt. Do not use tools
at a higher temperature than the temperature of the asphalt being placed.
.4 Straightedges, 4.5 m in length to test finished surfaces for irregularities.
3.2 Preparations .1 Clean surfaces of loose and foreign materials prior to paving. Broom and flush as
required.
.2 Apply prime coat on granular surfaces to be paved, and tack coat on asphalt or
concrete surfaces to be paved, to Section C2440.
.3 Apply padding as directed to correct depressions and other irregularities.
3.3 Mixing .1 Batch and continuous mixing plants:

.1 Heat asphalt cement and aggregate to a mixing temperature directed, but do not
heat asphalt cement above 160 C. Mix temperatures on completion of mixing
and at the paver to be as directed, based on temperature-viscosity data for the
asphalt cement being used, and on hauling and placing conditions.
.2 Feed aggregates from individual stockpiles through separate bins to cold feed
elevators. Feed cold aggregates to the plant in proportions ensuring continuous
operations.
.3 Before mixing, dry aggregates to a moisture content not greater than 1% by
weight, or to a lesser moisture content if required to meet mix requirements.
.4 Immediately after drying, screen aggregates into hot storage bins in sizes that
permit recombining into a gradation meeting job-mix requirements. Store hot
screened aggregates in a manner to minimize segregation and temperature loss.
.5 Maintain the temperature of materials within 5C of specified temperatures
during mixing.
.6 Mixing times:
.1 In batch plants, provide dry and wet mixing times as directed. Wet mixing
to be not less than 30 seconds or more than 75 seconds. Wet mixing time to
be the minimum required, but to continue as long as necessary to obtain a
thoroughly blended mix.
.2 In continuous mixing plants, mixing time as directed but not less than
45 seconds.
.7 Return to the mix in approved quantities, plant mix dust collected during
processing.
.2 Dryer drum mixing plant:

.1 Feed aggregates to the burner end of the dryer drum by means of a multi-bin
cold feed unit and blend to meet job-mix requirements by adjustments of
variable speed feed belts and gates on each bin.
.2 Meter the total flow of aggregate by an electronic weigh belt system
interlocked with the asphalt pump, so proportions of aggregate and asphalt
entering the mixer remain constant. Provide a system interlock stopping all
feed components if the aggregate from any bin or the asphalt stops flowing.
.3 Provide for the easy calibration of aggregate weighing systems without having
material enter the mixer, and provide for the convenient sampling of materials
from the cold feed.
.4 Provide screens or other suitable devices to reject oversized particles or lumps
of aggregate from the cold feed prior to entering the drum.
.5 Provide heating and mixing in an approved parallel flow dryer-mixer.
Aggregate to enter the drum at the burner end and travel parallel to the flame
and exhaust gas stream, with the asphalt introduced beyond the flame and after
the aggregate has traveled a sufficient distance for drying. Control heating to
prevent the fracturing of aggregate or the excessive oxidation of asphalt. If
incorporated into the mix, do not expose reclaimed asphalt pavement to direct
contact with the flame, or exhaust gases hotter than 180C.
- C.25 -
3.3 Mixing (contd) .2 Dryer drum mixing plant (contd):

.6 Equip the system with automatic burner controls, and provide for the
continuous sensing of asphalt mixture temperature at discharge with a printing
recorder that can be monitored by the plant operator. Submit the printed
records of mix temperature daily.
.7 Mixing time and temperature to produce a uniform mixture with particles
thoroughly coated and a moisture content less than 2%. Discharged mix to
show no evidence of excess moisture content, as indicated by bubbling,
foaming, slumping, or stripping of aggregate particles.
.3 Temporary storage:
.1 Provide temporary surge bin of sufficient capacity to permit continuous
operation, and designed to prevent segregation. Do not keep asphalt mix in
temporary surge bin in excess of 3 hours.
.2 Use of insulated storage silo with storage not to exceed 20 hours may be
approved provided levels of heat loss and oxidation are acceptable.
.4 Mixing tolerances:
.1 Permissible variation in aggregate gradation from approved job mix formula:
sieve size percent of total weight
4.75-mm and larger 5.0
2.00-mm 4.0
425-m 3.0
180-m 2.0
75-m 1.0
.2 Permissible variation of asphalt cement from approved job mix formula:
0.25%.
.3 Permissible variation from directed mix temperature at discharge from plant:
5C.
3.4 Transporting .1 Transport the mix to the paver in vehicles cleaned of foreign material.
.2 Paint or spray truck beds with a light oil, limewater, soap or detergent solution at
least once per day, or as required to prevent asphalt adhesion. Elevate the truck bed
and thoroughly drain; excess solution not permitted.
.3 Schedule delivery of mix for placing in daylight, unless night paving with artificial
lighting is approved.
.4 Deposit mix from surge bins or silo storage to trucks in multiple drops to reduce
segregation. Dribbling mix into trucks not permitted.
.5 Deliver mix to the paver at a uniform rate within the capacity of paving and
compaction equipment. Deliver at a rate to minimize start-and-stop operation of the
paver.
.6 Deliver in covered vehicles and immediately spread and compact. Deliver and place
mix at a temperature within a range directed, but not less than 135 C.
3.5 Test Strip .1 Construct a paving test strip in a designated non-critical area at the beginning of the
paving operation. Construct the test strip approximately 100 m in length and 7 m in
width, placed in two lanes so joint finishing technique can be established.
.2 During construction of the test strip:

.1 make adjustments to plant settings as needed to produce a mix meeting the
proportions of the job mix formula;
.2 conduct trials as directed to establish the densities and finishing achieved as a
function of roller sequencing and number of passes.
- C.26 -
3.5 Test Strip (contd) .3 Repeat test strip until consistent production of a mix meeting specifications is
achieved, and satisfactory placing and compacting methods are demonstrated.
3.6 Placing .1 Obtain approval of paving surfaces, and of prime or tack coats if applicable, prior to
placing asphalt.
.2 Place asphalt on dry surfaces only, when air temperature is above 5C. If the
temperature of the base surface is less than 10C, additional rollers may be required
to obtain specified compaction, and additional spreaders or reduction of paving
length may be required to avoid cold joints.
.3 Place lower course and surface course asphalt in lifts of compacted thickness
indicated, but do not exceed lift thicknesses of:
.1 surface course, maximum 50 mm;
.2 lower course, maximum 100 mm.
.4 Do any tapering and levelling required in the lower lifts to the extent possible.
.5 Commence placing by spanning crowns with the initial strip, or for cross-fall
pavements, commence placing along the high side. Place in strips no longer than
500 m. If using pavers in echelon, work pavers as closely together as possible, and
do not separate by more than 30 m.
.6 Maintain a constant head of mix in the auger chamber of the paver during placing.
.7 Spread and strike off the mixture with a self propelled mechanical finisher.
.1 Correct alignment irregularities by trimming directly behind the paver. Do not
throw surplus material on freshly screeded surfaces.
.2 Correct surface irregularities directly behind the paver. Remove excess
material forming high spots by shovel or lute. Fill and smooth indented areas
with hot-mix. Do not broadcast material over the surface.
.3 If segregation of the mix is occurring, suspend the paving operation until
corrected.
.8 When spreading by hand:

.1 Approved, rigidly supported wood or steel forms may be used to ensure correct
grade and cross section. Use measuring blocks and intermediate strips as
needed to obtain the required cross section.
.2 Distribute material uniformly. Do not broadcast.
.3 During spreading, thoroughly loosen and uniformly distribute material by lutes
or covered rakes. Reject material that has formed into lumps and does not
readily break down.
.4 After placing and before rolling, check the surface with templates and
straightedges, and correct any irregularities.
.5 Provide heating equipment to keep hand tools free of asphalt. Control
temperatures to avoid burning material. Do not use tools at a higher
temperature than the temperature of the mix being placed.
3.7 Compacting .1 Roll asphalt continuously to a density not less than 98% of the Marshall density
obtained with briquettes made from the asphalt being placed and with the
compactive effort specified under mix design requirements. Follow rolling patterns
established in the test strip.
.2 General:
.1 Provide at least two rollers and as many additional rollers as necessary to
achieve the specified density. When more than two rollers are required,
provide at least one pneumatic-tired roller. Use static compaction for a
levelling course less than 25 mm thick.
- C.27 -
3.7 Compacting (contd) .2 General (Contd):

.2 Start rolling as soon as the placed asphalt can bear the weight of the roller
without undue displacement of the fresh mix, or cracking or shoving of the
surface. If rolling causes defects, loosen the affected areas immediately with
lutes or shovels and restore to the original grade of the loose material before re-
rolling.
.3 After the transverse and longitudinal joints and the outside edge are compacted,
start rolling longitudinally at the low side and progress to the high side.
Overlap successive passes of the roller by at least one-half width of the roller
and vary pass lengths. Ensure all points across the pavement width receive
essentially the same number of passes by compactors.
.4 Operate rollers slowly initially to avoid displacement. For subsequent rolling,
do not exceed 5 km/h for static steel-wheeled rollers and 8 km/h for pneumatic-
tired rollers. For lifts of 50 mm thickness or greater, adjust the speed and
vibration frequency of vibratory rollers to produce a minimum of 20 impacts
per metre of travel; for lifts of lesser thickness, the impact spacing should not
exceed the compacted lift thickness.
.5 When paving in echelon, leave unrolled 50 mm to 75 mm of the edge which the
second paver is following, and roll when the joint between lanes is rolled.
.6 Keep the wheels or drums of rollers slightly moistened with water to prevent
the pick-up of asphalt. Do not over-water.
.7 Do not stop vibratory rollers while in active vibratory mode. Do not permit
heavy equipment or rollers to stand on newly finished surfaces until the asphalt
has cooled.
.8 If rippling or checking of the surface occurs, adjust roller and paver operations
as required to correct.
.9 In areas not accessible to rollers, compact with hand tampers or approved
mechanical compactors.
.3 Breakdown rolling:
.1 Commence breakdown rolling with a static steel roller followed by a vibratory
roller, after the rolling of joints and edges.
.2 Operate rollers as close to the paver as possible without causing excessive
displacement.
.3 Operate the breakdown roller with the drive drum or wheel nearest to the paver.
Exceptions may be made if working on steeper slopes.
.4 Use only experienced roller operators for breakdown rolling.
.4 Intermediate rolling:
.1 Use vibratory rollers, pneumatic-tired or steel wheel rollers. Follow breakdown
rolling closely and while the temperature of the asphalt is within a range giving
maximum density from this operation.
.2 Roll continuously until the asphalt is thoroughly compacted.
.5 Finish rolling:
.1 If needed to obtain the desired finish, finish rolling with a pneumatic-tired
roller. Remove any roller marks with a steel roller while the asphalt is still
sufficiently warm.
3.8 Joints .1 General:

.1 Remove surplus material from the surface of the previously laid adjacent strip.
Do not dispose of surplus material on freshly laid asphalt surfaces.
.2 Construct joints between asphalt pavement and Portland cement concrete
pavement to the details indicated.
.3 Paint contact surfaces of existing structures such as manholes, curbs or gutters
with tack coat or hot asphalt cement prior to placing adjacent asphalt.
.2 Transverse joints :
.1 Offset transverse construction joints by at least 3 m from transverse joints in
adjacent strips or underlying asphalt.
.2 Cut back to a full depth vertical face and tack with hot asphalt cement prior to
continuing paving.
- C.28 -
3.8 Joints (contd) .2 Transverse joints (Contd):

.3 Take special care of grades and compact transverse joints to provide a smooth
riding surface. Check with a straight-edge immediately after compaction.
.3 Longitudinal joints:
.1 Offset longitudinal joints by at least 300 mm from longitudinal joints in an
underlying asphalt lift.
.2 Overlap a previously laid adjacent asphalt strip with the spreader by 50 mm to
100 mm.
.3 Before rolling, use lute or rake to carefully remove coarse aggregate in material
overlapping the joint. Discard raked out material.
.4 Roll longitudinal joints directly behind the paver.
.5 With a static roller, position the roller on the previously placed adjacent lane so
only 100 mm to 150 mm of the drum width rides on the newly placed asphalt,
then operate the roller to pinch and press fines gradually across the joint.
Continue rolling until a thoroughly compacted neat joint is obtained.
.6 With a vibratory roller, position most of the drum on the newly placed asphalt
with an overlap of about 100 mm to 150 mm onto the previously placed
adjacent lane.
.7 Avoid cold joints to the extent possible. A cold joint between adjacent paving
lanes exists if asphalt placed in the first paving lane cools to below 100C prior
to paving of the adjacent lane. If a cold joint occurs in the mid 30 m of runway
width, cut back the cold side by at least 150 mm, to a full depth vertical face,
and tack the face using hot asphalt cement prior to placing adjacent asphalt.
.4 Construct transition joints between new and old asphalt to details indicated.
Feathered transition joints not permitted in surface courses.
.5 When paving a runway surface to be returned to service during work shifts, provide
temporary ramping at the free ends and edges of paving strips, as indicated.
Remove temporary ramping on resumption of paving.
3.9 Finish Tolerances .1 Finished surfaces to be within 10 mm of design elevation, but not uniformly high or
low.
.2 Finished airfield pavement surfaces not to have irregularities exceeding 6 mm when

checked with a 4.5 m straightedge placed in any direction. Finished road pavement
surfaces not to have irregularities exceeding 3 mm when checked with a 3 m
straightedge placed in any direction.
3.10 Defective Work .1 Correct irregularities and defects developing before completion of rolling by
loosening the surface and removing or adding material as required. In areas of
irregularities or defects remaining after final compaction, remove and replace the
surface course full depth. Skin patching not permitted.
- C.29 -
Section C2420 MIXED-IN-PLACE ASPHALT PAVING June 2000
************************************************************************
Spec note: This specification covers mixed-in-place asphalt construction using either
travel plant or blade mixing equipment. Eliminate reference to one or the other if
desired. Travel plant normally gives a better product but may cost more and depending
on location, suitable equipment may not be readily available.
************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers paving aircraft operational surfaces or road surfaces with a cold
mixed-in-place asphalt. The objective is to provide an all-weather operational
surface for aircraft or road traffic.
.2 Major work items include the supply of aggregates and liquid asphalt, mixing with a
travel plant or blade mixing equipment, and placing and compacting in accordance
with these specifications and to the lines, grades, sections and details shown in the
Plans.


.1 CAN/CGSB-16.2M89, Emulsified Asphalts, Anionic Type for Road
Purposes.

Aggregates.
.6 ASTM D2419-95, Test Method for Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and Fine
Aggregate.
1.3 Samples and .1 At least 4 weeks prior to commencing work:

.2 Submit two 4 litre samples of liquid asphalt; plastic containers for emulsions.
.3 Submit a proposal for the proportioning of liquid asphalt and aggregate, with
test data or other supporting information.
1.4 Delivery .1 Liquid asphalt:

and Storage .1 Provide approved storage and pumping facilities.
.2 Furnish copies of freight bills for shipments received.
1.5 Measurement .1 Supply of liquid asphalt will be measured in litres of undiluted material at 15C.
for Payment
.2 Mixed-in-place asphalt paving will be measured in square metres.
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Asphalt Emulsion .1 To CAN/CGSB-16.2, grade SS-1, or as approved.
************************************************************************
Spec note: SS-1 grade emulsion is commonly used, but other liquid asphalts may be
considered for mixed-in-place construction, such as cationic emulsions to
CAN/CGSB 16.4 or high float emulsions to CAN/CGSB-16.5. Edit 2.1.1 to suit.
************************************************************************
- C.30 -
2.2 Aggregates .1 Sound, hard, durable crushed stone or crushed gravel, free from thin, elongated or
laminated particles, clay balls, organic and frozen materials or other deleterious
substances, and free of adherent dust films that would prevent coating and bonding
with asphalt.
.2 Physical properties:
.1 Gradations within the following limits when tested to ASTM C136 and ASTM
C117:
25.0-mm 100
12.5-mm 80 - 100
9.5-mm 70 - 90
4.75-mm 50 - 70
2.50-mm 35 - 50
600-m 18 - 29
75-m 4 - 10
Particle size distribution to be continuous and without gaps, with gradation
gradation chart.
.2 Crushed particles: at least 60% by weight of particles retained on the 4.75-mm
sieve to have at least one freshly fractured face.
.3 Los Angeles degradation: maximum 25% loss by weight when tested to ASTM
C131, Gradation B.
.4 Sand equivalent: minimum 35 when tested to ASTM D2419.
.5 Lightweight particles: maximum 3% less than 1.95 relative density when tested
to ASTM C123.
PART III EXECUTION
3.1 Equipment .1 Travel mixing plants - to approval of the Engineer:

.1 Self-propelled, designed to pick up aggregate from windrows, accurately
proportion liquid asphalt and mix to achieve uniform coating of aggregate, and
deposit the mixture on the base surface to uniform depth and width.
.2 Blade mixing equipment:

.1 Graders or other approved blade equipment capable of spreading aggregate and
mixing with liquid asphalt.
.2 Pressure distributor capable of applying liquid asphalt in a uniform spray
without atomization at temperature required, in variable widths of up to 5 m,
and at a controlled rate from 0.2 L/m2 to 5.0 L/m2 with maximum variation of
1% from a selected rate. Equipped with:
.1 a meter registering metres of travel per minute visibly located for truck
driver to maintain constant speed required for application at a specified
rate;
.2 a pump having a flow meter graduated in units not greater than 5 litres per
minute, and a power unit independent of the truck unit;
.3 a calibrated tank, or a volume measuring device;
.4 temperature indicator for tank contents;
.5 spray bars adjustable laterally and vertically.
.3 Rollers: of adequate number, type and weight to compact the mixture to a dense
uniform mass, with at least one pneumatic tired roller and one steel wheeled roller.
3.2 Aggregate .1 Obtain approval of the base surface prior to placing aggregate.
Placing
.2 Place aggregate on base surface in longitudinal windrows in quantities sufficient to
produce an asphalt course of the thickness indicated, but not exceeding a lift
thickness of 75 mm. Construct in separate lifts if total thickness exceeds 75 mm.
.3 If aggregate moisture content is excessive, aerate until moisture content is suitable.
- C.31 -
3.3 Mixing and .1 Do not apply asphalt to aggregate if air temperature is less than 10C or if raining.
Spreading
.2 Mix by travel plant or blade mixing methods.
.1 Travel plant mixing:
.1 Flatten or spread aggregate windrow as necessary to accommodate travel
plant pick-up mechanism.
.2 Mix asphalt into aggregate with one or more passes of the travel plant
mixer. Mix to a uniform condition free from fat or lean portions, or balls,
and with the aggregate particles fully coated.
.2 Blade mixing:
.1 Flatten aggregate windrow sufficiently for passage of the distributor, and
apply required asphalt material in successive applications with each
application not exceeding 2.5 L/m2.
.2 Partially mix in with blade equipment following each application. Continue
mixing after final asphalt application by blading back and forth over the
base surface until asphalt is uniformly distributed throughout the mix and
aggregate particles are fully coated.
.3 Correct asphalt deficiencies or excesses, or uneven distribution by addition of

aggregate or asphalt as needed, and remixing to give a uniform mix of specified
asphalt content.
.4 Schedule work so asphalt application, mixing, spreading and compacting are

accomplish in a continuous operation.
.5 Ensure no material is cut from the base surface and incorporated during the mixing
operation.
.6 Spread mixture to lines indicated, in a layer of uniform thickness giving design

grades when compacted.
3.4 Compaction .1 Compact to an approved density as soon as spread mix supports rollers. Roll to a
uniformly textured, tight surface showing no displacement under rollers. Do initial
rolling with a pneumatic-tired roller and final rolling with a steel roller.
3.5 Tolerances .1 Finished cold-mix asphalt course to be within 10 mm of thickness indicated, but not
uniformly thinner or thicker.
.2 Correct surface irregularities exceeding 10 mm when checked with a 4.5 m

straightedge placed in any direction. Correct irregularities by blading while the
mixture is still soft.
3.6 Protection .1 Protect surface until setting or curing is sufficient for opening to traffic.
3.7 Remixing .1 Remix portions of finished cold-mix asphalt surfaces showing evidence of
unsatisfactory asphalt content after 3 weeks of normal traffic. Sections with
ravelling require addition of asphalt, and sections of surface distortion require
additional mixing and possibly additional aggregate.
.2 Remix by blading asphalt surface into windrows, mixing, adding asphalt or

aggregate as required, and mixing, aerating, spreading and compacting into a new
finished surface.
- C.32 -
Section C2440 ASPHALT PRIME AND TACK COATS June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the application of prime and tack coats to surfaces to be paved
with hot mix asphalt concrete. Prime coats are applied to granular surfaces, and tack
coats are applied to asphalt and concrete surfaces, to promote the bond between
these surfaces and the asphalt placed during paving.
1.2 References .1 Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB):

.1 CAN/CGSB-16.1-M89, Cutback Asphalts for Road Purposes.
.2 CAN/CGSB-16.2-M89, Emulsified Asphalts, Anionic Type, for Road
Purposes.
1.3 Samples and .1 At least 2 weeks prior to commencing work, submit:

Submissions .1 two 4 litre containers of asphalt prime and tack coat materials proposed for use.
.2 manufacturers test data and certification that the asphalt prime and tack coat
materials meet the requirements of this Section.
1.4 Delivery .1 Furnish copies of freight and way bills received for material shipments.
and Storage
.2 Store in suitable containers and allow measurements of volume and temperature
before commencing use. Do not release storage containers until final measurements
are made.
1.5 Measurement .1 Asphalt prime coat will be measured in litres at 15C of undiluted asphalt prime
for Payment material applied.
.2 Asphalt tack coat will be measured in litres at 15C of undiluted asphalt tack
material applied.
PART II - PRODUCTS
2.1 Asphalt Prime .1 To CAN/CGSB-16.1, grade MC-70. Heat to the temperature range recommended in
CAN/CGSB-16.1 for pumping and spraying.
2.2 Asphalt Tack .1 To CAN/CGSB-16.2, grade SS-1. Dilute asphalt emulsion with clean water at a 1:1
ratio and mix thoroughly for application.
3.1 Equipment .1 Applicator: pressure distributor capable of applying liquid asphalt in a uniform spray
without atomization at temperature required, in variable widths of up to 5 m, and at
a controlled rate from 0.2 L/m2 to 5.0 L/m2 with maximum variation of 1% from any
selected rate. Equip with:
.1 a meter registering metres of travel per minute;
.5 spray bars adjustable laterally and vertically;
.6 nozzles of the same make and dimensions, adjustable for fan width and
orientation.
3.2 Application .1 Obtain approval of surfaces to be treated prior to the application or prime or tack
coat material. Broom and clean as required to remove surface dirt and other
objectionable material.
.2 Do not apply prime and tack coat materials when the air temperature is below 5C,
or when rain is forecast within 2 hours. Apply only on dry surfaces.
- C.33 -
Section C2440 ASPHALT PRIME AND TACK COATS June 2000
3.2 Application (contd) .3 Prime coat:

.1 Apply prime coat material on granular base surfaces in areas of asphalt paving
at a rate giving good penetration of the base. Proper application rate generally
falls in the range of 1.0 to 2.5 L/m2 depending on the texture of the surface
being treated. Apply at rate directed but do not exceed 3 L/m2.
.2 Avoid overlap at the junction of spreads. Apply additional prime to areas not
sufficiently covered.
.3 If the prime coat material fails to penetrate within 24 hours, spread approved
sand material as a blotter in amounts required to absorb excess prime. Sweep
and remove excess blotter material
.4 Tack Coat:
.1 Apply tack coat material on asphalt or concrete surfaces in areas of asphalt
paving at a rate giving full uniform coverage without pooling. Proper
application rate generally falls in the range of 0.25 to 0.75 L/m2 depending on
the texture of the surface being treated. Apply at rate directed, but do not
exceed 1.0 L/m2.
.2 Avoid overlap at the junction of spreads. Evenly distribute any local areas of
excessive deposits by brooming.
.3 Apply tack coat material only to surfaces where paving is expected on the same
day.
.5 At interface between asphalt paving and structures such as curbs, gutters and
manholes, paint contact surfaces with a thin, uniform layer of prime or tack coat
material.
.6 Keep traffic off treated areas until the prime or tack coat material has set, and
maintain the treated surface until paving occurs.
- C.34 -
Section C2460 COAL TAR SEAL COAT June 2000
************************************************************************
Spec Notes:
(a) Coal tar based sealing products are available containing rubber and/or other types
of additives. Edit to suit if one of these specialty products is wanted.
(b) This specification contains requirements for applying a coal tar seal coat to either
old or new asphalt surfaces. Edit to suit project.
(c) If applying a coal tar seal coat to older asphalt pavements, carry out a patching and
crack sealing program if needed prior to sealing. Use patching materials and crack
sealers compatible with the coal tar seal coat.
(d) If applying a coal tar seal coat to a runway surface, carry out a rubber removal
program prior to sealing, if needed, to remove rubber deposits in the touchdown zones.
************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the application of a coal tar seal coat to the surface of asphalt
pavements. The seal coat is applied primarily in the fuelling area of asphalt aprons
to protect the asphalt surface from fuel spills. The seal coat is applied as two
coatings of a premixed blend of coal tar emulsion, sand and water.

.1 CAN/CGSB-37.32-M89, Coal Tar Primer for Coal Tar Roofing,
Dampproofing, and Waterproofing.
.2 CGSB 37-GP-39M-77, Pitch, Emulsified Coal Tar, Mineral Colloid Type,
Filled for Coating Bituminous Pavements.

Aggregates.
1.3 Samples and .1 At least 4 weeks prior to commencing work, submit samples of materials proposed
Submissions for use:
.1 20 kg of aggregate;
.2 two 4 litre plastic containers of coal tar emulsion.
.2 At least 10 days prior to commencing work:

.1 Submit the following information from the manufacturer or supplier of the
emulsion:
.1 test data and certification that the coal tar emulsion meets the requirements
of this Section;
.2 materials safety data sheet for the coal tar emulsion;
.3 recommended procedures for transporting, storing, mixing and application
of the coal tar emulsion.
.2 Submit a proposal for the proportioning of the emulsion-sand mix, with test
results or other supporting data.
1.4 Delivery .1 Deliver and store coal tar emulsion to the manufacturers recommendations, using
and Storage dedicated tankers and containers equipped with agitation equipment and filters to
maintain emulsion consistency.
.2 Furnish copies of freight and way bills received for material shipments.
1.5 Measurement .1 Supply of coal tar emulsion will be measured in litres at 15C of undiluted
for Payment emulsion.
.2 Coal tar seal coating will be measured in square metres.
- C.35 -
PART II - PRODUCTS
2.1 Coal Tar Primer .1 To CAN/CGSB-37.32-M89.

.
2.2 Coal Tar Emulsion .1 To CGSB 37-GP-39M-77.
.
2.3 Aggregate .1 Crushed or screened sand consisting of hard, durable particles, free-flowing and free
of clay lumps, organic matter, frozen material and other deleterious substances.
Gradation within the following limits when tested to ASTM C136 and ASTM C117:
sieve designation percent passing

1.18-mm 100
600-m 15 - 85
300-m 0 - 10
150-m 0- 2
2.4 Mix .1 Approximate mix proportions:

.1 0.4 kg to 0.8 kg of sand aggregate per litre of emulsion;
.2 water added as required to give a proper consistency for application, but not to
exceed 0.25 litres of water per litre of emulsion.
3.1 Equipment .1 Mixing: tank type mixing unit of suitable capacity, with a power driven full-sweep
mixer capable of thoroughly blending and mixing the emulsion-sand mix.
.2 Application: spray distributor or squeegee/brush spreading unit capable of applying

emulsion-sand mix to the pavement surface in a uniform coating at the specified
rate. Use of hand squeegees and brushes to be restricted to areas inaccessible to
mechanical applicator, and to trimming.
3.2 Surface Preparation .1 Aged asphalt surfaces:

.1 Remove oil and grease spots using an alkaline cleaner or specialty product,
followed by scrubbing with water.
.2 Clean surface of all loose material, dust, dirt and other detrimental surface
contaminates by flushing and brooming as required.
.3 Power broom painted surface markings to remove loose paint but do not
remove the markings.
.4 Apply coal tar primer to surface at rate directed, up to 0.125 L/m2. Allow
primer to dry thoroughly prior to application of the coal tar seal.
.2 New asphalt surfaces:

.1 Allow new asphalt surfaces to cure until free of volatiles and surface oils prior
to coal tar sealing. A curing period of at least 30 days is required under
summertime conditions, and longer periods may be required under cooler
conditions. Check the surface by casting about 5 litres of water on the
pavement surface. The water should sheet out and wet the surface uniformly
without crawling or showing oil rings.
contaminates by flushing and power brooming as required.
.3 Immediately prior to the sealing application, lightly dampen the surface with
water applied at a rate of 0.10 L/m2 to 0.25 L/m2. Do not allow water to pool.
3.3 Mixing .1 Mix in approved proportions.
.2 Charge mixer with emulsion and add water, if necessary, as mixer is operating;
blend liquids to a uniform consistency;
.3 Introduce mineral aggregate slowly while mixer is operating in a manner to prevent

lumping and segregation.
- C.36 -
3.3 Mixing (contd) .4 Continue mixing for at least 5 minutes after the aggregate has been added and
blend to a homogeneous, uniform consistency suitable for application.
.5 Continuously circulate or agitate until placed.
3.4 Application .1 Apply coal tar seal coat only when air and pavement surface temperatures are
above 10C, and no rain is forecast for the next 24 hours.
.2 Obtain approval of pavement surface conditions prior to application of the coal

tar seal coat.
.3 Apply seal coat mixture in areas indicated or directed. Apply in two coats,
each coat at a rate directed in the range of 0.4 L/m2 to 0.6 L/m2. Allow first
coat to dry thoroughly before applying the second coat.
.4 Surface to be of uniform texture. Immediately scrape off and replace any areas
showing defects such as streaking or balling. Use mechanical spreader for
replacement of larger areas; manual patching of small areas may be accepted.
.5 Cure for at least 24 hours, or as directed, before opening to traffic.
- C.37 -
Section C2470 ASPHALT EMULSION SLURRY SEAL June 2003
************************************************************************
Spec Notes:
(a) If needed, carry out maintenance program prior to slurry sealing. Patch existing
surface, correct grades, fill wide cracks with sand-emulsion slurry and remove rubber if
sealing a rubber contaminated runway. Surface cleaning and paint removal form part of
this specification.
(b) ASTM D3910 specifies the following requirements for three types of slurry mixes.
Type 1 is normally used on airfield pavements, but Type 2 or Type 3 may be used if
improved macro-texture is important for friction purposes. Edit specification to suit.
Mix Type Type 1 Type 2 Type3

Aggregate Gradation
% passing 9.5-mm 100 100
sieve 4.75-mm 100 90 - 100 70 - 90
2.36-mm 90 - 100 65 - 90 45 - 70
1.18-mm 60 - 90 45 - 70 28 - 50
600-m 40 - 60 30 - 50 19 - 34
300-m 25 - 42 18 - 30 12 - 25
150-m 15 - 30 10 - 21 7 - 18
75-m 10 - 20 5 - 15 5 - 15
Residual Asphalt Content, % 10 - 16 7.5 - 13.5 6.5 - 12

Application Rate, kg/m2
based on dry aggregate weight 3 - 5.5 5.5 - 8 8 or more
************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the application of an asphalt emulsion slurry seal coat to the
surface of an asphalt pavement for the purpose of sealing the surface and restoring
surface texture. The seal is composed of asphalt emulsion, mineral aggregate and
water, blended in proper proportions in a mobile mixing unit and applied to the
pavement surface as a slurry.


.1 CAN/CGSB-16.2-[M89], Emulsified Asphalts, Anionic Type, for Road
Purposes.
.2 CAN/CGSB-16.4-[M89], Emulsified Asphalts, Cationic Type, for Road
Purposes.

.1 ASTM C88-[99], Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium
.2 ASTM C117-[95], Test Method for Material Finer Than 75-m Sieve in
Mineral Aggregates by Washing.
.3 ASTM C131-[01], Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size
.4 ASTM C136-[96], Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates.
.5 ASTM D2419-[02], Test Method for Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and Fine
Aggregate.
.6 ASTM D3910-[98], Practices for Design, Testing and Construction of Slurry
Seal.
- C.38 -
.1 two 4 litre plastic containers of asphalt emulsion;
.2 20 kg of aggregate.
.2 At least 10 days prior to commencing work:

.1 Submit the following information from the manufacturer or supplier of the
emulsion:
.1 test data and certification that the asphalt emulsion meets the requirements
of this Section;
.2 recommended procedures for transporting, storing, and mixing of the
asphalt emulsion.
.2 Submit a proposal for the proportioning of the slurry seal mix, with test results
and other supporting data. Mix proposals to be prepared by an approved
laboratory experienced in the design of slurry seal mixes.
1.4 Delivery .1 Deliver and store asphalt emulsion to the manufacturers recommendations, using
maintain emulsion consistency. Furnish copies of freight and way bills received for
material shipments.
.2 Deliver and stockpile aggregate to Section C2110.
1.5 Measurement .1 Supply of asphalt emulsion will be measured in litres at 15C of undiluted
for Payment emulsion actually used.
.2 Supply of aggregate will be measured in tonnes.
.3 Application of asphalt emulsion slurry seal coat will be measured in square metres.
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Asphalt Emulsion .1 To CAN/CGSB-16.2, grade SS-1h or CAN/CGSB-16.4, grade CSS-1h.
.2 Other grades of asphalt emulsion may be approved if better suited to site conditions
or project requirements.
2.2 Aggregate .1 Sand, composed of sound, hard, durable, angular, uncoated particles, and free of
clay, organic material or other deleterious substances.
.2 Mineral filler in the form of limestone dust, Portland cement, hydrated lime or other
approved material, may be added and form part of the aggregate if required to
improve aggregate gradation, mix workability, setting time or other mix property.
Add mineral filler in the minimum quantity required.
.3 Gradation when tested to ASTM C117 and ASTM C136, to meet ASTM D3910 for
mix type specified elsewhere in this Section.
.4 Aggregate retained on the 300-m sieve to be 100% crushed.
.5 Sand equivalent of aggregate prior to the addition of any chemically active filler: to
ASTM D2419, minimum 45.
.6 Los Angeles Degradation: to ASTM C131, Gradation D, maximum loss 35%.
.7 Magnesium sulphate soundness: to ASTM C88, five cycles of immersion:

maximum loss 12%
2.3 Water .1 Potable, free from harmful salts, temperature at least 10C.
- C.39 -
2.4 Tack Coat .1 Asphalt emulsion of same type used for slurry mix, diluted to ratio of 1 part
emulsion to 3 parts water.
2.5 Slurry Mix .1 Determine mix proportions to ASTM D3910, Type [1] mix.
.2 Mix properties when tested to ASTM D3910:

.1 consistency: flow between 20 mm and 30 mm.
.2 set time: maximum 12 hours;
.3 cure time: maximum 24 hours;
.4 wet track abrasion: maximum loss 800 g/m2.
.3 Tolerances of mix proportions relative to approved mix design:

.1 residual asphalt content: 1%.
3.1 Equipment .1 Proportioning and mixing unit to ASTM D3910.
.2 Spreader to ASTM D3910.
.3 Five tonne pneumatic roller with tire pressure of 0.35 MPa.
3.2 Surface Preparation .1 Remove oil and grease spots using an alkaline cleaner or specialty product, followed
by scrubbing with water.
.3 Remove painted surface markings using sand blasting, shot blasting or other
approved method.
3.3 Test Strip .1 Construct slurry seal test strip in an area assigned, to prove mix design, equipment
performance and calibration, and to determine appropriate application rate. Use
application rate within the range specified by ASTM D3910 for the mix type being
used. Repeat test strip if required to adjust mix or to prove adjustments to
equipment or application rate.
3.4 Tack Coating .1 Unless otherwise directed, tack coat surfaces to Section C2440 using the diluted tack
coat material. For areas not tack coated, lightly fog surface with water ahead of
slurry seal application.
3.5 Mixing .1 Charge mixer with materials in the following order: water, aggregate, emulsion. If
mineral filler is a component, add slowly to other aggregates before adding asphalt
emulsion.
.2 Mix for at least 15 seconds but not more than 4 minutes. Mix to uniform state of
desired consistency with aggregate well coated, and continue mixing until discharge
to spreader box.
3.6 Placing .1 Obtain approval of existing surface prior to placing slurry seal.
.2 Place slurry seal only when air and pavement surface temperatures are above 10C,
and no rain or freezing temperatures are forecast for the next 24 hours.
.3 Apply slurry seal at rate determined and approved during test strip trials.
.4 Adjust speed so slurry mix is discharged into moving spreader box at a rate to
maintain ample supply of mix across full width of the strike-off squeegee. Do not
overload spreader box. Speed not to exceed 10 kilometres per hour.
.5 Avoid excessive build-up of slurry material on longitudinal and transverse joints.

Use hand squeegees to spread mix in areas not accessible to the spreader.
- C.40 -
3.6 Placing (Contd) .6 Discard slurry if excessive breaking of emulsion occurs before successful placing.
3.7 Repairs .1 Slurry seal surface to be of uniform texture. Immediately scrape off and replace any
areas showing defects such as streaking, balling or segregation. Use mechanical
spreader for replacement of larger areas; manual patching of small areas may be
accepted.
3.8 Rolling .1 Roll slurry seal surface, providing at least five coverages by the roller, when slurry
seal has cured sufficiently so clear water only is squeezed from the mix. Increase
contact pressure if directed.
3.9 Curing .1 Cure slurry seal for a minimum 24 hours, or as directed, before opening to traffic.
.2 For a double application of slurry seal, cure initial treatment thoroughly before
applying the second treatment.
- C.41 -
Section C2480 SURFACE TREATMENT - SINGLE APPLICATION June 2003
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the treatment of an asphalt or granular pavement surface by the
single application of asphalt emulsion followed immediately by the spreading and
rolling in of an aggregate cover. The purpose of the treatment is to seal the existing
surface and to provide a new wearing course.


.1 CAN/CGSB-16.2-[M89], Emulsified Asphalts, Anionic Type, for Road
Purposes.
.2 CAN/CGSB-16.4-[M89], Emulsified Asphalts, Cationic Type, for Road
Purposes.
.3 CAN/CGSB-16.5-[M84], Asphalt, Emulsified, High Float Type, for Road
Purposes.

.1 ASTM C88-[99], Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium
.2 ASTM C117-[95], Test Method for Material Finer Than 75-m Sieve in
Mineral Aggregates by Washing.
.3 ASTM C131-[01], Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size
.4 ASTM C136-[96], Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates.
.5 ASTM D4791-99, Test Method for Flat Particles, Elongated Particles, or Flat
and Elongated Particles.
.6 ASTM D5821-95, Test Method for Determining the Percentage of Fractured
Particles in Coarse Aggregate.
.1 two 4 litre plastic containers of asphalt emulsion;
.2 20 kg of aggregate.
.2 At least 10 days prior to commencing work, submit the following information from
the manufacturer or supplier of the emulsion:
.1 test data and certification that the asphalt emulsion meets the requirements of
this Section;
.2 recommended procedures for transporting, storing, and mixing of the asphalt
emulsion.
1.4 Delivery .1 Deliver and store asphalt emulsion to the manufacturers recommendations, using
maintain emulsion consistency. Furnish copies of freight and waybills received for
material shipments.
.2 Deliver and stockpile aggregate to Section C2110.
1.5 Measurement .1 Supply of asphalt emulsion will be measured in litres at 15C of undiluted emulsion
for Payment actually used.
.2 Application of surface treatment will be measured in square metres.
- C.42 -
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Asphalt Emulsion .1 Alternatives, as best suited to project:

.1 CAN/CGSB-16.2, grade RS-2;
.2 CAN/CGSB-16.4, grade CRS-2;
.3 CAN/CGSB-16.5, grade HF-250S.
.2 Other grades of asphalt emulsion may be approved if better suited to site conditions
or project requirements.
2.2 Aggregate .1 Crushed gravel or stone, composed of sound, hard, durable, angular, uncoated
particles, and free of clay, organic material or other deleterious substances.
************************************************************************
Spec Note: The gradation specified in 2.2.2 is for a uniformly sized material, which is
the most common practice. If a graded aggregate is desired, change gradation
specification to the following and specify high-float emulsion only:
19.0-mm 100
12.5-mm 65 - 90
9.5-mm 55 - 80
4.75-mm 35 - 55
2.00-mm 19 - 38
425-m 5 - 20
75-m 0 - 5
************************************************************************
.2 Gradation within the following limits when tested to ASTM C117 and ASTM C136:
19.0-mm 100
12.5-mm 90 - 100
9.5-mm 40 - 70
4.75-mm 0 - 15
180-m 0-8
.3 Crushed particles: at least 60% of particles retained on the 4.75-mm sieve to have at
least one freshly fractured face when tested to ASTM D5821.
.4 Los Angeles degradation: to ASTM C131, maximum 25% loss by weight.
.5 Magnesium sulphate soundness: to ASTM C88, five cycles of immersion, maximum

12% loss by weight.
.6 Flat and elongated particles with ratio of maximum to minimum dimension

exceeding five: maximum 8% by weight when tested to ASTM D4791.
.7 Moisture content: 2% to 5%.
************************************************************************
Spec Note: Delete 2.3 if an anti-stripping agent is not required.
************************************************************************
2.3 Anti-Stripping .1 Heat stable, approved adhesion agent.

Additive
.2 Anti-stripping agent to be combined with asphalt emulsion when the asphalt
emulsion is at spraying temperature, and thoroughly mixed by mechanical means or
by circulating with a pump at maximum capacity for a minimum of 30 minutes.
- C.43 -
3.1 Equipment .1 Asphalt Applicator: Pressure distributor capable of applying liquid asphalt in a
uniform spray without atomization at temperature required, in variable widths of up
to 5 m, and at a controlled rate from 0.2 L/m2 to 5.0 L/m2 with maximum variation
of 1% from any selected rate. Equip with:
.1 a meter registering metres of travel per minute;
.5 spray bars adjustable laterally and vertically;
.6 nozzles of the same make and dimensions, adjustable for fan width and
orientation.
.2 Aggregate Spreader: Self-propelled or truck-attached mechanical spreader capable

of uniformly distributing aggregate at specified rates over width of asphalt
emulsion.
.3 Rollers:
.1 Self-propelled, pneumatic tired, not less than 7 wheels staggered back and
front, exerting force of at 7 tonnes per metre of rolling width with tires inflated
to 0.4 MPa.
.2 Tandem steel drum rollers or rubber-coated vibratory steel drum rollers may be
approved if coating of aggregate particles is satisfactory and particle breakage
is insignificant:
.1 minimum drum diameter: 1000 mm;
.2 minimum static force of 4 tonnes per metre of rolling width.
.4 Power broom: Self-propelled, pneumatic tired, capable of vertical and horizontal

angular adjustment.
3.2 Surface Preparation .1 If treating a granular surface:

.1 blade smooth and compact to approved grades and cross section;
.2 prime surface to Section C2440.
contaminates by flushing and brooming as directed.
.3 Obtain approval of surface prior to placing surface treatment.
3.3 Weather .1 Place surface treatment only when existing surface is dry or no more than damp,
when air and pavement surface temperatures are above 10C, and no rain or freezing
temperatures are forecast for the next 24 hours.
3.4 Spraying of .1 Spray asphalt emulsion on surface to be treated. Spray in longitudinal runs
Emulsion commencing along crown line.
.2 Place protective covering of building paper or other approved material at start of

run. Place over width of spray and for sufficient distance so spraying nozzles are
fully operative when surface being treated is reached.
.3 Spray asphalt emulsion at spraying temperature specified for the material. Spray at
rate directed in the range of 1.0 L/m2 to 1.5 L/m2, and adjust spraying rate based on
experience as work progresses. Ensure uniformity of spray over surface being
treated.
- C.44 -
3.5 Aggregate Spreading .1 Spread aggregate within one minute of emulsion spraying. Spread so aggregate is
placed before passage of spreader wheels.
.2 Spread aggregate uniformly at rate directed, in range of 14 to 16 kg/m2, and adjust

spreading rate if required based on experience as work progresses.
.3 Spread no more aggregate than can be thoroughly absorbed by the emulsion. Apply
additional aggregate to any areas deficient in cover after aggregate spreading.
.4 For longitudinal joints, leave 200 mm wide strip of emulsion along edge of first lane
uncovered by aggregate, to form lap when placing adjacent lane.
3.6 Rolling .1 Roll surface immediately after aggregate is spread using a minimum of 3 rollers, at
least 2 of which are pneumatic tired.
.2 Apply at least 3 roller coverages to all areas treated.
.3 Do not exceed roller speed of 8 kph.
3.7 Brooming .1 Following [four] days of curing, or when directed, thoroughly broom surface free of
all loose aggregate particles.
- C.45 -
Section C2510 PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVING June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the paving of aircraft operational surfaces with Portland cement
concrete. The paving is intended to provide a durable, skid resistant and smooth
riding surface for the operation of aircraft.
.2 The construction is of plain concrete, without reinforcement, and either fixed form
or slip form paving methods may be utilized. Major work items include the supply
of aggregates and Portland cement, and mixing, placing and finishing in accordance
with these specifications and to the lines, grades, sections and details indicated in the
plans.


.2 CAN/CSA-A23.1-00 / A23.2-00, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete
Construction / Methods of Test for Concrete.
.3 CSA G30.18-1977, Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.

.1 CAN/CGSB-19.20-M87, Cold-Applied Sealing Compound, Aviation Fuel
Resistant.
.4 Canadian Portland Cement Association (CPCA):

.1 Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Fifth Canadian Edition, 1991.

.1 ASTM C39-99, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens.
.2 ASTM C40-99, Test Method for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregate for
Concrete.
.3 ASTM C78-94, Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple
Beam with Third-Point Loading).
.4 ASTM C87-83, Test Method for Effect of Organic Impurities in Fine
Aggregate on Strength of Mortar.
.5 ASTM C88-99, Test Method for Soundness of Aggregate by Use of Sodium
Sulfate of Magnesium Sulfate.
.8 ASTM C125-00, Terminology Relating to Concrete and Concrete Aggregates.
Aggregates.
.10 ASTM C142-97, Test Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in
Aggregates.
.11 ASTM C143-00, Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete.
.12 ASTM C231-97, Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by
the Pressure Method.
.13 ASTM C260-00, Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete.
.14 ASTM C309-98, Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming Compounds for
Curing Concrete.
.15 ASTM D494-99, Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.
.16 ASTM D1751-99, Specification for Preformed Expansion Joint Filler for
Concrete Paving and Structural Construction (Nonextruding and Resilient
Bituminous Type).
.17 ASTM D3405-97, Specification for Joint Sealants, Hot-Poured, for Concrete
and Asphalt Pavements.
.18 ASTM D3569-95, Specification for Joint Sealant, Hot Poured, Elastomeric,
Jet-Fuel-Resistant Type for Portland Cement Concrete Pavements.
- C.46 -
1.3 Associated .1 Concrete materials and production to CAN/CSA-23.1, except as amended by this
Requirements Section.
1.4 Samples and .1 At least 4 weeks prior to commencing concrete production:

.2 Submit manufacturers literature, test data and certification for the following
materials, and submit samples:
.1 Portland cement, 10 kg;
.2 admixtures, 5 litres of each type;
.3 curing compound, 5 litres;
.4 joint sealant, hot-pour, 10 kg;
.5 joint sealant, cold pour, 5 litres.
.2 At least 20 days prior to commencing concrete production, submit for approval a

proposed Portland cement concrete job mix formula. Mix to be designed by an
approved laboratory using the mix design methods of CPCA - Design and Control
of Concrete Mixtures. Submission to include:
.1 aggregate test results for specified properties;
.2 details of trial mixes, or historical data for previously used mixes;
.3 proposed material proportions per cubic metre;
.4 air content, slump, density and workability of the proposed mix;
.5 7 day and 28 day flexural strengths, with at least 3 beam specimens broken for
each determination;
.6 7 day and 28 day compressive strengths, with at least 3 cylinder specimens
broken for each determination;
.7 aggregate service records with respect to alkali reactivity and D-cracking
potential, or a laboratory evaluation of this potential.
1.5 Delivery .1 Store cement in weather tight bins or silos protecting the cement from dampness and
and Storage contamination, and provide easy access for inspection and identification of each
shipment. Provide copies of freight bills for the Portland cement as shipments are
received.
.2 Deliver and stockpile aggregates to Section C2110.
.3 Store curing compounds, sealants, admixtures and other materials as recommended

by the manufacturer.
1.6 Measurement .1 Supply of Portland cement will be measured in tonnes.

for Payment
.2 Portland cement concrete paving will be measured in cubic metres.
.3 Sealing of joints will be measured in metres.
PART II PRODUCTS
2.1 Portland Cement .1 Portland cement to CAN/CSA-A5, normal Type 10, obtained from a single
manufacturing source. Allow cement delivered directly after manufacture to reach
ambient temperatures prior to use.
2.2 Aggregates .1 Aggregates reacting detrimentally with the alkalis in the cement, or producing
D-cracking in concrete subject to severe exposure conditions, not acceptable
unless effective corrective measures are adopted. Aggregate suitability with respect
to alkali reactivity and D-cracking potential to be proven by service records, or by
the laboratory evaluation methods of CAN/CSA-A23.1.
- C.47 -
2.2 Aggregates (contd) .2 Fine Aggregate: natural sand, manufactured sand or a combination thereof.
.1 Physical properties to Table 1.
.2 Fineness modulus, as defined in ASTM C125, to be between 2.3 and 3.1, and to
vary by not more than 0.2% from the design mix value.
.3 Fine aggregate to have not more than 45% passing any sieve size and retained
on the next consecutive sieve.
.4 If colour is darker than standard in test ASTM C40, aggregate can be accepted
if mortar bar strength ratio exceeds 95% when tested to ASTM C87.
.5 Crusher screenings not to exceed 25% by weight.
.3 Coarse Aggregate: sound, hard, durable particles of crushed stone or crushed

gravel, free from clay balls, organic and frozen materials or other deleterious
substances, and free of adherent dust films.
.1 Physical properties to Table 1.
.2 Coarse aggregate to be produced in two separate sizes that yield the specified
gradation when combined. Each component size to form approximately equal
percentages of the total coarse aggregate.
Table 1 : Aggregate Physical Requirements
Coarse Aggregate
ASTM
Fine Cr. Gr. Crushed
Property Test
Aggregate or Stone
Method
Cr. Stone Alternate
37.5-mm C136 100 100
% Passing - Sieve Designation
25.0-mm " 90 100 58 82

19.0-mm " 60 85 36 64
Gradation (min-max)
12.5-mm " 25 60 18 50
9.5-mm " 100 15 45 6 26
4.75-mm " 90 100 05 05
2.36-mm " 70 95
1.18-mm " 50 75
600-m " 25 55
300-m " 10 30
150-m " 05
75-m C117 03 01 01
Crushed Content by
--- 50%
- for each sieve range (min) weight
Thin / Elongated Particles by
--- 15%
(max/min dimension > 5) (max) weight
lighter than
Organic Impurities C40 ---
standard
Magnesium Sulphate Soundness
C88 16% 12%
- loss after 5 cycles (max)
Lightweight Particles
C123 2.0% 2.5%
(use liquid of 2.40 sp. gr.) (max)
Clay Lumps (max) C142 1.0% 0.25%
.4 Aggregates may be accepted or rejected on the basis of previous service record

regardless of compliance with specified physical requirements.
2.3 Admixtures .1 Air entraining admixture to CAN/CSA-A266.1.
.2 Other chemical admixtures to CAN/CSA-A266.2
2.4 Curing Compound .1 Curing compound to ASTM C309, white pigmented type 2.
- C.48 -
2.5 Joint Sealant, Filler .1 Hot-poured sealant for runways and taxiways: to ASTM D3405.
and Bond Breaker
.2 Jet fuel resistant sealant for apron areas:
.1 Cold poured to CAN/CGSB-19.20;
.2 Hot poured to ASTM D3569.
.3 Preformed filler for isolation joints: to ASTM D1751.
.4 Bond breaker: masking tape, or as approved.
2.6 Steel .1 Concrete crack control steel and tie-bars: to CSA G30.12.
.2 Metal forming liner for female keyway when slip form paving is employed:
wiped zinc coated steel or similar rust resistant material of sufficient stiffness to
support the upper keyway.
2.7 Concrete Mix .1 Physical characteristics:

.1 Water / cement ratio not to exceed 0.45.
.2 Cement content in the range of 290 to 310 kg/m3. Obtain specific approval for
a cement content in excess of 310 kg/m3.
.3 Flexural strength, 28 day modulus of rupture, not less than 4.0 MPa when
tested to ASTM C78.
.4 Slump on discharge from mixer and as placed on grade, 10 mm to 35 mm when
.5 Air content on discharge from mixer and as placed on grade, 4% to 6% when
.2 The use of chemical admixtures, other than air entraining agent, is discouraged. Use
approved only if specified mix requirements or suitable workability cannot be
achieved by proper proportioning of aggregate, water, cement and air entraining
admixture.
.3 Do not change the approved mix formula without prior approval. If Portland cement
or aggregate sources change, submit and obtain approval of a new design mix
formula.
3.1 Equipment .1 Batching, mixing and transporting equipment to CAN/CSA-A23.1.
.2 Fixed form paving train to include:

.1 Scratch template for checking contours of the base, operating from side forms
and having adjustable rods projecting down to the surface of the base course at
intervals not exceeding 300 mm.
.2 Mechanical self-propelled spreader capable of moving concrete forward and
laterally, and of correcting segregated areas.
.3 Vibrators mounted at the rear of the spreader or an independently self-propelled
unit in front of the finisher.
.1 Internal vibrators: frame-mounted 50 mm size internal vibratory units with
vibrating tubes extending into the slab at intervals slightly less than twice
the manufacturers "radius of action."
.2 Surface vibrators: may be used in lieu of internal vibrators for a concrete
slab thickness less than 200 mm. Vibrating screed or pan type with a bull
nose edge. Use at least one vibrating unit for each 2.5 m length of vibratory
screed, or each 2 m length of vibratory pan.
.4 Mechanical self-propelled finisher with two independently operated transverse
screeds.
.5 Float made of wood or metal; straight, smooth, sufficiently light to avoid
sinking into the concrete surface, and operated mechanically or manually from
edge to edge while advancing longitudinally.
- C.49 -
3.1 Equipment (contd) .3 Slip form paver: self-propelled with crawler type tracks, of sufficient weight and
power to spread and move the concrete forward, and designed to spread, consolidate
and finish fresh concrete to the required cross section, lines and grades.
.1 Paving line and grade to be automatically control from a taut string line or wire,
by laser equipment or by other approved guidance system.
.2 Internal vibrators to be frame-mounted, 50 mm diameter vibratory units with
vibrating tubes extending into the slab at intervals slightly less than twice the
manufacturers "radius of action."
.4 Curing compound applicator: self-propelled automatic spray machine spanning the

fresh concrete, equipped with fine spray nozzles suitable for the application of
membrane forming curing compound uniformly over the surface and exposed edges,
and with a wind skirt to permit proper application under windy conditions.
.5 Concrete saws: self-propelled, equipped with rubber-tired wheels, readily adjustable

blade depth controls, and sawing line guide pointers both front and rear. Provide an
adequate number of units to complete sawing at a rate needed to keep up with
paving production, plus at least one standby unit. Provide an ample supply of
adequate saw blades.
.6 Sealant application:
.1 Hot pour sealant kettle with indirect heating; constructed as double-boiler with
a space between inner and outer shells filled with a high-flash heat transfer oil,
and equipped with positive temperature controls, mechanical agitation and
circulating pump. Direct heating kettle not acceptable.
.2 Air compressor providing air at a minimum pressure of 700 kPa, equipped with
oil and water trap to ensure uncontaminated air.
.7 Miscellaneous equipment for concrete paving:

.1 Water truck equipped with a pump, hoseline and fine spray nozzle.
.2 Hand operated floats and fluting tools.
.3 Edging tool.
3.2 Formwork .1 For fixed form paving:

.1 Use steel forms of sufficient strength to support and keep alignment under the
weight of spreading and finishing machines. With approval, wood forms may
be used in fillet areas.
.2 Set forms true to line and grade, join neatly and tightly, and stake securely to
resist concrete pressure and impact from tampers without springing.
.3 Install keyway liners as indicated.
.4 Clean and oil forms before each use.
.5 Obtain approval of forms before placing concrete.
.6 Leave forms in place at least 24 hours after placing concrete. Remove by
methods doing no damage to the concrete.
.2 For slip form paving:

.1 Provide sufficient length of sliding form trailing behind paver to prevent
slumping at the slab edge. Ensure rigid lateral support.
.2 Form the female key by means of a paver attachment inserting a metal strip into
the longitudinal joint face.
3.3 Base Preparation .1 For fixed form paving, check elevation of the base surface between forms with a
manually operated scratch template.
.2 For slip form paving, construct surface for one metre beyond pavement edge to
support the paver without noticeable movement.
.3 Wet the base in advance of concrete paving to provide a moist surface without free
water.
- C.50 -
3.3 Base Preparation .4 Repair any damage to the base surface resulting from hauling or equipment
(contd) operations.
.5 Obtain approval of the base surface before placing concrete.
3.4 Mixing .1 If crusher screenings are a constituent, proportion separately from sand.
.2 Monitor the water content of aggregate in stockpile, and adjust water added to the
mixer as required to maintain water content at design mix levels.
.3 Mixing equipment and methods to produce a uniform, consistent concrete.

.1 Slump within 10 mm from design mix.
.2 Air content within 1% from design mix, but not less than 4%.
.3 Flexural strength exhibiting an average not less than design mix strength, and a
standard deviation not exceeding 9% of the average.
3.5 Transporting .1 Transporting with agitating equipment:

.1 Place within 90 minutes from the start of mixing.
.2 Transporting with non-agitating equipment:

.1 Place within 30 minutes from the start of mixing.
.2 Haul units to be of sufficient capacity to transport at least one regular sized
batch from the mixer.
.3 Haul routes to be well maintained to prevent undue disturbance of the concrete
during transport.
.3 Do not retemper concrete by adding water, unless approved.
3.6 Placing .1 Do not place concrete when:

.1 base surface is frozen;
.2 there is a risk of the concrete freezing within 24 hours of placement;
.3 air temperature exceeds 30C, unless hot weather concreting measures have
been approved;
.4 rain is sufficiently intense to separate cement from the surface, or to hinder
finishing operations.
.2 Commence placing concrete in a designated non-critical area, and continue until

concrete production and paving procedures are demonstrated as satisfactory.
.3 Place and spread concrete using approved equipment as soon as practical after
mixing. Use methods minimizing segregation of the mix. Operate placing
equipment on rubber wheels or pads if riding on an existing concrete surface. Hand
place by shovel or other approved means where machine spreading is not feasible;
do not spread using rakes or hand vibrators. Do not allow workmen to walk in fresh
concrete.
.4 Avoid start-stop operation to the extent possible. Schedule concrete delivery to

provide a continuous forward operation of the paver.
.5 Construct paving lanes in an approved sequence. Do not permit base planers, pavers
or finishing equipment to ride on the edge of recently placed adjacent lanes until the
concrete has reached a flexural strength of at least 2.75 MPa.
.6 Place crack control steel and tie bars to the details indicated and to
CAN/CSA-A23.1.
.7 Place concrete during daylight hours only.
.8 When completing concrete placement for the day, carry placement through to a
scheduled transverse joint location. If concrete placement is stopped for more than
30 minutes for reasons such as equipment breakdown or weather, place a bulkhead
and form a construction joint as directed.
- C.51 -
3.6 Placing (contd) .9 In the event of rain, provide approved covering material such as burlap, cotton mats,
curing paper or plastic sheathing as required to protect freshly laid concrete surfaces
from rain damage. Extend protective coverings over slab edges, but avoid bearing
on unprotected edges.
3.7 Consolidating .1 Internal vibrators:

.1 For slab depths up to 200 mm, mount vibrators parallel to the base surface at
mid-slab depth. For slab depths greater than 200 mm, mount vibrators with tips
a minimum 50 mm above the base, and tops a minimum 50 mm beneath the
pavement surface.
.2 Maintain a minimum 150 mm surcharge of concrete above the vibrators during
placing and consolidating.
.3 Operate vibrators at between 9000 and 12000 vibrations per minute, at an
amplitude not less than 1 mm.
.2 Surface vibrators, when used in place of internal vibration for slabs less than
200 mm in depth:
.1 Synchronize units on each individual screed or pan.
.2 Operate vibrators at a minimum of 3500 vibrations per minute, and at a
amplitude not less than 0.4 mm.
.3 Make at least one pass, and not more than two passes with vibratory equipment,
unless otherwise directed.
.3 Vibrator control system to automatically stop vibrators when forward motion ceases.
.4 Use hand operated vibrator on odd shaped slabs inaccessible to frame mounted
units. Do not operate a vibrator in one location longer than 5 seconds and do not
drag hand vibrators through concrete.
.5 Ensure thorough vibration of concrete adjacent to edge forms or previously

constructed slabs.
3.8 Finishing .1 Finish with approved equipment following consolidation.
.2 Maintain a uniform roll of concrete, full width, ahead of concrete strike-off.
.3 Hand finish areas inaccessible to finishing machines to the same quality and surface
characteristics as the machine finished surfaces.
.4 Finish the concrete surface with an approved float at proper time. Operate the float
from edge to edge with a wiping motion while advancing, with succeeding passes
overlapping previous ones. Surface laitance not to exceed 3 mm in thickness.
.5 Application of superficial water to the surface of the concrete to assist finishing

operations not permitted.
.6 Check the surface with a 4.5 m long straightedge. Correct irregularities exceeding
6 mm before the concrete reaches initial set.
.7 Finish edges of slabs with an edging tool to form a smooth squared surface. Do not
patch with cement paste.
3.9 Paving Tolerances .1 Finished concrete surface to be within 10 mm of design elevation, but not uniformly
high or low.
.2 Finished surface irregularities not to exceed 6 mm when checked with a 4.5 m

straightedge placed in any direction.
.3 Slab edge to be within 10 mm of design alignment, and keyway on slab edge to be

within 5 mm of dimensions and location indicated.
- C.52 -
3.10 Surface Texturing .1 Commence surface texturing immediately after float finishing.
.2 Drag longitudinally with moistened burlap to produce a surface with a fine granular
or sandy texture free from disfigurations. Burlap to weigh at least 0.5 kg/m2, and
have transverse threads removed for approximately 0.3 m from the trailing edge.
.3 Comb transversely to leave fine grooves in the plastic surface, about 5 mm wide and
3 mm deep on 50 mm centres. Use a mechanical self-propelled machine spanning
the slab and specifically designed for the combing operation. Groove texturing to be
straight, precise and not damaging to the pavement edges.
3.11 Curing .1 Apply two coats of membrane forming curing compound with spraying equipment
to form a continuous film on the concrete surface and exposed slab edges.
Mechanically agitate the compound before and during application.
.2 Apply the first coat at the manufacturers recommended rate of application as soon
as excess water has evaporated from the surface. Apply a second coat within
24 hours.
.3 Spray all exposed surfaces, including slab edges. Spray slab edges after form
removal. Hand spray transverse joints following the initial cut.
.4 Maintain the curing membrane for at least 7 days. Respray any areas damaged
during the cure period.
3.12 Joints .1 Construct joints to details indicated. Ensure joints are plumb, straight and square.
.2 Provide an expansion joint around structures projecting through, into or against the
concrete slab.
.3 Transverse contraction joints:

.1 Make the initial cut for transverse contraction joints after placing the concrete
and as soon as sawing is possible without causing excessive ravelling of the
concrete. Cut single blade width to a depth equal to one-quarter of the slab
thickness, plus 5 mm.
.2 Ensure the cut is straight and perpendicular to slab length. Mark alignment
with a chalk line or other suitable guide. Ensure cut is aligned with transverse
joints in adjacent slabs unless otherwise indicated or directed.
.3 Ensure sawing production is adequate to prevent uncontrolled transverse
cracking. Schedule sawing operations on a 24 hour basis, as needed.
.4 If cracking occurs ahead of the saw cut, cut every second or third joint until
sufficient distance is gained to return and cut the intermediate joints. If
uncontrolled cracking continues, stop paving operations until the situation is
corrected.
.5 Hand spray initial transverse joint cuts with curing compound to prevent
moisture loss.
.4 Sealant kerfs:
.1 Cut sealant kerf in transverse contraction joints and longitudinal construction
joints to widths and depths indicated. Cut as close to sealant application as
feasible, and close to traffic until sealing is completed.
.2 Where the initial cut of the transverse joint has been treated with curing
compound, cut kerf to expose clean kerf walls.
.3 Remove all laitance, accumulated dirt and other debris from joint kerfs by
sandblasting, high-pressure water application, vacuuming, or other approved
method.
.4 Immediately prior to applying sealant, clean and dry the joint kerf with
compressed air.
- C.53 -
3.12 Joints (contd) .5 Sealant application:

.1 Provide a copy of the sealant manufacturers instructions for application. On
request, have the sealant manufacturers representative on site to provide
instruction during the initial few days of sealant application.
.2 Walls of the joint kerf must be absolutely clean and dry at the time of sealant
application. Check by swiping with finger or a clean cloth. Check for
dampness from early morning condensation. Provide further cleaning and
drying as required.
.3 Insert bond breaking material in the bottom of the joint kerf to details indicated,
just prior to sealant application.
.4 Apply sealant strictly in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. Pay
special attention to safe heating temperatures for hot pour sealants, and to
application temperatures. Apply sealant in kerf from bottom up to avoid
trapping air.
.5 Return and top up any underfilled areas. Replace sealant failing to bond to the
concrete, or failing to cure properly.
3.13 Repair and .1 Repair defective concrete while concrete is still plastic, otherwise wait until
Maintenance curing is complete. Use approved repair methods.
.2 Grind off surface bumps where directed.
.3 Keep areas opened to construction traffic well swept, and clear of stones and gravel.
.4 Do not open new concrete pavement to aircraft traffic or heavy construction

equipment until concrete flexural strength has reached at least 3.5 kPa. In the
absence of strength data, do not open to traffic for at least 14 days after placing, or
as directed.
- C.54 -
Section C2710 SUB-DRAINAGE SYSTEM June 2000
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the construction of a sub-drainage system installed adjacent to
and along pavement edges. The system is intended to provide primarily for the
drainage of pavement sub-layers and incidentally for the removal of surface waters
under flood conditions. Major work items include trenching and exaction,
construction of manholes and catchbasins, installation of pipe, and backfilling, in the
locations and to the lines, grades and details indicated in the plans.


.1 CSA A5-M93, Portland Cement;
.2 CSA A23.2-94, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete Construction;
.3 CSA A257-M92, Standards for Concrete Pipe;
.4 CSA G30.18-M92, Billet Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement;
.5 CSA G164-M92, Hot Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles;
.6 CSA G401-M01, Corrugated Steel Pipe Products.

Aggregates;
.2 ASTM C444-03 Specification for Perforated Concrete Pipe;
.3 ASTM D3786-01 Test Method for Hydraulic Bursting Strength of Tensile
Fabrics Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method;
.4 ASTM D4491-99 Test Method for Water Permeability of Geotextiles by
Permittivity;
.5 ASTM D4595-86 Test Method for Tensile Properties of Geotextiles by the
Wide-Width Strip Method;
.6 ASTM D4751-99 Test Method for Determining Apparent Opening Size of
Geotextile;
.7 ASTM F405-97 Specification for Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) Tubing and
Fittings;
.8 ASTM F667-97 Specification for Large Diameter Corrugated Polyethylene
Pipe and Fittings.
1.3 Submissions .1 Heavy duty precast manholes and catchbasins may be considered for approval as a
replacement for cast-in-place construction. If proposed, submit shop drawings and
fabrication and installation details for approval.
.2 Submit pipe manufacturers literature on handling, storage and installation methods.
1.4 Measurement .1 Sub-drain pipe will be measured in metres of each type and size installed.
for Payment Measurement will be made horizontally from centre to centre of manholes or
catchbasins, or actual length in place where pipe is not connected to manholes or
catchbasins.
.2 Manholes and catchbasins will be measured in units of each type installed.
- C.55 -
PART II - PRODUCTS
2.1 Manholes and .1 Cast-in-place: to dimensions and details given in the standard drawings for types
Catchbasins indicated, and to the following requirements.
.1 Concrete to CSA A23.1:
.1 cement, normal, Type 10;
.2 aggregates, nominal size 20-5.
.3 compressive strength, 30 MPa minimum at 28 days;
.4 water/cement ratio, 0.5 maximum;
.5 class of exposure, F-1;
.6 slump at time and point of discharge, 60 mm to 100 mm;
.7 air content, 6% to 8%.
.2 Reinforcement steel: billet steel, grade 400, deformed bars to CSA G30.18
.3 Frames and gratings: to details indicated; gratings to bear evenly on frames.
.4 Ladder rungs: billet steel deformed bar to CSA G30.18, hot dipped galvanized
to CSA G164.
.2 Heavy duty precast manholes and catchbasins: as approved. Product to provide:

.1 bearing capacity equivalent to cast-in-place construction and suitable for design
aircraft wheel loads;
.2 cast-in-place base;
.3 frost strap.
************************************************************************
Spec Note: Edit 2.2 to the type of pipe required.
************************************************************************
2.2 Drainage Pipe .1 Sub-drain pipe of type, size and class indicated:
.1 steel pipe; corrugated, to CSA-G401:
.1 metal thickness of 1.2 mm for pipe of diameter 150 mm to 200 mm,
.2 metal thickness of 1.6 mm for pipe of diameter 250 mm to 300 mm.
.2 concrete pipe;
.1 reinforced and non-reinforced, to CSA A257,
.2 perforated, to ASTM C444.
.3 polyethylene plastic pipe; corrugated:
.1 diameter 75 mm to 150 mm, to ASTM F405,
.2 diameter 200 mm to 600 mm, to ASTM F667.
2.3 Pipe Geotextile Filter .1 Non-woven fabric:

.1 When tested to ASTM 4595, wet condition;
.1 tensile strength minimum 450 N,
.2 elongation at break minimum 70%,
.3 seam strength to equal or exceed tensile strength.
.2 Mullen burst strength when tested to ASTM 3786, minimum 1.5 MPa.
.3 Apparent opening size (AOS) when tested to ASTM D4751, 100 m to 220
m.
.4 Permittivity when tested to ASTM D4491, 2500 to 6000 min-1per m2.
2.4 Pipe Bedding .1 Hard, durable, clean particles of gravel or crushed stone, graded evenly in size from
16-mm to 8-mm.
2.5 Pipe Granular Filter .1 Hard, durable particles of screened gravel or stone, free of clay lumps, organic and
frozen materials, and other deleterious substances. Gradation within the following
limits when tested to ASTM C136:
sieve designation percent passing

12.5-mm 100
4.75-mm 70 - 100
2.00-mm 60 - 95
425-m 15 - 40
180-m 0 - 10
- C.56 -
2.6 Non-Shrink Fill .1 Weak mixture of Portland cement, aggregates and water, resisting settlement when
placed in a utility trench but permitting ready excavation:
.1 cement, to CSA A5, Type 10 not exceeding 25 kg/m3;
.2 aggregates, to CSA A23.1 nominal size 20-5;
.3 compressive strength, 0.07 MPa minimum at 7 days and 0.4 MPa maximum at
28 days;
.4 slump, 150 mm to 200 mm.
2.7 Joint Mortar .1 One part Portland cement to two parts sand with sufficient water added to produce a
stiff workable mix.
3.1 Excavation .1 Excavate sub-drain trench and for manholes and catchbasins at locations and to
lines, elevations and dimensions indicated. Ensure excavations are of sufficient
width to allow proper installation of footings and pipe. Excavation walls to be
approximately vertical.
.2 Excavate for manholes and catchbasins in a manner to provide undisturbed soil

conditions for the placing of footings. In rock areas, level and clean rock surfaces
and prepare for footing construction as directed.
.3 If unsuitable material is encountered in the bottom of excavations, remove to extent

and depth directed and backfill with approved material. Compact backfill to provide
a firm foundation.
.4 In trenches lined with filter fabric, grade bottom and sides to a smooth condition so
fabric does not bridge cavities and is not damaged by projecting rock.
.5 Keep excavations free of water. Use approved methods to prevent bottom heave or
quick conditions due to groundwater levels.
.6 Obtain approval of excavation bottoms before starting installations.
.7 Do such bracing, sheathing or shoring as necessary to perform and protect

excavations and as required for safety. Remove bracing, sheathing or shoring during
backfilling. Do not remove bracing until backfill reaches the level of the bracing.
Pull sheathing gradually as backfill is being placed and compact in a manner to fill
voids left by pulled sheathing.
3.2 Manholes and .1 Construct cast-in-place manholes and catchbasins to dimensions and details
Catchbasins indicated and to the requirements of CSA A23.1. Construct precast manholes and
catchbasins to approved details and methods.
.2 Clean bottom of completed manholes and catchbasins of all debris. Inside walls to
be smooth and free of surplus mortar.
.3 Completed units to be plumb, with tops deviating not more than 6 mm from design
grade.
3.3 Pipe Installation .1 Install geotextile fabric, bedding, pipe and granular filter to details indicated. Unless
otherwise indicated, install perforated pipe for pavement edge drains and non-
perforated pipe for crossings under paved surfaces.
.2 Commence laying pipe at outlet and proceed in the upstream direction. Ensure pipe
is in contact with the bed throughout its full length.
.3 Lay perforated pipe with perforations centered on the bottom of the pipe.
.4 Lay bell and spigot pipe with bell ends facing upstream. Do not mortar joints.
- C.57 -
3.3 Pipe Installation .5 Make pipe joints tight in accordance with manufacturers instructions. Make
(Contd) watertight connections to existing drains, manholes and catchbasins. Plug open
upstream ends of pipes with watertight concrete, steel or wood bulkheads.
.6 Obtain approval of placed pipe before covering with surround material.
.7 Compact bedding and surround material as directed.
.8 Do not permit water to flow through pipes during construction without approval.
.9 Protect sub-drains against flotation during installation.
3.4 Backfilling .1 Backfill trenches and excavations within reasonable time period after installations
are complete. Do not backfill against new concrete until 7 days or more after
placing.
.2 Place indicated backfill material in lifts not exceeding 150 mm in thickness and
compact each lift using hand and pneumatic tampers. Compact cohesionless
materials to at least 95% of Corrected Maximum Dry Density, Section 2120.
Compact cohesive materials to at least 90% of Corrected Maximum Dry Density,
Section 2120. Compact non-shrink fill to at least 97% of the density of samples
compacted to ASTM D1557.
.3 Ensure granular filter backfill does not become contaminated by trench side wall
material.
- C.58 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix D : Maintenance Specifications
APPENDIX D
MAINTENANCE SPECIFICATIONS
Section Page
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE
PM-3110 Crack Sealing With Hot Pour Bituminous Sealant D.3
PM-3120 Crack Sealing With Jet Fuel Resistant Sealant .. D.6
PM-3130 Crack Sealing With Cold Pour Emulsified Sealant D.9
PM-3150 PC Concrete Pavement Joint Sealing and Resealing D.12
PM-3210 Asphalt Pavement Full Depth Patching . D.15
PM-3220 Asphalt Pavement Pothole Patching . D.18
PM-3230 Asphalt Pavement Patching Using Infra-Red Heating . D.20
PM-3310 PC Concrete Pavement Patching With PC Concrete D.23
PM-3320 PC Concrete Pavement Patching With Proprietary Products D.26
PM-3330 PC Concrete Pavement Patching With Asphalt Concrete . D.28
PM-3350 PC Concrete Pavement Full Depth Repairs .. D.31
PM-3360 PCC Slab Replacement With Precast Panels D.35
PM-3410 Pavement Markings .. D.39
PM-3510 Runway Rubber Removal With Chemicals .. D.41
PM-3520 Runway Rubber Removal With Chemicals and Water . D.43
PM-3530 Runway Rubber Removal by Water Blasting D.46
PM-3540 Runway Rubber Removal and Retexturing by Shotblasting . D.48
PM-3560 Runway Surface Grooving D.50
PM-3610 Coal Tar Seal . D.52
- D.1 -
Section Page
LANDSCAPE MAINTENANCE
LM-4000 Index of Plans and Specifications D.55
LM-4100 General Instructions D.56
LM-4200 Spring and Fall Clean-Up . D.59
LM-4300 Mowing D.61
LM-4400 Litter Control D.63
LM-4500 Exterior Plantings D.64
LM-4550 Interior Plantings . D.66
LM-4900 Unscheduled Maintenance D.67
LM-4910 Soil Sampling and Analysis . D.69
LM-4920 Fertilizing and Liming .. D.71
LM-4930 Herbicide Applications . D.72
LM-4940 Seeding . D.74
LM-4950 Sodding . D.76
LM-4960 Plant Replacements .. D.78
- D.2 -
Master Specifications PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE Section PM-3110

May 2001 CRACK SEALING WITH HOT-POURED BITUMINOUS SEALANT Page 1 of 3
PART 1 - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the sealing of cracks in asphalt concrete or Portland cement
concrete pavements using hot-poured, rubberized bituminous sealant. The work
includes crack preparation by hot air lance [and crack routing].
1.2 References .1 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM):

.1 ASTM D3405-97, Specification for Joint Sealants, Hot-Poured, for Concrete
and Asphalt Pavements.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [..................], [1995 Crack Sealing Program, Ottawa
International Airport].
1.4 Scheduling .1 Schedule field work for execution:

.1 during the week of [June 11, 2001];
.2 during the hours of [22:00 to 07:00].
.2 Confirm facility closure requirements [2 weeks] prior to the start of field work.
Verify field work schedule daily and adjust as directed.
1.5 Use of Site .1 Limit activities on site to designated work areas.
.2 Movements on airside to be under the control of an escort provided by the airport.

Obey instructions from escort promptly.
.3 Observe site security requirements and supply personnel information as required for
airside access.
.4 When working on a runway, be prepared for and clear the runway of all obstructions
to aircraft traffic, to a distance of 60 m from the runway edge, within [3] minutes
following notification.
1.6 Measurement .1 Crack sealing using hot-poured bituminous sealant, with routing, will be measured
for Payment for payment in metres.
.2 Crack sealing using hot-poured bituminous sealant, without routing, will be

measured for payment in metres.
.3 Standby time will be measured for payment in [hours of the specified field work
period during which access to the airside work area is not authorized].
PART II - MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT
2.1 Sealant .1 Product qualifications:

.1 tentatively accepted - on submission of test results from an approved
independent laboratory showing compliance with the sealant standard;
.2 fully accepted - tentatively accepted product with field performance proven at a
Canadian airport;
.3 unless otherwise approved, use only fully accepted products on projects with
more than 5000 m of sealing.
.2 Joint sealant, hot-pour, for concrete and asphalt pavements, to ASTM D3405 (non-
jet fuel resistant):
.1 pre-qualified, fully accepted products:
.1 [Sealz Hydrotec 6165];
.2 [Crafco RS 221/231];
.3 [Meadows Hi-Spec];
.4 [Bakor 590-13A].
- D.3 -

************************************************************************
Spec Note: Check latest listing of pre-qualified sealant products and edit 2.1.2
accordingly. If sealing within a year of a scheduled overlay, do not include Meadows Hi-
Spec or Bakor 590-13A; use a thermosetting product (resistant to reliquefying under
heat).
************************************************************************
2.1 Sealant (Contd) .3 Submit a copy of manufacturer's documentation on the sealant product, including
instructions for handling and application.
2.2 Router .1 Hand propelled unit:

.1 minimum 25 hp engine;
.2 small diameter, diamond bladed, saw-like cutter wheel head radially mounted
between the wheels for high maneuverability;
.3 giving a clean square cut with vertical walls;
.4 minimum productivity of 325 metres per hour.
2.3 Hot Air Lance .1 Portable, hand operated unit:

.1 air velocity of 305 metres per second;
.2 minimum air temperature 800C;
.3 maximum noise level of 100 dB.
2.4 Kettle .1 Portable, rubber tired, double boiler of the indirect heating type:
.1 using oil with a hot flash point of 315C minimum as the heat transfer medium;
.2 motor driven agitator to keep heated sealant under constant movement;
.3 thermometers and controls to maintain the temperatures recommended by the
sealant manufacturer.
.2 Pouring pots with single walls and use of direct heat not permitted.
2.5 Applicator .1 Application pressure of 100 kPa through hose and wand, fitted with size of nozzle to
suit crack width, and capable of maintaining temperatures recommended by the
2.6 Squeegee .1 Rubber bladed, "V" shaped with 150 mm sides.
3.1 Weather .1 Apply crack sealant only when:

.1 air temperature is above 7C and daily low temperature is above 5C;
.2 no rain during the previous 12 hours.
************************************************************************
Spec Note: Edit 3.2 to suit project requirements.
************************************************************************
3.2 Crack Preparation .1 Routing:

.1 route only designated cracks exceeding 5 mm in width;
.2 centre router on crack, with deviation not exceeding 5 mm;
.3 route to form a sealant reservoir having:
.1 vertical walls with freshly milled surfaces free of chipping and spalling;
.2 width [15] mm, depth [15] mm, or as directed;
.3 end of reservoir to be full depth, with no 'run-off' into shallow cut.
.2 [Remove old sealant from designated cracks using joint plow or high pressure
water.]
.3 Where cracks are wide and extend into base, fill with sand to 20 mm below
pavement surface.
.4 Obtain approval of crack preparation prior to sealant application.
- D.4 -

3.3 Sealant Application .1 Heat and prepare the sealant for application strictly in accordance with instructions
of the sealant manufacturer. Adhere to temperatures inside the kettle and at
application nozzle as specified by the manufacturer. Maintain constant agitation
throughout.
.2 Dry, clean and pre-heat cracks with a hot compressed air lance immediately prior to
applying sealant. Blow free of all dust and debris. Do not overheat; stop heating if
asphalt adjacent to crack begins to darken.
.3 Apply sealant within 2 minutes after heating within hot air lance. Fill from bottom
up and avoid entrapping air.
.4 Overfill the crack slightly above the adjacent pavement surface and immediately use
squeegee to strike off excess sealant to result in a very thin overband layer of
thickness not exceeding 2 mm, and width not exceeding 15 mm each side of the
crack.
.5 Remove any excess sealant from the pavement surface as directed. Discard any
overheated, burned or underheated sealant.
3.4 Clean-Up .1 Thoroughly clean the work area at the end of each work period. Remove all traces
of surface contaminants and restore pavement surfaces to a safe operating condition
as directed. Dispose of all debris and waste materials off-airport.
- D.5 -

May 2001 CRACK SEALING WITH JET FUEL RESISTANT SEALANT Page 1 of 3
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: This specification is primarily for the sealing of cracks in PCC apron areas subject to fuel spills. Based on
cost considerations, Section M5110 for hot-poured bituminous sealants would normally be used if JFR properties are
not required.
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the sealing of cracks in Portland cement concrete pavement
surfaces, with routing, using a jet fuel resistant sealant.

Resistant.

.1 ASTM D3569-95, Specification for Joint Sealant, Hot Poured, Elastomeric,
Jet-Fuel-Resistant Type for Portland Cement Concrete Pavements.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [............... ], [Crack Sealing, Apron I, Ottawa
1.4 Scheduling .1 Schedule work for execution:

.1 during the week of [July 9, 2001];

airside access.
to aircraft traffic, to a distance of 60 m from the runway, within three [3] minutes
1.6 Measurement .1 Crack sealing using jet fuel resistant sealant will be measured for payment in metres.
for Payment
.2 Standby time will be measured for payment in [hours of the scheduled work period
during which access to the airside work area is not authorized].
************************************************************************
Spec Note : Check latest listing of pre-qualified sealant products and edit 2.1.2 and
2.1.3 accordingly.
************************************************************************
2.1 Sealant .1 Product qualifications:

Canadian airport;
more than 5000 lineal metres of sealing.
- D.6 -

2.1 Sealant (Contd) .2 Alternative 1: two component, cold applied sealing compound, jet fuel resistant, to
CAN/CGSB-19.20:
.1 [Mameco Vulkem 202];
.2 pre-qualified, tentatively accepted products:
.1 [Anti-Hydro A-H Urethane Bitumen Sealant].
.3 Alternative 2: joint sealant, hot-applied, elastomeric, jet fuel resistant-type for

Portland cement concrete pavements to ASTM D3569:
.1 pre-qualified, tentatively accepted products:
.1 [Crafco Superseal 777].
.4 Submit a copy of manufacturer's documentation for the sealant product, including

2.2 Router .1 Hand propelled unit:

.1 minimum 25 hp engine;
.2 small diameter, diamond bladed, saw-like cutter wheel head radially mounted
between the wheels for high maneuverability;
.3 giving a clean square cut with vertical walls;
.4 minimum productivity of 325 metres per hour.
2.3 Air Compressor .1 Oil free air jet with minimum flow of 3 cubic metres per minute at a minimum
nozzle pressure of 600 KPa.
2.4 Equipment for Two .1 Mixer and Applicator:

Component Sealant .1 to sealant manufacturer's recommendations.
2.5 Equipment for .1 Kettle: portable, rubber tired, double boiler of the indirect heating type:
Hot Applied Sealant .1 using oil with a hot flash point of 315C minimum as the heat transfer medium;
.2 positive motor driven agitator to keep heated sealant under constant movement;
.3 thermometers and controls to maintain the temperatures recommended by the
.2 Applicator: pressure of 100 KPa through hose and wand, fitted with size of nozzle
to suit crack width, and capable of maintaining temperatures
recommended by the sealant manufacturer.
3.1 Weather .1 Undertake crack sealing only when:

3.2 Crack Preparation .1 Routing:

.1 route all cracks to be sealed;
.2 centre router on crack, with deviation not exceeding 5 mm;
.3 route to form a sealant reservoir having:
.1 vertical walls with freshly milled surfaces free of chipping and spalling;
.2 width [15] mm, depth [15] mm, or as directed;
.3 ends of reservoir to be full depth, with no 'run-off' into shallow cut.
.2 Dry and clean sealant reservoir by blowing with compressed air.
.3 Place approved bond breaking tape in bottom of sealant reservoir.
.4 Obtain approval of crack preparation prior to sealant application.
- D.7 -

3.3 Sealant Application .1 Apply sealant in accordance with manufacturers instructions. Strictly observe
heating and temperature requirements for hot applied sealants, and proper
proportioning and mixing requirements for two component cold applied sealants.
Consult manufacturer if problems arise during the work.
.2 If sealant requires primer, apply primer to each vertical face of the sealant reservoir
using brush or spray. Ensure complete coverage of sides without priming the
bottom, or apply before placing bond breaker. Observe time limits specified by the
manufacturer for primer cure before applying sealant.
.3 If sealant has no primer, apply sealant as soon as practical after air blowing.
.4 Fill reservoir to 3 mm below the pavement surface. Fill from bottom up and avoid
entrapping air. Remove immediately any sealant spilled on surface.
.5 Discard any sealant not appearing of proper consistency or colour.
- D.8 -

May 2001 CRACK SEALING WITH COLD POUR EMULSIFIED SEALANT Page 1 of 3
***********************************************************************
Spec Note: Crack sealing with cold-poured liquid sealants is normally restricted to remote sites where equipment for
hot-poured sealant application (Section M5110) cannot be obtained. Crack sealing with cold-poured liquid sealants is
much less durable than crack sealing with hot-poured sealants (1 year vs 3 to 5 years). Also, previously applied cold-
poured liquid sealants cause problems when applying a hot-mix asphalt overlay.
***********************************************************************
PART I GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the sealing of cracks in asphalt or concrete pavements using a
cold-pour, rubberized asphalt emulsion crack sealer.

.1 ASTM D244-00, Standard Test Methods for Emulsified Asphalts.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [..................], [1995 Crack Sealing Program, Yellowknife
Airport].

.1 during the week of [June 11, 2001];

airside access.
1.6 Measurement .1 Crack sealing using cold-pour emulsified sealant will be measured for payment in
for Payment metres.
2.1 Rubberized Asphalt .1 General:

Emulsion Crack Sealer .1 to consist of a suitable penetration grade asphalt, rubber latex, emulsifiers,
stabilizers and modifiers, uniformly dispersed in water to form a homogeneous
emulsion;
.2 of one viscosity grade suitable for application by pressure systems employing
up to 100 KPa air pressure, and dilutable to a viscosity suitable for application
by gravity feed equipment;
.3 to fill cracks 5 to 15 mm in width and 25 mm to 50 mm in depth with self-
levelling and curing without flowing from cracks, and with no flow from cracks
and no tracking by vehicle tires under summer temperatures;
.4 resealable by propane flame without charring or igniting.
- D.9 -

2.1 Rubberized Asphalt .2 Physical requirements:

Emulsion Crack Sealer .1 uniformity: after standing undisturbed in a sealed container for 24 hours after
(Contd) delivery, to show no separation of water and no coagulation of base solids, or
any settlement which is not overcome easily by 3 minutes of simple stirring;
.2 viscosity: Saybolt Furol viscosity of 20 to 100 seconds, when tested to ASTM
D244 at 25C;
.3 solids content: residue not less than 59% when tested to ASTM D244, residue
by evaporation, procedure A;
.4 resistance to water immersion: 6 mm thick specimen in 50 mm diameter metal
dish cured at 23C and 50% relative humidity, and then immersed in water at
23C for 24 hours, not to blister, swell significantly or otherwise deteriorate
while immersed, and not to re-emulsify or impart cloudiness to water on light
rubbing;
.5 rate of curing: 6 mm thick specimen in 50 mm diameter metal dish curing at
23C and 50% relative humidity, with surface air movement of 60 m per
minute, to lose at least 50%t of water content within 24 hours and 80% of water
content within 6 days;
.6 flow at 50C: flow of specimen cured on asbestos-cement panel not to exceed
40 mm after 2.5 hours of 50C;
.7 low temperature flexibility: 35 mm x 50 mm specimen, 3 mm thick, formed on
blotting paper and cured for at least 96 hours at 23C at 50% relative humidity,
not to crack or break when bent at a uniform rate around a 12 mm diameter
mandrel through 180 degrees in 30 seconds, at a testing temperature of minus
5C;
.8 elastic recovery: 6 mm x 25 mm specimen, 3 mm thick, and cured for at least
96 hours at 23C at 50% relative humidity, when stretched at a rate of 10 mm
per second to 8 times original length, to recover at least 40% of amount
stretched in 15 minutes.
.3 Delivery:
.1 deliver in non-metallic or polyethylene lined metal drums, each drum labeled
with:
.1 manufacturer's name and plant location,
.2 lot or code number,
.3 date of manufacture,
.4 identification of contents and quantities,
.5 a precautionary note to protect from freezing;
.2 smooth uniform consistency with no evidence of coagulation or separation
when delivered;
.3 storable at temperatures between 5C at 35C in sealed drums for 3 months
after delivery, without settlement that cannot be restored to homogeneous
uniform consistency by simple mixing.
.4 Submit a copy of manufacturer's documentation for the sealant product, including

2.2 Equipment .1 Compressor giving oil free air jet with minimum flow of 3 cubic metre per minute at
a minimum nozzle pressure of 600 kPa.
.2 Manual pouring cones.
3.1 Weather .1 Undertake crack sealing only when:

.2 runway surface is dry.
- D.10 -

3.2 Sealant Application .1 Seal all cracks of width exceeding 5 mm in areas indicated.
.2 Blow cracks dry and clean using compressed air.
.3 Dilute emulsion to a uniform consistency required for manual application and apply
using manual pour pots. Fill cracks to pavement surface taking care to minimize
spill on surface.
.4 Sprinkle sand over cracks open to traffic prior to sealant setting.
.5 Return at [2] day intervals and top up, until cured sealant is at pavement surface.
- D.11 -

May 2001 PC CONCRETE PAVEMENT JOINT SEALING AND RESEALING Page 1 of 3
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the sealing and resealing of joints in Portland cement concrete
pavements.

.1 ASTM D3405-97, Standard Specification for Joint Sealants, Hot-Poured, for
Concrete and Asphalt Pavements.
.2 ASTM D3569-95, Standard Specification for Joint Sealant, Hot-Applied,
Elastomeric, Jet-Fuel Resistant-Type for Portland Cement Concrete Pavements.

Resistant.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [................], [Resealing Joints in Portland Cement
Concrete Pavements, Mirabel International Airport, Quebec].

.1 during the month of [July, 2001];
.2 Confirm facility closure requirements [two weeks] prior to the start of the work.

airside access.
1.6 Measurement .1 PCC pavement joint sealing will be measured for payment in metres.
for Payment
.2 PCC pavement joint resealing will be measured for payment in metres.
.3 Standby time will be measured for payment in [hours of the scheduled work period
************************************************************************
Spec Note: Check latest listing of pre-qualified sealant products and edit 2.1
accordingly.
************************************************************************
2.1 Joint Sealant .1 Product qualifications:
Canadian airport;
more than 5000 m of sealing.
- D.12 -

2.1 Joint Sealant .2 In areas designated for non-jet fuel resistant sealer:
(Contd) .1 joint sealant, hot-poured, for concrete and asphalt pavements, to ASTM D3405:
.1 [Sealz Hydrotec 6165];
.2 [Crafco RS 221/231];
.3 [Meadows Hi-Spec];
.4 [Bakor 590-13A].
.3 In areas designated for jet fuel resistant seal:

.1 Alternative 1: two component, cold-applied sealing compound, jet fuel
resistant, to CAN/CGSB-19.20-M87:
.1 pre-qualified, fully accepted products,
.1 [Mameco Vulkem 202];
.2 pre-qualified, tentatively accepted products,
.1 [Anti-Hydro A-H Urethane Bitumen Sealant].
.2 Alternative 2: joint sealant, hot-applied, elastomeric, jet fuel resistant, to
ASTM D3569:
.1 pre-qualified, tentatively accepted products,
.1 [Crafco Superseal 777].
.4 Submit a copy of manufacturer's documentation for sealant product, including

************************************************************************
Spec Note: Edit 2.2 to type of backer material required for project. Backer rod required
if joint kerf is wide and deep; tape is recommended otherwise.
************************************************************************
2.2 Backer Material .1 Tape: suited to placing without tearing, self-adhering to kerf bottom, width less than
kerf width by no more than 3 mm; masking tape suitable.
.2 Backer rod: non-moisture absorbing ethafoam or rope of diameter 5 mm greater

than width of joint kerf.
2.3 Joint Cleaning .1 To be capable of removing old sealant from joint kerf, leaving undamaged and clean
Equipment kerf walls free of all traces of old sealant. Alternatives:
.1 mechanical joint plow for removal followed by cleaning by sand blasting [or
other approved method];
.2 water blasting equipment designed for removal and cleaning in one operation;
.3 [joint resawing methods not acceptable].
.2 Demonstrate proposed equipment and methods for approval.
2.4 Air Compressor .1 Oil free air jet with minimum flow of 3 cubic metres per minute at a minimum
nozzle pressure of 600 KPa.
2.5 Application .1 Hot-poured sealant:

Equipment .1 kettle: portable, rubber tired, double boiler of the indirect heating type:
.1 using oil with a hot flash point of 315C minimum as the heat transfer
medium;
.2 motor driven agitator to keep heated sealant under constant movement;
.3 thermometers and controls to maintain the temperatures recommended by
the sealant manufacturer.
.2 applicator: application pressure of [100] KPa through hose and wand fitted
with size of nozzle to suit crack size, and capable of maintaining temperatures
recommended by the sealant manufacturer.
.3 pouring pots with single walls and direct heat not permitted.
.2 Cold-applied sealant:
.1 to recommendations of sealant manufacturer.
- D.13 -

3.1 Weather .1 Apply sealant only when:

3.2 Joint Preparation .1 Remove old sealant from joints to be resealed, and clean joint kerf using approved
equipment and methods.
.2 Blow joint kerf free of dust, laitance and loose materials using compressed air.
Ensure kerf walls are clean and completely free of any contaminant.
.3 Place bond breaker or backer rod to details indicated.
.4 Obtain approval of prepared joint prior to sealant application.
3.3 Sealant Application .1 Apply sealant in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Strictly observe
heating and temperature requirements for hot-poured sealants, and proper
proportioning and mixing requirements for two component cold applied sealants.
Consult manufacturer if problems arise during the work.
.2 If sealant requires primer, apply primer to each vertical face of reservoir using brush
or spray. Ensure complete coverage of sides without priming the bottom, or apply
prior to placing of backer material. Observe time limits specified by the
manufacturer for primer cure before applying sealant.
.3 If sealant has no primer, apply sealant as soon as practical after air blowing.
.4 Fill sealant reservoir to 3 mm below the pavement surface. Fill from bottom up and
avoid entrapping air. Remove immediately any sealant spilled on surface.
.5 Discard any sealant not appearing of proper consistency or colour.
- D.14 -

May 2001 ASPHALT PAVEMENT FULL DEPTH PATCHING Page 1 of 3
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: This specification is intended for smaller scale repairs done by local forces. Large scale patching or
localized reconstruction should be done to construction specification standards - see Appendix E.
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the repair of asphalt pavement surfaces by removing the asphalt
in defective areas to full depth, and placing new hot-mixed asphalt. The work
includes the removal and replacement of base and subgrade layers if existing
materials are defective.
1.2 References .1 Asphalt Institute (AI):


Paving Mixtures.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [...............], [Asphalt Repairs, Runway 07-25, Ottawa

.2 Confirm facility closure requirements [two weeks] prior to the start of field work.
.3 Schedule so all repairs started are completed during the same work shift.

airside access.
to aircraft traffic to a distance of 60 m from the runway edge, within [3] minutes
1.6 Measurement .1 Asphalt pavement patching will be measured for payment in square metres.
for Payment
.2 Base and subbase replacement when directed will be measured for payment in cubic
metres.
.3 Subgrade replacement when directed will be measured for payment in cubic metres.
.4 Standby time will be measured for payment in [hours of the specified work period
- D.15 -

2.1 Materials .1 Asphalt patching material:

.1 Hot mix asphalt concrete manufactured using [80 -100] penetration grade
asphalt cement and well-graded crushed aggregate of 12.5-mm maximum
particle size.
.2 Mix properties determined in accordance with Asphalt Institute manual MS-2,
50 blow compactive effort:
.1 Marshall load: minimum 6.75 kN;
.2 Marshall flow index : between 2 mm and 4 mm;
.3 air voids: between 3 % and 5%;
.4 voids in mineral aggregate (VMA): minimum 15%.
.3 Tensile strength ratio: minimum 75% when tested to ASTM D4867.
.2 Base/subbase replacement material: well-graded crushed gravel or stone

commercially marketed as pavement base course material. Maximum particle size
of 50-mm preferred; 37.5-mm or 25-mm acceptable.
.3 Subgrade replacement material: similar to surrounding in-situ subgrade soil.
.4 Prime and tack material: anionic emulsified asphalt, grade [SS-1], diluted with
water at 1:1 ratio for application.
2.2 Major Equipment .1 Pavement saw and/or disc asphalt cutters.
.2 Self-propelled vibratory steel drum roller, minimum weight 2500 kg, and a vibratory
plate compactor for areas too small or inaccessible to roller.
.3 Lighting system for night work, self-contained with shaded or directed lights not
interfering with aircraft or tower operations.
3.1 Material Removal .1 Layout perimeter lines enclosing patch area within rectangular shape with sides
parallel and perpendicular to direction of traffic. Saw cut along perimeter lines to
full depth of the asphalt and remove asphalt from the repair area.
.2 If excessively wet or otherwise defective, remove base and subgrade layers to depth
directed. Leave 200 mm clearance between edge of asphalt excavation and edge of
sublayer excavation. Minimize disturbance of adjacent materials.
3.2 Sublayer .1 Place and compact sublayer replacement materials in lifts not exceeding 150 mm in
Replacement thickness. Bring subgrade replacement material to previous level of subgrade
surface, and base replacement material to 25 mm below previous level of base
surface.
.2 Apply water as needed to bring replacement materials to optimum moisture content

for compaction. Do not wet materials excessively.
.3 Compact subgrade replacement material to the density of surrounding in-situ

subgrade.
.4 Compact base replacement material to a density not less than the density of existing
base. Continue compaction until little increase in density is being achieved, as
measured with a nuclear density gauge or other approved method.
- D.16 -

3.2 Sublayer .5 Obtain approval of any sublayer replacement and base surface prior to placing
Replacement (Contd) asphalt. Cut back asphalt if necessary to obtain a transition zone of undisturbed
material at least 200 mm wide between edge of asphalt excavation and edge of any
sublayer excavation.
3.3 Placing Asphalt .1 Do not place asphalt patching material under wet conditions, or when air
temperature is below 5C or pavement temperature is below freezing.
.2 Apply primer to surface of base course and tack coat to the vertical edge of the
asphalt around the repair area, at rates directed, to provide thoroughly coated
surfaces without excess of prime or tack coat material. Allow to set before placing
asphalt patching material.
.3 Place and compact asphalt patching material in lifts not exceeding 60 mm in

thickness. Use methods that avoid segregation of the asphalt mix. Place by shovel.
Do not rake out to edges.
.4 Carefully rake top lift level to height above adjacent pavement surface grade that
provides for matching of adjacent grade after compaction. Compact around
perimeter first; then compact with each pass and return overlapping a short distance
onto new patch material, progressing from low side to high side.
.5 Compact while temperature of the asphalt is not less than 125C. Compact
thoroughly and continue compaction until little increase in density is being achieved,
as measured with a nuclear density gauge or other approved method.
.6 Protect from traffic until newly placed asphalt is no more than warm to the touch, or
as directed.
3.4 Tolerances .1 Elevation of finished repair surface to be within 3 mm of adjacent pavement surface
grade.
3.5 Clean-Up .1 Thoroughly clean the work area at the end of each work period. Restore pavement
surfaces to a safe operating condition as directed. Dispose of all debris and waste
materials off-airport.
- D.17 -

May 2001 ASPHALT PAVEMENT POTHOLE PATCHING Page 1 of 2
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: This Section covers asphalt pavement pothole patching using a proprietary patching product. Due to cost,
these products would normally be used only on small scale projects, or when hot-mixed patching materials cannot be
obtained due to season of the year or remote location. If patching with hot-mixed asphalt is desired, edit to material
specification and placing requirements of Section M3210.
************************************************************************************************
PART I GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the repair of potholes and small areas of fractured material in
the surface of asphalt pavements, using [a proprietary asphalt pavement patching
product].
1.2 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [...............], [Pavement Repairs, Runway 18-36, Iqualuit
NWT].


airside access.
to aircraft traffic to a distance of 60 m from the runway edge, within [3] minutes
1.5 Measurement .1 Pavement patching with proprietary products will be measured for payment in
for Payment weight of patching material placed.
.2 Standby time will be measured for payment in [hours of the specified work period
2.1 Patching Material .1 Approved proprietary product, cold-mix patching material for asphalt pavements.
Submit a copy of manufacturer's product documentation, including instructions for
handling and application.
************************************************************************
Spec Note: Edit 2.1.2 to products pre-approved on basis of local experience.
************************************************************************
.2 Pre-approved patching products:

.1 Innovative Asphalt Repair (Cold-Mix),
Innovative Building Products Inc.,
270 Dreyer Drive West, Suite 6,
Ajax, Ontario, (905) 427-0138;
- D.18 -

May 2001 ASPHALT PAVEMENT POTHOLE PATCHING Page 2 of 2
2.1 Patching Material .2 Pre-approved patching products (Contd):

(Contd) .2 Pave Patch,
Canadian Protective Products,
P. O. Box 66,
Pickering, Ontario,(905) 686-1261;
.3 Cold Asphalt in Bags,
Tech-Mix,
210 Boulevard Montarville,
Boucherville, Quebec, (514) 875-4270.
2.2 Major Equipment .1 Portable pavement saw and/or pneumatic hammer.
.2 Vibratory plate compactor.
.3 [Lighting system for night work, self-contained with shaded or directed lights not
interfering with aircraft or tower operations.]
3.1 Excavation .1 Layout perimeter lines enclosing patch area within a rectangular shape with sides
parallel and perpendicular to direction of traffic.
.2 Remove surface material within patch area down to sound material, and to at least
40 mm. Sides of patch area to be vertical to a minimum depth of 25 mm.
3.2 Placing Patch .1 Place patching material in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Observe
closely requirements and restrictions with respect to:
.1 weather conditions for application;
.2 need for primer coating;
.3 placing and compaction procedures.
3.3 Tolerances .1 Elevation of finished patch surface to be within 3 mm of adjacent pavement surface
grade.
- D.19 -

May 2001 ASPHALT PAVEMENT PATCHING WITH INFRARED HEATING Page 1 of 3
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note:
(a) Significant asphalt oxidation may occur during repair work using infrared heating equipment. The recommended
approach is to waste the existing asphalt in patch areas and place new asphalt. Recycling of the existing asphalt may
be considered if it is known the in-place asphalt has a retained penetration exceeding 60 prior to heating, or the use of
a rejuvenator has been confirmed as possible through laboratory analysis.
(b) Single lift repair has a maximum repair depth of about 50 mm. For pavements serving aircraft with high tire
pressures, double lift repairs should be made if single lift repairs would leave fractured asphalt below the surface
patch.
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the repair of asphalt surfaces using infrared equipment to heat
the in-place asphalt, which may then be recycled in-place or be excavated and
replaced with new hot mix asphalt concrete.
1.2 References .1 Asphalt Institute (AI):


Paving Mixtures.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [................], [Asphalt Repairs, Runway 07-25, Ottawa


airside access.
1.6 Measurement .1 Single lift repairs with recycling of existing asphalt will be measured in square
for Payment metres.
.2 Single lift repairs with replacement of asphalt concrete will be measured in square
metres.
.3 Double lift repairs with recycling of bottom lift and replacement of top lift will
measured in square metres.
.4 Standby time will be measured for payment in [hours of the scheduled field work
- D.20 -

2.1 Materials .1 Hot-mixed asphalt concrete manufactured using [80 -100] penetration grade asphalt
cement and well-graded crushed aggregate of 12.5-mm maximum particle size.
.2 Marshall flow index: between 2 mm and 4 mm;
.3 air voids: between 3% and 5%;
.2 tensile strength ratio: minimum 75% when tested to ASTM D4867.
.2 Rejuvinator: approved trade product.
2.2 Major Equipment .1 Infra-red heater: heating chamber equipped with metal catalytic infrared emitters
and reflectors, heating width of [500] mm minimum, and capacity to heat asphalt as
required for scarification to a minimum depth of 50 mm. Heating equipment
employing open flame or refractory bricks is not acceptable.
.2 Asphalt holding bin: to have non-direct heating, and temperature control devices,
such as factory pre-set thermostats, capable of maintaining the new asphalt concrete
mix at constant temperature of 150C 5C throughout the material for a minimum
of 48 hours.
.3 Self-propelled, vibratory steel drum roller with minimum weight of 2500 Kg, and a
vibratory plate compactor for areas inaccessible to a roller.
3.1 Weather .1 Do not do pavement repairs under wet conditions, or when air temperature is below
5C or pavement temperature is below freezing.
3.2 Single Lift Repair .1 Remove and dispose of rubberized crack sealant from cracks in the repair area prior
with Recycling to scarification.
.2 Heat asphalt surfaces indicated for repair to a temperature required for scarification,
but to not more than 150C.
.3 Scarify asphalt surface in the patch area to a depth of not less than 50 mm. Leave an
unscarified transition zone of heated asphalt at least 100 mm in width around the
perimeter of the patch area.
.4 When directed, apply rejuvenator to the surface of the scarified asphalt by spraying
at an approved application rate and thoroughly mix with scarified asphalt by raking.
.5 Add new hot mixed asphalt concrete as required to re-establish grade. Blend and
carefully rake level, at a height above the adjacent pavement grade that provides for
matching of the adjacent grade after compaction.
- D.21 -

3.3 Single Lift Repair .1 Heat asphalt surfaces indicated for repair to temperature required for removal, but to
with Replacement not more than 150C.
.2 Remove asphalt from the patch area to a depth of not less than 50 mm and dispose
as directed. Leave a transition zone of heated asphalt at least 100 mm in width
around perimeter of patch area.
.3 Place new hot mixed asphalt as required to re-establish grade. Carefully rake level,
at a height above the adjacent pavement grade that provides for matching of the
adjacent grade after compaction.
3.4 Double lift Repair .1 Heat asphalt surfaces indicated for repair to temperature required for removal, but to
not more than 150C.
.2 Remove heated surface layer of asphalt to a depth of at least 50 mm and dispose as

directed. Leave a transition zone of heated asphalt at least 100 mm in width around
perimeter of patch area.
.3 Heat asphalt in the bottom of the excavated patch area. Scarify and mix thoroughly
to a minimum depth of 50 mm, and compact.
.4 Place top lift of new hot mixed asphalt as required to re-establish grade. Carefully
rake level, at a height above the adjacent pavement grade that provides for matching
of the adjacent grade after compaction.
3.5 Protection .1 Protect newly placed asphalt surfaces from traffic until asphalt is no more than
warm to the touch, or as directed.
grade.
3.7 Defective Work .1 Correct irregularities which develop before the completion of compaction, by
loosening surface mix and removing or adding new material as required. If
irregularities or defects persist after final compaction, remove surface course
promptly and place new material to form a true and even surface.
surface to a safe operating condition as directed. Dispose of all debris and waste
- D.22 -

May 2001 CONCRETE PAVEMENT PATCHING WITH PC CONCRETE Page 1 of 3
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the patching of Portland cement concrete pavement surfaces to
partial depth of the slab, using Portland cement concrete as the patching material.

.1 Section M3150, PC Concrete Pavement Joint Sealing and Resealing.

.1 CAN/CSA-A23.1-M90, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete
Construction.

.1 ASTM C309-81, Standard Specification for Liquid Membrane-forming
compounds for Curing Concrete.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [.............], [Concrete Pavement Patching, Runway 11-29,
Mirabel International Airport].

.1 during the week of [September 10, 2001];

airside access.
1.6 Measurement .1 PC concrete pavement patching will be measured for payment [as lump sum].
for Payment
2.1 Materials .1 Patching material: to general requirements of CAN/CSA-A23.1, with mix

proportions:
.1 one part type [10] cement;
.2 two parts coarse aggregate, 16.0-mm to4.75-mm gradation;
.3 two parts sand;
.4 air entraining agent as recommended by manufacturer to give 5% air;
.5 water as needed for workable consistency, but not more than 45% by weight of
cement.
.2 Bonding mortar: one part Portland cement to one part sand, with sufficient water to
give creamy consistency.
.3 Curing compound: to ASTM C309 [81], white pigmented.
- D.23 -

2.1 Materials (Contd) .4 Joint insert: 15 mm to 20 mm thick styrofoam board, asphalt-impregnated

fiberboard, or other approved compressible, bond breaking medium.
2.2 Repair Equipment .1 General equipment items:

.1 portable concrete saw;
.2 pneumatic hammer, maximum 15 kg;
.3 compressor giving oil free air jet with minimum flow of 3 cubic metres per
minute at a minimum nozzle pressure of 600 kPa;
.4 mobile drum or paddle-type concrete mixer;
.5 manual spud vibrator, maximum diameter 25 mm;
.6 concrete finishing hand tools.
3.1 Preparation .1 Layout perimeter lines enclosing patch area within rectangular shape with sides
parallel and perpendicular to direction of traffic. Saw cut along perimeter lines to a
minimum depth of 50 mm.
.2 Remove surface concrete in patch area using light pneumatic tools or milling
equipment. Do not use heavy jackhammers that crack and damage concrete below
patch. Remove down to sound and clean concrete, to a minimum depth of 50 mm
but to not more than 50% of slab thickness. Notify the maintenance manager if
unsound concrete extends into lower half of the slab.
3.2 Joint Insert .1 If patch abuts a joint, place compressible bond breaking insert against the joint face
of the adjacent slab. Insert to extend 25 mm deeper than the patch and 75 mm
beyond patch edges. Cut slot as required to place insert.
3.3 Patching .1 Place concrete patching material only when air temperature is above 10C and daily
temperature does not fall below 5C.
.2 Blow patch area clean of all dust and loose material.
.3 Thoroughly wet surfaces in the patch area, but leave no pooling of water.
.4 Apply a thin coating of bonding mortar, 1 mm to 3 mm in thickness. Scrub into

surface crevices with a stiff bristled brush.
.5 Before drying of bonding mortar, fill void with patching material to slightly above
the grade of the adjacent pavement. Consolidate using a small spud vibrator, or by
roding in the case of small patches. Do not spread concrete laterally with vibrators,
or employ other procedure promoting segregation of the patching material.
.6 Finish patch surface to grade of adjacent pavement by screeding from centre of

patch out toward perimeter. Use excess surface mortar to fill any sawcut runouts
extending beyond patch perimeter. Texture surface of larger patch areas by
brooming. Seal around patch perimeter by painting with a 1:1 cement-water grout.
.7 Apply curing compound to the patch surface at a rate and by methods specified by
the product manufacturer, or employ other approved curing procedure such as
covering with polyethylene sheeting. Maintain curing and protect patch from traffic
for at least 7 days, or as directed.
3.4 Joint Sealing .1 If patch abuts a joint, saw out surface of joint insert to a depth equal to the width of
the insert. Seal joint to requirements of Section M3150 after the curing period.
- D.24 -

grade.
- D.25 -

May 2001 CONCRETE PAVEMENT PATCHING WITH PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS Page 1 of 2
PART I - GENERAL
partial depth of the slab, using a proprietary rapid set patching material.



airside access.
1.6 Measurement .1 PC concrete pavement patching with proprietary materials will be measured for
for Payment payment in [cubic metres of patching material placed].
************************************************************************
Spec Note: Edit 2.1.1 to products pre-approved on basis of local experience.
************************************************************************
2.1 Patching Material .1 Approved trade product, rapid set patching material for Portland cement concrete
pavements. Submit a copy of manufacturers product documentation, including
instructions for handling and application. Pre-approved products:
.1 Cement Mender #1,
Polymer-Loc Systems Inc.,
P.O. Box 42,
New Hamburg, Ontario, (519) 576-7461;
.2 Nepicrete,
North-East Polymers Canada,
P.O. Box 23032,
Cambridge, Ontario, (519) 623-3928;
.3 MC-64 Flexible Epoxy,
HC Epoxy Company Inc.,
862E 19th Street,
Tucson, Arizona, USA, (602) 624-7929;
- D.26 -

May 2001 CONCRETE PAVEMENT PATCHING WITH PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS Page 2 of 2
2.2 Joint Insert .1 15 mm to 20 mm thick styrofoam board, asphalt-impregnated fiberboard, or other

approved compressible, bond breaking medium.
2.3 Equipment .1 General equipment items:

minute at a minimum nozzle pressure of 600 kPa;
.4 concrete finishing hand tools.
3.1 Preparation .1 Layout perimeter lines enclosing patch area within a rectangular shape with sides
patch. Remove down to sound and clean concrete, to a minimum depth of 50 mm
but to not more than 50% of slab thickness. Notify the maintenance manager if
unsound concrete extends into lower half of the slab.
3.2 Joint Insert .1 If patch abuts a joint, place compressible bond breaking insert against the joint face
of the adjacent slab. Insert to extend 25 mm deeper than the patch and 75 mm
beyond patch edges. Cut slot as required to place insert.
3.3 Patching .1 Place patching material in accordance with manufacturers instructions. Observe
closely requirements and restrictions with respect to:
.1 weather conditions for application;
.2 need for primer coating;
.3 placing and consolidating procedures;
.4 curing and time required for opening to traffic.
3.4 Joint Sealing .1 If patch abuts a joint, saw out surface of joint insert to a depth equal to width. Seal
joint to requirements of Section M3150.
grade.
- D.27 -

May 2001 CONCRETE PAVEMENT PATCHING WITH ASPHALT Page 1 of 3
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: This specification is written assuming the use of hot-mixed asphalt concrete as the patching material. A
proprietary product of cold mix asphalt patching material may also be used if hot-mix is not available. Edit to suit.
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
partial depth of the slab, using [hot-mixed asphalt concrete] as the patching material.

.1 ASTM D1559-89, Test Method for Resistance to Plastic Flow of Bituminous
Mixtures Using Marshall Apparatus.
.2 ASTM D3203-94, Test Method for Percent Air Voids in Compacted Dense
and Open Bituminous Paving Mixtures.
Paving Mixtures.
.2 Asphalt Institute (AI):



airside access.
1.6 Measurement .1 PC concrete pavement patching with asphalt will be measured for payment [as lump
for Payment sum].
- D.28 -

2.1 Materials .1 Asphalt patching material:

.1 Hot mix asphalt concrete manufactured using [80 -100] penetration grade
asphalt cement and well-graded crushed aggregate of 12.5-mm maximum
particle size.
.2 Marshall flow index: between 2 mm and 4 mm;
.3 air voids: between 3 % and 5%;
.3 Tensile strength ratio: minimum 75% when tested to ASTM D4867.
.2 Prime and tack: anionic emulsified asphalt, grade [SS-1], diluted with water at 1:1
ratio for application.
2.2 Equipment .1 Asphalt holding bin: non-direct heating, and temperature control devices such as
factory pre-set thermostats, capable of maintaining the asphalt patching material at a
constant temperature of 150C 5C throughout the material for a minimum of
48 hours.
.2 Compaction equipment: self-propelled vibratory steel drum roller, minimum weight

2500 kg, and a vibratory plate compactor for areas too small or inaccessible to the
roller.
.3 [Night lighting: self-contained with shaded or directed lights not interfering with
aircraft or tower operations.]
.4 General concrete repair equipment:

minute at a minimum nozzle pressure of 600 kPa.
3.1 Preparations .1 Layout perimeter lines enclosing patch area within a rectangular shape with sides
patch. Remove down to sound and clean concrete, to minimum depth of 50 mm but
to not more than 30% of slab thickness. Notify maintenance manager if unsound
concrete extends into lower portion of the slab.
.3 Blow patch area clean of all loose materials and dust with compressed air.
.4 Coat patch area surface with a thin continuous film of tack material. Eliminate any
pooling. Allow to set before placing asphalt patching material. Tack only areas to
be patched during the same work period.
3.2 Patching .1 Do not place asphalt patching material under wet conditions, or when air
temperature is below 5C or pavement temperature is below freezing.
.2 Place and compact asphalt patching material in lifts not exceeding 60 mm thickness.
Carefully rake top lift level, to height above adjacent pavement surface grade that
provides for matching of adjacent grade after compaction.
- D.29 -

3.2 Patching (Contd) .3 Compact while temperature of the asphalt is not less than 125C. Compact
.4 Protect from traffic until asphalt patch material is no more than warm to the touch,
or as directed.
grade.
- D.30 -

May 2001 CONCRETE PAVEMENT FULL DEPTH REPAIRS Page 1 of 4
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: Designate entire panel for replacement if partial replacement would exceed 50% of the panel.
************************************************************************************************
PART I GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers repairs to Portland cement concrete pavements by the full-depth
replacement of full panels or partial panels, using PCC cast-in-place methods.

.1 Section M3150, PC Concrete Pavement Joint Sealing and Resealing

.2 CAN/CSA-A23.1-00, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete
Construction.
.3 CSA G30.18-1998, Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.

.1 ASTM C39-99, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens.
.2 ASTM C78-94, Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple
Beam with Third-Point Loading).
.3 ASTM C143-00, Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete.
.4 ASTM C231-97, Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by
the Pressure Method.
.5 ASTM C309-98, Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming Compounds for
Curing Concrete.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [.................], [Concrete Repairs, Apron I, London
Airport].

.1 during the month of [September, 2001];

airside access.
1.6 Measurement .1 PC concrete pavement full-depth repairs will be measured for payment in [cubic
for Payment metres].
.2 Base replacement, when directed, will be measured for payment in [cubic metres]
.3 Subgrade replacement, when directed, will be measured for payment in [cubic

metres].
.4 Haunch construction, when required, will be measured for payment in [lineal

meters].
- D.31 -

************************************************************************
Spec Note: A normal PCC mix for airfield pavements, as specified in 2.1.1, may require
a curing period of 7 days or more before opening to traffic. Various measures as listed
below may be taken to shorten downtime, but caution must be exercised until some
experience is gained with a procedure:
a) accelerate curing by using type 30, high early strength cement;
b) accelerate curing by using an additive accelerator (calcium chloride);
b) increase concrete strength by increasing cement content;
c) increase concrete strength by using a plasticizer and lower water/cement ratio;
e) insulate to retain heat during curing.
************************************************************************
2.1 Materials .1 Portland cement concrete to CAN/CSA-A23.1:

.1 Portland cement to CAN/CSA-A5, [normal Type 10].
.2 Flexural strength 28 day modulus of rupture, not less than 4.0 MPa when tested
to ASTM C78, or 28 day compressive strength not less than 30 MPa when
tested to ASTM C39.
.3 Slump at point of delivery, 25 mm to 60 mm when tested to ASTM C143.
.4 Air content at point of delivery, 5% 1% when tested to ASTM C231.
.2 Curing compound: to ASTM C309, white pigmented.
.3 Dowel and tie bars: to CSA-G30.18, deformed for tie bars, plain round for dowels,
of size and spacing indicated on drawings.
.4 Base and subbase replacement material: well-graded crushed gravel or stone

commercially marketed as pavement base course material.
.5 Subgrade replacement material: similar to surrounding in-situ subgrade soil.
2.2 Major Equipment .1 Concrete saw, portable, sawing depth [375] mm minimum.
.2 Manually operated spud vibrators, 50 mm diameter, for internal vibration.
.3 For full width panel replacement, self-propelled vibratory roller screed, operated at a
frequency of at least [3500] vibrations per minute with minimum amplitude of
0.4 mm.
3.1 Removals .1 Remove concrete by lift-out methods, or other approved procedure doing no damage
to adjacent concrete panels or base course. Isolate areas of removal from adjacent
panels or remaining partial panels by full depth saw cutting. Free edges of
remaining partial panels to be parallel to a joint.
.2 If pavement breaker is approved for breaking-up concrete panel prior to removal:

.1 saw cut full depth around the perimeter of the panel at an inset about 300 mm
from the joint;
.2 start breakup at the centre of panel and work outwards reducing impact energy
as required to avoid damage to adjacent panels;
.3 break the outer region free of the adjacent concrete panel with a light tap of the
breaker or with a pneumatic hammer.
.3 Do not damage construction joint keyways of adjacent panels.
.4 With partial panel replacement, roughen the free face of the remaining partial panel
using a light pneumatic hammer, and provide a minimum 25 mm batter.
- D.32 -

3.1 Removals (Contd) .5 If excessively wet or otherwise defective, remove sublayer materials to lines and
depths directed.
3.2 Sublayer .1 Place and compact sublayer replacement materials in lifts not exceeding 150 mm in
Replacement thickness. Bring subgrade replacement material to previous level of subgrade
surface, and base replacement material to 25 mm below previous level of base
surface.
.2 Apply water as needed to bring replacement materials to optimum moisture content

for compaction. Do not wet materials excessively.
.3 Compact subgrade replacement material to the density of surrounding in-situ

subgrade.
.4 Compact base replacement material to a density not less than the density of the
existing base. Continue compaction until little increase in density is being achieved,
.5 When excavation is necessary next to an adjacent panel at a distance less than the
depth of excavation, construct concrete haunching under the joint to details indicated
in drawings.
3.3 Tie Bars & Dowels .1 Install tie bars at mid-height along the free face of partial panels and install dowels
across contraction joints, and across construction joints where keyway has been lost.
Install at intervals and to details indicated on drawings.
.2 Install by drilling socket to half length of the bar, and of diameter 1.5 mm larger
than the bar diameter. Blow socket clean, and grout-in bar by procedure ensuring
solid encasement of bars within the socket. Bars to be within 10 mm of their design
position, and dowels to be parallel to pavement surface and perpendicular to
alignment of joint within a tolerance of one degree.
.3 Apply a coating of lubricant grease to the half length of dowels protruding into new
concrete. Tie bars to be free of any lubricant or coating that reduces bond with
concrete.
3.4 Placing Concrete .1 Place concrete only when air temperature is above 10C and forecast 24 hour low
temperature is not less than 5C.
.2 Obtain approval of any sublayer replacement and of the base surface prior to placing
concrete. Clean the base surface of foreign and loose materials; level and compact
to design grade.
.3 Apply form oil, curing compound, or other approved bond breaking material to the
exposed vertical faces of adjacent panels.
.4 Thoroughly wet granular base surfaces sufficiently in advance so no standing water

exists at the time of concrete placing.
.5 Place concrete starting at one end of the replacement area and work toward the other
end, placing full depth and pouring new material against the face of the previously
poured concrete. Place concrete as close as practicable to its final position. Use
approved placing methods that avoid segregation. Use shovels if lateral spreading is
necessary.
.6 Consolidate internally using spud vibrators inserted manually at intervals providing

for an overlapping of the vibrator radius of action. Do not displace concrete
horizontally with vibrators, and do not insert vibrators closer than 600 mm to a
leading edge. Do not operate vibrators more than 5 seconds in one location, and do
not incline more than 30 from vertical.
- D.33 -

3.4 Placing Concrete .7 For a full width panel replacement of length exceeding 2 m, strike-off and
(Contd) consolidate the surface using a self-propelled vibratory roller screed. Work with the
roller screed moving in the same direction as traffic. Carry a slight roll of concrete
in front of the screed.
.8 For smaller areas of replacement, manually strike-off the surface to the level of the
adjacent pavement surface using a straightedge spanning area width. Advance
strike-off slowly while providing a see-saw back and forth movement across the area
width. Operate in a direction to move material from the centre of the area to the
edge of remaining partial slab.
.9 Texture the surface by a light application of broom or brush. Apply curing

compound to the finished, textured surface at application rates and by methods
recommended by the curing compound manufacturer.
.10 Protect newly placed concrete surfaces from traffic for at least [7 days], or as
directed.
3.5 Joint Sealing .1 Saw a kerf along joint lines to dimensions 15 mm wide by 20 mm deep. After a
concrete cure period of at least 28 days, seal the joint to the requirements of M3150.
3.6 Surface Tolerances .1 Elevation of the finished surface of replacement concrete to be within [5] mm of the
adjacent pavement surface grade.
3.7 Clean-Up .1 Thoroughly clean the work area at the end of each work period. Protect recent
works from traffic and restore other pavement surfaces to a safe operating condition
- D.34 -

May 2001 PCC SLAB REPLACEMENT WITH PRECAST PANEL Page 1 of 4
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: This procedure allows for the replacement of defective concrete panels with opening to traffic within 24
hours. However, for satisfactory future performance, extreme care must be exercised to ensure a full and uniform
bedding of grout for the precast replacement panels.
************************************************************************************************
PART I GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the replacement of Portland cement concrete slabs using
Portland cement concrete precast panels. The work includes the design and
manufacture of the precast panels.
.2 The closure of a facility to aircraft traffic for slab replacement purposes is not to
exceed [24] hours; [12] hours for placement of the new panel and a further
[12 hours for curing of the bedding grout.


.1 CSA-A23.1-00/A23.2-00, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete
Construction / Methods of Test for Concrete.
.2 CSA-A23.4/A251-00, Precast Concrete-Materials and Construction /
Qualification Code for Architectural and Structural Precast Concrete Products.
.3 CSA-G40.20/G40.21-98, General Requirements for Rolled or Welded
Structural Quality Steel / Structural Quality Steels.

.1 ASTM A775-00, Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars.
.2 ASTM C309-98, Specification for Liquid Membrane-forming Compounds for
Curing Concrete.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [.........], [Concrete Pavement Slab Replacement, Apron I,
Calgary International Airport].

.1 during the week of [July 9, 2001],

airside access.
1.6 Measurement .1 [6 m x 6 m] slab replacement will be measured for payment in [units installed].
for Payment
.2 [7.5 m x 6 m] slab replacement will be measured for payment in [units installed].
- D.35 -

2.1 Precast Panel .1 Precast panels to be designed, manufactured and installed to CSA-A23.4/A251
Design and and to details indicated on drawings. Manufacturer and installer to be certified to
Manufacture CSA-A251.
.2 Design with double layer of reinforcement to accommodate transportation and

handling loads as well as anticipated aircraft loads. Anchors and lifting inserts as
required for safe lifting, handling and placing without damage to the panel.
.3 Design to dimensions established from field measurements, allowing for [25] mm

joint spacing between precast panel and adjacent concrete slab. Panel depth to be
[15] mm less than the depth of slab being replaced.
.4 Vertical faces to have a female keyway insert, a minimum 25 mm batter, and bond
breaking agent applied.
.5 Grout injection ports of maximum 65 mm diameter, and of sufficient number and

spacing to allow full and continuous grouting for panel bedding.
.6 Manufactured length and width to be within 5 mm of design dimensions, and depth

to be within 3 mm of design depth. Edges not to deviate from a straight line by
more than 3 mm in 3 m.
2.2 Portland Cement .1 To CSA-A23.1/A23.2:

Concrete .1 Portland cement [normal Type 10];
.2 exposure class C-2;
.3 28 day compressive strength, minimum 32 MPa;
.4 coarse aggregate of 40-mm nominal maximum size;
.5 air content 5% 1%.
2.3 Reinforcing Steel .1 Structural quality steel to CSA-G40.21 [with epoxy coating to ASTM A775].
Anchors & Inserts
2.4 Bedding Grout .1 Bedding grout mix design:

.1 minimum compressive strength of 24 MPa in 12 hours;
.2 minimum density of 2000 kg/m3;
.3 maximum bleeding of 2% and no shrinkage;
.4 no segregation during pumping;
.5 setting time sufficient for slabjacking process;
.6 durable under wet/dry and freeze/thaw cycles.
2.5 Curing Compound .1 To ASTM C309, white pigmented.
2.6 Bond Breaker .1 [Elsro Super Bond Breaker - #741].
2.7 Grouting .1 High speed colloid mixer, or equivalent:

Equipment .1 progressive displacement, non-pulsing pump with a constant pressure of 1 MPa
maximum and a controllable flow rate between 5 LPM and 125 LPM;
.2 return line to the pump hopper giving continuous circulation when grout is not
being placed;
.3 packer system for sealing between the injection nozzle and surrounding
pavement.
- D.36 -

3.1 Shop Drawings .1 At least [14] days prior to commencing manufacture submit precast panel shop
drawings bearing the stamp and signature of a qualified professional engineer
registered in the Province of [Alberta].
.2 Shop drawings to include details of:

.1 design calculations,
.2 reinforcing steel,
.3 formwork,
.4 handling and installation methods,
.5 finishing schedules,
.6 storage facilities.
3.2 Precast Slab .1 Manufacture precast panels to CSA-A23.4/A251, and submit copies of
Manufacture manufacturing quality control test results.
.2 Clearly identify and mark each panel for installation at appropriate location.
3.3 Grout Sample .1 At least [14] days prior to commencing site work, submit [100] kg of proposed grout
for testing.
3.4 Preparations .1 Bring precast panels on site and equipment and materials for grouting, at least
[12 hours prior to starting field work. Bring panel lifting and placing equipment on
site at least [2] hours prior to commencing field work.
.2 Delimit lines of replacement, remove existing sealant as required to facilitate

sawing, and saw cut along joints to full depth of existing slab.
3.5 Continuous Work .1 Start installation field work only when 24 hour forecast low temperature is above
5C.
.2 Once started, continue installation field work and complete placing of precast panels
within 12 hours.
3.6 Slab Removal .1 Remove slab being replaced by methods not damaging to adjacent slabs or base.
Obtain approval of removal methods prior to use.
.2 Sand blast or bush hammer exposed vertical faces of adjacent slabs.
.3 Clean all broken concrete and debris from excavation. Hand trim base surface to an
even grade and recompact if disturbed. Grade of base surface to provide a minimum
15 mm void beneath precast slab for bedding grout.
.4 Obtain approval of excavation when completed.
3.7 Precast Slab .1 Apply approved bonding agent to vertical faces of adjacent slabs and bond breaking
Placement agent to the vertical faces of the precast panel.
.2 Place steel support shims on the base surface, of thickness required to bring the
surface of the precast panel to within 3 mm of the adjacent pavement surface.
.3 Carefully lift and lower precast panel into place to rest on the support shims,
ensuring joint clearances are maintained. If surface grades are not within the
required tolerance, lift out precast panel, adjust supporting shims, and replace.
.4 Inject bedding grout through injection ports working from low to high side of slab.
Ensure complete filling of void beneath slab by observing flow of grout through
adjacent ports. Fill all injection ports flush with pavement surface and joint spacings
to 25 mm below pavement surface.
- D.37 -

3.7 Precast Slab .5 Adjust grade of the precast panel, if required, by slabjacking during grouting
Placement (Contd) operation.
3.8 Joint Sealing .1 Seal joints around precast panel to the requirements of Section M3150.
3.9 Tolerances .1 Elevation of the precast panel surface to be within [3] mm of adjacent pavement
surface grade.
3.10 Clean-Up .1 Thoroughly clean the work area at the end of the work period. Protect newly placed
slabs from traffic for the cure period of the bedding grout and restore pavement
- D.38 -

May 2001 PAVEMENT MARKINGS Page 1 of 2
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers material and application requirements for the painting of visual
aid markings on the surface of airfield pavements. Marking dimensions and details
are indicated in the Plans.
1.2 References .1 Canadian General Specifications Board (CGSB):

.1 CAN/CGSB 1-GP-74M, Paint, Traffic, Alkyd.
.2 CAN/CGSB 1-GP-5M, Thinner, Petroleum Spirits, Low Flash.
.3 CAN/CGSB 1-GP-12c, Standard Paint Colours.
1.3 Samples and .1 At least 4 weeks prior to commencing work under this Section, submit the
Submissions following material samples:
.1 Two one-litre samples of each type of paint proposed for use. Mark samples
with name and location of the project, name and address of paint manufacturer,
name of paint, CGSB specification and information on formulation and batch.
1.4 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [.], Pavement Marking, Abbotsford Airport, BC.

.1 during the week of [May 25 29, 1991];

.3 Observe site security requirement and supply personnel information required for
airside access.
1.7 Measurement .1 Supply of paint will be measured in [litres].

For Payment
.2 Painting of surface markings will be measured [as lump sum].
.3 Standby time will be measured in [hours of specified field work period during which
access to airside work area is not authorized].
PART II MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
2.1 Materials .1 Alkyd traffic paint:

.1 to CGSB 1-GP-74M;
.2 listed on CGSB Qualification Program List for standard 1-GP-74M;
.3 colours to CGSB 1-GP-12c:
.1 yellow 505-308,
.2 red 509-302,
.3 black 512-301,
.4 white 513-301.
.2 Paint Thinner: to CAN/CGSB 1-GP-5.
- D.39 -

May 2001 PAVEMENT MARKINGS Page 2 of 2
2.2 Equipment .1 Paint applicator: pressure distributor with positive shut-off, and capable of applying
paint in [multiple] dashed lines of uniform film thickness at the specified rate of
application and to the dimensions indicated.
.2 Auxiliary hand painting equipment as necessary to complete the work.
PART III EXECUTION
3.1 Weather .1 Apply paint only when:

.1 air and pavement surface temperatures are above 10C;
.2 wind is less than 30 km/h;
.3 pavement surface is dry and no rain is forecast for at least 4 hours following the
work period.
**********************************************************************
Spec Note: Delete 3.2 if repainting old markings or if contract manger to provide
layout for newly constructed surfaces.
************************************************************************
3.2 Marking Layout .1 Layout markings to the lines, dimensions and details indicated.
.2 Obtain approval of layout prior to painting.
3.3 Application .1 Thoroughly clean distributor tank before filling with paint of a different colour.
.2 Do not thin paint without approval, and thinner is demonstrated to do no damage to

the pavement surface.
.3 Apply paint only on clean pavement surfaces free of dust, oil, grease and other
detrimental materials. Obtain approval of pavement surface conditions prior to paint
application.
.4 Apply paint of colour indicated at a uniform rate of one liter per [3] square metres.
With approval, application rate may be reduced slightly on new asphalt surfaces.
.5 Protect newly painted markings until paint is dry. Clean surfaces of any spillage,
drippings or spatter.
3.4 Acceptance .1 Paint lines to be of a uniform colour and density and to have sharp edges.
.2 Markings to be within 10 mm of dimensions and locations indicated or existing.
.3 Remove incorrect markings by approved methods, and reapply.
- D.40 -

May 2001 RUNWAY RUBBER REMOVAL WITH CHEMICALS Page 1 of 2
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: This specification covers a procedure for removing rubber deposits from the surface of runways that can
be implemented at low cost using airport staff and equipment. However, for speed and effectiveness, the use of a
pressurized water treatment in combination with chemical application is preferred technique (see Section M3520).
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the removal of rubber deposits from the surface of runways by
the application of a rubber removal chemical to the surface, followed by scrubbing
and flushing of the surface.
1.2 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [................], ["Rubber Removal Program, Runway 10-28,
Calgary International Airport, Alberta"].

.1 during the weekend of [September 22-23, 2001];
.2 Confirm runway closure requirements [two weeks] prior to the start of field work.

airside access.
1.5 Supplied .1 Airport will supply as required for the work:

by Airport .1 [3 - 324D SMI runway sweepers with tow vehicles and operators];
.2 [water from airport fire hydrant at designated location].
1.6 Measurement .1 Runway rubber removal will be measured for payment in square metres.
for Payment
period during which access to the runway is not authorized].
2.1 Rubber Removal .1 Approved proprietary product for the removal of rubber deposits from pavement
Chemical surfaces. Product to be certified for use by the environmental authority having
jurisdiction.
.2 Submit manufacturer's product documentation, including handling and application

instructions.
.3 Pre-approved products:
.1 Quatrex - D4059 (for concrete surfaces),
Sani-Marc Safelanding Runway Cleaner, Solution "A" (for asphalt surfaces),
Sani-Marc Incorporated,
42 Boulevard de l'Artisant,
Victoriaville, Quebec.
- D.41 -

May 2001 RUNWAY RUBBER REMOVAL WITH CHEMICALS Page 2 of 2
2.1 Rubber Removal .3 Pre-approved products (Contd):

Chemical (Contd) .2 Avion 50 (for concrete and asphalt surfaces),
Duke Equipment Ltd,
1184 Plains Road East,
Burlington, Ontario.
2.2 Equipment .1 Number of equipment units and capacities as required to complete the cleaning of
one runway touch-down zone [15 m x 600 m] in a 6 hour period.
.2 Runway sweepers: towed or self-propelled, wire brushes, broom length 3.9 m

minimum.
.3 Chemical applicator: to be capable of applying the rubber removal chemical through

a distributing bar, uniformly, at the rate and concentration specified by the chemical
manufacturer.
.4 Water flushing units, gravity feed, for flushing rubber residue from the runway
surface.
.5 Hoses, adapters and other accessories required for connections to fire hydrants.
3.1 Weather .1 Undertake rubber removal only when:

.1 temperature is above 10C;
.2 runway surface is dry or no more than slightly damp, and no rain is forecast;
.3 wind velocity does not exceed 15 km/h.
3.2 Rubber Removal .1 Dilute and apply rubber removal chemical to the runway surface at rates
recommended by manufacturer. Apply to the full runway touch-down zone from
which rubber is to be removed.
.2 Begin scrubbing the chemically treated surface immediately with runway sweepers
and scrub continuously, periodically changing direction of sweepers. Spray with
water to keep surface wet during the scrubbing process. Scrub for 3 to 4 hours, until
the rubber is detached from surface.
.3 Flush surface with water and use sweepers to move rubber residue to the runway
edge. Flush and sweep until all traces of rubber and chemical are removed from the
runway surface.
surfaces to a safe operating condition as directed and dispose of all debris and waste
- D.42 -

May 2001 RUNWAY RUBBER REMOVAL WITH CHEMICALS AND WATER Page 1 of 3
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: The specification is based on the custom built pressurized water applicators of the following two
contractors, who have performed this work at Canadian Airports:
Aquablast Ltd. Mac & Mac Industrial Services Ltd.
52 Production Drive 18101-94th Avenue, RR #12
Scarborough, Ontario Surrey, British Columbia
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the removal of rubber deposits from the surface of runways
using rubber removal chemicals, followed by the application of pressurized water.
1.2 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [................], ["Rubber Removal Program, Runway 10-28,
Calgary International Airport, Alberta"].

.1 during the week of [October 1-5, 2001];

airside access.
1.5 Supplied .1 Airport will supply:

by Airport .1 water required for the work [from airport fire hydrant at designated location];
.2 [water flushing unit with operator for runway surface cleaning after removal of
rubber.]
for Payment
2.1 Rubber Removal .1 Approved proprietary product for the removal of rubber deposits from pavement
Chemical surfaces. Product to be certified for use by the environmental authority
having jurisdiction.
.2 Submit manufacturers documentation for product, including instructions on handling

and application.
.3 Pre-approved products:
.1 a) Quatrex - D4059 (for concrete surfaces),
b) Sani-Marc Safelanding Runway Cleaner, Solution "A" (for asphalt surfaces),
Sani-Marc Incorporated,
42 Boulevard de l'Artisant,
Victoriaville, Quebec;
- D.43 -

2.1 Rubber Removal .3 Pre-approved products (Contd):

Chemical (Contd) .2 Avion 50 (for concrete and asphalt surfaces),
Duke Equipment Ltd,
1184 Plains Road East,
Burlington, Ontario.
2.2 Major Equipment .1 Pressurized water applicator: designed specifically for the work;
.1 water applied through a rotary spray bar at pressures effectively removing the
rubber without damaging the pavement surface,
.2 minimum productivity of [1350] square metres per hour through a continuous
8 hour shift,
.3 water pressure gauges clearly visible.
.2 Chemical applicator: to be capable of applying the rubber removal chemical

through a distributing bar, uniformly, at the rate and concentration specified by the
chemical manufacturer.
.3 Water flushing unit to flush rubber residue from the runway surface.
3.1 Weather .1 Undertake rubber removal only when:

.1 temperature is above 10C;
.3 wind velocity does not exceed 15 km/h.
3.2 Trial Sections .1 Demonstrate suitability of equipment and procedures by performing a trial section
on each type of pavement surface to be cleaned.
.2 Determine during trials the proper chemical application rates and required reaction
times, and maximum operating speed of pressurized water unit to give a runway
surface visually free of rubber with the colour of the natural surface clearly visible.
.3 Perform trial sections in daylight hours, during a [2] hour period as assigned, prior to
scheduled production work.
3.3 Rubber Removal .1 Remove rubber from designated runway areas in longitudinal cleaning runs starting
at runway centreline and alternate subsequent runs from one side of runway
centreline to the other until the entire width of the contaminated area is cleaned. Set
the length of longitudinal runs so removal is completed full width during the work
period.
.2 Dilute and apply rubber removal chemical to the runway surface at a rate proven as
effective during trials. Apply chemical only in areas from which rubber removal can
be completed during the work period.
.3 Remove rubber deposits by applying pressurized water to the treated surfaces, after
allowing a chemical reaction period of at least 20 minutes or as established during
trials. Keep pressurized water applicator moving forward not exceeding the
maximum speed for effective rubber removal.
.4 Ensure no damage to the pavement surface, runway lights or other fixtures. Shut off
pressurized water when equipment is stationary. Do not exceed the following water
pressures:
.1 concrete surfaces [50 MPa],
.2 asphalt surfaces [40 MPa].
.5 Following pressurized water application, thoroughly flush runway surface with

water to remove all traces of rubber and chemicals.
- D.44 -

- D.45 -

May 2001 RUNWAY RUBBER REMOVAL BY WATERBLASTING Page 1 of 2
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: This specification is based on equipment for very high pressurized water application developed by the
following contractor, who has performed this work at Canadian airports. The success of the work at water pressures
in the order of 250 MPa, without damage to the pavement surface, is dependent on the discharge of very small
quantities of water.
Rampart Waterblast Incorporated,
2114 Bispham Road,
Sarasota, Florida, USA.
************************************************************************************************
PART I GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the removal of rubber deposits from the surface of runways
through the application of small quantities of water under very high pressures to the
pavement surface.
1.2 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [.................], [Runway Rubber Removal, Dorval
International Airport, Quebec].


airside access.

by Airport .1 water required for the work, [available from airport fire hydrant at designated
location];
.2 [water flushing unit with operator for runway surface cleaning following water
blasting].
for Payment
2.1 Major Equipment .1 Water blasting equipment specifically designed for the work:
.1 water applied through a rotary spray bar at sufficiently high pressures and in
sufficiently low quantities to effectively remove rubber deposits without
damage to the pavement surface, runway lights or other fixtures;
.2 minimum productivity of [1350] square metres per hour through a continuous
8 hour shift;
.3 water pressure gauges clearly visible.
- D.46 -

May 2001 RUNWAY RUBBER REMOVAL BY WATERBLASTING Page 2 of 2
2.1 Major Equipment .2 Water flushing unit suitable for the cleaning of rubber residue from the runway
(Contd) surface.
3.1 Trial Sections .1 Demonstrate suitability of equipment and procedures by performing a trial section
.2 Determine maximum allowable operating speed for waterblasting unit to give a

clean runway surface visually free of rubber with the colour of the
natural surface clearly visible.
.3 Perform test sections in daylight hours, during a [2] hour period as assigned, prior to
3.2 Waterblasting .1 Waterblast designated runway areas in longitudinal runs starting at runway
centreline and alternating subsequent runs from one side of runway centreline to the
other until the entire width of the contaminated area is cleaned. Set length of
longitudinal runs so waterblasting is completed full width during the work period.
.2 Keep waterblasting unit moving forward not exceeding maximum operating speed
for effective rubber removal as established during trials. Ensure no damage to the
pavement surface, runway lights or other fixtures. Shut off application of water
when equipment is stationary.
.3 Following waterblasting, thoroughly flush runway surface with water to remove all
traces of rubber residue or other contaminant.
- D.47 -

May 2001 RUNWAY RUBBER REMOVAL AND RETEXTURING BY SHOTBLASTING Page 1 of 2
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: The specialized work of this Section has been successfully performed at Canadian airports by the following
contractor:
Skidabrader,
Humble Equipment Company Limited,
1720 Industrial Drive,
Ruston, Louisiana, USA
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the removal of rubber deposits from the surface of runways with
a simultaneous light retexturing of the pavement surface, by projecting steel shot
abrasive at high velocity at the pavement surface.
1.2 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [....................], [Runway Rubber Removal and Surface
Re-texturing, Toronto L. B. Pearson International Airport].

.1 during the week of [May 14-18, 2001],

airside access.

by Airport .1 [runway sweeping unit with operator for cleaning of runway surface following
shotblasting.]
1.6 Measurement .1 Runway rubber removal and retexturing will be measured for payment in square
For Payment metres.
2.1 Major Equipment .1 Shotblasting unit:

.1 steel abrasive projected at pavement surface at high velocity by radial blades in
a centrifugal wheel, with continual recovery and recycling of the steel abrasive;
.2 integrated vacuum unit to collect and store all contaminants removed from the
surface for remote disposal;
.3 minimum productivity of 3000 square metres per hour through a continuous
8 hour shift.
.2 Lighting system for night work: self-contained, with shaded or directed lighting to
avoid interference with aircraft and tower operations.
- D.48 -

May 2001 RUNWAY RUBBER REMOVAL AND RETEXTURING BY SHOTBLASTING Page 2 of 2
2.1 Major Equipment .3 Street-type vacuum sweeping unit.

(Contd)
3.1 Weather .1 Undertake shotblasting work only when:

.2 temperature of asphalt surfaces to be cleaned is below 15C.
3.2 Trial Section .1 Demonstrate suitability of equipment and procedures by performing a trial section
.2 Determine in trial sections the proper combination of operating speed and abrasive
power settings to give a lightly textured surface visually free of rubber
contamination, with the colour of the natural surface clearly visible. Use the
minimum power setting necessary for the removal of rubber.
.3 Perform trial sections in daylight hours, during a [2] hour period as assigned, prior to
3.3 Shotblasting .1 Shotblast designated runway areas in longitudinal runs, starting at runway centreline
and alternating subsequent runs from one side of runway centreline to the other until
the entire width of the designated area is covered. Set length of longitudinal runs so
shotblasting is completed full width during the work period.
.2 Operate shotblasting unit at forward speed and at abrasive power settings needed for
effective rubber removal, as established during trials. Ensure no damage to the
pavement surface, runway lights or other fixtures.
.3 Sweep areas following shotblasting, and ensure removal of all steel shot, dust,
rubber particles and other contaminants not collected by the vacuuming system of
the shotblasting unit.
- D.49 -

May 2001 RUNWAY SURFACE GROOVING Page 1 of 2
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the cutting of transverse grooves in the surface of a runway for
the improvement of surface drainage and vehicle braking performance during wet
conditions.
1.2 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [....................], [Grooving of Runway 06L-24R, Toronto
L. B. Pearson International Airport].

.1 during the month of [July, 2001],

airside access.
1.5 Measurement .1 Grooving of [asphalt] [concrete] runway surface will be measured for payment in
For Payment square metres.
2.1 Grooving Unit .1 Grooving unit to be capable of producing clean cut grooves to the dimensions
specified without damage to the pavement surface between grooves.
PART III EXECUTION
3.1 Groove Configuration .1 Cut grooves 6 mm wide by 6 mm deep, with a centre to centre spacing of 35 mm
and an alignment perpendicular to runway centreline.
.2 Tolerances:
.1 groove width and depth: 2 mm;
.2 centre to centre spacing: 5 mm;
.3 alignment deviation not to exceed 30 mm over length of 25 m.
3.2 Surface Conditions .1 Do not cut grooves in newly constructed surfaces until cure is sufficient to
accommodate grooving without damage.
3.3 Demonstration .1 Groove assigned test area to demonstrate satisfactory equipment performance prior
to commencing runway work.
- D.50 -

May 2001 RUNWAY SURFACE GROOVING Page 2 of 2
3.4 Groove Cutting .1 Cut grooves in locations indicated or directed.
.2 Cut grooves continuous through length of run, including through joints

perpendicular to the grooving alignment. Do not cut through kerfs containing
electrical cable or through surface light fixtures.
.3 Do not cut grooves closer than 75 mm to pavement joints running parallel to the
grooving alignment.
.4 Terminate grooving [3] m from runway edge or as directed to provide maneuvering

space for equipment turn-around.
3.5 Cleaning .1 Clean up continuously during grooving operations.
.2 Dispose of laitance and waste material resulting from groove cutting by flushing
with water, and sweeping or vacuuming. Prevent waste material from entering
sewers.
.3 Thoroughly check grooving area for debris or tools prior to opening of runway to
traffic.
- D.51 -

May 2001 COAL TAR SEAL Page 1 of 3
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note:
(a) This Sections outlines simplified requirements for a coal tar seal that can be applied manually in limited areas by
site maintenance forces if necessary. For an improved application of greater durability, see construction contract
specification Section C2460.
(b) Carry out a patching and crack sealing program, if needed, prior to sealing. Use patching materials and crack
sealers compatible with the coal tar seal coat.
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the application of a coal tar seal coat to asphalt
pavement apron surfaces to provide a jet fuel resistant surface in refueling areas.
The seal is applied in two coats: an initial coat of coal tar emulsion only, followed
by a coat of emulsion-aggregate mix.

.1 CAN/CGSB-37.32-M89, Coal Tar Primer for Coal Tar Roofing,
Dampproofing, and Waterproofing.
.2 CGSB 37-GP-39M-77, Pitch, Emulsified Coal Tar, Mineral Colloid Type,
Filled for Coating Bituminous Pavements.

Aggregates.
1.3 Location .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [.................], [Coal Tar Seal Coat, Quebec Airport].

.1 during the week of [July, 1991],
.2 Confirm facility closure requirements [2 weeks] prior to start of field work. Verify
field work schedule daily and adjust as directed.

airside access.
1.6 Submissions .1 Submit from emulsion manufacturer or supplier at least 10 days prior to work:
.1 certification and test data showing the coal tar emulsion meets the requirements
of this Section;
.2 materials safety data sheet for the coal tar emulsion;
.3 recommended procedures for transporting, storing, mixing and application of
the coal tar emulsion.
1.7 Delivery .1 Deliver and store coal tar emulsion to the manufacturers recommendations, using
and Storage dedicated tankers or containers equipped with agitation equipment and filters to
maintain emulsion consistency.
1.8 Measurement .1 Coal tar primer will be measured for payment in litres at 15C.
for Payment
.2 Coal tar seal coat will be measured for payment in [litres at 15C of undiluted coal
tar emulsion applied].
- D.52 -

1.8 Measurement for .3 Standby time will be measured for payment in [hours of scheduled field work period
Payment (Contd) during which access to airfield work area is not authorized].
2.1 Materials .1 Primer: to CAN/CGSB-37.32-M89.

.
.2 Emulsion: to CGSB 37-GP-39M-77.
.
.3 Aggregate: crushed or screened sand consisting of hard, durable particles, free-
flowing and free of clay lumps, organic matter, frozen material and other deleterious
substances. Gradation within the following limits when tested to ASTM C136 and
ASTM C117:
sieve size % passing
1.18-mm 100
600-m 15 - 85
300-m 0 - 10
150-m 0- 2
.4 Water: potable, temperature not less than 10C and free of harmful salts.
2.2 Equipment .1 Mixer: mechanically powered equipment of adequate capacity for mixing and
blending emulsion-aggregate slurry.
.2 Application: use singly or in combination: spray bar equipment, mechanical

brushes, nylon or plastic bristled brooms, squeegees and related hand tools.
3.1 Surface Preparation .1 Aged asphalt surfaces:

.1 Remove oil and grease spots using an alkaline cleaner or specialty product,
followed by scrubbing with water.
.3 Power broom painted surface markings to remove loose paint but do not
remove the markings.
.4 Apply coal tar primer to surface at rate directed, up to 0.125 L/m2. Do not
allow primer to pool. Allow primer to dry thoroughly prior to application of
the seal coat.
.2 New asphalt surfaces:

.1 Allow new asphalt surfaces to cure until free of volatiles and surface oils prior
to coal tar seal coating. A curing period of at least 30 days is required under
summertime conditions, and longer periods may be required under cooler
conditions. Check the surface by casting 5 litres of water on the pavement
surface. The water should sheet out and wet the surface uniformly without
crawling or showing oil rings.
contaminates by flushing and power brooming as required.
.3 Immediately prior to the sealing application, lightly dampen the surface with
water applied at a rate of 0.10 L/m2 to 0.25 L/m2. Do not allow water to pool.
3.2 Mixing .1 Mix slurry to proportions of approximately:

.1 400 grams of aggregate per litre of emulsion;
.2 if needed to obtain suitable consistency, water in amount up to 0.1 litre per litre
of emulsion.
- D.53 -

3.2 Mixing (Contd) .2 Charge mixer with emulsion and add water, if necessary, as mixer is operating.
Blend liquids to a uniform consistency. Introduce aggregate slowly in a
manner to prevent lumping and segregation.
.3 Continue mixing for at least 5 minutes after the aggregate has been added and blend
to a homogeneous, uniform consistency suitable for application.
.4 Proportions and mixing times to be adjusted to give a smooth, free flowing

homogeneous mixture of uniform consistency to suit application methods employed.
.5 Continuously circulate or agitate until placed.
3.3 Application .1 Apply coal tar seal coat only when air and pavement surface temperatures are above
10C, and no rain or freezing temperatures are forecast for the next 24 hours.
.2 Obtain approval of pavement surface conditions prior to application.
.3 Start by placing test strips to obtain approval of mix proportions and application
rates.
.4 Spray, squeegee or brush a coating of coal tar emulsion on the pavement surface.
Apply at approximate rate of 0.4 to 0.6 litres per square metre, or as directed.
.5 Apply coating of emulsion-aggregate slurry after initial coat of emulsion has dried.
Apply at approximate rate of 0.6 to 0.9 litres per square metre, or as directed.
.6 Protect application from traffic for at least 24 hours after placing, or until
thoroughly cured.
3.4 Clean-Up .1 Thoroughly clean the work area at the end of each work period and restore pavement
3.5 Workmanship .1 Completed coal tar seal coat to be of a uniform texture and appearance, free of pin
and Repairs holes, bare spots or cracks through which fluids might penetrate. Surface to be of
even grade without overlap or build-up at joints.
.2 Repair defective areas by removing slurry and replacing in an approved manner.
- D.54 -
Master Specifications LANDSCAPE MAINTENANCE Section LM-4000

March 1995 INDEX OF PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS Page 1 of 1
PLAN INDEX
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note: Prepare site drawings for inclusion in the contract documents showing the inventory to be maintained
under the applicable work item. For smaller and less complex sites, work of more than one specification section may be
combined on a drawing.
************************************************************************************************
Plan No. Plan Title Date

************************************************************************************************
Drawing No. [ ] - [ " Spring and Fall Clean-up Areas "] [ ]

Drawing No. [ ] - [ " Mowing Areas by Class of Area "] [ ]
Drawing No. [ ] - [ " Designated Litter Control Areas "] [ ]
Drawing No. [ ] - [ " Exterior Plantings "] [ ]
Drawing No. [ ] - [ " Interior Plantings "] [ ]
************************************************************************************************
SPECIFICATIONS INDEX
Section No. Section Title Pages Date

************************************************************************************************
LM-4000 Index of Plans and Specifications [1] [01-03-1995]

LM-4100 General Instructions [4] [01-03-1995]
LM-4200 Spring and Fall Clean-Up [3] [01-03-1995]
LM-4300 Mowing [2] [01-03-1995]
LM-4400 Litter Control [2] [01-03-1995]
LM-4500 Exterior Plantings [4] [01-03-1995]
LM-4550 Interior Plantings [2] [01-03-1995]
LM-4900 Unscheduled Maintenance [2] [01-03-1995]
Unscheduled Maintenance Supplementary Specifications:

The following specifications are not normally included in the contract documents, but may be used as reference
specifications for task assignment under Unscheduled Maintenance.
LM-4910 Soil Sampling and Analysis [2] [01-03-1995]

LM-4920 Fertilizing and Liming [2] [01-03-1995]
LM-4930 Herbicide Applications [3] [01-03-1995]
LM-4940 Seeding [3] [01-03-1995]
LM-4950 Sodding [3] [01-03-1995]
LM-4960 Plant Replacements [6] [01-03-1995]
************************************************************************************************
- D.55 -

March 1995 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS Page 1 of 3
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 The Work .1 Work under this contract involves the maintenance of airport groundside landscape
features [including interior building plantings] at [Ottawa International Airport] over
the period [15 April 1993] to [14 April 1995].
.2 In addition to scheduled maintenance, unscheduled landscape maintenance work

items may be assigned from time to time.
1.2 Work Cycles .1 Start annual work cycle and summer maintenance period on [April 15]. Complete
summer maintenance period [and start winter maintenance period] on
[November 15].
1.3 Annual Work Plan .1 Submit annual work plan for approval at least two weeks prior to start of each
annual work cycle. Include details of:
.1 start and completion dates of each individual work item;
.2 personnel and equipment proposed.
1.4 Hours of Work .1 Do site maintenance work inside the hours of [08:00 to 16:00 Monday to Friday
work days] unless otherwise specified or approved.
1.5 Meetings .1 Meet [weekly] on site with [Contract Manager] on [Thursdays at 09:00 hours], or at
other mutually agreeable times, throughout summer maintenance period.
.2 During each meeting, provide written summary report on daily site activities for
previous period, including employee hours and work accomplishment for each work
item.
.3 [Contract Manager] will indicate work priorities for next period. Schedule work for
execution in order of priority.
.4 Give notice sufficiently in advance of executing work to permit measurement for

payment.
1.6 Work Inspections .1 When requested, accompany [Contract Manager] on inspection of work. Correct
promptly any work deficiencies identified.
1.7 Codes and .1 Comply with all codes and standards of national, provincial or local application.
Standards Obtain direction in cases of conflict.
1.8 Contractor's .1 Provide a Superintendent to supervise personnel on site. Superintendent to have at

Personnel least [5] years experience in landscape maintenance trade and be capable of clear
verbal and written communication in [English].
.2 Provide personnel of acceptable qualifications and supply proof of provincial

accreditation, license, or equivalent for:
.1 personnel handling and applying pesticides;
.2 personnel performing horticultural tasks.
.3 Inform [Contract Manager] of any changes in personnel and obtain approval of

replacement for Superintendent.
.4 Ensure personnel are at all times:

.1 courteous and deferential to airport users and do not accept gratuities while
executing contract work;
.2 dressed in clean, neat apparel, and preferably in company uniforms.
.5 Number of personnel on site at any one time not to exceed [6].
- D.56 -

1.9 Materials and .1 [Contract Manager] will supply:

Equipment .1 materials:
.1 [topsoil from stockpiles;]
.2 [water at designated hydrants.]
.2 equipment:
.1 [one 900 mm riding mower, including fuel, lubricants and maintenance].
.2 Contractor supplied materials and equipment:

.1 supply new materials of top quality approved by [Contract Manager];
.2 supply all equipment normal to landscape maintenance trade.
.3 Supply following vehicles as a minimum:

.1 [ pick-up truck, 1/2 ton minimum;]
.2 [ dump truck, 5 ton minimum].
.4 Supply all appurtenances for connections to water hydrants.
.5 Keep all supplied equipment in good repair.
1.10 Use of Site .1 Report to [Contract Manager] on arrival at site.
.2 Limit activities on site to designated areas. Do not access airport buildings except as
authorized.
.3 Comply with airport security requirements:

.1 provide personnel information needed for security checks;
.2 passes and keys to restricted areas:
.1 arrange issuance if repeated access needed;
.2 notify immediately of any loss;
.3 return at end of contract or on demand;
.4 fine for non-return [$100];
.3 for isolated access to airside:
.1 arrange with airport for qualified escort;
.2 obey instructions from escort promptly;
.4 for repeated access to airside:
.1 provide vehicle equipped with beacon and aeronautical radio;
.2 provide qualified driver having security pass, airside vehicle operator's
permit and aeronautical radio-telephone operator's certificate.
.4 Store materials and equipment in area designated and assume responsibility for
protection and security. Do not store pesticides and toxic materials on site without
specific approval. Store flammable materials in approved containers.
.5 Repair equipment in approved area only, or off-site, as directed. Do not refuel

equipment on grass or asphalt surfaces.
.6 Park vehicles only in approved areas. Minimize driving on lawn surfaces.
.7 Avoid obnoxious noise and interference with airport users and tenants.
.8 Keep storage area and areas of work neat and clean, and remove on same day all
debris resulting from maintenance operations. Dispose of all litter and debris [off-
site].
.9 Turn articles found on airport property over to [Contract Manager].
.10 Report any plant diseases, pests or unsafe conditions noted during maintenance
operations. Report damaged or missing site installations.
- D.57 -

1.11 Definitions .1 Coverage: one full completion of all maintenance tasks assigned for each repetition
of repetitive, scheduled work item.
.2 Surface litter: all waste and refuse materials of the following size or larger:
.1 in high profile areas:
.1 hard substances - bottle cap;
.2 soft substances - chewing gum rapper;
.2 in low profile areas:
.1 hard substances - soft drink can;
.2 soft substances - cigarette package.
PART II - MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT (not used)
PART III - EXECUTION (not used)
- D.58 -

March 1995 SPRING AND FALL CLEAN-UP Page 1 of 2
PART 1 - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers:

.1 Spring clean-up of exterior landscape areas at start of summer maintenance
period, including preparations for summer maintenance operations;
.2 Fall clean-up of exterior landscape areas at end of summer maintenance period,
including preparations for the winter period.
1.2 Inventory .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [..................], ["Spring and Fall Clean-Up Areas"].
1.3 Scheduling .1 Schedule spring clean-up to occur as soon as possible in the annual work cycle, after
spring thaw and after soil has dried sufficiently to support equipment and pedestrian
traffic.
.2 Schedule fall clean-up to occur at the end of the summer maintenance period, after
leaf drop and prior to permanent snow cover.
1.4 Measurement .1 Spring clean-up will be measured for payment as an annual lump sum.
for Payment
.2 Fall clean-up will be measured for payment as an annual lump sum.
PART II - MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
2.1 Aerating .1 Aerating equipment to extract 25 mm diameter x 75 mm deep cores in a

Equipment 150 mm x 150 mm pattern.
2.2 Litter Bags .1 Plastic, size [ ], to fit site litter receptacles.
3.1 Spring Clean-Up .1 Remove all winter accumulated surface litter from spring clean-up areas.
.2 Broom clean hardsurfaced pedestrian walkways.
.3 Lawn preparation:
.1 Rake lawn areas removing at least 75% of dead grass. Do heavy raking with
flexible grass rake on areas with "snow mold."
.2 Aerate lawn areas with one, two or three passes as indicated on drawings. Break
up extracted soil cores and level with drag-mat.
.3 Remove adventitious plant growth in lawn areas to below soil surface.
.4 Plant material preparation:

.1 Prune dead and broken branches.
.2 Trim and make neat, clean, vertical edges around proper boundary of planting
beds and individual plant areas.
.3 Cultivate exposed soil in planting beds and around individual plant specimen to
a depth of 50 mm. Cultivate planters to a depth of 25 mm.
.4 Cultivate mulched areas to a depth of 25 mm below mulch layer. Replenish with
material equal to the mulch in place to provide a continuous mulch layer of 75
mm depth.
.5 Remove plant winter protection structures and place in storage.
.5 Site furnishings:
.1 Remove litter receptacles, planters, benches and other site furnishings from
storage. Wash with mild detergent and place in locations indicated.
.2 Remove and store fire hydrant and obstacle markers.
.3 Supply litter bags and place in litter receptacles.
- D.59 -

March 1995 SPRING AND FALL CLEAN-UP Page 2 of 2
3.1 Spring Clean-Up .6 Damage inspection:

(Contd) .1 Inspect grounds for winter damage and list items recommended for repair or
replacement.
3.2 Fall Clean-Up .1 Rake lawn areas and dispose of fallen leaves [off site].
.2 Plant material preparation:

.1 Remove annual bedding plants from flower beds and planters. Where no bulbs,
cultivate to depth of 100 mm.
.2 Water coniferous evergreens twice to provide maximum retained moisture level
in supporting soil, immediately prior to freeze-up.
.3 If subject to winter salt damage or desiccation, spray deciduous trees and shrubs
and coniferous and broadleaf evergreens with anti-desiccant.
.4 Prior to freeze-up, apply rodent repellent to designated plant material. Reapply
during mid-winter when snow and other conditions are suitable.
.5 Remove from storage and erect plant protection structures.
.3 Site furnishings:
.1 Place litter receptacles, planters, benches and other site furnishings in storage.
Clean and disinfect as directed, prior to storage.
.2 Remove winter markers from storage and erect at fire hydrants and designated
obstacles.
- D.60 -

March 1995 MOWING Page 1 of 2
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers cutting grass in designated areas, to maintain grass height within
limits that vary depending on class of mowing area and climatic conditions.
1.2 Definitions .1 Classes of mowing area:

.1 Class A - lawn areas of high profile readily accessible to public view.
.2 Class B - lawn areas of low profile or remote from public view.
1.3 Inventory .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [..............], ["Mowing Areas by Class of Area"].
1.4 Measurement .1 Mowing will be measured for payment in coverages for each class of mowing area.
for Payment
2.1 Mowing Equipment .1 For Class A areas:

.1 [reel] [or] [rotary] self propelled type;
.2 combustion engine;
.3 mowing height securable and adjustable 35 mm to 60 mm minimum;
.4 grass clipping collection attachment;
.5 sharp cutting knifes;
.6 sound at full throttle, less than 80 decibels.
.2 For Class B areas:

.1 [reel] [or] [rotary] type;
.2 combustion engine;
.3 self propelled or tractor power unit, equipped with low profile tires;
.4 cutting height securable and adjustable 35 mm to 100 mm minimum;
.5 sharp cutting knifes.
3.1 Mowing General 1 Do not mow when grass is wet.
.2 Vary mowing pattern each coverage.
.3 Mow sloped areas parallel to contour lines.
.4 Pick up and remove any litter encountered. Do not shred and disperse paper and
other refuse.
.5 Complete mowing of an individual area before moving to other areas.
.6 Do not exhaust grass clippings onto planting bed areas, individual plant specimens
and other airport installations.
.7 Promptly clean-up clippings exhausted onto hardsurfaced areas.
3.2 Class A Areas .1 Mow at [weekly] intervals on [Thursdays] unless otherwise directed. Finish
complete coverage on same day.
.2 Mow to a height of [35 mm]. Increase mowing height [10 mm] during periods of
low precipitation and high temperatures, and for last mowing of the season.
.3 Trim to mowing height around obstructions and planting beds, and along building
and fence lines, sidewalks and curbs.
- D.61 -

March 1995 MOWING Page 2 of 2
3.2 Class A Areas .4 Remove and dispose of clippings [off site].

(Contd)
3.3 Class B Areas .1 Mow at [two week] intervals unless otherwise directed. Complete each coverage in
not more than [2] days.
.2 Mow to a height of [50 mm]. Increase mowing height [25 mm] during periods of
low precipitation and high temperatures, and for last mowing of the season.
.3 Trim as required for neatness, as directed.
.4 Remove clippings during periods of high precipitation or heavy growth, as directed.
- D.62 -

March 1995 LITTER CONTROL Page 1 of 1
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the regular, scheduled pick-up of litter from site litter
receptacles, and from the surface of designated litter control areas.
1.2 Inventory .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [..............], ["Designated Litter Control Areas"].
1.3 Scheduling .1 Schedule litter pick-up for receptacles:

.1 [May 15 to Nov 15] - [daily];
.2 [Nov 15 to May 15] - [Mondays and Fridays].
.2 Schedule litter pick-up in control areas [at frequencies indicated on drawings].
1.4 Measurement .1 Receptacle litter pick-up will be measured for payment in coverages.
for Payment
.2 Surface litter pick-up will be measured for payment in coverages [for each
designated control area].
2.1 Collection Containers .1 Suitably designed to contain litter and prevent spillage during transport.
2.2 Litter Bags .1 Plastic, size [ ], to fit site litter receptacles.
3.1 Receptacle .1 Do receptacle litter pick-up coverages at frequency scheduled, or when directed.
Litter Pick-Up
.2 Each coverage:
.1 Empty all receptacles and return to proper location.
.2 Supply and install new litter bag in each receptacle.
.3 Pick-up and remove surface litter within two metre radius of receptacles.
.3 Wash and disinfect receptacles [every four weeks].
3.2 Surface Litter .1 Do surface litter pick-up coverages at frequencies indicated on drawings for each
Pick-Up designated control area, or when directed.
.2 Each coverage, pick-up and remove litter from surface of control areas. After
coverage, not more than 2 pieces of litter to remain per 100 square metres.
- D.63 -

March 1995 EXTERIOR PLANTINGS Page 1 of 2
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the maintenance of designated plant materials and planting beds
including:
.1 regular maintenance.
.2 annual pruning.
.3 [annual plantings.]
1.2 Inventory .1 Indicated on Drawing No. [................], ["Exterior Plantings"].
1.3 Scheduling .1 Carry out regular maintenance throughout summer maintenance period at [two]
week intervals starting two weeks after completion of spring clean-up.
.2 Carry out annual pruning during summer maintenance operations, at time

appropriate to plant material. Prune heavy bleeders such as birch and hard maple
when in full leaf. Prune shrubs which flower on previous years growth only after
flowering.
.3 Install annual plantings in spring after May [25].
1.4 Measurement .1 Regular maintenance will be measured for payment in coverages.

for Payment
.2 Annual pruning will be measured for payment as an annual lump sum.
.3 Annual plantings, including maintenance, will be measured for payment as an

annual lump sum.
2.1 Mulch .1 Hardwood chips, 25 x 20 x 3 mm, maximum 1% bark residue and 5% variation in
size, fines to make up 15-20%, all sizes equally distributed:
.1 air-dried specific gravity greater than 0.45;
.2 unacceptable wood species, Thuja spp.(all);
.3 supplied in standard packing units, loosely packed, air-dried.
2.2 Wound Dressing .1 Wound dressing used in tree pruning to be horticulturally accepted, non-toxic, non-
hardening emulsion.
2.3 Annuals .1 No. 1 bedding plants of species indicated, in flats or other acceptable containers.
.2 Actively growing, without visible flowers or flower stems.
3.1 Regular .1 Each coverage:

Maintenance .1 Manually remove all weeds including their root crown, and all litter from
planting beds and planters. Remove plants not true to colour or species and
replace with correct specimens.
.2 Cultivate exposed soil to [50 mm] depth. Cultivate mulched areas to full depth
of mulch and to [25 mm] depth into soil covered by mulch. Do not mix mulch
with soil. Replenish mulch as required to maintain continuous mulch layer of
[75 mm] depth.
.3 Do sanitary pruning necessary for optimum growth and plant health. Remove
broken, damaged and diseased canes and branches.
.4 Maintain clean, neat, vertical edges around proper boundary of planting beds and
individual plant areas. Depth of edging not less than 25 mm.
- D.64 -

March 1995 EXTERIOR PLANTINGS Page 2 of 2
3.1 Regular .1 Each coverage (Contd):

Maintenance (Contd) .5 Remove flower heads after blooming for following species:
.1 Syringa vulgaris spp.,
.2 Hydrangea arborescens,
.3 Rhododendron spp.,
.4 Spiraea bumalda spp.
3.2 Annual Pruning .1 Do annual pruning of trees, shrubs and hedges in accordance with "Pruning
Ornamentals," publication No. 483 by Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food.
.2 Shape ornamental coniferous evergreens. Trim hedges aesthetically to lines

directed.
.3 Remove [25]% of mature canes from deciduous shrubs.
3.3 Annual Plantings .1 Plant species and numbers of annuals indicated on drawings.
.2 Preparation of planting beds:

.1 Remove and dispose of surface debris, weeds, dead plants, etc.
.2 Cultivate 200 mm surface soil layer to loose, friable condition and restore grade,
fine grading to tolerance of ~ 7 mm.
.3 Planting annuals:
.1 Saturate annual plant containers with water.
.2 Separate individual plants, ensuring soil root ball containing not less than 75% of
root system.
.3 Plant annuals to pattern and dimensions as indicated or directed.
.4 Plant annuals with root crown equal to level in plant containers. Ensure annual
plants are firmly bedded in soil at correct height.
.4 Water each planting immediately at completion of planting annuals. Irrigate to

obtain optimum soil moisture to 200 mm depth. Water twice weekly, for three
weeks from date of installation, supplementing precipitation to maintain optimum
soil moisture level. Cultivate plantings at weekly intervals to 25 mm depth and
remove all weeds and debris.
.5 Starting at fourth week after installation:

.1 Maintain annual plantings for total growing season.
.2 Water not less than once weekly to maintain optimum soil moisture level.
.3 At two week intervals:
.1 cultivate all visible soil surfaces;
.2 remove all visible weeds;
.3 remove dead flowers, discoloured and dead leaves.
.4 maintain in clean, neat, attractive and aesthetic appearance.
- D.65 -

March 1995 INTERIOR PLANTINGS Page 1 of 1
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the regular scheduled maintenance of plants located in a
building environment, and of the containers in which they are growing.
1.2 Inventory .1 Indicated in Drawing No. [...............], ["Interior Plantings"].
1.3 Scheduling .1 Schedule interior plantings maintenance coverage to be completed in [one day] at
[weekly] intervals throughout annual work cycle.
1.4 Measurement .1 Interior Plantings will be measured for payment in coverages. Unit price bid per
for Payment coverage to include costs of fertilizing and pest control.
2.1 General .1 To Section [LM-4100, "General Instructions"].
3.1 Regular .1 Each coverage:

Maintenance. .1 Water plants to maintain optimum soil moisture conditions.
.2 Dust leaf surfaces and remove debris from planters.
.3 Clean exposed planter surfaces as directed, using mild detergent.
.4 Remove unsightly, dying and dead plant parts.
.5 Prune to retain natural shape of intended growth.
3.2 Fertilizing .1 Apply fertilizer at frequencies, rates and ratios recommended as determined by soil
analyses, or as directed.
3.3 Pest Control .1 Each month or as directed, carry out a preventive pest control program to control
insects and diseases.
.2 Recommend and receive approval of pesticide to be used. Use pest control products
least toxic to other than targeted pest.
- D.66 -

March 1995 UNSCHEDULED MAINTENANCE Page 1 of 2
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers miscellaneous, unscheduled landscape maintenance work items
for which work requirements and quantities cannot be forecast. Unscheduled
maintenance may include, but not be limited to:
.1 soil sampling and analysis,
.2 fertilizer applications,
.3 pesticide applications,
.4 seeding,
.5 sodding,
.6 plant replacement,
.7 emergency clean-up.
1.2 Scheduling .1 As approved or directed.
1.3 Cash Allowance .1 Include in tender, unscheduled maintenance cash allowance: [$ ].
1.4 Measurement .1 Time and material work items.

for Payment .1 Labour:
.1 Labour to be measured for payment in supervisory work hours and general
labour work hours.
.2 Minimum hours for each unscheduled maintenance call-up to be [4].
.3 Pre-authorized overtime to be measured for payment as actual hours worked
multiplied by [1.5].
.4 Work hours to be measured from time of reporting on site to time of leaving
work site; travel time to and from work site not included.
.2 Materials and equipment:

.1 Purchased materials and rented equipment to be reimbursed from cash allowance
at invoiced costs plus [10%] for overhead and profit.
.3 Lump sum work items:

.1 Measurement for payment to be made at the lump sum price bid for each
proposal, approved for execution and satisfactorily completed.
2.1 Materials .1 Supply #1 standard quality materials as specified or directed, or in accordance with
authorized proposals for miscellaneous work.
2.2 Equipment .1 Supply as part of labour rate, inclusive of operation and maintenance costs:
.1 tools, equipment, implements and vehicles normal to landscape maintenance
trade such as:
.1 gasoline powered rotary mowers, trimmers, chain saws;
.2 manual type pesticide sprayers, seeders, fertilizer spreaders;
.3 wheelbarrows, hoes, rollers, rakes, trowels, shovels, pruning tools, shears,
trimmers;
.4 sprinklers, hoses, watering cans.
.2 vehicles necessary for personnel and equipment to carry out work as specified.
- D.67 -

March 1995 UNSCHEDULED MAINTENANCE Page 2 of 2
3.1 Work Proposals .1 Submit written proposals with cost estimate for unscheduled maintenance work
items within [3] days following request.
.2 For time and material work items, divide cost estimate into labour, purchased
materials and rented equipment. If requested, provide material and equipment
estimates from two or more suppliers.
.3 For lump sum work items, provide itemized cost break down as requested.
.4 Execute approved proposals to specifications and directions provided.
3.2 Emergency Work .1 Respond as quickly as possible to requests from [Contract Manager] for assistance
under emergency maintenance conditions.
- D.68 -

March 1995 SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS Page 1 of 2
************************************************************************************************
Spec Note : If part of unscheduled maintenance, this specification need not be included in the contract documents.
Use as a reference specification if and when the work is assigned.
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the sampling of soils and arranging for analysis at a designated
testing laboratory to determine fertilizing and other treatment requirements.
1.2 Scheduling .1 Schedule soil sampling to be done during early part of annual work cycle.
1.3 Measurement .1 To Section [LM-4900, " Unscheduled Maintenance"].

for Payment
2.1 Soil Sampler .1 Capable of extracting cores of 50 mm diameter to depths and integrity specified.
3.1 Testing Laboratory .1 Arrange with following testing laboratory, or other approved laboratory, for soil
analysis:
.1 [.....................................].
3.2 Sampling .1 Obtain and prepare samples in accordance with instructions from testing laboratory
and as follows:
.1 Lawn areas:
.1 Sampling depth 150 mm.
.2 Take 25 samples from each area of one hectare or less, equally spaced over
area.
.3 Prepare homogeneous mixture of samples for each two hectare area and
extract quantity required for analysis.
.2 Planting beds:
.2 Take a minimum of five samples from smaller planting beds and a maximum
of ten samples from larger planting beds.
.3 Prepare homogeneous mixture of samples for each planting bed, or group of
similar planting beds as directed and extract quantity required for analysis.
.3 Individual exterior plants:
.2 For each distinct species, take 1 sample for each five specimens, but not less
than five samples.
.3 Prepare homogeneous mixture of samples for each distinct species,
containing not more than ten individual samples each, and extract quantity
required for analysis.
.4 Interior plantings:
.1 Sample growing medium to full depth.
.2 Take one sample from each planting.
.3 For similar species, prepare homogeneous mixture of samples containing not
more than ten individual samples each, and extract quantity required for
analysis.
- D.69 -

March 1995 SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS Page 2 of 2
3.3 Analysis .1 Forward samples to testing laboratory requesting analysis of constituents, along with
fertilizer and soil amendment recommendations for following frequency of
application:
.1 Class A lawn areas - two applications per year, one during spring and one in late
summer.
.2 Other lawn areas, planting beds and individual exterior plants - one application
during spring.
.3 Interior plant material - a regular program of fertilizing.
.2 Provide one copy of soil analysis and recommendations to [Contract Manager].
- D.70 -

March 1995 FERTILIZING AND LIMING Page 1 of 1
************************************************************************************************
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This section covers the application of fertilizer and lime to plantings and individual
plant specimens.
1.2 Scheduling .1 Schedule applications as follows, unless otherwise recommended by soil analysis:
.1 Before May 15 and during last two weeks of August for two applications per
year; prior to June 15 for single applications.
.2 When lime is to be applied, schedule application of lime not less than two weeks
prior to application of fertilizer.
.3 Apply fertilizer and lime to lawn areas immediately prior to aerating and shortly
after mowing.
.4 Apply fertilizer and lime to planting beds immediately prior to cultivating.
1.3 Measurement .1 To Section [LM-4900, "Unscheduled Maintenance"].

for Payment
2.1 Fertilizers .1 Types of fertilizer and rates of application, to be in accordance with

recommendations of soil analysis or as directed.
.2 To Government of Canada "Fertilizers Act" and "Fertilizers Regulations."
.3 Supplied in moisture proof containers with clear labels stating manufacturers name,
net content, weight and chemical analysis of contents.
2.2 Lime .1 Ground agricultural limestone:

.1 Containing not less than [85% calcium] [25 % magnesium] carbonate.
.2 Gradation: percentage passing by weight, 90% passing 1.0 mm sieve, 50%
passing 125-m sieve.
3.1 Weather .1 Apply fertilizer and lime when weather conditions are acceptable and at following
conditions:
.1 wind does not adversely affect distribution of materials;
.2 surfaces are relatively dry;
.3 soil is at an acceptable moisture level, neither too dry or too wet.
3.2 Equipment .1 With mechanical distribution equipment, do initial run to prove proper functioning
Calibration and calibration of equipment.
3.3 Application .1 Do not load materials into equipment on lawn surfaces or contaminate areas adjacent
to work areas. Clean-up any spillage or contamination promptly.
.2 Evenly distribute materials during application. Apply at half rate in one direction
and remaining half at right angles to first direction.
- D.71 -

March 1995 HERBICIDE APPLICATIONS Page 1 of 2
************************************************************************************************
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This Section covers the application of herbicides, in a water based solution, to
control unwanted vegetation in lawn areas.
1.2 Scheduling .1 Schedule applications in accordance with recommendations of the herbicide

manufacturer.

for Payment
2.1 Herbicide .1 Approved by local government agencies and by Canada Department of Agriculture
with an assigned "Pest Control Product" registration number.
.2 Effective in controlling targeted species and least toxic for other than targeted
species and environment in general.
2.2 Sprayers .1 Suitable for application of selected herbicide at low pressures. Sprayers used for
herbicide applications to be identified for use with herbicides only.
.2 Commercial equipment for areas of 100 square metres or larger. Compressed air
garden sprayers equipped with pressure gauge and adjustable nozzles acceptable for
smaller areas.
.3 Field Sprayer:
.1 trailing or tractor mounted, commercial grade, boom type, tank sprayer;
.2 power unit to be agricultural tractor with low profile lawn tread tires, three point
hitch, and capable of moving sprayer at slow, uniform, forward speed;
.3 uniform pressure capability in range of 140 to 480 kPa;
.4 application capability of 55 to 450 L/ha;
.5 hydraulic agitation by return of spray mixture at rate of 2 to 14 L/min for
chemicals in solution or 14 to 27 L/min for wettable powders, and additional
mechanical agitation;
.6 stainless steel nozzles or better.
3.1 Herbicide .1 Accompany [Contract Manager] on inspection and identify species of unwanted
Recommendations vegetation to be controlled.
.2 Provide recommendations and receive approval for type of herbicide to be applied.
.3 Provide a copy of manufacturers literature and application instructions for the

product.
3.2 Application .1 Apply herbicide during hours directed, which may be outside of normal working
Conditions hours.
.2 Apply herbicide under temperatures, soil moisture and plant conditions

recommended by manufacturer. Do not apply when wind speeds exceed 5 km/h or
rain is forecast.
- D.72 -

March 1995 HERBICIDE APPLICATIONS Page 2 of 2
3.2 Application .3 Execute work in accordance with most stringent governing regulations.
Conditions (Contd)
3.3 Equipment .1 Calibrate spraying equipment using water only on a 200 m run each time
Calibration equipment is brought on site and re-calibrate after each [10] hectares of spraying.
.2 Check output of each nozzle individually at operating pressure over a 2 minute

period. Replace nozzles, if needed, to obtain equal output.
3.4 Application .1 Prepare herbicide tank mixture to manufacturers recommendations. Fill spray tank
with water needed and prepare mixture to formulation requirements as
recommended by manufacturer.
.2 Apply at maximum dilution rate per hectare, and concentration recommended by

herbicide manufacturer. Spray at lowest pressure recommended by manufacturer.
.3 Mark width and length of each run, and at end of tank load, as needed for continuous
application of spray without overlap.
.4 Do not contaminate areas outside those being treated, with particular attention paid
to plant materials adjacent to turf areas. Spray with boom at constant height not
exceeding 500 mm and maintain height regardless of ground contours.
.5 Clean tank of spray mixture residue before each reloading by flushing with clean
water. Do final cleaning by flushing with clean water filling tank to at least 3/4
capacity. Flush only onto lawn area not being treated.
3.5 Posting .1 Post approved cautionary signs, as directed, to alert public the area has been treated
with herbicide.
3.6 Acceptance .1 Inspect after 10 days and repeat treatment of areas with more than two healthy plants
of targeted species per 100 square metres.
- D.73 -

March 1995 SEEDING Page 1 of 2
************************************************************************************************
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This section covers the direct seeding or overseeding of designated lawn areas to
establish or improve grass cover.
1.2 Scheduling .1 Schedule seeding and overseeding to be done in spring before June [1], or between
August [25] and September [5].
1.3 Acceptance .1 Seeding will be evaluated for acceptance after third mowing.
.2 For acceptance, seeded areas to show:

.1 equally distributed germination and growth of grass;
.2 healthy growth, free of weeds, bare and sparse patches;
.3 uniform green colour.

for Payment
2.1 Grass Seed .1 To Government of Canada "Seed Act" and "Seeds Regulations:"
.1 "Canada #1 Lawn Grass Mixture" of following proportions:
.1 [10% Red Top];
.2 [15% "Norlea" Perennial Ryegrass];
.3 [30% Creeping Red Fescue];
.4 [45% Kentucky Blue Grass];
.2 purity 95% minimum;
.3 germination 85% minimum;
.4 supplied from a recognized seeds firm.
2.2 Topsoil .1 Coarse textured, sandy loam:

.1 65 to 70% sand,
.2 15 to 20% clay,
.3 3 to 5% organic matter.
.2 Chemical elements:
.1 total nitrogen - 0.50 to 0.60%;
.2 phosphorus - 70 to 100 ppm;
.3 potassium - 225 to 275 ppm;
.4 salts - E.C., mmhos/cm, less than 1.0;
.5 calcium - 2000 to 2500 ppm;
.6 magnesium - 225 to 250 ppm;
.7 sodium - less than 50 ppm.
.3 Value of pH - 6.5 to 7.5.
.4 Bulk density less than 1.0 g/cm3 and free of:

.1 noxious weeds and noxious weed seeds;
.2 stones 25 mm and larger
.3 debris and deleterious material;
.4 plant roots larger than 10 mm diameter x 100 mm in length;
.5 soil micro-organisms detrimental to plant growth.
- D.74 -

March 1995 SEEDING Page 2 of 2
2.3 Fertilizers .1 To Government of Canada "Fertilizers Act" and "Fertilizers Regulations."

.1 supplied in moisture proof containers with clear labels stating manufacturers
name, net content, weight and chemical analysis of contents;
.2 nutrient ratio - [5-15-10].
2.4 Lawn Roller .1 Flat surfaced, steel cylinder, water ballast type lawn roller:
.1 minimum size 60 mm diameter x 900 mm length;
.2 empty weight, approximately 55 kg;
.3 water ballast capacity, approximately 272 kg.
3.1 Seeding .1 Clean area of weeds, debris and deleterious materials.

Preparations
.2 Thoroughly cultivate to a depth of 100 mm.
.3 Unsuitable soil:
.1 Excavate to depth of 100 mm making edges clean and vertical. Dispose of
excavated material [off site].
.2 Cultivate exposed surface to depth of 100 mm.
.3 Backfill with topsoil.
.4 Compact to density of surrounding soil.
3.2 Overseeding .1 Clean area of weeds, debris and deleterious materials.

Preparations
.2 Cultivate lightly to depth of 25 mm by raking or similar, approved method.
.3 Place [25] mm topsoil layer over entire area and blend into adjacent grass areas by
feathering 500 mm wide band around perimeter.
3.3 Grading .1 Fine grade topsoil by manual raking to even grade, free of humps and hollows and
facilitating surface drainage. Soil to be of even, loose consistency.
3.4 Seed Application .1 Seed at a rate of 2.5 kg per 100 square metres. Seed at half rate in one direction and
spread remaining half at right angle to first direction. Feather seed into adjacent
grass areas.
.2 For mechanical seeding, use 'Brillion' type seeder placing seed at 10 mm below
surface.
.3 For manual seeding, use 'Cyclone' type seeder; rake in seed to 10 mm below surface,
and roll twice with empty water ballast roller.
3.5 Maintenance .1 Maintain until acceptance:

.1 Erect barrier to prevent traffic on freshly seeded areas.
.2 Mow to a height of 40 mm when height reaches 60 mm.
.3 Fertilize at a rate of 4.0 kg per 100 square metres after second mowing, ensuring
even distribution of fertilizer.
.4 [Irrigate with water supplied by airport at designated source, as directed, to
supplement natural rainfall.]
- D.75 -

March 1995 SODDING Page 1 of 2
************************************************************************************************
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This section covers the repair of lawn areas by placing sod.
1.2 Scheduling .1 Schedule sodding to be done in spring before June [15], or between August [15] and
September [30].
1.3 Acceptance .1 Sodding will be evaluated for acceptance after [third] mowing.

for Payment
2.1 Sod .1 To "Metric Guide Specification for Nursery Stock," third edition, 1984, issued by
Canadian Nursery Trades Association.
.2 "Turf Grass Nursery Sod," [type (B), #1 Kentucky Blue Grass - Fescue Sod].
2.2 Topsoil .1 Coarse textured, sandy loam:

.1 65 to 70% sand,
.2 15 to 20% clay,
.3 3 to 5% organic matter.
.2 Chemical elements:
.1 total nitrogen - 0.50 to 0.60%;
.2 phosphorus - 70 to 100 ppm;
.3 potassium - 225 to 275 ppm;
.4 salts - E.C., mmhos/cm, less than 1.0;
.5 calcium - 2000 to 2500 ppm;
.6 magnesium - 225 to 250 ppm;
.7 sodium - less than 50 ppm.
.3 Value of pH 6.5 to 7.5.
.4 Bulk density less than 1.0 g / cm3 and free of:

.1 noxious weeds and noxious weed seeds;
.2 stones 25 mm and larger;
.3 debris and deleterious material;
.4 plant roots larger than 10 mm diameter x 100 mm in length;
.5 soil micro-organisms detrimental to plant growth.
2.3 Fertilizer .1 To Government of Canada "Fertilizers Act" and "Fertilizers Regulations."

.1 supplied in moisture proof containers with clear labels stating manufacturers
name, net content, weight and chemical analysis of contents;
.2 nutrient ratio: 10-20-15.
2.4 Lawn Roller .1 Flat surfaced, steel cylinder, water ballast type lawn roller:
.1 minimum size 60 mm diameter x 900 mm length;
.2 empty weight approximately 55 kg;
.3 water ballast capacity approximately 272 kg.
- D.76 -

March 1995 SODDING Page 2 of 2
3.1 Surface .1 Clean areas to be sodded of weeds, debris and deleterious materials.
Preparation
.2 Thoroughly cultivate to a depth of 100 mm.
.3 Unsuitable soil:
.1 Excavate to a depth of 100 mm, making edges clean and vertical; dispose of
excavated material [off site];
.2 Cultivate exposed surface to a depth of 100 mm.
.3 Backfill with topsoil.
.4 Compact area to approximate natural density. Grade free of humps and hollows and
to facilitate surface drainage. Grade so sod, when placed, is 15 mm to 25 mm above
adjacent grades with taper to flush level at edges.
3.2 Placing Sod .1 Immediately prior to placing sod, water soil if dry and cultivate lightly to depth of
20 mm.
.2 Lay sod in rows, surface even with adjacent finished surfaces and with transverse
joints staggered.
.3 On slopes, lay rows at right angles to slope.
.4 Butt closely without overlapping; do not leave gaps between sections.
.5 Cut out thin and irregular sections with sharp knife and replace; do not tear sod.
.6 Roll lightly to provide close contact between sod and soil; do not do heavy rolling to
correct irregularities in grade.
.7 Tamp edges smooth and flush with surfaces of adjacent areas.
3.3 Staking .1 Stake all sod on slopes steeper than two horizontal to one vertical:
.1 Use wooden pegs 17 x 17 x 200 mm.
.2 Stake in maximal 600 mm square pattern.
.3 Drive stakes 100 mm from joints.
.4 Stake all individual sods.
.5 Drive stakes flush with sod soil surface.
3.4 Maintenance .1 Maintain until accepted:

.1 Erect barrier to prevent traffic on newly sodded areas.
.2 Mow to a height of 40 mm when height reaches 60 mm.
.3 Fertilize at a rate of 4.0 kg per 100 square metres after first mowing, ensuring
even distribution of fertilizer.
.4 Water immediately after placing and irrigate as directed during maintenance
period to supplement natural rainfall.
- D.77 -

March 1995 PLANT REPLACEMENTS Page 1 of 4
************************************************************************************************
************************************************************************************************
PART I - GENERAL
1.1 Description .1 This section covers the replacement of plant material.
1.2 Scheduling .1 Unless otherwise approved, schedule plant replacements to be completed in spring,
prior to June 1.
.2 Plant deciduous plant material during dormant stage before buds have broken.
.3 If approved, plant container grown plant material anytime during growing season.
1.3 Acceptance .1 For specimens planted before June 1, evaluation for acceptance will take place
during August of the same year.
.2 For specimens planted after June 1, evaluation for acceptance will take place during
August of the following year.

for Payment
2.1 Plant Material .1 To "Guide Specifications for Nursery Stock," third edition, 1984, issued by the
Replacements Canadian Nursery Trades Association.
.2 Specimen name [....................... ]:

.1 quantity [..............];
.2 size [..............];
.3 roots [..............];
.4 other [..............].
.3 To be of proven hardiness, grown in Canada for minimum two years in a climatic

zone equal to or more severe than climatic zone of site. Refer to "Map of Plant
Hardiness Zones in Canada," by Canada Department of Agriculture.
.4 Trees and shrubs to have strong fibrous root system, to be structurally sound and
free of disease, insects, defects and injury. Trees to have straight stems and to be
well branched, characteristically for species.
.5 Each plant to be labelled as to type, grade and size. Provide proof of origin on
request, including seed sources, root stock, cutting source, etc.
.6 Plants to have been transplanted or root pruned regularly, but not later than 9 months
prior to arrival on site.
.7 Container Grown Stock: Containers to have been sufficiently large for root
development. Root system to be able to hold root ball when removed from
container. Root bound plants not acceptable.
.8 Balled and Burlapped: Conifers, large shrubs, and trees to have been dug with large
firm ball of size to include 75% of fibrous and feeder root system. Root balls to be
secured with burlap, heavy twine and rope. Native trees grown in light sandy or
rocky soil not acceptable. Frozen root balls acceptable if sufficiently protected
against breakage.
- D.78 -

2.1 Plant Material .9 Perennials and Vines: To be No. 1 grade, two year field grown with soil ball,
Replacements (Contd) potted or as otherwise acceptable.
.10 Special permission by [Contract Manager] required for supplying plant material not
in dormant stage and for plant material held in cold storage.
2.2 Organic Material .1 Organic material required for preparation of planting soil to be well decomposed
barnyard manure from a source using clean, weed-free bedding such as straw or
wood shavings. Wood shavings from Cedar species (Thuja spp.) not acceptable.
2.3 Planting .1 Guy Wire: To be malleable, galvanized 2.91 mm wire, including 6 mm wire -
Accessories "SPANNFIX" wire tighteners - hot dipped galvanized after point hardening at all
bends. Supply [4] "SPANNFIX KEYS."
.2 Cable: To be of sufficient strength to withstand projected wind pressure, minimum

3 mm diameter, seven strand, zinc coated, including galvanized turn-buckles with
150 mm long opening and 9.5 mm diameter threaded opening for tightening.
.3 Wire and Cable Encasement: Two ply reinforced 12.5 mm diameter rubber garden
hose or equivalent.
.4 Anchoring: wooden stakes, "Duckbill," or other approved method, sufficient for

projected maximum wind load.
.5 Tree Wrapping Burlap: New, clean, plain burlap strips of at least 0.244 kg jute
burlap and minimum 150 mm wide.
.6 Burlap, Rope, Twine: Use natural new material only. Material treated to prevent
decomposition not acceptable.
3.1 Approval .1 Notify [Contract Manager] of source of plant material replacements at least 7 days
at Source prior to commencement of work and obtain approval of replacements at source.
3.2 Transporting .1 Transport plant material in closed-in vehicle. Approval may be given for open
vehicle transport of large plant material.
.2 Tie branches of trees and shrubs securely, and protect against abrasion, exposure and
significant temperature changes.
.3 Protect bare roots with dampened straw, peat moss, saw dust or other acceptable
material to prevent loss of moisture. Keep roots moist and protected from sun, frost
and rain.
.4 Plant replacement materials within 24 hours of arrival at site.
3.3 Excavating .1 Excavate planting hole of diameter and depth greater than natural root spread or root
ball of specific plant specimens, ensuring not less than 150 mm of planting soil
between roots and existing soil. Depth of excavation to permit planting to same
depth as in nursery.
.2 Prepare planting soil by mixing 20% by volume organic material to excavated soil.
Frozen or saturated planting soil not acceptable.
- D.79 -

3.4 Planting .1 Plant when weather conditions are conducive to good health and physical condition
of plants. Obtain approval of replacement materials immediately prior to planting.
.2 Loosen bottom of planting hole to depth of 75 mm and place minimum 150 mm

layer of planting soil.
.3 Plant trees and shrubs to same depth as in nursery in vertical position. Bare root
specimens to have roots equally distributed in hole.
.4 Face plants to give best aesthetic appearance as viewed from nearby buildings,
roadways and walks.
.5 For balled and burlapped specimens, loosen burlap and cut away as much burlap and
wire basket as possible without disturbing root ball. Do not pull burlap, wire or rope
from under root ball.
.6 For container stock, remove entire container without disturbing root ball.
3.5 Backfilling .1 For bare-rooted stock, shake planting soil backfill among the roots so roots are in
their natural position, resting on planting soil.
.2 Backfill in 150 mm layers, tamping each layer and eliminating air voids.
.3 When two-thirds of backfill has been placed, fill remainder of hole with water and
complete backfilling after water has penetrated soil.
.4 Build 75 mm high berm of soil around perimeter of planting area to assist

maintenance watering.
3.6 Guying .1 Use guy wire for trees of caliper less than 60 mm and cable for larger trees.
.2 Fasten three guy wires or cables to tree trunk at height where a branch prevents
slipping down. Use tree rings to prevent abrasion of bark.
.3 Run guy wires and cables to ground anchoring at 45 degree angle. Tighten slightly.
.4 When close to pedestrian walkways, fasten metal flags to wires, to make wires
clearly visible.
3.7 Wrapping .1 For deciduous trees of 45 mm caliper or greater, wrap trunk from ground level to
height of second branches, but not less than 1.85 m.
.2 Treat trunk with paste of long residual insecticide prior to wrapping.
.3 Wrap trunk spirally with minimum 150 mm wide burlap strips. Wrap neatly and
snugly with 40 mm overlap of strips.
.4 Tie burlap securely at 300 mm intervals with strong cord.
3.8 Pruning .1 Prune as needed to correct deficiencies or damage.
.2 Prune trees subject to heavy bleeding only when in full leaf.
.3 Remove projecting stumps on trunks and main branches, dead and injured branches,
and branches that rub causing damage to bark.
.4 Employ clean sharp tools and make cuts flush with branch collar, smooth and
sloping to prevent accumulation of water.
.5 Do not damage lead branches or remove smaller twigs along main branches.
- D.80 -

3.9 Maintenance .1 Maintain plant replacements until accepted.
.2 Apply anti-desiccant immediately after planting in hot weather, and during

maintenance period, as directed.
.3 Water each week to maintain optimum growing conditions; ensure optimum

moisture in root zone.
.4 Keep guy wire and cable supports in good repair.
.5 Replace materials failing to show healthy growth.
- D.81 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix E : Standard Drawings
APPENDIX E
STANDARD DRAWINGS
Drawing Page
SD-001 Typical Sections E.2
SD-002 Paved Shoulder and Blast Pad . E.3
SD-003 Temporary Ramping for Aircraft Operations ... E.4
SD-004 Concrete Pavement Joint Layout E.5
SD-005 Reinforcement for Interior Slab Openings E.6
SD-006 Concrete Pavement Joint Details .. E.7
SD-007 Pavement Connections .. E.6
SD-101 Catch Basin Type B E.7
SD-102 Manhole Type F . E.8
SD-103 Manhole Type L . E.9
SD-104 Manhole Type P . E.10
SD-105 Gratings .. E.11
SD-301 Paved Runway Markings E.12
SD-302 Runway Threshold Markings . E.13
SD-303 Runway Designation Markings .. E.14
SD-304 Paved Taxiway Markings .. E.15
SD-305 Paved Apron Markings .. E.16
SD-306 Miscellaneous Markings . E.17
SD-307 Form and Proportion of Information Markings ..... E.18
SD-308 Heliport Take-Off/Landing Area Markings E.19
SD-309 Markings for Compacted Snow and Ice Runways .. E.20
SD-510 Small Aircraft Tie Down Facilities . E.21
- E.1 -
1200 asphalt concrete

3000 operational surface
* asphalt concrete
graded area surface max
5%
slope 2.5% max crushed base
granular sub-base
100 - 150 mm above subgrade
fine filter material subgrade

9.5 - 16mm coarse 75 min
filtermaterial perforated pipe as specified
filter stone wrapped 75 min
in filter fabric
75 min
75 min
Asphalt Pavement Typical Section
1200 asphalt concrete

ce
3000 operational surfa
* concrete
graded area surface max Portland cement
5%
slope 2.5% max
crushed base
100 - 150-mm above subgrade granular sub-base
fine filter material

9.5 - 16-mm coarse subgrade
75 min
filter material perforated pipe as specified
in filter fabric
75 min
75 min
Concrete Pavement Typical Section
Figure C01
reviewed
Notes: 01/01 drawn GHA
Dimensions in millimetres. Date Revision by
* For new construction, the shoulder area adjacent to the CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
pavement should be graded at 2.5% max. The 3 metre
width of 5% slope shown is reserved for the grading off
of future overlays. TYPICAL SECTIONS
D W G N o
- E.2 -
paved shoulder width operational surface

asphalt concrete surface
ial
2% max surface mater
pavement thickness at shoulder crushed base
edge to provide strength required
base
for snow clearing equipment
1% slope granular sub-
100 - 150 mm above subgrade
fine filter material subgrade
9.5 - 16mm coarse 75 min
filter material perforated pipe as specified
in filter fabric
75 min
75 min
Dimensions in millimetres
Paved Shoulder
blast pad runway end

30 metres
asphalt concrete surface
ial
surface mater
2.5% max
crushed base
pavement thickness at shoulder
base
edge to provide strength required granular sub-
for snow clearing equipment
subgrade
Blast Pad
Figure C02
reviewed
01/01 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
PAVED SHOULDER
and
BLAST PAD
D W G N o
- E.3 -
minimum length
C A
B C
B
25 mm 1m 4m
B
surface course 40 mm 3m 10 m
50 mm max A
50 mm 5m 20 m
lower course A
variable thickness
Temporary Ramping Detail
temporary
ramping
existing runway surface
lower course shown as single layer thickness,
add transition steps as required if more than
one layer tack toe with
sand or building paper asphalt material
to break bond and facilitate
removal prior to continuing paving
Section A-A Details of temporary ramping required when paving in off-hours

and returning runway to service between work periods
1.5 m
maximum 25 mm step
maximum 25 mm step
variable
thickness
to 50 mm maximum
Detail B Transitional surface for emergency longitudinal construction

joint in operational surface (see note b).
A A 5
1 2 3 4
30
12
Paving to proceed in usual direction of aircraft operations

to provide 'down' ramp situation that lessens impact on aircraft undercarriage
Paving Sequence
Figure C03
Notes: reviewed
01/01 drawn GHA
a) Sequence of daily paving shown thus .... 1 Date Revision by
are based on daily production of ............. tonnes
of hot-mix asphalt concrete. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
b) Overlay should be full width at end of work period. TEMPORARY RAMPING
In situations of emergency or equipment breakdown,
install transverse transition per detail B.
for
AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
D W G N o
- E.4 -
CASE 1 - MISMATCHED JOINTS bond breaker at joint face 75 mm

For mismatched joints, the reinforcing requirement is :
10M bars or # 00 mesh
Option A 20 M bars
10M bars or # 00 gauge wire mesh, at a bar or wire
1000 mm
spacing of 150 mm both directions, providing a 50 mm
1000 mm width of reinforcing. Bar mat or mesh Option A Option B
installed horizontally at a depth of 1/3 to 1/2 of
slab thickness. Section A - A
Option B
3 - 20M bars, installed vertically with 75 mm clearance
to the slab edge and 50 mm cover top and bottom. Use
2 - 20M bars for a slab thickness less than 300 mm.
2
contraction joints
3 - 20M bars
construction joints
75 mm clearance 2
A
1000 mm
2
bars or mesh A
75 mm clearance 2
MISMATCHED JOINTS
1
break bond at joint with plastic

sheeting or asphalt coating
3 2 and 3
construction joints
CASE 2 - SMALL EXTERIOR SLABS
For all three-sided slabs, and all four-sided
slabs less than half of a full slab in area,
install 15M deformed tie bars, 750 mm long,
at 750 mm spacing and located at mid-depth
of the slab.
n
ts tio
in ac
CASE 3 - SMALL INTERIOR SLABS

jo ntr
For all three-sided slabs with one side less than 1.5 metres,
co
and all four-sided slabs less than 1/4 full slab in area, the
reinforcing requirement is outlined in case 1. Do not cut
joints to create undesirable small slabs.
JOINT LOCATIONS reviewed

(a) Construction joint located along pavement centreline. 01/01 drawn GHA
(b) On runways and taxiways, construction joints spaced Date Revision by
at 7.5 metres for a slab thickness of 300 mm or greater, CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
and at 6 metres for thinner slabs. On aprons, construction
joints spaced at 6 metres.
(c) Contraction joints spaced at 6 metres.
CONCRETE PAVEMENT
(d) Contraction joint cut longitudinally in outside bays at JOINT LAYOUT
mid-width of slab (not required if shoulder paved).
D W G N o S D 0 0 4
- E.5 -
1000
min
3 - 20M bars each side

min length = S + 1200
A
contraction joint
Plan View
S
opening in Portland
cement concrete slab
construction joint
minimum length = S + 1200
50 min
Section A - A
50 min 3 - 20M bars each side

(see note 2)
75 75
Notes: reviewed
01/01 drawn GHA
1) Dimensions in millimetres. Date Revision by
2) Use 2 - 20M bars for a slab thickness of 300 mm CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
or less.
REINFORCEMENT
for
INTERIOR SLAB OPENINGS
D W G N o S D 0 0 5
- E.6 -
Construction Joint
slightly underfilled
7500 for T > 300 on runways and taxiways
15
6000 for aprons and for T < 300 on runways and taxiways
0.10T 0.40T
sealant
20
0.20T T
tape
bond
0.15T 0.40T breaker
outside edge
of slab
Contraction Joint
slightly underfilled
6000
15
0.10T 0.40T
20
sealant
T
0.25T
0.20T
tape
bond
0.15T 0.40T breaker
initial
cut
20 20
10 10
Alternate kerf shapes,
5 5
(if specified)
20
20
beveled edges rounded edges
Isolation Joint
sealant
Notes:
1) Dimensions in millimetres.
2) Form keyway along exterior face of all
outside edges.
Fixed structure
such as:
catch basin,
manhole, non-extruding filler
pull pit
reviewed
Sealant products: 01/01 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
(a) For runways and taxiways,
(i) hot-poured sealant to ASTM D6690, Type III. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
(b) For apron refueling areas, jet fuel resistant sealant:
(i) cold poured to CAN/CGSB-19.20, or CONCRETE PAVEMENT
(ii) hot poured to ASTM D3569 JOINT DETAILS
(c) Filler for isolation joints: to ASTM D1751.
D W G N o S D 0 0 6
- E.7 -
existing Portland cement concrete

pavement of varying thickness new Portland cement
(with asphalt overlay of varying concrete pavement of
thickness if applicable) varying thickness
New Concrete
to
see joint details dwg
Existing Concrete
min
300
bond breaker
300 300
existing Portland cement concrete new asphaltic concrete

of varying thickness of varying thickness
t
New Asphalt
t
to
see joint details dwg
Existing Concrete
3000
new concrete
min
300
top of subgrade
300 150
1000 new Portland cement

existing asphalt concrete of
New Concrete varying thickness
to
Existing Asphalt see joint details dwg
replace with new asphalt
replace excavation for working

area with lean mix or normal
Portland cement concrete
new asphalt of new Portland cement concrete
varying thickness of varying thickness
t
t see joint details dwg Note : Dimensions in millimetres
3000
reviewed
New Asphalt
01/01 drawn GHA
to Date Revision by
New Concrete CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
PAVEMENT CONNECTIONS
D W G N o S D 0 0 7
- E.8 -
12 lugs
100 x 50 x 6
B
welded to frame
135 600/750
angle iron frame
90 x 75 x 10
A A
lug welded to frame
750
100 x 50 x 6
grate
90
1420
1020
600
blockout
65
65
75
75
B
870
OPENING
1270 PLAN VIEW
edge of
pavement 135 600 135 135 750 135
slope
300
25
900 min
0 2 - 15M bars
20
around pipe
25
if diameter
is > 300 mm
15M dowels
450 mm long
sump
300 mm c/c
300
25 min
50 mm keys
200
200 200 470 200 200 200 200 620 200 200
A-A B-B
reviewed
NOTES : 01/01 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
1. Dimensions in millimetres.
2. Maximum depth of catch basin 3500 mm. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
3. Slope surface to match shoulder grades.
4. See gratings drawing for grating details. CATCH BASIN
5. Used in pavement edge drainage lines and in other
non-operational surface areas. TYPE B
D W G N o S D 1 0 1
- E.9 -
12 lugs
100 x 50 x 6 B
welded to frame
160/300 600/750
angle iron frame
90 x 75 x 10
A A lug welded to frame
100 x 50 x 6
grate
1350
90
1800
750
600 blockout
65
75
B
1350 OPENING
1800 PLAN VIEW
pavement
300 160 600 590 300 750 300

15M ties
300 mm c/c
grate
40
slope
300
25
600
900 mm min
470 430 140 620 140
25
15M bars
150 mm c/c
375
0
30
2 - 15M bars
around pipe
25
if diameter
175 is > 300 mm
125
15M dowels 375
450 mm long
600 max
300 mm c/c 25 O rungs

sump
300
galvanized
25 min
50 mm keys
225
225 225 900 225 225 225 225 900 225 225
A-A B-B
reviewed
Date Revision by
2. Maximum depth of manhole 5500 mm; increase CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
wall thickness to 300 mm below 3500 mm.
3. Slope surface to match shoulder grades. MANHOLE
4. See gratings drawing for grating details.
5. Used in pavement edge drainage lines and in other TYPE F
non-operational surface areas.
D W G N o S D 1 0 2
- E.10 -
1900
1400
600
B steel plates
400 40
12
3
A A grate
730 x 575
angle iron
750
1900
1400
75 x 75 x 6
welded to
600 steel beam
steel beam
S250 x 52 x 1300
300
25
steel plates 300 x 150 x 25
B welded to each end of
steel beams
OPENING
PLAN VIEW
400 600 400 325 750 325

grate
20M bars
300 mm c/c steel beam
175
900 min
50 375 20M bars

50
50 150 mm c/c 375 125
0 50
30 2 - 20 mm bars
around pipe
if diameter 25 O rungs
is > 300 mm galvanized
in
25
m 25M dowels
20M bars 600 mm long 20M bars
150 mm c/c 150 mm c/c 150 mm c/c
sump
300
50
25mm
250
75
250 250 900 250 250 250 250 900 250 250
A-A B-B
reviewed
Date Revision by
2. See gratings drawing for grating details. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
3. Standard sized manhole, reinforced, for use in apron areas.
MANHOLE
TYPE L
D W G N o S D 1 0 3
- E.11 -
2800
2300
1180
B
820 40
12
3
angle iron
75 x 75 x 6
welded to
steel beam
grate
A A 730 x 575
750
1400
1900
1180 steel beam
S250 x 52 x 1300
25
200
steel plates 200 x 180 x 25
steel plates welded to each end of steel beam
B
PLAN VIEW OPENING
820 590 590 300 325 750 325

grate
steel beam
900 min
25M bars
25M bars 150 mm c/c
150 mm c/c
20M bars
20M bars 175 300 mm c/c
375
300 mm c/c 125
2-20M bars
around pipe
if diameter 375
is > 300 mm
50 25 O rungs
25M dowels galvanized
40
0
600 mm long
30
150 mm c/c
sump
25mm min 20M bars

450
50
150 mm c/c
300
20M bars
75
150 mm c/c
250 250 1800 250 250 250 250 900 250 250
A-A B-B
reviewed
01/01 drawn GHA
NOTES :
Date Revision by
1. Dimensions are millimetres.
2. See gratings drawing for grating details. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
3. Large manhole, reinforced, for use in apron areas.
MANHOLE
TYPE P
D W G N o S D 1 0 4
- E.12 -
banding bars 75 x 10 rivets 10 mm dia. reticuline bars 50 x 5
3R
100
100
B B
125
TYPE B & F
TYPE L & P
125
575
125
straight
A
bars
100
75 x 10
115
48
A reticuline bars
10 14 bars equally spaced 10 50
730
75 75
PLAN VIEW
CB TYPE B & MH TYPE F
banding bar straight bars reticuline bar
straight bars
blockout
65 x 65 x 75
65
universal fastener
65 universal fastener
blockout
A-A B-B
MH TYPES L & P
banding bar straight bars reticuline bar
straight bar
slot
(see detail 'C') I beam
universal fastener
universal fastener
A-A B-B
50
reviewed
01/01 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
12
25
DETAIL 'C' GRATINGS

NOTES :
1. Dimensions in millimetres
D W G N o S D 1 0 5
- E.13 -
Typical Application of Touchdown Zone Markings

150 300 450 600 750 900 1050
Code 3 runway
25
07
Code 4 runway touchdown zone markings omitted

(in excess of 2400 m)
07
400
Runway Markings
Aiming point (fixed distance) markings :
One pair of blocks required on each approach end of runways 1200 metres in
length or longer. Recommended for shorter runways.
Blocks of painted lines 150 mm wide on 300 mm centres :
runway width no. of total width (m) length (m) lateral spacing (m)
(m) painted lines of block of block between blocks
45
45 and wider 31 9.15 45 22.5

less than 45 20 5.85 45 18
less than 30 16 4.65 30 9
less than 23 12 3.45 30 6
Position :
runway length (m) distance (m) from threshold to start of marking
2400 and greater 400
less than 2400 300
less than 1200 250
less than 800 150
Touchdown zone markings :

Required at each approach end of a runway, positioning and spacing as indicated
in top sketch. Delete pair where overlapping occurs with aiming point marking.
runway length (m) number of block pairs
2400 and greater 6
30
less than 2400 4

less than 1500 3
dependent on runway length - see table
less than 1200 2

30
less than 900 1

Blocks of 12 painted lines 150 mm wide on 300 mm centres; block width 3.45 m,
length 22.5 m, lateral spacing between pairs equal to lateral spacing between
30
aiming point markings
Centre line markings :

Required along length of all runways.
Blocks of 8 painted lines 150 mm wide on 300 mm centres; block width 2.25 m,
length 30 m, longitudinal spacing 30 m.
22.5
Side stripe markings :

Provided where there is a lack of contrast between runway surface and shoulder.
Along both edges of runway, threshold to threshold except at runway intersections,
solidly painted line 900 mm wide on runways of 30 m or more in width, 450 mm
wide on runways of lesser width.
150
Runway designation markings :

27 max
12 min
Required at each threshold.

See runway designation markings drawing.
reviewed
12 9
Runway threshold markings : 10/02 drawn GHA

Required at each threshold. Date Revision by
See threshold markings drawing.
30
threshold markings MARKING DETAILS

Caution:
6
Check current marking regulations.

Notes: PAVED RUNWAY MARKINGS
Dimensions in metres unless otherwise indicated.
All runway markings to be white in colour.
At intersecting runways, interrupt minor runway markings. D W G N o S D 3 0 1
- E.14 -
1.65 3.6 1.8 Threshold Markings
blocks of 6 lines
lines 150 mm thick on 300 mm centres
block width 1.65 metres
block length 30 metres
30
gap between blocks approximately 1.8

metres with double gap at runway
centre line.
1.8
6
30 30 Threshold marking blocks to extend laterally

to within 3 metres of the edge of the runway.
1.65 3.6 1.8
runway width (m) number of blocks
60 16
45 12
30 8
23 6
30
18 4
1.8
6
22.5 22.5
Displaced Thresholds
portion of runway not available for landing 2.25

D Arrow head detail
threshold markings
Permanent D C B
30 30 30 15 min
30 max 10
a/2
threshold markings
Temporary A a width of runway

a = no. of arrowheads 3
a
7.5 a 15 3 lines 50 mm wide
30 a on 300 mm centres
a/2
1.8
A Displaced threshold marking - temporary : 1.65
to consist of 6 lines 150 mm wide on 300 mm centres
B Displaced threshold marking - permanent : reviewed
to consist of 8 lines 150 mm wide on 300 mm centres 10/02 drawn GHA
C Arrow shafts : Date Revision by
to consist of 4 lines 150 mm wide on 300 mm centres MARKING DETAILS
Notes :
a) If applicable, permanently displaced thresholds may be marked as RUNWAY THRESHOLD
closed and unsuitable for use (with x's), or as stopway (with MARKINGS
chevrons). See miscellaneous markings drawing.
b) Dimensions in metres unless otherwise indicated
D W G N o S D 3 0 2
- E.15 -
0.3 0.831
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.7
2.4
2.7
3.6
1.1 1.1
1.5
1.5
2.9
0.5
9.0
4.0
1.4 0.8
5.4
1.5
4.8
0.8 0.8
0.8
3.4
2.6
0.8
1.5
1.5
1.5
3.0 3.0 3.9 3.0
1.081
0.5
2.2 3.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
3.9
2.0
0.8
2.5
0.3
0.8
9.0
9.0
1.5
1.5
0.8
5.5
5.1
2.0
1.1
1.081
0.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.0
3.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 6.0
0.827
3.7 0.8
1.5
1.5
2.1
3.8
0.8
9.0
1.5
0.8
6.0
5.2
0.8
2.1
1.5
1.5
5.6 3.0 3.0 3.0

0.810
12 9 6 9 27 max
12 min
27 max
12 min
adjust as needed to fit centre line

marking pattern to runway length
12 9
threshold markings threshold markings

30
30
6
6
reviewed
Notes :
10/02 drawn GHA
a) Dimensions in metres unless otherwise indicated. Date Revision by
b) Runway thresholds to be marked with a two-digit number
indicating magnetic bearing to the nearest 10 (starting MARKING DETAILS
with a '0' if less than 10). Parallel runway designations
to be supplimented with an 'L' (left), 'R' (right) or
' C' (centre) as appropriate. RUNWAY DESIGNATION
c) Number block to be centered on runway centre line (omit MARKINGS
tip of the one for centering calculations).
D W G N o S D 3 0 3
- E.16 -
0.15 0.9
0.9
0.9
A 45 exit 90 exit
R
R
30
30
0.3
90
135 exit A
R
30 taxiway holding position - pattern A
R
D
60 60 60 60
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
60 60
D R
rapid exit 45
A
radius 550 m for runway length 1200 m
radius 275 m for runway length < 1200 m A 60
R
0.3
90 R
0.9
0.9
taxiway intersection markings
Centre line markings (yellow) 0.3

Required for all taxiways where code number is 3 or 4. Recommend for taxiways 0.15 3 0.9
where code number is 1 or 2.
Single stripe 150 mm wide, running from runway to apron where aircraft stand
0.9
marking starts. Continuous except at hold position markings and taxiway
intersection markings.
Where taxiway serves as exit from runway, taxiway centre line marking continued 0.3 0.3
onto runway to run parallel to runway centre line for 60 metres, as indicated. 1.5
Tangent distance may be reduced to 30 metres where code number is 1 or 2.
Curves to provide for required clearance between aircraft wheels and pavement edge.
Holding position markings (yellow)
Required at intersections of taxiways with runways, pattern A. Additional holding position markings to be
pattern B where provided for precision approach Category II or III runways.
Minimum offset distance D from runway centre line:
Type of Runway Code Number Increase of min offset clearance to value
1 2 3 4 in ( ) recommended for frequently used
non-instrument 30 (75) 40 (75) 75 (115) 75 (115) holding positions at other than thresholds.
non precision 40 (75) 40 (75) 75 (115) 75 (115) For precision approach runways, increase
precision approach Cat I 60 (90) 60 (90) 90 (115) 90 (115) clearance if holding aircraft interfere with
precision approach Cat II & III ----- ----- 90 (115) 90 (115) radio navigational aids.
Taxiway intersection markings (yellow) reviewed

Recommended where designation of specific holding limit is 10/02 drawn GHA
desired. Date Revision by
Caution: MARKING DETAILS
Check current marking regulations.
Notes: PAVED TAXIWAY MARKINGS
Dimensions in metres unless otherwise specified.
All taxiway markings to be yellow in colour.
Paved roads accessing runway require a hold position marking
same as taxiway hold position marking. D W G N o S D 3 0 4
- E.17 -
remote
vehicle corridor aircraft
parking
7.5
one-half width
minimum one-half of largest aircraft
width of largest aircraft using apron
passenger walkway using apron plus 7.5 m
equipment 15
staging area parking area
boundary line
edge of
bearing
3
surface
marking
equipment
staging area
safety lines
terminal building
stop bar (equipment stand designator

restraint lines)
2
lead-in lines
7.5 min
remote
aircraft
parking
1
7.5 min taxi guideline

(cockpit line)
safety lines
apron equipment parking area
0.3
lead-in lines - two parallel lines

0.15 150 mm wide separated by 150 mm.
stop bar
1.5
stop bar detail Caution : check current marking regulations.
Taxi guide line (yellow) :

Recommended 150 mm wide line guiding aircraft from taxiway to start of stand markings.
Parking stand markings (yellow) :

Recommended for designated parking positions.
To include a stop bar and lead-in lines. Stand designation is optional. Push-back lines may be added if needed.
Dimensions as indicated.
Discretionary markings :
Safety / security lines (white) - solid lines designating boundary of
parking areas and required aircraft clearances.
Ground vehicle corridor (white) - two solid lines 150 mm wide reviewed
separated by 7.5 metres. 10/02 drawn GHA
Passenger walkway (white) - two solid lines 150 mm wide Date Revision by
separated by 2 m with 45crosshatching lines at 1 m intervals.
Edge of bearing surface (white) - two lines 150 mm wide MARKING DETAILS
separated by 150 mm.
Static grounding (yellow) - solid 0.5 m dia. circle at location. PAVED APRON MARKINGS
Fueling hydrant pit (yellow) - line 150 mm wide around cover.
Fire route area to be kept clear of obstructions to fire trucks -
(yellow) diagonal lines 150 mm wide separated by 600 mm,
with area border line. D W G N o S D 3 0 5
- E.18 -
36
pavement
14.5
centre line
38.8
5
1.
1.8
Closed Taxiway Marking (yellow)
At least one marking at each end of the closed taxiway
Closed Runway Marking (white)
Notes :
one marking at each end of closed runway or portion a) All other markings to be removed from closed surfaces.
thereof plus intermediate markings at equal intervals b) A black border around markings may be used to improve contrast.
not to exceed 300 metres c) Dimensions in metres unless otherwise indicated.
paved pre-threshold area > 60 metres threshold

runway
1.5 0.9 min threshold transverse

max stripe (white)
45
C
45
7.5 max D/2

D
30 max 30 max 30 max 30 max 30 max
Pre-threshold Chevron Markings (yellow)

required when pre-threshold area is paved and exceeds 60 metres in length, but is not suitable for normal use by aircraft.
(examples - stopways and blast pads)
Dimensions in metres unless indicated otherwise.
7.5 Arrestor Barrier Marking (yellow)

(coordinate with National Defense)
C
60
3.75
3.0
C of arrestor cable
reviewed
10/02 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
MARKING DETAILS
MISCELLANEOUS MARKINGS
D W G N o S D 3 0 6
- E.19 -
reviewed
10/02 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
4m MARKING DETAILS
150 mm
FORM AND PROPORTION
of
150 mm INFORMATION MARKINGS
D W G N o S D 3 0 7
- E.20 -
or true north
magnetic
1.1
1.8
1.1
1.7
9.8
1.8
0.4
7.6
0 .6
3
0.7
60
60

9.8
0.6
Notes :
a) The triangle, letter 'H', and boundary markings are white and may be edged with a 150 mm black border
to improve contrast.
b) Dimensions shown are appropriate for take-off and landing areas 18 m or larger. Dimensions should be
reduced proportionally for smaller take-off and landing areas.
c) Dimensions in metres unless otherwise indicated.
reviewed
10/02 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
MARKING DETAILS
HELIPORT
TAKE-OFF / LANDING AREA
MARKINGS
D W G N o S D 3 0 8
- E.21 -
Centre Line Marking

1.2 metre wide strip threshold to threshold
Threshold Markings
Four strips1.2 metres wide by 30 metres long running parallel to centre line.
One located at each shoulder and one half-way between the shoulder and
centre line marking.
Notes :
a) Blue or purple dye may be used
b) Dimensions in metres.
Possible suppliers of marking dye:
Product Name Supplier
3R Liquid Astra Violet Bayer Dye Works

7600 Trans Canada Highway
Pointe Claire, Quebec
Sasframine Canadian Industries Ltd.

1.2 P.O. Box 10
Montreal, Quebec
Polar Ice Paint W.G. McMahon Ltd.

1.2 1551 Churchill Ave.
Wnninpeg, Manitoba
Polar Ice Paint W.G. McMahon Ltd.

14625-122 Ave.
Edmonton, Alberta
30
Dilute dye and apply to manufacturers instructions.
reviewed
10/02 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
even spacing MARKING DETAILS
MARKINGS for
COMPACTED SNOW AND ICE
RUNWAYS
D W G N o S D 3 0 9
- E.22 -
DRILLED
SPIRAL
7.5 m min
ANCHORS
spiral anchors (pisa anchors) installed with power drilling equipment

15 mm wire rope
place eye below ground level
7.5 m
200 mm helix
2m
20 mm rod
BURIED ANCHORS
40 mm min eye ground line 40 mm min eye
reinf. steel rod 3m of chain

10 mm dia. 600 mm (links 40 mm x 10 mm dia.)
~ 750 mm 10 mm dia. rod below surface anchored in 25 litre pail
600 mm square
concrete block filled with concrete
discarded farm
150 mm disc blade
bolted through disc

Rod and Block Anchor Mushroom Anchor
Concrete Block Anchor
HARD SURFACE ANCHORS
450 to 600 150 100 to 200

trowelled 40 min
depression
asphalt
base
150
2/3 H H
subbase
subgrade PCC
25 100 600
rod rod dia 20
20 x 750 long dia 250
Asphalt Pavement Concrete Pavement
Note: Dimension in millimetres unless otherwise indicated 100 to 200

trowelled
depression 40 min
PORTABLE ANCHORS
2/3 H
H
600
rod dia 15 rod dia 20
reviewed
10/02 drawn GHA
Date Revision by
SMALL AIRCRAFT
TIE DOWN FACILITIES
tire filled with concrete
D W G N o S D 5 1 0
- E.23 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix F : Bearing Strength Measurement
APPENDIX F
BEARING STRENGTH MEASUREMENT
Section Page
F1 Repetitive Static Plate Load Testing .. F.2
F2 Non-Repetitive Static Plate Load Testing . F.14
F3 Constant Rate of Loading (CROL) Plate Testing .. F.24
F4 Static Plate Load Testing of Concrete Pavements .. F.33
F5 Falling Weight Deflectometer (HWD) Testing . F.40
F6 Benkelman Beam Testing of Asphalt Pavements .. F.47
F7 California Bearing Ratio Testing of Subgrade In-Situ ... F.55
F8 Pressuremeter Testing of Subgrade F.59
F9 Bore Hole Investigation . F.69
F10 Strength Analysis and Coding . F.76
- F.1 -
Section F1 REPETITIVE STATIC PLATE LOAD TESTING December 2000
1. Scope
This test method covers measurement of the load-deflection characteristics of subgrade and asphalt
pavement surfaces under repetitive static loads. The loads are applied to the test surface through a rigid
circular plate. Three levels of load are used, with each load applied and released six times. Deflections are
recorded after load application and after load release when the rate of movement falls below a specified
level. The data obtained are used for the evaluation and design of airport pavements.
2. Apparatus
The following describes basic apparatus for plate load testing. More sophisticated units may utilize
powered jacking equipment, load cells, automated deflection sensors, and computerized controller /
recorder equipment.
(a) Reaction Load
A tractor-trailer unit with the trailer:
(i) equipped with a tank providing approximately 500 kN as a reaction load when filled with water;
(Note: when testing weak pavements, limit filling of the trailer tank if needed to ensure the trailer
axle load does not exceed the bearing capacity of the pavement.)
(ii) capable of being lifted without structural damage by a jack used to transmit load to the pavement;
(iii) having a minimum 2.5 m clearance between its supporting wheels and the point of test;
(iv) providing adequate vertical clearance underneath to accommodate the loading assembly.
The unit is mobile so a pavement area can be cleared for emergency use by aircraft.
A 1000 kN reaction load can be provided by placing a loading bridge beneath two trailers parked side
by side and lifting the two units together.
(b) Loading and Measurement Assembly
(i) Hydraulic Jack - Loads are generated by a hydraulic jack lifting the reaction load, with the load
transmitted through a spherical bearing at the top of the jack. The jack must have sufficient
capacity to lift the maximum load, and must be equipped with a laboratory-calibrated gauge
indicating the magnitude of the applied load. The jack must be capable of applying and releasing
loads in increments.
(ii) Plates - The load generated by the hydraulic jack is transmitted to the test surface through circular
steel or alloy plates not less than 25 mm thick. Plates of 300 mm, 450 mm, 600 mm and 750 mm
are available for use, and are stacked to form a pyramid between the test bearing plate and the base
of the jack. Spacers are provided as required between the top of the jack ramp and the reaction
point on the loading trailer. The diameter of the spacers is similar in size to the jack ramp.
(iii) Deflection Dial Gauges - Dial gauges for measuring vertical displacements have a maximum
travel of at least 25 mm and are readable to the nearest 0.01 mm deflection.
(iv) Dial Bridge - The deflection gauges are suspended from a bridge beam not less than 6 m in length,
firmly supported at each end. The bridge assembly is sufficiently rigid to resist bending under its
own weight and is sheltered against wind forces and temperature changes induced by sunlight.
- F.2 -
3. Bearing Plate Size
(a) In order of preference, plates of diameter 750 mm, 600 mm, 450 mm or 300 mm may be used as the
test bearing plate. Although not preferred, the smaller plates may be required to reach suitable
deflections, depending on the pavement strength and the reaction load available. Sufficient reaction
load should be available to enable use of a 450 mm or larger sized plate for the testing of pavements
serving larger aircraft.
(b) For planning purposes, an appropriate size of bearing plate may be selected from the following list,
using plate bearing strengths estimated from previous test results or from subgrade soil and pavement
thickness data:
Estimated Plate Bearing Strength Size of Bearing Plate

Ratio
Available Reaction Load (mm)
< 1.2 750

1.2 to 1.5 600
1.5 to 2.0 450
> 2.0 300
(c) On arrival at the airport site, check for the correct bearing plate size by quickly applying the load
through the planned test plate. If a deflection of about 4 mm can be obtained with the reaction load
available, the plate size should be satisfactory.
(d) If a deflection of 10 mm or greater is not achieved on the sixth repetition of the highest load,
succeeding tests on the same pavement structure should use a smaller sized bearing plate, or the
reaction load should be increased.
(e) The same size of bearing plate should be used as consistently as possible for all tests on the same
pavement structure.
4. Test Set-Up
Figure F1.01 illustrates the test set-up.
(a) If a crack exists in a pavement surface at or adjacent to a designated test location, displace the test
location to a minimum distance of 2 m from the crack.
(b) If unconfined tests are to be made at a level below the surface, remove the surrounding material to
provide a clearance between the edge of the bearing plate and the side of the pit equal to 1.5 plate
diameters.
(c) After stationing the reaction load trailer over the test point, centre the bearing plate under the reaction
point on the trailer. On asphalt pavement surfaces, carefully level the bearing plate on a thin bed of
plaster of Paris. On subgrade and aggregate surfaces, level with a thin layer of sand.
(d) Set the remaining plates of successively smaller diameter on top of and concentric with the bearing
plate. Provide spacers as required between the hydraulic jack ramp and the reaction point of the
loading unit.
(e) After positioning the dial bridge, suspend two dial gauges so each rests on the opposite sides of the
bearing plate approximately 25 mm from the edge of the plate. As an option to be specified when
desired, additional dial gauges may be positioned to record the deflection of the test surface at
incremental distances from the edge of the bearing plate.
- F.3 -
5. Test Procedure
(a) After the equipment has been properly arranged, seat the loading assembly by the quick application
and release of a load sufficient to produce a deflection of not less than 0.25 mm or more than 0.50 mm.
When the deflection dial needles come to rest following the release of the seating load, reseat the plate
by applying the zero load, equal to one-half of the seating load. When the dial needles have again
come to rest, zero the deflection readings by setting each deflection dial accurately to its zero setting.
(Note: set the deflection readouts to zero with the zero load applied - do not release.)
(b) Apply a load giving a deflection of about 1 mm. Maintain the load constant and record the deflection
after each minute until the rate of movement is 0.025 mm per minute or less for three successive
minutes. Then completely release the load and observe the rebound until the rate of recovery is
0.025 mm per minute or less for three successive minutes. Apply and release the same load in this
manner six times. Record the reading of any deflection dial gauges set beyond the perimeter of the
plate immediately before the application of each load, and immediately before its release. Ensure
good contact between the dial gauges and the bearing plate or other surface on which they are resting
by briefly activating an electric buzzer attached to the dial bridge just before the dial gauges are to be
read.
(c) Increase the load to give a deflection of about 5 mm, and proceed as specified in paragraph (b).
(d) Increase the load to give a deflection of about 10 mm and proceed as specified in paragraph (b). Some
weak pavements may exhibit continued and excessive settlements at this deflection level. If this is the
case, use judgement in selecting the third load level so a deflection of 10 mm to 12 mm is reached after
six load repetitions.
In all cases, the standard end point deflection is a rate of movement of 0.025 mm per minute or less for
three consecutive minutes.
From thermometers located near the bearing plate, record air and pavement surface temperatures at
half-hour intervals.
6. Recording of Test Results
In addition to the listing of all load, deflection and temperature data, associated conditions and observations
pertaining to the test should also be recorded, including the following:
date;
test number and location;
time of beginning and completion of the test;
list of personnel;
weather conditions;
any irregularities in routine procedure;
any unusual observations made during the test;
plate sizes and stacking arrangement employed, and dead weight of plates and jack;
jack identification number to be used in referring to load calibration curves.
Figure F1.02 illustrates how data may be recorded in the field. For each load repetition, circle in the field
book the deflection at which the rate of movement falls to or below 0.025 mm per minute for three
successive minutes. This is termed the end point deflection.
If a test location cannot be identified by chainage and offset, draw a sketch in the field book showing the
test location with distances measured from pavement edges or other features.
- F.4 -
7. Analysis of Test Results
(a) In the office, transfer the load test data in the field books to a form as shown in Figure F1.03.
(b) Correct recorded loads by adding dead weight, where dead weight is the weight of the jack plus the
weight of all plates and spacers below the jack.
(c) As illustrated in Figure F1.04, determine graphically the zero point correction factor and correct all
deflections by adding the correction factor algebraically to the recorded deflections.
(d) Plot the corrected deflections versus the number of load repetitions for each load level, as illustrated in
Figure F1.05. Load repetitions are plotted on a logarithmic scale.
(e) Extract values from Figure F1.05 and plot corrected load versus corrected deflection for load
repetitions of 1, 10, 100 and 1000 as shown in Figure F1.06.
(f) Summarize load test data as shown in Figure F1.07 and prepare a site plan showing test locations as
illustrated in Figure F1.08.
8. Estimation of Plate Bearing Strength
The standard measure of plate bearing strength is the load in kilonewtons producing an accumulated
deflection of 12.5 mm after 10 load repetitions, when the load is applied to the test surface through a
750 mm diameter plate. On strong pavements, a deflection of 12.5 mm may not be reached by the
10 repetition curve, or bearing plates smaller than 750 mm may have been used. The standard measure of
plate bearing strength may be estimated from these measurements using the average plate load ratios given
in Table F1.01.
Table F1.01 : Average Plate Load Ratios
Plate Load in kN on Plate of Diameter 750 mm at Deflection 12.5 mm

Average Ratio
Diameter Load in kN on Plate of Diameter at Deflection

(mm) Deflection mm
1.25 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5
ASPHALT SURFACES
300 10.92 6.37 4.07 3.27 2.85 2.57
450 7.20 4.27 2.73 2.19 1.89 1.70
600 5.29 3.24 2.06 1.64 1.42 1.25
750 4.25 2.59 1.66 1.32 1.13 1.00
900 3.50 2.18 1.39 1.10 0.94 0.83
1050 2.92 1.88 1.21 0.95 0.80 0.71
SUBGRADE SURFACES
300 12.7 7.47 4.75 3.81 3.29 2.99
450 8.04 4.73 3.02 2.41 2.08 1.89
600 5.60 3.35 2.17 1.72 1.48 1.32
750 4.23 2.54 1.65 1.32 1.13 1.00
900 3.28 2.01 1.32 1.05 0.90 0.79
1050 2.72 1.68 1.08 0.86 0.73 0.66
- F.5 -

Figure F1.01 : TEST SET-UP
SIDE VIEW
reaction load
spacer
hydraulic pressure gauge

(calibrated to load)
hydraulic jack
deflection
gauge
reference beam
TOP VIEW buzzer

reference beam
300 mm
450 mm
600 mm
750 mm
- F.6 -

Figure F1.02 : FIELD BOOK RECORD
left right total average

DATE: dial dial
TEST NUMBER: 1 - surface
FACILITY: 09 - 27 SEATING LOAD = 30 kN
STATION: 5+150 DEFL'N 0.198 0.178 0.376 0.188
OFFSET: 2.5m R of C SETTL'M 0.152 0.128 0.280 0.140
PLATE SIZE: 750 mm ZERO LOAD = 15 kN
TIME START: 8:10 a.m.
st
TIME FINISH: 3:45 p.m. 1 LOAD = 72.5 kN
air pav. st
TEMP START: 18 C 17 C TIME 1 APPLICATION
TEMP. FINISH: 21C 24C 0 0.858 0.838 1.696 0.848

.051
WEATHER: clear, sunny 1 0.904 0.894 1.798 0.899
.010
JACK: 1000 kN, (H-W#1) 2 0.904 0.914 1.818 0.909
.005
LOAD GAUGE: #2 3 0.909 0.919 1.828 0.914
.007
EQUIPMENT: 750 mm, 600 mm, 4 0.924 0.918 1.842 0.921
450 mm, 6 - 300 mm
st
plates, jack, 1 RELEASE
450 mm spacer 0 0.548 0.416 0.964 0.482

.111
EQUIPMENT DEAD WEIGHT: 3.8 kN 1 0.416 0.326 0.742 0.371
.033
2 0.386 0.290 0.676 0.338
.006
CREW: B.D, N.M., G.K. 3 0.380 0.284 0.664 0.332
.002
4 0.376 0.284 0.660 0.330
.003
5 0.370 0.284 0.654 0.327
Note: For each application/release of load, circle in the field book the deflection at which the
rate of movement falls below 0.025 mm for three successive minutes; this is termed the
"end point deflection."
- F.7 -

Figure F1.03 : TEST RECORD FORM
TEST NUMBER 1 PAVEMENT LAYER surface

AIRPORT example FACILITY rny 09-27
STATION 5+150 OFFSET 2.5 m R of CL
PLATE DIAMETER 750 mm DATE
WEATHER clear
JACK NUMBER AND DESCRIPTION 1000 kN (H-W#1)
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE GAUGE #2
EQUIPMENT 750 mm, 600 mm, 450 mm, 6-300 mm, jack, 450 mm extension
EQUIPMENT DEAD WEIGHT 3.8 kN
SEATING LOAD 30 kN
CALIBRATION CORRECTION PLUS DEAD WEIGHT +5 kN
CORRECTED SEATING LOAD 35 kN
ZERO LOAD 15 kN
CALIBRATION CORRECTION PLUS DEAD WEIGHT +5 kN
CORRECTED DEAD LOAD 20 kN
TEST 1ST LOAD 72.5 kN

TEMP CALIBRATION CORRECTION PLUS DEAD WEIGHT +5.0 kN
18 C CORRECTED 1ST LOAD 77.5 kN
APPLICATIONS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CORR. DEFLECTION 1.15 1.24 1.30 1.34 1.35 1.36
DEFLECTION 0.90 0.99 1.05 1.09 1.10 1.11
CORRECTION 0.25
SETTLEMENT 0.34 0.42 0.46 0.50 0.51 0.52
CORR. SETTLEMENT 0.59 0.67 0.71 0.75 0.76 0.77
TEST 1ST LOAD 180 kN

TEMP CALIBRATION CORRECTION PLUS DEAD WEIGHT +20 kN
20 C CORRECTED 1ST LOAD 200 kN
CORR. DEFLECTION 4.71 5.21 5.62 5.86 6.05 6.16
DEFLECTION 3.46 4.96 5.37 5.61 5.80 5.91
CORRECTION 0.25
SETTLEMENT 2.06 2.39 2.81 2.99 3.14 3.21
CORR. SETTLEMENT 2.31 2.64 3.06 3.24 3.39 3.46
TEST 1ST LOAD 231.0 kN

TEMP CALIBRATION CORRECTION PLUS DEAD WEIGHT +18.5 kN
22 C CORRECTED 1ST LOAD 249.5 kN
CORR. DEFLECTION 8.04 9.17 9.70 10.18 10.49 10.76
DEFLECTION 7.79 8.92 9.45 9.93 10.24 10.51
CORRECTION 0.25
SETTLEMENT 3.95 4.48 4.82 5.05 5.24 5.36
CORR. SETTLEMENT 4.20 4.73 5.07 5.30 5.49 5.61
- F.8 -

Figure F1.04 : DEFLECTION CORRECTION GRAPH
300
250 3rd load
200
2nd load
Corrected Load (kN)
Test Number 1
surface
f load
Layer
150 example
Airport
cation o
Facility 09-27
Station 5+150
2.5 m R of CL
1 st appli
Offset
Plate Diam. 750 mm
Date
100
1st load
50
zero point correction = + 0.25 mm
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5

Uncorrected Deflection (mm)
- F.9 -

Figure F1.05 : CORRECTED DEFLECTION vs LOAD APPLICATIONS
1000
100
Number of Load Applications
1st load = 77.5 kN
N
kN
200 k
.5
249
ad =
d =
o
loa
l nd
rd
2
3
2.5m R CL
09-27
surface
10
Facility
Offset
Layer
Date
5 6
4
750 mm
example
5+150
1
3
Test Number
2
Plate Diam.
Airport
Station
1
18
16
14
12
10
Corrected Deflection (mm)
- F.10 -
350 Test Number 1 Layer surface
Airport example Facility 09-27
Station 5+150 Offset 2.5m R of CL
Section F1
Plate Diam. 750 mm Date

Do not extrapolate curves beyond
300 110% of the third load
274.5 kN
249.5 kN
250
200 kN
200
- F.11 -
150
Corrected Load (kN)

100
77.5 kN
REPETITIVE STATIC PLATE LOAD TESTING
50
Figure F1.06 : CORRECTED LOAD vs CORRECTED DEFLECTION
0
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0
Corrected Deflection (mm)
December 2000
AIRPORT SITE example TEST YEAR
Section F1
Date Test Location Layer Plate No. of Plate Load (kN) at Deflection (mm) of
No. Dia. Load PS
(D/M) (mm) App. 1.25 2.50 5.00 7.50 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5
09/08 1 09-27 Surf 750 1 89.5 144.7 211.2 248.5 271.9

5+150 10 69.3 111.5 172.4 213.9 240.0 258.5 273.1 258.5
2.5m R 100 64.3 94.8 150.1 191.0 221.6 241.3 252.7 267.8
1000 48.6 80.0 137.5 169.7 194.7 222.0 237.6 247.5
10/08 2 09-27 Surf 600 1 108.5 165.1 227.3 272.4 317.0
5+460 10 85.0 135.2 192.4 227.3 260.1 292.4 365.5
2.5m L 100 72.5 118.4 171.0 201.4 227.0 252.0 278.0 303.1
1000 62.5 104.4 156.1 184.0 207.0 227.0 248.2 269.4
- F.12 -
10/08 3 09-27 Surf 450 1 144.0 217.4 282.0 344.1
5+760 10 107.5 175.3 244.2 291.5 336.0 380.0 643.0

2.5m R 100 82.0 151.5 219.0 261.4 297.4 332.2 367.3
1000 66.1 131.0 198.5 237.5 271.1 300.1 328.4 357.5
1 126.0 193.1 257.4 300.1
11/08 4 09-27 Surf 600
Figure F1.07 : TEST PROGRAM SUMMARY
10 151.4 215.0 256.4 290.1 317.4 396.8

REPETITIVE STATIC PLATE LOAD TESTING
85.2
6+070
2.5m L 100 62.5 119.3 180.5 221.1 255.3 282.5 306.3
1000 50.0 100.2 157.0 196.3 227.5 254.2 277.1 299.0
1 135.0 198.1 267.2 324.8
11/08 5 09-27 Surf 600
10 113.2 168.5 228.6 268.3 309.1 349.6 437.0
6+312
2.5m R 100 101.5 152.3 208.1 240.6 269.8 301.1 330.9 361.4
1000 91.4 139.0 193.9 219.7 247.7 271.4 296.2 319.7
December 2000

Figure F1.08 : TEST LOCATION PLAN
18 18
0
5+000 25 R
1 + .5 m
2
1
5+150 B1
2.5m R
5+225 19
2.5m L
2 5+300
2.5m L
3 5+450
2.5m R
5+525 20
2.5m R
4 5+600
2.5m L
5 5+750 II
2.5m R
5+825 21
2.5m L
6 5+900
2.5m L
6+050
7
2.5m R
6+125 22
2.5m R
8 6+000
2.5m L
9
6+350
2.5m R
6+425
23
2.5m L
10 6+500 B2
2.5m L
11 6+650
2.5m R
6+725
24
2.5m R
12 6+800
2.5m L
0 100 200 300 400 500

13 6+950
2.5m R 7+025 25
2.5m L scale - metres
14 7+100
2.5m L
15 7+250
2.5m R
16 7+400
2.5m L
6/83 1982 load test locations GHA
7+550 Date Revision by
17
2.5m R
I
A
EXAMPLE AIRPORT
7+700
36 LOAD TESTING PROGRAM 1982
D W G N o
- F.13 -
Section F2 NON-REPETITIVE STATIC PLATE LOAD TESTING December 2000
1. Scope
This test method covers measurement of the load-deflection characteristics of asphalt pavement surfaces
under non-repetitive static loads. Load is applied in increments to the test surface through a rigid circular
plate. Following the application of each load increment, the load is maintained constant until the rate of
settlement falls below a specified level, and the next load increment is then applied. The data obtained are
used for the evaluation and design of airport pavements.
2. Apparatus
The following describes basic apparatus for plate load testing. More sophisticated units may utilize
powered jacking equipment, load cells, automated deflection sensors, and computerized controller /
recorder equipment.
(a) Reaction Load
(Note: when testing weak pavements, limit filling of the trailer tank if needed to ensure the trailer
(ii) capable of being lifted without structural damage by a jack used to transmit load to the pavement;
(ii) Plates - The load generated by the hydraulic jack is transmitted to the test surface through circular
steel or alloy plates not less than 25 mm thick. Plates of 300 mm, 450 mm, 600 mm and 750 mm
are available for use, and are stacked to form a pyramid between the test bearing plate and the base
of the jack. Spacers are provided as required between the top of the jack ramp and the reaction
point on the loading trailer. The diameter of the spacers is similar in size to the jack ramp.
- F.14 -
3. Bearing Plate Size
test bearing plate. Although not preferred, a smaller plates may be required to reach a deflection of
7.5 mm or greater, depending on the pavement strength and the reaction load available. Sufficient
reaction load should be available to enable the use of a 450 mm or larger sized plate for the testing of
pavements serving larger aircraft.
(b) For planning purposes, an appropriate size of bearing plate may be selected from the following list,
thickness data:
Estimated Pavement Surface Test Plate Reaction

Bearing Strength Size Load
(kN) (mm) (kN)
< 500 750 500

500 to 650 600 500
650 to 900 450 500
900 to 1300 300 500
1300 to 1800 450 1000
> 1800 300 1000
(c) If a deflection of 7.5 mm or greater is not achieved with the reaction load available, succeeding tests on
the same pavement structure should use a smaller sized bearing plate, or the reaction load should be
increased.
(d) The same size of bearing plate should be used as consistently as possible for all tests on the same
pavement structure.
4. Test Set-Up
location to a minimum distance of 2 m from the crack.
(b) After stationing the reaction load trailer over the test point, centre the bearing plate under the reaction
point on the trailer. Carefully level the bearing plate on a thin bed of plaster of Paris or sand.
(c) Set the remaining plates of successively smaller diameter on top of and concentric with the bearing
plate. Provide spacers as required between the hydraulic jack ramp and the reaction point of the
loading unit.
(d) After positioning the dial bridge, suspend two dial gauges so each rests on the opposite sides of the
bearing plate approximately 25 mm from the edge of the plate. As an option to be specified when
desired, additional dial gauges may be positioned to record the deflection of the test surface at
incremental distances from the edge of the bearing plate.
- F.15 -
5. Test Procedure
When the deflection dial needles come to rest following the release of the seating load, reseat the plate
by applying the zero load, equal to one-half of the seating load. When the dial needles have again
come to rest, zero the deflection readings by setting each deflection dial accurately to its zero setting.
(Note:- set the deflection readouts to zero with the zero load applied - do not release.)
(b) Apply the load in increments with no release of load between increments. Each load increment should
be sufficient to increase the end point deflection by about 1.25 mm. After each load increment is
applied, maintain the load constant and record the deflection after each minute until the rate of
deflection is 0.025 mm or less per minute for three successive minutes. Ensure good contact between
the dial gauges and the bearing plate or other surface on which they are resting by briefly activating an
electric buzzer attached to the dial bridge just before the dial gauges are to be read.
(c) Continue applying load increments until a total deflection of 7.5 mm is reached, or until the total
reaction load has been applied.
Record air and pavement surface temperatures at half-hour intervals during the testing period.
date;
test number and location;
list of personnel;
weather conditions;
plate sizes and stacking arrangement employed, the dead weight of plates and jack;
jack identification number to be used in referring to load calibration curves.
Figure F2.02 illustrates how data may be recorded in the field. For each repetition of load, circle in the
field book the deflection at which the rate of movement falls to or below 0.025 mm per minute for three
successive minutes. This is termed the end point deflection.
If a test location cannot be identified by chainage and offset, draw a sketch in the field book showing the
test location with distances measured from pavement edges or other features.
(a) In the office, transfer the load test data in the field books to a form as shown in Figure F2.03.
(c) As illustrated in Figure F2.04, determine graphically the zero point correction factor and correct all
deflections by adding the correction factor algebraically to the recorded deflections.
- F.16 -
(d) Extract values from Figure F2.04 and summarize load test data as shown in Figure F2.05.
(e) Prepare a site plan showing test locations as illustrated in Figure F2.06.
The standard measure of plate bearing strength is the load in kilonewtons producing an accumulated
deflection of 12.5 mm after 10 load repetitions, when the load is applied to the test surface through a
750 mm diameter plate. The standard measure of plate bearing strength may be estimated from non-
repetitive static plate load test results using the average plate load ratios given in Table F2.01.
Table F.2.01 : Average Plate Load Ratios
Plate Load in kN on Plate of Diameter 750 mm at Deflection 12.5 mm, 10 rep

Average Ratio
Diameter Load in kN on Plate of Diameter at Deflection , 1 rep

(mm) Deflection mm
2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 7.5 8.75
300 5.780 4.255 3.448 2.941 2.667 2.451
450 4.000 2.899 2.326 2.000 1.802 1.653
600 2.941 2.151 1.724 1.493 1.351 1.242
750 2.358 1.724 1.377 1.208 1.081 0.985
Notes:
(a) Load ratios applicable only for load tests performed on the surface of asphalt pavements.
(b) Use a 7.50-mm test deflection value to estimate the standard measure of plate bearing strength , or the closest available value
to 7.5-mm.
- F.17 -

SIDE VIEW
reaction load
spacer
hydraulic pressure gauge

(calibrated to load)
hydraulic jack
deflection
gauge
reference beam
TOP VIEW buzzer

reference beam
300 mm
450 mm
600 mm
750 mm
- F.18 -

left right total average

DATE: dial dial
TEST NUMBER: 1 - surface
FACILITY: 09 - 27 SEATING LOAD = 30 kN
STATION: 5+200 DEFL'N 0.381 0.305 0.686 0.343
OFFSET: 3m L of C SETTL'M 0.218 0.228 0.446 0.223
PLATE SIZE: 750 mm ZERO LOAD = 15 kN
TIME START: 2:40 p.m.
st
TIME FINISH: 4:20 p.m. TIME 1 LOAD = 67 kN
air pav.
TEMP START: 19 C 24 C 0 1.095 0.965 2.060 1.030
.028
TEMP. FINISH: 18C 24C 1 1.125 0.991 2.116 1.058
.020
WEATHER: clear, sunny 2 1.150 1.006 2.156 1.078
.015
JACK: 1000 kN, (H-W#1) 3 1.160 1.026 2.186 1.093
.012
LOAD GAUGE: #2 4 1.175 1.045 2.210 1.105
EQUIPMENT: 750 mm, 600 mm,

nd
450 mm, 6 - 300 mm 2 LOAD = 110.7 kN
plates, jack, 0 2.561 2.385 4.946 2.473
.025
450 mm spacer 1 2.585 2.411 4.996 2.498
.075
EQUIPMENT DEAD WEIGHT: 3.4 kN 2 2.665 2.481 5.146 2.573
.065
3 2.725 2.551 5.276 2.638
.012
CREW: B.D, N.M., G.K. 4 2.741 2.560 5.301 2.650
.014
5 2.757 2.571 5.328 2.664
.008
6 2.771 2.574 5.345 2.672
Note: For each application/release of load, circle in the field book the deflection at which the
rate of movement falls below 0.025 mm for three successive minutes; this is termed the
"end point deflection."
- F.19 -

Test Number : 1 Pavement Layer : Surface

Airport : Example Facility : Rwy 09-27
Station : 5+200 Offset 3 m L of centreline
Plate Diameter : 750 mm Date : 09 / 08 / 75
Weather : Sunny Temp Start : 19C Temp End : 18C
Jack Description and Number : 1000 kN, (H-W No. 2)
Load Cell Description and Number : No. 1
Equipment Stack : 750 mm, 600 mm, 450 mm, 300 mm, Jack
Equipment Dead Weight : 3.4 kN
LOADS DEFLECTIONS
LOAD
Dial Calibration Dead Corrected Dial Corrected
NUMBER Correction
(kN) Correction Weight Load (mm) Deflection
Seating
Load 30 0 3.4 33.4
Zero
Load 15 0 3.4 18.4 0.000 0.254 0.254
1 67 0 3.4 70.4 1.058 0.254 1.312
2 110.7 0 3.4 114.4 2.638 0.254 2.892
3 120 +4.5 3.4 127.9 3.530 0.254 3.784
4 177.5 +4.5 3.4 185.4 5.770 0.254 6.024
5 200 +4.7 3.4 208.1 6.998 0.254 7.252
6 220 +4.8 3.4 228.2 7.835 0.254 8.089
- F.20 -

Figure F2.04 : CORRECTED LOAD vs DEFLECTION CURVES
Test Number 1 Layer surface

Airport example Facility 09-27
Station 5 + 200 Offset 3 m L of CL
Plate Diameter 750 mm Date

Zero Point Correction Factor = 0.254 mm
300
250
6th load
uncorrected curve
5th load
200
4th load
Corrected Load (kN)
corrected curve
150
3rd load
Notes:
(a) A = true load (kN) on bearing area when
2nd load deflection dials are set to zero (i.e.- 'zero load')
(b) B = zero point correction factor (mm)
100
(c) Do not extrapolate curves beyond 10% of
the highest load
1st load
50
zero load
A
0 2 4 6 8 10
Deflection (mm)
B
- F.21 -
AIRPORT example TEST YEAR
Section F2
Plate Plate Load (kN) at Deflection (mm) of Est'd

Date Test Facility Station Offset Layer Diameter P
(D/M) No. (mm) (mm) 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 7.50 (kN)
09 / 8 1 09-27 5+200 3mL surface 750 62.7 103.5 133.9 162.2 189.6 214.1 231.4
09 / 8 2 09-27 5+400 3mR surface 750 41.4 84.6 124.3 154.0 189.1 220.3 238.1
- F.22 -
NON-REPETITIVE STATIC PLATE LOAD TESTING
December 2000

Figure F2.06 : TEST LOCATION PLAN
27
6 +8
00
3m
L
9
6+6
0
3m 0
3m 0
R
0
R
1+2 8
6+4
0
1 0 3m 0
L
7
6+2
0
3m 0
R
6
6+0
00
3m
L
5
5+ 8
00
3m
R
4
5+6
00
3m
L
3
5+4
00
0 3m
R
2
5+ 2
00 0 100 200 300 400 500
3m
L
1 scale - metres
5+0
00
09
11/86 1986 load test locations GHA

Date Revision by
EXAMPLE AIRPORT
LOAD TESTING PROGRAM 1986
D W G N o
- F.23 -
Section F3 CONSTANT RATE OF LOADING (CROL) PLATE TESTING December 2000
1. Scope
This test method covers measurement of the load-deflection characteristics of flexible pavement surfaces
under a load applied to the surface through a rigid circular plate, and increased at a constant rate of
1 kN/sec. The method is intended as a short plate load testing procedure from which estimates can be made
of the standard measure of plate bearing strength obtained through repetitive static plate load testing.
2. Apparatus
(a) Reaction Load
(Note:- when testing weak pavements, limit filling of the trailer tank if needed to ensure the trailer
(ii) capable of being lifted without structural damage, by a jack used to transmit load to the pavement;
(i) Hydraulic Jack - Loads are generated by lifting the reaction load using a hydraulic jack electrically
driven by a generator. The loads are transmitted through a spherical bearing at the top of the jack.
The unit is capable of applying load at a selected controlled rate.
(ii) Load Cell - Placed immediately beneath the jack to measure the load being transmitted to the
pavement.
(iii) Plates - The load generated by the hydraulic jack is transmitted to the pavement surface through a
circular steel or alloy plate not less than 25 mm thick. Plates of 450 mm, 600 mm and 750 mm
may be used. A load pad spacer is placed between the bearing plate and the load cell, and
additional spacers are provided as required between the top of the jack ramp and the reaction point
on the loading trailer.
(iv) Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) - for measuring deflection.
(v) Dial Bridge - The LVDTs are suspended from a bridge beam not less than 6 m in length, firmly
supported at each end. The bridge assembly is sufficiently rigid to resist bending under its own
weight and is sheltered against wind forces and temperature changes induced by sunlight.
(vi) Computer Controller/Recorder - A computer controls the rate of loading, and records the load and
deflection data from the load cell and the LVDTs.
- F.24 -
3. Bearing Plate
test bearing plate. Although not preferred, the smaller plates may be required to reach suitable
deflections, depending on the pavement strength and the reaction load available. Sufficient reaction
load should be available to enable the use of a 450 mm or larger sized plate, for the testing of
pavements serving larger aircraft.
(b) For planning purposes, an appropriate size of bearing plate may be selected from the following table,
thickness data:
Estimated Plate Bearing Strength Size of Bearing Plate
Ratio
Available Reaction Load (mm)
< 1.2 750

1.2 to 1.4 600
1.4 to 1.8 450
> 1.8 300
(c) If a deflection of at least 5 mm cannot be achieved on application of the maximum reaction load
available, succeeding tests on the same pavement structure should use a smaller sized bearing plate, or
the reaction load should be increased.
(d) The same size of bearing plate should be used as consistently as possible for all tests on the same
pavement structure.
4. Test Set-Up
location to a minimum 2 m distance from the crack.
(b) After stationing the reaction load trailer over the test point, centre the bearing plate under the reaction
point on the trailer. Carefully level the bearing plate on a thin bed of sand or screenings.
(c) Set the remaining loading assembly components in place - load pad, load cell, jack and spacers -
ensuring all components are concentric with the bearing plate.
(d) After positioning the dial bridge, suspend two LVDTs so each rests on the opposite sides of the bearing
plate approximately 25 mm from the edge of the plate.
5. Test Procedure
When the deflection comes to rest following the release of the seating load, reseat the plate by applying
the zero load, equal to one-half of the seating load. When deflection readout has again come to rest,
zero the deflection readings by setting each deflection readout accurately to its zero setting. (Note: set
the deflection readouts to zero with the zero load applied - do not release.)
- F.25 -
(b) Set the rate of loading control to 60 kN/min and the maximum load control to slightly less than the
reaction load available.
(c) Commence loading, and as the load starts to register, zero the timing cloak. Continue loading until a
deflection of 8 mm is reached, or until the maximum available load is reached.
(d) Record load and deflection at one-minute intervals, or at more frequent intervals if needed to provide
at least six load-deflection readings prior to the end of test.
(e) From thermometers located in the general area, record air and asphalt surface temperatures at the time
of test.
6. Recording and Analysis of Test Results
(a) In addition to the listing of all load, deflection and temperature data, associated conditions and
observations pertaining to the test should also be recorded, including the following:
date;
test location;
list of personnel;
weather conditions;
plate size and stacking arrangement employed, dead weight of plate and load pad.
(Note: If the test location cannot be identified by chainage and offset, draw a sketch showing test
location with distances measured from pavement edges or other features.)
Figure F3.02 illustrates a field data record.
(b) Summarize the test data in the office as follows:

transfer the load test data in the field books to a form as shown in Figure F3.03;
correct recorded loads by adding dead weight;
draw the load test curve, and adjust the curve for zero point correction, and seating error if present,
as illustrated in Figure F3.04;
summarize program test results as illustrated in Figure F3.05;
provide a site plan showing test locations.
The standard measure of plate bearing strength is obtained through repetitive static plate load tests and is
the load in kilonewtons producing an accumulated deflection of 12.5 mm after 10 load repetitions, when
the load is applied through a 750 mm diameter plate. The standard measure of bearing strength may be
estimated from a CROL test result as follows:
(a) If the CROL test did not reached a deflection of 7 mm, estimate the load that would have given a
deflection of 7 mm by extrapolating the load-deflection curve, or by using the average load ratios
given in Figure F3.06 (a).
(b) Estimate the standard measure of bearing strength from the correlations given in Figure F3.06 (b).
- F.26 -

SIDE VIEW
reaction load
spacer
load cell
electrically driven
hydraulic jack
LVDT
deflection
sensor reference
beam
load pad
test surface
TOP VIEW reference

buzzer
beam
load pad
600 mm base
bearing plate
750 mm
- F.27 -

Figure F3.02 : FIELD RECORD BOOK
AIRPORT: example SEATING LOAD = 52.8 kN
DATE: 27 Sept. 1991 DEFLECTION = 0.40 mm

TEST NUMBER: 1 SETTLEMENT = 0.12 mm
FACILITY: 18-36
STATION: 5+302 ZERO LOAD = 26.4 kN
OFFSET: 3m L of C
L (LVDT's are set to zero with the zero
load applied)
PLATE SIZE: 600 mm
TIME START: 2:00 pm
TIME FINISH: 2:15 pm Rate of Loading = 60 kN/min
AIR TEMP: 10 C
PAV TEMP: 12 C TIME LOAD DEFL'N
WEATHER: cool, sunny (min) (kN) (mm)
TRAILER: A 0 18.6 0.0

DEAD LOAD: 600 mm plate 1 46.0 0.3
+ load pad 2 104.9 1.0
= 1.8 kN 3 165.6 1.9

CREW: BD, AK 4 225.8 2.8
COMMENTS: 5 289.0 3.6
Full tank of water. Pavement cracks 6 348.1 4.6
located 2m from test location 7 406.3 5.7
- F.28 -

CROL TEST RECORD
Airport : example
Test Number : 1 Test Date : 91/09/27

Facility : 18-36 Air Temp : 10C
Station : 5+302 Pav. Tem : 12C
Offset : 3m L Pavement Layer : surface
Trailer (s) : A
Dead Load : 600 mm diameter plate and load pad
Seating Load : 37.2 kN

Dead Weight : 1.8 kN
Corrected Seating Load : 38.0 kN
Rate of Loading : 60 kN per minute
Test Readings Time Uncorrected Corrected Uncorrected

Load Load Deflection
(min) (kN) (kN) (mm)
0 18.6 20.4 0.0

1 46.0 47.8 0.3
2 104.9 106.7 1.0
3 165.6 167.4 1.9
4 225.8 227.6 2.8
5 289.0 290.8 3.6
6 348.1 347.9 4.6
7 406.3 408.1 5.7
Corrected/adjusted load vs deflection relationship :
Defln (mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Load (kN) 81 158 230 296 356 411 -
Estimated plate bearing strength : PS = 597 kN
Remarks : Full tank of water. Pavement crack located 2 m from test location.
- F.29 -

Figure F3.04 : DEFLECTION CORRECTION GRAPH
500
a) Normal Curve Adjustment
400
Corrected Load (kN)
300
curve shifted to the right by

200 zero point correction to give
corrected load vs corrected deflection
100
zero point correction
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Deflection (mm)
500
b) Curve Adjustment for Inadequate Seating
400 curve shifted to the left by

seating correction to give
corrected load vs corrected deflection
Corrected Load (kN)
300
200
100
seating correction
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Deflection (mm)
- F.30 -

Airport : example Test Year : 1991
Test Facility Sta. Off. Layer Plate Load (kN) at Deflection (mm) of Plate
No. Dia. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bearing
Strength
(mm) (kN)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 18-36 5+302 3mL surf 600 81 158 230 296 356 411 - 597
2 18-36 5+400 3mR surf 600 107 209 304 390 - - - 771
3 18-36 5+500 3mL surf 600 76 151 225 302 382 468 562 706
4 18-36 5+600 3mR surf 600 98 190 280 376 - - - 747
5 18-36 5+700 3mL surf 600 73 142 208 273 338 406 478 611
6 18-36 5+800 3mR surf 600 57 118 180 245 311 377 444 572
7 18-36 5+900 3mL surf 600 82 161 240 319 400 483 - 690
8 18-36 6+000 3mR surf 600 94 189 277 351 403 - - 673
9 18-36 6+100 3mL surf 600 109 215 320 424 - - - 829
10 18-36 6+200 3mR surf 600 58 114 168 222 277 333 392 510
11 18-36 6+300 3mL surf 600 78 153 226 300 374 451 530 671
12 18-36 6+400 3mR surf 600 101 184 254 316 372 427 486 620
13 18-36 6+500 3mL surf 600 60 111 155 193 228 261 296 392
14 18-36 6+600 3mR surf 600 86 157 214 264 309 354 402 523
15 18-36 6+700 3mL surf 600 70 129 179 223 264 304 345 453
16 18-36 6+800 3mR surf 600 75 156 235 309 371 415 - 602
17 Taxi A 0+040 3mL surf 600 91 179 265 349 434 520 - 735
18 Taxi A 0+080 3mR surf 600 75 157 245 336 426 513 - 727
19 Taxi B 0+050 3mL surf 600 82 165 243 315 376 422 451 579
20 Taxi B 0+100 3mR surf 600 95 193 286 368 431 - - 714
21 Taxi B 0+150 3mL surf 600 105 199 281 351 407 449 476 609
22 Apron I 0+056 17mL surf 600 68 136 201 263 320 372 417 540
23 Apron I 0+046 19mR surf 600 56 106 151 192 230 265 297 394
24 Apron I 0+023 1mL surf 600 52 104 155 204 253 299 343 451
- F.31 -

Figure F3.06 : CROL LOAD vs PLATE BEARING STRENGTH
If the CROL test did not reach a deflection of 7 mm, estimate the load at a deflection of 7 mm by
extrapolation, or by using the following average load ratios. The load ratios are the same for all
plate sizes.
CROL load on plate of diameter 'D' at a deflection of 7 mm
load ratio =
CROL load on the same size of plate at a deflection of mm
deflection mm 3 4 5 6 7
average load ratio 2.00 1.56 1.30 1.12 1.00
3000
0.85
750 mm plate PS = 2.60 PC
0.90
2500
(750mm plate, 12.5mm defl'n, 10 reps)
2000 300mm O 450mm O 600mm O

750mm O
1500
Plate Bearing Strength PS (kN)
1000
500
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

CROL Load Giving 7 mm Deflection PC (kN)
- F.32 -
Section F4 STATIC PLATE LOAD TESTING OF CONCRETE PAVEMENTS December 2000
1. Scope
This test method covers measurement of the bearing strength of concrete pavements by plate load testing.
Use of the method is infrequent because the test may result in cracking of the concrete slab. Also, testing is
not usually needed as the bearing strength of concrete pavements can normally be calculated with an
accuracy sufficient for operational purposes.
2. Apparatus
(a) Reaction Load
(ii) capable of being lifted without structural damage, by a jack used to transmit load to the pavement;
(ii) Bearing Plates - The load generated by the hydraulic jack is transmitted to the pavement surface
through a circular steel or alloy plate, 300 mm in diameter and not less than 25 mm thick. Spacers
are provided as required between the bearing plate and the jack, and between the top of the jack
ramp and the reaction point on the loading trailer.
(v) Strain Gauges - Strain gauges are of the direct-reading mechanical type, recording between two
datum studs or discs affixed to the pavement. The strain gauges record over a length of not less
than 200 mm and are graduated to record 0.0001 units of strain.
- F.33 -
3. Test Set-Up
Examine the pavement for joint pattern and panel size, and to identify appropriate corners for testing.
Testing is normally carried out on the corner of an uncracked slab at the intersection of a construction and a
contraction joint. If tests are being carried out on a concrete pavement having a thin asphalt overlay,
corners can usually be found through inspection of reflection cracking in the asphalt.
After locating a suitable corner, position the 300 mm diameter plate against the two joints, and position the
dial bridge for supporting the deflection gauges so the bridge ends bear on adjacent panels.
Mount eight deflection gauges on the bridge in the layout shown in Figure F4.01(a). The usual gauge
identification number system is indicated in Figure F4.01(a). Gauge 1 measures the deflection of the test
panel corner, and is the prime measurement. Gauges 2 to 4 measure the deflection of the three adjacent
panel corners to obtain a measure of the load transfer across the joints. Gauges 5 to 8 are check gauges to
detect cracking of the slab. If an asphalt surfacing exists on the slab, remove sufficient asphalt to permit
the bearing of gauges 1 to 4 on the concrete surfaces.
If the pavement has a smooth surface, the bearing plate can be placed directly on the concrete. If the
surface is rough, place a thin layer of plaster of Paris beneath the plate to ensure full bearing. The end of
the deflection gauges can rest on the concrete when the surface is smooth; otherwise rest on a small piece
of glass or metal. After setting up the equipment, apply a load of about 30 kN to the plate for about
30 seconds to bed the plate, then release the load. Zero all gauges. Place thermometers near the plate to
measure the air and pavement surface temperature, and record temperatures on the test record sheet.
4. Test Procedure
Apply load to the plate in increments of about 30 kN and record readings of all gauges after settlement has
ceased under each increment. In the basic test procedure, the load is increased until the panel corner
cracks, when the test is considered positive and complete, or until the maximum load available has been
applied without cracking being noted. In the simplest case, cracking is both seen and heard. If the
pavement base is strong, cracking may only be apparent from the behaviour of the dial gauges (e.g., the
reading on gauge 1 may increase suddenly, or the readings on gauges 5 to 8 may change suddenly and one
or more may show a decreased reading). If cracking has been detected only from the gauges, the crack can
sometimes be located by dampening the pavement surface with water.
It is possible in most cases to stop loading just below the level producing a crack. This maximum loading
usually occurs within a range of panel corner deflection of 2 to 3 mm (gauge 1). An alternative and
preferable method of detecting the imminence of cracking (to enable loading to be taken as close as
possible to the point of failure without actually causing a crack), is to use four mechanical direct reading
strain gauges positioned as shown in Figure F4.01(b). Fix the locating discs for mounting the ends of the
strain gauges to the concrete with sealing wax. After application and release of the bedding load, zero the
four deflection gauges and the four strain gauges, and apply loading as before, recording readings of all
gauges. Pay close attention to the rate of increase of strain, and when the readings on one of the strain
gauges starts to increase rapidly relative to the other gauges, remove the load and consider the test to be
completed. The test record sheet should be suitably annotated.
- F.34 -
All load, deflection and strain data should be recorded in a field book during the test. Associated
conditions and observations should also be recorded, including the following:
date;
test location;
list of personnel;
weather conditions;
air and pavement temperatures;
plate size and stacking arrangement employed, dead weight of plates and jack;
identification of jack and load gauges used for reference to load calibration charts.
(a) In the office, transfer the data in the field books to a test record form as shown in Figure F4.02.
(c) Plot load versus deflection to obtain the failure load as illustrated in Figure F4.03.
(d) The safe load for the rigid pavement is equal to the failure load divided by a factor of 1.5:
failure load = 1.5 x safe load
(e) In determining allowable aircraft operation on rigid pavement, only the single equivalent wheel load of
the aircraft should be used to compare with the safe load, where equivalency is based on slab flexural
stress.
Figure F4.03 illustrates typical load versus deflection (strain) curves. The shape of the curves may follow
any one of the three cases illustrated. Graph (a) shows a simple test case for deflection gauges only, given
a readily observed failure point. Note that the recording of dial 1, located at the loaded corner, increases
rapidly at the same time as one of the dials (8 for example) along the diagonal indicates a recovery. This
indicates a crack has probably occurred between dial positions 7 and 8.
Occasionally one of the above phenomena may occur in the apparent absence of the second and hence all
dial readings should be closely studied. Changes of slope can be accentuated by plotting results using log-
log scales and, in the case of a strong base or subgrade, this procedure may be adopted as the standard
method of plotting.
Graph (b) in Figure F4.03 indicates the increased sensitivity of strain gauges along the pavement slab
diagonal compared to deflection gauges. Dial 1 at the loaded corner does not display any apparent rate of
increase in deflection, while strain gauge 2 readings are increasing rapidly.
If none of the graphs indicate failure, the original graph of dial 1 must be carefully studied, bearing in mind
the construction of the pavement, to assess whether any minor changes in slope are caused by failure (with
immediate substantial support from the base), or are due to minor inaccuracies in the gauges or gauge
readings. If it is decided no failure has taken place, then the failure load is taken as the maximum load
applied. See graph (c) in Figure F4.03.
- F.35 -
Another method of evaluation sometimes used for difficult graphs (those where failure is uncertain), is to
take the average safe load deflection from those graphs where failure can be positively identified, and use
this average deflection to obtain corresponding safe loads from the difficult graphs. This method can be
used when the general slope of all the graphs being considered is similar.
For very strong pavement, it is possible to apply very high loads with little or no indication of failure in any
of the tests. In these cases, the maximum applied load may have to be accepted, but allowance made in
later stages of the evaluation.
7. Joint Load Transfer
The measurements obtained from deflection gauges 1, 2, 3 and 4 can be used to estimate load transfer
across the corner joints. Percent load transfer across a joint is calculated as:
load transfer (%) = 100 x dmin / davg
where dmin is the minimum, and davg is the average of the deflections on either side of the joint. Load
transfer varies from joint to joint. Load transfer also varies with the magnitude of the applied load, and
from season to season as the joint opens and closes with temperature changes.
- F.36 -

Figure F4.01 : TEST LAYOUT
a) Test using deflection dials

along slab diagonal
deflection dials
4 3 contraction joint
2 1
300 mm O bearing plate
construction joint 5
6
75 mm
7
8
225 mm
b) Test using strain gauges

along slab diagonal
deflection dials
4 3 contraction joint
2 1
300 mm O bearing plate
1
strain gauges
construction joint
(position along slab

2 3 diagonal with
25 mm overlap)
4
- F.37 -

Figure F4.02 : TEST RECORD
Test Number: 4 Pavement Layer: slab surface (corner test)

Airport: example Facility: runway 02-20
Station: 5+300 Offset: 6 m R of CL
Plate Diameter: 300 mm Date: July 26
Weather: clear Air Temp: 18 C Pav. Temp: 20 C
Jack Description and Number: 1000T, H-W #3
Strain Gauge Numbers: nos. 1,2,3,4
Dial Numbers: nos. 1,2,3,4
Equipment: 3 - 300 mm plates, jack, 525 mm spacer
Equipment Dead Weight: 1.3 kN
Gauge Readings
Load (kN)
Deflection (mm) Strain (x10-3)
Applied Corrected 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
90 93.9 0.42 0.01 0.04 0.00 1 2 4 0
180 183.9 0.88 0.05 0.08 0.02 3 4 9 3
270 272.6 1.06 0.05 0.09 0.02 3 5 10 4
360 364.0 1.24 0.06 0.10 0.03 5 7 11 6
540 542.7 1.77 0.10 0.12 0.04 7 8 11 6
600 603.5 2.10 0.10 0.15 0.08 11 10 15 8
720 721.3 2.50 0.10 0.17 0.08 13 12 17 10
810 812.2 2.92 0.12 0.17 0.09 15 15-40 4 1
Failure Load = 720 kN Safe Load = 750 / 1.5 = 480 kN

Note : Failure cannot be detected from deflection gauges alone. At a load of 810 kN, strain gauge #2 shows
a sudden increase, indicating failure. This is confirmed by decreases shown by strain gauges #3 and #4.
Non-recovery of deflection gauge #1 after load release is further proof. Not all loads applied are listed
above. The data are plotted in Figure F.C03(b).
- F.38 -

Figure F4.03 : FAILURE LOAD DETERMINATION
A B
720
Failure Load
600 600
e #4
#2
Failure Load
gaug
e
strain gaug
#1
Load kN
Load kN
e
n
#1
aug
strai
auge
ng
tio
g
lec
ction
def
300 300
Failure Load = 600 kN defle Failure Load = 720 kN

Safe Load = 400 kN Safe Load = 480 kN
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Deflection mm / Strain x 10-2 Deflection mm / Strain x 10-2
strain gauges C
1 2 3 4
720
600
#1
ge
ga u
Load kN
tio n
safe load = failure load

lec
def
1.5
Note:
300 No failure.
Take maximum test
load as failure load.
Failure Load = 720 kN

Safe Load = 480 kN
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Deflection mm / Strain x 10-2
- F.39 -
Section F5 FALLING WEIGHT DEFLECTOMETER (HWD) TESTING December 2000
1. Scope
This test method covers measurement of the load-deflection characteristics of an asphalt pavement surface
under a impact load. The load is generated by lifting and dropping a weight onto a buffer system
transmitting a load impulse to the pavement surface through a circular plate. The data obtained are used for
the structural evaluation and design of airport pavements.
(Note: Falling weight deflectometers are available in different models and sizes. For the testing of airport
pavements, use only the heavy weight deflectometer (HWD), giving a peak impulse load of about 250 kN
applied to the pavement surface through a 450 mm diameter plate.)
2. Apparatus
(a) Loading Device - a trailer-mounted weight moving vertically within a guide framework, lifted to
various heights and dropped to impart a load impulse to the pavement surface. The buffer system on
which the weight drops transmits a load pulse in the shape of a half-sine wave, with duration of about
50 milliseconds. The system should provide a load impulse reaching a peak of about 250 kN or
greater.
(b) Loading Plate - a 450 mm diameter plate capable of imparting an approximate uniformly distributed
load to the pavement surface.
(c) Load Cell - to measure the load imparted to the pavement surface, and positioned in the loading
assembly to minimize the mass between itself and the pavement surface; load measurement accuracy
to be within 200 N.
(d) Deflection Sensors - 7 deflection sensors; one positioned at the centre of the plate, and 6 others
usually positioned at distances of 450, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, and 1800 mm from the centre of plate;
deflection measuring accuracy to be within 0.001 mm.
(e) Control and Recording Unit - a computer system programmed to control the testing sequence, and to
record the load and deflection.
Figure F5.01 provides a schematic illustrating apparatus components and test set-up.
3. Calibration
(a) Recent calibration data should be available to certify the accuracy of the load and deflection
measurements.
4. Test Procedure
(a) At the start of testing, precondition the HWD by dropping the weight 5 times and check the difference
in loading. If load readings differ by more than 3%, overhaul the apparatus as required to achieve load
repeatability.
(b) When testing weak pavement structures, perform an initial check in a non-critical area to ensure the
pavement can sustain a maximum impulse load of about 250 kN. Reduce maximum testing load if
necessary to avoid damage in the form of permanent deformation or plate perimeter cracking.
- F.40 -
(c) Position the trailer at the test location and lower the bearing plate and deflection sensors to firmly rest
on the pavement surface. Raise the weight to the desired level and drop, recording the peak load and
peak deflection. Perform the test at three load levels, in approximately equal increments to the third
and maximum load.
(d) Perform three tests at each test location, with the tests offset from one another by about 1 m. Perform
additional tests at the location if results from the initial three tests are not in reasonable agreement.
(e) A printed test record should be available for each test, similar to Figure F5.02. Air and pavement
surface temperatures should be recorded at hourly intervals, and interpolated values recorded on the
test form.
5. Data Analysis
(a) Correct the deflections to the standard asphalt testing temperature of 21C, using the correction factors
given in Table F5.01.
(b) Plot a load-deflection diagram for each test location as illustrated in Figure F5.03. Average the three
or more tests at each test location, discarding any test result differing significantly from the others.
Extrapolate if necessary to the 250 kN load level.
(c) Summarize results of the testing program as in Figure F5.04. Provide a site diagram showing test
locations.
(d) Estimate plate bearing strength from the HWD deflection at 250 kN impulse load, using the
relationship given in Figure F5.05.
(Note: HWD measurements are not well related in some instances to repetitive static plate load
measurements. While the majority of pavements conform to a general relationship, significant differences
arise for some types of pavement structures because HWD testing provides primarily a dynamic measure of
elastic properties only, while repetitive static plate testing provides a combined measure of elastic, viscous
and plastic properties. Subgrade plate bearing strengths derived from HWD tests at the surface of a
pavement should be checked for reasonableness, based on the normal range of strengths exhibited by the
type of subgrade soil involved.)
- F.41 -
Table F5.01 : HWD Deflection Correction Factors for Test Temperature
Asphalt Deflection Asphalt Deflection Asphalt Deflection Asphalt Deflection

Test Temp Correction Test Temp Correction Test Temp Correction Test Temp Correction
C Factor C Factor C Factor C Factor
---------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------
0 1.600 10 1.166 20 1.007 30 0.950
1 1.535 11 1.142 21 1.000 31 0.949
2 1.485 12 1.122 22 0.992 32 0.946
3 1.426 13 1.102 23 0.987 33 0.944
4 1.377 14 1.085 24 0.974 34 0.942
5 1.332 15 1.070 25 0.970 35 0.940
6 1.292 16 1.056 26 0.964 36 0.939
7 1.255 17 1.043 27 0.960 37 0.938
8 1.223 18 1.031 28 0.956 38 0.937
9 1.192 19 1.020 29 0.952 39 0.936
(Note: To correct deflection, multiply the measured deflection by the factor corresponding to the
temperature of the asphalt at the time of testing.)
Figure F5.01 : HWD EQUIPMENT SET-UP
hydraulic lift piston
weights towing vehicle

containing
trailer housing computer controls
and recording
equipment
strike plate transducer suspension bar

trailer platform
retractable transducers
450 mm 150 300 300 300 300

transducer
load cell
450 mm bearing plate
- F.42 -
Section F5 FALLING WEIGHT DEFLECTOMETER (FWD) TESTING December 2000

Figure F5.02 : HWD TEST PRINTOUT
File: A:\OTTAWA.HWD
Site: Ottawa International Airport
Section: Runway 14-32
HWD S/N : 8082-019

Operator ID: V.C.
Stationing...: Kilometres
Diameter of Plate : 450

Deflector Distances : 450 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Transport Canada
Sequence: 21234
Chainage: 5+099 to 7+801

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stn: 5+199 Lane: 3mL Temp: J/C: Air: 13 PvT: 24 10:23
kPa kN Df1 Df2 Df3 Df4 Df5 Df6 Df7
444 70.62 284 204 164 117 86 64 49
945 150.30 591 424 351 254 187 139 107
1234 196.26 742 535 443 321 238 177 136
1578 250.97 922 659 548 399 296 221 170
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
437 69.50 252 180 148 108 81 61 46
938 149.18 542 394 326 243 183 138 108
1229 195.46 690 500 417 312 236 179 138
1582 251.61 857 620 517 390 295 224 174
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
439 69.82 223 179 148 108 81 58 47
937 149.02 497 390 327 242 180 132 105
1215 193.24 632 491 414 307 228 171 134
1558 247.49 793 610 516 383 286 216 169
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stn: 5+299 Lane: 3mR Temp: J/C: Air: 14 PvT: 25 10:28
434 69.02 212 157 142 99 76 56 50
931 148.07 481 360 304 230 177 135 104
1224 194.67 628 469 396 302 232 178 139
1577 250.81 796 591 501 383 296 228 178
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stn: 5+300 Lane: 3mR Temp: J/C: Air: 13 PvT: 24 10:29
432 68.71 199 152 127 97 73 56 44
933 148.39 463 355 300 231 177 137 107
1220 194.03 600 458 390 301 232 179 140
1579 251.13 762 578 494 381 296 228 178
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- F.43 -

Figure F5.03 : HWD DEFLECTION vs LOAD
1.00
Ottawa International
Location 26
Runway 14-32
Station 5+200
0.80
station 5+199
station 5+200
station 5+201
0.60
Peak Deflection (mm)
average curve
0.40
load deflection
50 0.19
100 0.36
150 0.53
200 0.70
250 0.87
0.20 estimated PS = 1150 kN
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Peak Impulse Load (kN)
- F.44 -

Airport : Ottawa MacDonald-Cartier International
Test Year : 1992
Location HWD Deflection (mm) at a Load (kN) of PS (kN)

No Facility Station Offset 50 100 150 200 250 Estimated
1 07-25 5+100 3mL 0.36 0.66 0.96 1.19 1.40 714

2 07-25 5+200 3mR 0.15 0.30 0.47 0.62 0.76 1316
3 07-25 5+300 3mL 0.15 0.30 0.47 0.62 0.76 1316
4 07-25 5+400 3mR 0.16 0.33 0.50 0.64 0.78 1282
5 07-25 5+500 3mL 0.11 0.23 0.35 0.46 0.56 1786
6 07-25 5+600 3mR 0.09 0.19 0.28 0.38 0.46 2174
7 07-25 5+700 3mL 0.28 0.53 0.77 0.97 1.15 870
8 07-25 5+800 3mR 0.26 0.48 0.70 0.88 1.04 962
9 07-25 5+900 3mL 0.35 0.66 0.97 1.21 1.43 699
10 07-25 6+000 3mR 0.32 0.61 0.90 1.12 1.32 758
11 07-25 6+100 3mL 0.23 0.47 0.71 0.92 1.11 901
12 07-25 6+200 3mR 0.34 0.66 0.98 1.22 1.44 694
13 07-25 6+300 3mL 0.24 0.43 0.67 0.86 1.03 971
14 07-25 6+400 3mR 0.33 0.63 0.92 1.14 1.32 758
15 07-25 6+500 3mL 0.19 0.39 0.59 0.75 0.89 1124
16 07-25 6+600 3mR 0.27 0.51 0.74 0.92 1.07 935
17 07-25 6+700 3mL 0.19 0.38 0.57 0.72 0.86 1163
18 07-25 6+800 3mR 0.41 0.74 1.05 1.30 1.52 658
19 07-25 6+900 3mL 0.26 0.49 0.71 0.89 1.05 952
20 07-25 7+000 3mR 0.39 0.73 1.07 1.33 1.56 641
21 07-25 7+100 3mL 0.24 0.46 0.68 0.86 1.03 971
22 07-25 7+200 3mR 0.41 0.73 1.04 1.26 1.46 685
23 07-25 7+300 3mL 0.39 0.69 0.96 1.17 1.35 741
24 07-25 7+350 3mR 0.50 0.87 1.23 1.48 1.71 585
25 14-32 5+200 3mL 0.19 0.36 0.53 0.70 0.87 1150
26 14-32 5+300 3mR 0.15 0.30 0.47 0.62 0.77 1299
27 14-32 5+400 3mL 0.18 0.35 0.52 0.68 0.83 1205
28 14-32 5+500 3mR 0.33 0.60 0.88 1.10 1.31 783
29 14-32 5+600 3mL 0.24 0.46 0.69 0.88 1.06 943
30 14-32 5+700 3mR 0.22 0.46 0.71 0.92 1.11 901
31 14-32 5+800 3mL 0.24 0.49 0.74 0.95 1.15 870
32 14-32 5+900 3mR 0.22 0.42 0.62 0.80 0.96 1042
33 14-32 6+000 3mL 0.32 0.59 0.84 1.04 1.24 806
34 14-32 6+100 3mR 0.21 0.41 0.62 0.81 0.99 1010
35 14-32 6+200 3mL 0.19 0.38 0.57 0.73 0.88 1136
36 14-32 6+300 3mR 0.25 0.50 0.74 0.93 1.10 909
37 14-32 6+400 3mL 0.19 0.37 0.54 0.69 0.82 1220
38 14-32 6+500 3mR 0.26 0.54 0.82 1.04 1.25 800
39 14-32 6+600 3mL 0.27 0.56 0.87 1.12 1.34 746
40 14-32 6+700 3mR 0.29 0.57 0.84 1.06 1.26 794
- F.45 -

Figure F5.05 : PLATE BEARING STRENGTH vs HWD DEFLECTION
1400
Plate Bearing Strength PS (kN) (750mm plate, 12.5mm defl'n, 10 reps.)
PS = 1000 /
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
HWD Deflection (mm) under 250 kN Impulse Load, 450 mm Plate
Notes:
(a) Data points are runway averages.
(b) HWD measurements made with Dynatest model 8081.
- F.46 -
Section F6 BENKELMAN BEAM TESTING OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS December 2000
1. Scope
This test method covers the measurement of the rebound deflection of an asphalt pavement surface after
removal of a static truck loading. A truck suitable for loading purposes is available at most airports and
only a Benkelman Beam need be obtained for testing purposes. The method may be used to evaluate the
bearing capacity of lower strength airport pavements.
2. Apparatus
(a) The test apparatus includes a Benkelman Beam with the following controlling dimensions as illustrated
in Figure F6.01:
(i) length of probe arm from pivot to probe tip 2440 mm;
(ii) length of measurement arm from pivot to deflection dial 1220 mm;
(iii) length from pivot to front legs 250 mm;
(iv) length from pivot to rear leg 1650 mm;
(v) lateral spacing of front support legs 330 mm.
(b) A 50 kN truck is suggested as the test vehicle. The vehicle must have an 80 kN rear axle load equally
distributed on two wheels, each equipped with dual tires. The tires must be 10.00 x 20, 12-ply, inflated
to a pressure of 550 kPa. The centre-to-centre distance of the dual tires should be 320 mm. The tires
should be of the tube type with rib tread in good condition.
(c) The test apparatus also includes pavement temperature measuring equipment.
3. Test Location and Preparation
At each test location, six individual Benkelman Beam deflection measurements are performed. These
readings should be divided equally between left and right dual wheels. Determinations are to be made
within an area of approximately 5 m2 in the general test location. The Benkelman Beam device is sensitive
apparatus. Considerable care must be taken to ensure reproducible reliable data are obtained with special
attention paid to the following:
accurate levelling of the datum beam;
intimate contact of the probe tip with the pavement surface;
free movement of the deflection beam about the axis;
protection of the beam from wind, vibration and large temperature change during any one test.
The pavement temperature readings at a given test location should not change by more than 2C from the
average, as pavement temperature influences the test result. If the readings fail to fall within the
temperature range, sufficient additional readings should be taken to ensure six readings are obtained within
the specified temperature range.
4. Test Procedure
(a) Select and mark the test location on the pavement surface.
(b) Centre the dual tires of the truck above the test location.
(c) Insert the probe of the Benkelman Beam between the dual tires and place the probe tip on the selected
test point.
- F.47 -
(d) Release the locking pin of the beam and adjust the legs so the plunger on the beam is in contact with
the stem of the dial gauge.
(e) Record the initial reading on the dial gauge when the rate of deformation of the pavement is equal to or
less than 0.025 mm per minute (i.e., when the change in the dial reading is equal to or less than
0.013 mm per minute). Briefly buzz an electric bell attached to the Benkelman Beam 10 seconds
before the dial gauge is to be read.
(f) Drive the truck slowly forward at least 10 m.
(g) Record the final reading when the rate of recovery of the pavement is equal to or less than 0.025 mm
per minute (i.e. when the change in dial reading is equal to or less than 0.013 mm per minute).
(h) Record the pavement and air temperature at least once every hour.
(i) Check the tire pressure of the test wheels at 2 to 3 hour intervals and adjust to the standard 550 kPa as
necessary.
(j) Check the wheel loads at least once on highway scales, or if these are not available, on loadmeters.
Note: For this test, a dial test indicator giving an increasing reading when the stem is pushed in is
preferred. Record the type of dial test indicator used in the front of each Benkelman Beam test book.
date;
test location;
list of personnel;
weather conditions;
description of vehicle used - weight, tire pressure, wheel spacing and tire size;
layout of tests at each test location.
Figure F6.02 gives an example of field recorded data.
As temperature decreases, the bitumen binder in the asphalt concrete surfacing course becomes stiffer. The
load distribution capacity of the pavement structure is increased, resulting in lower deflection and rebound
values. For this reason, Benkelman Beam rebounds should be temperature corrected to the standard test
temperature of 21C, using the adjustment factors given in Table F6.01.
- F.48 -
When summarizing the Benkelman Beam test data in the office, the following steps should be included:
(a) For each test location, transfer deflection data from the field book to a form as illustrated in
Figure F6.03.
(b) The static rebound deflection value of the pavement surface is twice the Benkelman reading. Multiply
the Benkelman reading by two as indicated in column 3.
(c) Calculate the average and standard deviation of the six readings.
(d) Summarize test program information as illustrated in Figure F6.04.
The standard measure of plate bearing strength is obtained through repetitive static plate load testing and is
the load in kilonewtons producing an accumulated deflection of 12.5 mm after 10 load repetitions when the
load is applied through a 750 mm diameter plate. The standard measure of plate bearing strength may be
estimated from Benkelman beam rebound deflections using the relationship given in Figure F6.05.
Table F6.01 : Temperature Adjustment Factors for Benkelman Beam Rebound Readings
Adjustment factors developed by the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways
Temp C Factor Temp C Factor Temp C Factor Temp C Factor
0 1.600 10 1.166 20 1.007 30 0.950

1 1.535 11 1.142 21 1.000 31 0.948
2 1.485 12 1.122 22 0.992 32 0.946
3 1.426 13 1.102 23 0.987 33 0.944
4 1.377 14 1.085 24 0.974 34 0.942
5 1.332 15 1.070 25 0.970 35 0.940
6 1.292 16 1.056 26 0.964 36 0.939
7 1.255 17 1.043 27 0.960 37 0.938
8 1.223 18 1.031 28 0.956 38 0.937
9 1.192 19 1.020 29 0.952 39 0.936
- F.49 -

Figure F6.01 : BENKELMAN BEAM
VIEW 'A'
dial bracket dial micrometer gauge
buzzer beam lock buzzer switch
battery
adjustable
probe beam rear leg
see view 'A'
probe beam
measurement
rod beam guide
reference beam
1400 mm
1220 mm
carrying handle
front legs
250 mm
rigid joint
50 mm
ball bearing pivot
probe beam
2440 mm
25 mm
25 mm probe tip
- F.50 -

LEFT DUALS RIGHT DUALS

TEST
No. Time Dial Diff. Time Dial Diff.
DATE: June 27, 1977 (min) (mm) (mm) (min) (mm) (mm)
LOCATION No: 2 1 0 17.780
.038
FACILITY: 09 - 27 1 17.818
.008
STATION: 5 + 300 2 17.826 truck driven forward
3 17.572 dial rebound = 0.284

OFFSET: 2m L of C
L .038
TIME START: 9:30 am 4 17.534
.008
TIME FINISH: 10:36 am 5 17.526
air pav.
TEMP. START: 26 C 28 C 2 0 20.320
.039
TEMP. FINISH 28 C 32 C 1 20.359
.012
WEATHER: partly cloudy, calm truck driven forward 2 20.371
dial rebound = 0.284 3 20.102
CREW: B.D., M. F.
.027
VEHICLE DATA: 4 20.075
.011
axle load: 80 kN 5 20.064
tire: 10.00 x 20 - 12 ply 3 0 20.320

.008
tire pressure: 550 kPa 1 20.328 truck driven forward
2 20.030 dial rebound = 0.290

wheel spacing: 320 mm
.012
3 20.018
Layout of test 4 0 17.780

.036
2m L of C
L 1 17.816
x
2 .010
truck driven forward 2 17.826
x6 3x dial rebound = 0.260 3 17.556
1
x 2.5m .012
4 17.544
4
x5 x
Note: Criteria for settlement/rebound end point is a rate of movement of 0.025 mm per minute, or a
change in dial reading of less than 0.013 mm per minute.
- F.51 -

Figure F6.03 : BENKELMAN BEAM TEST RECORD
BENKELMAN BEAM TEST RECORD
Location Number 2 Airport example
Facility 09 - 27 Pavement Layer surface
Station 5 + 300 Weather partly cloudy
Offset 2m L of CL Pavement Temp. 30 C
Date June 28, 1977 Air Temp. 27 C
Dial Rebound B.B. Rebound
Test X/2 X
Number (mm) (mm)
1 0.284 0.568
2 0.284 0.568
3 0.290 0.580
4 0.260 0.520
5 0.279 0.558
6 0.269 0.538
= 3.332
n = 6
x = 0.555
= 0.022
Axle Load: 80 kN Tire Size: 10.00 x 20.00 - 12 ply

Tire Pressure: 550 kPa Tire Spacing: 320 mm
- F.52 -

Airport example Year 1977
Test Identification Test Data

Date Loc. PS
Temperature C Benk. Beam (kN)
Facility Station Offset No. of
D/M No.
Temp.
Pav. Air Tests Test
Corrected
28/6 1 09-27 5 + 240 2mR 30 27 6 0.61 0.58 565
2 09-27 5 + 300 2mL 30 27 6 0.55 0.52 622
3 09-27 5 + 370 2mR 30 27 6 0.69 0.66 505
4 09-27 5 + 430 2mL 30 27 6 0.79 0.75 451
5 09-27 5 + 490 2mR 24 18 6 1.04 1.01 347
6 09-27 5 + 550 2mL 24 18 6 1.83 1.78 211
7 09-27 5 + 610 2mR 24 18 6 1.63 1.59 233
8 09-27 5 + 670 2mL 24 18 6 2.16 2.10 182
9 09-27 5 + 730 2mR 27 21 6 1.93 1.85 204
10 09-27 5 + 790 2mL 27 21 6 2.03 1.95 194
- F.53 -

Figure F6.05 : PLATE LOAD vs BENKELMAN BEAM REBOUND
2000
Plate Bearing Strength PS (kN) (750 mm plate, 12.5mm defl'n, 10 reps)
1000
500
200
100
area of no correlation -0.88
PS = 350
use PS = 780 kN
50
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10
Benkelman Beam Rebound (mm)
- F.54 -
Section F7 SUBGRADE CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TESTING IN-SITU December 2000
1. Scope
This test method covers the in-situ field measurement of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of pavement
subgrades. The method involves forcing a circular, flat-faced piston into the soil, and comparing the
resulting load-penetration relationship to the relationship obtained with a standard reference material. The
data obtained are used for the structural design and evaluation of pavements.
(Note: The method presented is for field in-situ testing. If the subgrade soil is cohesive in nature, an
alternative procedure is to take undisturbed samples, transport to the laboratory ensuring no loss of
moisture, and employ laboratory CBR testing equipment.)
2. Apparatus
Commercially available CBR field testing kits contain the following major pieces of equipment:
(a) Penetration Piston - 49.6 0.05 mm in diameter and approximately 1000 mm long (bearing area
1935 mm2).
(b) Surcharge Plate and Weights - surcharge plate 4.5 kg mass, 250 mm in diameter, with a hole through
the centre to accommodate the penetration piston. Surcharge weights 215 mm in diameter and slotted
to fit around the penetration piston. The total surcharge required (plate plus weights) is 13.5 kg.
(c) Pipe Extensions - internally threaded pipe extensions and connectors to serve as spacers between the
penetration piston and the load cell. Suggested lengths are: two at 40 mm, two at 100 mm, one at 300
mm, one at 600 mm and one at 900 mm.
(d) Proving Rings - two proving rings should be available for use, one with a maximum capacity of about
10 kN and another with a maximum capacity of about 25 kN. The proving ring dial gauge should read
to the nearest 0.0025 mm.
(e) Mechanical Screw Jack - for applying load to the penetration piston:
equipped with a swivel head,
a loading capacity of at least 35 kN,
a lift extension of 85 to 125 mm,
have at least two gear ratios (high and low) with the low gear ratio capable of providing a constant
penetration rate of 1.25 mm per minute.
(f) Deflection Beam and Gauge - a rigid beam at least 1.5 m in length and supported on each end, with a
dial deflection gauge reading to the nearest 0.025 mm and a stem travel of about 25 mm.
The reaction load available should be at least 35 kN. A truck with a beam mounted to the rear frame
members may serve as the reaction load. Alternatively, heavier construction equipment or a loaded truss
may be used. The jacking point on the reaction load should have a ground clearance of at least 0.5 m.
3. Scheduling of Tests
If testing is for pavement structural evaluation purposes, subgrade soil moisture contents and other
conditions at the time of test must be representative of prevailing conditions. Testing should be conducted
during summer or fall months, and should not occur until at least two years after construction.
- F.55 -
4. Test Procedure
(a) Open a test pit to expose the surface to be tested. Exercise care in the final removal of material so the
test surface is level and the material beneath is not disturbed.
(b) Assemble the testing apparatus as illustrated in Figure F7.02. Ensure the loading column is plumb and
jacking against the reaction load provides a stable arrangement.
(c) Centre the surcharge plate beneath the penetration piston, then lower the piston through the hole in the
plate and seat with the minimum load necessary but not exceeding 50 N. If the test surface is irregular,
use a fine layer of limestone screenings or plaster of Paris beneath the penetration piston to obtain
uniform bearing.
(d) With the seating load applied to the piston, raise the surcharge plate and spread a thin layer of fine sand
beneath the plate to distribute surcharge weight uniformly. Add the surcharge weights to the plate to
provide a total surcharge of 13.5 kg.
(e) Set the dial gauges to zero.
(f) Apply the load to the penetration piston so the rate of penetration is about 1.25 mm per minute.
(g) Record the deflection of the proving ring at each 0.5 mm increment of penetration, to a penetration
depth of 10 mm.
(h) If specified to be part of the test, take a moisture sample from beneath the penetration piston and test to
ASTM D2216. Take a density sample about 100 mm to 150 mm offset from the point of penetration
and test to ASTM D1556 or ASTM D2167.
5. Number of Tests
(a) At each test station, perform at least two tests on the subgrade surface, at 150 mm below the subgrade
surface and at 300 mm below the subgrade surface.
(b) Perform additional tests if there is not reasonable agreement between the two tests made on any one
level, or if a test is discovered to be invalid for reasons such as a rock or void having been found
beneath the penetration piston.
(c) Tests should be displaced laterally from one another by at least 300 mm in cohesive soils and 600 mm
in cohesionless soils.
6. Calculations
(a) From the proving ring deflection readings, calculate the unit load (MPa) on the penetration piston and
prepare a unit load versus penetration graph as illustrated in Figure F7.03. If the initial portion of the
unit load-penetration curve is concave upwards, correct the curve as shown in Figures F7.03 (b) and
(c).
(b) The standard material against which comparisons are made to determine CBR has a unit load-
penetration curve plotted with the following values:
penetration (mm) 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0

unit load (MPa) 6.9 10.3 13.1 15.8
- F.56 -
(c) Calculate the CBR values from the test results at penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm, by dividing the
test-corrected unit loads at these penetrations by the standard material unit loads of 6.9 and 10.3 MPa
respectively. These ratios are then multiplied by 100 to obtain CBR in percentage form. Normally, the
CBR value given as the test result is the value determined at the 2.5 mm penetration. If the CBR at a
5.0 mm penetration is higher, results should be checked, and if confirmed, the higher value may be
used.
(Note: If CBR values at higher penetrations are of interest, they may be calculated as above, using the
standard material unit loads given in paragraph 5.0 (b).)
(d) Average the CBR values obtained on the three test levels (depths from subgrade surface of 0 mm,
150 mm and 300 mm) to report a single value for the test station.
The standard measure of subgrade plate bearing strength is obtained through repetitive static plate load
testing, and is the load in kilonewtons producing an accumulated deflection of 12.5 mm after 10 load
repetitions, when the load is applied through a 750 mm diameter plate. The standard measure of
subgrade plate bearing strength may be estimated from CBR values using the relationship given in
Figure F7.01.
Figure F7.01 : PLATE BEARING STRENGTH vs CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO
300
FORT ST. JOHN
Plate Bearing Strength PS (kN) (750mm plate, 12.5mm defl'n, 10 reps)
GRANDE PRAIRIE
SASKATOON
LETHBRIDGE
DORVAL
250
WINNIPEG
MALTON
REGINA
200 BR
1C
+1
40
=
PS
150
100
Note:
Apply an appropriate spring reduction
50 factor when using this relationship to
estimate subgrade bearing strength from
CBR. Use about one-half the normal
reduction if using lab soaked CBR values.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
California Bearing Ratio - CBR (field conditions)
- F.57 -
Figure F7.02 : CBR FIELD TESTING SET-UP
I-beam mounted on a truck
swivel
reaction load reaction load
mechanical screw jack (35 kN min.)
proving ring
pipe extensions
penetration piston
(bearing area 1935 mm2)
test deflection dial
pit surcharge plate & weight (13.5 kg)
support beam for

deflection dial
test surface
Figure F7.03 : UNIT LOAD vs PENETRATION
10
(a) no correction (b) seating correction (c) correction for concave
upward curve
8
Unit Load (MPa)
6
e
curv
rve
d cu
ed
4
rect
ecte
cor
corr
curve correction = - 0.3 mm curve correction = - 1.3 mm

0
0 5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15
Penetration (mm)
- F.58 -
Section F8 PRESSUREMETER TESTING OF SUBGRADE December 2000
1. Scope
This method covers the in-situ measurement of subgrade stress-strain characteristics by pressuremeter
testing. The pressuremeter is a dilatable cylinder lowered in a test hole to the desired depth of test, and
then expanded against the walls of the test hole. Pressure is increased in increments, and volume is
recorded after each pressure level is maintained constant for a specified period. Pressuremeter testing is
used primarily for the design of building foundations, but may be used for the investigation of pavement
subgrades.
This method covers pressuremeter testing in pre-bored test holes only; testing with self-boring or push-in
type pressuremeters is not covered.
2. Apparatus
Various types and sizes of pressuremeter are available. The following is a general description of a
commonly used triple cell type of pressuremeter. See Figure F.8.01.
(a) the probe - a hollow cylinder with an inner rubber membrane fixed to the central part (measuring cell)
and an outer protective sheath extending the length of the probe. Load is transmitted to the walls of the
test hole by using water pressure to expand the inner rubber membrane, and soil deformation is
measured by recording the resulting volume increase of the measuring cell. The outer protective
sheath may be rubber in the case of soft soils, but is usually covered with expandable metallic strips for
testing in coarse-grained soils. Gas, under a specified lower pressure than the water, is used to expand
the outer sheath into contact with the soil above and below the central measuring cell. The upper and
lower guard cells maintain the soil in a state of plain strain.
(b) the control panel - a panel on the ground surface on which are fixed pressure regulators, gauges,
valves, etc. A reservoir supplies water to the system, with volume changes read on a calibrated sight-
tube. Pressure may be generated using a bottle of compressed air, carbon dioxide or nitrogen.
Nitrogen, with a lesser degree of water solubility, is required for high pressure testing (> 2000 kPa) in
very stiff soils or rock.
(c) coaxial tubing - semi-rigid tubing connecting the control unit to the probe. The inner tube transmits
water pressure to the central measuring cell; the outer tube transmits gas pressure to the guard cells and
provides resistance to expansion of the pressurized inner tube.
3. Pressures
The pressure in the probe measuring cell is the sum of the pressure applied to the water circuit as indicated
by a meter on the control panel, plus the pressure due to hydrostatic head if the probe is at a lower elevation
than the water reservoir on the control panel. Assuming the measuring cell fluid is water, the hydrostatic
pressure is approximately 10 kPa per metre of head.
Pressure in the guard cells should be lower than the pressure in the measuring cell to ensure the measuring
cell membrane remains in firm contact with the wall of the test hole. The pressure differential
recommended by equipment manufacturers is commonly in the order of 100 kPa. To maintain this
difference in pressure between measuring cell and guard cells, the pressure differential set between the
water and gas pressure gauges on the control panel depends on the depth of the test and the hydrostatic
head in the measuring cell. As example, for a test depth of zero metres, the gas pressure gauge should read
100 kPa less than the water pressure gauge; for a test depth of 10 m, the gas pressure reading should equal
the water pressure reading.
- F.59 -
4. Assembly and Calibration
The apparatus should be calibrated for volume and pressure losses before each use, and after sheath or
membrane replacement, or other circumstance changing equipment response characteristics. The details of
calibrating a pressuremeter should be available in the operating manual accompanying the equipment, but
procedures are generally as follows. As a safety precaution in the event of the probe bursting, the probe
should be placed in a suitable enclosure during calibration.
The equipment is first assembled, and the water system filled with fluid and de-aired according to the
manufacturers instructions. To check the system is leak proof and properly de-aired, the probe is placed in
a thick walled, non-deforming steel tube having an internal diameter equal to 1.005 times the outside
diameter of the probe. Pressure is increased to obtain a pressure-volume curve as illustrated in
Figure F8.02(a). The initial portion of the pressure-volume curve, from A to B, represents expansion of the
probe into contact with the walls of the confining tube. At 500 kPa pressure (point C), firm contact exists
and the pressure is then increased to the maximum working pressure (point D). The volume increase from
point C to point D should not exceed 0.1% of the nominal volume of the deflated probe, per 100 kPa of
pressure increase. Corrective measures are needed if this tolerance is exceeded as the system is not
adequately de-aired, or is leaking, or has tubing that deforms excessively.
When deflating the probe following the check for saturation, zero volume is taken as the volume reached
when the probe can first be withdrawn from the confining tube. With the probe at this volume, the
volumeter reading scale is brought to zero level by adding or wasting water so all tests start with the probe
at the same deflated volume. The total volume of the test cavity must be known for post-test calculations,
and this total equals the volume occupied by the probe measuring cell at zero volume, V0, plus the volume
of injected water as indicated by the panel volumeter. The volume occupied by the probe measuring cell at
zero volume, V0, is calculated as the cross-sectional area of the confining tube times the length of the
measuring cell.
A volume correction (Vc) is required to test readings to compensate for the compression of the membrane,
sheath, and water, and for the expansion under pressure of the tubing and other system components.
Volume correction is small for most soils, but may be significant in the testing of stiff soils. To calibrate
for volume increases not due to soil deformation, the probe is placed in the steel confining tube and
pressure is first applied at 500 kPa. The pressure is then increased in two or three increments up to the
maximum working pressure (with the recommended pressure differential maintained between measuring
cell and the guard cells). Volume is recorded at each pressure level after the pressure has been held
constant for 60 seconds. Figure F8.02(b) illustrates the resulting pressure versus volume curve and the
determination of volume correction. The volume increase in excess of V0 does not represent an increase in
probe diameter, and this volume loss must be subtracted from test volume readings. As specified for the
saturation check, volume loss should not exceed 0.1% of the nominal volume of the deflated probe, per 100
kPa of pressure increase.
A pressure correction (Pc) to test readings is required to compensate for the force required to expand the
measuring cell membrane and the protective sheath. This pressure must be subtracted from test recorded
pressures to arrive at the pressure actually transmitted to the soil. Prior to the calibration for pressure
correction, the probe should be inflated to maximum working volume and deflated four or five times, to
stretch and adjust the membrane, sheath and other components to a working state. Calibration is performed
with the probe placed unconfined at the level of the pressure gauge. Pressure is then increased in
increments to give a volume increase under each increment equal to approximately 10% of the deflated
volume of the probe. Volume is recorded at each pressure level after the pressure has been held constant
for 60 seconds and the resulting pressure versus volume curve, illustrated in Figure F8.02(c), gives the
pressure correction to be applied to test readings.
- F.60 -
5. Test Hole
A satisfactory test hole is the most critical element of a pressuremeter test. The diameter of the test hole
should be in the range of 3% to 20% larger than the diameter of the deflated probe. The equipment and
procedures used must result in minimum disturbance to the walls of the test hole and the adjacent soil.
Several methods are available to establish test holes, and suitable methods depend on soil conditions
(ref. 1,2,3).
For the testing of pavement subgrades, the depth of the test hole should be based on performing three
pressuremeter tests at one-metre intervals of depth, with the top of the pressuremeter positioned at subgrade
level for the uppermost test. In soft and loose soils where the test hole tends to degrade with time, the test
hole should be advanced before and between tests only to the depth required for testing. In soil conditions
giving a stable test hole, the test hole may be predrilled to full depth, with pressuremeter testing proceeding
from the lower test to the upper. Special measures may be required in soil conditions where an open test
hole is difficult to maintain (ref. 3).
6. Testing
The probe is lowered in the test hole to the desired depth of testing, taking care to minimize disturbance to
the walls of the test hole. Once in position, the pressure is increased in increments and held constant at
each level for one minute. The pressure increase should be applied over a period of about 10 seconds.
Volumeter readings are recorded after 30 seconds, and again after 60 seconds of constant pressure
application. Figure F8.03 gives an example of the field test record.
The increment used for pressure increase should be about 10% of the limit pressure, where the range of
limit pressure for various types of soil are indicated below. A test should conclude in about 7 to 15
pressure increments. Relatively large volume increases are experienced under a pressure increment as the
limit pressure is approached. The operator must carefully monitor progress and conclude the test before the
working volume is exceeded, or conditions are reached threatening bursting of the probe.
Estimated Limit Pressures (after Briaud, ref 1) :

SPT Blow Count Undrained
Limit Pressure Limit Pressure
Sand N Clay Shear Strength
PL (kPa) PL (kPa)
(blows/300 mm) SU (kPa)
Loose 0 - 10 0 500 Soft 0 - 25 0 200

Medium 10 - 30 500 1500 Firm 25 - 50 200 400
Dense 30 50 1500 2500 Stiff 50 -100 400 800
Very dense > 50 > 2500 Very stiff 100 - 200 800 1600
Hard >200 >1600
An unload-reload cycle is performed at the end of the linear portion of the pressure-volume curve. Once
the yield point is reached, as indicated by a significant increase in volume change under a pressure
increment, pressure is decreased in one step by 50%. Volumes are recorded at 30 seconds and 60 seconds
of constant pressure application. Pressure is then returned to the pre-release level, volume recorded, and
the normal schedule of pressure increases is resumed.
7. Data Analysis
Calibration corrections are applied to the field test data as illustrated in Figure F8.04, and the corrected
pressure versus corrected volume curve is drawn as illustrated in Figure F8.05. Figure F8.05 presents an
ideal pressure-volume curve obtained under favourable conditions of test.
- F.61 -
The curve shown in Figure F8.05 can be divided into three segments. The initial segment represents
expansion of the probe into contact with the walls of the test hole and the return of the walls back to their
pre-bored position. The second segment is linear, and represents elastic deformation of the soil adjacent
to the test hole walls. The third segment represents the soil undergoing plastic deformation, with
progressively larger volume increases occurring under successive pressure increments. Measuring creep as
the difference between 60 second and 30 second volume readings, a plot of creep versus pressure as shown
in Figure F8.05 may assist in identifying the transition point between the fist and second segments of the
pressure-volume curve, and between the second and third segments.
The following equations are derived from the theoretical analysis of the expansion of a cylindrical cavity in
an elastic medium:
G = V P/V
E = 2 (1+) G = 2 (1+) V P/V
where G, E, and are respectively the shear modulus, elastic (Youngs) modulus and Poissons ratio of the
material containing the cavity, V is the volume of the cavity, and V is the change in cavity volume
resulting from P, the change in pressure against the cavity walls.
Based on the theoretical equations, a pressuremeter modulus of the soil, approximating an elastic modulus,
is determined as:
EP = 2 (1+) (V0 + vM) P/V
where EP = pressuremeter elastic modulus, kPa

= Poissons ratio of the soil (usually assumed equal to 0.33)
V0 = volume of the test cavity at zero volumeter reading
vM = volumeter reading at the central point of the V range
P = change in pressure over the linear segment of the pressure-volume curve
V = change in volume over the linear segment of the pressure-volume curve
A modulus value, EP0, should be calculated using the linear segment of the pressure-volume curve, and a
second value, EP1, should be calculated using the reload segment of the unload-reload cycle. A modulus
value, Epr, should also be calculated from the unload segment of the unload-reload cycle. For various
reasons, EP0 may not equal the elastic modulus, EB, exhibited under a bearing plate or building foundation
loading, and the use of an adjustment factor, = EP0 / EB, is suggested (ref. 1,3). Recommended values of
the adjustment factor, , are given below. Other practitioners advocate use of the pressuremeter reload
modulus, EP1, as equivalent to a bearing plate modulus, without adjustment (ref. 2). Both procedures
should be followed and a judgement made as to which modulus value appears most appropriate.
Recommended values for (after Baguelin et al, reference 3)

Clay Silt Sand Sand and Gravel
Type of Soil
E/pL E/pL E/pL E/pL
Over
> 16 1 >14 2/3 > 12 1/2 > 10 1/3
Consolidated
Normally
9 16 2/3 8 14 1/2 7 - 12 1/2 6 - 10 1/4
Consolidated
Weathered and
79 1/2 1/2 1/3 1/4
Remoulded
- F.62 -
Limit pressure, pL, is determined as the pressure producing a doubling of the test hole cavity. With
reference to Figure F8.05, limit pressure is the pressure producing a measuring cell volume of 2 (V0 + v1),
or an injected water volume of V0 + 2v1 as indicated by the volumeter.
Subgrade plate bearing strength may be estimated from pressuremeter elastic modulus values using the
equations:
S = 0.007 Ep
or S = 0.0035 Er
where S = subgrade plate bearing strength (kN), (load on 750 mm diameter plate giving
12.5 mm deflection after 10 repetitions of load)
Ep = elastic modulus (kPa) determined from a loading portion of the pressuremeter
pressure-volume curve
Er = elastic modulus (kPa) determined from an unloading portion (rebound) of the
pressuremeter pressure-volume curve
These equations result from the correlation of subgrade plate bearing strength against elastic modulus
values calculated from repetitive static plate test measurements, and use of the equations requires the
assumption that elastic modulus values determined from pressuremeter and bearing plate tests are
approximately equal. The data available to support this assumption is limited. Subgrade plate bearing
strength values estimated from pressuremeter test results using these equations should be assed for
reasonableness considering classification and other characteristics of the subgrade soil.
9.0 References
1. Briaud, J.L., The Pressuremeter, Ashgate Publishing Company, 1992, ISBN 9061911257.
2. Mair, R.J and Woods, D.M., Pressuremeter Testing Methods and Interpretation (CIRIA Ground
Engineering Report), Butterworths Heinemann, 1987, ISBN 0408024348.
3. Baguelin, F., Jezequel, J.F., and Shields, D.H., The Pressuremeter and Foundation Engineering,
Trans Tech Publications, 1978, ISBN 0878490191.
4. ASTM D4719, Standard Test Method for Pressuremeter Testing in Soils.
- F.63 -

Figure F8.01 : PRESSUREMETER APPARATUS
control panel
coaxial tubing
compressed
gas bottle
ground surface
probe
gas pressure
water pressure
test hole
coaxial tube
(a) Apparatus Components

outer
upper protective
guard sheath
cell
measuring
cell
central membrane
measuring
cell
lower
guard
cell
hollow center
(b) Probe Schematic
- F.64 -

Figure F8.02 : PRESSUREMETER CALIBRATION
Airport: example Unit: 45 - G-Am Sheath: metallic
Date: 12 May 1999 Probe O: BX Membrane: std. rubber

Time: 08:30 a.m. h0 = 0.5m = 5 kPa Rec. Press. Diff: 110 kPa
3000
(a) Saturation Check (b) Volume Correction
Calibration No. V 17-99
2500 D
2000
Pressure kPa
1500
1000
500 C
B V1
A
0
0 20 40
Injected Volume cm3 V0 volume loss VC cm3
250
(c) Pressure (Membrane) Correction

Calibration No. P 120599-1
200
150
Pressure kPa
Pc
100
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Injected Volume cm3
- F.65 -

Figure F8.03 : FIELD RECORD
Pressure kPa Volume cm3

Time
Guard
Meter Cell sec. Meter Creep Change
AIRPORT: example
DATE: 0 7
12 May 1999
5 30 132
LOCATION NO: 14 100
5 60 137 5 130
103 30 167
FACILITY: 200
18-36 104 60 170 3 33
205 30 177
STATION: 300
5+500 204 60 179 2 9
305 30 187
OFFSET: 3m L of C 400
L 305 60 189 2 10
405 30 196
PROBE DEPTH (m): 1m 500
404 60 198 2 9
600 505 30 205
GAUGE HEIGHT(m): 0.5 m 506 60 208 3 10
700 605 30 217
HYDRAULIC HEAD (kPa): 15 606 60 222 5 14
800 705 30 243
REC PRESSURE DIFF (kPa): 110 707 60 253 10 31
DIFFERENCE REQUIRED (kPa): 95 unload / reload cycle

400 303 30
UNIT ID: 45 - G-Am 304 60 230
707 30
SHEATH: metallic 800
708 60 268
MEMBRANE: standard rubber

805 30 295
PROBE DIAMETER: BX 900
807 60 310 15 57
904 30 384
TOOL DIAMETER: 60 mm 1000 904 60 406 22 96
1001 30 579
TOOL TYPE: hand auger 1100
997 60 635 56 229
1140 780
PAVE. STRUCTURE: 100 AC + 300 B + 200 SB
SUBGRADE SOIL: stiff clay
TIME START: 10:05 FINISH: 10:20
WEATHER: sunny, cool, 18oC Pressure Calibration No P 120599-1
CREW: BD, AK Volume Calibration No. V 17-99
COMMENTS: Zero volumeter reading corresponds to
V 0 = 530 cm3
- F.66 -

Figure F8.04 : TEST RECORD
PRESSUREMETER TEST
Airport: example Unit ID 45 - G - Am Tool Type hand auger

Date: 12 May 1999 Sheath metallic Tool Dia. 60 mm
Loc. No. 14 Membrane standard rubber Pav. Structure 100AC+300B+200SB
Facility: runway 18-36 Probe Dia. BX Subgrade stiff clay
Station: 5+500 Gauge Height 0.5 m Comments
Offset: 3m L of C
L Pressure Calibration No. P 120599-1
Depth 1m Volume Calibration No. V 17-99
Pressure kPa Volumeter Reading cm3 Corrections Corrected Corrected

Load
Volume Pressure
Level Meter + Head 30 sec 60 sec creep Volume Pressure
cm3 kPa cm3 kPa
0 0 15 - 7 - 0 4 7 11
1 100 115 132 137 5 2 60 135 55
2 200 215 167 170 3 4 72 166 143
3 300 315 177 179 2 5 75 174 240
4 400 415 187 189 2 6 78 183 337
5 500 515 196 198 2 6 82 192 433
6 600 615 205 208 3 7 86 201 529
7 700 715 217 222 5 7 90 215 625
8 800 815 243 253 10 8 99 245 716
unload / reload cycle

400 415 230 6 78 224 337
800 815 268 8 99 260 716
9 900 915 295 310 15 9 115 301 800
10 1000 1015 384 406 22 9 131 397 884
11 1100 1115 579 635 56 10 171 625 944
12
Note : Zero volumeter reading corresponds to V0 = 530 cm 3
- F.67 -

Figure F8.05 : CORRECTED PRESSURE vs VOLUME
Airport: example Facility: runway 18-36

Date: 12 May 1999 Offset: 3m L of C
L
Location No: 14 Depth: 1m
1200
2 ( V0 + v1 )
1000
creep (x10) limit pressure

Pl = 975 kPa
800
3 5
Corrected Pressure kPa
3
v5 = 260 cm 3
v3 = 245 cm p5 = 716 kPa
p3 = 716 kPa
600
E = 2 (1+ ) (V0 + vm ) P / V
2
v2 = 201 cm 3 EP0 = modulus from initial loading
p2 = 529 kPa
= 2 (1+0.33) (V0 + (v2+v1) /2) (p2-p1) / (v2-v1)
= 20,930 kPa
400
Epr = modulus from load release
= 2 (1+0.33) (V0 + (v3+v4) /2) (p3-p4) / (v3-v4)
4 = 36,700 kPa
v4 = 224 cm 3
p4 = 337 kPa EP1 = modulus from 1st reload
200 = 2 (1+0.33) (V0 + (v5+v4) /2) (p5-p4) / (v5-v4)
= 21,620 kPa
1 v1 = 166 cm 3
p1 = 143 kPa
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
3
Corrected Volume v cm
530 630 730 830 930 1030 1130 1230 1330 1430
3
Cavity Volume (V0 + v) cm
- F.68 -
Section F9 BORE HOLE INVESTIGATION December 2000
1. Scope
This method covers the investigation of pavement materials and layer thicknesses through test hole borings.
The borings are generally made to a depth of 3 m or to refusal. A number of sampling and testing
requirements are optional, and must be specified if needed to meet the objectives of the investigation. The
information obtained is used for the structural evaluation of pavements.
2. Apparatus
(a) Power drilling equipment with appropriate bits, augers, core barrels, and samplers as described in
ASTM D1452 and D2113. Unless otherwise specified, use a 100 mm diameter core barrel and an
auger to fit for advancing test holes.
(b) Hand-tools such as pipe wrenches, hammers and shovels.
(c) Moisture-tight soil sample containers and heavy-gauge plastic sample bags.
(d) Measuring tape accurate to the nearest millimetre.
3. Number and Location of Test Holes
(a) Unless otherwise specified, establish test holes at 150 m intervals along the length of the facility. On
airfield pavements, alternate test holes left and right of centreline at a 3 m offset from centreline. On
roadways, drill test holes close to centreline.
(b) Closer spacing of test holes may be required if pavement layer thicknesses and materials are not
uniform.
(c) If the investigation is conducted in conjunction with a pavement bearing strength measurement
program, establish a test hole at each bearing strength test location, or as indicated.
4. Test Hole Drilling
(a) Take adequate precautions to avoid hazards to traffic and pedestrian safety. Cover or barricade test
holes left open for water table observations.
(b) Core through hard surface layers and remove the core. Record the type of material in each hard
surface layer, and the thickness accurate to 10 mm.
(c) Advance the test hole by augering in 150 mm increments to a total depth of 3 m, or until refusal. After
each 150 mm increment of drilling, remove the auger from the test hole to examine the material and
take samples.
(d) Record the thickness of pavement base and subbase layers to an accuracy of 25 mm, and the thickness
of distinctive subgrade layers to an accuracy of 50 mm. Provide a field description for the materials in
these layers in accordance with ASTM D2488.
(e) For laboratory analysis, as specified in Section 5.0 (a), take at least one sample from each layer, and at
300 mm intervals in the subgrade. Store samples in a watertight container and label with the test hole
location, sampling depth and sample number.
- F.69 -
(f) Record the free water level in the test hole. Record 30 minutes or more after boring is completed in
sandy subgrades, and 4 hours or more after boring is completed in clay and silt subgrades.
(g) The following field testing is optional, and is to be performed only if specified as part of the
investigation:
pressuremeter testing, to Section 8;
penetration testing, to ASTM D1586;
field vane testing, to ASTM D2573.
(h) During the drilling of test holes, maintain a test hole log in a field book, as illustrated in Figure F9.01.
(i) On completion of drilling and water level observations, backfill the holes to their original state. Use an
asphalt patching material to fill holes in asphalt layers, and use a Marshall hammer to compact in
place. Use a concrete mix made with a non-shrink cement to fill holes in a concrete slab.
(j) Clean and dispose of all debris from the pavement surface.
5. Laboratory Analysis
(a) Perform the following analysis on all soil and aggregate samples:
moisture content, to ASTM D2487
Atterberg limits, to ASTM D4318
grain size analysis, to ASTM D422
soil classification, to ASTM D2487
(b) The following testing is optional and is to be performed only if specified:
subgrade soils
unconfined compressive strength, to ASTM D2166
California Bearing Ratio, to ASTM D1883
consolidation, to ASTM D435
permeability, to ASTM D2434
organic content
base and subbase aggregates

crushed content
abrasion, to ASTM C131
soundness, to ASTM C88
concrete cores
density
compressive strength, to ASTM C39
split tensile strength, to ASTM C496
void content, to ASTM C457
- F.70 -
(b) The following testing is optional and is to be performed only if specified (contd):
asphalt cores
density, to ASTM D1559

stability and flow, to ASTM D1559
split tensile strength, to C496
visual inspection for stripping
asphalt content, to ASTM D2172
penetration of recovered bitumen, to ASTM D5
aggregate gradation, to ASTM C136
6. Report
Include in the investigation report:

a written summary of the investigation undertaken, conditions encountered, and results;
a site plan showing the test hole locations, hole identification number, station and offset, as illustrated
in Figure F9.02;
a test hole log for each test hole drilled, as illustrated in Figure F9.03;
a summary of the laboratory test results, as illustrated in Figure F9.04.
- F.71 -

Figure F9.01 : FIELD BOOK LOG
AIRPORT example HOLE No. 2

FACILITY runway 06-24 STATION 5+300
OFFSET 3m L of CL SURF. ELEV. 261.35
DATE 26 July 1987 EQUIPMENT power auger
WEATHER sunny, clear TEMP. 19 C CREW B.D., M.F.
SAMPLE
DEPTH SOIL LAYER FIELD DESCRIPTION
DEPTH
(m) PROFILE DEPTH No.
(m)
asphaltic concrete
0.11
0.39
0.5
0.80 230 0.80 highly plastic clay

with 5% sand, 10% silt
231 0.95 highly plastic clay
1.0 with 6% sand, 14% silt

1.5
water table (24 hrs) at 1.90 m

2.0
234 2.17 wet silty clay with 14% sand
2.5 235 2.53 wet silty clay with 17% sand
236 3.00 wet silty clay
- F.72 -

Figure F9.02 : TEST HOLE LOCATION PLAN
0
00
5+
1
0
15
5 + mR
A 3
N
2
0
30
5 + mL
3
3
I 0
45
5 + mR
3
4
0
60
5+ mL
3
5
0
75
5 + mR
3
6
0
90
5+ mL
3
7
0
05
6 + mR
3
8
0
20
6 + mL
3
9
0
35
6 + mR
3
10
0
50
6 + mL
3
11
0
65
6 + mR
3
12
0
80
6 + mL
3
13
0
95
6 + mR
3
3
13
0 100 200 300 400 500
7+
scale - metres
29
07/87 test hole locations BD

Date Revision by
EXAMPLE AIRPORT, B.C.

1987 TEST HOLE LOCATIONS
DW G N o
- F.73 -

Figure F9.03 : TEST HOLE LOG
AIRPORT example PROJECT 1987 bore hole survey

FACILITY 11-29 STA 5+300 OFF 3mL HOLE No 2
SAMPLED by BD, MF DATE 27/7/87 DRILLING METHOD power auger
TESTED by JP DATE 17/8/87 SURFACE ELEV 261.35 m
CHECKED by ST DATE 18/8/87 WATER TABLE AT 24 HRS 1.9 m
REMARKS WT. OF HAMMER
HEIGHT OF DROP
WP Wn
WL N
DEPTH SOIL SAMPLE
N FIELD DESCRIPTION MOISTURE CONTENT %
(m) PROFILE No DEPTH
(m) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
asphaltic concrete
0.11
0.39
0.5 0.5

5% sand, 10% silt
1.0 6% sand, 14% silt 1.0

DEPTH IN METRES
DEPTH IN METRES
8% sand, 17% silt
1.5
8% sand, 14% silt
water table (24hrs) at 1.90m

2.0 2.0
234 2.17 wet silty clay (CL)
with 14% sand

2.5
with 17% sand

3.0
PENETRATION BLOWS / M
- F.74 -
BORE HOLE SURVEY - LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
AIRPORT ex amp le YEAR 1987 SHEET 2 OF
Section F9
IDENTIFICATION THICKNESS (m) MECHANICAL ANALYSIS SOI L

H S L D
O A A E SUB- SUBGRADE % LESS THAN SI ZE (mm) CLASS. Wn L.L. P.L. P.I.
L M Y P
E P E T PAVE. BASE
L R H BASE
# # E (m) from to 75 38.1 19.0 9.5 4.75 .425 .075 .020 .005 .001 (USED) % % % %
2 228 B.C. 0.25 0.11 0.28 0.41 0.80 3.00 100 95.2 85.1 33.4 25.6 12.9 2.3 - - - GW 4 - - -
2 229 S.B 0.60 100 96.1 84.8 37.4 29.1 21.1 2.3 - - - GP 3 - - -
2 230 S.G. 0.80 - - - - 100 98.5 95.5 92.0 85.5 70.0 CH 33 79.0 27.2 51.8
2 231 S.G. 0.95 - - - - 100 98.1 94.9 88.0 79.5 56.5 CH 33 68.0 23.8 44.2
- F.75 -
2 232 S.G. 1.26 - - - - 100 97.7 91.8 86.0 75.0 49.0 CH 35 58.0 21.8 36.2
2 233 S.G. 1.56 - - - - 100 97.2 92.4 87.0 78.5 65.0 CH 30 54.1 19.0 35.1
2 234 S.G. 2.17 - - - - 100 95.9 86.0 68.0 51.5 25.5 CL 26 49.1 17.6 31.5
BORE HOLE INVESTIGATION
2 235 S.G. 2.53 - - - - 100 94.6 82.5 69.0 52.0 31.0 CL 23 49.0 16.9 32.1
2 236 S.G. 3.00 - - - - - - - - - - CL 28 47.6 17.5 30.1

Figure F9.04 : LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
December 2000
Section F10 STRENGTH ANALYSIS AND CODING December 2000
Scope
This section presents examples of analysing pavement strength test data to obtain pavement strength
parameters. Figure F10.01 gives the construction history of the airport pavements being analysed. The
plate test data used in the examples may represent repetitive static plate test measurements, or be values
estimated from other methods of pavement strength measurement.
Construction Item 1
Runway 18-36, 5+100 to 7+600, nominal construction 300 mm subbase + 220 mm base + 80 mm asphalt
Test Location Bore Hole Equivalent 10-t/1650 Plate Bearing Strength

No Station Offset Thickness Granular (750 plate, 12.5, 10 rep)
SG GB AC Thickness Surface Subgrade
t P *S
(m) (m) mm mm mm (mm) (kN) (kN)
1 5+150 3L 300 210 180 870 0.297 417 124

2 5+300 3R 350 250 180 960 0.262 435 114
3 5+450 3L 340 220 170 900 0.285 560 160
4 5+600 3R 340 200 180 900 0.285 588 168
5 5+750 3L 300 200 160 820 0.318 563 179
6 5+900 3R 290 240 190 910 0.281 510 143
7 6+050 3L 250 220 200 870 0.297 354 105
8 6+200 3R 320 230 180 910 0.281 474 133
9 6+350 3L 300 200 160 820 0.318 332 106
10 6+500 3R 300 210 180 870 0.297 427 127
11 6+650 3L 380 240 190 1000 0.248 370 92
12 6+800 3R 310 240 190 930 0.273 364 99
13 6+950 3L 250 220 170 810 0.323 413 133
14 7+100 3R 300 210 180 870 0.297 586 174
15 7+250 3L 300 200 180 860 0.301 480 144
16 7+400 3R 280 230 200 910 0.281 403 113
17 7+550 3L 280 230 170 850 0.305 410 125
average t = 890 average x = 132
st. dev. = 26.5
* S = P x 10-t/1650
Lower quartile subgrade bearing strength = x - 0.675 = 132 - 0.675 (26.5) = 114 kN
Spring reduction factor = 30% (from subgrade soils data)
Spring-reduced lower quartile subgrade bearing strength S = 0.70 (114) = 80 kN
Pavement Strength Code : S80t890
Construction Item 2
Runway 18-36, buttons 18 & 36, nominal construction 150 mm GB + 220 mm PCC + 100 mm asphalt
No test data - assume the same subgrade bearing strength as determined for the main portion of the runway,
S = 80 kN. From Figure 3.15, with S=80 and base t=150, the bearing modulus on top of the base course,
k = 47 MPa/m. From Figure 3.21, with k = 47 MPa/m, the equivalent single slab thickness of a 220 mm
concrete slab with a 100 mm asphalt overlay is hd = 310 mm.
Pavement strength code : k47hd310
- F.76 -
Construction Item 3
Taxi A, nominal construction 300 mm SB + 220 mm GB + 80 mm AC + 150 mm AC.
No load test data - assume the same subgrade bearing strength as determined for the runway, S = 80 kN.
Nominal equivalent granular thickness t = (300 x 1) + (220 x 1) + (80 x 2) + (150 x 2) = 980 mm.
Pavement strength code : S80t980
Construction Item 4
Taxi B1 & B2, nominal construction 200 mm SB + 300 mm GB + 100 mm AC
Test Location Bore Hole Equivalent 10-t/1650 Plate Bearing Strength

No Station Offset Thickness Granular (750 plate, 12.5, 10 rep)
SG GB AC Thickness Surface Subgrade
t P *S
(m) (m) mm mm mm (mm) (kN) (kN)
18 5+150 3L 250 300 100 750 0.351 280 98

19 5+300 3R 250 310 100 760 0.346 298 103
20 5+450 3L 180 350 110 750 0.351 357 125
21 5+600 3R 200 300 100 700 0.376 298 112
22 5+750 3L 180 320 100 700 0.376 269 101
23 5+900 3R 200 300 80 660 0.398 202 80
24 6+050 3L 200 260 100 660 0.398 240 96
25 6+200 3R 220 290 100 710 0.371 303 112
average t = 710 average x = 103
st. dev. = 13.4
* S = P x 10-t/1650
Lower quartile subgrade bearing strength = x - 0.675 = 103 - 0.675 (13.4) = 94 kN

Spring reduction factor = 30% (from subgrade soils data)
Spring-reduced lower quartile subgrade bearing strength S = 0.70 (94) = 66 kN
Pavement strength code : S66t710
Construction Item 5
Apron I, south portion, nominal construction 150 mm GB + 220 mm PCC + 80 mm GB + 220 mm PCC
No test data - assume the same subgrade bearing strength as determined on taxi B, S = 66 kN. From
Figure 3.15, with S = 66 kN and base t = 150 mm, the bearing modulus on top of the lower base course
k = 39 MPa/m. From Figure 3.21, the equivalent single slab thickness of a 220 mm concrete slab overlaid
with a 80 mm base separation course and a 220 mm concrete slab, hd = 290 mm (underlying slab with some
cracking).
- F.77 -
Construction Item 6
Apron I, north portion, nominal construction 150 mm GB + 80 mm AC + 300 mm PCC
No test data - assume the same subgrade bearing strength as determined on taxi B, S = 66 kN. The
equivalent granular thickness of the 150 mm base + 80 mm asphalt is t = 310 mm. From Figure 3.15, with
S = 66 kN and base t = 310 mm, the bearing modulus on top of the asphalt is k = 48 MPa/m.
Pavement strength code : k48h300.
Construction Item 7
Apron II, north portion, nominal construction 150 mm SB + 150 mm GB + 150 mm PCC + 240 mm AC
No test data - assume the same subgrade bearing strength as determined for taxi B, S = 66 kN. From
Figure 3.15, with S=66 and subbase + base t=300, the bearing modulus on top of the base course,
k = 48 MPa/m. From Figure 3.21, with k = 48 MPa/m, the equivalent single slab thickness of a 150 mm
concrete slab with a 240 mm asphalt overlay is hd = 320 mm (overlaid slab in good condition).
Construction Item 8
Apron II, south portion, nominal construction 150 mm GB + 300 mm PCC
No test data - assume the same subgrade bearing strength as determined for taxi B, S = 66 kN. From
Figure 3.15, with S=66 and base t=150, the bearing modulus on top of the base course, k = 39 MPa/m.
Pavement strength code : k39h300
- F.78 -

Figure F10.01 : CONSTRUCTION HISTORY
ITEM CONSTRUCTION YEAR

18
5+000
5+100 Taxi B1
1 300 SB + 220 GB + 80 AC (1957)
+ 100 AC (1976)
2
2 150 GB + 220 PCC (1957)
+ 100 AC (1976)
3 300 SB + 220 GB + 80 AC (1957)

+ 150 AC (1971)
4 200 SB + 300 GB + 100 AC (1971)

7
Apron II
5 150 GB + 220 PCC (1957)
8 + 80 GB + 220 PCC (1976)
6 150 GB + 80 AC (1962)
+300 PCC (1976)
7 150 SB + 150 GB + 150 PCC (1973)

+ 240 PCC (1985)
8 150 GB + 300 PCC (1985)
1 4
thicknesses in millimetres
SB - sub-base
GB - granular base
AC - asphaltic concrete
PCC - Portland cement concrete
Taxi B
0 100 200 300 400 500
scale - metres
6
6/00 reviewed GHA
2 10/86 history compiled BBD
Date Revision by
Apron I
7+600
EXAMPLE AIRPORT
7+700
5
36 Taxi A CONSTRUCTION HISTORY
3
D W G N o
- F.79 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix G : Structural Condition Survey
APPENDIX G
STRUCTURAL CONDITION SURVEY
Section Page
Pavement Defects Index ........ G.2
Survey Procedure .. G.4
Rating Guidelines ... G.10
Figures
Fig G.01 Site Key Plan ................ G.8
Fig G.02 Pavement Condition Ratings Summary Form ...... G.9
Fig G.03 Defects Recording Form for Asphalt Surfaces . G.13
Fig G.04 Defects Recording Form for Concrete Surfaces .. G.14
Fig G.05 Gravel Surfaces Condition Rating Form ....... G.52
- G.1-
PAVEMENT DEFECTS INDEX
Page
ASPHALT SURFACES
Discrete Cracking . G.15
Alligator Cracking .. G.18
Map Cracking .. G.20
Block Cracking ... G.22
Ravelling ... G.24
Rutting . G.26
Bleeding .. G.28
Distortion .... G.29
Edge Cracking .... G.30
Tear Cracking . G.31
CONCRETE SURFACES
Panel Cracking G.32
Corner Cracking .. G.34
Edge Cracking . G.36
Surface Scaling and Spalling ... G.38
Joint Faulting .. G.40
Joint Sealant Failure G.41
Surface Crazing G.42
D Cracking ... G.43
Pumping .. G.44
Compression Buckling G.45
PAVED SURFACES GENERAL

Bird Baths G.46
Subgrade Settlement G.47
Frost Heave . G.48
Patching G.49
Wear & Polishing .... G.50
Rubber Deposits .. G.51
GRAVEL SURFACES
Segregation G.53
Rutting .. G.53
Loss of Crown G.53
Vegetation Growth . G.54
Dust . G.54
MISCELLANEOUS DEFECTS AND DEFICIENCIES

Bearing Capacity Failure ... G.55
Tire Imprints ... G.55
Tire Tears ... G.55
Fuel Spill Damage .. G.56
Pothole .... G.56
Sinkhole .. G.56
Peeling of Feathered Edges . G.57
Peeling of Overlay by Jet Blast ... G.57
Lightening Strike Damage . G.57
Peeling of Thin Overlay .. G.58
Breakup of Thin Asphalt . G.58
Cold Screed Tears . G.58
- G.2-
PAVEMENT DEFECTS INDEX
MISCELLANEOUS DEFECTS AND DEFICIENCIES (Continued)
Wide, Deep Crack ... G.59

Subgrade Reflected Crack .... G.59
Vegetation Growth in Cracks ... G.59
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking . G.60
Sympathetic Cracking ..... G.60
Interior Manhole Cracking .. G.60
Construction Induced Edge Cracking . G.61
Construction Induced Panel Cracking G.61
Construction Induced Joint Edge Spalling .. G.61
Construction Grade Deficiency ... G.62
Lateral Displacement of Slab .. G.62
Frost Heave of Manhole .. G.62
Shoulder Erosion . G.63
Subsurface Drainage Erosion .. G.63
Silting Up Of Drainage System ... G.63
Shoulder Erosion from Jet Blast .. G.64
Pavement Edge Stepping . G.64
Runway Edge Berming .... G.64
Surface Treatment Streaking . G.65
Wide Paint Markings . G.65
- G.3-
SURV EY PROC EDURE
1.0 Description
This method of survey covers the inspection of airport pavements for the purpose of evaluating
structural condition. Defects present in operational surfaces are identified, and their extent and
severity is rated. An overall structural condition rating is assigned to each pavement area of distinct
construction. The survey is performed in support of operational safety, and the information collected
is used for the programming of maintenance and restoration requirements.
2.0 Defects and Ratings
A pavement structural condition rating is a numerical value on a scale of 10 to 0:
Structural Condition Rating (SCR)

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
very good good fair poor very poor
A pavement structural condition rating reflects the suitability of a pavement structure to serve aircraft
traffic as judged from surface defects developing with age and traffic, and reflecting deficiencies with
respect to structural integrity and bearing strength attributes. The quality of pavement skid resistance
and ride quality attributes is considered separately from structural condition when evaluating pavement
facilities. Consequently, the presence of defects affecting only skid resistance or ride quality should be
noted in a structural condition survey report, but should not influence the structural condition rating.
A pavement structural condition rating is based on prevailing general conditions and reflects the need
for restoration. Isolated defects repairable through maintenance should not have a major influence on
the structural condition rating unless the defects portend the development of more severe conditions.
Typically, restoration rather than maintenance is needed when areas of major deficiency exceed 10% to
20% of the total pavement area. Restoration is generally recommended when the structural condition
rating has decreased to a value in the 5 to 4 range, although lower values can be tolerated for secondary
facilities serving small aircraft only.
Pavement structural condition rating is based on the defects present in a pavement surface, and
illustrations of commonly encountered defects are included with this procedure. Possible causes and
treatments are outlined, and guidelines are provided for the rating of defect extent and severity.
Defect extent is divided into four levels: minor, moderate, major and extreme. Defect severity is
divided into three levels: low, medium and high. Extent has a quantitative base - usually percent of
wheelpath length or area affected in the case of asphalt pavements, or percent of panels affected in the
case of concrete pavements. A guideline to structural condition rating is given as a function of defect
extent and severity. As pavements age, one type of defect usually significantly exceed others in
extent and severity and this predominate defect dictates the structural condition rating.
Although a quantitative definition is given for defect extent, detailed measurements are generally not
required to arrive at ratings. Provided inspectors are suitably qualified and experienced, ratings based
on visual inspection and judgement alone are adequate for purposes related to operational safety and
for the identification of restoration and maintenance needs. The quantitative definitions serve as a
guide for inexperienced inspectors and to resolve instances of disagreement. Surveys incorporating
detailed measurement of defect extent give more consistent results for year to year comparisons, but
survey costs and facility downtime are substantially higher.
- G.4-
SURVEY PROC EDUR E
3.0 Preparations
The following documents should be obtained and reviewed in preparation for a survey:
airside key plans showing pavement facility layout, designations and dimensions (Fig. G.01),
construction histories recording pavement layer thicknesses, materials and year of construction,
reports from structural condition surveys previously conducted at the airport.
These documents may be used to divide the pavement facilities into sections for survey purposes.
Separate inspection and reporting should be performed for each runway, taxiway and apron. These
facilities should be further divided into sections relatively homogeneous with respect to surface type,
age and condition. Sectioning should be as consistent as possible from one survey to the next.
The following arrangements for a survey need to be made through the office of the airport manager, or
the manager of airport operations:
scheduling the survey for a time period that minimizes disruption to airport operations, and the
issuing of appropriate NOTAMS if necessary;
arranging for an airside escort service, or obtaining an airside vehicle operators permit;
obtaining security clearance for airside access.
Arrangements should also be made to be accompanied by an airport staff person familiar with site
conditions and problem areas. The Field Maintenance Supervisor is usually the best source of
information.
4.0 Inspection
Only a cursory visual inspection is required for pavement facilities in basically good condition. In this
case, surfaces may be traversed slowly by car, weaving from one side of the area to the other, with
stops made for closer inspection at locations of particular interest. A closer examination should be
undertaken when facilities reach a structural condition rating of 5 or less. These surfaces should be
covered more slowly, by walking or by bicycle, with occasional measurements made on a sampling
basis to determine the extent of the predominate defect present.
Defects observed during inspection of the pavement surface should be identified, and a rating given to
their extent and severity in accordance with the attached Rating Guidelines. Defect extent and severity
ratings for runway sections should generally reflect conditions prevalent in wheelpath areas, or in the
mid-third of the runway width. Outer thirds may be rated separately if conditions are substantially
different from the wheelpath areas.
An assessment should be made of whether defects observed are load related. Load related defects may
suggest an overloading condition and possible continuous and relatively rapid deterioration unless
traffic is curtailed. Non-load related defects are normally slower in development and hence are not as
critical. Load related defects are generally confined to wheelpath areas, whereas non-load related
defects are likely to be found throughout the pavement area. With load related defects, an attempt
should be made to clarify whether the problem is one of overloading with respect to the design bearing
capacity of the pavement structure, or whether the problem is due to substandard or deteriorated
construction materials. These factors most likely influence the assessment of future performance and
possibly the design of restoration measures.
- G.5-
SURV EY PROC EDURE
Crack sealing, patching and other maintenance needs should also be determined at the time of
inspection. Localized defects can generally be corrected through maintenance. Defects occurring
generally throughout an area likely require more extensive restoration measures.
5.0 Image Recording
During the survey, photographs should be taken of defects unusual in nature or severity. A video
recording of surface conditions may be useful to support a recommendation for restoration within the
current planning period.
6.0 Interviews
Following field inspection, airport staff should be interviewed and site records consulted to determine:
the type, operating weight and tire pressure of the most critical aircraft operating at the airport on a
scheduled basis;
complaints, if any, from pilots or airlines concerning pavement operational characteristics such as
roughness or skid resistance;
pavement surface and subsurface drainage characteristics;
structural maintenance (crack filling and patching) history during the past inspection period,
including procedures and materials used.
7.0 Analysis
An analysis of survey and related site data should follow site inspection. The analysis should include:
the review of causes of the defects observed and the identification of additional investigations
needed, such as a test hole investigation, if the cause of major defects is not readily understood;
determination of ride quality or friction measurements needed if the defects observed or pilot
reports suggest a possible problem with these attributes, and measurements are not available from
other monitoring programs;
review of published load ratings if the defects observed suggest traffic loads are exceeding
pavement bearing capacity (rutting in asphalt pavements, extensive corner or panel cracking in
concrete pavements);
assessment of the current operational suitability of each pavement section, and assignment of an
overall structural condition rating as outlined in the rating guidelines;
recommendations on restoration requirements if restoration is judged as needed or desirable within
the current planning period; recommendations to include the type of restoration to be undertaken
based on the structural defects observed;
recommendations on the type of maintenance needed;
recommendations on changes to design or construction practices if structural performance and the
nature of defects occurring suggest the need for change.
- G.6-
SURV EY PROC EDURE
8.0 Reporting
The structural condition survey report should include:

a written report summarizing the inspection undertaken, elaborating on the defects observed and
providing recommendations from analyses;
a site key plan, as illustrated in Figure G.01, showing sub-division of the pavement areas as made
for inspection and reporting purposes, and other pertinent details;
a Ratings Summary Form, Figure G.02, completed in accordance with the Rating Guidelines;
defect recording forms for each section inspected if recording forms were completed during the
survey;
photographs mounted and commented as appropriate; videotape of pavements recommended for
restoration.
The report should include a statement of inspector qualification and experience, and note the extent to
which measurements were undertaken to arrive at the ratings provided.
- G.7-
Figure G.01 : SITE KEY PLAN
4
5
20
6+970
A
xi
Ta
6
7 photo #3
N
photo #2
Apro
nI
approximate area of
subgrade settlement
ravelling along section

centreline ID number
0 100 200 300 400
photo #1
1
Date Revision By
AirportName, Province
02 Pavement Condition Survey
5+000
1995
- G.8-
PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY PAVEMENT SURFACE DEFECTS
RATINGS SUMMARY ASPHALT SURFACES CONCRETE SURFACES
AIRPORT :
INSPECTOR :
DATE :
Structural
Condition Rating
FACILITY SECTION AREA
Panel Cracking
Corner Cracking
Edge Cracking
Scaling / Spalling
Joint Faulting
Joint Sealant Failure
Transverse Cracking
Longitudinal Cracking
Alligator Cracking
Map Cracking
Block Cracking
Rutting
Ravelling
Program Restoration
Maintenance Req'd
ID. NO. (m2)
- G.9-
Figure G.02 : PAVEMENT CONDITION RATINGS SUMMARY FORM
Critical A ircraft :
N ame PAVEMENT DEFECT RATINGS GENERAL CONDITION RATING
O p eratin g W eig h t ( k N ) 1: min o r ex ten t 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2: mo d erate sev erity L: lo w
Tire Pressu re (MPa) 3: majo r o f d efect
o f d efect M: med iu m
A ircraft Lo ad Ratin g (A LR) 4: ex treme H : h ig h v ery g o o d g o o d fair p o o r v ery p o o r
Appendix G : Structural Condition Survey
RATING GUIDELINES
1. Recording Forms
Forms for recording observations and ratings are provided in Figure G.03 for an asphalt surfaced
section, and in Figure G.04 for a concrete surfaced section. The form should be fully completed after
the inspection of each section; the recollection of conditions becomes difficult after looking at other
areas.
2. Defect Data Sheets
Data sheets are attached describing and illustrating various pavement defects and among other things,
defining categories of defect extent and severity. Ratings given to defect extent and severity should
generally be in accordance with these definitions.
For defects directly affecting structural condition, a chart is provided in the defect data sheet giving
structural condition rating (SCR) as a function of defect extent and severity (SCR vs E/S chart). These
charts may be used as outlined below to determine the SCR values reported. In most instances, SCR
values can be determined from the charts using estimated rather than measured values of defect extent
and severity, with the SCR so determined then modified if judged necessary on the basis of subjective
judgement. Alternatively, well qualified and experienced inspectors may rely solely on subjective
judgement to arrive at the SCR ratings reported on the Ratings Summary Form.
3.0 Defect Extent and Severity Recording
During or immediately following the inspection of each pavement section, record the extent (including
nil if applicable) of each defect listed on the recording form. Record the nature and extent of any other
types of defect observed if their effect on condition is significant. Record total extent, irrespective of
severity, using the measurement unit of extent listed for the defect in the guidelines. Record the
percent of total extent of low severity, of medium severity and of high severity.
4.0 Defect Extent Rating
Classify the total extent as being none (0), minor (1), moderate (2), major (3) or extreme (4) according
to the category definitions given in the defect data sheets attached, and report the numerical value (0, 1,
2, 3 or 4) on the Ratings Summary Form.
5.0 Defect Severity Rating
Using the recorded percentages, compute the extent of the defect at each level of severity and
determine from the SCR vs E/S chart given in the defect data sheet, the structural condition rating
corresponding to each level of severity considered separately. Report on the Ratings Summary Form,
the severity level (L, M or H) giving the lowest structural condition rating.
Example: Concrete surface with panels affected by panel cracking.

Extent of defect 11% of panels (major extent)
Low severity 60% of extent = 6.6% of panels
Medium severity 30% of extent = 3.3% of panels
High severity 10% of extent = 1.1% of panels
From the SCR vs E/S chart for concrete panel cracking (see defect data sheet), and considering each
level of severity separately:
6.6% of panels with low severity defect gives SCR = 8.0

3.3% of panels with medium severity defect gives SCR = 7.1
1.1% of panels with high severity defect gives SCR = 6.9
Report the severity level of panel cracking as high as this level has the greatest effect on SCR.
- G.10-
RATING GUIDELINES
6.0 Structural Condition Rating Concrete Surfaces
Maintain a total count of concrete panels defective for any reason related to structural deficiency, such
as cracking or surface spalling (note joint sealant failure and joint faulting are not included because
sealant deficiencies are a maintenance problem and joint faulting affects only ride quality, not surface
integrity or bearing capacity). Rate the severity of defectiveness as low, medium or high according to
the category definitions given for the type of defect affecting the panel.
To determine SCR to be reported, the different levels of defect severity must be added. Convert the
extent at low and high levels of severity to an equivalent extent at medium severity, where equivalency
is based on giving the same structural condition rating. Sum the equivalent extent values of medium
severity as shown in the following example, and use the total equivalent extent of medium severity to
determine the structural condition rating from the SCR versus E/S chart for PCC defective panels.
Example : Same as previous example with an additional 2% of panels affected by edge cracking, 50%
of which is low severity and 50% is medium severity. Using the SCR vs E/S chart for defective panels
show below:
Total extent of defective panels = 13% Equivalent Extent of Medium Severity
Low severity 58% of extent = 7.6% of panels 2.0

Medium severity 33% of extent = 4.3% of panels 4.3
High severity 8% of extent = 1.1% of panels 4.1
Total Equivalent Extent of Medium Severity = 10.4%
Structural Condition Rating = 5.7
Extent - percent (%) of panels defective

1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
Structural Condition Rating
good
L
6
M
fair
4
H Sev
e
poor
rity
2 SCR vs E/S Chart

for
poor
very
Concrete Surfaces
0
minor moderate major extreme
- G.11-
RATING GUIDELINES
7.0 Structural Condition Rating Asphalt Surfaces
With asphalt surfaces, the various types of defect are considered separately when assigning structural
condition rating. This practice is adopted because the various types of defect are dissimilar in cause
and effect, and they do not significantly augment one another in terms of operational safety or
restoration requirement. Also, it is characteristic of asphalt surfaces one type of defect eventually
dominates with respect to structural performance, with the extent and severity of other types of defect
being largely irrelevant.
For each type of defect, convert the extent at each level of severity to an equivalent extent at medium
severity, where equivalency is based on giving the same structural condition rating. Sum the values as
shown below, and use the total equivalent extent at medium severity to determine structural condition
rating from the SCR vs E/S chart for the type of defect being analysed. These charts are given in the
defect data sheets attached. On the Ratings Summary Form, report the lowest structural condition
rating resulting from each type of defect considered separately.
The following example illustrates combining transverse and longitudinal cracking into a single
measure of discrete cracking extent and severity. Note crack density in m/m2 is the inverse of average
crack spacing in metres.
Extent Transverse Longitudinal Combined Equivalent Density
average spacing (m) 7.5 4.5 of
crack density (m/m2) Medium Severity
- total 0.133 0.222 0.355
- low severity 50% - 0.067 40% - 0.089 0.156 0.035
- medium severity 30% - 0.040 40% - 0.089 0.129 0.129
- high severity 20% - 0.027 20% - 0.044 0.071 0.330
Total Equivalent Density of Medium Severity = 0.494
Structural Condition Rating based on discrete cracking = 4.0

Extent - crack density (m/m2 )
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1
10
good
very
8 M
good
H Sev
e rity
6
fair
4
poor
SCR vs E/S Chart

2 for
Asphalt Surfaces
poor
very
Discrete Cracking
100 50 20 10 5 2 1
Extent - average spacing of cracks (m)
Note: With asphalt surfaces, repeat the procedure for each defect type and report the lowest SCR value.
- G.12-
Figure G.03 : DEFECTS RECORDING FORM for ASPHALT SURFACES
AIRPORT FACILITY DEFECT RATINGS

CHAINAGE from: SECTION
% AT SEVERITY LEVEL
to: ID NO. EXTENT
INSPECTOR DATE HIGH MEDIUM LOW
TRANSVERSE / LONGITUDINAL DISCRETE CRACKING average spacing of cracks (m)

Low single, clean cracks with no associated breakdown
Medium cracks with chipped or ravelling edges, or with secondary cracking
High cracks with adjacent asphalt fragments loose or spalled, or with major settlement SCR =
ALLIGATOR CRACKING % wheelpath length affected

Low initial stages, closely spaced longitudinal hairline cracking in wheelpath
Medium transverse cracking fully developed to complete alligator pattern
High cracking with asphalt fragments loose or spalled SCR =
MAP CRACKING % wheelpath length affected

Low cracking with no associated breakdown
Medium cracking with chipped or ravelling edges, or with secondary cracking
BLOCK CRACKING % area affected

Low cracking with no associated breakdown, spacing > 2m
Medium cracking with chipped or ravelling edges, spacing < 2m
RAVELLING % area affected

Low individual coarse aggregate pop-outs or fines matrix loss to depth < 3 mm
Medium depth of surface loss not greater than maximum aggregate size
High depth of surface loss greater than maximum aggregate size SCR =
RUTTING % wheelpath length affected

Low rut depth less than 20 mm
Medium rut depth 20 mm to 40 mm
High rut depth greater than 40 mm SCR =
% wheelpath length affected

Low
Medium
High SCR =
% wheelpath length affected
Low
Medium
High SCR =
Comments / Maintenance Requirements Overall Structural Condition Rating :
Guidelines controlling SCR = ________
Subjective judgment SCR = ________
- G.13-
Figure G.04 : DEFECTS RECORDING FORM for CONCRETE SURFACES
AIRPORT FACILITY DEFECT RATINGS

CHAINAGE from: SECTION
% AT SEVERITY LEVEL
to: ID NO. EXTENT
INSPECTOR DATE HIGH MEDIUM LOW
PANEL CRACKING * % pannels affected

Low single hairline crack
Medium open crack with little or no spalling, or panel cracked into 3 or more pieces
High spalled crack or panel cracked into 4 or more pieces
CORNER CRACKING * % panels affected

Low single corner, hairline crack
Medium open crack with little or no spalling
High concrete spalling or multiple adjacent corners cracked
EDGE CRACKING * % panels affected

Low edge cracking with no associated spalling
Medium concrete spalling along partial length only
High concrete spalling along 20% or more of panel perimeter
SURFACE SCALING & SPALLING * % panels affected

Low depth of surface loss less than 10 mm or extensive discrete pop-outs
Medium depth of surface loss less then maximum aggregate size
High depth of surface loss greater then maximum aggregate size
JOINT FAULTING % panels affected

Low step height less than 10 mm
Medium step height 10 mm to 20 mm
High step height greater than 20 mm
JOINT SEALANT FAILURE % joint length affected

Low adhesion loss one side, or cohesion failure
Medium adhesion loss both sides, sealant loose
High sealant lost or joint kerf edge chipping
% panels affected
Low
Medium
High
DEFECTIVE PANELS ( * defective due to cracking or surface spalling) % panels affected

Low as indicated above for defect type involved
Medium as indicated above for defect type involved
High as indicated above for defect type involved SCR =
Comments / Maintenance Requirements Overall Structural Condition Rating :
Guidelines SCR = ________
Subjective judgment SCR = ________
- G.14-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT DISCRETE CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
Discrete cracks in the pavement surface, normally running perpendicular (transverse) or parallel
(longitudinal) to the direction of traffic, but may have segments that meander diagonally.
CAUSES :
Contraction of the pavement surface during cold weather.
Shrinkage of the asphalt, decrease in volume with age.
Opening of joints between paving lanes.
Reflection of old surface cracks or joints through a resurfacing course.
Differential subgrade settlement, frost heaving, or moisture related volume change.
Settlement of fill over pipes or ducts.
TREATMENT :
Seal cracks remaining open during summer months.
Cut out and patch spalled cracks and cracks with associated major settlement.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - single clean cracks with no associated breakdown.
M Medium - cracks with chipped or ravelling edges, or with secondary cracking.
H High - cracks with adjacent asphalt fragments loose or spalled, or with major settlement.
EXTENT LEVELS :
1 Minor - average crack spacing > 30 m
2 Moderate - average crack spacing 10 to 30 m
3 Major - average crack spacing 3 to 10 m
4 Extreme - average crack spacing < 3m
CONDITION RATING :
Extent - crack density (m/m2 )
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1
10
good
very
8
L
good
6 M
fair
H
4 S ev
erity
poor
SCR vs E/S Chart

2 for
Asphalt Surfaces
poor
very
Discrete Cracking
100 50 20 10 5 2 1
Extent - average spacing of cracks (m)
- G.15-
Discrete Cracking
Transverse
and
Longitudinal
Low severity
Transverse Crack
Medium Severity
Longitudinal Crack
Medium Severity
- G.16-
Transverse Crack
High Severity
Longitudinal Crack
High Severity
Reflection Cracking
(Cracks reflected from joints in underlying

concrete slab)
- G.17-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT ALLIGATOR CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
Interconnected cracks forming a series of small polygons resembling the hide of an alligator.
Spacing between cracks may vary from approximately 50 mm to 300 mm.
Closely spaced alligator cracking may be referred to as chickenwire cracking.
Occurs only in wheelpath locations (load associated).
CAUSES :
Movement under wheel loads resulting from stripping of subsurface asphalt layers, or a layer of
excess fines at the surface of the base course as a result of over-compaction during construction.
Fatigue of the asphalt layer resulting from a high number of load repetitions, possibly combined with
excessive deflections under wheel loads (insufficient bearing strength).
TREATMENT :
Replacement patching if confined to limited areas.
Overlay if alligator cracking exceeds moderate extent, or replace asphalt if severely stripped.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - initial stages, closely spaced hairline cracks in longitudinal direction in wheelpath.
M Medium - transverse cracking developed to complete alligator pattern.
H High - cracking with asphalt fragments loose or spalled.
EXTENT LEVELS :
1 Minor - wheelpath length affected < 5%
2 Moderate - wheelpath length affected 5% to 20%
3 Major - wheelpath length affected 20% to 50%
4 Extreme - wheelpath length affected > 50%
CONDITION RATING :
Extent - percent (%) of wheelpath length affected
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
good
6
L
fair
M
4 H
Sev
poor
erity
SCR vs E/S Chart
2 for
Asphalt Surfaces
poor
very
Alligator Cracking
0
- G.18-
Alligator Cracking
Low Severity
Longitudinal cracks appear initially;

transverse cracks to complete alligator
pattern soon follow.
Alligator Cracking
Medium Severity
Alligator
Cracking
High Severity
- G.19-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT MAP CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
Large scale pattern cracking, with intersecting cracks spaced from 0.5 m to 2 m forming blocks.
Occurs only in wheelpath locations (load associated), otherwise the defect is block cracking.
May be accompanied by settlement.
CAUSES :
Excessive deflections of the pavement under traffic loads.
Similar to alligator cracking, but yielding layer at a deeper level, most likely in the subgrade.
If limited in area, probably due to a soft or wet pocket of subgrade soil.
TREATMENT :
If confined to limited areas, reconstruct with replacement of defective subsurface layers.
If map cracking exceeds moderate extent, pavement strengthening is required.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - cracking with no associated breakdown.
M Medium - cracking with chipped or ravelling edges, or with secondary cracking.
H High - cracking with asphalt fragments loose or spalled.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING :

1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
good
6
L
fair
M
4 H
Sev
poor
erity
SCR vs E/S Chart
2
for
poor
Asphalt Surfaces
very
Map Cracking
0
- G.20-
Map Cracking
Low to Medium
Severity
Map Cracking
Medium Severity
Map Cracking
Medium to High
Severity
- G.21-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT BLOCK CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
Intersecting transverse and longitudinal cracks forming rectangular blocks varying in size from
0.1 m x 0.1 m to 3 m x 3 m.
May appear similar to alligator or map cracking but is not limited to wheelpath locations (not load-
related) and frequently occurs throughout the pavement area.
Occurrence is usually associated with older asphalt surfaces subject to relatively light traffic loads.
CAUSES :
Long term volume shrinkage of asphalt with age.
Advanced transverse and longitudinal temperature cracking.
TREATMENT :
Crack sealing is not cost-effective. Limited spalling may be patched; otherwise leave until extensive
spalling or heavier traffic requires restoration through asphalt overlay or replacement.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - cracking with no associated breakdown and spacing greater than 2 m.
M Medium - cracking with chipped or ravelling edges, or spacing less than 2 m.
H High - cracking with asphalt fragments loose or spalled, or spacing less than one metre.
EXTENT LEVELS :
1 Minor - area affected < 5%
2 Moderate - area affected 5% to 20%
3 Major - area affected 20% to 50%
4 Extreme - area affected > 50%
CONDITION RATING :
Extent - percent (%) of area affected
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
good
6 M
fair
H
Sev
4 e rity
poor
2 SCR vs E/S Chart

for
poor
very
Asphalt Surfaces
Block Cracking
0
- G.22-
Block Cracking
Low Severity
Block Cracking
Medium to High Severity
Block Cracking
High Severity
(may look like alligator

cracking but is not
limited to wheelpath)
- G.23-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT RAVELLING
DESCRIPTION :
Disintegration and subsequent loss of the pavement surface.
CAUSES :
Loss or lack of bond between asphalt cement and aggregate particles due to stripping, or
construction related mix deficiencies such as low asphalt content, insufficient mixing, or wet or
dusty aggregates.
Inadequate compaction of the asphalt during construction.
Segregation of the mix during construction due to improper handling techniques.
Disintegration of aggregate particles under wet/dry or freeze/thaw cycles.
Hardening of the asphalt binder with age.
Fuel or oil spills.
TREATMENT :
For ravelling of medium to high severity patching if localized, slurry seal or asphalt resurfacing
course if extensive.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - individual coarse aggregate pop-outs, or fines matrix loss to a depth less than 3 mm.
M Medium - depth of surface loss not greater than the maximum aggregate size.
H High - depth of surface loss greater than maximum aggregate size.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING :
Extent - percent (%) of area affected
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
L
8
good
M
6
fair
H Sev
e rity
4
poor
SCR vs E/S Chart

2
for
Asphalt Surfaces
poor
very
Ravelling
0
- G.24-
Ravelling
Low Severity
Note all asphalt

surfaces strip to some
degree. Surface stripping
can be ignored unless it
develops into ravelling.
Ravelling
Medium Severity
Ravelling
High Severity
- G.25-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT RUTTING
DESCRIPTION :
Load associated depression in the wheelpath.
May be referred to as deformation if due to consolidation rather than shearing of sublayers.
CAUSES :
Shearing or consolidation of pavement layers under repeated traffic loadings (shear failure in the
upper pavement layers is indicated if accompanied by upheaval adjacent to the wheelpath).
Shearing may result from the use of substandard materials in construction of one or more of the
pavement layers, or inadequate pavement thickness for the shear strength of the subgrade soil.
Consolidation may result from inadequate compaction during construction, or embankment and
traffic loads exceeding subgrade preconsolidation pressures.
TREATMENT :
Review pavement bearing capacity and conduct borehole investigation if warranted.
If limited in extent, maintain by patching or localized reconstruction.
If extensive, restore by strengthening overlay or reconstruction.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - rut depth less than 20 mm.
M Medium - rut depth 20 mm to 40 mm.
H High - rut depth greater than 40 mm.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING :
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
good
L
6
M
fair
4 H Sev
erity
poor
SCR vs E/S Chart

2 for
Asphalt Surfaces
poor
very
Rutting
0
- G.26-
Rutting
Low Severity
Rutting
Medium Severity
Rutting
High Severity
- G.27-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT BLEEDING
DESCRIPTION :
Film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface in the wheelpath areas.
May also be referred to as flushing.
CAUSES :
Excess asphalt cement and/or insufficient voids in the asphalt mix, with the excess asphalt being
flushed to the pavement surface by wheel loads during hot weather.
Paving over bleeding asphalt surfaces, or excess joint sealant on the pavement surface.
TREATMENT :
Apply hot sand and roll to absorb the excess asphalt cement.
Shot blasting of the surface.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - spots, discontinuous film of asphalt on the pavement surface.
M Medium - continuous thin film of asphalt in the wheelpaths.
H High - heavy film, glaze-like surface, sticky when hot.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Evaluate operational effect through friction measurement.
Bleeding
Low Severity
(bleeding of crack sealant through overlay)
Bleeding
Low to Medium Severity
- G.28-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT DISTORTION
DESCRIPTION :
Displacement of asphalt surfaces horizontally.
Normally a localized defect and may be accompanied by tear cracks.
May be referred to as shoving, and on road surfaces may develop into corrugation (rippling).
CAUSES :
Insufficient asphalt stability to withstand horizontal shear forces of braking tires.
Insufficient bond between asphalt lifts or between the asphalt and underlying surface, possibly due
to excessive tack coat.
Locked-wheel turn of an aircraft on relatively new asphalt surface.
TREATMENT :
Replacement patching if localized distortion is continuing or causing a ride quality problem.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - horizontal displacement less than 100 mm.
M Medium - horizontal displacement 100 mm to 200 mm.
H High - horizontal displacement greater than 200 mm.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Evaluate operational effect through roughness measurement

and/or associated cracking.
Distortion
High severity with no

associated tear cracking
Distortion
High severity with

associated tear cracking
- G.29-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT EDGE CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
Closely spaced parallel cracks or alligator type cracking along the edge of pavement areas.
CAUSES :
Maintenance vehicle loads on an area of pavement frequently of low bearing strength due to the free
edge and moisture reaching subgrade from the shoulder surface.
TREATMENT :
Removal and patching as required to control FOD material.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - hairline cracking only.
M Medium - cracks open, ravelling at edges.
H High - asphalt fragments loose or spalling.
EXTENT LEVELS :
1 Minor - edge length affected < 5%
2 Moderate - edge length affected 5% to 20%
3 Major - edge length affected 20% to 50%
4 Extreme - edge length affected > 50%
CONDITION RATING : Generally not a factor in operational safety and structural condition rating.
Edge Cracking
Low Severity
Medium Severity / High Severity
- G.30-
ASPHALT SURFACES DEFECT TEAR CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
Cracks of short length, usually no more than one or two metres; may be of a crescent or Y shape.
May be associated with distortion.
CAUSES :
Tearing of the hot asphalt mat during construction by a cold screed or a roller.
Insufficient asphalt stability to withstand tearing under horizontal forces generated by a braking or
turning aircraft.
TREATMENT :
Replacement patching if spalling occurs or appears probable, or if crack is too wide to seal.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - hairline cracks only.
M Medium - open cracks, ravelling at the edges.
H High - asphalt fragments loose or spalling.
EXTENT LEVELS
CONDITION RATING : Usually localized; evaluate with discrete cracking if significant.
Tear Cracks
Tear Cracks
High Severity
- G.31-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT PANEL CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
Full-depth cracking through a concrete panel in a transverse, longitudinal or diagonal direction,
dividing the panel into two or more parts.
CAUSES :
Aircraft loads exceeding the slab bearing capacity (if this is the only factor, corner cracking likely
appears first).
Differential bearing loss beneath slab due to subgrade erosion, settlement or heaving.
Late sawing of contraction joints during construction.
Sympathetic cracking (extension of cracks or mismatched joints into adjacent panels under thermal
expansion/contraction movements).
Seizing of thermal joints by dowels or tie bars.
TREATMENT :
Sealing of cracks of medium severity.
Partial or full panel replacement if significant spalling or settlement/stepping occurs, or if panel is
broken into four or more pieces.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - single hairline crack.
M Medium - open crack with little or no spalling, or panel cracked into 3 or more pieces.
H High - spalled crack or panel cracked into four or more sections.
EXTENT LEVELS :
1 Minor - panels affected < 3%
2 Moderate - panels affected 3% to 10%
3 Major - panels affected 10% to 30%
4 Extreme - panels affected > 30%
CONDITION RATING : Extent - percent (%) of panels defective

1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
good
6
M
fair
4 H S ev
erity
poor
2 SCR vs E/S Chart

for
poor
very
Concrete Surfaces
0
- G.32-
Panel Cracking
Low Severity
Panel Cracking
Medium to High
Severity
Panel Cracking
High Severity
- G.33-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT CORNER CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
A full-depth crack at the corner of a panel running from contraction to construction joint.
Distinctive semi-circular cracking pattern about the corner distinguishes corner from edge cracking.
CAUSES :
Aircraft loads exceeding the slab bearing capacity.
Loss of foundation support at the corner due to subgrade erosion, settlement or heaving.
TREATMENT :
Partial panel replacement for corner cracking of minor extent if spalling or stepping occurs.
Corner cracking exceeding minor extent suggests an overloading condition with pavement
strengthening or traffic restrictions required. Review bearing capacity and published load ratings.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - single corner, hairline crack.
M Medium - open crack with little or no spalling.
H High - concrete spalling, or multiple adjacent corners cracked.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING :
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
good
6
M
fair
4 H S ev
erity
poor
2 SCR vs E/S Chart

for
poor
very
Concrete Surfaces
0
- G.34-
Corner Cracking
Low Severity
Corner Cracking
Medium Severity
Corner Cracking
High Severity
- G.35-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT EDGE CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
A crack at the edge of a panel running more or less parallel to the joint (most frequently a
construction joint) at an offset usually in the range of 100 mm to 750 mm from the joint.
The crack usually does not extend to the full depth of the slab, but runs from the surface diagonally
or subsurface horizontally to intersect the joint at partial slab depth.
CAUSES :
Overloading of the construction joint keyway, possibly combined with inadequate keyway design.
Damage during construction causing micro-cracking in uncured concrete (possibly related to form
removal methods).
Late sawing of contraction joints during construction, resulting in cracking ahead of the saw.
Infiltration of joints by incompressible solids; patching with rigid materials without re-establishing
the joint.
TREATMENT :
Partial depth patching or partial panel replacement for spalling edge cracks.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - edge cracking with no associated spalling.
M Medium - concrete spalling along partial panel length only.
H High - concrete spalling full panel length along one or more edges.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING :
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
good
6
M
fair
4 H S ev
erity
poor
2 SCR vs E/S Chart

for
poor
very
Concrete Surfaces
0
- G.36-
Edge Cracking
Low Severity
Edge Cracking
Medium Severity
Edge Cracking
High severity
- G.37-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT SURFACE SCALING/SPALLING
DESCRIPTION :
Disintegration, ravelling or break-up with the subsequent loss of material from the concrete surface.
Peeling of a relatively thin layer from the surface is referred to as scaling.
CAUSES :
A weak layer of fine aggregate at the surface resulting from overfinishing during construction.
Poor curing practices during construction.
Poor quality aggregates or concrete mix, possibly combined with freeze-thaw cycles and action of
de-icing chemicals.
Surface crazing reaching a high level of severity.
TREATMENT :
For high severity surface spalling, surface patching if localized, resurfacing or reconstruction if
extensive.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - scaling depth of surface loss less than 10 mm or extensive discrete pop-outs.
M Medium - depth of surface loss less than the maximum aggregate size.
H High - depth of surface loss greater than the maximum aggregate size.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING :
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
good
very
8
good
6
M
fair
4 H S ev
erity
poor
2 SCR vs E/S Chart

for
poor
very
Concrete Surfaces
0
- G.38-
Surface
Scaling / Spalling
Surface Spalling
Medium Severity
Surface Spalling
High Severity
- G.39-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT JOINT FAULTING
DESCRIPTION :
Elevation or depression of a concrete panel relative to an adjacent panel, resulting in a step when
crossing the joint between the panels.
May be referred to as joint stepping.
CAUSES :
Differential settlement or heaving of adjacent panels due to subgrade settlement or frost heaving.
Settlement resulting from the pumping of fines from beneath the slab, as traffic crosses a joint when
the base is saturated.
High levels of load repetition from slow moving aircraft crossing the joint (the step is downward in
the direction of traffic).
TREATMENT :
Slab jacking or diamond grinding for high severity joint faulting of limited extent.
Resurfacing overlay or reconstruction if extensive faulting causes excessively poor riding quality.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - step height less than 10 mm.
M Medium - step height 10 mm to 20 mm.
H High - step height greater than 20 mm.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Evaluate operational effect through ride quality measurement.
Joint Faulting
Medium Severity
Joint Faulting
High Severity
- G.40-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT JOINT SEALANT FAILURE
DESCRIPTION :
Adhesion failure loss of bond with the concrete along joint kerf walls.
Cohesion failure vertical split through the sealant material.
Joint edge chipping small chips of concrete pulled from adjacent kerf walls.
Loss of sealant material from the joint kerf.
CAUSES :
Deficient sealant material or installation procedure.
Design details of joint kerf.
TREATMENT :
Empty joint kerfs and kerfs with loose sealant material should be cleaned and resealed with a proven
sealant material.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - adhesion loss one side, or cohesion failure.
M Medium - adhesion loss both sides, sealant loose
H High - sealant lost from the joint, or joint kerf edge chipping.
EXTENT LEVELS :
1 Minor - joint length affected < 3%
2 Moderate - joint length affected 3% to 10%
3 Major - joint length affected 10% to 30%
4 Extreme - joint length affected > 30%
CONDITION RATING : Not a direct factor in operational condition.
Medium Severity
(adhesion loss both sides)
High Severity
(joint edge chipping)
- G.41-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT SURFACE CRAZING
DESCRIPTION :
Network of fine cracks in the concrete surface.
CAUSES :
Concrete expansion due to an alkali-aggregate reaction.
Construction related deficiency such as overfinishing of the surface, or improper operation of
vibrators.
TREATMENT :
No maintenance unless surface spalling develops.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - cracking pattern visible but surface intact and sound.
M Medium - (not applicable).
H High - surface spalling developing.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Rate under surface scaling and spalling.
Surface Crazing
Low Severity
Surface Crazing
High Severity
- G.42-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT D CRACKING
DESCRIPTION :
Network of fine cracks running along panel edges and around the corners, generally within a 300
mm to 500 mm width adjacent to the joint.
CAUSES :
Cracking of coarse aggregate particles under freeze-thaw action, with eventual extension into the
mortar and throughout the concrete. Certain types of calcitic and dolomitic limestone found in the
prairie provinces are susceptible to D cracking.
TREATMENT :
Asphalt overlay or panel replacement once spalling develops.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - (not applicable).
M Medium - cracking pattern visible but concrete still intact.
H High - surface/joint spalling occurring.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Rate as defective panel.
D Cracking D Cracking
Medium to High Severity (note characteristic curving around corners)
- G.43-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT PUMPING
DESCRIPTION :
Subsurface fines suspended in water ejected from beneath a concrete slab as aircraft traffic crosses a
joint or crack during periods of rain or saturated subbase conditions.
During dry weather, evidence of pumping may be provided by stains left on the concrete surface.
CAUSES :
Joint sealant failure allowing entry of water to the subsurface, combined with significant deflection
of the concrete slab under aircraft loads.
TREATMENT :
Generally, no treatment unless cracking develops.
Raising and levelling of settled panels through subsurface injection (slab jacking) might be
considered in some circumstances.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
Not applicable
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Not a direct influence on operational condition.

Rate associated settlement and cracking if it occurs.
Pumping
(as evidenced by surface

staining)
- G.44-
CONCRETE SURFACES DEFECT COMPRESSION BUCKLING
DESCRIPTION :
Crushing, shattering and upward buckling of concrete slabs along a joint line.
CAUSES :
High compressive forces due to insufficient width of joint gap for slab to expand in hot weather
(more likely to occur with thinner slabs). Insufficient joint spacing may be the result of paving in
cold weather, incompressible material plugging the joints, patching without re-establishing the
joints, utility cuts, etc.
TREATMENT :
Partial or full replacement of damaged panels, with possible cutting of an expansion joint to relieve
compressive forces.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
Not applicable - the nature of the defect implies high severity.
EXTENT LEVELS :
Not applicable - normally very localized.
CONDITION RATING : Not a factor in general structural condition due to the localized nature of
the defect.
Buckling at inserted
surface drainage line.
- G.45-
PAVED SURFACES DEFECT BIRD BATH
DESCRIPTION :
Pooling of water on the pavement surface during and following rainstorms.
CAUSES :
Construction paving grade control deficiency.
Localized subgrade settlement.
Rutting of asphalt surfaces.
TREATMENT :
If medium or high severity paving deficiency and covered by contract warranty, cut out and patch or
drain by grooving if localized, resurfacing overlay if throughout.
If due to settlement or rutting, use treatment listed for these defects.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - depth less than 10 mm or area less than 1 m2.
M Medium - depth less than 20 mm or area less than 5 m2.
H High - depth greater than 20 mm or area greater than 5 m2.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Evaluate operational effect through ride quality measurement and/or
through pilot reports of hydroplaning or incidents of engine flame-out.
Bird Bath
Medium Severity
Bird Bath
High Severity
- G.46-
PAVED SURFACES DEFECT SUBGRADE SETTLEMENT
DESCRIPTION :
Depression in the pavement surface, usually over a fairly extensive area.
May be most evident by presence of bird baths on the pavement surface during rain.
CAUSES :
Consolidation of subgrade layers under embankment or traffic loads.
Insufficient compaction of embankment fill during construction.
Permafrost degradation.
TREATMENT :
Patching or localized reconstruction of the settled area.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - depression less than 20 mm
M Medium - depression 20 mm to 50 mm.
H High - depression greater than 50 mm.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Evaluate through ride quality measurement or effect on surface drainage.
Subgrade Settlement
(due to permafrost degradation)
High Severity
Subgrade Settlement
High Severity
- G.47-
PAVED SURFACES DEFECT FROST HEAVING
DESCRIPTION :
Vertical heaving of the pavement surface during winter or early spring, with subsequent resettlement
after subsurface thaw. Normally, only differential heaving is of concern.
CAUSES :
Ice lenses forming in a frost susceptible soil when a source of subsurface water and freezing
temperatures are present.
Surface water reaching a subsurface frozen zone through open cracks or joints.
Raising of boulders in the subgrade by frost action.
TREATMENT :
Localized reconstruction for isolated major heaving.
Overlay providing additional frost protection if extensive heaving gives rise to unacceptable levels
of ride quality. Subsurface drainage improvements may also be needed.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - bump height less than 20 mm.
M Medium - bump height 20 mm to 50 mm.
H High - bump height greater than 50 mm.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Evaluate through ride quality measurement.
Frost Heaving
Major Severity
Frost Heaving
(subgrade boulder being raised)
- G.48-
PAVED SURFACES DEFECT PATCHING
DESCRIPTION :
Post-construction replacement of the pavement surface in localized areas.
Not normally noted in a condition survey unless extensive in nature, indicative of some kind of
structural deficiency, or causing some type of problem such as roughness or surface spalling.
CAUSES :
Repair of a pavement defect or repaving of a utility cut.
TREATMENT :
Not applicable unless the patch causes excessive roughness or is cracking and spalling, in which case
treat according to the applicable operational deficiency.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
Not applicable.
EXTENT LEVELS :
Not applicable.
CONDITION RATING : Not a direct factor in operational suitability of the surface.
Replacement Patch
Repair of Transverse Crack
Patch in good condition
Skin Patch
Patch peeling and

in poor condition
- G.49-
PAVED SURFACES DEFECT WEAR AND POLISH
DESCRIPTION :
Wear of the pavement surface to a very smooth condition, with little or no texture apparent under
fingertip touch, and may have a glassy appearance.
CAUSES :
Wear by wheel spin-up on touchdown and by braking aircraft tires.
TREATMENT :
Surface retexturing by shotblasting or other technique if polishing leads to inadequate levels of skid
resistance.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - some texture but smooth compared to the surface outside wheelpath.
M Medium - little texture apparent under fingertip touch.
H High - no texture can be felt, glassy appearance.
EXTENT LEVELS :
CONDITION RATING : Evaluate operational effect through skid resistance measurement.
Wear & Polish
Low to Medium
Severity
- G.50-
PAVED SURFACES DEFECT RUBBER DEPOSITS
DESCRIPTION :
Tire rubber deposited on the runway surface in the touchdown zones of heavily trafficked runways.
CAUSES :
Spin-up of tires during the landing of large aircraft.
TREATMENT :
Periodic removal of the rubber deposits if they result in a low level of skid resistance.
SEVERITY LEVELS :
L Low - light deposits only, individual tracings visible.
M Medium - continuous deposit, pavement surface texture still reflecting through.
H High - solid rubber surface covering all texture.
EXTENT LEVELS :
Not applicable, except note if only one runway end or both ends are affected.
CONDITION RATING : Evaluate operational effect through skid resistance measurements.
Rubber Deposit
Rubber Deposit
High Severity
- G.51-
Figure G.05 : GRAVEL SURFACES CONDITION RATING FORM
Airport : Surface Condition Rating
Thickness of Gravel at Last Regravelling (mm)

Date:
Next Regravelling Required (year)

Inspector :
Present Gravel Thickness (mm)

Last Regravelling (mo/yr)
Critical Aircraft :
General Condition Rating

Runway Roughness
Tire Pressure :
Last Graded (date)
Surface Drainage
Loss of Material
Sub-Drainage
Frost Action
Chainage
Segregation
Vegetation
Rutting
Facility From To
Comments :
General Condition Rating Pavement Defect Ratings

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1: minor extent
2: moderate of defect L: low
severity M: medium
very good good fair poor very poor 3: major
4: extreme of defect H: high
- G.52-
GRAVEL SURFACES DEFECTS
Segregation
Rutting
Poor Drainage
due to
Loss of Crown
- G.53-
GRAVEL SURFACE DEFECTS
Vegetation
Encroachment
Dust Generation
Heavily Oiled Surface
- G.54-
Bearing Capacity
Failure
Tire Imprints
Tire pressure exceeding

asphalt stability.
Possible contribution
from vibration during
engine runup.
Tire Tears
Caused by
aircraft doing a
locked-wheeled turn
on new asphalt.
- G.55-
Fuel Spill Damage
(tire imprints in asphalt softened by

fuel spill)
Pothole
(caused by contaminated
base course material)
Sinkhole
(caused by voids in rock

fill embankment)
- G.56-
Peeling of Feathered Edges
Overlay Peeling
due to Jet Blast
(mill and construct butt

joints)
Lightning Strike
Damage
(asphalt overlay blown

off by lightning strike)
(lightning strike may

leave several shallow
dish-like depressions
over an area of 20-30m
radius)
- G.57-
Peeling of
Thin Overlay
Break-up of
Thin Asphalt
(or surface treatment)
Cold Screed Tears
(typical appearance)
- G.58-
Wide, Deep Crack
(Closes in summer, opens to 100 mm width

in winter; maintained by filling with sand)
(Possibly exacerbated by drying and

shrinkage of clay subgrade when crack opens)
Crack Reflected from Subgrade
(cracks often extend into base and subgrade

and reappear even when patched
or pavement reconstructed)
Vegetation Growth
In Cracks
- G.59-
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking of Concrete
(Several short cracks, 0.1 m to 1 m in length,

more or less parallel in direction. Generally
associated with hot weather concreting
when rapid evaporation occurs from
surface.)
Sympathetic Cracking
(misaligned joints in PCC pavements reflect

into adjacent panels under thermal expansion-
contraction cycles)
Panel Cracking
Induced By
Interior Manhole
- G.60-
Construction Induced Edge Cracking
(caused by running slip form paver along

panel edge before cure was sufficiently
advanced; allow minimum 4 to 7 days)
Construction Induced
Panel Cracking
(caused by malfunctioning
paver vibrators)
Construction Induced
Joint Edge Spalling
(caused by construction
traffic running over
loose gravel on
surface wedged in
unsealed joints)
- G.61-
Construction
Grade Deficiency
(hazardous for small

aircraft as wing may
hit ground if wheel
enters depression)
Frost Heaving
of Manhole
Lateral Displacement
of Slab
(due to settlement
resulting from subgrade
permafrost degradation)
- G.62-
Shoulder Erosion
(erosion of unfinished
surfaces can be a major
problem during
construction)
Subsurface Drainage Erosion
(drainage pipe disconnected from catchbasin)
Silting of Drainage System
- G.63-
Shoulder Erosion
from Jet Blast
(runway too narrow for

operation of wide-bodied
aircraft)
Pavement Edge
Stepping
(resulting from
shoulder erosion)
Runway Edge Berming
(build up of ice
control sand and gravel
may occur at edge
of runway and obstruct
surface drainage)
- G.64-
Surface Treatment
Streaking
(insufficient overlapping
of binder spray)
Wide Paint Markings
(possible cause of
deficient skid resistance
if occurring on runway
centreline)
- G.65-
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix H : Engineering Management Records
APPENDIX H
ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT RECORDS
Section Page
Engineering Management Records H.2
General Site Information

Site Key Plan ............................................................................................................... H.3
Temperature Statistics .................................................................................................. H.4
Subgrade Soil .............................................................................................................. H.5
Construction History
Construction History Sections .................................................................................... H.6
Construction History Summary ................................................................................... H.7
Airport Pavement Load Rating Chart ....... H.8
Runway Ride Quality

Ride Quality Performance Chart .................................................................................. H.9
Ride Quality Measurements ......................................................................................... H.10
Ride Quality Profile ...................................................................................................... H.11
Runway Skid Resistance

Skid Resistance Measurements .................................................................................... H.12
Skid Resistance Profile ................................................................................................ H.13
Structural Condition Survey

Survey Report ............................................................................................................... H.14
Condition Survey Sections ........................................................................................... H.15
Condition Survey Ratings ............................................................................................ H.16
Restoration Program ..................................................................................................... H.17
Photos ............................................................................................................................ H.18
- H.1 -
Engineering Management Records
Records useful for the engineering management of airport pavement facilities have been identified at
various locations in this document. For ease of reference, an example set of the records frequently accessed
for operational purposes is provided in this appendix. The records are grouped as follows:
general site data
construction history and load rating records
runway ride quality measurements
runway skid resistance measurements
structural condition survey report
General site data includes an airside key plan, climatic records and subgrade soils information. The airside
key plan, showing the configuration and designations of runways, taxiways and aprons, is frequently used
as a reference in studies and reports. Climatic records include the temperature statistics needed to estimate
frost or thaw penetrations, and to select the grade of asphalt cement to be used in construction. Subgrade
soils information needed is a brief summary of soil description and classification, frost susceptibility, and
bearing strength test data.
The construction history provides a sectioning of the airport pavement inventory into areas of different
construction, details pavement layer thicknesses and year of construction, and indicates the strength
parameters of each section. The load rating chart outlines the maximum size of aircraft pre-approved to
operate on the various pavement areas.
Current runway ride quality and skid resistance measurements, and structural condition survey reports are
needed to assess the operational quality of the pavement inventory and the level of service being provided.
This information is also needed to identify maintenance requirements, and to program and design
restoration measures.
These records should be readily available as they provide answers to most technical questions arising from
time to time concerning airport pavement facilities. Many other records should be available somewhere in
storage. In particular, detailed information from geotechnical studies previously conducted at the site,
including bearing strength measurements if any, is needed for reference purposes when design work is
undertaken for the construction of new pavements or the restoration of existing facilities. Construction
quality control records, as previously detailed, also prove useful on occasion as they contain information on
the sources and properties of aggregates and other construction materials used at the airport in the past.
This information can be correlated against performance.
The records presented in this appendix are significant with respect to the information provided, not the
format in which it is presented. Different presentation formats are possible. A printed copy of the records
should be maintained even though the information may be computer generated and stored.
- H.2 -
7+
012
0 22
5+00
12
4
6+52
A
30
I
5+
000
II
B
04
0 500
SITE KEY PLAN
scale (metres) Name :
SAMPLE, ONTARIO
Revised :
04 - 22 : 2012 x 60 m
MARCH 1996
12 -30 : 1524 x 60 m
Operator :
MUNICIPALITY
- H.3 -
SITE CLIMATOLOGICAL STATISTICS
1961 - 1990
SAMPLE, ONTARIO
Year Air Temperatures Freezing Thawing Annual Annual

Mean Max Min Index Index Rainfall Snowfall
(C) (C) (C) (C-D) (C-D) (mm) (mm)
1961 3.8 32 -31 1384 2597 693 1760

1962 3.2 33 -36 1537 2621 366 2869
1963 3.2 34 -33 1307 2788 485 1954
1964 3.7 32 -30 1501 2640 521 2318
1965 2.7 29 -36 1153 2346 614 2845
1966 3.4 34 -31 1438 2503 556 1994
1967 2.8 29 -38 1391 2460 713 2721
1968 3.6 32 -37 1241 2745 627 1985
1969 3.7 32 -27 1522 2558 690 2144
1970 3.2 31 -33 1517 2734 828 1865
1971 3.7 33 -36 1451 2772 537 2686
1972 2.4 29 -34 1174 2439 629 3627
1973 4.7 32 -33 1417 2802 657 1861
1974 3.1 32 -31 1174 2449 638 2814
1975 4.4 38 -33 1399 2956 492 3205
1976 2.8 31 -35 1501 2634 526 3347
1977 4.2 35 -34 1486 2798 754 2576
1978 2.8 31 -28 1519 2552 692 2972
1979 3.3 32 -34 1194 2546 738 2979
1980 2.8 31 -34 1352 2499 684 3037
1981 4.1 32 -37 1484 2616 722 2685
1982 3.3 31 -39 969 2626 616 2907
1983 4.0 35 -33 1418 2716 686 2921
1984 4.0 32 -34 1282 2674 827 2088
1985 3.1 29 -35 1415 2629 626 3901
1986 3.9 34 -31 1004 2624 562 2337
1987 5.4 33 -32 1204 2892 478 2534
1988 4.0 37 -33 1310 2779 795 3222
1989 2.7 34 -31 1415 2700 605 3068
1990 4.5 31 -29 1071 2625 709 2678
Average 3.55 32.3 -33.3 1341 2644 636 2663

St. Dev. 0.68 2.13 2.82 158 137 107 536
Note : Freezing Index calculated for the winter season that commenced in the year listed.
- H.4 -
SUBGRADE SOILS
Airport : Sample, Ontario
A/ Data Availability
1958 load test program - 16 repetitive static plate tests, test holes drilled at each location
1979 load test program - 4 repetitive static plate tests and 19 non-repetitive static plate tests
B/ Subgrade Soil Description

Sand and gravel mixture, ranging from mostly sand to mostly gravel
SW, SP-SW, GP-GW
C/ Drainage and Water Table

Well drained site. No water table detected in holes drilled to 3 metres
D/ Spring Reduction Factor and Frost Heaving

S.R.F. = 0 %
No frost heaving reported at the site.
E/ Subgrade Bearing Strength (kN)

1958 Tests 1979 Tests
rny 04-22 rny 12-30 rny 04-22 rny 12-30
range 380 - 510 330 - 530 500 - 800 290 - 470
average 450 420 605 369
standard deviation 53 75 99 62
lower quartile value 415 370 538 327
lower quartile, spring reduced 415 370 538 327
F/ Gradations
clay silt sand gravel

very fine fine medium coarse fine coarse
100
little frost frost some frost no frost
susceptibility susceptibility susceptibility susceptibility
80 SRF 15 % SRF 45 % SRF 10 % SRF 0 %
percent passing
60
40
20
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
grain size in millimeters
- H.5 -
22
3
0
5+00
4
5
12
7
8
9
4
6+52
30
12
2
17
16
15
1
11
04
14
10 13
0 500
Pavement Inventory Sections
SAMPLE, ONTARIO
Revised :
04 - 22 : 2012 x 60 m
MARCH 1996
12 -30 : 1524 x 60 m
Operator :
MUNICIPALITY
- H.6 -
AIRFIELD PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION HISTORY
Airport: SAMPLE, Ontario Revised: 29/03/1996
FACILITY DIMENSIONS CONSTRUCTION HISTORY PAVEMENT STRENGTH
Layer Thickness (mm) PLR

Pavement Plan Chainage Width Area Contract Year Strength
Actual/
Facility Code (m) (m) 103m2 PCC AC B SB Number Built Code
Assigned
Runway 1 5000 61 5.60 180 48045 1952

04-22 5091 100 7713 1977 k150 hd280 10 / 12
Runway 2 5091 61 111.60 65 230 48045 1952

04-22 6920 100 7713 1977 S450 t530 12+ / 12
Runway 3 6920 7.80 180 48045 1952

04-22 7012 100 7713 1977 k150 hd280 10 /12
Runway 4 5000 7.90 180 50465 1953

12-30 5091 50 7803 1978 k150 hd230 9 / 12
Runway 5 5091 61 37.00 65 150 50465 1953

12-30 5697 50 7803 1978 S350 t350 12+ / 12
Runway 6 5697 61 5.80 65 150 50465 1953

12-30 5792 50 7803 1978 S350 t350 12+ / 12
Runway 7 5853 61 5.20 65 150 50465 1953

12-30 5939 50 7803 1978 S350 t350 12+ / 12
Runway 8 5939 61 30.10 65 150 50465 1953

12-30 6433 50 7803 1978 S350 t350 12+ / 12
Runway 9 6433 7.90 180 50465 1953

12-30 6524 50 7803 1978 k150 hd230 9 / 12
Taxi A 12 23 9.20 65 150 50465 1953

50 7803 1978 S350 t350 12 + / 12
Taxi B 10 23 8.50 65 230 48045 1952

65 7803 1978 S220t460 12 / 12
Taxi B 11 23 14.00 90 230 58757 1957

50 7803 1978 S350 t465 12+ / 12
Apron I 15 3.70 230 230 7713 1977 k150 h230 9/9
Apron I 16 10.10 230 230 635552 1989 k150 h230 9/9
Apron I 17 3.00 90 230 635552 1989 S350 t410 12+ / 12
Apron II 13 5.60 180 48045 1952

50 7803 1978 k150 hd230 9/7
Apron II 14 2.20 200 1973 k150 h200 7/7
- H.7 -
AIRPORT PAVEMENT LOAD RATING CHART
SITE : SAMPLE, Ontario DATE : March 1996
OPERATOR : Municipality TEL : 705 - xxx- xxxxx
22
12
30
I
B
04 II
0 500
scale (metres)
04 - 22 : 2012 x 61m
12 - 30 : 1524 x 61m
PAVEMENT LOAD TIRE PRESSURE ICAO PAVEMENT CLASSIFICATION NUMBER

SECTION
RATING - PLR LIMIT PCN CODE
12 --- 62 / F / A / ---MPa / T
12 --- 40 / F / A / ---MPa / T
12 --- 55 / F / A / ---MPa / T
9 --- 28 / R / A / ---MPa / T
7 --- 20 / R / A / ---MPa / T
NOT EVALUATED
NOTE : SPECIFIC AUTHORIZATION MUST BE OBTAINED FROM THE AIRPORT OPERATOR FOR THE OPERATION OF AITRCRAFT WITH
LOAD RATING OR TIRE PRESSURE EXCEEDING THE VALUES SHOWN
- H.8 -
RUNWAY RIDE QUALITY PERFORMANCE CHART
AIRPORT: Sample, Ontario
Year
1970 1980 1990 2000
72 74 76 78 82 84 86 88 92 94 96 98
restoration
RUNWAY: 04 - 22 guidelines
Runway Average Riding Comfort Index RCI
very
9
good jet propeller
aircraft aircraft
8 runway resurfaced
good 7
desirable
necessary
desirable
6
necessary
fair 5
poor 3
restoration
Runway Average Riding Comfort Index RCI
very
9
good jet propeller
aircraft aircraft
8
runway resurfaced
good 7
desirable
necessary
desirable
6
necessary
fair 5
poor 3
Notes:
(a) RCI measurements are repeatable within ~ 0.5 units.
- H.9 -
RUNWAY RIDE QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
Airport : Sample, Ontario
Runway : 04-22 Date : June 21, 2000 Time : 19.44

Weather : Clear Temp : 23 C Wind : W 15 kph
Test Unit : PRD#2 Speed : 80 km/h Surface : Dry
Ride
Chainage PURD Roughness Number (PRN) MAYS Roughness Index (MRI)
Qualit
Run Run y
From To 3mL 3mR 3mR 3mL Avg RCI 3mL 3mR 3mR 3mL Avg RCI
RCI
5+200 5+300 431 359 390 422 401 5.4 27.4 14.7 21.4 51.2 28.7 5.3 5.35
5+300 5+400 364 349 322 339 344 5.9 36.1 21.4 14.7 48.4 30.2 5.2 5.55
5+400 5+500 453 380 423 404 415 5.3 36.9 12.3 17.1 30.6 24.2 5.5 5.40
5+500 5+600 424 431 442 419 429 5.3 48.4 17.9 15.9 46.4 32.1 5.1 5.20
5+600 5+700 404 386 366 345 375 5.6 39.3 7.9 21.0 31.0 24.8 5.5 5.55
5+700 5+800 432 404 391 356 396 5.5 52.0 11.9 22.2 42.5 32.1 5.1 5.30
5+800 5+900 351 423 340 348 366 5.7 32.9 17.5 25.0 26.2 25.4 5.5 5.60
5+900 6+000 418 439 375 369 400 5.4 44.8 29.8 19.8 47.2 35.4 5.0 5.20
6+000 6+100 448 502 465 403 455 5.1 42.1 28.6 34.9 29.8 33.8 5.1 5.10
6+100 6+200 390 453 386 385 404 5.4 35.7 21.8 32.5 40.5 32.6 5.1 5.25
6+200 6+300 430 488 437 431 447 5.1 51.6 27.8 28.6 34.9 35.7 5.0 5.05
6+300 6+400 470 455 459 401 446 5.1 40.5 6.0 12.3 63.1 30.5 5.2 5.15
6+400 6+500 348 500 405 375 407 5.4 25.4 18.7 8.3 26.2 19.6 5.9 5.65
6+500 6+600 387 492 409 379 417 5.3 58.3 7.9 14.7 55.6 34.1 5.0 5.15
6+600 6+700 411 414 348 407 395 5.5 44.8 17.5 8.7 41.3 28.1 5.3 5.40
6+700 6+800 326 331 312 329 325 6.0 35.7 7.1 15.5 31.8 22.5 5.7 5.85
Average : 405 425 392 382 401 5.5 40.8 16.8 19.5 40.4 29.4 5.3 5.40
Roughest : 455 5.1 35.7 5.0 5.05

Test Unit : PRD#2 Speed : 80 km/h Surface : Dry
Ride
Chainage PURD Roughness Number (PRN) MAYS Roughness Index (MRI)
Qualit
Run Run y
From To 3mL 3mR 3mR 3mL Avg RCI 3mL 3mR 3mR 3mL Avg RCI
RCI
5+200 5+300 505 473 524 399 475 5.0 44.5 48.0 44.5 46.4 45.8 4.6 4.80
5+300 5+400 574 537 542 438 523 4.7 37.3 38.9 42.9 44.1 40.8 4.8 4.75
5+400 5+500 467 650 772 506 599 4.3 26.2 54.8 48.4 50.4 44.9 4.6 4.45
5+500 5+600 852 581 657 604 674 4.0 59.9 46.0 53.2 43.7 50.7 4.5 4.25
5+600 5+700 544 771 762 620 674 4.0 47.6 52.4 55.6 49.6 51.3 4.4 4.20
5+700 5+800 817 875 802 880 844 3.4 59.1 84.9 86.9 65.9 75.1 3.9 3.65
5+800 5+900 744 720 737 854 764 3.6 95.2 73.0 70.2 96.0 83.6 3.7 3.65
5+900 6+000 766 652 448 670 634 4.2 65.1 49.2 36.5 56.0 51.7 4.4 4.30
6+000 6+100 480 557 477 550 516 4.7 49.2 43.7 33.7 35.7 40.6 4.8 4.75
6+100 6+200 423 396 382 453 414 5.4 46.4 31.4 41.3 46.0 41.3 4.8 5.10
6+200 6+300 428 424 434 422 427 5.3 43.7 31.4 29.0 43.7 36.9 4.9 5.10
Average : 600 603 594 581 595 4.4 52.2 50.3 49.3 52.8 51.2 4.5 4.45
Roughest : 844 3.4 83.6 3.7 3.65
Notes : a) Measurement made by PURD testing trailer with a MAYS meter installed to provide a second measurement.
b) Year 2000 calibrations in terms of Ride Comfort Index (RCI) were:
PURD measurement RCI = 22.130 - 2.784 * ln (PRN)
MAYS measurement RCI = 10.284 - 3.398 * log (MRI)
- H.10 -
RUNWAY RIDE QUALITY PROFILES
Chainage
5+000 5+500 6+000 6+500 7+000
restoration
very
9
good jet propeller
aircraft aircraft
8
good 7
desirable
necessary
desirable
6
necessary
fair 5
poor 3
restoration
very
9
good jet propeller
aircraft aircraft
8
good 7
desirable
necessary
desirable
6
necessary
fair 5
poor 3
Notes:
(a) RCI measurements are repeatable within ~ 0.5 units.
- H.11 -
RUNWAY SKID RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

AIRPORT : Sample, Ontario

Test Tire : 00-1 Speed : 65 km/h Water : 0.5 mm
Chainage Coefficient of Friction (x100)

Average
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 COF
From To
(3m L) (3mR) (3mL) (3mR)
5+200 5+300 86 87 83 85 85
5+300 5+400 88 89 82 86 86
5+400 5+500 90 88 87 84 87
5+500 5+600 91 85 87 86 87
5+600 5+700 89 88 86 86 87
5+700 5+800 90 89 83 85 87
5+800 5+900 89 88 85 85 87
5+900 6+000 87 86 84 84 85
6+000 6+100 88 87 83 85 86
6+100 6+200 89 89 84 87 87
6+200 6+300 91 87 92 85 89
6+300 6+400 89 86 85 80 85
6+400 6+500 93 80 88 79 85
6+500 6+600 92 84 88 81 86
6+600 6+700 92 81 88 81 86
6+700 6+800 91 83 86 90 88
Low 100 m Section : 86 80 82 79 85

Runway Average : 90 86 86 84 86

Test Tire : 00-1 Speed : 65 km/h Water : 0.5 mm
Chainage Coefficient of Friction (x100)

Average
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 COF
From To
(3m L) (3mR) (3mL) (3mR)
5+200 5+300 92 91 90 90 91
5+300 5+400 87 92 89 91 90
5+400 5+500 91 90 91 90 91
5+500 5+600 86 89 88 90 88
5+600 5+700 90 90 88 90 90
5+700 5+800 90 91 91 91 91
5+800 5+900 89 91 90 92 91
5+900 6+000 80 78 78 78 79
6+000 6+100 85 83 88 84 85
6+100 6+200 91 86 89 86 88
6+200 6+300 89 83 89 83 86
Low 100 m Section : 80 78 78 78 79

Runway Average : 88 88 88 88 88
- H.12 -
RUNWAY SKID RESISTANCE PROFILE

Runway : 04 - 22 Date : June 21, 2000 Time : 19:29

Weather : Clear Temp : 23C Wind : W 15 kph
Test Tire : 00-1 Speed : 65 kph Water : 0.5 mm
rwy low
average 100m
very section
90
good
Coefficient of Friction COF (x100)
plan action
80
take action
good 70
plan action
60
take action
fair 50
40
poor 30
maintenance
guidelines
Chainage 5+000 5+500 6+000 6+500 7+000
Runway : 12 - 30 Date : June 21, 2000 Time : 19:37

Weather : Clear Temp : 23C Wind : W 15 kph
Test Tire : 00-1 Speed : 65 kph Water : 0.5 mm
rwy low
very average 100m
90 section
good
Coefficient of Friction COF (x100)
plan action
80
take action
good 70
plan action
60
take action
fair 50
40
poor 30
maintenance
guidelines
Chainage 5+000 5+500 6+000 6+500 7+000
- H.13 -
From : GHA
Argus Airport Engineering
To : Airport Manager
Sample Airport, Ontario
Subject : Airport Pavement Structural Condition Survey, July 2000
The airside pavement facilities at Sample Airport were inspected by the undersigned on 16 July, 2000, in the company
of John Wilson, Field Superintendent. This report includes the following attachments:
(a) key plan showing the sectioning of pavement facilities for inspection purposes.
(b) summary of the structural defects observed and condition ratings assigned for each section.
(c) proposed restoration program.
(d) illustrative photos.
A videotape of the pavement surfaces is also enclosed. The videotape provides a general impression of surface
conditions although fine detail cannot be distinguished.
The runway and taxiway surfaces are 22 or 23 years old and are nearing the end of their service life. The current
structural condition of the surfaces is rated as fair or fair to poor, with the predominate defect being transverse and
longitudinal cracking. Secondary fracturing adjacent to the main cracks is prevalent and is sufficiently advanced to
raise concerns about the potential development of loose surfacing material adversely affecting the safety of aircraft
operations. The major portion of Apron I is 11 years old and is still in good condition.
It is understood the restoration of runway 04-22 and the taxiway system is an item in the current capital program with
construction scheduled for next summer. The restoration of runway 12-30 should be undertaken soon thereafter. As
bearing strength is not a factor, the restorative work recommended for all runway and taxiway surfaces is a two-lift
asphalt resurfacing overlay, consisting of 45 mm of binder course followed by 30 mm of wearing course. Apron II
should receive a 50 mm single lift overlay as part of the contract for taxiway restoration. Apron I does not need
restoration for some time yet.
Moderate ponding is present at the intersection of the runways. Overlay grades should be designed and carefully
controlled during construction to eliminate this ponding.
An extensive maintenance program of crack sealing and patching is recommended prior to restoration or as a
preliminary part of the restoration contract. Requirements are approximately as follows:
(a) crack sealing :

- runway 04-22 ~ 30,000 m
- runway 12-30 ~ 13,000 m
- taxiways ~ 7,000
Crack sealing should be with a hot-pour bituminous sealant (to specification ASTM D6690) having thermosetting
properties, and the sealing procedure should include routing but no overbanding (because of the scheduled
overlay).
(b) full depth patching :

Full depth patching should be carried out on six major transverse cracks
- runway 04-22 approximate stations 5+330, 5+560, 5+740, 6+550
- runway 12-30 approximate stations 5+510, 5+660
The asphalt should be removed full depth in the location of these cracks to a width of about 750 mm, base surface
graded and compacted, and new asphalt placed.
Full depth patching should also be carried out at 18 localized areas exhibiting badly fractured asphalt. Locations
and areas are listed attached.
(c) concrete patching :

Major edge spalling has occurred at about 10 locations in the concrete surface of Apron I. Patching of these spalls
is recommended using either Portland cement concrete or a polymer concrete patching material.
Questions arising from this report or its recommendations may be directed to the undersigned.
- H.14 -
7+
012
22
5+00
0 3
5
12
5
6
4
6+52
A
30
7
2 I
9 12
11
10
B
1
8
5+
000
II
B
04
14
8 13
0 500
Condition Survey Sections
SAMPLE, ONTARIO
Revised :
04 - 22 : 2012 x 60 m
16 JULY 2000
12 -30 : 1524 x 60 m
Operator :
MUNICIPALITY
- H.15 -
PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY PAVEMENT SURFACE DEFECTS
RATINGS SUMMARY ASPHALT SURFACES CONCRETE SURFACES
AIRPORT :
Sample, Ontario
INSPECTOR :
GHA
DATE :
Structural
16 July 2000
Condition Rating
FACILITY SECTION AREA
Panel Cracking
Corner Cracking
Edge Cracking
Scaling / Spalling
Joint Faulting
Settlement
Settlement
Transverse Cracking
Longitudinal Cracking
Alligator Cracking
Map Cracking
Block Cracking
Rutting
Ravelling
Frost Heaving
Program Restoration
Maintenance Req'd
ID. NO. (103m2)
Ru n wa y 0 4 -2 2 1 5.6 5 3 3 0 0 0 0 4
M M L
" 2 111.6 4 2 2 0 0 0 0 4 1 1
H M L L L
" 3 7.8 5 3 3 0 0 0 0 4
M M L
Ru n wa y 1 2 -3 0 4 7.9 4 3 3 0 0 0 0 4
H M L
" 5 4 3 3 0 0 0 0 4 1
78.1 H M L L
" 6 7.9 5 3 3 0 0 0 0 4
- H.16 -
M M L
Ta xiwa y A 7 5.1 6 3 2 0 0 0 0 4
M L L
Ta xiwa y B 8 19.5 5 2 2 0 0 0 0 4
M M L
Ap ro n I Ta xiwa y 9 7.1 6 3 2 0 0 0 0 4
M L L
Ap ro n I 10 3.7 6 2 0 2 1 1 3
L L L M M
" 11 10.1 8 1 0 1 1 1 2 1
L L L L L L
2 2 0 0 0 0 4 1
" 12 3.0 8 L L L L
Ap ro n II 13 5.6 4 3 3 0 0 0 0 4
H H L
" 14 2.2 4 3 0 2 2 2 3
M M L M H
Critical A ircr aft :
N ame B7 3 7 PAVEMENT DEFECT RATINGS GENERAL CONDITION RATING
O p er atin g W eig h t (k N ) 450 1: min o r ex ten t 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2: mo d er ate sev erity L: lo w
Tire Pressu r e (MPa) 1 .0 3: majo r o f d efect M: med iu m
o f d efect
A ircr aft Lo ad Ratin g (A LR) 8 4: ex tr eme H : h ig h v er y g o o d g o o d fair p o o r v ery p o o r
Appendix H : Engineering Management Records
22
12
30
A
04 II
B
0 - 2 years
current program 156,700 m2
3 - 5 years
programming needed 101,700 m2
5 - 10 years RESTORATION PROGRAM

preliminary planning - nil
Name :
SAMPLE, ONTARIO
10 + years
Revised :
future 16,800 m2
16 JULY 2000
Operator :
MUNICIPALITY
- H.17 -
PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL CONDITION SURVEY
PHOTOGRAPHS
Airport : Sample, Ontario Survey Date : July 2000
Runway 04-22
Typical longitudinal
and transverse cracking
pattern :
major extent
moderate severity
Runway 12-30
Station 5+660
High severity transverse crack
Replacement patching required.
Apron I
Typical panel edge spall

Minor extent (~10)
Patch with Portland cement
or polymer concrete
patching material
- H.18 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix I : Airstrips on Floating Ice Sheets
APPENDIX I
AIRSTRIPS ON FLOATING ICE SHEETS
Section Page
Forward .. I.2
I.1 Floating Ice Thickness for Aircraft Operations I.3
I.2 Method of Test for the Flexural Strength of Ice . I.13
I.3 Ice Characteristics .. I.21
I.4 Stresses and Deflections in Ice Covers .. I.35
I.5 Ice Airstrip Log .. I.38
- I.1 -
FOREWORD
The manual "Recommended Minimum Ice Thickness for Aircraft Operations" was first issued by the Airports
and Construction Branch of Transport Canada in 1963, and a revised edition was published in 1974. The
manual provides ice airstrip operators with a guideline for the safe operation of aircraft on floating ice covers
(both fresh water and sea ice covers).
The 1974 manual presented a recommended minimum ice thickness for aircraft operations as a function of ice
type, temperature and condition. The major change made in this document is recommended minimum ice
thickness is now presented in terms of an allowable flexural stress for ice, with typical values of allowable
flexural stress given separately. This approach allows greater flexibility in application in the event actual
measurements of ice strength are available. A brief description of ice types and a method of strength
measurement has also been added.
1996 MANUAL REVISION PROJECT COMMITTEE
Dr. N. K. Sinha G.H. Argue

Senior Research Officer Chief, Civil Engineering
Cold Regions & Thermal Engineering Engineering and Maintenance
Institute for Engineering in the Canadian Environment Safety and Technical Services
National Research Council of Canada, Transport Canada, Airports
Ottawa Ottawa
Dr. B. L. Cai V.Y.F. Mah

Associate Research Officer Staff Officer
Cold Regions & Thermal Engineering Architecture and Engineering
Institute for Engineering in the Canadian Environment Construction Engineering Division
National Research Council of Canada Air Command, National Defence
Ottawa, K1A 0R8 Winnipeg
Ottawa, Canada
February, 1996
- I.2 -
I.1 FLOATING ICE THICKNESS FOR AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
I.1.1 Limited Movements
Subject to the restrictions and adjustments outlined in subsequent paragraphs, the minimum effective thickness
of ice recommended for limited aircraft movements is given in Figure I1.01. The use of Figure I1.01 requires a
value for ice flexural stress, and an appropriate value may be selected from Figure I1.02. Allowable flexural
stress values selected from Figure I1.02 are generally conservative, and actual measurements of ice strength
(Section I.2) may permit operations on thinner ice covers, or by heavier aircraft.
Limited aircraft movements may involve up to three landings per day. Landing on the minimum ice thickness
involves some risk of breakthrough if a detailed ice survey has not been carried out. The following precautions
should be observed:
(a) where practical, the aircraft should be removed from the ice as soon as possible;
(b) if ice conditions are uncertain, moving the aircraft to another position should be possible on short notice;
(c) the ice should be inspected at least once a day and any deflection or cracking of the ice watched closely. If
cracking continues, loads should be reduced or, if necessary, use of the airstrip should cease.
I.1.2 Unlimited Movements
An engineering analysis, including a detailed survey and investigation of the ice cover, should be made by a
qualified ice specialist to approve a runway for an unlimited number of landings per day.
The bearing capacity of an ice sheet can be affected more by ice quality than by ice thickness. Safe estimates of
strength values can be made by experienced ice specialists through observations of the type and quality of the
ice, which may be supplemented by measurements of ice strength (Section I.2). These estimates can then
provide the basis for decisions concerning use of the airstrip for unlimited movements, or allowing loads in
excess of the maximum recommended for limited use.
I.1.3 Parking
Aircraft may normally be parked on the minimum ice thickness given in Figure I1.01 provided the maximum
deflection of the ice sheet under the parked aircraft does not exceed 8% of the effective ice thickness.
When parking on ice of minimum thickness, an aircraft should be separated by a distance of at least one load
influence radius from other loads, open cracks or free ice edges. The load influence radius of an ice cover is a
function of ice thickness, as given in Figure I1.03. The recommended minimum ice thickness should be
increased by one-third for the parking of two aircraft with a separation of less than one load influence radius.
Parking is not recommended under the following conditions:
(a) when average daily air temperature is near or above the melting point of the ice, unless the ice thickness
substantially exceeds the recommended minimum;
(b) during and for one day after a sudden drop in temperature when the ice thickness is the recommended
minimum; or
(c) near occupied storage areas or other loads such as equipment, snow piles.
- I.3 -
An aircraft should be kept under constant observation when it has to be parked under conditions of high
temperatures or when the ice thickness is close to the minimum recommended. Preparations should be made to
move the aircraft on short notice if deflection of the ice cover continues at a constant rate. The aircraft should
be moved immediately a distance of at least one load influence radius under any of the following conditions:
(a) if radial or circular cracks form around the loaded area, or if continuous cracking is heard;
(b) if deflection continues at an increasing rate;
(c) if deflection exceeds 8% of the effective ice thickness; or
(d) if water appears on the surface of the ice cover.
I.1.4 Operations at Thawing Temperatures
Recommended minimum ice thickness for limited aircraft operations must be adjusted if operations are to
proceed with a daily average air temperature higher than -1C for fresh water ice, or higher than -2C for sea
ice. Minimum required ice thickness should be increased by 5% or aircraft weight should be decreased by 10%
for each consecutive day of elevated temperature. Operations should be suspended after four days of elevated
temperatures, or if the maximum air temperature exceeds 4C. Operations may have to be suspended before the
fourth day if the condition of the ice surface deteriorates. Puddles of water should be filled with snow.
I.1.5 Cracks
Ice covers usually have many cracks caused by thermal contractions, or by movements of the ice cover.
Various types of cracks affect the bearing capacity of ice covers to varying degrees. Hair line cracks are lines in
the ice not more than 2 mm in width. Wider cracks are classified as "wet" or "dry" depending on whether water
can be observed. Wet cracks may re-freeze to strengths equal to the original ice sheet, but the depth of healing
should be verified.
The following adjustments should be made to allowable aircraft weight, or to minimum ice thickness, if cracks
are present.
ADJUSTMENTS FOR CRACKED ICE
Adjustment to Either
Type of Crack
Aircraft Weight Ice Thickness
Hair Line Cracks None None
Re-Frozen Cracks None None
Dry Cracks ( 20 mm wide)

Non-intersecting Use 2/3 weight Increase by 20%
Intersecting Use 1/3 weight Increase by 70%
Wet Cracks
Non-intersecting Use 1/2 weight Increase by 40%
Intersecting Use 1/4 weight Increase by 100%
- I.4 -
Aircraft should cross single cracks at right angles and should not traverse areas where several active cracks
intersect. Operations should be separated from an open or active lead by at least one load influence radius.
I.1.6 Effective Ice Thickness
Effective ice thickness is the thickness of good quality dense ice. Dense freshwater ice may be taken as ice
having a specific gravity of at least 0.90. If the ice is layered and if one of the layers is of poor quality (e.g.
light, drained snow ice, drained frazil ice, snow or frazil slush), only the thicker section of continuous dense ice
should be counted as effective thickness.
If a water layer is present within the ice cover, effective thickness corresponds to the thickness of the upper
layer of ice. An exception may occur if the water layer is thin and not continuous or if the lower layer has
sufficient thickness and strength to fully support the load at the temperature of -1C for fresh water ice, or -2C
for sea ice.
The effective thickness of an ice cover can vary within wide limits. Dangerously thin areas can occur in the ice
covers of rivers, estuaries and on lakes near the inlet or outlet of rivers. Thickness should be determined by
holes spaced at not more than 15 m for a river, 30 m for a lake, and 90 m for smooth sea ice. Ice thickness
should be checked once a week for average daily air temperatures between -12C and -5C and daily if above -
5C. Checks can be less frequent if effective ice thickness substantially exceeds minimum requirements.
When a build-up of ice thickness is necessary, care must be taken to ensure the built-up ice is of good quality.
Snow cover should be removed prior to flooding. Alternately, if the snow cover is uniform, good quality ice
can be constructed by slow, careful flooding of the snow cover from the bottom upward. Flooding should occur
outward from runway centreline and should be limited to a depth freezing within 12 hours. A water depth of 50
mm freezes overnight with an average air temperature of -18C, and a depth of 90 mm freezes overnight at -
30C. Complete freezing should be ensured before adding subsequent lifts.
I.1.7 Resonance
Under certain conditions, a taxiing aircraft induces resonance waves under an ice cover which can place
considerable stress on the ice. When operating on ice which is at or close to the recommended minimum
thickness, safety can be increased and resonance avoided, by observing the following precautions:
(a) avoid taxiing at the speeds indicated in Figure I1.04;
(b) avoid taxiing parallel to a shoreline at a distance of one load influence radius or less;
(c) cross the shoreline at an angle of about 45 degrees when taxiing between an ice airstrip and land; and
(d) locate manoeuvring surfaces on an ice airstrip more than 2 influence radii or less than one-half an
influence radius from the shore; if this positioning is not practical, then the runway should be oriented at
an angle of approximately 45 degrees to the shore.
I.1.8 General Guidelines
(a) The size and zoning of ice airstrips should meet the aviation standards given in "Aerodrome Standards and
Recommended Practices", (see Bibliography). Centreline and threshold markings can be made with blue
or purple dye.
- I.5 -
(b) The thickness of an ice cover should be determined with sufficient accuracy to allow a recommended
maximum load to be established. The runway should be closely inspected for ridges and depressions,
which can be corrected by bulldozing and flooding respectively.
(c) A runway used for the first time should be inspected after the first landing and after subsequent landings
of heavier aircraft, in addition to the inspection frequencies previously recommended.
An aircraft may land on ice without incident, but may produce many cracks in the ice cover. The aircraft
may then break through the ice when moving at low speed during a subsequent take-off. Crack inspection
should be a serious undertaking for operators of ice runways.
(d) Wheeled aircraft should not land on uncompacted snow deeper than one-third of the wheel diameter.
Snow should be removed except for a 50 mm to 75 mm layer. Greater ice thickness is required when the
ice is covered with deep snow, and when the ice is used less than two days after the removal of deep
snow. Snow banks should not be allowed at the ends of runways. The height of snow banks at the sides
of runways should not exceed one-half of the ice thickness.
(e) The weight of stored materials, stationary loads and snow should not exceed the aircraft loading allowed
for the condition and thickness of the ice cover.
(f) The allowable weight for aircraft on skis is determined in the same manner as for wheeled aircraft.
(g) Ice airstrip operators should maintain a log on the construction, maintenance and operation of their
airstrips. Section I.5 outlines the type of information entered in a log.
- I.6 -
I.1.9 Bibliography
Adam, K. M. (1978), "Building and Operating Winter Roads in Canada and Alaska", Supply and Services
Canada, Cat. No. R71-19/4-1978, Ottawa, Canada.
Assure, A. (1956), "Airfields on Floating Ice Sheets", CRREL Report 36, U.S. Corps of Engineers, Hanover,
N.H.
Butkovich, T. R. (1954), "Ultimate Strength of Ice", U. S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research
Establishment, Research Paper 11, pp. 1-12.
Dykins J.E. (1969), "Sea-ice Bearing Strength in Antarctica - Aircraft Loading Curves for McMurdo Ice
Runway", Report TR 641, U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, California.
Frankenstein, G. & Garner, R. (1967), " Equations for Determining the Brine Volume of Sea Ice from -5C to -
22C ", J. Glaciol., Vol. 6, No. 48, pp. 943-944.
Gold, L.W. (1958), "Some Observations on the Dependence of Strain on Stress for Ice", Canadian J. Phys.,
Vol. 36, No. 10, pp 1265-1276.
Jacka, T.H., & Budd, W.F., "The Use of Tertiary Creep Rates in Ice at High Strains in Compression and Shear".
IUTAM/IAHR Symposium on Ice-Structure Interaction, St.John's, Canada, (1989), pp 20-34 of proceedings
published by Springer-Vertag, Berlin, Germany (1991).
Kubo Y. (1941), "Construction Bureau, South Manchurian Railway Company Study on River Ice (in
Japanese)", Translation: U.S. Army, CRREL, Trsans. 50, 1955.
Members of ICSI working group, (1980), "Mechanical Properties of Polycrystalline Ice: An Assessment of
Current Knowledge and Priorities for Research", Cold Regions Sci. Tech., Vol. 3, pp 263-275.
Michel, B. (1978), Ice mechanics, University of Laval Press, Quebec, Canada, pp 103-105.
Michel, B., & Ramseier, R. (1971), "Classification of River and Lake Ice", Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.
8, pp 36-45.
Nakawo, M., Ohmae, H., Nishio, F. & Kameda, T. (1989), "Dating the Mizuho 700-m Core From Core Ice
Fabric Data", Proc. National Institute of Polar Research Symp. on Polar Meteorology and Glaciology, Tokyo,
No.2, p. 105-110.
Nakawo, M. & Sinha, N. K. (1984), "A Note on Brine Layer Spacing of First-year Sea Ice",
Atmosphere-Ocean, Vol.22, No.2, pp 193-206, 1984.
Nakawo, M. & Sinha, N. K. (1981), "Growth Rate and Salinity Profile of First-Year Sea Ice in the High Arctic",
Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 27, NO. 96, pp 315-329.
Nevel, D.E. (1978), "Safe Ice Loads Computed With A Pocket Calculator", Workshop on the Bearing Capacity
of Ice Covers", National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada.
Sinha, N.K. (1991), "Microstructure and Mechanical Behaviour of Ice", Proceedings of 6th International
Specialty Conference, Cold Regions Engineering, West Lebanon, NH USA, Edited by D. S. Sodhi, American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), New York, pp. 519-530.
Sinha, N.K. (1989), "Elasticity of Natural Types of Polycrystalline Ice". Cold Regions Science and
Technology, Vol. 17, No.2, p 127-135.
- I.7 -
Sinha, N.K. (1985a), "Acoustic Emission Study on Multi-Year Sea Ice in an Arctic Field Laboratory", Journal
of Acoustic Emission, Vol.4, No. 2/3, pp S290- S293.
Sinha, N.K. (1985b), "Confined Strength and Deformation of Second-Year Columnar-Grained Sea Ice in
Mould Bay", Proceedings 4th International Symposium Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering (OMAE),
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, Vol.2, pp 209-219.
Sinha, N.K. (1982), "Acoustic Emission and Microcracking in Ice", Proceedings 1982 Society of Experimental
Stress Analysis/Japan Society of Mechanical Engineering, Part II, pp 767-772.
Sinha,N.K.(1978), "Short-term Rheology of Polycrystalline Ice", Journal of Glaciology, Vol.21, No.85, pp 457-
473.
Sinha, N. K. (1977), "Technique for Studying Structure of Sea Ice". Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 18, No. 79,
pp513-323.
Timco G.W. & O'Brien S. (1993), " Flexural Strength Equation for Sea Ice", Journal of Cold Regions Science
and Technology.
Weeks, W. F., and Gow. A. J. (1980), "Crystal Alignments in the Fast Ice of Arctic Alaska". J. Geophys. Res.,
Vol.85, pp 1137-1146.
Wyman, M. (1950), "Deflections of an Infinite Plate", Canadian Journal of Research, A.28, pp 293-302.
"Aerodrome Standards and Recommended Practices", Transport Canada, TP 312, 4th edition, March 1993.
"Water/Ice Aerodrome Standards and Recommended Practices", Transport Canada, TP 4884, 1st edition,
February 1985.
"Recommended Minimum Ice Thickness for Aircraft Operations", Transport Canada, Air Services Manual,
1963.
"Recommended Minimum Ice Thickness for Limited Aircraft Operations", Transport Canada, Airport Facilities,
AK-68-14, 1974.
"Safety Guide for Operations over Ice", Handbook of Operational Health and Safety, Treasury Board of
Canada, TB Guide 5-3, Third Edition, 1982.
- I.8 -
10,000
ALLOWABLE ICE FLEXURAL STRESS (kPa)
200
400
600
800
1000
1500
2000
1000
- I.9 -
Minimum Effective Ice Thickness (mm)
Minimum 250-mm required
Figure I1.01
for aircraft operations
MINIMUM ICE THICKNESS
for
LIMITED AIRCRAFT MOVEMENTS
100
10 100 1000 10,000
Gross Weight of Aircraft (kN)

1400
Note: a) Ice temperature is measured at a depth of 600-mm, or may be approximated
by the average air temperature over the past 3 days.
b) Flexural stress values shown are recommended in the absence of more definitive
data; see annex B for a discussion of strength values
1200
FRESH WATER ICE

1000
800
- I.10 -
600 CE
AI
SE
Allowable Ice Flexural Stress (kPa)

400
Figure I1.02
200 RECOMMENDED ALLOWABLE
ICE FLEXURAL STRESS
0
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40
Ice Temperature C
160
140
0 .7 5
~ 0.41 h
R ~
120
100
80
- I.11 -
60
Load Influence Radius R (metres)

40
Figure I1.03
20 LOAD INFLUENCE RADIUS

of
ICE COVERS
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Ice Thickness h (mm)
100
90 90
80 80
70 70 avoid taxiing at speeds

in this range
60 Note : Use this chart for shallow water 60

city
elo
alv
i c
50 50 rit
a te c
im
- I.12 -
o x
pr
40 40 ap
avoid taxiing at speeds
in this range
Aircraft Taxiing Speed (km/h)

30 ity 30 Note : Use this chart for deep water
veloc
cal
criti
ate
xim
20 ro 20
app
Figure I1.04
10 10
CRITICAL TAXIING SPEEDS
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Depth of Water (metres) Effective Ice Thickness (mm)
I.2 METHOD OF TEST FOR THE FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF ICE
I.2.1 Scope
.1 This method of test covers a procedure for the field determination of the flexural strength of ice
taken from sea or fresh water ice covers.
.2 The method is based on the breaking of ice beams in flexure under third point loading.
I.2.2 Equipment
.1 Loading assembly (see Figure I2.01) :

.1 Proving ring (loading ring) with dial indicator:
.1 loading capacity not less than 10 kN;
.2 accuracy within 1% of the loading capacity;
.3 suitable for operation in cold areas with calibration made for ambient temperatures
ranging from 0C to -50C.
.2 Wooden blocks:
.1 two (2), 100 mm by 100 mm by 900 mm long;
.2 two (2), 100 mm by 100 mm by 500 mm long;
.3 four (4), 100 mm by100 mm by 450 mm long, one with v-notches at 100 mm spacing on
one face, and a second with v-notches at 300 mm spacing on one face.
.3 Bearing rods:
.1 four (4), 20 mm diameter by 110 mm long;
.2 smooth surface stainless steel.
.4 Loading jack:
.1 mechanical screw scissor type;
.2 lifting capacity of approximately 10 kN.
.2 Miscellaneous equipment:
.1 Snow shovels.
.2 Chain saw, gas operated with blade length 800 mm minimum.
.3 Ice trimming tools such as machete, chisels, ice hand saw.
.4 Crow bar.
.5 Axe.
.6 Metric measuring tape.
.7 Pen markers.
Note: Beam testing can also be done using a portable testing frame shown in Photo I1.01.
I.2.3 Beam Specimens
.1 Select location for obtaining ice beam specimens outside of areas intended for future traffic, but
close enough to be representative of the ice formation in these areas.
.2 Remove snow cover from an area of approximately 3 m x 3 m. Clean and level ice surface.
.3 Mark a rectangular area of approximately 700 mm x 900 mm and with the chain saw, cut the ice
along the perimeter of the rectangle to a depth of approximately 700 mm.
.4 Subdivide the block and cut into slabs of approximately 100 mm in width (see Figure I2.02 &
Photo I2.02).
- I.13 -
.5 Break out and remove an end slab (in general, this first slab has to be broken and removed using
crow bar and axe to make room for the extraction of the remaining slabs intact).
.6 Carefully pry the slabs loose, one after the other, using the crow-bar (Photo I2.03). Reference
position and orientation of each slab as taken from the pit; draw a diagram.
.7 Saw cut the 700 mm x 700 mm x 100 mm slabs into beams of approximately 100 mm in depth;
saw-cut, fine trim and shape each beam to the required test specimen dimensions of 100 mm x
100 mm x 500 mm (Photos I2.04 & I2.05). Keep track of and mark the top and bottom surfaces
of each beam, and it's depth, relative to the surface of the ice cover.
.8 Observe the sides of the pit left by extraction of the slabs. Record a description of the ice (density,
colour, crystal structure, etc.) and any variation with depth.
I.2.4 Beam Tests
.1 Assemble components of the loading assembly in the configuration shown in Figure I2.01,
placing in horizontal position in the pit from which ice beams were extracted, and using the ends
of the pit as reaction surfaces.
.2 Place and centre ice beam specimen in the loading assembly. Ensure the beam is placed in the
same orientation as existed in the ice cover.
.3 Seat the bearing surfaces by giving the jack a few turns. If full contact is not obtained, remove
some of the components, add spacers and trim and square as required.
.4 Zero the proving ring dial gage and apply load slowly by turning the jack handle. Keeping dial
gage and the specimen under constant observation, load at a uniform rate until the beam breaks.
.5 Record:
.1 beam ID and related information (exact beam dimensions, depth of beam from surface of ice
sheet, etc);
.2 reading of proving ring at beam fracture and time taken from zero to full load;
.3 location of the fracture (inside or outside of the mid-third), and distance along the bottom
face of the beam between the fracture and the nearest support rod. Draw a sketch.
I.2.5 Calculations
.1 If the fracture line in the bottom surface of the beam is within the middle third of the span length,
calculate:
= PL/bd
where:
= flexural strength of the ice (MPa),
P = maximum load applied (N),
L = span of beam between bottom supports (mm)
b = average width of the beam specimen (mm),
d = average depth of the beam specimen (mm).
- I.14 -
.2 If the fracture line in the bottom surface of the beam is outside of the middle third of the span
length by not more than 5% of the span length L, calculate:
= 3Pa/bd
where:
a = average distance between the line of fracture and the nearest support measured along the
bottom surface of the beam (mm).
.3 If the fracture line in the bottom surface occurs outside of the middle third of the span length by
more than 5% of the span length, discard the results of the test.
- I.15 -
spacers
wooden blocks
141 5 proving ring
3
10 11 121
01
2 34
67 89
wooden frame
scissor type screw jack
steel rods wooden blocks
ice beam
L/3 L/3 L/3
L
steel rods
Figure I2.01 : APPARATUS
FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF ICE BEAM WITH THIRD-POINT LOADING
- I.16 -
900 mm
0 mm
70
700 mm
first slab to be removed and discarded
ice slabs 100mm wide x 700mm long x 700mm deep
specimens 100mm x 100mm x 500mm long
Figure I2.02 : CUTTING OF BEAMS
- I.17 -
Photo I2.01 : Portable Testing Frame
- I.18 -
Photo I2.02 : Cutting the ice block into slabs
Photo I2.03 : Prying the slabs loose
- I.19 -
Photo I2.04 : Marking the beams on the slabs
Photo I2.05
Cutting and trimming
the beams
- I.20 -
I.3 ICE CHARACTERISTICS
I.3.1 Fresh Water and Sea Ice
Many types of ice form in nature. Fresh water ice forms on lakes and rivers when the temperature of the water
surface falls to 0C, or to lower temperatures if dissolved impurities are present. In the Canadian Arctic, the
average salinity of sea water is about 30 parts per thousand and sea ice forms when the temperature of the water
surface falls to about -1.8C. The underside of an ice cover in contact with water remains close to the freezing
temperature, while an exposed upper surface is nearer to the ambient air temperature. The temperature of an ice
surface covered by snow may be significantly different from air temperatures.
Sea ice is a complex material which is composed of solid ice, brine, air and (depending on temperature) solid
salts. As growth occurs, sea ice traps some of the salt which is present in sea water. Although the amount
trapped is affected by several factors, first-year sea ice thicker than about 300 mm typically has a salinity of 4 to
6 parts per thousand (Nakawo and Sinha, 1981), which is significantly lower than the salinity of the sea water.
While the density of pure ice is 918 kg/m3, the inclusion of salts may increase the density of first-year sea ice to
a value in the order of 925 kg/m3.
I.3.2 Grain Structure
The mechanical properties of an ice cover are influenced largely by grain structure and brine volume. Grain
structure is determined by the conditions of ice formation, and the history of the ice cover. Micro-structural
analysis requires special skills and should be performed by experienced practitioners.
Ice can be grouped on the basis of grain structure into three major types: columnar, frazil and granular (Sinha,
1991). Columnar-grained ice consists of long pencil-like crystals with one dimension many times longer than
the others. This type of ice develops as a result of unidirectional freezing of a water body. Frazil ice consists of
needle or disc type crystals and forms from the freezing of congealed frazil slush. Granular ice can best be
described as ice with a grain structure other than the grain structure of frazil and columnar ice. Granular ice
may form from a number of processes including solid state transformation, freezing of wet snow or ice particles,
crushing and sintering processes, and recrystallization.
The crystal orientation of ice grains is represented by the orientation of the crystal's axis of symmetry, also
referred to as the optic, or c-axis. The fabric of polycrystalline ice in an ice cover is determined by plotting the
projections of the c-axis of the grains on a hemisphere with it's plane parallel to the surface of the ice cover.
Following are some of the common crystal orientation fabrics, excluding the multiple maxima.
Some Common Crystal

. Orientation Fabrics
. . .. ... .. . . .. .. . .
... . .. . ...... ....... ...... .. ....... ........ .. .. .
... . .... .... ........ ..... ... ..... .... .......
..... ....... ..... ...... . .. . . . . . .
...
.
... ...........
.
..... .
.......... ....... .. .. ... .. ... ... ...
... . ... . .... . ... .. ........ . . ..... .. . . ............
. .. .......... .........
single transversly oriented small-circle great isotropic

maxima isotropic girdle girdle
- I.21 -
Michel and Ramseier (1971) proposed the classification of columnar grained ice into categories designated as S-
1, S-2 and S-3. Although intended for fresh water ice, the classification system may be applied to some extent
to sea ice also. S-1 type ice is illustrated in Slide I3.01. S-1 ice has long, vertically oriented grains, with a
crystal c-axis tending to be parallel to the length of the grain columns (single maximum fabric). The grains may
be large, with a diameter up to 100 mm or 200 mm. Under uniaxial loading, 'hard' glide or maximum resistance
to flow in S-1 ice develops when the load is applied parallel to the long axis of the grains. An 'easy' glide results
when the load is oriented at 45 to the long axis of the grains (i.e. the maximum shear stress is parallel to the
basal planes of the crystals).
Another type of columnar grained ice commonly occurring in natural ice covers, classified as S-2, is illustrated
in Slide I3.02 for fresh water ice and in Slide I3.03 for first-year sea ice. S-2 ice has a c-axis randomly oriented
in the horizontal plane, normal to the length of the grains (transversely isotropic fabric). As shown in Slides
I3.02 and I3.03, the microstructure of sea ice is significantly different from the microstructure of fresh water ice;
the grains in sea ice exhibit a complex substructure and brine inclusions that depend on the growth history
(Nakawo and Sinha, 1981, 1984). The aging processes in columnar-grained sea ice reduce salinity, as
illustrated in Slide I3.04. 'Easy' glide corresponds to a load application in a plane at about 45 to the long axis of
the grains.
Type S-3 ice, illustrated in Slide I3.05, is columnar-grained landfast sea ice with a c-axis in the horizontal plane,
but tending to be parallel to the water current below the ice cover (oriented fabric) (Weeks and Gow,1980;
Nakawo and Sinha, 1984). 'Hard' and `easy' glide modes of loading can occur in the same plane (horizontal).
Frazil ice, illustrated in Slide I3.06, consists of needle-shaped grains forming in a rapidly flowing or turbulent
body of water subject to super cooling (water temperature reaching a value less than the freezing point). If a
frazil carrying water current is blocked, the particles accumulate on the upstream side and tend to be packed
with their long axis normal to the surface of the ice cover. On freezing, vertically oriented frazil ice is formed
with isotropy in a plane normal to the current (Sinha, 1986).
For the floating ice covers being considered in this document, granular ice may be considered as isotropic. Slide
I3.07 illustrates granular fresh water snow ice and granular sea water snow ice. Snow ice forming in sea water
traps not only air but also a measurable amount of brine. In contrast to the commonly observed fine-grained
snow ice, isotropic shelf-ice exhibits large grains as illustrated in Slide I3.08. Sea ice covers in the Arctic often
show a mixture of granular ice as illustrated in Slide I3.09, and discontinuous columnar-grained ice as illustrated
in Slide I3.10.
I.3.3 Strength
The strength of ice varies within wide limits depending on ice type and grain structure. Colour may provide an
indication of quality and strength:
a) clear blue ice is generally the strongest for fresh-water and multi-year sea ice;
(b) white opaque ice (snow ice) has a relatively high air content and its strength depends on density; the lower
the density the weaker the ice. Strength is often assumed to be half the strength of clear blue ice, although
high density white ice may have a strength approaching the strength of clear blue ice;
(c) grey ice generally indicates the presence of water as a result of thawing, and must be considered highly
suspect as a load-bearing surface. With sea ice, grey may indicate a thin ice cover.
The flexural strength of ice may be measured by breaking beams of the ice, following the procedures of Section
I.3 " Method of Test for the Flexural Strength of Ice".
- I.22 -
Based on a survey of the literature, Figures I3.01 and I.302 are compilations of flexural strength measurements
made on fresh water ice and on sea ice respectively. The test results range from 0.2 MPa to 3.0 MPa for fresh
water ice and from 0.1 MPa to 1.5 MPa for sea ice. The data suggests the strength of sea ice increases with
decreasing ice temperature, while the strength of fresh water ice is relatively independent of temperature, for
temperatures below -2C. The data plotted in Figure I3.03 indicates the strength of sea ice is related to brine
volume even more strongly than it is to temperature (brine volume is also dependent on temperature).
Rate of loading (or duration of load) has a major effect on strength measurements and the loading rate used is
frequently not reported along with strength test results. The scatter of the data in Figures I3.01 to I3.03 is due in
part to variations in the rate of loading. The data in Figure I3.04 illustrates the effect which loading rate may
have on the flexural strength of ice, and demonstrates the bearing capacity of an ice cover may vary
substantially under parked and moving aircraft loads.
I.3.4 Elastic Characteristics
The use of elastic theory to compute stresses and deflections in ice covers requires values of Young's modulus
and Poisson's ratio. Young's modulus of ice varies considerably with the duration of loading. Under relatively
short term loading, Young's modulus generally lies between 8500 MPa and 12000 MPa, depending on the type
of ice and it's temperature (Sinha 1989). In the absence of measured data, a value of 9000 MPa is recommended
for computational purposes. A value of 2000 MPa or 3000 MPa for Young's modulus may be more appropriate
if computing deflections under a long term load, such as a parked aircraft. Poisson's ratio is generally assumed
to equal 0.33.
- I.23 -
4.0
Data compiled from 5 authors
by Timco and O'Brien (1993)
3.5
3.0
Flexural Strength (MPa)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35
Ice Temperature (C)
Figure I3.01 : FRESH WATER ICE - FLEXURAL STRENGTH vs TEMPERATURE
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35
Ice Temperature (C)
Figure I3.02 : SEA ICE - FLEXURAL STRENGTH vs TEMPERATURE
- I.24 -
2.0
1.8 -5.88 Vb
S f = 1.76 e
1.6
(MPa)
1.4
1.2
Sf
1.0
Flexural Strength
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Square Root of Brine Volume Vb
Figure I3.03 : SEA ICE - FLEXURAL STRENGTH vs BRINE VOLUME
3.0 -30C lab made

-10C natural pond Sinha, 1982
-10C lab made
Isachsen Sinha, 1985a
2.5 magnetic pole Sinha, unpublished
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10 10 10
Average Stress Rate to First Crack (MPa/s)
Figure I3.04 : EFFECT OF STRESS RATE ON FLEXURAL STRENGTH
- I.25 -
Horizontal Thin Section
(single large grain with incursion of second crystal)
Slide I3.01
COLUMNAR GRAINED, FRESH-WATER S-1 TYPE ICE WITH A SINGLE MAXIMA FABRIC
NOTE FOR ALL SLIDES
THIN SECTIONS PREPARED BY THE DOUBLE-MICROTOMING TECHNIQUE (SINHA) 19770
AND PHOTOGRAPHED BETWEEN CROSSED POLARIZERS
- I.26 -
Vertical Thin Section
Slide I3.02
COLUMNAR GRAINED FRESH-WATER S-2 TYPE ICE WITH TRANSVERSELY ISOTROPIC FABRIC
- I.27 -
Slide I3.03
COLUMNAR GRAINED S-2 TYPE FIRST-YEAR SEA ICE WITH TRANSVERSLY ISOTROPIC
FABRIC
- I.28 -
(note the presence of air bubbles trapped in the ice)
Slide I3.04
COLUMNAR GRAINED S-2 TYPE MULTI-YEAR SEA ICE WITH TRANSVERSELY ISOTROPIC
FABRIC
- I.29 -
note the preferred crystal (C-axis)

orientation is parallel to the
water current below the ice
direction of water current and c-axis
Slide I3.05
COLUMNAR GRAINED S-3 TYPE FIRST-YEAR SEA ICE WITH ORIENTED FABRIC
- I.30 -
Horizontal Section
(top)
Vertical Section
(right)
Slide I3.06 : VERTICALLY ORIENTED FRAZIL SEA ICE
- I.31 -
Fresh Water Snow Ice
note the small grain sizes in the micrographs
First-Year Sea Water

Snow Ice
Slide I3.07
GRANULAR SNOW ICE WITH AN ISOTROPIC FABRIC
- I.32 -
note the large size of the grains and the presence of air bubbles within the grains
Slide I3.08
SHELF ICE WITH AN ISOTROPIC FABRIC
- I.33 -
Slide I3.09 (right)
First-year sea ice with a mixed

microstructure that includes snow ice,
vertically oriented frazil ice and columnar
grained ice. This type of ice is often seen
in channels in which the water current is
high.
Slide I3.10 (left)
First-year sea ice with discontinuous

columnar grained structure. This type
of ice is commonly seen in ice flows
in pack ice subjected to movements.
- I.34 -
I.4 STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS IN ICE COVERS
I.4.1 Stress and Deflection Equations
The following equations result from the application of thin plate theory to a floating ice cover having an applied
surface load uniformly distributed over a circular contact area (Appendix A):
r
r

x
Symbols : E Young's modulus of the ice

Poisson's ratio of the ice
h ice thickness
k density of water on which ice is floating
1
E h3 4
l radius of relative stiffness of the ice sheet =
2
12 k (1 )

P total load applied
a radius of load contact area
r, polar coordinates to centre of load from point at which calculation is being made
A a/l, non-dimensional radius of load contact area
R r/l, non-dimensional radial coordinate
deflection of the ice sheet

r radial stress at bottom of ice sheet
t tangential stress at bottom of ice sheet
ber(), bei(), ker(), & kei() functions are the real and imaginary parts of modified
Bessel functions of complex argument
ber', bei', ker', kei' denotes first derivatives
- I.35 -
h 2
When R > A ( r + t ) = C kei(R) + D ker(R)
6 P (1 + )
h 2 2 2
( r t ) = [C ker(R ) D kei(R)] + ( r + t ) h
6 P (1 - ) R 6 P (1 + )
kl 2
= C ker(R) D kei(R)
P
ber (A) bei(A)

where C = , D = and C = D = 0 if A = 0
A A
h 2
When R < A ( r + t ) = C bei(R) + D ber(R)
6 P (1 + v )
h 2 2 2
( r t ) = [C ber(R) D bei(R)] + ( r + t ) h
6 P (1 - v ) R 6 P (1 + v )
kl 2 1
= + C ber(R ) D bei(R)
P A2
ker (A) kei(A )

where C = , D = and ( r t ) = 0 if R = 0
A A
If more than one load is applied to the ice sheet, deflection and stresses may be determined through
superposition. However, as they are oriented in different directions for each load, the stress components r and
t must be translated to corresponding stresses along the x and y axis before addition. Equations for this
purpose are:
2 x = ( r + t ) + ( r t ) cos (2 )
2y = ( r + t ) ( r t ) cos (2 )
2 xy = ( r t ) sin (2 )
where xy is the shear stress.
Following addition of the stress components from all loads, the maximum principal stress max is calculated as:
max =
( x + y ) + x y

2
+ 2xy
2 2

The maximum principal stress is oriented at an angle to the x direction:
2 xy
2 = tan 1
x y

- I.36 -
I.4.2 Minimum Ice Thickness
Figure I4.01 illustrates the results of applying the preceding equations to calculate the thickness of ice cover
resulting in a given level of stress (600 kPa), when the ice cover is carrying various types of aircraft at various
weights. In these calculations, it was assumed the load imposed by each aircraft support leg had a single
circular contact area, with a contact pressure equal to the aircraft tire pressure. (This assumption is conservative
- smaller stresses are calculated for multi-wheeled gears if the leg load is distributed through the individual
wheels). A Poisson's ratio of 0.33 and an elastic modulus of 9000 MPa were assumed for the ice.
Figure I4.01 illustrates the relationship between aircraft weight and the thickness of ice resulting in a given
stress level is more or less constant over a wide range of aircraft sizes, from the Turbo Aero Commander at a
weight of 25 kN to the Antonov AN-225 at a weight of 5885 kN. Figure I1.01 was constructed by imposing an
upper boundary line in Figure I4.01, and then developing a number of similar figures for different levels of
allowable stress.
10,000
Areo Commander
Convair 580
Vanguard 950 Series at min at max
VC10-1100 Series weight weight
C5A Galaxy
Antonov AN-225
Effective Ice Thickness (mm)
1,000
Figure I4.01
ICE THICKNESS
vs.
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT
for
100
10 100 1,000 10,000
Gross Weight of Aircraft (kN)
- I.37 -
I.5 ICE AIRSTRIP LOG
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Location of airstrip
Observer .
Length of airstrip .m Width .. m
Parking and/or unloading area Length .. .m Width .. m
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Construction of airstrip parking and/or unloading area
Divide construction into periods of one week. In the following table give a brief description of work done on
the ice during each one-week period and the observed ice thickness at the end of each period for both built-up
ice and surrounding undisturbed ice cover. If available, give information on the characteristics of the ice cover
(e.g. ice types, density, salinity, temperature, strength).
Work Done on Ice

Date Ice Thickness (snow compacted or plowed, flooding, reinforcing,
precautions taken to prevent snow drifting, etc.)
- I.38 -
Maintenance
Describe briefly any maintenance or repairs done on the airstrip parking and/or unloading area.
Date Description of maintenance work
Use of airstrip parking and/or unloading area
Give the information requested in the following table.
Date A/C Gross Time Mean Remarks

Type Weight on Ice Daily Provide information on the performance of
Temp. the ice (eg. cracking, deflection, etc.)
Failure
If a failure of the ice cover occurs, record the type of aircraft, gross weight, ice thickness and average air
temperature for previous three days.
- I.39 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix J : Selected Terms and Definitions
APPENDIX J
SELECTED TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Section Page
Terms Relating to Soils .. J.2
Terms Relating to Aggregates ... J.6
Terms Relating to Asphalts . J.8
Terms Relating to Tars and Pitches ....... J.9
Terms Relating to Hydraulic Cement .... J.10
Terms Relating to Lime .. J.11
Terms Relating to Asphalt Mixes ....... J.12
Terms Relating to Portland Cement Concrete .... J.14
Terms Relating to Pavements ... J.16
Note :
Many of the definitions in this Appendix are extracted from the following ASTM standards - refer to these standards
for additional terms and their definitions.
ASTM C51-95 Terminology Relating to Lime and Limestone

ASTM C125-95 Terminology Relating to Concrete and Concrete Aggregates.
ASTM C219-95 Terminology Relating to Hydraulic Cement
ASTM D8-97 Terminology Relating to Materials for Roads and Pavements.
ASTM D653-01 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained Fluids.
ASTM E867-97 Terminology Relating to Vehicle-Pavement Systems
ASTM E1778-98 Terminology Relating to Pavement Distress
- J.1 -
Terms Relating to Soils
absorbed water : water held mechanically in the pores of a soil or rock mass and having physical
properties not substantially different from ordinary water at the same temperature and pressure.
active layer : in an area of permafrost, the top layer of ground subject to annual freezing and thawing.
adsorbed water : water in a soil or rock mass attracted to the particle surfaces by physiochemical forces,
having properties that may differ from those of pore water at the same temperature and pressure due to
altered molecular arrangement; adsorbed water does not include water that is chemically combined
within clay minerals.
alluvium : soil, the constituents of which have been transported in suspension by flowing water and
subsequently deposited by sedimentation.
anisotropic mass : a mass having different properties in different directions at any given point.
aquifer : a geologic formation, a group of formations or part of a formation that is saturated and is capable
of providing a significant quantity of water.
Atterberg limits : Atterberg limits are determined on the soil fraction passing the 425-m sieve, and they
are the moisture contents at which this fraction is at an artificially defined boundary between a semi-
solid and a plastic state (plastic limit), and between a plastic and a semi-liquid state (liquid limit).
Plasticity index is the range of water content over which a soil behaves plastically, and is equal to the
liquid limit minus the plastic limit.
bentonitic clay : a clay with a high content of the mineral montmorillonite, usually characterized by high
swelling on wetting.
bog : a peat covered area with a high water table and a surface dominated by a carpet of mosses, chiefly
sphagnum. It is generally nutrient poor and acidic. It may be treed or treeless.
borehole : a hole of circular cross-section made in soil or rock, normally advanced using an auger, a drill
or casing, with or without drilling fluid.
boulder : a rock fragment, usually rounded by weathering or abrasion, that will not pass a 300 mm square
opening.
boulder clay : see till.
California bearing ratio (CBR) : the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of (i) the force per unit area
required to penetrate a soil mass at a rate of 1.3 mm/min with a flat-headed circular piston of
approximately 50 mm diameter, to (ii) the force per unit area required for corresponding penetration of a
specified standard granular material.
capillary action : the rise or movement of water in the interstices of a soil or rock due to capillary forces.
capillary rise : the height above a free water elevation to which water rises by capillary action.
clay : soil passing a 75-m sieve that exhibits plasticity (putty-like characteristics) within a range of water
contents and that exhibits considerable strength (cohesion) when dry. A discontinued practice is to
define clay particle size as finer than 2-m (5-m in some cases).
cobble : a rock fragment, usually rounded or semi-rounded, passing a 300 mm square opening and retained
on a 75-mm sieve.
cohesion : shear resistance of a soil at zero normal stress.
- J.2 -
cohesionless soil : a soil that when unconfined has little or no strength when air-dried and has little or no
cohesion when submerged.
cohesive soil : a soil that when unconfined has considerable strength when air-dried and has significant
cohesion when submerged.
compaction : densification by means of mechanical manipulation.
compaction curve : the curve showing the relationship between the dry unit weight and the water content
of a soil when the soil is compacted using a specified compactive effort.
fines : portion of a soil, or silt and clay particles in an aggregate, finer than the 75-m sieve.
glacial till : see till.
gradation : the accumulated distribution of particle size in a soil mass, normally expressed as percent of
the soil mass passing sieve sizes ranging from 75-mm to 75-m.
grain size distribution : see gradation.
gravel : particles of rock passing a 75-mm sieve and retained on a 4.75-mm sieve. Coarse gravel passes a
75-mm sieve and is retained on a 19-mm sieve; fine gravel passes a 19-mm sieve and is retained on a
4.75-mm sieve.
ground-water table : the surface of a ground water body at which the water pressure equals atmospheric
pressure. Earth material below the ground water table is saturated with water.
humus : a brown or black material formed by the partial decomposition of vegetable or animal matter; the
organic portion of soil.
ice segregation : the growth of ice within soil in excess of the amount that may be produced by the in-
place conversion of the original void moisture to ice. Ice segregation occurs most often as distinct
lenses, layers, veins, and masses, commonly oriented normal to the direction of heat flow.
in-situ : conditions existing when a soil is in its naturally formed or deposited state.
isotropic mass : a mass having the same properties in all directions.
kaolinite : a common clay mineral having the general formula Al2(Si2O5)(OH4); the primary constituent of
kaolin.
liquid limit : see Atterberg limits.
loam : a mixture of sand, silt, or clay, or a combination of any of these, with organic matter.
loess : a uniform aeolian deposit of silty material having an open structure and relatively high cohesion
due to cementation of clay or calcareous material at grain contacts.
marl : calcareous clay, usually containing from 35% to 65% calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
marsh : a wetland characterized by grassy surface mats which are frequently interspersed with open water
or by a closed canopy of grasses, sedges, or other herbaceous plants.
modified maximum dry unit weight : the maximum value defined by the compaction curve obtained
using the modified compactive effort (2700 kN-m/m3) specified in the modified Proctor compaction
test.
- J.3 -
moisture content: see water content.
montmorillonite : a group of clay minerals characterized by a weakly bonded sheet-like internal

molecular structure; consisting of finely divided hydrous aluminum or magnesium silicates that swell on
wetting, shrink on drying, and are subject to ion exchange.
muskeg : level, practically treeless areas supporting dense growth consisting primarily of grasses. The
surface of the soil is covered with a layer of partially decayed grass and grass roots which is usually wet
and soft when not frozen.
optimum moisture content : the moisture content at which a soil can be compacted to its maximum dry
unit weight using a specified compactive effort.
organic clay : a clay with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties.
organic silt : a silt with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties.
organic soil : soil with a high organic content.
overconsolidated soil deposit : a soil deposit that has been subjected (by glaciation for example) to an
effective pressure greater than the present overburden pressure.
peat : a soil composed of vegetable tissue in various stages of composition, usually with an organic odour,
a dark-brown to black colour, a spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous.
percent compaction : the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of (i) dry unit weight of a soil, to (ii) maximum
dry unit weight obtained in a laboratory compaction test.
percent saturation : the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of (i) the volume of water in a soil, to (ii) the
total volume of voids in the soil.
perched water table : groundwater separated from an underlying body of groundwater by unsaturated soil
or rock. Usually located at a higher elevation than the groundwater table.
permafrost : perennially frozen soil.
permeability : capacity to conduct liquid or gas; measured as the proportionality constant between flow
velocity and hydraulic gradient.
piezometer : a device used to measure hydraulic head at a subsurface point in a soil or rock mass.
plastic limit : see Atterberg limits.
plasticity index : see Atterberg limits.
pore : see void.
pore water : see absorbed water.
porosity : the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of (i) the volume of voids in a soil, to (ii) the total volume
of the soil mass.
remolded soil : soil that has had its natural structure modified by manipulation.
sand : particles of rock passing a 4.75-mm sieve and retained on a 75-m sieve. Coarse sand passes a
4.75-mm sieve and is retained on a 2.00-mm sieve; medium sand passes a 2.00-mm sieve and is
retained on a 425-m sieve; fine sand passes a 425-m sieve and is retained on a 75-m sieve.
- J.4 -
silt : soil passing a 75-m sieve that is non-plastic or very slightly plastic and that exhibits or no strength
when air dry. A discontinued practice is to define silt particle size as finer than 20-m and coarser than
2-m (50-m and 5-m in some cases).
soil : sediments or other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced by the physical and
chemical disintegration of rocks, and which may or may not contain organic matter.
stabilization : a chemical or mechanical treatment to improve the stability or other engineering properties
of a soil or aggregate layer.
standard maximum dry unit weight : the maximum value defined by the compaction curve obtained
using the standard compactive effort (600 kN-m/m3) specified in the standard Proctor compaction test.
swamp : a forested or shrub covered wetland where standing or gently flowing water persists for long
periods on the surface.
test hole : see borehole.
test pit : a shallow excavation made to investigate and characterize the subsurface.
till : material deposited by glaciation, usually composed of a wide range of particle sizes, that has not been
subject to the sorting action of water.
topsoil : surface soil, usually containing organic matter.
unconfined compressive strength : the compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen
of soil will fail in a simple compression test.
void : space in a soil or rock mass not occupied by solid mineral matter. A void may be occupied air,
water, or other gaseous or liquid material. Permeable voids can absorb water; impermeable voids within
the soil grains do not absorb water.
void ratio : the ratio of (i) the volume of void spaces, to (ii) the volume of solid particles in a given soil
mass.
water content : the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of (i) the mass of water contained in the pore spaces
of soil or rock material, to (ii) the mass of solid particles in the material.
water table : see ground-water table.
- J.5 -
Terms Relating to Aggregates
absorption : the increase in the weight of an aggregate due to water in the pores of the material, but not
including water adhering to the outside surface of the particles, expressed as a percentage of the dry
weight. The aggregate is considered dry when it has been maintained at a temperature of 110 5C
for sufficient time to remove all uncombined water.
adherent fines : fine particles smaller than 75-m created by handling or silt or clay that adhere to coarse
aggregate particles.
aggregate : a granular material of mineral composition such as sand, gravel, shell, slag, or crushed stone
that is used with a cementing medium to form a mortar or concrete, or is used alone to construct a base
course. Coarse aggregate is aggregate retained on the 4.75-mm sieve; fine aggregate is aggregate
passing the 4.75-mm sieve and retained on the 75-m sieve.
apparent specific gravity : the ratio of the weight in air of a volume of the impermeable portion of an
aggregate to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water, at a stated temperature.
angular aggregate : aggregate, the particles of which posses well-defined edges formed at intersection of
roughly planar faces.
bulk specific gravity : the ratio of the weight in air of a volume of aggregate (including the permeable and
impermeable voids in the particles, but excludes the voids between particles) to the weight in air of an
equal volume of gas-free distilled water, at a stated temperature.
bulk specific gravity, saturated surface dry : the ratio of the weight in air of a volume of aggregate
(including the weight of water saturating permeable voids in the particles, and excluding the voids
between particles) to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water, at a stated temperature.
crushed content : percent of coarse particles having a specified number of fractured faces (usually at least
one or at least two).
crushed gravel : the product resulting from the artificial crushing of gravel, with a requirement that at
least a specified percentage of coarse particles have fractured faces. Some uncrushed particles may be
included.
crushed stone : the product resulting from the artificial crushing of rocks, boulders or large cobblestones,
with substantially all particle faces resulting from fracture during the crushing operation.
crusher-run : the total unscreened product of a stone crusher.
effective specific gravity (asphalt aggregate) : the ratio of the weight in air of a volume of a permeable
aggregate (excluding voids permeable to asphalt) to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free
distilled water, at a stated temperature.
elongated aggregate particle : a particle of aggregate for which the ratio of length to width (or thickness)
of its circumscribing rectangular prism is greater than a specified value (commonly 5).
fineness modulus : a factor obtained by adding the percentages of material in an aggregate sample that is
coarser than each of the following sieves (cumulative percentages retained) and dividing the sum by
100: 150-m, 300-m, 600-m, 1.18-mm, 2.36-mm, 4.75-mm, 9.5-mm, 19.0-mm, 37.5-mm, 75-mm,
150-mm.
filler : see mineral filler.
flat aggregate particle : see elongated aggregate particle.
- J.6 -
fractured face : an angular, rough, or broken surface of an aggregate particle created by crushing, or by
other artificial means, or by nature.
gravel, run-of-bank : gravel found in natural deposits, usually more or less intermixed with fine material,
such as sand or clay, or combinations thereof.
gradation : the cumulative distribution of aggregate particle size, measured as percent of material passing
(or retained on) various sized sieves. Descriptive terms used to characterize gradations include:
(i) maximum density gradation - is approximated by the equation p = 100 (d/D)0.45 where p is percent of
particles smaller than size d, and D is the largest particle size in the gradation.
(ii) well-graded, dense graded - an aggregate with a gradation close to the maximum density gradation,
and consequently an aggregate that has a relatively low void content when compacted.
(iii) open-graded - an aggregate with a gradation that deviates substantially from the maximum density
gradation, and consequently an aggregate that has a relatively large void content when compacted.
(iv) gap-graded - an aggregate with few particles in an intermediate size range.
(v) uniform gradation - an aggregate that has a majority of particles of the same approximate size.
macadam, dry-bound and water-bound : a pavement layer containing essentially one-sized coarse
aggregate choked in place with an application of screenings or sand; water is applied to the choke
material for water-bound macadam. Multiple layers must be used.
manufactured sand : fine aggregate produced by crushing rock, gravel, iron blast-furnace slag, or
hydraulic-cement concrete.
maximum size (of aggregate) : in specifications for, or in the description of aggregate, the smallest sieve
opening through which the entire amount of the aggregate is required to pass.
mineral filler : a finely divided mineral product at least 70% of which passes the 75-m sieve.
nominal maximum size (of aggregate) : in specifications for, or in the description of aggregate, the
smallest sieve opening through which the entire amount of the aggregate is permitted to pass.
reactive aggregate : an aggregate containing siliceous material (usually in amorphous or crypto-

crystalline state) or certain argillaceous dolomitic limestones that can react chemically with free alkali
in the cement.
sand equivalent : a measure of the amount of silt or clay contamination in a fine aggregate as determined
by the sand equivalent test.
screenings : a residual product resulting from the artificial crushing of rock, boulders, cobble, gravel,
blast-furnace slag or hydraulic cement concrete, all of which passed the smallest screen used with the
crushing operation and most of which passed the 2.36 mm sieve.
segregation : the separation of coarse particles from a fines matrix, resulting in non-uniform particle
distribution.
soil-aggregate : natural or prepared mixtures consisting predominately of stone, gravel or sand which
contain a significant amount of minus 75-m silt-clay material.
stone chips : angular fragments of crushed stone containing no dust.
- J.7 -
Terms Relating to Asphalts
asphalt : a dark brown to black cementitious material in which the predominating constituents are
bitumens that occur in nature or are obtained in petroleum processing.
asphaltenes : the high molecular weight hydrocarbon fraction precipitated from asphalt by a designated
paraffinic naphtha solvent at a specified solvent-asphalt ratio ((the asphaltene fraction should be
identified by the solvent and solvent-asphalt ratio used).
asphalt binder : see asphalt cement.
asphalt cement : a fluxed or unfluxed asphalt specifically prepared as to quality and consistency for direct
use in the manufacture of asphalt pavements, and having a penetration between 5 and 300.
asphalt emulsion : see emulsified asphalt.
asphalt-rubber : a blend of asphalt cement, reclaimed tire rubber, and certain additives in which the
rubber component is at least 15% by weight of the total blend and has reacted in the hot asphalt cement
sufficiently to cause swelling of the rubber particles.
bitumen : a class of black or dark coloured (solid, semi-solid or viscous) cementitious substances, natural
or manufactured, composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons of which asphalts, tars,
pitches and asphaltites are typical.
bituminous : containing or treated with bitumen (such as bituminous concrete, bituminous pavement,
bituminous felts and fabrics).
cut-back asphalt : asphalt that has generally been blended with petroleum solvents to a liquid state at
normal temperatures. Slow-curing cutback asphalt may be made directly by distillation and is
sometimes referred to as road oil. Cut-backs are graded as rapid-curing (RC), medium-curing (MC) or
slow-curing (SC).
emulsified asphalt : a suspension of minute globules of asphalt in water or in an aqueous solution.

Anionic emulsion is made using an emulsifying agent that establishes a predominance of negative
charges on the asphalt globules. Cationic emulsion is made using an emulsifying agent that establishes
a predominance of positive charges on the asphalt globules. Emulsions are graded as rapid setting (RS),
medium setting (MS) or slow setting (SS). High float emulsions have additives allowing thicker asphalt
films without run-off.
flux : a bituminous material, generally liquid, used for softening other bituminous materials.
kinematic viscosity : the ratio of the viscosity to the density of a liquid.
penetration : the consistency of a bituminous material expressed as the distance in tenths of a millimetre
that a standard needle penetrates vertically a sample of the material under specified conditions of
loading, time, and temperature.
recycling agent : a blend of hydrocarbons with or without minor amounts of other materials that is used to
alter or improve the properties of the aged asphalt in a recycled asphalt paving mixture.
Saybolt Furol viscosity : the corrected efflux time in seconds of 60 mL of sample flowing through a
calibrated orifice under specified conditions (Furol is an acronym of Fuel and road oils).
temperature susceptibility : change in consistency (penetration or viscosity) that a paving asphalt

undergoes for a given change in temperature.
viscosity : property of a fluid governing resistance to flow; measured as the ratio of applied shear stress to
the rate of shear (a constant for a Newtonian fluid) (see also kinematic and Saybolt Furol viscosity).
- J.8 -
Terms Relating to Tars and Pitches
coal tar : a dark brown to black cementitious material produced by the destructive distillation of
bituminous coal.
coke-oven tar : coal tar produced in by-product coke ovens in the manufacture of coke from bituminous
coal.
gas-house coal tar : coal tar produced in gas-house retorts in the manufacture of illuminating gas from
bituminous coal.
oil-gas tars : tars produced by cracking oil vapors at high temperatures in the manufacture of oil gas.
pitches : black or dark-brown solid cementitious materials that gradually liquefy when heated and are
obtained as residua in the partial evaporation or fractional distillation of tar.
refined tar : tar freed from water by evaporation or distillation that is continued until the residue is of
desired consistency; or a product produced by fluxing tar residuum with tar distillate.
straight-run pitch : a pitch run to the consistency desired in the initial process of distillation and without
subsequent fluxing.
tar : brown or black bituminous material, liquid or semi-solid in consistency, in which the predominating
constituents are bitumens obtained as condensates in the destructive distillation of coal, petroleum, oil-
shale, wood, or other organic materials, and that yields substantial quantities of pitch when distilled.
tar concrete : a plant mix of tar and graded mineral aggregate. Cold-laid tar concrete incorporates a
medium viscosity grade of tar and is placed either shortly after mixing or when the mixture is at or near
ambient temperature. Hot-laid tar concrete incorporates a high viscosity grade of tar and is place at or
near the elevated temperature of mixing.
- J.9 -
Terms Relating to Hydraulic Cements
addition : substance that is interground or blended in limited amounts into a hydraulic cement during
manufacture either as a processing addition to aid in manufacture and handling of the cement or as a
functional addition to modify the useful properties of the cement.
alkali equivalent (in hydraulic cement) : total combined sodium and potassium oxides, expressed as a
percentage, calculated by the equation Na2O (equiv) = % Na2O + 0.658 x % K2O.
blaine fineness : the fineness of powdered materials, such as cement and pozzolans, expressed as surface
area usually as square centimetres per gram.
blended hydraulic cement : a hydraulic cement consisting of two or more inorganic constituents (at least
one of which is not Portland cement or Portland cement clinker) which separately or in combination
contribute to the strength-gaining properties of the cement (made with or without other constituents,
processing additions and functional additions, by intergrinding or other blending).
calcined clay : clay heated to high temperature to alter its physical properties for use as a pozzolan or
cementing material in concrete.
cement paste : a mixture of hydraulic cement and water, without any added aggregate or filler materials.
clinker : end product of a Portland cement kiln; raw cementing material prior to grinding.
fly ash : finely divided residue that results from the combustion of ground or powered coal and that is
transported by flue gases; used as a pozzolan or cementing material in concrete.
grout : mixture of cementing materials with or without aggregate or admixtures to which sufficient water
is added to produce a pouring or pumping consistency without segregation of the constituent materials.
hydration : the chemical reaction between hydraulic cement and water forming new compounds most of
which have strength-producing properties.
hydraulic cementitious material : an inorganic material or a mixture of inorganic materials that sets,
hardens and develops strength by chemical interaction with water by formation of hydrates and is
capable of doing so under water.
kiln : rotary furnace used in cement manufacture to heat and chemically combine raw inorganic materials,
such as limestone, sand and clay, into calcium silicate clinker.
Portland cement : a hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing Portland cement clinker, usually
containing one or more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an interground addition.
Portland cement clinker : a partially fused clinker consisting primarily of hydraulic calcium silicates.
pozzolan : a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, like fly ash or silica fume, which in itself
possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties.
slurry grout : a mixture of cement, sand and water with a fluid consistency.
silica fume : very fine non-crystalline silica that is a byproduct from the production of silicon and
ferrosilicon alloys in an electric arc furnace; used as a pozzolan in concrete.
supplementary cementing material : a material that, when used in conjunction with Portland cement,
contributes to the properties of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both.
- J.10 -
Terms Relating to Lime
calcia : the chemical compound calcium oxide (CaO).
chemical lime : a quicklime or hydrated lime whose chemical and physical characteristics and method of
processing make it suitable for one or more of the many and varied chemical and industrial uses of the
product.
hydrated lime : a dry powder obtained by treating quicklime with sufficient water to satisfy its chemical
affinity for water under the conditions of its hydration. It consists essentially of calcium hydroxide or a
mixture of calcium hydroxide and magnesium oxide, or both.
hydraulic hydrated lime : the hydrated dry cementitious product obtained by calcining a limestone
containing silica and alumina to a temperature short of incipient fusion so as to form sufficient free
lime (CaO) to permit hydration, and at the same time, leaving unhydrated sufficient calcium silicates to
give a dry powder meeting hydraulic property requirements.
lime : a general term that includes the various chemical and physical forms of quicklime, hydrated lime
and hydraulic hydrated lime.
limestone : an initially sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate or of the carbonates of
calcium and magnesium. Limestone may be of high-calcium, magnesian or dolomitic:
a) dolomitic limestone - limestone containing from 35% to 46% magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
b) magnesium limestone - limestone containing from 5% to 35% magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
c) high-calcium limestone - limestone containing from 0% to 5% magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
quicklime : a calcined limestone, the major part of which is calcium oxide or calcium oxide in association
with magnesium oxide, capable of slaking with water.
- J.11 -
Terms Relating to Asphalt Mixes
age hardened : decrease in the penetration and/or increase in viscosity of the asphalt binder caused by the
loss of volatiles and oxidation of the asphalt during the manufacture of hot-mix asphalt concrete and
during subsequent exposure to weather.
air voids : the total volume of the small pockets of air between the coated aggregate particles throughout a
compacted paving mixture, expressed as a percent of the bulk volume of the compacted paving mixture.
asphalt concrete : well graded, high-quality aggregate bound by an asphalt cement, plant-mixed at an
elevated temperature, and placed and compacted to a uniform, dense mat.
batch plant : a manufacturing facility for producing bituminous paving mixtures that proportions the
aggregate and bituminous constituents into the mix by weighed batches, adds bituminous material by
either weight or volume, and mixes the blend.
binder course : see lower course.
cold mix : a mixture of aggregate and a cutback or emulsified asphalt that may be plant mixed, mechanically
mixed on grade, or manually mixed in small quantities.
continuous mix plant : a manufacturing facility for producing bituminous paving mixtures that continually
proportions the aggregate and bituminous constituents into the mix by a continuous volumetric
proportioning system without definite batch intervals.
dense bituminous paving mixture : bituminous paving mixture in which the air voids are less than 10%
when compacted.
drum mix plant : a manufacturing facility for producing bituminous paving mixtures that continuously
proportions aggregates, heats and dries them in a rotating drum, and simultaneously mixes them with a
controlled amount of bituminous material. The same plant may produce cold-mixed bituminous paving
mixtures without heating and drying the aggregates.
effective asphalt content : the total asphalt content of a paving mixture minus the portion of asphalt that is
lost by absorption into the aggregate particles.
hot-mix : see asphalt concrete.
lower course : a lower lift in a layer of asphalt concrete.
maintenance mix : see cold mix.
mixed-in-place : a cold mix mixed on grade by means of a travel plant, motor graders, drags, or special
road-mixing equipment.
open bituminous paving mixture : bituminous paving mixture in which the air voids are greater than
10% when compacted.
plant mix : a mixture produced in an asphalt mixing plant and consisting of mineral aggregate uniformly
coated with asphalt cement, emulsified asphalt or cut-back asphalt.
reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) : asphalt pavement or paving mixture removed from its original
location for use in a recycled asphalt paving mixture.
recycled asphalt paving mixture : a mixture of reclaimed asphalt pavement with the addition, if required,
of new asphalt cement, emulsified asphalt, cut-back asphalt, recycling agent, mineral aggregate, and
mineral filler.
- J.12 -
recycling agent : a blend of hydrocarbons, with or without minor amounts of other materials, that is used
to alter or improve the properties of aged asphalt in a recycled asphalt paving mixture.
road mix : see mixed-in-place
sand asphalt : a mixture of sand and asphalt cement, cut-back or emulsion.
stability and flow : resistance of asphalt concrete to shear failure and deformation, normally measured by
the Marshall laboratory testing procedure.
surface course : surface lift in a layer of asphalt concrete.
theoretical maximum density : density that a paving mixture would have if compacted to zero air voids.
voids filled with asphalt : the portion of the volume of intergranular void space between the aggregate
particles (VMA) that is occupied by the effective asphalt.
voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) : the volume of intergranular void space between the aggregate
particles of a compacted paving mixture that includes the air voids and the effective asphalt content,
expressed as a percent of the total volume of the sample.
wearing course : see surface course.
- J.13 -
Terms Relating to Portland Cement Concrete
admixture : a material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement and fiber reinforcement that is
added to a concrete mix immediately before or during mixing to alter properties of the mix. Concrete
admixtures include air-entraining agents, set retarders and accelerators, water-reducing and plasticizing
admixtures.
accelerating admixture : admixture that accelerates the rate of hydration of hydraulic cement, shortens
the normal setting time, or increases the rate of hardening and strength development, or both, of
Portland cement concrete.
air content : the volume of air voids in cement paste, mortar or concrete, exclusive of pore space in
aggregate particles, usually expressed as a percentage of total volume of the paste, mortar or concrete.
air-entraining admixture : an admixture for concrete, mortar or grout that causes air to be incorporated
into the mixture in the form of minute bubbles during mixing, usually to increase the materials
workability and resistance to frost damage.
air void : an air-filled space in concrete, mortar or grout and characterized as an entrapped air void or an
entrained air void.
alkali-aggregate reaction : a chemical reaction between alkali hydroxides in cement and certain forms of
silica or carbonate aggregates, that results in an expansion that cracks and weakens Portland cement
concrete.
bleeding : the autogenous flow of mixing water within, or its emergence from, newly placed concrete or
mortar caused by the settlement of the solid materials within the mass.
consistency : degree of fluidity of freshly mixed concrete, mortar or grout (see slump and workability).
curing : the maintenance of moisture and temperature conditions in concrete for a period of time
immediately following placing and finishing so that desired properties may develop.
curing compound : a liquid that, when applied as a coating to the surface of newly-placed concrete, forms
a membrane that retards the evaporation of water and, in the case of white pigmented compounds,
reflects heat.
entrained air void : spherical microscopic air bubble from 10-m to 1000-m in diameter (majority 10-
m to 100-m) intentionally incorporated into concrete to provide resistance to freezing and thawing
when exposed to water and deicing chemicals, and/or to improve workability.
entrapped air void : irregularly shaped, unintentional air void in fresh or hardened concrete generally
exceeding 1 mm in width.
fibers : thread or thread-like material ranging from 0.05 to 4 mm in diameter and from 10 to 150 mm in
length and made of steel, glass, synthetic (plastic), carbon, or natural materials.
fiber concrete : concrete containing randomly oriented fibers in 2 or 3 dimensions throughout the concrete
matrix.
finishing : mechanical operations like screeding, consolidating, floating, troweling, or texturing that
establish the final appearance and texture of a concrete slab.
fresh concrete : concrete which possesses enough of its original workability so it can be placed and
consolidated by the intended methods.
high-strength concrete : concrete with a design compressive strength of at least 70 MPa.
- J.14 -
heat of hydration : heat evolved by the chemical reactions occurring during hydration.
laitance : a layer of weak material containing cement and fine aggregate brought to the top of the concrete
by bleeding water.
mortar : a mixture of finely divided hydraulic cementitious material, fine aggregate and water in either the
unhardened or hardened state.
plasticity : property of freshly mixed concrete that determines workability and ease of molding.
plasticizer : admixture that increases the plasticity of Portland cement concrete.
Portland cement concrete : aggregate bound with Portland cement.
placing : the handling, deposition, and consolidation of freshly mixed concrete in the place where it is to
harden.
reinforced concrete : concrete to which tensile bearing materials such as steel rods or metal wires are
added for tensile strength.
roller-compacted concrete (RCC) : a zero slump mix of aggregates, cementitious materials and water
that is compacted while fresh by a roller, often a vibratory roller.
setting : the process, due to chemical reactions, occurring after the addition of mixing water, that results in
a gradual development of rigidity of a cementitious mixture.
setting time : the elapsed time from the addition of mixing water to a cementitious mixture until the
mixture reaches a specified degree of rigidity, as measured by a specified procedure.
shotcrete : a process in which compressed air forces mortar or concrete through a hose and nozzle onto a
surface at high velocity, forming structural or non-structural components.
slump : a measure of consistency of freshly mixed concrete, equal to the immediate subsidence of a
specimen molded with a standard slump cone.
water-cement ratio : the ratio of the weight of water, exclusive of that absorbed by the aggregates, to the
weight of cement in a concrete or mortar mixture.
water-reducing admixture : admixture whose properties permit a reduction of water to produce a

concrete mix of a certain slump, reduce water-cement ratio, reduce cement content, or increase slump.
workability : the property determining the effort required to manipulate a freshly mixed quantity of
concrete with minimum loss of homogeneity.
- J.15 -
Terms Related to Pavements
(Note: see appendix on condition survey for terms and definitions relating to pavement defects.)
aquaplaning : see hydroplaning.
asphalt pavement : a flexible pavement surfaced with an asphalt bound wearing course.
base course : a pavement layer constructed on the subgrade or subbase for purposes such as distributing
load, minimizing frost action or providing drainage. A base course is normally comprised of unbound,
high quality granular aggregate, but may be stabilized on occasion with Portland cement or asphalt.
bearing capacity : magnitude of traffic loads that can be accommodated by a pavement without
significant damage to the pavement structure.
bearing modulus : a measure of the stiffness of a bearing surface, most frequently the bearing surface on
which a concrete slab rests. Determined from the load-deflection curve obtained in a non-repetitive
plate load test using a 750 mm diameter rigid plate, and equal to the plate pressure in kPa that produces
a deflection of 1.25 mm divided by the deflection, 1.25 mm.
bearing strength : most commonly, stiffness of a pavement or other layer surface as measured by the
load-deflection relationship obtained under a specified method of loading; sometimes a synonym for
bearing capacity.
Benkelman beam rebound deflection : upward movement of a pavement surface after removal of a
specified truck loading. The rebound deflection is measured on the pavement surface between a set of
rear axle dual tires.
chip seal : a surface treatment using one or more layers of stone chips and asphalt emulsion binder.
cold in-place recycling : a restoration treatment for asphalt pavements, involving cold milling of the
pavement surface, remixing with the addition of asphalt emulsion, Portland cement or other modifiers to
improve the properties, followed by screeding and compaction of the reprocessed material, all in one
continuous operation.
cold joint : a construction joint in a layer of asphalt that occurs when the temperature of the first paving
lane falls to a level less than required for adequate bonding and compaction, before placing of the
second paving lane.
composite pavement : a pavement containing a concrete slab with an overlay of flexible construction.
concrete pavement : a pavement surfaced with a Portland cement concrete slab.
concrete panel : portion of a Portland cement concrete slab, rectangular or nearly rectangular in shape,
defined by contraction joints on two opposite sides, and construction joints or free edges on the other
two sides.
construction joint : a longitudinal vertical plane that separates paving lanes in a layer of asphalt or
Portland cement concrete, or a transverse joint separating one paving session from another
contraction joint : transverse crack induced in a Portland cement concrete slab by partial-depth sawing or
forming, to control the location of cracks caused by cure shrinkage and thermal contraction.
crack sealing : a maintenance treatment in which a surface crack is filled with a sealant. The treatment
may or may not include prior routing and drying with hot compressed air.
defect (pavement) : imperfection in a pavement surface compared to the condition of high-quality new
construction.
- J.16 -
distress (pavement) : a defect that presages pavement failure.
dowel : a smooth steel bar, usually epoxy coated and 30 mm or more in diameter, placed for load transfer
purposes at mid-slab height and straddling a joint (usually a contraction joint) in a Portland cement
concrete slab.
embankment : a raised structure of soil or rock fill whose surface is higher than the natural adjoining
surface.
equivalent granular thickness : for a flexible pavement containing layers of different materials, the total
thickness of granular material considered equivalent to the thickness of the subject pavement on the
basis of load distribution capability.
expansion joint : a separation provided between adjoining parts of a Portland cement concrete slab to
allow relative movement.
flexible pavement : a pavement structure that provides bearing capacity through the distribution of loads
to the subgrade, and depends on aggregate interlock, particle friction and cohesion for internal stability.
fog seal : a light application of bituminous material to an existing pavement as a seal to inhibit ravelling,
or to seal the surface, or both. Medium and slow-setting bituminous emulsions are normally used and
may be diluted with water.
freezing index : the number of degree-days between the highest and lowest points on the curve of cumulative
degree-days versus time over a freezing season. Air freezing index is determined from air temperatures
recorded at 1.4 metres above the ground.
frost heave : the raising of a pavement surface due to the accumulation of ice in the underlying soil or rock.
full-depth asphalt pavement : a pavement in which all layers are constructed with asphalt bound materials.
geotextile : a fabric material used in pavement construction to prevent the migration of fines. Commonly
used in subsurface drainage systems, and may be used on occasion as to separate a subbase or base from a
subgrade of fine material.
grade : the elevation of a surface, or the slope of a surface.
granular equivalency factor : a value assigned to a pavement construction material, equal to the depth of
granular material in millimetres considered equivalent to one millimetre of the material on the basis of
load distribution considerations.
gravel pavement : a pavement with an unbound gravel surface.
grooving : the cutting of slots in a pavement surface, usually in a transverse direction, to improve surface
drainage and as an anti-hydroplaning treatment.
hot air lance : device that combines propane and compressed air ignited in a specially designed chamber
to produce an very hot high-velocity stream of air. Used to heat and dry cracks and to remove debris
prior to sealing.
hot in-place recycling : a restoration treatment involving removal of old asphalt concrete, processing,
heating and mixing with new aggregates and new asphalt cement, relaying and compacting to meet
specifications for conventional asphalt concrete.
hydroplaning : loss of skid resistance resulting from loss of contact between tire and pavement surface due
to generation of viscous forces in an intervening layer of water or other fluid.
- J.17 -
isolation joint : separation between a Portland cement concrete slab and a rigid intruding structure, to
allow relative movement and prevent cracking and spalling of the concrete.
kerf (joint) : a rectangular void sawn or otherwise formed in the surface of a concrete or asphalt pavement
and along the length of a joint or crack, to serve as a reservoir for sealant.
macro-texture : deviations of the pavement surface from a true planar surface with the characteristic
dimensions of wavelength and amplitude from 0.5 mm up to those that no longer affect tire-pavement
interaction.
micro-texture : deviations of the pavement surface from a true planar surface with the characteristic
dimensions of wavelength and amplitude less than 0.5 mm.
milling : removal of a pavement surface, typically to a depth of about 25 mm to 50 mm, using a rotating
drum equipped with cutting teeth.
modulus of subgrade reaction : see bearing modulus.
overlay : new lift(s) placed on an existing pavement to improve or restore operational characteristics such as
ride quality, skid resistance or bearing strength.
pavement : earth structure providing a surface for the operation of vehicles or for pedestrian traffic; generally
consisting of granular layers placed on a subgrade, and with a bound surfacing layer for higher quality
facilities.
plate bearing strength : the static load in kN that produces an accumulated deflection of 12.5 mm after the
10 load repetitions, when the load is applied to a test surface through a 750 mm diameter rigid plate.
preventive maintenance : maintenance treatment, such as crack sealing or seal coating, to retard pavement
deterioration.
prime coat : an application of a bituminous material to a granular base surface, designed to penetrate,
bond, and stabilize this surface and to promote adhesion between it and the asphalt course that follows.
A low viscosity cutback asphalt is generally used for priming (for better penetration), but an emulsified
asphalt may also be used.
rehabilitation : see restoration.
restoration : construction measures, such as overlay or reconstruction, undertaken to upgrade a pavement

with unsuitable operational characteristics.
rigid pavement : a pavement that depends primarily on the flexural beam strength of a Portland cement
concrete slab for the support of traffic loads.
.
roughness : deviations of a pavement surface from a plane, with characteristic dimensions that affect vehicle
motion influencing ride quality and dynamic loads.
seal coat : a surface treatment used to seal and waterproof or to improve the texture of an asphalt wearing
surface. The main types of seal coat are aggregate seals, fog seals, emulsion slurry seals and sand seals.
skid resistance : friction force generated between a pavement surface and a braking tire.
slabjacking : injection of pressurized grout under a concrete slab to raise it to a desired level.
slurry seal : an application of a fluid mixture of bituminous emulsion, fine aggregate, mineral filler, and
water to an existing pavement. Single or multiple applications may be used.
- J.18 -
spring reduction factor : the percent reduction applied the plate bearing strength of a pavement measured
during summer or fall months, as an allowance for the loss of bearing strength that may occur during or
shortly after the spring thaw.
subbase : a layer that may be included in a pavement structure, located between the subgrade and base
course, and comprised of selected granular materials meeting requirements less stringent than those for
base course.
subgrade : the soil, prepared and compacted, on which a pavement structure is constructed.
surface treatment : a maintenance or restoration treatment, consisting of the application of a bitumen or a

bitumen and aggregate composite generally less than 25 mm thick to an asphalt or granular pavement
surface for purposes such as sealing or weatherproofing the surface, providing a wearing course, or
improving skid resistance.
tack coat : an application of bituminous material to an existing relatively non-absorptive surface to

provide a thorough bond between the old surface and new asphalt paving. Slow setting asphalt
emulsions are normally used for tack coats, but cut-backs may also be used.
tie bar : deformed steel bar, generally less than 20 mm in diameter, placed in some instances across joints or
cracks in a Portland cement concrete pavement, to keep the joint or crack closed for purposes of load
transfer or to prevent the wander of outside slabs.
- J.19 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix K : Listing of ASTM Standards
APPENDIX K
LISTING OF ASTM STANDARDS
Include year of latest revision when referencing ASTM standards in contract specifications, e.g. C40 99.
Year of latest revision can be found by accessing ASTM website www.enterprise.astm.org.
ASTM A185 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain, for Concrete
ASTM A497 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed, for Concrete
ASTM A615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete
ASTM A760 Specification for Corrugated Steel Pipe, Metallic-Coated for Sewers and Drains
ASTM C14 Specification for Concrete Sewer, Strom Drain and Culvert Pipe
ASTM C31 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
ASTM C39 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
ASTM C40 Test Method for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregate for Concrete
ASTM C42 Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
ASTM C76 Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe
ASTM C78 Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point
Loading)
ASTM C88 Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulphate or Magnesium
Sulphate
ASTM C94 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
ASTM C109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 50mm cube
specimens)
ASTM C114 Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement
ASTM C117 Test Method for Material Finer than 75-m (No. 200) Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing
ASTM C123 Test Method for Lightweight Particles in Aggregate
ASTM C127 Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse
Aggregate
ASTM C128 Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine
Aggregate.
ASTM C131 Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion
and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
ASTM C136 Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
ASTM C142 Test Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates
ASTM C143 Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete
ASTM C150 Specification for Portland Cement
ASTM C151 Test Method for Autoclave Expansion of Portland Cement
ASTM C172 Practice for Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete
ASTM C186 Test Method for Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement
ASTM C191 Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
ASTM C192 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory
ASTM C231 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
ASTM C260 Specification for Air Entraining Admixture for Concrete
ASTM C295 Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
ASTM C309 Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming Compounds for Curing Concrete
ASTM C430 Test Method for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the 45-m (No. 325) Sieve
ASTM C444 Specification for Perforated Pipe
ASTM C452 Test Method for Potential Expansion of Portland-Cement Mortars Exposed to Sulphate
ASTM C494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
ASTM C496 Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
ASTM C663 Specification for Asbestos-Cement Storm Drain Pipe
ASTM C666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
ASTM C977 Specification for Quicklime and Hydrated Lime for Soil Stabilization
- K.1 -
ASTM D5 Test Method for Penetration of Bituminous Materials

ASTM D75 Practice for Sampling Aggregates.
ASTM D92 Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester
ASTM D95 Test Method for Water in Petroleum Products and Bituminous Materials by Distillation
ASTM D113 Test Method for Ductility of Bituminous Materials
ASTM D139 Test Method for Float Test for Bituminous Materials
ASTM D243 Test Method for Residue of Specified Penetration
ASTM D244 Test Methods for Emulsified Asphalts
ASTM D402 Test Method for Distillation of Cut-Back Asphaltic (Bituminous) Products
ASTM D420 Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering, Design, and Construction Purposes.
ASTM D422 Test Method for Particle Size Analysis of Soils
ASTM D558 Test Methods for Moisture-Density (Unit Weight) Relations of Soil-Cement Mixtures
ASTM D559 Test Methods for Wetting-and-Drying Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures
ASTM D560 Test Methods for Freezing and Thawing Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures
ASTM D946 Specification for Penetration-Graded Asphalt Cement for Use in Pavement Construction
ASTM D977 Specification for Emulsified Asphalt
ASTM D995 Specification for Mixing Plants for Hot-Mixed, Hot-Laid Bituminous Paving Mixtures
ASTM D1188 Test Method for Bulk Specific Gravity and Density of Compacted Bituminous Mixtures
Using Paraffin-Coated Specimens
ASTM D1195 Test Method for Repetitive Static-Plate Load Tests of Soils and Flexible Pavement
Components, for Use in Evaluation and Design of Airport and Highway Pavements
ASTM D1452 Practice for Soil Investigation and Sampling by Auger Borings
ASTM D1556 Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone Method
ASTM D1557 Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort
(56,000 ft-lbs/ft3)(2,700 kN-m/m3).
ASTM D1559 Test Method for Resistance to Plastic Flow of Bituminous Mixtures Using Marshall
Apparatus.
ASTM D1586 Test Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils
ASTM D1587 Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Geotechnical Sampling of Soils.
ASTM D1633 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Molded Soil-Cement Cylinders
ASTM D1751 Specification for Preformed Joint Filler for Concrete Paving and Structural Construction
(Non-Extruding and Resilient Bituminous Types)
ASTM D1754 Test Method for Effect of Heat and Air on Asphaltic Materials (Thin-Film Oven Test)
ASTM D1883 Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of Laboratory-Compacted Soils
ASTM D2026 Specification for Cutback Asphalt (Slow-Curing Type)
ASTM D2027 Specification for Cutback Asphalt (Medium-Curing Type)
ASTM D2028 Specification for Cutback Asphalt (Rapid-Curing Type)
ASTM D2041 Test Method for Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity and Density of Bituminous Paving
Mixtures
ASTM D2042 Test Method for Solubility of Asphalt Materials in Trichloroethylene
ASTM D2113 Practice for Diamond Core Drilling for Site Investigation.
ASTM D2161 Practice for Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Universal Viscosity or Saybolt
Furol Viscosity
ASTM D2167 Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by the Rubber Balloon Method
ASTM D2170 Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Asphalts (Bitumens)
ASTM D2171 Test Method for Viscosity of Asphalts by Vacuum Capillary Viscometer
ASTM D2397 Specification for Cationic Emulsified Asphalt
ASTM D2419 Test Method for Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and Fine Aggregate
ASTM D2487 Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
ASTM D2488 Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure).
ASTM D2493 Viscosity-Temperature Chart for Asphalts
ASTM D2573 Test Method for Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil
ASTM D2628 Specification for Preformed Polychloroprene Elastomeric Joint Seals for Concrete
Pavements
ASTM D2872 Test Method for Effect of Heat and Air on a Moving Film of Asphalt (Rolling Thin-Film
Oven Test)
ASTM D2922 Test Methods for Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in Place by Nuclear Methods
(Shallow Depth)
- K.2 -
ASTM D3017 Test Method for Water Content of Soil and Rock in Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow
Depth)
ASTM D3143 Test Method for Flash Point of Cutback Asphalt with Tag Open-Cup Apparatus
ASTM D3203 Test Method for Percent Air Voids in Compacted Dense and Open Bituminous Paving
Mixtures.
ASTM D3319 Practice for Accelerated Polishing of Aggregates Using the British Wheel
ASTM D3385 Test Method for Infiltration Rate of Soils in Field Using Double-Ring Infiltrometer
ASTM D3441 Test Method for Deep, Quasi-Static, Cone and Friction-Cone Penetration Tests of Soil.
ASTM D3550 Practice for Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils.
ASTM D3569 Specification for Joint Sealant, Hot-Applied, Elastomeric, Jet-Fuel-Resistant-Type for
Portland Cement Concrete Pavements
ASTM D3910 Practices for Design, Testing and Construction of Slurry Seal
ASTM D4083 Practice for Description of Frozen Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure).
ASTM D4220 Practices for Preserving and Transporting Soil Samples.
ASTM D4318 Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils
ASTM D4402 Test Method for Viscosity Determination of Asphalt at Elevated Temperatures Using a
Rotational Viscometer
ASTM D4429 Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of Soils in Place
ASTM D4544 Practice for Estimating Peat Deposit Thickness
ASTM D4718 Practice for Correction of Unit Weight and Water Content for Soils Containing Oversize
Particles
ASTM D4719 Test Method for Pressuremeter Testing in Soils
ASTM D4750 Test Method for Determining Subsurface Liquid Levels in a Borehole or Monitoring Well
(Observation Well)
ASTM D4791 Test Method for Flat Particles, Elongated Particles, or Flat or Elongated Particles in Coarse
Aggregate
ASTM D4867 Test Method for Effect of Moisture on Asphalt Concrete Paving Mixtures
ASTM D5079 Practices for Preserving and Transporting Rock Core Samples
ASTM D5092 Practice for Design and Installation of Ground Water Monitoring Wells in Aquifers
ASTM D5249 Specification for Backer Material for Use with Cold- and Hot-Applied Joint Sealants in
Portland-Cement Concrete and Asphalt Joints
ASTM D5727 Specification for Emulsified Refined Coal Tar (Mineral Colloid Type)
ASTM D5821 Test Method for Determining the Percentage of Fractured Particles in Coarse Aggregate
ASTM D6372 Practice for Design, Testing and Construction of Micro-Surfacing.
ASTM D6373 Specification for Performance Graded Asphalt Binder
ASTM D6690 Specification for Joint and Crack Sealants, Hot-Applied, For Concrete and Asphalt
Pavements
ASTM E11 Specification for Wire Cloth and Sieves for Testing Purposes
ASTM E102 Test Method for Saybolt Furol Viscosity of Bituminous Materials at High Temperatures
ASTM E1551 Specification for Special Purpose, Smooth-Tread Tire Operated on a Fixed Breaking Slip
Continuous Friction Measuring Equipment
ASTM E1926 Practice for Computing International Roughness Index of Roads from Longitudinal Profile
Measurements
ASTM F405 Specification for Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) Tubing and Fittings
ASTM F667 Specification for Large Diameter Corrugated Polyethylene Pipe and Fittings
- K.3 -
Canadian Airfield Pavement Engineering Reference Appendix L ; Industry Sources and References
APPENDIX L
INDUSTRY SOURCES AND REFERENCES
Most of the following agencies have literature of interest, in addition to the publications identified below
which are of special interest. Refer to the websites.
1. Airport Organizations
1.1 International Civil Aviation Organization, Montreal, Canada, (ICAO) (www.icao.org)

.1 International Standards and Recommended Practices, Aerodromes; Annex 14 to the Convention
rd
on International Civil Aviation; Volume 1, Aerodrome Design and Operations, 3 Edition,
1999.
nd
.2 Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 3, Pavements, 2 Edition, 1983.
th
.3 Airport Services Manual, Part 2, Pavement Surface Conditions, 4 Edition, 2002.
nd
.4 Airport Planning Manual, Part I, Airport Master Planning, 2 Edition, 1987.
1.2 Transport Canada (TC), Ottawa, Canada, (www.tc.gov.ca)

.1 Aerodrome Standards and Recommended Practices : Volume 1, Aeroplane Facilities, TP312,
th
4 edition, Air Navigation System Requirements Branch, March 1993.
.2 Airports Capital Assistance Program, TP 12313, June 2000.
1.3 Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, U.S.A. (www.faa.gov/arp/engineering/)

.1 Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation, AC 150/5320-6D, 1996 (with updates)
.2 Standards for Specifying Construction of Airports, AC 150/5370-10A, 1989 (with updates)
.3 Airport Capacity and Delay, AC 150/5060-5, 1983.
1.4 US Department of Defence, Unified Facilities Criteria (65.204.17.188/report/doc_ufc.html)

.1 Pavement Design for Airfields, UFC 3-260-02, 2001
.2 O&M: Asphalt Maintenance and Repair, UFC 3-270-1, 2001
.3 O&M: Asphalt Crack Repair, UFC 3-270-2, 2001
.4 O&M: Concrete Crack and Partial-Depth Spall Repair, UFC 3-270-3, 2001
.5 O&M: Concrete Repair, UFC 3-270-4, 2001
.6 Unified Facilities Guide Specifications (UFGS), 2003, (www.ccb.org)
2. Standards Organizations
2.1 American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) (www.astm.org)

Annual Book of ASTM Standards:
.1 Volume 4.01, Cement, Lime, Gypsum
.2 Volume 4.02, Concrete and Aggregates.
.3 Volume 4.03, Road and Paving Materials; Vehicle-Pavement Systems
.4 Volume 4.04, Roofing, Waterproofing, and Bituminous Materials
.5 Volume 4.08, Soil and Rock (I).
.6 Volume 4.09, Soil and Rock, (II).
.7 Volume 5.01, Petroleum Products and Lubricants (1)
2.2 Canadian Standards Association (CSA) (www.csa.ca)

.1 CAN/CSA-A5-98, (part of CSA-A3000-03), Portland Cement.
.2 CAN/CSA-A23.1-00 / A23.2-00, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete Construction /
Methods of Test for Concrete.
- L.1 -
2.3 Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB) (www.pwgsc.gc.ca/cgsb/home/index-e.html)

.1 CGSB-16.1-M89, Cutback Asphalts for Road Purposes
.2 CGSB-16.2-M89, Emulsified Asphalts, Anionic Type, for Road Purposes
.3 CGSB-16.3-M90, Asphalt Cements for Road Purposes
.4 CGSB-16.4-M89, Emulsified Asphalts, Cationic Type, for Road Purposes
.5 CGSB-16.5-M84, Asphalt, Emulsified, High-Float Type, for Road Purposes
.6 CGSB-19.20-M87, Cold-Applied Sealing Compound, Aviation Fuel Resistant
.7 CGSB 37-GP-40M -77, Application of Coal Tar Pitch Emulsion as a Bituminous Pavement
Coating
2.4 Public Works and Government Services Canada (pwgsc.gc.ca)

.1 Standard Acquisition Clauses and Conditions (sacc.pwgsc.gc.ca/sacc/)
2.5 Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) (www.csc-dcc.ca)

.1 National Master Specifications (NMS)
.2 Canadian Master Specifications (CMS)
2.6 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

(transportation .org)
.1 Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
.2 Guide Specifications for Highway Construction, 1988
(see also websites of State Highway Departments for examples of construction specifications)
3 Industry Associations
3.1 Canadian Airfield Pavement Technical Group (CAPTG) (www.captg.org)
3.2 Transportation Association of Canada (TAC) (tac-atc.ca)

.1 Pavement Design and Management Guide, 1997.
3.3 Transportation Research Board (TRB) (trb.org)
3.4 Cement Association of Canada (CAC) (cement.ca)

th
.1 Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 7 edition, Engineering Bulletin 101, 2002.
3.5 Portland Cement Association (PCA) (www.cement.org)

.1 Soil-Cement Construction Handbook, 1995.
3.6 American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA) (www.pavement.com)

.1 Packard, R.G., Design of Concrete Airport Pavement, 1973.
.2 Packard, R.G., Computer Program for Airport Pavement Design, 1967.
3.7 Asphalt Institute (AI) (www.asphaltinstitute.org)

.1 MS-2, Mix Design Methods for Asphalt Concrete and Other Hot-Mix Types, Sixth Edition.
.2 MS-3, Asphalt Plant Manual, The Asphalt Institute,1967.
.3 MS-4, The Asphalt Handbook, 1989.
.4 MS-8, Asphalt Paving Manual, 1965.
.5 MS-13, Asphalt Surface Treatments and Asphalt Penetration Macadam, 1969.
.6 MS-14, Asphalt Mixed-in-Place (Road Mix) Manual, Sixth Edition, 1994
.7 SP-1, Performance Graded Asphalt Binder Specification
.8 SP-2, Superpave Mix Design
3.8 Canadian Technical Asphalt Association (CTAA) (www.ctaa.ca)
3.9 American Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists (AAPT) (www.asphalttechnology.org)
- L.2 -
3.10 National Lime Association (NLA) (www.lime.org)

.1 Lime-Treated Soil Construction Manual, 2004
3.11 International Slurry Surfacing Association (ISSA) (www.slurry.org)
3.12 National Stone, Sand & Aggregate Association (NSSGA) (www.nssga.com)
- L.3 -

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CANADIAN AIRFIELD PAVEMENT

Most Canadian airports of significance were developed by Transport Canada, a

Comments or notification of corrections needed to the contents of this reference

Chapter 1 : Pavement Structures

Chapter 2 : Construction Materials

Chapter 3 : Structural Design and Evaluation

Chapter 4 : Construction Contract Supervision

Chapter 5 : Quality Evaluation

Chapter 6 : Maintenance and Restoration

Chapter 7 : Miscellaneous Topics

Appendix A : Mathematical Models

1.1 Quality Attributes .................... 1.2

1.2 Pavement Types .............................. 1.3

1.3 Component Layers .............................. 1.5

1.4 Life Cycle Management .............................................................. 1.7

Figure 1.01 Idealized Performance Curves ...................................................... 1.3

1.1 Quality Attributes

The primary operational quality attributes of airfield pavements are:

The bearing strength of pavement structures is controlled largely by structural design. In

initial life cycle 2nd life cycle

Figure 1.01 : IDEALIZED PERFORMANCE CURVES

1.2 Pavement Types

Hard-surfaced pavements, categorized as asphalt, concrete or composite, provide a high

Asphalt (Flexible) Pavement

asphalt concrete surfacing

selected granular subbase

Portland cement concrete slab

gravel base course

selected granular subbase

asphalt concrete surfacing

Portland cement concrete slab

gravel base course

selected granular subbase

asphalt concrete surfacing

Portland cement concrete slab

gravel base course

Gravel Pavement (Flexible) subgrade

Figure 1.02 : TYPES OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURE

requirements. An asphalt pavement is a flexible pavement structure with an asphalt

1.3 Component Layers

base course crushed gravel or crushed stone graded

selected granular material

subgrade in-situ (native) soil drainage pipe

(Note : Not to scale)

Figure 1.03 : TYPICAL PAVEMENT SECTIONS

Portland Cement Concrete Surface

A surface slab of Portland cement concrete (PCC) is constructed with a concrete

1.4 Life-Cycle Management

The Pavement Management Committee of the Roads and Transportation Association of

Government-Industry-Airports Airport Authority

Research & Development (new) MAINTENANCE

Regulatory Standards PLANNING &

Training CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS

Records and Information Systems

Figure 1.04 : AIRFIELD PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

2.1 Material Standards

2.2 Soils and Aggregates

Table 2.01 Trade Product Standards . 2.4

Figure 2.01 Gradation Chart . 2. 6

2.1 MATERIAL STANDARDS

2.1.1 Processed Materials

The primary materials subject to manufacturing processes during pavement construction

2.1.2 Trade Products