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North-South

Co-operation
Edited by Caroline Sweetman

'EN UNKit

Oxfam Focus on Gender 6


Front cover photo: Participants at the Women's Linking Project Conference. PHOTO: OXFAM

Oxfam 1994
Published by Oxfam (UK and Ireland), 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK
Designed and typeset by Oxfam Design Department 1367/PK/94
Oxfam is a registered charity No. 202918

ISSN 0968 2864 ISBN 0 85598 300 0

This book converted to digital file in 2010


Contents
Editorial

Women and poverty: making the global links


The globalisation of the economy: an international gender perspective 6
Wendy Harcourt
Building alliances: a Southern perspective 15
Devaki Jain

Linking for solidarity


Scotching myths: SEAD's experience in North-South co-operation 20
Linda Gray

Invisible threads: Oxfam's Bridge programme 23


Rachel Wilshaw
Women Linking for Change: Oxfam's Women's Linking Project 29
Oxfam's Gender Team

Listening to the South


Southern women's networks: their own priorities 34
Abantu for Development
Of borders, bridges, and sisterhood: reflections on the Women's Linking Project 37
Gertrudes Ranjo-Libang
Declaration from Southern women's organisations presented at the Women
Linking for Change Conference, Bangkok, Thailand 41
Towards international solidarity: British initiatives through Brazilian eyes 45
Vanete Almeida

Women, participation, and international fora


International lobbying for change: a Northern view of South-North linking 48
Mary van Lieshout
Facilitating women's participation in UN conferences: the experience of WEDO 52
WEDO staff writers
Treading new paths:
the methodology of the Women Linking for Change Conference 54
Maria Suarez Toro
Breaking down the barriers: European and Chinese women linking 58
Nicola Macbean

Working with existing partners


Breaking the patriarchal alliance :
governments, bilaterals, and NGOs 62
Sara Hlupekile Longwe
Implementing gender issues in multilaterals:
the experience of the World Bank 70
Minh Chau Nguyen, Anjana Bhushan, and Jo Bischoff

Feminising the work culture


Feminising the workplace: how can organisations respond? 77
Kokila Parthasarathy
A women's approach to North-South co-operation 82
Carola Carbajal

Resources
Book review 87
Further reading 88
Organisations working on co-operation 89
Index 93

South and North can only work together in solidarity if there is mutual respect and
awareness of the value of difference, as well as commonality.
Editorial
Caroline Sweetman

that we pay as much attention to the

T
his issue of Focus on Gender looks at
the process of promoting co- differences which exist between women as
operation between South, East and to the areas where they agree: 'the
North' towards achieving gender equity in international feminist movement is a truly
development. As we approach Inter- anarchic movement in which any woman
national Women's Year in 1995, and the who feels committed and has something to
United Nations Conference on Women in say can contribute to the formulation of the
Beijing next September, it is critical to vision of the future society. Some consider
recognise that 'unlike the mainstream, this as a weakness of the movement, others
which sees these events as the pinnacle of as its strength...' (Mies, 1986, 210). We
activities in a given issue area, women's recognise that women's differences are
movements throughout the world see built, not only upon their different
[them] as merely one aspect of linking' experience as individuals depending on
(Reardon, 1995, forthcoming). factors including class, race, and ethnicity,
As demonstrated in the article from the but upon the different economic and
Women's Environment and Development political factors which affect life in each
Organisation (WEDO) in this issue, region of the world. Mary van Lieshout
international events are the culmination of discusses the process of building alliances
long-term processes of networking and based on a wealth of different opinions and
consultation between different stakeholders insights, in her article on lobbying.
working on gender and development issues. Nearly 30 years ago, the Haslemere
The events themselves are comparable to the Declaration2 stated that 'exploitation of the
top of an iceberg: what is visible is only a Third World is qualitatively similar to, and
small part of a much larger and significant caused by, the same politio-economic
entity, which has formed over a long period factors which are the basis of poverty in
of time. Far from underestimating the power Britain' (Haslemere Declaration 1968, 3).
of formal international gatherings, putting Now, as then, national and regional
them into context in this way shows them to economics and politics, which determine
be important elements of a critical, and less the experience of different constituencies of
visible, process, which is concerned with women, are linked by powerful global
debate, dissent and the eventual building of trends.
alliances working to push gender issues The Women in Development Europe
forward at all levels. network (WIDE) is currently developing a
Building alliances for change demands feminist economic analysis of the world

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


Focus on Gender

economy. Wendy Harcourt, who is Building alliances


working on this project, argues in her
article that neo-liberal economics and Applying a gender analysis to the issue of
Western-style representative democracy, North-South co-operation inevitably
promoted by the multilateral agencies, are exposes the unequal power relations
failing to address the problem of poverty in between funding agencies and their
the South and East, just as they are in the Southern partners, questioning what we
North. A growing concentration of power mean by partnership and, ultimately, our
in the hands of international corporations definitions of development. In her article,
and Northern bodies is harming the Gert Ranjo-Libang asserts that, in the
livelihoods and morale of people on, and absence of efforts to link to overcome the
around, the survival line of all societies, borders' which exist between us, distance,
across North, South, and East. culture, and other barriers succeed in
preventing women around the world from
Harcourt discusses the 'feminisation of
defining a common analysis and agenda.
poverty', arguing that common bonds of
economic disadvantage link poor women For some constituencies, global politics
in different regions, through the localised means that these 'borders' are almost
effects of the internationalisation of insurmountable. In her article on a recent
production, the growth of the trans- linking initiative between Chinese and
national corporations, expanding offshore European women, Nicola Macbean
financial markets, and the increasing explores the potential of the Beijing
importance of sophisticated information Summit in promoting understanding of the
and communications technologies. complexities of Chinese women's lives, and
Devaki Jain, the founder of Develop- questioning the over-simplistic analyses of
ment Alternatives with Women for a New this isolated culture.
Era, (DAWN), takes Harcourt's analysis The existence of barriers to commun-
further, asserting that we are witnessing ication between stakeholders in develop-
the evolution of a global economy which ment has a high cost. Oxfam has set up
benefits the elite in all countries, and initiatives to challenge the dominant
especially in the North. Jain presents her pattern of communications between Oxfam
ideas on how to counter this: she asserts staff and partners, which has tended to be
that now is the time to re-examine the one in which information travels up and
possibilities offered by co-operation, down the North-South lines of commun-
between individuals and nations who have ication to head office and back, without
an alternative vision of a more just world direct South to South commun-ication
order. taking place. These initiatives are the
Jain calls on women in North, South, Women's Linking Project (WLP), and the
and East to build an honest partnership for South-South Environment Linking Project.
development, which respects the A triangular 'South-North-South'
experience and knowledge of South and communications model means an
East. On this basis, a truly global analysis appalling loss of potential expertise and
of the causes of worldwide poverty and learning, and gives the North an often
grassroots disempowerment could be unquestioned position of power in
developed, to challenge the despair felt by facilitating communications. The process of
many in the current global economic and linking, where different constituencies can
political crisis. overcome prejudices and learn from each
other, is the first step to spreading
enthusiasm and sharing the experience of
best and worst development practice.
Editorial

Carola Carbajal argues that a dialogue she argues, has a vested interest in paying
where women make the links between lip-service to equality which masks a
their own experience, at 'micro-level' in commitment to retaining the status quo.
each country, with the major, 'macro-level' For Longwe, there is a tacit alliance
economic and political trends which exist between the male-run regimes in both
worldwide, is essential to achieve true North and South, to keep gender issues
North-South co-operation. firmly on paper.
The article on Oxfam's WLP stresses the Abantu for Development's article
innovatory nature of the WLP's Thailand explores this theme further, examining the
meetings in enabling Oxfam's staff and priorities of Southern women's networks
partners, from all over the world, to meet and relating these to the different priorities
and talk to one another. The WLP of Northern bodies. A key issue here is that
culminated earlier this year in two many Northern agencies make a distinction
assemblies in Bangkok, Thailand. These between development aims and feminist
were no ordinary conferences: rather, they goals, viewing only the former as suitable
sought to use the opportunity afforded by for funding. The international women's
an international gathering to encourage movement sees this division between
South-South linking. In her article, Maria development and feminist work as
Suarez Toro explains the creative processes artificial, and calls for it to be overcome.
which went into planning an unorthodox Following this, do issues of gender
conference where all participants could necessarily become de-politicised when
have a teaching, as well as a learning, role. they are taken up by the huge Northern
The methodology adapted the partici- funding agencies? Are Gender and
patory approaches used in feminist
workshops to a larger-scale assembly.
An example of the potential of linking
this time from South to North for
informing a powerful international
analysis is shown by Vanete Almeida's
examination of the women's and trade
union movements in Brazil and the UK.
Almeida visited the UK during stage one of
Oxfam's WLP, and in her article draws
interesting parallels between the situations
of women activists in these two countries.

Partnership: the ideal and


the reality
Women's linking initiatives, in common
with all North-South development
interventions, depend on funding from the
North. How can true North-South co-
operation happen in this atmosphere of
unequal power? Sara Longwe draws a
Oxfam staff working on gender issues had a gold-
parallel between the unequal North-South en opportunity to meet and swap experience and
relationship, with that of men and women. insights at the Women's Linking Project
The powerful partner in both relationships, International Conference earlier this year.
Focus on Gender

Development Units in such agencies own structure, as well as in its work with
proponents of change, or is their commit- partners. Kokila Parthasanathy explores
ment to gender equity just empty rhetoric? the difficulties and challenges of trying to
An unwillingness to fund 'feminist' 'feminise' a traditional working culture in
endeavours means that many projects and her article on the private sector in India.
programmes are not able to affect women's
subordinate position in society. In their
article, Minh Chau Nguyen et al explore Participation or
the experience of the World Bank in taking representation?
up gender issues and discusses its Examining co-operation and partnership
particular approach. between the regions of the world cannot be
Southern women taking part in Oxfam's done without also assessing who it is who
WLP stressed that if Northern agencies talk represents those regions. Critically, Gert
of empowering women, they must Ranjo-Libang asks which women are
acknowledge the obstacles, inside as well actually brought together in linking
as outside the household, which hamper initiatives. Co-operation and linking are
Southern women from benefiting from arguably needed between all constituencies
development initiatives. If the North concerned in promoting the empowerment
accepts Southern women's ownanalysis of of women: yet, in reality, the gender and
what is needed for development, it will no development establishment in both North
longer view so-called 'radical issues' as and South is staffed by middle- and upper-
outside its remit. North-South co-operation class women, whose concern is invariably
among women on can strengthen women poor women. Posts in multilateral and
in each society to challenge opposition bilateral funding agencies, and the majority
from their own men. Work with radical of national and international NGOs, are
issues will be discussed in the next issue, necessarily filled by women who can
which will focus on culture. understand at least one European language.
Sara Longwe sees NGOs like Oxfam as Places at international meetings and
potentially avoiding the pitfall of de- linking initiatives are likely to be taken by
politicising gender, since they have made a these 'gatekeepers'. Their wide experience
choice of their own volition to work gives them awareness of the linkages
towards gender equity. However, ratifying between community, regional, national,
and implementing a policy which and international experience, and the
questions the most basic assumptions on majority are genuinely committed to
which our societies are built is still difficult representing their grassroots constit-
and challenging. Oxfam's organisational uencies. However, as we have learnt from
Gender Policy has existed on paper for two the experience of representative democracy
years and, as the article on the Women's in many of our countries, representation by
Linking Project recounts, the WLP someone who has a different experience
Conference was an unique opportunity to from our own is no substitute for partici-
canvass staff opinion on how far we fall patory democracy, where we voice our
short of meeting our ideal. At the own thoughts unimpeded. Ranjo-Libang
Conference, Oxfam field staff working on points out that much work needs to be
gender voiced concerns that they are done to develop ways in which grassroots
isolated, overworked, and feel under- women can represent themselves.
valued for working on a 'soft option'.
Oxfam's gender policy means a commit-
ment to achieving gender equity within its
Editorial

Co-operation through Notes


direct action 1 The terms 'North', 'South', and 'East' are
Direct action in civil society complements used throughout this issue of Focus on
participation in parliaments or plenaries. Gender as a shorthand expression of an
economically and politically unequal
Currently, many fledgling democracies are relationship. 'North' represents the
experiencing crises. Brought into being in economic masters of the global economy.
the past five years through political While these have been known variously,
pressure from the unlikely alliance of in different circumstances and times, as
Southern activists and multilateral funding 'First World', 'North', and 'West', the
agencies, new governments find globalisation of industrial production
themselves unable to live up to the expec- means that other countries outside this
tations of their electorate. Their hands are geographical catchment area now have
tied by the need to service foreign debt, valid claims to be considered part of this
and in many cases to obey the prescriptive group.
conditions of Structural Adjustment Characterised as part of the 'South', are
Policies (SAPs). those countries which share economic
disadvantage within the world system.
As disenchantment sets in among the These have, in general, a lack of industrial
electorate in such countries, Devaki Jain infrastructure, are likely to have a history of
calls upon women to exercise solidarity annexation by colonial powers, and are
beyond the national context to address the usually net exporters of raw materials and
root causes of Southern poverty. In net importers of products. The populations
particular, Jain asks Northern women to of these predominantly Southern-
use their votes to bring about a recognition hemisphere countries suffer relatively
of the need for the North to change its worse poverty, as compared to the poor in
policies and relieve the unequal burden the countries of the North. Finally, 'East'
upon poor Southern and Eastern countries. depicts the former Communist states, who
are currently undergoing radical political
Political power goes hand in hand with and economic upheaval as, like the South,
spending power. Devaki Jain states that, they are incorporated into the market
allied to the need to use the power of the economy.
vote, is the need for people in the North to 2 The Haslemere Declaration was drawn up
exercise their economic power as and published by the Haslemere Group:
consumers, to promote fair trade. At an informal group of people, which
present, the North is literally consuming included Oxfam staff and supporters. It
the South and East, through political and took a radical approach to the causes of
economic systems such as NAFTA (North underdevelopment.
American Free Trade Agreement) and
GATT (Global Agreement on Trade and References
Tariffs), which further tip the balance in
favour of the North. Rachel Wilshaw Haslemere Declaration Group (1968) The
explores Oxfam's Bridge programme Haslemere Declaration: A Radical Analysis of
which produces fairly-traded food and the Rleationships between the Rich World and
crafts, and assesses how far this goes the Poor World; London, HDG and Third
towards empowering its producer partners World First.
who are mostly women to take Mies, M (1986) Patriarchy and Accumulation
control of their own destinies. on a World Scale: Women in the International
Division of Labour, London: Zed Books.
Reardon, G (forthcoming) Power and
Process, Oxford: Oxfam.
Women and Poverty: making the Global Links

The globalisation
of the economy
an international gender perspective
Wendy Harcourt

T
he current global economic crisis is economic interdependence among market
characterised by growing poverty economies in developed countries, but this
worldwide, great and growing has happened at the expense of an
inequality of income, rising unemp- economic crisis in countries which have not
loyment, debt and negative growth in benefited from such uneven growth. This
many countries, and worsening urban and has had a particularly acute impact on poor
rural pollution and environmental women, who are marginalised in the world
degradation. Linked to these factors are economy. Although it is important to
increasing food prices, declining standards remember that different women's
of health and education due to reduced experiences are 'the outcome of different
spending on services, and social and sets of interactions among patriarchal,
cultural dislocation (Kaldor 1986). class, racial, ethical, and spatial relations'
Since the 1980s, global deregulation (Pearson 1986, 93), gender is a critical
allowing the private sector to expand determinant in the degree and manner in
without restriction has been the which economic and other forces affect
dominant principle in the restructuring of different groups.1
the industrialised nations. The restruc- The effects of deregulation are
turing and globalisation of the financial particularly acute in countries of the East
system, the transnationalisation of and South. In general, while Central and
production and the spread of neo-liberal Eastern European countries are struggling
ideas are reflected in the growth of with the impact of a radical economic and
economic strategies such as high-tech political transition, the less-developed
industry, transnational, off-shore, and countries of the South are burdened by.
home-based production, 'flexible' prod- debt, depletion in resources caused by
uction, and a rapid growth in the service poverty, inequality and environmental
sector (Marchand 1994,64). problems, and 'aid fatigue' after 40 years of
This article argues that 'free trade', 'development' initiatives.
which guarantees the free movement of The current trends which are
goods and capital, may have allowed for restructuring industry and employment
an acceleration of economic growth and towards service sectors, casual, and part-

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


The globalisation of the economy 7

time and out work, might appear to be analysis to their work assert that women's
beneficial to women. But this article will greater exploitation in the global capitalist
argue that because traditional economics system, and their higher labour burden in
ignore the importance of women's work in the home, are due to their lack of power.
the home, community, and informal Women typically lack access to institutions
sectors, economic development policies are which decide economic policy, produce
rarely structured to encompass women's economic statistics, and promote techno-
socio-economic reality and are more logical innovation. Finally, women's role in
usually exploitative than beneficial. reproduction (bearing and caring for
Finally, in addition to discussing how children, and caring for other family
the larger processes of the global economy members) limits their formal employment
have in general affected women in each possibilities, and this reproductive work is
region in terms of securing resources, absent from economic statistics. Feminist
income, and employment, as well as on the economists (Picchio 1994, Elson 1993,
sexual division of labour, this paper Folbre 1993, Tickner 1992) propose a
acknowledges the 'great endurance, gender-aware economic analysis where
courage and resourcefulness of women, women's reproductive activities are
especially poor women...as qualities which recognised as being as important as
have enabled them to cope with the production, since they, too, form a
harshness of their lives and to survive with contribution to the economy.
dignity' (Bunch and Camillo 1990, 77). Feminists argue that the assumption of
Currently, women as individuals and neo-liberal economists, that 'man' is
groups are analysing their situation and competitive and individualist, could not be
actively seeking to change it. Women's made if women's experiences of work were
organisations from the different regions are taken into account. Placing reproduction
increasingly joining together to form on a par with production means revaluing
international women's networks,2 to pool child-bearing and care-giving roles. This
their particular regional experience of the would redefine economic goals towards an
global economic system. Ultimately, by ethic of care and responsibility, and away
making these links they aim to change the from the excessive focus on the ever-
system and empower themselves and other expanding production of commodities.
women. This view is beginning to have an impact
on development policy.3
The awareness by development
Feminist approaches to institutions that 'women's work is not
economics infinitely elastic', and that there is a
Men have been the dominant group which breaking point where women cannot
has determined the shape and direction of continue to sustain the development
society's techno-economic order (Mitter process through their reproductive work,
1993, 103). Traditional economic analysis 'acknowledges the fact that the relationship
ignores reproductive roles, while economic between production and reproduction is
policy defines the majority of women not not only a women's problem but the
as major contributors to the economy but fundamental problem of the system...in the
as disposable cheap labour, offering North as well as in the South' (Picchio,
different (less remunerable) skills from 1994,8).
men, and adaptable to part-time, casual, Picchio argues that the role of carer
and temporary work. which women take on in most societies
Economists who incorporate a gender cannot mechanically adjust to the global
8 Focus on Gender

restructuring and subsequent changes education, employment, political decision


occurring in regional and national making, welfare entitlements and from
production markets. She warns that the technological innovation, but there has
persistent marginalisation of gender issues been little institutional change. As one case
by economic theory has to be addressed study puts it, 'the dismantling of the
not by adding in a gender variable or patriarchal regime after 25 years of the new
recognising women as social agents, but by women's movement has not exactly proved
changing the whole analytical framework remarkably successful' (WIDE, 1994a:l).
used by economists. She argues that this Successful career women have passed on
framework 'is incapable of recognising their traditional responsibilities of child-
structural relationships and social conflictscare to women of low social status,
and ...systematically hides the costs of including migrant women. This, together
social production of male and female with the falling birth-rate in Western
labour' (Picchio, 1994,16). Europe, shows how women in the region
have adjusted their reproductive roles of
It is critical to emphasise that the region
in which a woman lives is just one of the child-bearer and carer to accommodate
many variables which will determine her productive roles. The need of these women
experience. For example, poor Algerian to employ alternative carers exhibits the
women in France may share working failure of employers and the public sector
conditions with women in the South, to acknowledge women's social
whereas the ability to pay another woman reproductive role. The current trends are
to perform child-care duties is not confined exacerbating discrimination based on class,
to women in the West but is shared by ethnic, and cultural difference.
upper- and middle-class women all over the The newly formed single market of the
world. Thus, the geographical headings European Union, which represents an
used below should be treated as imperfect attempt to maintain European economic
guides to the social and political complex- predominance in the increasingly
competitive world market, has had a
ities of the global system of labour relations
in the different regions (Jacquette, 1990). particular economic impact on women: the
results of this are still being played out.
As various member countries of the
Western Europe European Union compete to offer a
Western Europe is currently experiencing workforce attuned to low wages and
crises of state bankruptcy and welfare 'flexible' conditions of employment,
deficits as public provision in the West has women working in low-status sectors of
become more unreliable and the global scale production and service provision are left
of capitalism has become more complex. vulnerable and less able to organise in
The years of post-Second World War order to safeguard pay levels, conditions of
expansion, marked by a strong role for the work, and benefits such as maternity leave.
state both in directing the economy and in Britain is the principle example of this
welfare provision, were a period of relative strategy. Other countries pursue a strategy
affluence. This metamorphosed into a based on increasing productivity through
consumer culture in which the free market new technology.
was the major organising force, but these Low or semi-skilled manufacturing is
years now appear to be finished (European increasingly being carried out on the
Journal of Women's Studies, 1994: 7). periphery of Western Europe in countries
Women in Western Europe women have such as Greece, Spain, and the Republic of
benefited from a greater access to Ireland, by transnationals which hire
The globalisation of the economy 9

women under poor conditions.4 Many of market ideologies and seeks to construct a
these firms are marketing ventures that new feminist agenda (Harcourt, 1994,5).
coordinate subcontracted production
activities of family and sweatshop-based
activities (Ward and Pyle 1992, 7). Piece East and Central Europe
work with little or no protection is One crucial occurrence, which may lead to
increasingly carried out by women in the the creation of a new feminist agenda for
textile industries (WIDE, 1994b). Migrant Europe as a whole, was the fall of the
women are particularly likely to be Berlin Wall in 1989, which ended the
employed in this type of work. division between Eastern and Western
The use of tele-terminals means that an Europe (.European Journal of Women's Studies
increasing array of creative and 1994,7).
administrative work can be done from the The opening-up of Eastern and Central
home (WIDE, 1994b). The impact of these Europe to economic liberalism has been a
new 'high-tech' methods of production, mixed blessing to women of those
rendering workers isolated and 'invisible', countries. Women are coping with the
threatens further to reduce women's major social transformation of a regime
opportunities unless it is accompanied by where masculine and feminine identities
training, and unless pay is tied to were blurred in the goal of anonymous
recognition of the skill needed to operate service to the collectivity of the state
sophisticated high-tech equipment. (Miroiu, 1994, in the context of Romania).
While women of all classes continue to This disguised the reality that women were
juggle domestic and child-caring tasks with performing a tripleburden as workers,
paid work, men are still considered the wives, and mothers as they struggled for
primary wage-earners for the family. survival in harsh conditions.
Women are therefore seen as needing to In post-totalitarian society, women are
earn only a supplementary wage, and this still faced with the economics of scarcity,
justifies employing them on a part-time and may find it harder than men to adjust
basis for lower wages. The current to the new sense of individuality as they
recession, high rates of unemployment, retire in greater numbers from positions of
and massive cutbacks in welfare provision political authority (ibid: 110). The
accompanying the globalisation of the withdrawal of the state has often left
economy, have led to many poor women women without a political voice, and little
moving from full-time to part-time opportunity to organise in order to
employment, and family livelihoods safeguard their jobs and their rights to
increasingly depend on women's earnings primary health care, maternity leave, and
(CHANGE etal., 1994). child care. Women, as the primary home-
Despite the apparently sophisticated makers, are the ones who are having to
women's movement in Western Europe, adjust to the abrupt end to state provision
there is little sign that economic policy- of child care.
makers are being pressurised into taking The benefits accompanying Western
into account the profound differences lifestyles and consumer markets have to be
between women's and men's lives. balanced against factors including rising
However, networks such as Women in female unemployment, after a very high
Development Europe (WIDE) are working former level of female participation in the
on the development of an alternative paid workforce; in Russia last year, 70 per
analysis of current economic and political cent of the registered unemployed were
policy, which confronts the neo-liberal women (Weir 1993 quoted in Klasen, 1994).
10 Focus on Gender

The gender wage differential (once with women from minority groups being
relatively small) is rapidly increasing. Rising
the most likely victims. As the economic
awareness of economic insecurity in the situation of families and communities
region has been linked with increasing decline, and social services disappear,
conflicts within and between communities, women carry more and more of the burden
escalating violence, resurgent racism, forcedof family survival. In this climate even
migration, the growth of fundamentalism, professional middle-class women find
and increasing environmental degradation. themselves in a hostile competitive work
environment, and suffer social and
economic deterioration of services and
North America quality of life.
Despite the United States' status as the Alt-WID's analysis argues that the
world's largest economy, the economic economic restructuring of the Reagan era
restructuring prompted by what some was built upon the same package of
have called 'Reaganomics' (Alt-WID, 1992) laissez-faire economic policies that the
has caused severe economic and social World Bank and IMF are currently
dislocation in the US. imposing upon the South and the East.
Alt-WID's analysis argues that since the Under these Structural Adjustment Policies
Reagan era the US has experienced (SAPs), poor women carry the burden of
increasing homelessness, depression of ensuring their own and their families'
wages, declining social spending, and a survival (ibid: 26). Alt-WID, and other
widening disparity between rich and poor, women's groups and networks, are
(ibid: 3) This has been brought about by fighting back by lobbying the current US
increased reliance on export production to administration to address the needs of poor
produce foreign exchange to finance debts, women. They assert that these needs must
accompanied by destruction of the not only be met on a practical, small scale;
environment, deterioration of infrastruc- the structural causes of the continuing and
tures, increased reliance on the informal deepening poverty of women in the US
sector and 'black market' by the poor, and and worldwide should also be examined
increased illiteracy, disease, and violence. and challenged.
Poor women and children bear a dispro-
portionate burden of the costs of this
restructuring, particularly poor African-
The South
American women and Latinas in urban Alt-WID's study on 'Reaganomics' was
centres, and poor white women in isolated inspired by DAWN's path-breaking 1987
rural areas. analysis of the conditions of gender, race,
Even though more women have entered colonial, and class subordination, and the
the US labour force over this period, this nature of the development process itself, for
has not improved their economic or social poor Southern women (Sen and Grown,
status, because the sectors in which they 1987,29). Here, DAWN presented one of the
predominantly work are low paid, with most challenging critiques of the develop-
irregular hours and few or no benefits. The ment process starting from the perspective
decline in employment, real income, and of poor Southern women's lives. Their study
benefits among the poor and ethnic is deeply critical of traditional development
minorities has been accompanied by a models, and argues that women's socio-
decline in social services, affordable economic status has considerably worsened
housing, and health care. These factors due to four decades of international
have been linked to an increase in violence, development and that structural adjustment
The globalisation of the economy 11

policies have a devastating effect on the The removal or drastic reduction of food
poor, particularly women. subsidies increase women's work to
The 1980s saw a reversal of financial provide alternative home-grown food for
flows from South to North in a deepening the family, yet women's time is needed for
debt crisis for Southern countries. the production of cash crops for export.
Increasing national debt, and the inability Women's input into the cultivation of cash
to reschedule debt or obtain access to other crops may be undervalued and
forms of finance, forced Southern countries unrecognised, since these crops tend to be
to turn to International Monetary Fund seen as men's responsibility, and it is men
(IMF) and World Bank Structural who will collect the income.
Adjustment Programmes (SAPs). The key Women's ability to participate in
principles of these packages are 'informal' income generation is
liberalisation and deregulation of the circumscribed by the new demands on their
economy, aiming to address economic time. Women's informal activities are
problems such as balance of payment already likely to be characterised by
deficits and inflation. Measures include requiring little capital outlay (Heyzer 1981,
relaxing financial regulation, reducing state Foreword), and thus assertions that SAPs
involvement in the economy, reducing have actually benefited women by
public spending, devaluing national encouraging them to work profitably within
currency, and removing price controls and the informal sector must be treated with
subsidies. caution. The reality is that women who have
Adjustment measures were designed benefited through private enterprise are
with little consideration of their human likely to have class or other advantages
impact; there have been later attempts to which mean that they have more assets and
cushion the effect of the measures on the resources at their disposal. The only formal
poor, but these are only partially effective sector option open to many Southern
at best (Lennock, 1994, in the context of women is employment by transnationals,
Zimbabwe) and lack an analysis of often in Export Processing Zones (EPZs),
women's specific needs and concerns. As a which share the characteristics of flexible,
result they have reversed the progress in unregulated employment cited in relation to
health, nutrition, education, employment, Western Europe.
and incomes which women in developing
countries had made in the previous
decades. The globalisation of the
Women are most vulnerable to losing economy
their jobs in the formal sector as these are Although to very different degrees
characteristically low in status and depending on their geography, class,
insecure. Cuts in state service provision, ethnic and social status, women
notably in health and education, have not throughout the world were adversely
only affected women as workers in these affected by the globalisation of the
areas. As individuals, they are unable to economy during the 1980s. Poor women's
use health services if user-fees are experience, more than ever, cross-cuts
introduced. Women are also obliged to national and regional boundaries. It is
provide substitute health-care for their characterised by the promotion of the
families, in their capacity as primary carers. private sector including transnational
Cuts in educational services fall most corporations, and a resultant international-
heavily on girls, and adult literacy classes isation of the processes of production.
for women. Countries around the world have
12 Focus on Gender

competed to attract international industry, sustainable development (ibid: 18).


and in many cases waiving of labour laws DAWN's analysis is now widely
has been offered as part of an incentive informing the women in development
package. This has been linked 'flexible' (WID) discourse5 and has spearheaded
employment conditions, including part- much of the international women's
time and seasonal work, low wages, and movement's contributions to the major UN
skilled work being perceived as unskilled. Conferences since 1987. Women's networks
As users of services, women are affected have synthesised issues such as human
by the lessening of state provision of basic rights, the environment, and labour, to
'reproductive' services including child produce analyses which address the
care, health care and education, meaning concepts of basic needs, identity, culture,
that women must make up the short fall. and social responsibility. These analyses
The rise in rural and urban unemployment, provide 'a deep knowledge of the economy
the freeze in real wages and high rates of of life which could provide a rich source
inflation forces poor women to spend more for social change'(Picchio 1994,18).
and more time on just ensuring family Networking has become a major
daily survival (Eurodad/WIDE, 1994; Sen strategy in women's efforts to enter local,
and Grown, 1987; Alt-WID, 1992; Picchio, regional, and global decision-making
1994; Elson, 1993). which would enable them to resolve the
However, women prove remarkably conflicts between their productive and
resilient in the face of these difficulties, reproductive roles. Women's networks
striving to find solutions on the local, bring together the experiences of women in
national and international level. Following international institutions, non-govern-
DAWN's 1987 analysis, the question is not mental organisations, grassroots groups,
whether women should be part of the and academia, and provide a forum for
formal economy or participate in devel- sharing and confronting different practices
opment (they are already there) but how and working out conflicts deriving from
they can be empowered to participate different class, national and ethnic
equally, and in doing so transform the positions (Picchio 1994,17).
nature of the state and market. DAWN The modern development of technology
argues that we need to 'go beyond a offers the possibilities for women to
discussion of empowerment as good for communicate more directly through
women to the discussion of empowerment networking both within and across
as critical for building accountability into countries. Computer-aided data bases and
the functioning of the public realm...and E-mail are increasingly being used by
thereby the possibilities of its transfor- women's groups, even in poor countries;
mation along with the transformation of and desk-top publishing helps women to
gender relations' (DAWN 1993,13). produce relevant literature at low cost and
DAWN points out that women's work with increasing professionalism (Mitter,
as workers and as managers of human 1994,109).
welfare is central to the functioning of The alliance of three international
households, communities, and nations. women's networks Network Women in
DAWN argues that it is 'only by Development Europe (WIDE) based in
reinforcing and building upon [women's] West Europe, Alternative Women in
efforts in such vital sectors as food Development (Alt-WID) based in North
production, commerce and trade' as part of America, and Development Alternatives
a 'process of empowerment' that we can with Women for a New Era (DAWN),
establish policies for equitable and just situated in the South are examples of
The globalisation of the economy 13

such international networking. They have Eurodad/WIDE (1994) 'Women and


come together to formulate alternative Structural Adjustment', mimeo, Brussels:
WIDE.
analysis of economics from a gender
European journal of Women's Studies 1(1): 5-9.
perspective which would ensure that Folbre, N (1993) Who Pays for the Kids? New
economic policy recognises the importance York, London: Routledge.
of quality-of-life issues alongside the goalsHarcourt, W (ed.) (1994) Feminist Perspectives
of economic efficiency and growth, on Sustainable Development, London: Zed
including the value of women's social Books.
Heyzer, C (1981) Women, Subsistence and the
reproductive work. These networks have Informal Sector: Towards a Framework of
taken up a political agenda which aims to Analysis', IDS Discussion Paper 163,
build societies based on greater social and University of Sussex.
economic justice, equality, and Jacquette, J S (1990) 'Gender and justice in
participatory democracy by starting from economic development' in Tinker (ed.).
Kaldor, M (1986) 'The global political
the position of poor women in all three economy', Alternatives, 9(4): 431-460.
regions. Kessler-Harris, A (1988) 'The just price, the
Policies envisaged by women's groups free market and the value of women',
working in international development link Feminist Studies, 14(2): 235-250.
economics with social needs, suggesting a Klasen, S (1994) Gender Inequality and
Development Strategies: Lessons from the Past
redistribution of wealth, and equitable and Policy Issues for the Future, ILO, 1994.
access to resources, which would end Lennock, J (1994) Paying for Health: Poverty
poverty. This work forms part of women's and Structural Adjustment in Zimbabwe,
local, national, regional, and global (Oxfam Insight Series) Oxford: Oxfam.
Liberty and Southall Black Sisters, CHANGE
resistance to the inherent gender bias in
(1994) Women's Rights, Human Rights,
traditional economic theories. At a time London: NCCL.
when existing political and economic Marchand, M H (1994) 'Gender and new
institutions seem increasingly incapable of regionalism in Latin America: inclusion
solving the global crisis, such perspectives and exclusion', Third World Quarterly,
15(1): 63-76.
offer a strong hope that 'we can build a
Miroiu, M (1994) 'From pseudo-power to lack
more secure world where inequalities of power: a report from Romania', The
based on gender and other forms of European journal of Women's Studies, 1(1):
discrimination are eliminated' (Tickner 107-110.
1990,96). Mitter, S (1994) 'What women demand of
technology', New Left Review, 205
(May/June): 100-110.
References Pearson, R (1986) 'Female workers in the First
and Third Worlds: the greening of
Alt-WID (1992) 'Reaganomics and Women: women's labour' in Purcell, K, Wood, S
Structural Adjustment US Style 1980- and Allen, S (eds.) (1986) The Changing
1992', mimeo, Washington: Alt-WID. Experience of Employment: Restructuring and
Bunch, C and Camillo, R (1990) 'Feminist Recession, London: Macmillan in
Perspectives on Women in Development', association with the British Sociological
in Tinker (ed.), Persistent Inequalities, Association.
Oxford: OUP. Picchio, A (1992) Social Reproduction: the
DAWN (1993) 'Alternative Economic Political Economy of the Labour Market,
Frameworks Outline', unpublished Cambridge: CUP.
paper prepared for DAWN's project on Picchio, A (1994) 'Human Sustainable
alternative economic frameworks. Development: Economic Theories,
Elson, D (1993) Structural Adjustment with Responsibilities and Hopes', paper
Gender Awareness: Vulnerable Groups, presented to United Nations General
Gender-based Distortions, Gender Analysis Assembly World Hearings on
and Development Economics Working Paper Development, New York, 6-10 June, (to be
No. 2, University of Manchester. published in Developmen: journal of SID).
14 Focus on Gender

Robinson, G, Heaton, N, and Davies, C (1994) on gender. In the proposed outline, the
'Ignored and apparently invisible: women Human Development Report states: 'the
at work in Northern Ireland', European special focus on the 1995 HDR will be on
Journal of Women's Studies, 1(1): 43-60. the gender dimension of human devel-
Sen, G and Grown, C (1987) Development opment. It will analyse the present reality
Crises and Alternative Visions: Third World of exclusion of women in social, economic
Women's Perspectives, New York: Monthly
and political life ... the 1995 HDR will be
Review Press.
prepared by drawing on intellectual
Stretenova, N.M. (1994), 'A Sleeping Beauty is
Awakening: The Revival of the Feminist resources from all over the world,
Movement in Bulgaria, The European particularly in policy think-tanks and in
Journal of Women's Studies, 1(1): 111-113. grass-roots movements' (HDR Draft
Tickner, J A (1992) Gender in International Outline:1994).
Relations, New York: Colombia University 4 One recent study of women at work in
Press. Northern Ireland (Robinson et al, 1994)
United Nations Development Report Office explores the patterns of women's paid
(1994), Outline of 1995 HDR, private employment. Having corrected the
circulation, 3 May 1994.
gender bias of the statistics they found that
Ward, K and Pyle, J L (1992) 'Gender,
industrialisation, and development: an in total 62 per cent of women in Northern
overview of trends and patterns', (to be Ireland are economically active, with four
published in Development: Journal of SID). out of five women working in the service
WIDE (1994a), Germany National Report on sector and the other 16.8 per cent in
'The Patriarchal Egalitarian Society: A manufac-turing. In the textile industry in
Survey of the Situation of the Women's Germany the efficiency of the textile
Movement in Germany Today', prepared industry is 'based on a clearly focused,
for WIDE's study on alternative economic short term exploitation of women's labour'
frameworks. (WIDE, 1994b: 2) a strategy which allows
WIDE (1994b), Germany National Report on for easy relocation of production to low-
'Economy, Ecology and Development wage countries (as it has done so in 50 per
The Example of the Textile Industry',
cent of the industry in the 1990s). In
prepared for WIDE's study on alternative
economic frameworks. Greece state-sponsored transnational
garment manufac-turing has employed
largely women and structured production
Notes to take place in both the family and at
home under piece rate system, (ibid)
1 There is a vigorous argument within
different sectors of the women's move- 5 Women in development or WID is a term
ment, both in political activist and now being replaced by gender and
academic circles, about the validity of development or women and environment
universality or heterogeneity of gender. and alternatives to development (WED)
Mitter (1994) argues: 'as our identities get within progressive women's groups
defined and redefined in terms of working in international relations.
ethnicity, religion and class, gender does However, we would argue that DAWN
not always seem the primary factor for does have an influence also on mainstream
forming an alliance or for determining WID discourse which itself is aware of the
vulnerability in the field of paid work' need to integrate gender analysis fully in
(Mitter 1994,101). development policy (Harcourt, 1994: 6;
Bunch and Camillo, 1990: 76). Peggy
2 For example, Development Alternative with Antrobus, General Coordinator of DAWN,
Women for a New Era, (DAWN), Women is leading some of the work of the UNDP
in Development Europe (WIDE), and Report on Gender and Noeleen Heyzer,
Alternative Women in Development (Alt- Steering Group member of DAWN, has
WID). just been appointed Director of UNIFEM
3 For example, the influential United Nations (United Nations International Fund for
Human Development Report for 1995 will be Women).
15

Building alliances
a Southern perspective
Devaki Jain

official channels, nor from the conventional

N
orth-South relations could not be
worse than they are today. One images of the South of hunger, disease, dirt
can in fact take a step back and and lethargy. In contrast, Southern civil
ask, is there a South? We could also ask, is society provided ideas on how to produce
there an East? If there is no longer a South, and consume in less wasteful ways; in
there is no need or scope to talk about addition to ideas on credit and marketing,
North/South relations. It pains me to say the formation of trade unions and self-
this, and to suggest that in spite of all the governance, the South gave an example of
dedication and efforts of Southern and graceful social relations, community spirit,
Northern activists in sharing work, thought and living with joy and laughter. These
and platforms, the North is effacing the and a million other ideas came from the
South and the East. In doing so, it is South, to enliven ideas of development not
actually effacing itself, as it cannot sustain only in the South but in the North also.
its engines of growth and its environmental In a sense, 'we' were the teachers and
and political security and creativity 'you' were the taught. We talk now of aid
without its identifiable and different fatigue and development fatigue. But there
partners, the South and the East. These two was also growth fatigue and prosperity
regions represent important differences in fatigue and these were countered by a
the history of social and political evolution. breath of fresh air from us. Women,
They can be broken by the North, but not minorities, non-white peoples, and the
digested. So, for its own self-preservation, poor of the North were able to find
the North must step back and reflect on its inspiration, a sense of identity, and an
activities. agenda for action out of knowledge coming
It is my reading of the situation that in from the South. Links, threads and
the last three decades the North has learnt eventually ropes began to be formed
a great deal from civil society in the South. joint thought, and joint action, even though
While development aid would have been it was always an uneasy partnership, as are
conventionally routed through government all unequal partnerships, whether they are
channels perhaps on large-scale projects between men and women, employees and
these aid channels received their real workers, or rich and poor.
inputs in terms of learning from civil Once, I had the idealism to suggest that
society: intellectuals, writers, and activists. we of the South could be partners with the
Northern respect for us in the South East: we could facilitate the reconstruction
came from these sources not from of the East, after the breakdown of

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


16 Focus on Gender

socialism, as we knew the effect of the by only three heads of state, if one excludes
withdrawal of a controlling power, due to the host, India. One came for the opening
our experience of the end of colonialism. only, and another for the closing only so
We had knowledge of the challenges of that there were only two who gave the
scarcity, treading the middle path between summit their full attention. If that is any
socialism and its opposite pole, capitalism. indication of the commitment to work
We had experience of co-operatives and together, the signal is that all is not well.
forming unions of the self-employed, small The reason behind this difficulty
businesses, and thrift societies. We, too, experienced by the G-15 in taking off is
had pluralistic societies with young common knowledge. The governments of
democracies, and political parties which the developing countries of the South are
were based on considerations including nervous that any affirmative action from
race, caste, and language. We felt we could their side might alienate their Northern
share with the East our ability to 'muddle benefactors. This ambivalence is allied to a
through' without being bought out. desire to keep lines open to the North, in
Somehow, in spite of the cloud of order to continue to receive financial
Northern domination, the former colonies support, as well as lines open to the South
had even set up NAM (Non-Aligned to gain moral support. These motivations
Movement), and G-77 (Group 77, a were very clear when the report of the
configuration of developing countries that South Commission was being developed.
vote together in economic matters discussed But today this nervousness is worse and
by the United Nations), and formed an their own lines of 'solidarity' appear to be
affirmative 'South' consisting of NGOs, broken, as exemplified in the aborted
grassroots activists, intellectuals, and Burundi Summit and its recent aftermath,
feminist organisations like DAWN the civil war in Rwanda.
(Development Alternatives for Women in a Other Southern groupings, like G-77,
New Era). We thought that the East, too, and sub-groups like the smaller country
could, like a phoenix, rise from the ashes,1 groupings within Asia, Latin America and
and the South and East could then learn Africa, did not feel that they were
from each other. The East has experience in sufficiently clear about the purpose of G-
promoting workers' rights and full employ- 15. In some quarters it was understood as
ment, the provision of basic amenities, and a an attempt to create harmonious relations
legal basis for equality between the sexes and conduct a forum for dialogue with G-7.
and the classes. In turn, the South has In others, it was viewed as a structure
experience of self-determination and finding affirming solidarity between the Southern
a middle path; there could have been a member countries. Was it, in fact, inclusion
fruitful mutual exchange. or exclusion which was being signalled?
State and legislative structures in the
South are devastated and have lost their
Contemporary pressures on way; even civil society is overwhelmed by
Southern solidarity the commanding heights of the new order.
Today, all that hope is ended. The South is The attempt by some Northern countries to
in disarray. For example, when the G-15 include social clauses into aid and trade
the group of fifteen countries which had regimes is a retrograde move which has
come together for development co- caused not only confusion but a degree of
operation, to counterbalance the powers of debilitation of the NGO movement in the
the G-7 attempted to hold a summit in South. While the Southern NGOs were
New Delhi in March 1994, it was attended formerly fearless and articulate in their
Building alliances 17

critique of violations of human rights, the Building alliances


careless use of the natural resources of the
South, the oppression of women, and so What is currently needed is for Northern
on, within their own countries, they are citizens to resist those policies of the North
well aware that all these evils are as deeply which have a harmful impact on the South.
entrenched in the countries of the North. The need is to resist the North's demands
Everybody knows about the destructive in the Uruguay round, which include
production and trade habits of the North, elements such as the concept of 'intellectual
including the dumping of toxic waste, and property rights', and the unfettered
the inter-racial violence, gender violence, activities of the multi-national industries.
and child abuse, which are some of the Resistance to these proposals should be
evils experienced in Northern countries. expressed by political parties and on
Thus, when conditionalities are appropriate political platforms. Political
introduced into trade and development organisation is much more developed
agreements between the North and South, within Northern state structures and
the first reaction of Southern NGOs is to industry than in the South. This is where
ally themselves with their governments, action has to begin.
protesting against such a move to penetrate The responsibility for ushering in a
the boundaries of national sovereignty. better world rests more heavily on civil
Northern attempts to impose conditionality society in the North, than on the South. It
have weakened the ability of Southern may look stereotypical and old-fashioned
NGOs to reform their own governments for a Southern-based person to place blame
and push them into giving greater and responsibility on the North. But I
attention to the needs of the poor, and the would argue that Southern NGOs and civil
conservation of natural resources.If society have not, on the whole, had a
national sovereignty has to be superseded history of making allegations in self-
by international regulations, then this must defence. They haveactually had greater
start with the North, or start simultan- self-esteem and self-worth than to do this,
eously in both North and South not be and have sought to look within and act,
imposed on the South alone, in the form of rather than to look outside and blame.
conditionality.
My generation has come through many
The latest in such ideas is President visions for a humane and just order. The
Mitterand's proposal of a Social Contract Brandt Commission, the Brundtland
between the North and the South: the Commission, the New Economic Order,
North will reduce, or 'control' its consump- NAM, and the South Commission,2 are
tion: in return, the South will control or only a few of the many groups which
reduce its population. President Mitterand sought to bring this order about. Most of
proposed this 'contract' at a symposium on these initiatives have been marginalised.
development called by UNESCO in Paris in This is as much, in my view, because they
June this year. Whereas reduction of were government initiatives, and did not
consumption and pollution is almost have the power of civil society behind
impossible to monitor, population is easily them, as because of the sweeping changes
measured: an immeasurable aspect of the in the division of power in the world.
North is pitted against a measurable one of It seems to me that the citizen must be
the South. The notion of such a contract brought into the building of transfor-
between unequal partners is not only mational initiatives, if they are to succeed.
unviable, but is a facade for one-way In particular, civil society in the North
control. must define the alternative economy and
18 Focus on Gender

society it wants, resisting pressure from its intellectual forums, including women's
own bureaucracies and political leadership. forums, dread coming under one banner.
If NGOs with an alternative vision can gain We feminists start off by talking of a
broad acceptance for that vision, the South worldwide agenda, but very soon we are
will be able to legitimise its own vision, reminded of the deep regional and
and start to re-build itself. contextual differences which divide us, on
Northern allies must stop their countries issues which are important to us, and on
from bringing social and environmental the strategies that we favour to change
conditionalities to the negotiating tables. things. The old solidarities, around issues
Development co-operation should not of class and colour, which created such
move away from the economic sectors to great groundswells of attention to injustice,
the social sectors, as is happening at the seem to us to be not only simplistic, but
moment. This trend has been a major undemocratic, and indifferent to gender
setback in the history of North-South and cultural differences.
solidarity among NGOs; the North should We then tend to back off, aware that our
examine itself before it takes on such a activities may dominate others, and that
posture of moral superiority. such domination clashes with our ethic of
Development assistance could do more participation and democracy, and our
to spread development thinking, including desire to accommodate every diversity. We
encouragement for new ideas to engage feel that our structures must be loose,
public support for preventing the destruc- informal, and fluid which is antithetical
tion of the world and its resources, and to building an organised plan of action.
promoting equality and justice. We need to Naturally, we end up divided again. We
build alliances on thought, not only action. are so fragmented, and so self-conscious
It is true that there are many forums of about plunging into any commitment, so
self-criticism, and pro-South activities, in the territorial, and most of all, so suspicious of
North. But, in my view, these are not each other.
widespread enough, political enough, or We feminists cannot, in my view,
theoretical enough. For example, at present continue in this way if we have any ethics
the media from the North is exploding in left in us at all for the poor and deprived
the South. We see within these satellite are in a very fragile state indeed, even
television networks quite a few program- more fragile than the earth itself, about
mes which offer a critique of the Northern which we are so anxious. Hence we cannot
way of life, and its bigotry. But not enough. continue to indulge in these hesitations, if
In addition, such forums are not yet per- feminism is to retain its humanity.
ceived as oriented towards the good of the Sophisticated arguments about who is
whole world, but are introverted and focus truly rich, and who poor, in this and that
on the North. We have to compete with the virtue, and about categories of people who
stronger world of commercialisation, and its are worse off and so on, must end. Our
exporting of Northern consumer values, by concern is about living, and not dying.
putting forward our alternative vision of Nothing else matters. This stark reality
true development co-operation. must shock us, as feminists, out of our
hesitation in building alliances. This is the
Women's networks: problem that we must address: that, at
Southern priorities present, we seem incapable of broad-based,
altruistic action.
There are many problems in building Women of the North have to address
solidarity around an alternative vision. All current ideas of economic growth and ask
Building alliances 19

whether they can bring justice in either of the world's resources and harmful
North or South. They have to find ways of agricultural practices, whether in Northern
criticising the situation as citizens and or Southern countries. But forming such
voters in their countries be they Dutch, alliances requires difficult and deep moral
English, German, or French. The vote is the choices. For example, boycotting of goods,
most powerful weapon to use for political because their production endangers the
change, and politics determines the environment, or involves injustice to
activities of economists. producers in poor countries, may require
We women need to foster solidarity on forfeiting certain standards of consumption
several levels. First, we have to do some in an altruistic way. But no human
very serious exercises in what is called endeavour can have sustainable value
'development analysis'. For example, if without the underpinning of virtue. It is
British women would trace the specifics of this human resource, which goes
why the current situation is treating some unmentioned by the development
of them badly if it is the political party establishment and international economic
in power, the particular investment bodies, which is critically needed now.
decision, or the particular type of
technology chosen then we in the South Devaki fain is a development economist and
can compare similarities and differences in feminist based in India. She is the founder of
our experience, and we can start to really DAWN.
talk to each other. In the North and the
South, poor women are experiencing
similar exploitation. We need to analyse Notes
similar trends and show the parallels. If 1 According to legend, the phoenix is a bird
Northern and Southern women which is reincarnated after burning.
understood their similar experience of 2 The South Commission was composed of 26
economic injustice as two friends, we could eminent economists, headed by Julius
really resist it. Nyerere, the former President of Tanzania,
and operated between 1987 and 1990 to
Secondly, there is an important role for develop a report on the South and its
Northern NGOs in educating people in the potential for development. See its book,
North to use their votes in solidarity with Challenge to the South, Oxford University
people of the South. Giving money to Press.
charities in a philanthropic way is not
enough people must use their political
vote. Northern people must take
responsibility for the actions of their
elected leaders, in perpetuating such
exploitation as patenting Southern genetic
resources and then saying to Southern
countries, 'if you want it now, you must
buy the patent'. I cannot think of anything
more unjust.
Thirdly, women must build alliances
around consumer choices. As consumers,
we are responsible for supporting or
boycotting companies which allow
exploitative labour conditions and low
wages, and perpetuate unsustainable use
20

Linking for solidarity

Scotching myths
SEAD's experience in North-South co-operation
Linda Gray

F
irst, a true story: two fact-finders been pursuing in its work for the past two
from UK NGOs were visiting an years, specifically focusing on women living
Indian village. Relaxed after the in poverty. Linking initiatives are one
evening meal, the women of the village effective way of ensuring that different
were happy to satisfy the curiosity of their stakeholders in development come to
foreign guests, and answered many understand each other's experience and
questions about their lives, their hopes, and priorities. SEAD's linking work is not solely,
their frustrations. 'If you could wish for or even primarily, concerned with issues of
one thing to improve the quality of your development in the South, but seeks to
lives, what would that be?' asked one promote knowledge of the similarities and
representative of the Northern NGO. The differences between poor people's lives in
hilarity this question provoked suggested North and South.
that her hosts were not weighing up the SEAD's priorities and agenda are
merits of better education versus improved developed in the course of a constant
health care. One women translated their process of consultation with people, not
reply: 'we would like our husbands to be just women, living in poverty or
twenty years younger so they were better addressing development issues in Scotland
in bed!' This story illustrates more than the itself. As a nation, Scotland is on the
unexpected humour which exists in margins of Europe, and within the United
situations where outsiders may expect to Kingdom itself the Scottish people are
find only solemnity in the face of poverty. geographically, politically, and econom-
It exhibits the gulf of communication ically peripheral. Within Scottish society,
which often exists between the powerless, the rural and urban poor are likewise
and those who would make decisions on marginalised. It is this experience of
their behalf. exclusion of nations and of people upon
The problem of fostering mutual which SEAD bases its analysis of
understanding between individuals and development both in a Scottish and in an
communities in North and South is uni- international context.
versal; it is a theme which SEAD (Scottish Reactions to SEAD's work among
Education and Action for Development) has disadvantaged groups in Scotland tend to

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


Scotching myths 21

Study Tour participants compare notes at SEAD's conference, 'Shifting the Balance: People, Power, and
Participation'.

follow a pattern. While at first there may be within sectors of Scottish society which
some resistance, even resentment, to any regularly slip through the development
suggestion that poor people in Scotland are education net. Unemployed workers'
themselves part of the 'Third World', this resource centres, members of food co-
soon breaks down. Linking initiatives need operatives, tenants' organisations, and anti-
to encourage Northern people to see the poverty groups are some of the most
human faces and human lives behind the enthusiastic and consistent supporters of
negative images conjured up when most SEAD's activities. For many, the big
people in the North think about the 'Third attraction of SEAD events is the oppor-
World'. By using comparable case studies tunity to meet, learn from, and be inspired
from Scotland and overseas, and by by their counterparts from other cultures
arranging meetings of counterparts, SEAD and countries. The process of learning is
tries to help people to realise that two-way, and fosters the development of
disadvantaged groups the world over links of mutual solidarity between Scottish-
suffer from the same process of negative based groups and their counterparts
labelling, even to the extent of having the overseas.
same tags attached 'lazy', 'ignorant', While people in Scotland are attracted to
'dependent'. SEAD's work because it is relevant to their
By taking as a starting point the lives, the approach has also been welcomed
experience of people living in poverty in by SEAD's contacts in the southern
Scotland, SEAD has been able to raise hemisphere, who are growing increasingly
levels of awareness of development issues tired of Northern 'experts' giving advice on
22 Focus on Gender

everything from sustainable forestry to of exchange. The tour concluded with a


women's education, when they have no major conference in Edinburgh, 'Shifting
comparative analysis of the same issues in the Balance: People, Power and Partici-
their own societies. pation', focusing on the practical skills and
Linking should attempt to draw out the strategies which excluded groups can use
common strands of human experience in to win a greater say in the decisions which
order to generate genuine empathy affect their lives.
between counterparts, rather than arguing While much of SEAD's work takes place
that the problems of North and South, and among poor communities, the 'matching' of
their solutions, are the same. Negative counterparts at different levels is also part of
assumptions of the North about the South the organisation's work. It is critical to bring
are replaced by an understanding of the together people from different sectors, who
amount of common ground which exists. seldom meet but who share a concern to
Once that stage is reached, people in the tackle problems of poverty and injustice
North are ready to accept the idea that the both in Scotland and internationally. For
North can learn from people in the South, example, SEAD held a recent seminar on
who for the most part are facing more housing policy which brought together
critical problems with fewer resources. One activists and academics to examine notions
comment was, 'we complain that we can't of sustainable development from their
tackle our problems because we can't get a different perspectives.
grant from the council. Look what this The process of exchange is about more
woman can do, and she is facing death than raising awareness of the situation of
threats!' others, with its similarities to, and differ-
Building and using alliances was ences from, one's own experience. Linking
identified by conference participants as one in this way should have a practical out-
of several key areas in which community- come for those taking part. Potential
based groups in the North had much to participants should be able to set their own
learn from Southern counterparts. Women agendas for linking initiatives, to deter-
are key community activists in Scotland, as mine their ultimate usefulness whether
they are elsewhere. In September 1993, the demand is for renewed vigour to work
SEAD brought together a number of for change, ideas for action, new contacts
women activists from different countries to or the acquisition of practical skills. For
tour Scotland. The Philippines, Scotland, development workers, such linking is
South Africa, Ireland, Georgia, and crucial if they are to discover what people
Nicaragua were represented on the tour, want from development. As the NGO
and the participants split into two groups worker at the start of this article found out,
reflecting urban and rural experience. asking people what they want is a risky
One of the aims of the tour was to business; it is, however, vital if the real
stimulate exchange in all directions: experts those who face the problems of
South/North, North/South, North/North, under- or inappropriate development day
South/South, and, with the inclusion of a after day are to have a voice in
participant from Georgia, East/North/ determining their own future.
South. The tour gave rise to long-term links
between participants themselves and with Linda Gray is Director of SEAD.
many of those they met in Scotland. In
addition, all SEAD's study tour guests also
joined the SEAD Action for Development
Network in order to continue the process
23

Invisible threads
Oxfam's Bridge programme
Rachel Wilshaw

I
n the mid 1970s, the name 'Bridge' was livelihood to poor producers in the South.
selected for Oxfam's fair trade The Bridge framework enables producers
programme. It sums up very aptly the to sell their products to Northern
bridging link of trade and support between consumers, without losing a percentage to
producers in developing countries, and entrepreneurs on the way. Each different
their customers in the UK and Ireland. stakeholder is aware of the chain of co-
Bridge is a very remarkable partnership, or operation which exists in the Bridge
series of partnerships, between people with programme. As Alan Raymer, who
many roles in different parts of the world. manages Oxfam's warehouse in Bicester,
Fair Trade is concerned with enabling UK, says, 'we in the warehouse feel
small-scale producers to take, and keep, the directly connected to the producers by an
power to determine their own livelihoods. invisible thread, as we are the next people
This power is more often concentrated in to handle goods after they've been packed.'
the hands of traders, leaving the producers Perhaps a spider's web is a better image
open to exploitation. Bridge goods are sold than a bridge for what goes on between
in more than 625 Oxfam shops in the main Oxfam and its trading partners! If so it
streets of British and Irish towns. would have to be a very large web, because
The Bridge programme oversees the the numbers of people involved is another
processes which are involved in a remarkable factor, and in particular, the
continuous chain of relationships between numbers of women. Women constitute by
individuals, from the person who weaves a far the largest proportion of most of the
shawl in a village in Bangladesh to the key groups in this complicated North
person who buys it, in a village in Scotland. South partnership.
These relationships link producers with
group leaders; group leaders with the
exporting organisation; producers with The producers
Bridge field staff; the exporting Women form the vast majority of the
organisation with Bridge's import people living in extreme poverty who are
controllers; Bridge and Oxfam retail staff of dependent on crafts for a living. Of the
all kinds with each other; Oxfam retail staff 15,000 producers in receipt of Bridge
with volunteers; and volunteers with orders in any one year, between 80 and 85
customers. per cent are women. Bridge has a policy of
All these different groups of people prioritising the most vulnerable people in
share a common goal: to ensure a fair its work. Women's lack of decision-making

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


24 Focus on Gender

Bridge

mse,

^m

1. the Producers: Number of people who 4. The Customers: Number of people who
work on Bridge orders in any one year is buy Bridge goods in any one year: is
approx 15-20,000: 80-85% are women 500-800,000: over 80% are women

power and control over resources, In return, Bridge's trading partners can
compared to that of men, means they are expect Bridge to pay a fair price for the
among these vulnerable priority groups. products, to maximise marketing oppor-
Other groups Bridge concentrates on tunities for the goods, in producers' own
include people with disabilities, indig- countries as well as overseas, and to
enous people, and seasonal agricultural provide services, such as design and
workers. For women in these groups, product development, and training and
gender inequity interacts with other dis- skills upgrading.
crimination, to increase their vulnerability.
Bridge expects producer groups to share Case study 1: Aj Quen,
Oxfam's objective of helping disadvan- Guatemala
taged people to improve their situation and
take more control of their lives. Producers Aj Quen is Bridge's main partner in
are required to demonstrate that fair wages Guatemala. The name means 'weaving
are properly accounted for in product together' in Cakchiquel, one of four Mayan
prices, and to pay workers promptly. The languages spoken by the members of the
importers and exporters exercise a lot of association. It was set up in 1989 as a
friendship, not only for financial gain, but combined effort of poor weavers, tailors,
with the aim of improving the living carpenters, basketmakers, potters, and
standards of the producers' (producer from others, for the development of themselves
Machakos Cooperative Union, Kenya). and their community.
Oxfam's decision to work with producer After coffee production, handcrafts are
groups is based on certain criteria. Groups the biggest source of employment in
should demonstrate their commitment to Guatemala. The issue of land reform here
achieving, or working towards, some remains unresolved, and many poor
important objectives: sensitivity to gender people are landless. Escalating conflict
issues, a responsible approach to the affects in particular the 70 per cent of
involvement of children in production, and Guatemalans who are classed as
avoiding the use of bonded labour. Bridge indigenous people. Due to the violence,
stresses that it exists to help struggling or many people live away from their original
newly-established groups, rather than to communities. Handcraft production is one
work with existing groups, who may of the few options open to them.
already meet the criteria. Eighty per cent of the 2,000 producers
Invisible threads 25

with which Aj Quen works are women. (ATOs) in Europe and North America. The
They face many severe problems. At least value of Bridge orders in 1993/94 was
50 per cent are widows, their husbands 30,000. But there is also a special
having been killed in conflict and violent relationship with Bridge because of the
repression. Female-headed households are local office, based in Puebla, Mexico, which
in desperate need of income; it is almost has provided help with design, product
impossible for the children of widows to go development, and financial support, as
to school because of the cost. There is 90 well as training in quality control,
per cent female illiteracy, and most women including the importance of delivery
speak only their local language, which deadlines, and the need for good raw
limits their opportunities for employment. materials and finishing.
In addition, there is no tradition of Actual income generated is still very
community organisation in these artisan low: the average income per producer
communities, and little or no artisan works out at 7 US cents per day . Aj Quen
representation in decision-making bodies. aims to improve this significantly, and will
These women's will to improve the need all the support it can get to achieve
resources at their disposal is strong. Bridge that, but there is no doubt at all that the
producers have been keen to take up the producers have the will, and that the
Spanish classes provided at Aj Quen's five benefits of any increase in trade will reach
literary centres, and this makes communi- the producers themselves.
cation between producer groups possible.
Aj Quen is one of the most democratically
run of all Bridge partner groups. For the
Case study 2: Perfume-
annual general assembly, hundreds of
making in Bangladesh
producers, each representing ten others, Concern, an Irish NGO, is one of Bridge's
make long and difficult journeys by bus trading partners in Bangladesh. It works
and on foot to take part. Women, as with the most vulnerable women, often
primary or sole carers for families, find this refugees from past war and famine who
commitment of time away from their had almost nothing when they first came
families particularly difficult. into contact with Concern. This year,
Poor tailoring skills are holding many Concern carried out an impact assessment
groups back, but training is having a study of the effect on women's earnings of
positive impact on earnings. Many women Bridge orders for incense.
adopt modern production processes, to Mirpur producer group is around seven
increase the output rate and marketability years old. The value of Bridge orders to
of their weavings. On a traditional Mirpur last year was 27,000. The group
waistloom, the maximum daily production members are now self-reliant, purchasing
is 50 centimetres. Aj Quen is introducing the raw materials, mixing perfume scents,
footlooms, which enable a weaver to planning the production process and
produce ten yards in a day. At the same delivering to deadlines, and maintaining
time, the organisation is fostering pride in their own accounts. Even though the
the ancient heritage of the weavers, by formal education of Bridge producers is
commissioning a study into the symbolism often minimal, the confidence to operate
of the patterns, for the producers' own independently develops when appropriate
interest and to help to market the training is given.
weavings. The group feels that, although Bridge
Aj Quen is supported with orders by orders have aided them in developing the
many Alternative Trading Organisations skills of the group, if their operation is to
26 Focus on Gender

become more sustainable, they should not The majority of the women reported
rely completely on Bridge orders. The positive changes in their lives. However,
perfumed products of this group are their increased earnings did not necessarily
intended predominantly for the export increase women's well-being. In some
market; their market in Bangladesh is cases, women's increased contribution to
limited due to the relatively high cost of the family income provoked negative,
the products, and the in-built fair wage often violent, reactions from their
structure which is a feature of Bridge husbands, who saw their wives' higher
producer groups. The producers are now income as a threat. One woman stood up to
independently examining the potential of her husband and refused to surrender her
the local market, considering aspects such savings to him, as she suspected that he
as the effect on price and demand of would divorce her if he acquired her
cheaper raw materials and packaging. savings.
The group has used both its income and Concern has made extra contact with
savings for other income-generating these women's husbands to try to improve
purposes, such as the purchase of livestock their understanding of the benefits of the
and rickshaws. One particular woman took intervention, and improve marital relations.
a loan of 1,000 taka from her group savings As a result of this support and follow-up,
(generated from Bridge orders) and bought one husband stopped his violent behaviour
two goats. She paid back this loan in two to his wife, and became involved in a
months and then she took out a loan of business venture of his own. As these issues
2,500 taka to build a fruit shop for her are being tackled, the women are becoming
husband to manage. This has been very more confident and see the importance of
successful. their daughters, in particular, being
educated and thereby gaining more power
Working towards and control over their lives.
There are 37 producers in the Saidpur
empowerment Shandha group, which produces perfume
A random study of 15 members of the sachets. This group is very new and hence
Demra group, which produces incense still needs a lot of support. They are
sticks on sale in Oxfam shops in the UK currently learning the steps and stages of
and Ireland, looked at the massive increase overall production management. A
in income they had experienced due to significant change occurred in the life of
profits from the Bridge orders. Women had Khodeza, the group leader, as a result of
invested the profits in other income- her involvement with Bridge. Khodeza had
generating activities, to be run by to make the eleven-hour journey from
themselves or by their husbands. Two Saidpur to Dhaka with a bank-draft,
invested in driving lessons and licences so purchasing raw materials and checking
that their husbands could start taxi their quality. She managed to persuade
businesses; this meant that the husbands both her husband and her in-laws of the
could earn over double their previous importance of this. This is a big step for a
income as rickshaw walas. Three other woman who has lived her entire life in a
women extended their homes so as to be small town in northern Bangladesh, caring
able to lease out a room; one used her for her family. Khodeza says: 'previously, I
money to recover her father's and thought that only a man could go to Dhaka
grandfather's land which had been to buy materials and that women weren't
mortgaged. She is now growing crops on capable of doing it. Now I know the value
the land. of work and the responsibility involved.'
Invisible threads 27

Members of the Mirpur producer group in a camp for displaced people.

The staff A high proportion of volunteers are older


women who find they have time to give to
Of the 32 staff in the Bridge department this work. In most shops, a few volunteers
itself, all but seven are women. Half the specialise in ordering and displaying
Bridge staff are based in developing Bridge goods, but almost all volunteers
countries. Then there are the staff in help Bridge to be viable in one way or
Bicester, Oxford and the regions of the UK another, for instance, by selling Bridge
and Ireland who oil the wheels of the trade. goods to customers. For many volunteers,
Here, too, women dominate. In the it is the Bridge goods in the shops which
Operations Department at Bicester, which motivate them to volunteer for Oxfam
includes the warehouse, there are twice as rather than another charity. When
many women as men. There are three volunteers learn more about Bridge, this is
women for every two men among the often the area of Oxfam activity that they
regional retail staff who oversee the find most inspiring.
running of the shops. The high proportion Barbara Brookes has worked as a
of women on the staff is because of the volunteer in the Canterbury branch of
predominance of middle-level office-based Oxfam for over nine years: T was attracted
jobs in this area of Oxfam's work, and the by the idea of helping producers overseas
relatively small number of management to market their wonderful range of crafts.'
and manual jobs. Yinka Sobande, from London, has been
volunteering for three years. When I started
selling the goods it didn't really mean
The volunteers anything, but after a while you begin to
Around 27,000 volunteers work in Oxfam's recognise the names on the products, which
shops of whom 90-95 per cent are women. country they're from, and so on, so you
28 Focus on Gender

begin to feel connected with the people who organisations to promote fairly-traded
have actually made what you're holding, all goods in the 'mainstream' UK market,
those miles away. That's a really good through initiatives such as Cafedirect, the
feeling. Best of all is when someone visits widely-available fairly-traded coffee, and
from a producer group or Bridge office. the Fairtrade Found-ation. As the
Then the reality really comes home to you.' momentum for Fair Trade grows, and more
and more people see it as a way of linking
The customers hands across the North-South divide, the
web of invisible threads linking individuals
The number of customers for Bridge goods around the world extends. Opinion polls
is too great to estimate. We know that some suggest that increasing numbers of people
35,000 regularly buy from one of the see Fair Trade as one of the best ways to
annual mail order catalogues, but these help the Third World.
sales account for only 15 per cent of total An effective way of helping people to
Bridge sales. In all, the number of feel connected to others in other parts of
customers buying Bridge goods in any one the network is the Bridge newsletter, Bridge
year is between 500,000 and 800,000; and of News, which goes to 1,000 producers and
these, at least 80 per cent are women. associates in 38 developing countries, and
Perhaps this statistic has to do with the fact 1,000 staff and volunteers in the UK and
that 90 per cent of the Bridge range consists Ireland, and creates invisible connections
of crafts and textiles, which can be given as of its own, for instance, between producers
gifts or kept to use in the home. Women, in different parts of the world, and
rather than men, tend to buy presents, and between producers and shop volunteers. 'It
have prime responsibility in most cases for gives us a feeling that we are not alone;
the home. Although women are also the that other producer groups have similar
main purchasers of food, we are hoping to problems...'(Tonette Zablan, Community
attract male customers as fairly-traded Crafts Association of the Philippines). As a
foods make more and more headway into volunteer trading secretary for Bridge
the range, and into customers' awareness. comments, 'it gives me a deeper under-
At present, fairly-traded foods available standing and sympathy with the situation
through Oxfam shops and mail-order of the producers which I can relay to shop
include coffee, tea, sugar, Brazil nuts, staff, customers and audiences.'
Chilean wine and condiments from Bridge staff in India used the fiftieth
Swaziland. anniversary of Oxfam as an opportunity to
present a friendship bracelet to all 27,000
Building alliances through volunteers. Mathew Cherian, Bridge
Fair Trac Manager in India, presented the first
bracelet to Vera Rawden in London, who
Effective communication on Bridge's work says: 'We were touched. It's always nice to
is critical if potential customers are to be know your work is appreciated.' Bridge is
made aware of the difference between a true example of the strength of North-
buying fairly-traded products and those South co-operation in action, in support of
which have been manufactured under what poor people who face systemic disadvan-
may well be exploitative conditions. Bridge tage in the world trade system, but who are
is a member of the European Fair Trade working to overcome this through their
Association (EFTA) and the International own efforts.
Federation for Alternative Trade (IFAT). Rachel Wilshaw is Producer Information
Bridge also supports the joint efforts of UK Officer for Bridge.
29

Women linking for change


Oxfam's Women's Linking Project
Oxf am's Gender Team

T
he Women's Linking Project (WLP), promote and explore examples of best
a three-year project coordinated by practice and to increase Oxfam's contact
GADU and Oxfam UKI, was with Southern organisations working on
launched as part of Oxfam's fiftieth gender issues, and also to promote gender
anniversary celebrations in 1992. The as a development issue to the British and
project was co-ordinated from Oxford, but Irish public.
drew on the guidance of an advisory group
of Southern women, and the experience of
Oxfam's field offices. Stages of the project
The WLP broke new ground for Oxfam: South-North Linking
it was the largest and most public In March 1992, eight women from Southern
communications and networking activity countries came to the UK and Ireland, and
on gender and development ever met with a range of organisations and
undertaken by Oxfam. The aims were to groups. The rationale behind the visit was,
develop alternative strategies and North- firstly, to identify commonalities and
South co-operation and dialogue, to make differences as the basis for forging
Southern gender perspectives central to alliances; secondly, to promote Southern
development approaches, and to help women's perspectives on aid and other
Oxfam and other like-minded agencies to macro-issues, such as violence, health and
improve their understanding of gender reproductive rights, poverty, and
issues and respond with gender-fair sustainable development; and, lastly, to
policies and programmes. The project was increase people's awareness of women's
intended to create solidarity, and set up existing and potential roles as agents for
information-sharing exchanges and change.
informal networks for Southern NGOs, The South-North visit provided a
Oxfam staff, and like-minded NGOs, in platform for Southern women to speak,
order for them to learn cross-regionally, and valuable opportunities for dialogue,
and break through the isolation that many leading to a better understanding of each
feel. other's situation, both among the visitors
Oxfam works through a large number of themselves and the people they met. It also
field offices, some of which are fairly succeeded in raising interest about
distant from the women's movement, Southern concerns in development in the
while others exemplify best or near-best British and Irish women's organisations
practice. The WLP was designed to and community groups visited; and helped

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


30 Focus on Gender

to emphasise the importance of gender raised questions about Oxfam's role as a


issues within Oxfam itself. The visit Northern funding agency which has a
provided opportunities for Oxfam outreach commitment to field-driven programme
workers to strengthen, and in many cases work and an ethos of multiculturalism. The
initiate, contacts with community-based implementation of the gender policy in the
organisations and groups that had not overseas programme, and the
previously regarded working with Oxfam organisational culture of Oxfam, in relation
as a prime concern. Community-based to partnership with Southern organisations
organisations began to see Oxfam as and the employment of Southern staff,
credible and relevant, and an agency which were some of the topics discussed.
had something important to say about A single powerful and overwhelming
gender issues. conclusion can be distilled from the many
Considerable spontaneous follow-up messages from the meetings in Thailand: a
has taken place between the participating concern for gender equity leads to doing
groups and the Southern women, things differently. Participants stressed that
including the development of joint taking on a gender perspective implies a
initiatives and solidarity actions. But profound and radical transformation of
follow-up would undoubtedly have been many aspects of Oxfam's work: the
greater if there had been a more coherent relationship with partners, inter-
strategy for this. relationships between colleagues,
development priorities and approaches, the
Regional and global meetings organisations with which Oxfam works,
Another part of the project involved how decisions are made, and the gender
national and regional consultations, taking balance of Oxfam's staff.
two forms: firstly, consultation by Oxfam
field officers, in-country, to produce case
studies and an internal review of Oxfam's
Current priorities
work; and secondly, regional meetings of The Thailand meetings called for Oxfam to
women from Southern NGOs to identify expand and revise its analysis of
their priority issues and strategies, and thedevelopment. Poverty is experienced
role of funding agencies. differently by different sectors of the
The conclusions of the regional meetings community, depending upon relative
were brought together in Bangkok, power and status. Economic disadvantage
Thailand, in February 1994, when delegates is inextricably linked with factors which
from the regions met to consolidate their prevent disadvantaged groups
findings. including women, children, older people,
and disabled people from securing the
International conference benefits of development.
From 26 February to 2 March 1994, 105 Participants discussed the worsening
participants attended the Women's Linking conditions for women throughout the
Project (WLP) International Conference in world, working towards a global analysis
Bangkok. Participants comprised field of women's situation which emphasised
office staff, staff and senior managers from the interconnectedness of people's lives in
Oxfam House, and delegates from the South and the North. As a result of
Southern organisations, some of whom had decisions taken in the North, and Northern
been involved in the regional meetings. over-consumption of resources,
Participants at the Conference made environmental degradation is occurring in
many recommendations, some of which the South, depleting natural resources and
Women linking for change 31

affecting women in particular, in their role difficult process, to which different


as primary carers for their families. constituencies bring their own agenda.
Growing migration to urban areas breaks What are the lessons from the mainly face-
down traditional support systems, while to-face networking of the WLP, and what is
urban livelihoods depend precariously on the impact on our gender work?
insecure and unregulated work available to First, linking between gender workers
women in the informal sector and in from different regions and constituencies is
industry, now dominated by international a high-risk, high-reward process, fraught
trade agreements such as NAFTA and with contradictions and sometimes conflict.
GATT. At the same time, it can be empowering,
The Conference also related women's fostering the forming of alliances and
worsening situation to the crisis caused by allowing information to be shared in a
the imposition of IMF Structural powerful and energising way.
Adjustment Policies (SAPs) on Southern Oxfam, as a funder, is aware of the
governments. Women are being called on contradiction between its commitment to
to augment the decreasing services partnership and its ultimate power as the
available to their families by taking financial decision-maker. Women at the
responsibility for many activities best Conference said that they are concerned
provided by professionals, including those about the nature of partnership; within
of health carer and teacher. The escalating Oxfam, between the Southern offices,
problem of AIDS was highlighted by Northern fund-raisers and senior decision-
participants as affecting women differently makers, as well as between Oxfam and
from men, since they are not only sufferers Southern partner organisations. Hitherto,
but are also carers for affected family there has been a lack of discussion on what
members. partnership means in the context of
Conference participants asserted that it Oxfam's gender policy. The gender policy,
is the appreciation of the overlapping of which promotes gender equity, should
the personal and public spheres which affect the choice of project partners and
characterises a gender-sensitive approach activities to be funded. Discussion of these
to development. Women at the Conference issues at the Conference exposed tensions
emphasised, time after time, that physical about Oxfam's choice of partners, and how
violence, or the threat of it, impedes many this strengthens or weakens its
commitment to gender issues.
women from sharing in the benefits of
development projects. This and other A central recommendation to emerge
forms of social control within the personal from the Conference was that, in order for
sphere, such as mental cruelty, sexual Oxfam and other funding agencies to
abuse, and control of women's bodies recognise the link between gender issues
through the denial of reproductive rights, and development, they must work with
must be accepted as legitimate issues to be organisations who have, as an explicit goal,
tackled by development agencies. the empowerment of women. There was a
strong request from Conference
participants that Oxfam should cease
What is 'partnership'? funding gender-blind organisations. This
From its inception, the WLP set out to be rule is already being applied in some
an innovative exercise to explore the nature Oxfam offices, for example, in South
of partnership: South-South, North-South, Africa, and there is thus institutional
practitioner-activist, women-women, experience to draw on.
women-men. Such a discussion is a
32 Focus on Gender

Representation and example of 'do as I say, not as I do'. The


multiculturalism Conference called on Oxfam to set its own
house in order, by a critical examination of
Whose voice? What legitimacy? Should the working culture and recruitment
gender and development workers be policy.
consulting NGOs or grassroots activists? In Thailand, Oxfam field staff, frustrated
Feminists or 'womanists'? It was made at the lack of progress on multiculturalism
clear that there is no unified Southern within Oxfam, reported that Southern
voice; but that is not a reason for denying views, particularly those of women, are
all Southern voices. The women's ignored by management in head office.
movement, too, is highly complex; while Women programme officers reported
women may have a similar agenda, they feeling isolated, marginalised, and
often have very different ways of unheard. Field officers working on gender
addressing the issues and face different issues expressed their profound sense of
constraints. disempowerment; gender issues are still
It is dangerous to assume a common not regarded as important, in overseas
agenda or to underestimate the barriers to offices and within Oxfam UK/I.
be overcome. These include: Any policy which transcends particular
cultural barriers, different styles of cultural, social, and economic contexts
communication; must be capable of being applied, as an
differing priorities; organisation-wide set of principles and
hidden agendas, or the suspicion of strategies, to the particular circumstances
them; faced by women in each constituency.
the whole history of relationships Delegates at the Conference asked for time
between the South and the North; to consider the gender policy in relation to
the use of power and influence. their own constituency and culture, and
At times these barriers can block said they would like to report back on the
common purposes such as North-South efficacy of the policy at a later stage.
cooperation. A particularly high hurdle Participants emphasised the importance
appears to be the South-North divide: the of all staff receiving gender training, and
degree of mistrust of and antagonism new programme staff being required to
towards Northern funding agencies that have a proven commitment to gender
can exist in the South should not be equity. Oxfam should make every effort to
underestimated. In trying to build South- achieve a representative balance of race,
North cooperation, both sides need to sex and nationality within the organisation,
recognise their limitations and the different especially at management level. Measures
constituencies to whom they are to ensure this include staff development
accountable. and training to allow women to gain
management experience, head-hunting,
and support systems for family carers.
Oxfam's working culture Pressure to work long hours means that
Implementing the gender policy requires family carers, overwhelmingly women, are
Oxfam to take stock of its organisational effectively prevented from rising in Oxfam
ethos and management style. Requiring beyond a certain point, unless they are
that Southern counterpart organisations prepared to neglect the needs of their
embrace the principles of the gender policy families; but it was recognised that this
in their project work has deep implications culture of long working hours is also
for Oxfam itself, if it is not to be an damaging to men.
Women linking for change 33

Aiming to be truly multicultural, the Conclusion


Thailand meetings presented a challenge
which was only partially met. Different Feedback received so far has shown how
constituencies had very diverse enthusiastic Southern women's groups and
expectations of Thailand; on the theoretical local organisations are about being
level, some participants expected concrete involved in these areas of Oxfam's work,
outputs, and there were different views on and about networking and working with
each other. At present, the Thailand
the conference methodology. A
recommendations, and distilled wisdom
multicultural conference demands
from the whole WLP process, are being
immense resources, particularly in
used in communication and follow-up
translation and interpretation, including
work, including networking, advocacy,
the translation of ideas and concepts from
and preparation for Beijing.
one culture to another. The existence of
different, and equally valid, ways of The WLP has important lessons for all
speech, thought processes, and involved, in terms of:
preoccupations must be acknowledged. partnership between North and South;
Participants requested more resources to giving a platform to the South;
guide, support, and inform staff working networking as a legitimate tool of
on gender issues, and for materials to be development and a powerful tool for the
published in vernacular languages where marginalised;
possible, and at least in the European institutional learning;
languages used in specific countries. challenging Oxfam to become a truly
multicultural, and gender-equal,
organisation;
Valuing long-term altering Oxfam's working culture to take
processes note of the multiple demands on its
staff;
The project put equal emphasis on
building up recommendations for
outcomes and process, recognising that
Northern agencies based on Southern
working on the promotion of gender equity
experience.
in societies across the world involves
The challenge is now to Oxfam's
changing attitudes and beliefs which are
decision-makers and managers, to respond
deeply entrenched. Real, lasting change
in a way which strengthens Oxfam's
will come slowly.
commitments to multiculturalism and
Participants at the Conference asserted gender equity, both within the organisation
that Oxfam's culture centres on a tendency and in work with partners and supporters.
to favour efficiency and the achievement of For a continuing process of linking to take
concrete objectives, often without consid- place, fora are needed in which gender and
ering the means used to reach the end. development workers can forge links and
Participants pointed out that slower, more organise to take forward issues of mutual
thorough processes often achieve more concern. Oxfam needs to build on the
sustainable results. Oxfam must move from foundations and lessons of the WLP, and
an approach which emphasises projects to promote the linking of diverse
one which recognises the value of long-term constituencies in order to create a powerful
processes. Oxfam's mandate includes public synthesis of views from the South.
education, and this is an important function
in terms of gender relations, which are
perceived by the majority in all societies as
natural and unchanging.
34

Listening to the South

Southern women's
networks
their own priorities
Abantu for Development

S
outhern women's networks have The formalisation of this process is
existed ever since Southern women something that women's groups and
first identified common concerns associations have identified as a distinct
around which to organise. Their strategy in its own right, to enable women
formalisation within the international to pool resources, mobilise support, and
sphere was accelerated during the UN provide mutual encouragement. The im-
Decade for Women, 1975-1985. The portance of networks cannot be under-
Association of African Women For Research stated: they often form the catalyst for
and Development (AAWORD), set up in women to organise into groups, and have
1977, and Development Alternatives With the potential for influence and impact
Women for a New Era, (DAWN), set up in beyond the lives of the women immediately
1983, are examples of two such organ- concerned.
isations. Southern women's networks have The South, or 'Majority World', is home
grown out of, and are included in, religious to a myriad of women's groups and
organisations, trades unions, political associations; not all of these would identify
parties, and welfare organisations; they also themselves as networks, and their
exist as organisations in their own right. priorities are as diverse as the number of
This article will argue that networking is issues with which women are concerned.
an important political tool for women. It is These issues include basic needs like
often one of the few tools that are freely shelter, food and clothing, and graduate,
accessible to women, who are marginalised through the issues of education and
by the processes and decisions that shape freedom from domestic and civil violence,
their lives. Women are able to meet within to a concern with the effects of Structural
an informal network in the domestic Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) on
sphere and exchange information, news, women and their communities.
and personal stories, and give support and The context within which such Southern
encouragement to each other. This women's networks are operating is often one
networking happens every day, all over the in which the infrastructure of civil society
world, in homes, market-places, and has been eroded by economic, political and
wherever women regularly congregate. social malaise. The general situation of

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


Southern women's networks 35

paucity of resources, and marginalisation of resource is the women themselves, they are
the most vulnerable sectors of society, of often self-sustaining.
which women are one, means that there are
few avenues left for women to formalise
their social and political activity. In this
Abantu's experience
situation, networking is an avenue open to Abantu for Development International is
Southern women who seek to address their an African women's NGO and human
resource network, which started in 1991
problems, as it is an accessible strategy which
requires few resources. Enthusiasm, and was formalised in 1993. Abantu is an
dedication, and time are the precious informal network of African women
resources required of members. trainers who began meeting to exchange
ideas, develop skills, compare methodolo-
gies, and provide mutual support, since all
Barriers for Southern of the women involved in Abantu are
networks based in the West, for social, economic,
However, if Southern networks are to political, and historical reasons.
operate outside their local and national The founders of Abantu had all,
boundaries, lack of resources becomes however, maintained strong links with
more of a constraint. Southern networks their countries of origin which include
are disadvantaged compared to their Zambia, Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal,
Northern counterparts, because they do not Tanzania, South Africa and Kenya
have access to methods of communication through active participation in solidarity
that are taken for granted and that are struggles, political movements and
necessary for international operation. This campaigns, and through the collation and
not only prevents them from networking dissemination of information within their
between North and South, but also respective communities. Networking was a
between South and South, which is a vital tool that they had all identified and used
arena for support, cross-fertilisation, and within their work.
solidarity. South-South networking is one Frustrated at the lack of recognition, on
of the issues that has been identified by the part of Western NGO's and funding
Southern women as a priority to enhance agencies, of Southern women's perspective
the effectiveness of the networks in their on development, they saw a need for a
own countries, and also to increase their Southern women's network to promote
strength and lobbying power in the such recognition. Abantu believes that
international arena. policies which evolve from an informed,
The strategies that these networks have indigenous source are more likely to obtain
identified to address their many concerns the political consensus necessary for
are often very similar. They include sustained change and development.
dissemination of information through 'Abantu' means 'people' in several African
publications such as newsletters; research; languages; and it symbolises our approach
the hosting of conferences and seminars; to development.
and the provision of training, in order to In Abantu's view, the lack of develop-
enhance women's ability to access ment progress in Africa is partly due to the
resources and information on a wider scale. lack of political will on the part of some
Networks can provide organised channels national governments to take into account
through which all of the above can be the economic, social, political, and cultural
made available in a systematic and aspirations of all Africans. Abantu set its
woman-friendly way: as their greatest agenda to complement that of the wider
36 Focus on Gender

communities in their countries, which had men can discuss their priorities from an
tended to subsume the 'women question' African perspective and with a gender
within a broader framework. analysis, often bringing together
As Southern women, our priorities in Anglophone and Francophone Africans.
Abantu are dictated by the circumstances An example of such a forum is a
we find in our countries of the South; we seminar and training workshop held by
have chosen to highlight the issue of Abantu in Entebbe, Uganda, in July 1994.
gender in the various areas of our work, as Here, professional women and men came
it is an important element that is often together to discuss the barriers to women's
marginalised in the economic and political participation in governance and decision-
equation called 'development'. Abantu making. The 50 delegates represented 14
believes that women play a particularly different African countries, and comprised
important role in transmitting values, both leading academics, activists, trainers,
between themselves and within their researchers, and politicians. The delegates
communities: as stated above, this is often expressed their need for the opportunity to
done through informal networking. The improve their skills and share their
central purpose of Abantu is, therefore, to experiences, and this was met by
enhance the capacity of African women to combining the seminar with a two-day
participate in development. Abantu training session on skills that would
believes in women's empowerment enhance women's capacity to participate in
through training, information, and the decision making: public speaking, strategic
control and efficient management of use of the media, and political leadership.
resources. The role of Northern NGOs and
Northern funding agencies in the process
Working in South and North of networking is one of providing support
and building alliances based on equitable
We have a strategy of working in the South partnerships and mutual respect. Southern
through regional offices, which are women need the opportunity to come
currently being set up, because we recognise together in order to set their own agendas
the importance of locally-identified needs and define their own priorities. These will
and solutions. We have also identified the change over time, and are different within
importance of maintaining links and and between communities and organi-
contacts in the North, through establishing sations: they may even be in conflict.
an office in London. This is due to the fact Northern funding agencies can co-
that most of the material resources that are operate with Southern organisations like
available for development are based in the Abantu, DAWN and FEMNET, by pro-
West in the form of information, technology, viding resources, expertise, technology,
and money. We see it as critical to tap into skills, and money for the capacity building
these resources, in order for us to provide of individuals and organisations. This
material help and support to organisations enables Southern women to instigate or
and projects based in the South, who would enhance their own networks. Human
not normally have access to these resources. resource development is fundamental to
Development is a two-way process. the overall development process. The
The role of Abantu is to form a conduit formalisation of networking and networks
for information and resources, both is an effective way of encouraging
between North and South and among women's development, and this can only
Southern NGOs and networks. Secondly, it have a positive impact on the development
sets up fora at which African women and of Southern nations.
37

Of borders, bridges and


sisterhood
reflections on the Women's Linking Project
Gertrudes Ranjo-Libang

In many places, the colonists hastened

W
e were 11 women from three
continents: Asia, Africa, and the subordination of our women. They
Latin America. We were asked to displaced women from their means of
come to Bangkok to forge one Southern achieving an independent livelihood, and
women's voice. We were women of many destroyed the communal and clan culture
colours, who could communicate only that supported women in child care and
through interpreters, in three languages home maintenance. Right up to today, the
that were legacies of our colonisers: low status of women persists.
English, Spanish and French. Yet, in our Despite our supposed political indepen-
very first meeting, we knew that these dence, Southern countries like ours remain
differences and these divisions would not neo-colonies of Northern economic
be barriers: they would add spice to our powers. We are no longer ruled by force or
discussions. Awareness of divisions among at the point of a gun (though sometimes,
us helped to define what we held in the North still uses guns to make the South
common: our identity as women from the toe the line, for example in the case of the
South. invasion of Panama, and currently the
present threat to invade Haiti). Instead
they use aid packages, foreign policy, and
Finding common threads diplomacy.
that bind Southern women The Northern neo-colonisers or neo-
Many common threads bind us as imperialists no longer deal with their
Southern women. First is our colonial past. Southern neo-colonies directly. They use
Almost all our countries have at one time such agencies as the World Bank, the
or another come under the direct rule of a International Monetary Fund, and even the
Northern nation, usually the most, or one United Nations, to do the imposing and the
of the most, economically powerful in the negotiating for them. Before, they hid their
world at that time. Portugal and Spain took imperialist intentions behind the phrase
over some parts of South-East Asia and 'bringing development to the South'.
Latin America. Britain had the Indian sub- Nowadays, their favourite phrase is
continent to itself. France annexed parts of 'helping the Southern countries attain
Africa. Later, the USA was able to wrest newly industrialised status'.
certain territories from Portugal, Spain and Many ordinary citizens in the South,
even France. Our resources made them rich especially those in the remotest corners of
and successful as industrialised countries. their countries, may never have heard of

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


38 Focus on Gender

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs), Southern women bear the brunt of this
and General Agreement on Trade and poverty, displacement and armed conflict.
Tariffs (GATT), but in spite of this they daily Women are the safety nets of Southern
suffer the consequences of the policies that societies in times of need, inventing one
arise from these Northern-imposed way after another to enable their families to
international programmes. When women cope and survive. Women are also
have to spend more time taking care of commodities sold, exchanged and
members of the family who are sick, despoiled. For example, in Afghanistan, it is
because health and medical facilities are not the custom of both warring sides to abduct,
available, it is because governments spend rape, maim, or kill young women. For the
less on basic social services, so that they can fighting men, women are the spoils of war,
receive an IMF loan to enable them to the symbols of their power over the enemy.
continue to service their foreign debt. When Now even the independence of the
peasant women find their produce selling organisations built by and for the women
for less, while the price of agricultural from the South are at stake. In some
inputs spirals up, this is because the countries, women working on gender
government is removing subsidies for their issues are feeling the interference of
produce and inputs, in keeping with governments, and of Northern-based
GATT's aim to keep free trade alive. multilateral and bilateral funding agencies.
Unfortunately, this does not work in favour These agencies have the necessary money
of the produce of Southern countries. and resources, to monopolise the processes
Mass poverty is the legacy of the new of meeting and consultation which are part
colonial economic rule in the South, the of the preparations for the United Nations
product of what our Latin American sisters Conference on Women in Beijing 1995. As
refer to as the neo-liberal economic policies women's organisations differ from each
of the North. Only the multinationals, and other regarding the question of whether to
local partners from the elites of Southern participate in the processes with the
countries, benefit from this system. The multilateral agencies, rifts within the
majority, particularly the very poor, are women's movement are being created. This
penalised. A common occurrence in South- is an issue needing attention and study.
ern countries is the massive displacement One way to combat this is to meet, share
of indigenous people, farmer, fisherpeople, our experiences, and move towards a
and the urban poor from their homes and common vision.
livelihoods, so that the land can be given
over to industrial estates and the infra- South-South sisterhood
structure which accompanies them.
While neo-colonialism is forcing nations It was our first time to be together: we only
to open their trade borders to free trade, knew each other's names and countries of
differences in religious beliefs and tribal origin, from Oxfam communications. And
affiliations are causing the erection of we only had four days to get acquainted
borders within some nations, for example and try to arrive at a point where we could
Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. In many be united.
Southern countries, poverty and other In these four days, we tried to interpret
factors, such as the spread of fundament- our individual experiences as women from
alism, have bred inter-tribal and inter- the various regions of the South. Together,
religious wars where each side seeks to we tried to unravel the complexities of our
annihilate its opponents, for example in everyday existence, refusing to swallow
Rwanda. false conceptions of our situations as
Of borders, bridges and sisterhood 39

presented in media 'hype'. Media often entirely. After dispelling prejudice and
analyses facts from the standpoint of the stereotypes, other borders should be
rich media-owners and their clients, the recognised, respected, and understood; for
advertisers. These people are more often our strength as Southern women lies as
than not men, or women who perpetuate a much in our diversity of belief and
male-dominated system. The media is experience as in what we have in common.
guilty of peddling myths and creating false We came from different ethnic and
images. In the process, it divides people, linguistic groups, each with a distinct
particularly women. It is just another culture and language. The influence of
business whose motive is profit. religion is felt by us all; the major world
Also responsible for distortions about religions Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam,
ourselves and our lives are government and Christianity all have roots in the
propaganda and the multilateral agency countries of the South, and they are very
reports which are released daily. We tried much alive there today.
very hard to segregate fact from fiction, and Each region contains an example of this
in the process realised that, though modern cultural and ethnic diversity. Indian
communications linked our countries, the culture will always be different from
news they carry is not necessarily the truth. Indonesian culture. And although the
We corrected each other's misconceptions Philippines and Thailand are both South-
about our lives, and in the process we East Asian countries, they will remain
learnt to understand not only each other, distinct from each other: the former is a
but also ourselves. For example, for those of Christian nation, with Spanish, Malayan,
us from Asia and Latin America, Africa no Indian, and Chinese influences, while the
longer meant starving children waiting for latter is Buddhist, with a culture and
aid. The vibrant Africa, as exemplified by language closely linked to the Indo-
the anti-apartheid struggles, unfolded Chinese. In addition to the large groupings,
before our eyes. within most countries in the South is a
We also had to deal with 'man-made' wealth of smaller tribes and cultures.
borders which take root in people's Due to these differences, the manifest-
attitudes. These are imaginary borders ations and expressions of patriarchy across
which are often constructed around Southern countries are also different. For
tangible differences, like skin colour, example, the customs of punishing brides,
religion, place of origin or socio-economic sometimes through burning, for dowry
status. These create prejudices and result in debts, and devadasi (the practice of giving
harmful stereotypes. These are the borders girls to be temple prostitutes), are found
we tried to break to ensure real primarily in South Asia. Female genital
communication and understanding. mutilation is practised in areas of North
and Central Africa and some parts of Asia.
As Southern women, we validated the
Difference can be positive reality of our struggles. For we are not only
We realised through our discussions that fighting for our rights as women but for
the path to sisterhood necessitates the our rights as a people, as citizens because
building of bridges across the borders what we seek is complete freedom from all
which divide our minds from each other as yokes of oppression, be it imperialism or
physical borders divide the world into gender. Our fight is not only for ourselves
countries. These mental divisions can but also for our men and children. Thus,
potentially be crossed, but it is not we see our struggle as holistic, covering all
desirable to set out to destroy all of them aspects of our lives.
40 Focus on Gender

Forging links: a continuing in the North, who include immigrants from


task the South. In countries such as North
America and Australia, there are
Our struggle as women from the South is a indigenous people who were driven to the
long and arduous one; we have to fight on periphery of society by the first wave of
many fronts, so we urgently need to white immigrants. Just like us, they suffer
continue and develop our links. We have to discrimination and live on the edge of
allow more space for women from different survival. We must likewise recognise the
countries and regions of the South to talk to efforts of those Northern women who
each other. Next time, more grassroots campaign to bring to the minds and hearts
women must be involved, though this may of Northern people the injustices that their
be more complicated because of language governments are committing in the South
barriers: women from the grassroots are in the guise of development.
more articulate in their native tongue, and Finally, we must continue working with
not in the language of the colonisers. Southern men, who share our struggle
The dialogue which takes place among against neo-colonialist control. However, it
these women should span the 'personal' is imperative that we imbue them with
and the 'political', for both are important sensitivity about women's issues and their
realities for women. The expression of the role in perpetuating women's oppression.
Southern women's struggle may be political It is only in this way that real partnership
but their commitment is very personal. with them becomes possible.
We must also reach out to women from
the North. It is not they who are our Gertrudes Ranjo-Libang participated in the
enemies, but the global system which Thailand meetings of Oxfam's Women's
breeds and maintains neo-colonialism and Linking Project, and works at the Centre for
patriarchy. In particular, we should Women's Resources in Quezon City,
remember that there are Southern women Philippines.

Participants at the Women's Linking Project Conference. Gertrudes Ranjo-Libang sees linking as a
bridge between women which builds on their different insights and analyses to create a sense of unity.
Of borders, bridges and sisterhood 41

Declaration from Southern women's organisations


presented at Women Linking for Change Conference
Bangkok, Thailand, 25 February 1994

We women of the South, chosen by where girls and boys have equal access
regional meetings of the Women to Women to education and social services;
Linking Project in Africa, Latin America, where we can participate in decision-
South-East Asia, South Asia, and the making processes at all levels from
Middle East to participate in the Global family and community to government;
Meeting of Women Linking for Change, where our rights are guaranteed and
held in Bangkok from 20-23 February 1994 protected by law;
are concerned that there is an increasing where gender-based violence, and all
concentration of power in the North, other forms of violence, are eliminated;
resulting in the feminisation of poverty all where we have autonomy in decision-
over the globe. With the sharp rise of making, and control over our own
fundamentalism and domestic and bodies;
communal violence, there is devaluation of where we have the right to own
human life, respect, and dignity. These property, and are not deprived of our
processes are making women more rights, regardless of our marital status;
powerless and our struggles for survival where we will be able to live without
are becoming more difficult. fear.
Though the challenges are great and the
situation is complex, we have hope that we Demands:
can change conditions and build a better Considering all these, we demand the
tomorrow. We affirm the experiences and political will to support justice in gender
actions by the women's movement all over relations and concrete plans of action to
the world in the last two decades, and we promote this. This requires change at all
assert that the empowerment process for levels.
women has begun. We are hopeful that this
empowerment process will also give In the struggle against poverty we
strength and support to the other demand:
movements of oppressed people. This is change in the economic, political and
expressed in the increasing participation of socio-cultural position of women, to
women in politics and education, and in redress poverty;
every sphere of life. a concerted effort to change the overall
structure of patriarchal state
This is our vision: we want a just world domination; this should be done
that is free of oppression and through analysis of state power
exploitation, peaceful, safe, prosperous, structures, using identified pressure
respectful of all forms of life, and all points to bring change;
human beings; research on, and analysis of, neo-
where we women have choices, where liberalism, state, IMF, and World Bank
there is equal opportunity for women programmes and policies, the various
and men and equal sharing of forms they take, and their effects on
workloads between us; women at all levels;
where we have access to, and control of, action to influence opinion towards
resources; gender-sensitivity, by use of the media,
lobbying at various levels, mass
42 Focus on Gender

mobilizations around gender issues, will require evaluation of the specific


information gathering, conducting situation of women in each country;
research and obtaining the support of broadening South-South and North-
academic and research institutions, South relations between women,
working with like-minded NGOs and dealing with common issues as well as
human rights groups to bring about differences, through support for
change; networks and consortia, and increased
the humanisation and feminisation of communications and media work;
science and technology. the provision of support services for all
women, and particularly women victims
We recommend: of violence, such as legal assistance,
the development of alternative models education, and emotional support;
for gender and development; the development of clear policy
the development and strengthening of guidelines, through lobbying with
coalitions for networking at inter- governments, on the rights of groups
national, regional, and inter-regional and organisations to exist;
levels on violence against women, law, the development of the individual
neo-liberalism, women's rights as woman as a person, strengthening her
human rights, and religious fundament- skills, potential, and knowledge, her self-
alism; confidence, self-image, and assertiveness,
lobbying on these issues; particularly in mixed groups.
the creation of a clearing-house for To achieve the above, we recognise the
exchange of information. need to develop our own frameworks
and promote existing Southern models
Strengthening the women's movement
of analysis, not relying solely on
The women's movements of South and
Northern models.
North play an important part in women's
resistance to all forms of discrimination, in In relation to funding issues we demand:
the struggle for survival, and in funding for formal and non-formal
strengthening women's power. We women education for girls and women, and
of Asia, Africa, and Latin America call for training to enable women better to
the strengthening of women's analyse their own needs;
organisations, with regard to their funding for the people's own agenda;
autonomy and capacity for analysis and the development of women's projects
action. which are sustainable in the long-term.
We recommend: North-South relations and funding
institutional support; relationships
setting-up and strengthening of North-South relations, particularly as
educational institutions for women; regards funding, present a challenge to
exposure and study programmes; both Southern organisations and the
development of second liners (future funding agencies themselves.
leaders) through training for project
management; We recommend to the funding agencies:
strengthening of political participation gender and development training for
through the promotion of intersectoral agency personnel and NGO staff
coordination between women and other responsible for project design and
sectors, and strengthening the position of implementation, monitoring and
women within other areas of work: this evaluation;
Of borders, bridges and sisterhood 43

use of local resources for training and funding agencies, be given support for
curriculum development; solidarity work, campaigns, information
lobbying of governments by NGOs and exchange, research, and documentation.
funding agencies to ensure that gender
issues are integrated into their policies; To Beijing and beyond
training for women in project design, We call for attention to be drawn to the
and fund-raising, particularly for new Fourth International Conference on
organisations; Women to be held in Beijing in 1995, and to
that they do not restrict NGOs to a other major international conferences, such
single funding source, to enable greater as the Conference on Population and
freedom in prioritisation and Development, and the Social Summit. We
implementation of projects; express our concern at a possible 'takeover'
that they promote women with a gender by the donors of the Beijing process.
perspective to positions of responsibility We recommend to women's
and authority;
organisations of the South:
that partners be encouraged to see
that the women of the South participate
funding agencies as a channel for actively in the preparations for Beijing
lobbying. through workshops, and seminars; and
We demand: attend the conference en masse;
the involvement of partner NGOs in that the women's organisations lobby
project and programme design, representatives who will be going to
implementation and evaluation, by Beijing to ensure that women's visions
means of participatory processes; and strategies are on the agenda;
response to the needs expressed by that mechanisms be established to
women themselves, even if these do not ensure implementation, monitoring and
fit the agency agenda; evaluation of the conference recommen-
support for innovative projects which dations;
will bring significant change for women; that there is close collaboration with the
the use of the local/regional dialects in media to publicise the conference
project proposals; preparations, proceedings, and follow-
the translation of agency policies and up;
key documents into local/regional that national, regional and global
languages; platforms be established to enable the
the inclusion of translation costs in exchange of priorities and concerns;
budgets; that existing channels be strengthened.
the synchronisation of the funding We see Oxfam's role in the Beijing process
agency project evaluation/processing as complementing that of Southern partners
cycle with the project monitoring/ and women's organisations at national,
evaluation cycle of the country; regional and international level.
consistency in terms of minimum
We recommend to Oxfam:
standards for funding criteria /guidelines
that Oxfam send a mixed delegation of
the agency should be lobbied if these
Oxfam staff and partners to the Beijing
are violated in other Southern countries;
conference, and, in addition, involve
the use of agencies as a channel for partners in the preparatory process;
lobbying; that Oxfam support lobbying and
that 'gender and development' units, informational activities for the
like Oxfam's Gender Team, and other conference;
44 Focus on Gender

that Oxfam provide resources for continue the process of exchange with
networking at global, regional, and Southern partners, women's organisations,
national levels for preparation and and other funding agencies. We invite
follow-up to Beijing. Oxfam to translate the conference
recommendations into policies and action.
We recommend to other funding As women involved in the Southern
agencies: women's movements, who have been
that priority be given to promoting engaged in this linking process, we affirm
women's strategic needs; our personal commitment to continue to
that funding should not be used as a struggle for these issues, within our own
means of control, influence or division; networks, and as Oxfam partners at both
support for women's networks, to allow national and regional levels, and to work
them to: for further North-South co-operation
prepare for Beijing towards a just world for women.
enable the participation of women and
particularly young and elderly women, Signed by:
rural women, tribal and scheduled caste Representatives of South Asia and the
women, disabled women, and other Middle East Regional Meeting:
women belonging to marginalised Neelam Gorhe, Stree Aadhar Kendra,
groups; India
share information about the strategies to Sima Samar, Shuhuda, Pakistan
be adopted in Beijing
collaborate with Southern women's Representatives of Latin America
movements to ensure that issues of Regional Meeting:
concern to them are on the agenda. Morena Herrera, Mujeres por la
These include the position of the girl Dignidad y la Vida Urbanizacion
child, the impact of fundamentalism and Venezuela
communal violence on women, the Giulia Tamayo, Flora Tristan, Peru
position of women who are immigrants, Nalu Faria Silva, SOF Sempreviva
refugees or otherwise displaced, disaster Organozacao Feminista, Brasil
management, and women's political
Representatives of South-East Asia
participation;
Regional Meeting:
support for follow up and implemen-
Nursyahbani Katjasungkana, Solidaritas
tation after Beijing, including research
Perempuan, Women's Solidarity for
and documentation for a News Feature
Human Rights, Indonesia
Service, and the production of alter- Luz Ilagan, Women Studies and
native documents analysing the Resource Center, Philippines
implementation by governments of
resolutions from earlier conferences, Representatives of African Regional
such as the Forward Looking Strategies. Meeting:
Rosalinda Namises, National Education
Conclusion
Legal Assistance Centre, Namibia
We women from Asia, Africa, and Latin
Fatoumata Sow, APAC, Senegal
America express our appreciation of the
Josine Kagoyire, Communication
Global Meeting of Women Linking for
Change, and hope that the Bangkok Officer, Asbl Duterimbere, Rwanda
Conference will be followed by other Joyce Umbina, FEMNET, Kenya
exchanges and consultations on gender
and development. We call on Oxfam to
45

Towards international
solidarity
British initiatives through Brazilian eyes
Vanete Almeida
Vanete Almeida, from Brazil, is one of eight Southern women activists who visited Britain in 1992
to meet with women from a variety of kindred organisations in the UK and Ireland, to share their
experiences of work, discuss commonalities and differences in their vision, and find ways of co-
operating and supporting each other. The following is Vanete's report of her visit to Southampton,
a city on England's south coast.

O
ur first week of work in the area each person has. Development is not about
was excellent. The visit was very giving charity, but should deal with the
well organised and planned. The structural causes of injustice, and
response from the public and the destructive attitudes. It should be about
participants was excellent. There was a creating an equal basis for solidarity
good balance in the types of people and among human beings who live on the same
groups we were meeting, who represented planet.
a variety of experiences. These included In our visit, there were meetings wi'th
Oxfam supporters, trade union women, two particular groups of women which we
students, middle-class women, peace feel we should emphasise: the Women of
activists, and environmental groups. Greenham Common, and members of the
In relation to the objectives of the Transport and General Workers' Union
project, I felt that a platform had indeed (TGWU) in Southampton.
been created for me to talk as a Southern
woman, allowing me to speak about my The Women of Greenham
country, about the participation of women Common
in the unions, and about the methodology
we use in the women's movement. We In our visit to Greenham Common, we
were able to establish initial contact which were able to understand the importance of
may lead to future mutual initiatives. this struggle, which is against the
However, as it was a first contact, there installation of nuclear weapons on British
was not enough time to establish a deep soil, for women and for the world. We first
link. The themes I wanted to explore dropped in to the community of women
during my visit were women and work, who camp at the Yellow Gate, but later
women and the environment, and women, heard that there was a conflict between the
development and international assistance. women at this gate and the women at
We were able to discuss these themes with Green Gate and Blue Gate. We therefore
dignity, emphasising the responsibility decided that we would also visit Blue Gate,

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


46 Focus on Gender

in order to restore balance and so as not to unions: the proposals for women's partici-
be perceived as partisan about a conflict we pation are very different here from Brazil.
knew nothing about. At Blue Gate, the The women we met spoke of winning
women there spoke to us of this conflict. leadership positions, whereas we in Brazil
These kinds of divisions weaken the are trying to organise women at the
movement. grassroots, using a methodology which
However, the activity at Greenham is a attempts to change attitudes in order to
positive example of the strength of women achieve social and political transformation.
in ongoing struggles here and elsewhere, The second difference is that in Britain,
and their capacity to struggle and to women suffer hidden and sophisticated
organise. It is also important to create 'machismo'. In Brazil, it is overt and
spaces for women. According to the conscious.
women there, Greenham is such a space, The state and employers in the UK have
like the space we are creating through the been using various strategies to co-opt and
women's movement in the Rural Workers' confuse trade unions in Britain. These
Union in Brazil. include repression, and the co-opting of
We exchanged addresses and are going union leaders, who identify more with the
to try to support each other in our middle-class than with workers, and feel
struggles. When we in Brazil are going threatened by legislation that allows them
through difficulties or confrontations, we to be prosecuted at times of strikes. The
will let the women at Greenham know, and participation of women in trade unions can
they will support us with letters and make an important contribution and point
telegrams sent to influential people whom to new and more appropriate directions.
we will identify. The crisis in which trade unions find
themselves at the moment in Britain can
The women of the TGWU have negative consequences for workers'
in Southampton movements elsewhere. Trade unionism in
Britain is of historical importance to the
We had two days of meeting with two world, and is often used as a bench mark.
women from the union, one of whom was Its weakening can be seen as reflection of
recently elected to the National Executive. what may happen in other countries. This
As a result of these meetings, and could slow down workers' struggles for
subsequent meetings with other groups, their rights and the construction of a more
we would like to make the following just world. Again, women have a special
observations: contribution to make in terms of bringing
The repressive force of the state in new insights and new ways forward, if
Britain has considerably limited and they are prepared to define new and
weakened the capacity of trade unions to correct directions and proposals. The union
act. Two examples of this are the action of women were particularly interested in the
the government against the miners during way the women's movement in the
the 1984-5 strike, and anti-union legislation Brazilian Rural Workers' Union is
introduced in the last decade. organised.
We observed that workers are going Repression from the state and the
through a period of low morale, with a employers exists in Britain. Subtle and
feeling that it is not worthwhile fighting. In sophisticated means are used to control the
this context, we perceived the great unions. They do not kill union leaders as
difficulties experienced by British women happens in Brazil, but they kill the
in relation to their participation in the struggle, the courage, and the dreams of
Towards international solidarity 47

liberation for workers. The police are that people felt uncomfortable, and wanted
repressive in a sophisticated way, under to discover ways of helping the Third
the guise of self-protection, and it is World; almost as if people here had
difficult for workers to get unbiased already found the solution to their own
coverage in the press, much of which is problems. We have been left with the
unsympathetic to their cause. impression that the majority of people here
We discussed ways of sharing are not conscious of the situation of
experience, information, and our different workers in this country, and are more
methodologies, and how to support each worried about workers in other countries.
other,through showing solidarity by We also observed that English people
writing letters and sending faxes at critical are very conditioned and legalistic. This
times. We also discussed how to get over has implications in terms of the concepts of
the problems of language, culture, and solidarity and development assistance.
distance. How can people be in solidarity with other
struggles when they know so little about
the difficulties faced by workers in their
Conclusion own countries?
I have found that views of development
and current events in the South and North Vanete Almeida works on rural development
are very different. In reality, there is a need issues and with the trade union movement in
for a certain awakening in the North. Brazil.
Perhaps it is easier for people to talk of
'struggles' elsewhere, rather than being
aware of problems and struggles within
their own society. This makes it difficult for
Southern and Northern women to define
future strategies for mutual action. So the
process of linking for the future has been
started, but it will need more, and deeper,
contact with other groups to create links
between grassroots organisations in South
and North.
I, and the other seven women from
Southern countries who took part in the
visit, felt there was a big difference
between the attitudes of people we met
who were actively participating in actions
and struggles, such as the women at
Greenham, and those who were not
involved in such action. It seems to be of
paramount importance to create links and
network with grassroots groups in the
'working class'. Although I was able to get
some idea of rural life in Britain, I did not
get a chance to meet women in their work On her trip to the UK as part of Oxfam's
places. Women's Linking Project, Vanete Almeida visited
the grave of James Hammett, a pioneer of trades
In our various meetings with different unionism.
groups in Southampton, we often sensed
48

Women, particiption, and international fora

International lobbying
for change
a Northern view of South-North linking
Mary van Lieshout

P
erhaps more than any other previous translated into 21 languages, sponsored by
conference, the UN World Confer- over 900 women's organisations world-
ence on Human Rights in Vienna is wide, and it carried almost 500,000 signa-
remembered for the strength of the tures to the conference. The key to this
women's voice; an articulate, unrelenting mass campaign was identifying centres
voice, demanding to be heard and and activists in each country who could
accommodated. Crucial to the success of disseminate the petition and conduct
the campaign of the women's caucus in education and awareness campaigns
Vienna was the single-mindedness of around the issue.
women activists across the globe, who co- In India, a women's group gathered
operated to demand with one voice that several hundred signatures for the petition
violence done to women in their intimate during a public demonstration staged to
relationships, by their partners, fathers, protest about the failure of the authorities
husbands, boyfriends, relatives, is a to prosecute a physician who had burnt his
violation of human rights, and not a wife to death. In Ireland, the petition came
'family affair'. One after another, Govern- alive when the public learnt of a young
ment Ministers and delegates to the man who was given a suspended sentence
Conference stressed the importance of after he was convicted of raping his 18-
women's human rights, and the 'Vienna year-old girlfriend. The young woman
Declaration', the final conference docu- broke with conventional practice, and
ment, reflected this commitment. revealed her identity on television and in
Preparation for Vienna began two years national newspapers, speaking about her
earlier when, in November 1991, activists feelings regarding the sentencing and what
on gender violence launched a worldwide the rape had done to her. Public empathy
petition, working through national and with the young woman, and outrage with
local refuges for victims of gender violence. the 'system', was successfully harnessed by
The petition called for the United Nations campaigners, who gathered thousands of
to recognise women's human rights at the signatures for the worldwide petition. In
World Conference. It was ultimately Southern Africa, Women in Law and

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


International lobbying for change 49

Development Africa (WILDAF) was a Forms of Violence against Women, in their


leading organiser for the petition; in Latin opening address.
America, the Feminist International Radio It is necessary to be realistic about what
Endeavour supported women's groups lobbying can achieve, and to make sure
throughout the region by spreading that the issue is relevant to the targets of
information and raising awareness about the lobbying. How should women who
the forthcoming conference; in Asia, the wish to organise around an issue identify
Women's Human Rights Council did the lobbying objectives which will be relevant
same. to international agencies? Anne Fitzpatrick,
Meanwhile, activists and NGOs were Coordinator of the Women's Issues Groups
closely monitoring the UN preparations for at the Association of Returned Develop-
the Human Rights Conference. A ment Workers in Ireland, recommends that
questionnaire on women's human rights the issue is 'relevant universally the
was developed and distributed by the issue of gender violence is a universal
Centre for Women's Global Leadership, for phenomenon, to which all women
NGOs to present to their national everywhere can relate'. This view is
delegations. The questionnaire probed confirmed by Charlotte Bunch, the Director
delegations on their position on CEDAW of the Centre for Women's Global
(the Convention on the Elimination of All Leadership, who said at the time of the
Forms of Discrimination Against Women), Conference, 'women have always organ-
the composition of the government ised locally to take action on common
delegation, and on governments' national problems. Over time, as women formed
plans of action. regional, national and eventually
Delegates from national governments international linkages, they found that one
worldwide met three times prior to the issue united them across culture, class, and
conference, at preparatory committee religion: the problem of violence against
meetings or 'prepcoms', with the specific women.'
aim of drafting the conference document in Banulacht, a leading campaigning
a way which would demonstrate world organisation on gender and development
concern for human rights and provide a in Ireland, works for change by linking
concrete programme of action which could local women's groups in Ireland with
support and enhance current mechanisms women's groups in the South. 'Sharing
which deal with human rights abuses. concern on key issues gives us common
Activists on gender violence flocked to ground and creates the basis for building
national and regional meetings and to the alliances and developing strategies to effect
three official 'prepcoms'; they urged the change, while acknowledging differences
drafters to recognise in the document that of class, colour, religion, and ethnicity both
violence against women is a violation of at home and in developing countries,' says
human rights. Furthermore, they wanted Rita McNulty, founder of Banulacht. 'To
the conference to recommend and approve get our perspective and recommendations
the appointment of a Special Rapporteur right for the conference in Vienna we met
(Investigator) on women's rights. with as many local women's groups in
The activists had two further objectives Ireland and Southern women's NGOs as
related to UN Human Rights mechanisms: possible.'
women activists wanted those countries Linking of Southern and Northern
who had not yet signed CEDAW to do so, NGOs was vital to the quality of the
and delegations were asked to state their Banulacht policy paper for the conference.
support for a Draft Convention Against all The first draft of our position paper on the
50 Focus on Gender

conference focused almost exclusively on best way to meet our objectives, it is the
gender violence a reflection of the only way to ensure our message is
success of that campaign! However, after genuine/The International Women's
meeting with activists from around the Health Coalition, based in New York,
world including, India, Nicaragua, organised activities and disseminated
Brazil, and the Philippines our paper information to health activists throughout
took a much broader view of human rights, the world with this aim in mind. The Rio
and included powerful condemnations of meeting, hosted by the Coalition, resulted
structural adjustment programmes, in a 16-point declaration which reflected
trafficking of women, the abuse of the tremendous amount of work required
indigenous peoples, and a number of other before women enjoy optimum sexual and
global issues. What's more, it was reproductive health.
relatively easy to earn government support
on these issues when we provided relevant
and credible documentation to support our
Lobbying in a South-North
demands.'
partnership
With regard to the long history of exclusion
and marginalisation of Southern women in
Finding a common development and in the international
platform feminist movement, how can we ensure
In some cases, there is no universal that in campaigning and lobbying for
straightforward message that bonds change, the relationship between Southern
activists. This was the situation faced by and Northern NGOS respects both parties
the women wishing to lobby on the issue of and is a true partnership for change?
reproductive rights, at the International Petronella Maramba, consultant to
Conference on Population and WILDAF, based in Harare, Zimbabwe,
Development in Cairo in September 1994. believes that the preparation work for the
Chris Mulvery, a long-standing activist in Vienna Conference, and in particular the
Ireland, states that 'finding a common regional networks that were set up, did
denominator on the issue of population much to alleviate tensions between
policies was difficult; many participants at Northern and Southern NGOs: 'The
a recent meeting in Rio were arguing for tension comes from the fact that we as
women-centred population programmes, Southern NGOs are not on equal footing
and had specific proposals for such. Others with Northern NGOs; one is a donor, the
opposed population polices in their other a recipient. Northern NGOs are not
entirety as being inherently coercive. There as free from their donors as they would
was unanimous opposition to many issues like to think they are, and that of course
but the discussions were sometimes influences their decisions when we
heated.' confront them with some of our views.'
Respecting diversity on issues of Maramba believes Northern NGOs do
reproductive rights is essential, yet not so much determine the issues to be
feminists, gender and development resolved as the strategies to be used. 'For
practitioners, and academics needed to example, women from the rural areas have
explore areas of commonality in order to addressed many of their problems through
achieve a strong voice at Cairo. As Christianity; Northern NGOs, with their
Mulvery says, 'we all want a conference own perspectives on Christianity, often
document which is strong and reflects our don't acknowledge that some Southern
diversity; lobbying together is not only the women are using it as part of a strategy for
International lobbying for change 51

development. It is a very good example of series of meetings that went on over a


an approach that Northern NGOS don't number of years,' says Mary Purcell,
recognise or support.' coordinator of the US campaign in
Jean Somers, coordinator of The Debt Washington DC. 'This involved ongoing
and Development Coalition Ireland, and consultation between Northern and
currently involved in the worldwide Southern NGOs specifically trying to
campaign for reform of the IMF and The identify the most serious problems in the
World Bank, believes Northern NGOs will South, as the Southern partners saw them.
not achieve their objectives in the What we attempt to do is provide space in
campaign on the Bretton Woods our country for Southern NGO's to speak
Institutions unless Southern NGOs lead. for themselves. Also, we attempt to steer
'Southern NGOs have a much better reporters and policy makers to those
understanding based on experience Southern NGOs who are working on the
of the nature of these institutions, their issue.'
structures, the main players and the actual Perhaps the most crucial conference and
programmes they're prescribing,' says lobbying opportunity for Women's NGOs
Somers. 'We need to develop a way of faces us now in the form of the Fourth
working that means our agenda of World Conference on Women due to take
demands is developed collectively, and place in Bejing next September. Pauline
that we work in an integrated manner from Eccles, former co-ordinator of WIDE, says
our different positions in the globe.' that the greatest accomplishment of the
The campaign for reform of the BWI past decade is that women have become
'Fifty years is Enough' is coordinated in visible in statistics, in development
Washington DC and involves NGOs planning. This is directly linked to their
throughout the world, all campaigning for increased expertise as influencers and
a much-diminished IMF, and a reformed lobbyists, which is achieved through co-
World Bank. The aims of the campaign are operation, linking, and networking.
to reform the Bank's gender policies, Eccles hopes Beijing 1995 will proclaim
environmental programmes, and account- an alternative development strategy,
ability mechanisms, and the campaign will informed and led by the experiences of
culminate at the Annual Meeting of the women working together from around the
IMF and the World Bank in Madrid in globe, and represented by solid lobbying
October 1994. Organisations involved from a women's caucus from NGOs. The
include the Freedom from Debt Coalition enormous power of the women's caucus at
in the Philippines, Oxfam Belgique, Down Vienna, followed by the potent charter on
to Earth from India, Women in women's 'equality, equity and empower-
Development Europe (WIDE), and The ment' produced for Cairo, suggest that this
European Network on Debt and aim might well be achieved by working in
Development (EURODAD), among many partnership around the globe.
others.
Each country involved in the campaign Mary van Lieshout works for Oxfam in Ireland,
has its specific interests and its own focusing on campaigns, lobbying and advocacy.
campaign, but all of the 185 partner NGOs
have endorsed a common five-point
platform. With 85 NGOs based in the US
alone, how does the campaign ensure it is
democratic, and a genuine partnership?
'The platform was developed through a
52

Facilitating women's
participation in UN Conferences
the experience of WEDO
WEDO staff writers

T
he Women's Environment and participating in UN conference preparatory
Development Organisation (WEDO) committee and regional meetings with a
was initiated by an international daily meeting place at which they can
policy action committee convened by the exchange information, jointly analyse and
Women USA Fund, Inc. in 1989, to prepare discuss the official documents, and define
for the June 1992 UN Conference on areas of agreement and disagreement on
Environment and Development (UNCED). issues, strategies, and tactics. The overall
WEDO was formed as a result of the goal of the Caucus is to strengthen and
organisation's growing focus on women's broaden women's advocacy roles in
relationship to the worsening international helping to ensure that the official UN
environment and poverty crisis. This focus conference documents positively reflect the
was a natural evolution from our concern scope and diversity of the needs,
with increasing the participation and perspectives, and recommendations of
visibility of women in policy-making on women from every region of the world.
global security issues. It was clear that, Our work is informed by a feminist
with the winding down of the cold war, analysis, as reflected in the Women's
global security had to be redefined in terms Action Agenda 21, produced at the Miami
of environmental protection, reallocation of World Women's Congress for a Healthy
resources, economic justice, human rights Planet in 1991.
and an equal say for women in 'Fate of the The Caucus meetings, which usually last
Earth' decisions. about an hour each morning, are focused
One of the important aspects of WEDO's directly on the Preparatory Committee's
work is organising women's caucuses. deliberations on proposed language for its
WEDO started to organise caucuses during official documents. This leaves ample time
the preparatory process for UNCED. The for participants to talk with delegates, to
Women's Caucus which WEDO organised pursue their special interests, organise, and
then, and the advocacy methodology it attend workshops, forums and other
developed during the 1991-1992 UNCED activities.
process, was the key to getting literally The Caucus is a democratic political
hundreds of women's recommendations vehicle for consensus-building and open
incorporated into the official UNCED discussion, recognising different view-
Agenda 21, which was approved at the Rio points, emphases, and independent actions
Earth Summit. where they exist. It encourages the broad-est
The Women's Caucus provides NGOs possible participation by grassroots women,

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


Facilitating women's participation in UN conferences 53

and the many new women's networks that


have been organised since the 1985
Women's Conference in Nairobi. The
Women's Caucus is open to all NGOs, as
well as to UN delegates who may wish to
participate. The chairperson position is
rotated to ensure that all regions are
included in leadership roles. The agenda,
which usually includes briefings, updates,
and discussion of strategies and substan-
tive issues, is responsive to the participants'
special concerns. Any Caucus statements or
actions are taken by consensus, without in
any way limiting the rights of participants
to take independent actions.
The methodology of the caucus
approach, developed by WEDO Co-Chair
Bella Abzug, a former member of the US At UNCED in 1993 and since, WEDO's role has
Congress, has proved to be so effective and been to enable individual women, and groups like
popular that we have now followed up by the one pictured here, to use their power
organising caucuses at the Commission on collectively as a pressure group to lobby
Sustainable Development meetings and international bodies and decision makers.
other international conferences, including
preparatory meetings for the 1994 of the world, and the recommendations of
International Conference on Population official and unofficial regional meetings.
and Development (ICPD), the 1995 Social The Caucus has proved to be a successful
Summit, and the 1995 Fourth World innovation that empowers women to make
Conference on Women. Caucuses are also a difference.
organised at regional meetings. To participate in the Women's Caucus for
Among the services WEDO provides in upcoming UN conference meetings, contact:
facilitating the work of the Women's Women's Environment and Development
Caucus is making physical arrangements Organisation (WEDO), 845 Third Avenue,
for the daily meetings (reserving and 15th floor, New York, NY 10022, USA. Tel:
staffing a large conference room at the (212) 759-8647 E-mail ivedo@igc.org
UN); obtaining, as early as possible, and
distributing relevant UN documents; co-
ordinating the writing, production,and
distribution of Caucus statements,
materials and proposed annotated changes
to the official documents; assisting
newcomers to understand UN processes,
and encouraging women to act as issues
advocates with their country's delegates
and missions. Both the UN Conference
document and consensus statements from
the Women's Caucus undergo a lengthy
and open process of review, reflecting the
needs and proposals of NGOs in all parts
54

Treading new paths


the methodology of the Women Linking for Change
Conference
Maria Suarez Toro

T
he creation of an appropriate and The Gender Team selected a team of
innovative conference methodology women facilitators from the South to
can be as complex as determining the design and implement the methodology of
needs and interests of women, and how the conference, and the objectives
development initiatives should seek to meet expressed in the Global Declaration
them! In organising the 'Women Linking for (printed in full elsewhere in this issue)
Change' Conference, held in Thailand from were the same prioritised by this team.
February 26 to March 2, 1994, Oxfam's Sheelu Francis, Deborah Kasente, Wanjiru
Gender Team aimed to 'contribute to Kihoro, Maitrayee Mukhopadhayay,
making gender-fair policies and pro- Gertrude Ranjo-Libang and myself knew
grammes, that are sensitive to Southern when we met to design the methodology
women's collective perspectives, central to that if Southern women's struggle is to
Oxfam's work and understanding'. integrate a gender perspective into
This was to be done by bringing development, the conference methodology
together different constituencies (Southern should be based on the lessons which a
women's organisations, Oxfam field staff gender perspective teaches us.
and heads of offices, and Northern funding We agreed that the conference must
organisations) in a forum for learning create a process by which people from
through an examination of Oxfam's work, different constituencies could meet, and
with reference to the needs and expect- leave behind their positions of power in the
ations of Southern women. This learning process. This meant the conference must be
was to be converted into a plan of action. participatory, focusing on the issues in
We women from the South have made it gender and development, rather than
clear to the world that, as far as we are concentrating on the hierarchies existing
concerned, development cannot happen between those who attended.
without a gender perspective, if there is to The conference should draw on different
be development at all. Following this, the experiences through developing 'cycles' in
rhetoric used by development agencies of which participants were asked to exchange
'empowerment' has to do with power for their views and arrive at an analysis. These
women, and power to the peoples of the analyses should fuse, through a process of
South. We need this power to enable us to negotiation, into agreements based on
face the devastation that 'development' reviewing our practice in gender and
models from the North have created development, our options regarding future
throughout the world. development initiatives, and the felt needs

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


Treading new paths 55

and interests of women, especially women the conference has been divided into three
from the South. moments. We use this terminology for a
How does this approach differ from a number of reasons. By referring to
more conventional methodology? Our 'moments', rather than stages, we are able
experience of many conferences had taught to convey a sense of opening and closing of
us that while we may gain information cycles, one at a time, each cycle stemming
from experts, either women or men, from the previous one. We also wanted to
normally this is given through the medium convey the participatory nature of the
of formal talks to an audience who may process necessary for creating a situation
then, at most, be invited to ask questions. wherein common understanding and
The exchange of participants' experience, strategies can be formulated.'
and negotiating between constituencies, The first 'moment', The Global Context
happen outside the formal framework of Through a Gendered Lens', encouraged
the conference. Conference topics, issues, participants to examine where different
and debates are seldom linked to one stakeholders attending the conference were,
another through methodological processes in relation to current gender and
that help to achieve an integratedf vision. development issues. The five issues focused
This fragmentation has not come from on were violence against women, health and
women; on the contrary, women's gender reproductive rights, socio-political rights
perspective has made the links and and women's participation, women's
connections between power, democracy, economic rights, and environment and
development, and rights. Integrating the sustainable development. The objective of
gender perspective into development this 'moment' was to help participants relate
requires a process whereby people are their personal experiences of these issues to
faced with looking at everything through a the regional and global context.
'gender lens', which allows them to make Individual statements were drafted by
the connections between all issues affected each participant. Regional working groups
by gender inequity. followed, in which each participant shared
In our view it is women who lose the her or his personal experience, and
most in these conference structures, attempted to contextualise it in a regional
because our expertise, both in sharing and global setting.
experience and in negotiating, is not met in Following this was a panel discussion:
these parliamentary-style assemblies, but Alda Facio of Costa Rica and Jane
in cross-fertilisation in both large and small Esuantsiwa Goldsmith of the UK delivered
groups. In recent years, women in testimonies relating their own experiences
particular have been involved in the wide- to the global context. Key issues included
scale development and use of 'workshop' cultural and racial identity, finding a voice
methodologies. These create fora where within the women's movement, violence
people come together to share particular against women, and the need to combat
experiences and produce 'negotiated' this through questioning all aspects of
conclusions. Such methodologies do not male-dominated society, including the law.
appear to have been taken into account Then, groups reported the substance of
when most conferences are organised. their discussions; this triggered a debate
which led to a broader and deeper
understanding of sexual discrimination
Structure of the conference and the subordination of women in daily
In the words of our introduction to the life, and the way this is expressed in
conference programme, 'the programme of development structures.
56 Focus on Gender

Avila of Brazil gave a vision of each of the


issues as they were expressed in the
dramatisations, and made the connections
between the issues and development.
After the mixed group work and the
panel, each constituency met to start
discussing their practice in light of the
feedback received throughout the first
moment and the activities of the second
moment. They shared their views on their
choices of strategies to be used for change,
and prepared statements of commitment to
be brought to the third and last 'moment'.
That night, there were optional
Maria Suarez Toro and Ara Wilson at the
activities: a panel about the Fourth World
Women's Linking Project Thailand Conference.
Conference on women convened by the
A Thai cultural night at the end of the United Nations to be held in China in 1995,
first 'moment' helped all participants come visits to the market, or regional meetings.
closer to issues central to Thai life, Most of what came out of them was to be
including traditional dancing, educational brought to the negotiations that would take
theatre to combat the spread of AIDS, and place during the third and last moment.
modern music, besides giving us all an The third 'moment', 'Back to the Future',
opportunity to learn to dance to Thai invited the participants to look at the ways
music! forward for future gender work. Based on
The second 'moment', entitled 'Our the first and second 'moments', and the
Practice Reviewed' looked at how the common understanding developed in
constituencies were addressing gender relation to the context and practices, the
concerns. Goals, roles, practices, and participants began to look at strategies and
institutional settings were re-visited in mechanisms to help to link the
light of the common understanding arrived constituencies. They also attempted to
at in the preceding 'moment'. The five key develop an agenda to challenge the
issues from the previous day were dominant development paradigm which
discussed through case studies which gave marginalises gender concerns.
rise to dramatic role-plays by small mixed- After a panel entitled 'Adjusting the
constituency groups. Participants looked at Structures: Perspectives on Development',
the goals and practices of development where Sara Longwe and women from the
institutions and their role in relation to the Southern regions expressed their views,
other stakeholders in development. After women from the Southern regions issued a
the role-play, the groups discussed their strong statement about their expectations
discoveries, looked at weaknesses in related to Oxfam and other development or
development co-operation between funding agencies. Oxfam itself issued a
stakeholders, assessed where the strengths statement of commitment to respond to it.
and links lay, and drafted suggestions for Following this, women representing other
ways in which each constituency could development agencies and members of the
help to bridge the gaps. This was followed international Oxfam family met to look at
by a panel discussion, 'Analysis for their commitments to gender issues.
Action', where Sara Longwe of Zambia, In the last plenary, entitled 'Analysis for
Alda Facio, Jane Goldsmith, and Betania Action', all the constituencies presented
Treading new paths 57

their commitments to integrating gender multi-national facilitation team, etc' (Jane


into development, and supporting the Goldsmith, National Alliance of Women's
activities of women's organisations in Organisations, UK)
relation to the major international Others felt differently about it, stating
conferences which are to take place in the that the conference did not cover all issues
near future, such as the Social Develop- concerning women; for example, conflict
ment Conference convened by the United situations. Others felt that it was too tight
Nations and the forthcoming Fourth World an agenda, and that women from the South
Conference on Women. did not have enough of a voice. One
Voices in the plenary made commit- woman stated that she has found
ments of support to grassroots local and difficulties in relating the issues discussed
regional activities by women's organis- at the conference to the realities of her daily
ations, and priority was given to support of work. Some women stated that there were
the development of the women's move- methodological problems at some points,
ment as a major agent in the promotion of problems with translations, and not
gender-sensitive develop-ment. Another enough time to speak in plenaries.
highlight was the commit-ment of the This mixed reaction confirms that a
Oxfam family to influence other European challenge lies ahead for other conferences
institutions in this perspective. to attempt a participatory approach which
respects and builds on the richness of
experience among delegates. Gender-
Views on the methodology sensitive development requires gender-
Participants were asked to evaluate the sensitive methodologies in all encounters
success of this innovative participatory where the gender perspective is discussed.
conference methodology. As with the In this way, the small-group participatory
gender and development approach itself, and democratic methodologies which have
perceptions about the legitimacy and been developed by women throughout the
results of the methodology were varied South will benefit not only small-scale
and contradictory. activities but larger, and mainstream,
This conference has helped me to widen events. The innovative methodology used
my own views on gender and development. at Oxfam's Women Linking for Change
I hope the linkages at various levels will be Conference was a ground-breaking
kept, developed and strengthened.' (Lajana experience that needs to be valued,
Manandhar, Oxfam Office, Nepal) assessed, and adjusted for the future.
'It was a good opportunity to develop
linkages, enter into dialogues, better Maria Suarez Tow works for FIRE (Feminist
understanding of gender issues both at the International Radio Endeavour) in Costa Rica,
micro and macro level. But I feel that the and was a facilitator at the WLP Thailand
sessions were packed, leaving hardly any Conference.
time for optional meetings. It was indeed a
good platform both for learning as well as
linking of Northern and Southern women's
organisations and Oxfam staff.' (Amar Jeet
Kaur, Field Office, India)
'Actually, it was brilliant I loved it,
learnt much, even from the problems. The
methodology has come light years along
the road congratulations. The songs, the
58

Breaking down the barriers


European and Chinese women linking
Nicola Macbean

T
he experience of Chinese women this In an effort to bring women in China
century attracted the early attention and Europe closer together, while
of the women's movement world- simultaneously addressing some of the
wide. The Communist Revolution of 1949 training needs for the Fourth World
transformed the status of women in China, Conference, the Great Britain-China Centre
supporting those who argued that radical organised a ten-day summer school in July
social change and socialism could do the 1994 in Beijing, for young Chinese women.
same for women in the West. Subsequent The training objectives for the summer
developments have undermined China's school were to improve their spoken
early image of a progressive feminist state: English, develop communication skills,
these include China's one-child policy, and promote participatory learning in
the disillusionment with state socialism, workshops, and provide an introduction to
which came to a head with the dramatic and the position of women, their organisations
tragic events of 1989 when the democracy and activities, in Europe and the South.
movement was forcibly put down. The summer school was also intended to
In the post-Cold War world, human give our seven European facilitators an
rights are high on the agenda for agencies opportunity to learn at first hand about the
and countries who conduct relations with activities of women's organisations in
China, and the abuse of Chinese women's China, both within the mainstream All
reproductive rights is now a major issue. China Women's Federation (ACWF) and in
Lack of international respect for China the burgeoning women's studies centres,
though this is arguably modified by world hotlines, and social-service-oriented groups
envy of the pace of its economic growth which are currently being established
across the country.
has helped to leave Chinese women largely
outside the international women's In order to facilitate contacts between
movement, and has undermined prepar- the official women's federation and the
ations for the 1995 Fourth World Con- emerging non-governmental sector, it was
ference on Women. However, the North agreed that half of the participants should
lacks information about the complexity of be nominated by the ACWF, to include
the situation of women in China, and there representatives of the headquarters and
is a danger of neglecting many of the provincial branches, as well as the quasi-
positive achievements in our haste to NGOs who have been given the
condemn abuses of women's rights by the responsibility of running workshops at
Chinese state. next year's NGO Forum. The other half

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


Breaking down the barriers 59

were nominated by 'mentors' actively


involved in women's issues, who selected
participants from the universities and other
women's groups. The Women's Federation,
who will control Chinese attendance at the
1995 NGO Forum associated with the 1995
World Conference, agreed that all the
participants at the summer school would
be able to take part in the Forum.

The Chinese NGO sector


Some of the international unease about
China hosting next year's World
Conference and the associated NGO Forum to
i
is due to the ambivalent status of non- o
governmental organisations in China. X
H
The government-sponsored ACWF was
established in 1949 to 'represent and 'Summer School News' the participants'
uphold women's rights and interests and newspaper was a great success
promote equality between men and
All Chinese NGOs must be affiliated to
women'. It is a large bureaucratic
a legal counterpart which may provide
organisation, determined to dominate the
administrative and financial support, but
women's movement in China, and closely
also approves the organisation's leaders
involved with the implementation of the
and activities. The registration procedure is
one-child policy, but it has also lobbied
approved by the Ministry of Civil Affairs.
hard for the 1992 Law to Protect the Rights
The challenge for new organisations is to
and Interests of Women, and has been
identify a sponsor willing to adopt a
instrumental in raising the issue of female
suitably 'arm's-length' approach to
infanticide and its links to restrictive
supervision. One of the main problems
population policy.
facing such organisations is securing long-
In seeking to present the ACWF as an term financial support. In the absence of
NGO, China has been embarrassed local funding, the hotline has relied on
internationally. This has obscured global international sources, including The Global
recognition of the emergence of a more Fund for Women and the Ford Foundation.
genuine, if small, NGO sector in China. In
recent years, a number of social-service-
oriented organisations have been Empowerment through action
established, largely by and for women, and
most of these organisations were A sense of individual empowerment was
represented at the summer school. One of one of the more rewarding outcomes of the
the better-known is the Beijing Women's summer school. In an article to the school's
Hotline, which provides telephone advice newspaper, one of the participants
and counselling to women and men. It was suggested that since 1949 the majority of
set up by the Women's Research Institute, a women in China were politically passive,
non-governmental organisation under the trusting to the government for the intro-
sponsorship of the Chinese Academy of duction of policies promoting women's
Management Science. interests. The vast majority came away
60 Focus on Gender

from the summer school believing in the incentives, and the availability of pensions.
possibility of change and seeing a role for They accept that this does not apply in
themselves in defending women's rural areas, and recognise that the large
interests, and feeling that the summer number of migrant women seeking
school helped them to identify issues for opportunities in the cities fall outside the
further action. Many also came to see the control of the family-planning authorities.
benefit to their causes of mastering the It is also widely recognised that, in a
techniques of the media, and all felt that country with strong son preference, the
the summer school boosted their one-child policy is contributing to a
confidence in speaking in public. problem of 'missing girls' in the country-
The impact of economic reform on side, as a result of selective abortion due to
women in China has been varied, but one the ready availability of ultrasound, failure
issue has dominated the agenda: discrim- to register the birth, infant mortality
ination against women in employment. through neglect, or, more rarely, through
Companies have been made responsible infanticide. Although a de facto two-child
for their own profit and loss, but a compre- policy, if a first child is a girl, has emerged
hensive maternity benefits system has still in many provinces, the government
to be established. Although the Women's remains publicly committed to the one-
Federation recognises the problem in its child policy. Chinese academics working in
report on the implementation of the the field of population studies, and
Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies, the themselves critical of the use of coercion in
issue has been taken up with much more family planning, call for more international
vigour by the National Committee for involvement in China.
Chinese Women Workers of the All China
Federation of Trade Unions. Participants at
the summer school echoed other women's Networking
organisations in calling for the establish- Although personalised networks of guanxi
ment of a national system of maternity (contacts) are essential to success in
insurance, to be funded by all employers Chinese society, there is little experience of
regardless of the number of their women the less personal and more professional
workers. networking at both the national and the
The issue of domestic violence has only international level. Most of the service-
recently been discussed publicly in China, oriented women's groups that have
partly thanks to the work of organisations recently emerged in China are unfamiliar
such as the Beijing Women's Hot Line and with the experience of similar groups in the
the Women's Legal Centre at Wuhan West and in the South, and are often
University, which has revealed the extent equally cut off from each other. The Open
of violence in the home through surveys Door policy has encouraged international
and case work. contacts, but lack of funds and the
On the other hand, reproductive health difficulty of international travel have
issues are still highly sensitive, and the continued to isolate the non-governmental
workshop on health approached the issue sector from the international arena.
obliquely through the documented Women's groups in China are hoping that
experiences of women in India. Most urban next year's Forum will provide the
women in China have accepted the opportunity for establishing a thriving
arguments for a one-child policy, no doubt domestic and international network, and
in part because of cramped living the summer school helped to lay the
conditions, the prospect of economic groundwork for future exchanges.
Breaking down the barriers 61

Participants from Hong Kong and the Mainland deep in discussion over gender aware development
policies

Reaching grassroots women Chinese women are being given an


opportunity to organise and discuss a
The requirement that participants were range of issues that might otherwise have
fluent English-speakers unfortunately long remained off the public agenda. They
restricted the opportunity to attend the have also been given a unique opportunity
summer school to women from the urban to meet their counterparts from around the
areas. Both the ACWF and women's world. Next year's conference promises to
studies centres, such as the Rural Women's be a catalyst for an empowerment of
Studies Group at Beijing Agricultural women in China that may, in the long run,
Engineering University, have recently tried challenge many aspects of the
to address the needs of rural women government's economic and social
through training programmes offering programme.
literacy training and upgrading of income-
generating skills. The long-term success of Nicola Macbean is Director of the Great
such initiatives in addressing the problems Britain-China Centre. The Summer School was
facing rural women will, to an extent, organised by the Centre in conjunction with the
depend on how far such programmes are Women's Studies Forum, Beijing Foreign
able to respond to the demands of rural Studies University, and the All China
women themselves in a situation where Women's Federation. It was sponsored by the
rural women's participation in decision Overseas Development Administration with
making is still very limited. the help of John Swire & Sons, the Ford
In conclusion, as China prepares for Foundation and the Great Britain-China
next year's World Conference on Women, Centre.
62

Working with existing partners

Breaking the patriarchal


alliance
governments, bi-laterals, and NGOs
Sara Hlupekile Longwe

D
iscussion of North-South develop- reversed. Such underlying and opposed
ment co-operation often centres on attitudes are a barrier to honest North-
improving links, understanding, South dialogue. Beneath the technical and
and commitment between the co-operants. politically neutral discourse on improving
For example, it is said that the North productivity, improved technology, and
should not impose its Northern values, but investment in human resources, there lurks
should understand the Southern perspec- the suspicion of a hidden agenda, with
tive; development links must be purged of each side pursuing different and quite
all power imbalance, and we must work opposed national interests.
towards a truly bilateral and equal But the area of gender and development
dialogue, with respect and understanding is a curious exception to this general
on both sides. pattern. It is in the area of women's
The problem is characterised here as a oppression that a strange alliance develops
lack of common values and objectives, the between the Northern development
lack of trust, and the lack of honest agency, and the Southern government. It is
dialogue between North and South. Very in this area that the surface technical
often the Northern attitude is that discourse serves to conceal common
development aid is provided as a favour, interests, rather than opposed interests.
to improve the lot of 'backward' peoples, Both sides have a common interest in the
and to bring them into the twentieth continued subordination and economic
century. Conversely, the alternative exploitation of women. This, of course, is
perspective from the South is that not a common interest to be made explicit.
development aid is a modern form of The nearest the alliance can come to an
colonialism, which perpetuates both admission and defence of lack of action on
North-South inequality and structural women's advancement is to put forward
inequality within the South, and props up the joint claim that 1x>th sides must respect
corrupt regimes. custom and tradition'.1
From the first perspective, the attitude Gender issues are therefore in a
of the donor is insulting to the recipient. paradoxical position as far as North-South
From the second perspective, the insult is alliance is concerned. In most areas of

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


Breaking the patriarchal alliance 63

This group of women in Zimbabwe are still able to congregate by their new water pump. Other women
find that the arrival of new technology heralds the loss of such a valuable opportunity for informal
networking.

development the problem is lack of North- ascribes different social roles according to
South alliance. But gender inequality is the sex. A gender issue is automatically a
subject of a strong North-South patriarchal political issue, since it involves the unequal
alliance. Here, the problem is to break this distribution of resources between the two
existing bond, and to replace it with a genders, arising out of male domination of
North-South sisterhood alliance to pursue the political system which allows men to
objectives of gender equality. allocate to women the heavier burden of
This paper argues that this North-South labour and the more menial tasks, but to
patriarchal bond is essentially a men more leisure and the larger share of
government-to-government alliance, and rewards and benefits.
there is a special place for NGOs in Such a social system of male control for
working to break this bond by mobilising male advantage is called patriarchy. It
the North-South sisterhood to recognise its exists to some extent in all countries of the
existence and to take action to expose it, world, but tends to be more compre-
undermine it, and destroy it. hensive, more inegalitarian, and more
brutal in the South. As is discussed later,
Gender issues: technocratic the political system of patriarchy depends
and political perspectives to a large extent on belief in patriarchal
ideology for its legitimation and contin-
First, we need to understand the political uance, and also on male violence to keep
dimensions inherent in gender issues. women in their place.
Gender issues arise from the sense of the But wait! Are we allowed to say such
injustice in 'gender gaps', where society things? Or, more precisely, can we conduct
64 Focus on Gender

such analysis within the conventions and resources. There is a special focus on
vocabulary of normal North-South women's heavier burden of labour, and
development discourse? We have clearly therefore a special interest in the improved
stepped outside the normal technical and skills and technology with which women's
non-political vocabulary of a project burden of labour can be lessened, and their
proposal! The language of a Northern productivity increased.
government development agency is non- Let us ground our discussion by looking
political, and even more definitely non- at an actual concrete example of a gender
ideological. Development is seen as a purely problem common in the South: lack of
technical matter of more effective and adequate water supply for a village. This,
efficient utilisation of the factors of of course, is immediately a gender
production. There is no question of using problem, because it is traditionally the job
words like 'discrimination', 'oppression', or of women to draw and carry water. To
'ideology'. In fact 'politics' and 'ideology' make the position more specific, we may
are supposed to be treated as particularly consider the case of an African village,
dirty words, as the emotive and irrational where women have to carry water from the
aspects of social life which interfere with the nearest stream, which lies three kilometres
rational and scientific utilisation of from the village.
resources. From the 'access to resources' point of
view, the overall analysis of the problem,
Technocratic interventions and action to solve it, are fairly clear. The
and 'gender-neutrality' problem is twofold: firstly women's lack of
access to water; secondly, and perhaps
In the area of gender and development, more important, the huge burden of labour
this technical and non-political vocabulary in fetching water, which is an unpro-
usually takes the form of an 'access to ductive use of time, and takes time away
resources' approach to the problems of from other potentially productive activi-
gender and development. From this ties. The solution to this problem is to
technical perspective, the gender problem provide the appropriate technology; in this
in development is that women do not have case this would probably be a borehole
sufficient access to resources: land, labour, supply of water in the village. At the
credit, capital, technology, education, etc. technical level, the problem is now solved:
The analytical interest is on the division of the women now have more time (and
the economy between different gender water) for growing vegetables, for better
roles, and the problem is conceived in nutrition, and cash income from vegetable
terms of female gender roles being linked sales.
to restricted access to resources. All this overlooks the political
This technical perspective toward dimensions of the problem. Let us go back
gender issues is primarily concerned with to the same village after the borehole has
explaining the lack of productivity of been put in, and see what has actually
women in the South, especially in happened.
agriculture. Taking as a starting point the The women have not gained more time
fact that women are a crucial part of the for their vegetable growing, because the
labour force, and the majority of men have required the women to spend
agricultural workers, the low levels of their extra time in planting and weeding
productivity in both surplus and the men's maize field, which is now twice
subsistence production are explained in as big as it was last season. Women's
terms of women's restricted access to additional assistance with maize
Breaking the patriarchal alliance 65

production has given the men more leisure have lost the opportunity for mobilising,
time, and a bigger cash income from the since they have lost their meeting place at
crop. It has not benefited the women, the stream. This was an ancient village
because the men control the income from tradition which has been destroyed: the
the cash crop, and they use this money for women had always had this opportunity of
their own pleasures, especially going into meeting together to discuss women's
town to drink beer. issues and village politics, and especially to
The women's burden of labour has not decide how to deal with the menfolk.
decreased, since water carrying has been Rather than serving to empower the
replaced by the work of weeding. What has women of the village, the borehole has in
decreased is the women's independence. fact contributed to their increased
Previously they were able to meet at the disempowerment. They have lost control
stream, steal a bit of leisure time for a chat, over the remaining 'women's time' which
and discuss how to deal with dominant they used to have. They have also lost
husbands. Now they have to go to the control over the supply and distribution of
borehole pump in the middle of the village water, which is now controlled by the men.
where, if they linger for a chat, the Following a long-term historical pattern
headman chases them back to their work. in the South, so-called development and
The borehole, being modern technology, is modern technology has served to
of course controlled by the men. disempower women, and strengthen
Although this project has not worked patriarchy. The so-called non-political
out exactly as intended, from the 'access to technical approach has in fact had political
resources' point of view it can still be effects, by upsetting a balance in gender
counted as a success. It has increased politics. The desire 'not to interfere with
productivity (a larger cash crop of maize), custom and tradition' has in fact upset the
and has diverted women's unproductive long-standing custom and tradition of
labour of water carrying into the more women being in control of the water
productive contribution of an increased supply, and of having a place to meet and
maize crop. From the 'access to resources' organise collectively as the women of the
point of view, this is what gender and village.
development should focus upon: improv-
ing women's access to resources in order to
improve their productivity. Gender issues are political
But from the point of view of gender We should not ask ourselves what is
equality, the women of the village are incorrect about the technical perspective,
worse off. At the level of gender inequality but rather what is missing from it; we
in welfare their position is relatively worse, should not seek to contradict the
since the cash income of the men has explanations it provides, but rather look for
increased, but this will not be to the benefit the gender problems which it cannot
of the women and their children. As far as explain. The limitation of the technical
gender inequality in access to resources is perspective is that it interprets develop-
concerned, women's position has also mental change as taking place within the
worsened. This is especially so in the existing social and political system, and not as
crucial area of having access to their own presenting a challenge to it. In other words,
time. Previously they had some time which if we confine our discussion of gender
was under their control, when they could issues to a non-political vocabulary and
walk to the stream to fetch water. perspective, then we have implicitly
Perhaps the worst part is that women assumed that gender and development are
66 Focus on Gender

nothing to do with overcoming structural Patriarchal resistance in


gender equality. In the Gender Information development organisations
Framework, (the version of the Harvard
Model used for gender training by USAID), The problems of patriarchal opposition,
the reader is actually treated to an explicit like any other problem area, can be
warning that gender issues in development understood. As with any other problems, it
are nothing to do with gender equality.2 is necessary first to recognise that the
It is this underlying 'non-political' problem exists, rather than pretend that it
principle which provides the ideological doesn't, and therefore adopt a theoretical
basis for the tiresome parroting of the framework which has zero potential for
much worn phrase about 'not interfering analysing the problem. Since patriarchy is a
with custom and tradition'. Since the set of problems in the form of a pattern of
subordination of women is an intrinsic part social and political opposition, the analysis
of custom and tradition, the purely of the problem and the identification of
technical approach firmly sets its face strategy must follow a typical political
against any contribution to women's process.
advancement towards gender equality. The Patriarchal resistance is not confined to
technical and 'non-political' perspective the village. The sad truth is that patriarchal
looks at gender inequality in access to resistance begins at a level which is both
resources as if this is the central problem more fundamental and more sophisticated.
which has to be tackled, and as if both Typically it begins within the bilateral or
genders will be willing to agree on a fairer multilateral development agencies that are
distribution of resources between the supposed to be supporting the Southern
genders once the advantages of increased development process, and within the
efficiency and production have been government department which is
understood. supposed to be implementing development
Nothing could be further from the truth! programmes.
Gender inequality does not arise from any How do we understand the existence of
accidental or irrational imbalance. It is the patriarchal bond between a Northern
intrinsic to a system of patriarchal control, government development agency and a
which is operated by men for their own Southern government? What are the
benefit. It is a system which gives men common interests? Of course, the
more of the status, power, and rewards, patriarchal position of the Southern
but less of the work. It is a system which government is not difficult to understand.
serves their interests. It is a system which The Southern government is itself male-
they intend to maintain, and which they dominated, presiding over a patriarchal
will defend if it comes under threat. If there society which it has no real intention of
is any project which threatens the changing. It is, however, in the awkward
supremacy of male control over resources, dilemma of needing to appear to concede
and male preferential access to resources, to international pressure on women's
you can expect that the men will act to rights. To maintain its international
protect their privileges (i.e. to maintain respectability, it has probably ratified the
discrimination against women). In fact they 1979 UN Women's Convention, as well as
will do more than that: they will use their other Conventions which entail other
position of control and leverage during a commitments on gender equality. In
time of change to improve the position of addition, and perhaps more importantly,
men relative to women. the Southern government is looking for
development aid from multilateral and
Breaking the patriarchal alliance 67

bilateral agencies, which have develop- interpret its development assistance within
ment policies which are usually fairly a rationale of 'assisting the Southern
explicit on the principles of gender equality government with its development plans
in development. and priorities', as if there is some automatic
In these circumstances, the Southern coincidence of development objectives on
government has little choice but to both sides. This happy illusion of common
concede, at least on paper, by including interest is fairly easy to maintain when
objectives on gender issues in general objectives are kept at the technical level of
development policy statements. If pressed, improving welfare and access to resources.
government departments may even have to The harmony is obviously upset where the
admit gender objectives into the plans of bilateral agency has objectives which
specific projects and programmes. But, of involve addressing structural inequalities
course, it is hoped to hold the line at this which would upset the political interests of
level, and not allow this 'gender business' the ruling class, whose interests the
actually to affect project implementation. government serves.
Both Southern government and
Imiplementing a gender Northern agency are therefore likely to
po licy in development have explicit policies which commit them
agencies to supporting women's advancement, and
mainstreaming gender issues within the
More in need of explanation is the bilateral development process. But at the level of the
government agency (and often the multi- government bureaucracies actually
lateral agency) which resists implementing concerned with implementing these
policies on gender equality. After all, are policies, there is a tacit and unspoken
they not the very agencies which initiate understanding that these policies on
these policies, and which are supposed to gender will remain on paper. Lip-service
be pushing to implement them? This needs may be paid to these policies when the
looking at more closely. The agency is itself occasion demands. Lip-service is one of a
a patriarchal institution, for which policies range of strategies of patriarchal resistance.
of gender equality are a threat to the Some of these resistance strategies are so
continuation of male supremacy within its sophisticated, and the practitioners so
own bureaucratic system. It does not subtle, that one might be right there in 3
the
regard its organisational gender policy as room and not notice what is going on.
its own, but rather policy which has been There is no difficulty in ignoring policies
imposed upon it by government, due to the of gender equality when these stand in the
activities of feminist pressure groups. way of a cosy bilateral relationship. On the
These pressure groups are regarded as contrary, both sides are patriarchal
ideologically undesirable by the staid male organisations, for whom the very word
conservatives and technocrats of the 'feminism' sticks in the throat. When it
government bureaucracy. In fact, the comes to the serious and ideological aspects
agency has always had strategies for of policy, opposition to gender equality may
resisting policies which it doesn't like, but be the one principle on which both sides can
which have been imposed upon it by the agree. The agreement is so automatic that it
political leadership. can remain unspoken. The usual pattern, in
In addition, we have to understand the government-to-govern-ment development
need for the bilateral agency to work in co-operation, is that neither side is
harmony with the Southern government. interested in implementing policies
Generally, the bilateral agency likes to concerned with women's empowerment.
68 Focus on Gender

So the first important rule of patriarchal


resistance is implicit and invisible. It
simply involves confining the discourse on
gender and development within the
vocabulary of 'women's welfare', 'women's
improved productivity', and 'women's
improved access to resources'. Within this
technical discourse, feminism is treated as
a dirty word: as an ideology which will
corrupt the planning process, and as a
foreign ideology which will corrupt the
'natives'! Thus it is that the theoretically
limited technical perspective has become
so popular with bilateral development
agencies; partly for what it explains, but
mainly for what it conceals!
Elsewhere I have written about the
All development interventions have a political various strange 'road-blocks' the develop-
dimension, and have an effect on women's position ment worker is likely to encounter in trying
in society. Non-governmental organisations to address gender issues, and of the North-
choosing to take up gender issues have a special South collusion of interest in setting up
role to play in recognising this, and supporting these road-blocks.4 In all of these different
grassroots groups such as Khuzana Village
road-block strategies, an essential element
Development Organisation, pictured here.
for pushing gender issues into the
background is the 'non-political' voca-
Where, in all this, are the Women in bulary of 'access to resources'. The first and
Development (WID) departments and WID foremost method for removing road-blocks
personnel? In both North and South, they is to argue in terms of the vocabulary of
are outmanoeuvred and sidelined. To empowerment, instead of the vocabulary
begin with, the separate WID department of access. Therein lies the beginning of
is itself a product of a strategy of counter strategy.
bureaucratic resistance, by which gender
issues are compartmentalised and
sidelined in a separate department, which
Undermining North-South
is not part of the mainstream of planning
patriarchal alliances: the
and implementation. In addition, care has
role of NGO's
been taken to avoid recruiting any NGOs, especially international develop-
feminists into the WID department: the ment NGOs, are in a particularly strategic
qualification is merely to be female, position for undermining and subverting
without any radical tendencies, and to be the North-South patriarchal alliance, which
willing to follow the bureaucratic norm of is essentially government-to-government.
behaving as an honorary male. Normally it An independent NGO is in a well-placed
is made clear to the head of the WID position for exposing such cosy bilateral
department that this is a side-show, that relationships.
her promotion prospects can only lie in the An NGO's policies on gender equality,
direction of out and up and this can only where it has them, are self-chosen rather
be achieved if there is no rocking of the than imposed from outside, and perhaps
boat on gender issues. we can therefore assume that there is a
Breaking the patriarchal alliance 69

genuine commitment to actually translate themselves are not involved with


policy into practice. In its own develop- perpetuating the patriarchal alliance: even
ment practice, the Northern NGO can use though, of course, they might say they are
its independent position to reveal the involved only because of the need to work
existence of gender inequality, investigate within the existing system, and to ensure
the discrimination which underlies it, and that humanitarian aid reaches women and
support Southern NGOs in programmes to children!
overcome discrimination and promote
women's advancement. Sara Longwe is a gender and development
In addition, the NGO can develop more consultant based in Lusaka, Zambia.
radical interpretation of policy, to support
projects which are directly concerned with
women's mobilisation and politicisation, Notes
and with ending particular aspects of 1 This paper may be read as a continuation of
gender discrimination, rather than my earlier (1989) discussion of 'not
supporting projects with a welfare focus, interfering with custom and tradition' as
where the question of gender discrimin- an excuse for lack of action on women's
ation comes up only as a secondary issue. development in 'Supporting women's
development in the Third World:
Such genuine work in the area of gender distinguishing between intervention and
and development contrasts with the work interference', GADU Newspack 13, Oxfam.
of a bilateral government agency, which 2 This 'warning' may be found, most bold
ostensibly has much the same policies, but and explicit, in USAID, (1991) The Gender
is strangely incapable of making the same Information Framework: Executive Summary.
progress. Such a comparison may usefully This USAID attitude should not be
be publicised in the home country of the thought peculiar to USAID; on the
bilateral agency, especially for the contrary, the main proponents and users
information of feminist lobby groups who of the Harvard Model are typically all too
thought that they had imposed policies of keen to jump on any slightest sign of
gender equality on the government 'feminism' developing in the use of this
development agency. These groups may 'non-political' model. It is this non-
feminist stance which protects their
feel justifiably outraged that the professional position, or consultancy
development budget is being used to status, when working for the main
perpetuate, and even reinforce, male bilateral agencies. The only peculiar aspect
supremacy in the South, when the stated of the USAID document is that the
policy is to do precisely the opposite. This warning is made explicit, rather than
points to the need to mobilise the sisters of remaining part of an unspoken and
the North, partly to support NGO projects implicit code.
focused on women's emancipation, and 3 My earlier paper on 'Supporting women's
partly to expose the scandal of government development in the Third World' (see
development agencies which are reneging endnote 1) suggested ten distinct
on basic principles and commitments on 'strategies of patriarchal resistance'
women's rights. employed by bureaucracies in sidelining
gender issues.
Lastly, we have to acknowledge one 4 See my paper (1992) Towards better North-
residual awkward point. It may be South communication: avoiding the road-
necessary, in the case of some international blocks of patriarchal resistance', Keynote
NGOs, to examine critically their Paper presented to a WIDE Workshop on
relationships with Southern governments Gender Planning and Strategies, Dublin, 8
and NGOs, in order to ensure that they February to 2 March, 1992.
70

Implementing gender
issues in muItilaterals
the experience of the World Bank
Minh Chau Nguyen, Anjana Bhushan, and Jo Bischoff

S
ince the 1970s, the World Bank has objectives to follow while, at the same time,
helped to illuminate the often outlining the basis for a discussion of
unacknowledged contribution of gender issues with borrower countries.
women to economic development. The Bank's involvement in Women in
Research during the last two decades has Development began in the 1970s, partly in
documented substantial benefits from response to the catalytic effects of the
investing in women in terms of alleviating International Decade for Women. In 1977,
poverty and promoting sustainable with the establishment of the position of
development. Recognising that women Adviser on Women in Development, the
could make a still larger contribution if enormous potential of women began to be
freed from the constraints that affect them, discussed in Bank work. Some of the
the Bank has experimented with principles that were recognised early on
operational strategies to ensure greater included the relevance of women in
participation of women in development. development on grounds of improved
The Bank is increasingly concerned efficiency and equity. However, the
about integrating gender issues into the inadequate documentation of these prin-
mainstream of its work. In April 1994, the ciples, and the unevenness of institutional
Board approved the Bank's Policy Paper support, somewhat constrained their
(Enhancing Women's Participation in effective translation into policy and project
Economic Development) and Operational work.
Policy Statement (The Gender Dimensions of In the second half of the 1980s, concep-
Development) on the subject. The Policy tual, institutional, and operational changes
Paper provides an analysis of how accelerated. Senior management support
investing in women fosters growth and became more consistent and visible, and
efficiency, reduces poverty, helps future resources for gender-related action
generations, and promotes sustainable increased. A core of specialised staff was
development. established. A programme of country-wide
The Policy Statement outlines the Bank's assessments of gender issues was under-
goal, which is 'to reduce gender disparities taken. More recently, well-documented
and enhance women's participation in the Bank research findings have been success-
economic development of their countries ful in demonstrating and, in some cases,
by integrating gender considerations in its quantifying the benefits of addressing
country assistance programme.' These gender in development efforts. There is
documents provide staff with clear also a marked increase in information on

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


Implementing gender issues in multilaterals 71

women's roles at the country level, arguments, based mainly on the notion of
including in economies in transition. These equity, have either preached to the
developments open the way for fuller converted or have simply failed to
integration of gender issues in Bank convince. In the ongoing campaign to close
lending. the 'conviction gap,' the World Bank is in a
particularly good position to make the case
for investment in women on the grounds of
Closing the 'conviction gap' economic efficiency and poverty reduction.
The World Bank's fundamental objective is Analytical research conducted by the
to help borrowers to reduce poverty and Bank shows that improving women's
improve living standards through productivity can contribute to growth,
sustainable growth and investment in efficiency, and production key
people. The Bank discharges its objective development goals everywhere. Deliberate
through its financial and advisory roles. On efforts to open up opportunities for women
one hand, it mobilises and invests are, thus, not only a matter of equity or
resources for the integration of gender fairness but also of developmental
concerns into mainstream development efficiency. Such efforts directly reduce
activity; on the other, it disseminates its poverty through substantial economic pay-
own cross-country experience, as well as offs, in higher productivity and more
the best available knowledge from other efficient resource use.
sources, to its clients. Development and growth are best
In the Bank's view, worldwide progress served when scarce public resources are
in social and economic development over invested where they yield the highest
the past three decades has not translated economic and social returns; indeed, social
into proportional gains for women. Despite returns are, on the whole, far greater for
such progress, women continue to lag women than for men. Investing in women
behind men according to many basic helps in achieving these goals because the
indicators of well-being. They still face economic and social returns on such
limited options and formidable barriers. investments are high. Moreover, it has
The barriers begin with low investment in significant benefits for other generations.
female education and health, continue with To take an example, investment for
poor access to services and assets, and are increasing education generates conside-
made worse by legal and regulatory rable private economic returns for girls:
barriers that restrict options. The result is a research suggests that the rate of return on
loss of welfare, not only in foregone female education is higher than that for
production and income, but also for society males, with secondary education for
and women themselves. Poverty may females having the highest rate of return, at
persist; fertility rates may remain high; 18.4 per cent, as compared to 13.9 per cent
children's health may suffer; and the rate of return for males. Overall, the
natural resources that women often returns on female education exceed those
manage including land, fuelwood, and for males by more than one percentage
water may not be effectively used. point (Psacharopoulos, 1993).
Despite considerable evidence, there is Education also helps women to secure
still scepticism within the development higher earnings and move from low-
community about the contribution women paying, low-productivity jobs to those of
make to the socio-economic life of their higher economic value. In agriculture,
respective nations. One reason for this lack where modern technologies have been
of commitment is that, so far, the introduced, returns to an additional year of
72 Focus on Gender

women's education range from 2 to 15 per supplementation for a malnourished


cent, comparable to the returns for men expectant mother can purchase an
(Quisumbing, 1994). Thus, education for additional year of healthy life for her child
women has a long-term and sustained for an estimated expenditure of only $25,
effect on women's productivity, and yields not to speak of the health benefits to the
higher economic returns than education for mother (World Bank 1994). Calculations by
males. Education for women also contri- the World Bank show that improving
butes to lowering the maternal mortality health care for adult women aged 15 to 44
rate, by increasing women's knowledge offers the biggest return on health care
about health-care practices and reducing spending for any demographic group of
the average number of pregnancies. adults. Of the ten main causes of illness in
Studies suggest that an additional year of this group, six can be prevented or treated
schooling for 1000 women may prevent for less that $100 per year of healthy life
two maternal deaths (Summers, 1994). gained, compared to three causes of illness
In addition, such investments are more for men. The marginal cost of providing a
effective than investments for boys' year of healthy life for women aged 15 to
education. A study of girls' enrolment rates 44 is less than for any adult population
in a number of developing countries (World Bank, 1993).
suggests that if twice as many women had Increasing the income in the hands of
gone to secondary school in 1975 in 72 poor women through the expansion of
developing countries, the infant mortality employment opportunities is also
rate 10 years later would have been 38, associated with reduced child mortality
instead of 81. Many more children of both and improved child health and nutrition.
sexes would have gone to school, and the In India, women's participation in a major
fertility rate would have been 3.9 instead of public works programme in Maharashtra
5.3 (Subbarao and Raney, 1993). Children State considerably improved the nutrition
of educated women perform better in of their children (Subbarao, 1993).
schools. Studies in countries as diverse as Expanding the opportunities for women to
Indonesia, the Philippines (King et. al., participate in economically-productive
1986), Malaysia (King and Lillard, 1987), activities in the formal labour market
and Morocco (Khandker and Levy, 1993) activities increases economic efficiency as
demonstrate the strong positive influence a well. Reducing gender-based wage
mother's education can have on her differentials contributes to an economy's
children's educational aspirations, espec- allocative efficiency, while increasing
ially those of her daughters. women farmers' access to inputs can yield
Furthermore, a study in Egypt, Kuwait substantial benefits. Data from Kenya
and Lebanon found that daughters of suggests that there may be significant gains
educated mothers held fewer stereotypical from increasing women's physical and
sex attitudes that did daughters of non- human capital to the level of men's
literate mothers (Lorfing and Abu Nasr, (Quisumbing, 1994).
1985, cited in El-Sanabary, 1993). Once all Improving opportunities for women is,
the benefits are recognised, investment in in addition, critical for ensuring develop-
girls' education may well be the highest ment that is compatible with environ-
return investment available in the mental sustainability. Sustainable develop-
developing world today (Summers, 1994). ment requires the easing of population
Similarly, improving women's health pressures, and the conservation of natural
improves the health of their children and resources; and women's decisions count
other family members. For instance, food heavily on both fronts. Reducing popu-
Implementing gender issues in multilaterals 73

lation growth and raising agricultural developing countries, women constitute


productivity are important for sustainable about one third of the industrial labour
development. Investment in women in force, one third of the services work force,
education, in raising women farmers' and a major, and growing, share of
productivity, and in promoting an workers in the informal sector, both urban
awareness of health and sanitation can and rural. Their household activities
contribute significantly to environment- include caring for the young, old, and sick,
ally-sustainable growth. In fact, because of household maintenance, food preparation,
its effects on fertility and the use of natural and fetching fuelwood and water. They
resources, the Bank views women's contribute a large share of household
education as one of the highest return income for family survival. Evidence from
investments in environmental protection diverse country settings Burkina Faso,
(World Bank, 1992). Cameroon, India, Lebanon, Nepal, and the
Philippines suggest that when the time
spent on home production is valued and
Women and poverty included in the computation, women
reduction contribute between 40 and 60 per cent of
Investing in women is a major theme in the household income (Quisumbing, 1994).
World Bank's two-pronged strategy for Raising the productivity and incomes of
poverty reduction. This strategy calls firstly poor women is, thus, important for
for broadly-based, labour-absorbing alleviating poverty.
growth to generate income-earning for the To the extent that women are over-
poor, and secondly for improved access to represented among the poor, programmes
education, health care, and other social aimed at improving women's economic
services to help the poor to take advantage participation and productivity are highly
of these opportunities. Both these compatible with targeted approaches to
components are designed to develop, and poverty reduction. In several African
use effectively, the greatest marketable countries, women head more than one third
asset of the poor their labour. of families, suggesting that there is a
The weight of poverty falls most heavily potential for reducing poverty by expand-
on certain groups, and women, in general, ing income-earning opportunities for
are disadvantaged. In poor households women. In some of the poorest countries,
they often shoulder more of the work such as Bangladesh and India, encouraging
burden, are less educated, and have less the entrepreneurship and self-employment
access to remunerative activities. They may of women, through projects such as the
spend long hours collecting water or Grameen Bank, is proving to be a self-
firewood time that could be used more directed and targeted poverty reduction
productively if safe water and adequate strategy. In Indonesia, lending under the
fuel were close at hand. Investment in KUPEDES programme dropped the
women in their education and health poverty ratio 15 per cent to 4 per cent after
and in opening access to resources and three years of participation, as incomes of
assets constitutes a two-pronged borrowers rose two and a half times (World
poverty reduction strategy. Bank, 1990). As women gain access to
Women, moreover, contribute heavily to income, their social position both inside
the economic and social development of and outside the family tends to change. To
their families, producing more that half the this extent, supporting women's
food in the developing world and as much entrepreneurship is an 'empowerment'
as three-quarters of the food in Africa. In strategy.
74 Focus on Gender

In summary, analysis based on regulatory framework, and implement


empirical evidence suggests that investing institutional measures to put these
in women serves multiple objectives. These changes into effect, in order to tackle the
include promoting growth, promoting access problems for women and improve
efficiency, reducing poverty, helping future their productivity.
generations and promoting sustainable Effective programme delivery depends
development. on careful design, monitoring, evaluation
and staff-training areas in which the
Putting the World Bank's Bank has now gained some experience. At
gender policy into practice the project level, it is important to ensure
that women themselves have a voice in the
Several effective strategies for enhancing design and management of development
women's participation have emerged from policies and programmes. The Bank assists
the past two decades of project experience. governments in ensuring effective
Some of these strategies are being put into programme delivery by establishing
practice in various developing countries, suitable monitoring mechanisms, a
with the Bank's support. The outcome of participatory approach, and training in
these initiatives will vary depending on the gender analysis for country policymakers,
prevailing social, economic, and cultural planners, managers, and technicians.
conditions of the country in question, but In its own work, the World Bank is
evidence suggests that closing the gender integrating gender issues into the
gap in many sectors is a realisable goal, mainstream, including focusing on
even in low-income, developing countries. countries and areas where under-
There is particularly strong evidence of investment in women has been acute. First,
what works in five areas: education, health, this will be implemented through an
agriculture and natural resource manage- analysis of gender issues in each country.
ment, wage labour, and financial services. The World Bank's country poverty
Other newly-emerging priority tasks assessments could be a useful diagnostic
include strengthening the data base for instrument for this purpose, as they can
gender analysis, developing gender- analyse social indicators by gender. The
sensitive policies and programmes, second step is to give systematic attention
modifying the legal and regulatory frame- to gender in country assistance strategies,
work, ensuring effective programme especially for sectors in which gender
delivery, and mobilising resources. disparities are most acute and demon-
The Bank supports member govern- strably costly. The third step is the design
ments in designing and implementing and implementation of lending program-
gender-sensitive policies and programmes, mes that support the achievement of
concentrating on the areas where accumu- tangible progress in closing the gender gap
lated experience provides clear and through both adjustment and investment
unambiguous policy direction. It provides operations, where appropriate.
technical assistance to countries for Although the bank's strategy is to main-
strengthening their data base for gender stream gender issues in projects, its view is
analysis. In addition, the Bank helps that, in some countries, self-standing,
governments to mobilise other donor women-in-development projects are also
resources to address gender disparities. necessary to pioneer efforts to promote
Where appropriate and feasible, it can women's participation in development.
assist governments in their efforts to In addition, the Bank continues its
reform and establish a strong legal and policy-oriented analytical work to advance
Implementing gender issues in multilaterals 75

the conceptual and operational knowledge gender considerations into Bank work. The
of gender issues in development. Specific information base produced by the Unit
priorities for future Bank analysis include supplies data to operational staff for use in
an investigation into patterns of resource policy planning and project formulation.
allocation within the family, and how these The Unit's primary responsibility is to
can reduce or enhance the effects of public track the Bank's progress in implementing
policy; and what incentive systems can be its poverty reduction strategy, in inte-
used to stimulate changes in social, grating gender issues into its operations,
cultural, and legal institutions that limit the and in supporting human resources
activities and rights of women. development in general.
Studies will also explore the association The visibility of gender issues in World
between low investment in women and the Bank activities has grown over time, and
higher incidence of death and illness in the more so in recent years. Gender issues are
female, as compared to the male, popu- being addressed increasingly, in country
lation; the possibility that structural assistance strategies, and in the design and
adjustment has different impacts on men implementation of lending programmes.
and women; the legal and regulatory Gender-related actions were specified in at
barriers that prevent women from least 615 of the 4955 investment projects
participating in development; and the approved between 1967 and 1993, with
positive impact that women's participation over half of these 615 projects approved
in natural resource management can have between 1989 and 1993. Attention to
on the environment. gender was clearly associated with poverty
and human resources development: of the
615 projects, 93 per cent were in low-
Internal implications of the income and lower middle-income
gender policy countries.
Implementing the World Bank's gender Country-wide assessments of gender
policy will require improvement in staff issues were done in 72 countries during
skills. Therefore, an intensive training this period. In some countries, the process
programme is planned in order to create of conducting such an assessment
awareness of the importance of addressing encouraged a constructive dialogue with
gender issues in Bank operations and to borrower governments, strengthened
provide tools and practical knowledge for borrower and Bank commitment to gender
policy and project design in various areas. issues, and increased cross-sectoral
In addition, the Bank disseminates interaction between staff experienced in
important analytical results and oper- dealing with gender issues, and task
ational tool kits to help Bank staff to managers.
discuss 'what to do' and 'what works' with To ensure the continued attention to
governments in various country gender issues, the Bank plans to strengthen
environments. its current monitoring system. Whereas
present Bank monitoring focuses on
Monitoring the integration identifying the gender content of Bank
of gender issues projects, future efforts will also identify
how gender sensitivity can influence the
The Monitoring Unit (MU) in the design of policies and projects and their
Education and Social Policy Department outcomes. The system will monitor the
(ESP), established in October 1993, tracks gender analysis being done in economic
actions that support the incorporation of and sector work, and the linkage to the
76 Focus on Gender

Bank's lending operations. Evaluations of Khandker, S and Levy, V (1993) 'Schooling


efforts to implement gender-sensitive and Cognitive Achievements of Children
in Morocco: Can the Government Improve
policies 'on the ground' will also be carried
Outcomes?', World Bank, Eduction and
out as part of the country implementation Social Policy Department, Washington,
reviews provided to the Bank's Board of DC.
Executive Directors. Progress in imple- King, E and Lillard, L A (1987) 'Education
menting the recommended policy will be policy and Schooling Attainment in
reported to the Board periodically. Malaysia and the Philippines', Economics of
Education Review 6:167-81.
King et. al. (1983) Change in the Status of
Building partnerships Women Across Generations in Asia, Santa
Ensuring equity for women requires the Monica, California: Rand Corporation.
concerted and sustained efforts of the Psacharopoulos, G (1993) Returns to
many partners currently involved in the Investment in Education: A Global Update,
Working Papers WPS 1067, Washington DC:
development effort. Other bilateral and
The World Bank.
multilateral donors, international institu-
Quisumbing, A R (1994) Improving Women's
tions, and NGOs, have substantial exper- Agricultural Productivity as Farmers and
ience in dealing with gender issues. It is Workers, Education and Social Policy
important to recognise the comparative Discussion Paper no. 37, Washington DC:
advantage of these various partners. Some The World Bank.
organisations can have greater influence in Rhyne, E and Holt, S (1994) Women in Finance
making gender concerns a part of the and Enterprise Development, ESP Discussion
political process. The Bank's strength Paper Series no. 40, Washington DC: The
appears to lie in generating analytical World Bank.
knowledge, ensuring gender sensitivity in Subbarao, K (1993) Interventions to Fill
Nutrition Gaps at the Household Level: A
its own operations, and helping govern-
Review of India's Experience, New Delhi:
ments and non-governmental organi- Oxford University Press.
sations in implementing their agendas for Subbarao, K and Raney, L (1993) Social Gains
closing the gender gap. from FemaleEducation: A Cross-National
Individual governments are, perhaps, Study, World Bank Discussion Paper no. 194,
the most important of these partners. Their Washington DC: The World Bank.
active involvement and cooperation is Summers, L H (1994) Investing in All the
indispensable, as it is they who have the People: Educating Women in Developing
direct responsibility for widening the Countries, EDI Seminar Paper no. 45,
opportunities available to women, and Washington DC: The World Bank.
thus improving the economic and social World Bank (1990) World Development Report:
Poverty, New York: Oxford University
conditions of all both women and men
Press.
in the developing world. World Bank (1992) World Development Report:
Minh Chau Nguyen is Manager, and Anjana Development and Environment, New York:
Bhushan and ]o Bischoff are Consultants, in the Oxford University Press.
Gender Analysis and Policy Unit, Education and World Bank (1993) World Development Report:
Investing in Health, New York: Oxford
Social Policy Department, of the World Bank.
University Press.
World Bank (1994) Enhancing Women's
References Participation in Economic Development,
World Bank Policy Paper, Washington DC:
El-Sanabary, N (1993) 'Middle East and North The World Bank.
Africa' in Women's Education in Developing
Countries, King and Hill (eds).
77

Feminising the work culture

Feminising the workplace


how can organisations respond?
Kokila Parthasarathy

W
omen's entry into the paid making positions, and their views will be
workforce will continue to reflected in policies which they have played
expand, on a global basis. a role in formulating.
However, the experience of women the Recently, professionals at the Admini-
world over is that they are concentrated at strative Staff College of India (ASCI) have
the lower levels of organisations and this is been asking each other, 'Why are there so
directly related to the fact that their few women in our training programme?'
concerns are ignored by policy makers. Co- We asked our classes, which consist of
operation is needed, on the part of senior executives, personnel managers, and
organisations in the North and South, policy makers, in order to get their views.
international and national, funding On the whole, younger men were more
agencies, governments, NGOs, and private interested in the question, while older ones
companies to make sure there is fair were reluctant to answer. Replies varied
representation of women in the workforce, from very sexist remarks, like 'dead
at all levels. investment', to a definite concern over the
Organisational culture, in all sorts of shortage of women executives in organi-
different contexts, currently favours men, as sations. Such varied reactions lead us to
the traditional workforce. Will women ever suggest that, while the number of women
be able to gain responsible positions if male executives in corporate jobs is currently
power is threatened by this? At present, increasing slowly, their accep-tance as
blockages to women's progress exist, professional equals and partners in
resulting in conflict and a waste of energy management is definitely not increasing.
and resources. Our research into these This paper discusses a project we
issues in the Indian context suggests that if undertook, aiming to develop the profile of
a process of resocialisation is initiated, in a typical woman executive in the Indian
which both sexes are enabled to work out corporate sector, the attitude towards
their own ways of relating to one another in women in that sector, and the gaps and
the workplace, conflict will be reduced and mismatch between the two, with the
energy channelled in a positive way. More resulting dynamics. The ASCI project
women may be appointed to key decision- interviewed more than 250 female, and

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


78 Focus on Gender

about 80 male executives from different of a woman between the ages of later
levels of their organisations. As a conse- twenties and early forties, academically
quence of our research, the paper argues well qualified (50 per cent of the sample
that women must link together in solidarity had a degree in management, law or
to promote themselves as managers, but engineering). Of urban origin, she is likely
that work in mixed groups and with men to have married between the ages of 21 and
must also be used as a strategy. 25 the social norm for marriage. She is
likely to have either one or two children.
The majority of women in our survey were
Indian women managers:
in middle management. Only 10 per cent of
the current situation our sample were at top levels. Women
Currently, Indian women are venturing managers are found mostly in service and
from traditional female-dominated occu- personnel functions, with only a few in
pations, such as teaching and medicine, to industry.
executive roles in male-dominated Our findings indicated that the
occupations in the corporate and public corporate sectors are experiencing the
sector. Male government executives entry of young and highly educated
outnumber women by over nine to one, women managers. However, a large
and women in the corporate sector still number of them are in their first ten years
form only around 1 per cent out of the 12 of career development just when they are
per cent of women in the paid workforce. also undergoing change in their personal
The banking sector is the only sector which lives, upon marriage, moving from their
has experienced a rise in the number of parents' home to that of their husbands,
women managers. and a change in status from daughter to
Private industry employs women in wife and mother.
non-executive functions but is selective and Most of the women in our study said
limited in its employment of women in they had had new doors opened for them
managerial roles. Women have moved from by their education and opportunities. They
'soft' functions such as public relations and glimpsed a new life style, new space to
welfare, to functions such as marketing and develop, and a desire to participate in
finance, but they remain conspicuous by public life. However, the only role models
their absence in the top echelons of both the they had were of mothers, aunts, and
corporate sector and the traditionally grandmothers, who had stayed at home
female-dominated professions. along traditional lines. Caught in the
Whether they are in industry or dilemma of wanting a new style of life
government, women managers face more involving achievement, power, and status
difficulties and strain in balancing their in the work place, as well as the need to
dual roles as homemaker and paid follow the traditional role for women, they
executive. A large number of women experience a simultaneous pull in two
managers are experiencing slower pro- opposite directions.
motion, poor mobility, and a feeling of
being stuck in low-growth functions.
Views of male managers
Profile of women managers Our research indicates that women
managers in the Indian corporate world are
There is a large concentration of married primarily viewed as women rather than
women managers in industry and business. professionals. They are not yet accepted
A typical profile of the women managers is psychologically: in one of our interviews
Feminising the workplace 79

with male managers who reported to a superior educational background to their


woman, one man said he did not mind male counterparts, they are not able to
working for a woman boss. When he was realise their potential.
pressed on the point, his response was: In conclusion, therefore, the percentage
'Hell, I hate it. I was brought up in a of women in managerial jobs in the country
traditional culture where women take is on the increase, due to education,
orders; they don't give them. She makes opportunities, and new patterns of
me feel impotent.' We found such socialisation. While these changes are
traditional views of the roles of men and taking place in the larger society, the
women to be all-pervading, and they corporate world appears to be
played a significant role in the assignment psychologically unprepared to cope with
of tasks, and in the inability of women to this new situation. While women are
move vertically at work. Also common in academically qualified for jobs at
our interviews was discussion of women's management level, they are often not fully
marital status: unmarried status and prepared socially and psychologically.
divorce were conveniently used by men in
an attempt to prove that women cannot
handle challenging work assignments and Strategies for change
balance their personal lives. Men also Because of the factors above, it is likely that
suggested that legitimate promotions of women may become disenchanted and
women, based on competence, are often disillusioned with their role as executives
due to improper connections with senior in the corporate world. It is to this issue
executives. that we applied ourselves in the period of
One finding that is significant for the ASCI project after our initial research.
women's attempts to build solidarity in the A two-pronged strategy is needed: first,
workplace is that not only are women not to promote change to the organisational
supported by their male superiors, but culture of the corporate world, and second
networking and mutual support among to enable women to empower themselves
women executives is not common. Possibly socially and psychologically for the strains
this stems from the instinct of senior of corporate jobs.
women executives to preserve their own Corporate culture plays a significant
positions. role in shaping and determining the
Many women felt that men have not responses of employees. These corporate
accepted them in their professional roles. cultures are inherently a reflection of the
They asserted that men reinforce this by attitudes and values of the people at the
using excuses, such as 'women cannot top of the organisation. We found that
travel', 'women cannot stay late', 'they put gender sensitivity in the organisation is
family before work', and so on. This results directly proportional to the gender
in women doubting whether they can sensitivity of the men at the top. Attitudes
progress in the organisation under any must be changed at this level. Only then
circumstances. can organisations be persuaded to modify
The most unfortunate consequence of their systems, structures, and policies to
the above is that many women executives provide more opportunities for women.
appear to be demoralised and lose Middle managers and junior managers
confidence in their own capability. Many are a group in the organisation who are
times, they tend to become non-assertive directly relating and interacting with
and to 'play safe' in their management women managers, either as their bosses or
style. In sum, despite frequently having a their subordinates. Work with them to
Focus on Gender

overcome their prejudices should empha- educated and ambitious; loyal and not
sise an awareness of gender stereotyping, expecting special treatment; helpful and
and a sensitivity of the advantages of hard-working; a sobering influence;
blending 'masculine' (traditional) and gentle and compassionate; honest.
'female' management styles. On the negative side, women were seen by
Most crucially, women should have the the senior executives as:
opportunity for meeting and taking part in using their influence to climb the
activities which allow them to explore and corporate ladder, lacking vision, letting
examine their own concerns, build their home life into the office, attending
management skills and work towards a overmuch to what others say, not taking
specific identity which combines their risks, over-emotional, taking criticism
traditional and corporate roles, to replace personally, lacking professionalism.
the current fragmented one. Men in the role of women executives: this
group saw the positive aspects of women
How ASCI has taken up executives as:
the challenge human, clear priorities, not wasteful of
company resources, attention to detail,
In ASCI, we have four general manage- willing to take on any assignment,
ment programmes intended for senior and dependable.
top level executives: the policy makers of The negative side was as follows:
their organisations. We initiated a one- emotional, suffering guilt feelings, not
day module looking at women in manage- liking transfers.
ment in one of our programmes, to explore Women executives: women saw
the stereotypes, myths, and realities of themselves as:
participants' view of women managers. hard-working, quick decision-makers,
The programme consisted of an exercise on good in inter-personal relationships,
image-sharing, and group work where remaining outside office politics,
participants suggested action plans to deal creative.
with the issues which arose from the earlier They saw their own faults as
part. A lot of scepticism was expressed bending too far to please others,
about the module by our Programme hesitant, feeling that the organisation is
Directors, but it was decided to try it. doing them a favour by employing
The image-sharing exercise: two groups them, not getting along with other
enacted their actual experience as senior women, submissive.
executives. A third was asked to role-play A think tank looked at the findings. The co-
as women from middle management. A ordinator of the think tank remarked, 'It
fourth group consisted of eight women appears that the all-women group and the
from senior and middle management. All all-men group have many negative images
four groups had to identify the positive and as compared to the group of men playing
negative aspects of how they saw
women. Do you see a significance?' This
themselves, how they saw others, and how
chance remark plunged the group into a
they thought others would see them. The
heated discussion. The women wanted the
group of men who were asked to role-play
men to listen to the experiences they had
women objected, saying it was ridiculous
had at work. Eventually, the group said
and too difficult for them to imagine.
However, other groups coaxed them into it. they would like to return to the task in the
On the positive side, senior executives afternoon and build their own agenda, and
said they saw women managers as: asked the women managers to stay on.
At the end of the day, the participants
Feminising the workplace 81

presented their action plans. They was designed to allow the participants to
suggested: gain insights into their own style of
initiating a process of changing attitudes leadership and enable them to reflect on
by having in-companyprogrammes of how they could improve this. Thirdly,
mixed groups working on attitudes;. women managers explored issues unique
agreeing that their recruitment, to them, for example their dual role as
selection, placement and promotion managers, and as wives and mothers, and
practices tend to favour men, and they tried to develop the skills to deal with
could initiate a process of looking at them. Related to this, it was hoped that the
these critically;. women managers would be able to
assessing the training and development examine the myths surrounding their role
opportunities open to women, and and separate these from the realities.
trying to increase these. Finally, the managers aimed to develop
As a pilot project, this module was very action plans for improving their self-image
effective and after initial resistance became and performance and develop steps for
an important learning experience for both initiating positive change for other women
men and women. However, we need to in their organisations.
follow the action plan by following the This workshop provided an opportunity
progress of the executives in their attempts for women to express, share, learn, and re-
to 'feminise' their working cultures. learn. It had a cathartic, as well as
This module was very small-scale, stimulating, effect on many, and propelled
initiated in only one programme, and some women out of the lethargy and off
needs to be tried in different programmes the plateaux they had reached in their
and made into a routine part of the lives.
curriculum. As one participant stated, 'the In conclusion, we foresee that women's
very fact that ASCI is bringing this session entry into the upper levels of the Indian
into its flagship programme indicates that workforce will continue to rise. But
it is a critical issue.' attitudes to women working at a mana-
gerial level must change if women are to be
allowed to operate at their full capacity and
A women-only intervention fulfil their potential. In addition to
While the first intervention was a top- providing opportunities, as we have done,
down approach, the second we tried was where mixed and women-only groups can
from the bottom up; we invited forty explore the issues, myths, and realities of
women managers from different women managers, the necessary process of
organisations for a one-week Leadership resocialisation would mean developing
and Self-Development Workshop. The all- working environments where both men
women programme was necessary as we and women learn to work alongside each
found that the idea of attending a mixed other.
workshop was not drawing in women and
they were therefore not meeting people
outside their own organisation.
The objectives of the women's
workshop were, first, to provide a forum
for women managers from a wide range of
organisations so that they could share
experience and learn from one another in
an open atmosphere. Secondly, the forum
82

Working on a progressive agenda

A women's approach to
North-South co-operation
Carola Carbajal

D
uring the last few years, some offered to 'general' NGOs with much
development agencies have tried greater generosity. We were also
to make co-operation a more confronted by the agencies' lack of
democratic affair, and to establish a understanding of our programmes, which
dialogue between the agents of North and challenged our desire for autonomy in our
South on a more equal basis. 'Entre work. We had to consider whether to
Mujeres' ('Among Women') is a network accept their recommendations on what
that was born within this context, started should be 'done with' Latin American
by NOVIB, a Dutch agency, and five Latin women. We were given assessment and
American counterparts. advice which lacked a gender perspective,
The Entre Mujeres network is a forum and which valued our work with alien eyes
which allows our organisations to discuss and foreign patterns. We defended and
openly our ideas, funding policies and validated our ideas, political views, and
specific practices in co-operative relation- achievements over a long period; for each
ships between Southern and Northern NGO, the outcome is determined by its
NGOs. For instance, a meeting between strength of conviction and ability to face
women's NGO counterparts, held in the conflict.
Uruguay in 1989, generated swift consen- We in the Entre Mujeres network hopes
sus on the nature of the 'knots' which exist to use our analysis of the shared experiences
in co-operative relations. From this and of Latin American women by promoting a
other meetings, proposals have emerged greater knowledge of them among
on various issues; many of these are Europeans, and especially European
currently being integrated into the ways of women. Secondly, we aim to democratise,
thinking and acting of some of the funding strengthen, and consolidate ties between
bodies, who can hardly ignore these European development institutions and
proposals since they came from a large Latin American organisations working with
number of Southern women's NGOs. women, and to support political pressure in
The concerns which paved the way for the South and the North by women working
the 'Entre Mujeres' network stemmed from in NGOs and agencies on the issues of
our difficulties as women's NGOs in gender, co-operation, and development.
obtaining financial resources from the Thirdly, we wish to consolidate ties on a
funding agencies, although funds were 'South-to- South' basis, between Latin

Focus on Gender Vol 2, No. 3, October 1994


A women's approach to North-South co-operation 83

American NGOs which work with women. the historic marginalisation of peasant
The South-to-South ties were envisaged as women, slavery, the effects of more than a
strengthening the Latin American and century of dependent capitalism, and the
Caribbean women's movement's capacity weight of traditional religions.
for reflection and action. CIDHAL (Mexico), CIPAF (Dominican
Entre Mujeres is conferring with Republic), La Morada (Chile), PLEMUU
women-only or mixed NGOs beyond the (Uruguay), and Centro 'Flora Tristan'
network, who have other ideas on co- (Peru) co-wrote a document called
operation, or who have not yet fully 'Contributions to a new politics of women
explored their views on it. We discuss the and development', which was discussed at
long-term development implications and the Uruguay meeting. In it, we stated that
strategies underlying the projects we the people in Latin America have endured
support, and consider which approaches five centuries of struggle to clarify and
will be the most effective in transforming affirm their identity, which is a product of
our societies. To move forward on this, the linking of several cultures in the
several meetings between women context of a process of brutal colonisation
counterparts have been held at a national whose effects still remain. We are
level, as well as regional seminars. We confronted by a situation in which complex
have published and distributed newsletters social, cultural, and economic realities
and organised workshops. In the next stage interact with different and sometimes
we intend to intensify discussions and opposing cultural beliefs and attitudes.
seminars with groups of mixed NGOs. Our society is multi-cultural and multi-
The multiple expressions of passive and ethnic. The complexities of our history run
active resistance that women have across the continent, giving special
developed during the last two decades in characteristics to the economic, political,
Latin America have resulted in a visibly social, cultural, moral, and ecological crisis
heterogeneous movement, characterised by which is affecting the whole world.
a great diversity of social agents: peasant Women's lives are currently affected,
women, factory workers, urban house- both adversely and more positively, by
wives, art workers, academic workers many factors. The debt crisis, and forced
all of them, with different approaches and drive towards the industrial 'modern-
demands, questioning their subordination isation' of our economies, are tremen-
in the public and private spheres. They dously damaging for women's welfare and
have organised on issues such as health, status. For example, although the number
violence, human rights, free motherhood of women in paid work has increased, the
education, sexual discrimination, and majority of women occupy low-paid jobs
many others. We have discovered that which are undervalued, indeed which are
women's status in society is related to all often considered to be an extension of their
other types of oppression. unpaid duties in the home. Working-class
Within this context, the feminist women in both urban and rural areas
movement has contributed substantially by suffer most, together with the very young
analysing the circumstances of women's and old, non-white women, and those
lives, and the factors which affect women's living in regions involved in war.
experiences, such as their ethnicity, religion, The problems are even more complex
class, and age. In addition, the gender for the increasing numbers of women
identity of Latin American women is linked heads of household. In addition, violence
to the history of the conquest of the against Latin American women is in-
Americas: sexual violence in colonisation, creasing, and this issue must be con-
84 Focus on Gender

fronted. Domestic violence and rape, as will have a beneficial effect in the long-
well as institutional violence, has increased term. We may find that through the
tremendously. Legal systems have been changes in our everyday life, our horizons
unable so far to do anything to help the may be widened, allowing us to express
situation. This increase in violence is our needs and desires. Our responses
inspiring women to join resistance and highlight the repression of popular social
feminist movements. participation, and question the traditional
The current crisis has elicited different systems of political action in our countries.
responses from different interest groups: a Because of its diversity, the women's
wide variety of social sectors which were movement has had internal problems and
previously politically marginalised are conflicts in working together on particular
now expressing their disagreement, issues. It has also had to face external
proposing alternatives, and acting within obstacles, such as traditional social
the social movement as a whole. The fact attitudes to women's role, and attacks from
that women's lives, and even their identity, official institutions and from the different
are going through such dramatic changes social and political organisations which
creates contradictory effects: on one hand, have felt threatened by our achievements.
the oppression of women may deepen and
widen, but on the other hand, there are
positive responses to the problems, which Entre Mujeres' vision
'Black and white' distinctions between the
so-called 'First' and 'Third' worlds are no
longer useful. Inter-dependence, reinforced
by the advance of communications and
rooted in the new international division of
labour, shows us a linked world where
power is concentrated in just a few hands.
Co-operation, within this context, has to be
a responsible and mutual activity, which
must not only fulfil its objectives, but do so
in an environmentally sustainable way.
Partners from the developed world must
also face their historic responsibility
towards those countries which have paid
the price for the progress of developed
countries.
Co-operation for development has to be
equitable. We, in developing countries,
must assume responsibility for establishing
5 relationships with our Northern partners
on equal terms. Up to now, we have
accepted inequality, epitomised in the one-
way North-South funding relationship,
with powerful donors and humble
recipients. In future, the interchange
Carola Carbajal urges women's organisations and should not only be financial; human
Northern donors to try to find common ground experience could also be exchanged,
around which to organise for change. valuing the contributions of North and
A women's approach to North-South co-operation 85

South in culture and learning. The understanding that this movement has to
recognition of shared ground the search become more autonomous, find a clear
for a better quality of life could be the voice, and negotiate with other social
basis for democratic co-operative relations. sectors. We recommend support for
International co-operation for develop- women's autonomous projects, as well as
ment depends on NGOs acting as inter- women's programmes and projects in
mediaries between multilateral develop- mixed NGOs. This will help to strengthen
ment organisations and popular grassroots women's movements; in addition, we
movements. From our point of view, our suggest strengthening the initiatives of the
task should be more than this. Many NGOs women's networks in the region.
are devoted to promoting global social We recommend that agencies encourage
change, together with other NGOs and organisations to define their objectives and
social organisations. The role of interme- strategies for programmes and women's
diaries, as the only role assigned or permit- projects, particularly where gender-related
ted to NGOs, reduces their relationship with objectives are lacking; and stimulate their
social organisations to merely financial or internal analysis of gender issues. Agencies
supervisory. In contrast, our vision of that should also promote the exchange of
relationship is a set of social and political information and experience between
agreements which shape different types of organisations working in similar fields.
participation and partnership in different Funding agencies must become aware that
aspects of the same general action. the introduction of clear guidelines for
In the case of all-women NGOs, or women and development, in co-operation
mixed NGOs which incorporate a gender programmes, needs to be backed by
perspective, this process becomes more sufficient resources to support the growth
complex and enriched by the need to build of women's activities and the strength-
our own identity as feminist groups. We ening of their demands.
face accusations of being separatist It is our view that the budget percentage
which we are not or of working only currently allocated for co-operation by
with one half of the world, which is not the development agencies to women's projects
case either. (never exceeding 10 per cent and never
One other challenge for NGO's commit- totally covered) does not correspond to the
ted to the transformation of the quality of complexity of the problem, to women's
life is to negotiate new opportunities for initiatives, or to the fact that women are the
women to realise their full potential on the only group perceived as a 'minority' who
basis of their own strength and autonomy are actually a majority (at 52 per cent of the
and not on the basis of dependence. This is world's population).
particularly needed by women within We consider it fundamental for funding
traditional political structures, such as agencies to continue supporting opportun-
political parties, labour unions, and others, ities for discussion and analysis of the
which often tend to absorb and control characteristics and content of co-operation
women's work. for development between South and
North. Funders must support all efforts
Towards a new politics of designed to improve relationships within
the South. As gender oppression is
women and development universal, this creates perfect conditions for
We support the construction of the solidarity relationships between women in
women's movement in Latin America, different regions. It is necessary to establish
86 Focus on Gender

the basis and provide the resources to the autonomy of social organisations, which
strengthen the exchange, as part of the new should be seen as adult agents of develop-
model with clear achievements that can be ment and should receive financial resources
extended to other sectors of the co- in their own right.
operation for development. We consider that development initia-
We suggest that direct contracts between tives should stimulate, support and,
organisations, institutions and women's especially, emphasise the need for special
networks from the North and the South be missions to design proposals, and conduct
encouraged and supported with resources, surveys, which allow new women's
initiatives, meetings, and seminars that programmes and projects to start from a
contribute to the educational dimension of more realistic basis and to incorporate the
the co-operation in a direct and lively form. accumulated experience, which exists in
In addition, it is important to support Latin America, about the basic indicators
analysis of the content of publications, and budgets that projects for and by
promotions, and actions developed by women require to guarantee their integrity
funding agencies for Northern readership, and ensure that they achieve their aims.
so that we are able to detect and eliminate Finally, for us the key issue that comes
distorted ideas about Latin American out of our linking activities is that of
people. autonomy. We see autonomy as the
Co-operation for development actions process by which a group defines and
must be oriented towards searching for decides its own needs and satisfactions, its
common elements and problems common own path to growth and development, and
to many women, which promote dialogue where group members become active
and show that women are actively co- subjects. It is only in the context of
operating to promote a better way of life. autonomy that a group searching for
liberation may establish a real dialogue
with other groups, whether these are
Recommendations for NGOs stronger or weaker. We understand
It is important to strengthen the role of autonomy as our capacity to define
women's NGOs, since they are active in oppression for ourselves and to formulate
building solidarity between women, as our own proposals for transformation from
part of the dynamic transformation of our our own interests as women; our demands
societies. We consider a main task to be the should have priority, and not be su-
promotion of relationships between bordinated or postponed. Autonomy is
women NGOs and those with limited oriented to obtain more power for us as
women's programmes, so that they can women, so that we can negotiate, conduct
share experiences and put together a dialogue with Northern funders on terms
common vision. of mutual respect, and use political
We feel that the projects and program- pressure in order to influence and
mes of women NGOs and mixed NGOs that transform society.
work with women should be considered as
agents of co-operation in their own right, so Carola Carbajal is a member of CIDHAL and
that they may receive support and financial works on communication and popular
resources. The concept of a 'donor' and a education in rural Mexico.
'beneficiary' should be modified, as this can
create a paternalist attitude which interferes
with the relationships between NGOs and
social organisations. It is also an obstacle to
87

Theirs was not an attack on linear notions


of 'progress', represented by neo-classical
economics and modernisation theories, but
Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in was, rather, one which saw the problem as
Development Thought being merely women's exclusion from the
by Naila Kabeer, Verso, London and New fruits of development.
York, 1994. 364pp. Kabeer provides the reader with an
If Naila Kabeer had written a book that overview of the theoretical underpinnings
aimed solely to outline the biases of 'main- of WID: based in a world-view which
stream' development towards women, and claims to be universally valid and therefore
explain why they prevail, she would have above ideology, WID saw the problem in
succeeded admirably enough in this pre- terms of distorted sex roles, not as a prob-
sent work. But the realisation of such an lem of unequal power relations: 'WID
objective a lucid and cogent critique of advocacy was grounded in a theory of
how 'women' are marginalised by a 'main- 'irrational' prejudice and sex-stereotypes
stream' development ideology that when what was needed was a theory of
remains, essentially, reductionist in out- male power and conflicting gender inter-
look forms only a small part of this ests.'
book's achievements. Kabeer, a practitioner Kabeer goes on to discuss alternatives to
and trainer as well as an academic, is con- this liberal feminist approach. The focus
cerned throughout the book with 'the inter- changes from women to one of power, gen-
action between ideas and practice'. She has der and gender relations. Three different
written a splendid book that continually Marxist accounts of gender and gender
explores the links between ways of seeing relations are presented, to give both a
and ways of doing. flavour of the arguments propounded, and
Opening with a review of Women in also to provide theoretical groundwork for
Development (WID), the work of pioneers different approaches to be built upon.
in women's involvement in economic Having given the reader an exhaustive
development, notably that of Boserup, is survey of, and rationale for, varying
reviewed and evaluated. As Kabeer approaches to development, Kabeer's
reminds us, their promotion of welfare chapter on development from a gender
approaches to women's marginalisation perspective discusses different forms of
from development 'retained the fundamen- knowledge and practice, that may be
tal premises of the liberal world view'. acquired from different viewpoints
88 Focus on Gender

emphasising the need for looking at devel-


opment from a 'bottom up', rather than
'top-down' approach, thereby reversing the
'hierarchy of knowledge'. Topics include a Reaganomics and Women: Structural
discussion of the contentious nature of con- Adjustment US Style by Alt-WID Collective,
cepts such as universally-valid 'women's $3.50, Alt-WID, US address as above
interests'.
Having established this theoretical Dignity and Daily Bread: New Forms of
framework, Kabeer then applies theory to Economic Organising among Poor Women in
practical examples, discussing key issues in the Third World and the First, ed. Sheila
current development including the evolu- Rowbotham and Swasti Mitter exhibits
tion of the concept of the household, popu- the dynamism, born of necessity, of women
lation and reproductive rights, measuring workers in devising their own strategies of
poverty, and poverty alleviation measures empowerment. Presents case studies from
which actually impoverish women, public Mexico, Tanzania, India and Britain.
planning through social cost-benefit analy- Routledge, 1994.
sis, empowerment, and key tools for gen-
der analysis including women's 'triple Women Transforming Politics: Worldwide Strat-
role'. Gender analysis, first used to ques- egies for Empowerment, ed. Jill Bystydzienski.
tion the idea of the family as a co-operative Highlights 13 countries, examining the effect
managed by a benevolent household head, of different national and cultural experiences
is extended to examine the institutionalised on women's empowerment strategies.
nature of gender inequalities in every facet Indiana University Press, 1992.
of human experience at all levels.
For many of Naila Kabeer's readers, Development, Crises and Alternative Visions,
Reversed Realities may present nothing Gita Sen and Caren Grown. A key book for
especially new in either feminist discourse development practitioners, giving
or gender analysis and development, but recommendations for the formation of
they should welcome its publication never- alternative development policies which
theless, as perhaps the best synthesis of the reflect a feminist version of a better world.
subject yet to be published. For other read- Monthly Review Press, 1987
ers, including students, who are new to
gender and development, Reversed Realities International Labour Standards and Women
represents a text book that is full of the rel- Workers: Information Kit: a multi-media
evance of its topics gender analysis and information kit on women workers' rights,
development to planning, evaluation, to promote awareness and improve the
and practice. For the interested general economic and social status of women.
reader its accessible style affords an oppor- International Labour Office (ILO), 1993
tunity to understand, and evaluate, his or
her own world-view of gender relations. Methods of Measuring Women's Economic
Activity: a technical report from the UN,
Review by Christopher Peters, a researcher for presenting various methods for gathering
Oxfam's programme activities in Sudan. other sources of data to improve coverage
of women's work, and providing guide-
lines for setting up gender sensitive
tabulations. Examines actual contributions
of women to the economy in over 20
countries. UN Publications, 1993.
88 Focus on Gender

emphasising the need for looking at devel-


opment from a 'bottom up', rather than
'top-down' approach, thereby reversing the
'hierarchy of knowledge'. Topics include a Reaganomics and Women: Structural
discussion of the contentious nature of con- Adjustment US Style by Alt-WID Collective,
cepts such as universally-valid 'women's $3.50, Alt-WID, US address as above
interests'.
Having established this theoretical Dignity and Daily Bread: New Forms of
framework, Kabeer then applies theory to Economic Organising among Poor Women in
practical examples, discussing key issues in the Third World and the First, ed. Sheila
current development including the evolu- Rowbotham and Swasti Mitter exhibits
tion of the concept of the household, popu- the dynamism, born of necessity, of women
lation and reproductive rights, measuring workers in devising their own strategies of
poverty, and poverty alleviation measures empowerment. Presents case studies from
which actually impoverish women, public Mexico, Tanzania, India and Britain.
planning through social cost-benefit analy- Routledge, 1994.
sis, empowerment, and key tools for gen-
der analysis including women's 'triple Women Transforming Politics: Worldwide Strat-
role'. Gender analysis, first used to ques- egies for Empowerment, ed. Jill Bystydzienski.
tion the idea of the family as a co-operative Highlights 13 countries, examining the effect
managed by a benevolent household head, of different national and cultural experiences
is extended to examine the institutionalised on women's empowerment strategies.
nature of gender inequalities in every facet Indiana University Press, 1992.
of human experience at all levels.
For many of Naila Kabeer's readers, Development, Crises and Alternative Visions,
Reversed Realities may present nothing Gita Sen and Caren Grown. A key book for
especially new in either feminist discourse development practitioners, giving
or gender analysis and development, but recommendations for the formation of
they should welcome its publication never- alternative development policies which
theless, as perhaps the best synthesis of the reflect a feminist version of a better world.
subject yet to be published. For other read- Monthly Review Press, 1987
ers, including students, who are new to
gender and development, Reversed Realities International Labour Standards and Women
represents a text book that is full of the rel- Workers: Information Kit: a multi-media
evance of its topics gender analysis and information kit on women workers' rights,
development to planning, evaluation, to promote awareness and improve the
and practice. For the interested general economic and social status of women.
reader its accessible style affords an oppor- International Labour Office (ILO), 1993
tunity to understand, and evaluate, his or
her own world-view of gender relations. Methods of Measuring Women's Economic
Activity: a technical report from the UN,
Review by Christopher Peters, a researcher for presenting various methods for gathering
Oxfam's programme activities in Sudan. other sources of data to improve coverage
of women's work, and providing guide-
lines for setting up gender sensitive
tabulations. Examines actual contributions
of women to the economy in over 20
countries. UN Publications, 1993.
Resources 89

Women in Grassroots Communication: The Global Consumer: Best Buys to Help the
Effecting Global Change, ed. Pilar Riano: Third World ed. Phil Wells and Mandy
explores the informal and formal networks Jaffer: A guide which discusses the issues
that women use in their own communities as well as identifying fairly-traded brand
to inform and communicate. Addresses the name products. Gollancz, 1991
issues of identity, representation, and
leadership and looks at the emergence of The Trade Trap: Poverty and the Global
women in the mass media and the Commodity Markets, Belinda Coote: Shows
development of new competencies. Sage how terms of trade between North and
Publications, 1994. South disadvantage poor producers, and
how UNCTAD and GATT fail to protect
Women Empowering Communication: A the interests of developing nations.
Resource Book on Women and the Globalisation
Recommends action by governments and
of Media ed. Margaret Gallagher and Lilia consumers to support the Fair Trade
Quindoza-Santiago: contains reports movement. Oxfam, 1992
commissioned by the 1994 Bangkok
Conference on Women Empowering Oxfam Gender Information Network Directory:
Communication, concerning the growth of a new network begun by Oxfam in 1994.
mass media, alternative media, develop- Open to all gender and development
ment support communications. practitioners interested in linking, sharing
information on best practice, etc. The
Directory of Third World Women's Publi- network includes Oxfam staff working in
cations: this extensive directory of the UK/Ireland and in the field, Oxfam's
newletter, pamphlets, bulletins, reports existing partners, Southern and Northern
and other publications is organised by organisations working on gender and /or
region and country and is designed to with a feminist agenda. Write for a
facilitate both networking and activism questionnaire to Sue Smith, Gender Team,
among women everywhere. Compiled by Oxfam, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2
ISIS. ISIS International, 1990. 7DZ.
Worldwide Network: 1993-1994 Directory of
Women in the Environment: a list of 1900 Organisations working on
women working in the field of natural co-operation
resource management, drawn from 115
countries and territories. WorldWIDE Vrouwenberaad Ontwikkelingssamen-
Network Inc., May 1994. werking: network of professional women in
Women in Development (WID) in the
Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Netherlands, started in 1978. Organises
Sense of International Politics, Cynthia Enloe: special issue meetings, promotes action
twines the threads of seemingly isolated research, publishes position papers, advises
economic and poltical phenomena into a Dutch development agencies on empower-
single rope the international political ment of women, participates in international
system. Makes visible the work of women discussions e.g. with WIDE, liaises with
in both perpetuating, and challenging, the political parties and action groups in
status quo. Shopping at Benetton, wearing Netherlands. PO Box 77, 2340 Oegstgeest,
Levis, working as a nanny (or employing The Netherlands, tel. (0) 71159159.
one) or booking a holdiay are all examples
of foreign policy in action. Pandora Press,
UK, 1989.
90 Focus on Gender

National Women's Network for national meetings of economists, publishes


International Solidarity: network in UK for newsletter, uses electronic mail (E-mail)
women concerned with international network, compiles bibliographies and list of
issues. Facilitates information exchange working papers, issues policy statements for
between groups and individuals, feminist public distribution. Contact Jean
solidarity for women and women's Shackelford, Department of Economics,
organisations in UK and abroad, cam- Bucknell University, Lewisburg PA 17837,
paigning for change in the policies of USA, tel. 717-524-1476, fax: 413 545 2921. To
governments, aid agencies, and other subscribe to e-mail network, send a message
institutions. Publishes monthly newsletter on e-mail to listserv@bucknell.edu, stating:
and Members' Register. Box 110,190 Upper subscribe femecon-1 <your name>
Street, London Nl IRQ, UK.
Women's World Banking: a global non-
CIPAF (El Centro de Investigacion para la profit network established in 1979 to
Accion Femenina), Dominican Republic: advance and promote the full economic
promotes solidarity around feminist issues participation of women. Clients are women
relating to development. Carries out entrepreneurs at micro-level in industry,
research, education through conferences, agriculture and commerce. Over 50
meetings, and published materials affiliates in over 40 countries share know-
including videos; seeks to change policy of how in building financial and business
popular organisations, promoting women's services for clients. New York office is used
issues, and fosters networking with other as centre forservice and communications,
organisations around the world. Apartado providing institutional and financial
Postal 1744, Santo Domingo, Republica services to affiliates. 8 West 40th Street
Dominica, tel. 532-4443. New York, NY 10018, USA, tel. (212) 768-
8513, fax: (212) 768 8519.
World University Service: networking and
lobbying for change is an increasingly International Women's Health Coalition, 24
important part of the work of WUS, which East 21 Street, New York, NY 10010, tel.
is committed to promoting education as a (212 979 8500, telex: 424 064 WOM HC
basic human right, and improving access to
education across the developing world. ISIS International: an international non-
WUS (UK): 20 Compton Terrace, London governmental organisation created in 1974
Wl 2UN, UK, tel. (071) 226 6747 as a women's information and commun-
ication service. Its primary objective is the
International Association for Feminist empowerment and full participation of
Economics (IAFFE): a non-profit organ- women in development processes through
isation advancing feminist enquiry of the formation of networks and channels of
economic issues and educating economists communication and information. Over
on feminist points of view on the economy, 50,000 contacts in 150 countries, sending
fostering dialogue, and resource-sharing material to ISIS's Information and
among feminist economists throughout the Documentation Centre. Casilia 2067,
world, joining with other feminist assoc- Correo Centra, Santiago, Chile, tel. (56-2)
iations in educating economists, decision- 633 45 82, fax (56-2) 638 31 42, e-mail:
makers, public officials, and the general Isis@ax.apc.org
public on feminist points of view on
economic issues. Organises annual con- Women, Ink: a project of the International
ference, sessions at national and inter- Women's Tribune Centre (IWTC) to
Resources 91

distribute material on women and Center of Concern, 3700 13th Street, N.E.
development. Publishes catalogue of Washington, D.C. 20017, US, tel: (202) 635
published material concerning women's 2757, fax: (202) 832 9494.
development and empowerment
internationally. 777 United Nations Plaza, CHANGE: formed in 1979 to research and
Third Floor, New York, NY 10017, USA, publish reports on the condition and status
tel. (1-212) 687 8633, fax (1-212) 661 2704. of women worldwide, making links
between the 'First', 'Second' and 'Third'
Institute for Women, Law and worlds to challenge double standards and
Development: an international organ- patronising attitudes. Aims to educate and
isation committed to the defence and alert public opinion to gender inequality
promotion of women's rights on a global and encourage international exchange of
basis. Education, training, advocacy, information on strategies to overcome
networking, research, documentation. disadvantage, discrimination and
Links individuals from activist groups, subordination. Campaigns, provides
research institutions, advocacy and human consultants, and publishes news bulletin,
rights organisations throughout the world. practical and issue-based books and
733 15th Street, N.W. Suite 700, country reports. PO Box 824, London SE24
Washington DC 20005. Tel: (1-202) 393 9JS, UK, tel/fax: (071) 277 6187. For French
3663, fax: (1-202) 393 3664. speakers, there is a francophone CHANGE
called Femmes et Changement, at BP 418,
Centre for Women's Global Leadership: at F-75527, Paris, France.
Douglass College, Rutgers University,
USA. Founded in 1989, the Centre's goals WIDE (Women in Development Europe): a
include developing ways of bringing network of women development workers
women's perspectives and strategies into and researchers, set up in 1985 after the
greater visibility in public policy end of the last UN Women's Decade. WIDE
deliberations nationally and internation- members share knowledge, insights and
ally, and building international linkages research into WID issues. The network
among women in local leadership that seeks to raise awareness in European
enhance their effectiveness and increase NGOs, and lobbies at international
their global consciousness. Runs an annual institutions and fora in support of women
Women's Global Leadership Institute with in the South. WIDE consults the agents of
a thematic focus, held in June, bringing change and development working in the
together participants to compare, contrast, South about their priorities in relation to
and learn from each other, and consider women's development. Each country is
common strategies for the future. Contact encouraged to form a national WIDE group
the Director, Douglass College, 27 Clifton if there is not an existing women in
Avenue, New Brunswick, New Jersey, development network in place. WIDE
08903, USA. Tel: (908) 8782, fax (908) 932- issues a bimonthly newsletter. Squaire
1180. Ambiorix 10,1040 Brussels, Belgium, tel: 32
2 732 44 10, fax: 32 2 732 19 34.
Alt-WID (Alternative to Women in
Development Project): initiated by Center FIRE (Feminist International Radio
of Concern Washington, DC, to bring a Endeavour): a women's radio project
gender, race and class critique to the founded in 1991, broadcasting a two-hour
development process both in developing daily programme (one hour each in
countries and within the US. Contact Spanish and English) on the shortwave
92 Focus on Gender

station Radio for Peace International (RFPI) be articulate and be involved in the
in Costa Rica, and heard in over 100 decisions that affect their lives. Trains in
countries around the world. FIRE enables skills for policy and analysis in economics,
women's voices, in all their diversity, to be media, the environment, and health,
heard by the international community, advises, contributes to formal and informal
crossing barriers of nationality, culture, training and education methodology from
race, geography and language. Live an African perspective. Promotes inform-
broadcasts from women's events, training, ation and training links with centres
distribution of programmes on cassette, between continents. Produces a monthly
strengthening and supporting women's newsletter for members, focusing on
networks, constructing a feminist radio development education. Please contact
communications proposal. Broadcasts each Olukemi Williams or Ndeye Sow at
day at 0000,0800, and 1600 UCT (Universal Abantu for Development at 3 Olaf St,
Co-ordinated Time) in Spanish, and 0100, London Wll 4BE. Tel: 071 229 8022 or Fax:
0900, and 1700 UCT, in English. 071 243 0012. (Kemi can be contacted
Frequencies: 41 meters: 7.735 MHz AM during the day on Tel: 071 226 6747 or Fax:
2100-0800, 31 meters: 9.375 Mhz USB 24 071 226 0482.)
hours, 19 meters: 15.030 Mhz AM 24 hours,
13 meters: 21.465 Mhz, USB 1200-0400. DAWN (Development Alternatives with
Send your tapes on all issues for broadcast, Women for a New Era): launched in 1984 to
labelled clearly, including your name and reflect the growing awareness of women of
contact details. FIRE, Radio for Peace the need for alternatives to the dominant
International, APDO 88, Santa Ana, Costa model of development with its adverse
Rica, tel: (506) 249 1821, fax: (506) 249 1095, consequences for the vast majority of
e-mail: rfpicr@nicaro.apc.org women, and for the environment. Analyses
development processes and strategies,
Association of African Women for conducts research/analysis, training,
Research and Development/Association advocacy, international relations, and
De Femmes Africains pour la Recherche Sur communications activities. Publishes books
le Developpment (AAWORD/AFARD): a and other material including DAWN
pan-African NGO, founded in 1977, INFORMS, a triannual newsletter, c/o
organising different research working Women and Development Unit (WAND),
groups which members can join in University of the West Indies, School of
accordance with their areas of special- Continuing Studies, Pinelands, St Michael,
isation and research interests. Aims to Barbados, tel: 809 426 9288, fax: 809 426 3006.
create networks among African women
researchers and those concerned by AWID (Association for Women in
problems of development in Africa. Holds Development): aims to create and sustain
seminars, publishes materials including an international dialogue on ways of
Echo, a quarterly bilingual newsletter, also achieving a full partnership of women and
available to the public, and the AAWORD men in the creation of a better world.
journal a bi-annual, academic research Publishes a Membership Directory listing
forum. B.P. 3304, Dakar, Senegal, tel: 23 02 individuals and organisations by subject
11, telex: 3339 CODES SG. interest as well as alphabetically. Office of
Women's Programmes, 1060 Litton Reaves
Abantu for Development (People for Hall, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-
Development): an NGO aiming to contri- 0334, tel: 703 231 3765, fax: 703 231 6741.
bute to the capacity of African women to
93

Focus on Gender: Perspectives on Women and Development

Index to Volume 2

Abantu for Development, Southern traceptive technologies: a feminist critique,


women's networks, 2:3,34 2:2,40
Ahmed, Yasmin, A disaster-preparedness Harcourt, Wendy, The globalisation of the
workshop in Pakistan, 2:1,39 economy: an international gender perspec-
Almeida, Vanete, Towards international tive, 2:3,6
solidarity: British initiatives through Hussein, Amby (trans.), Testimonies from
Brazilian eyes, 2:3,45 Zaire, 2:1,26
Anderson, Mary B, Understanding the dis- Jain, Devaki, Building alliances: a
aster-developmentcontinuum: gender Southern perspective, 2:3,15
analysis is the essential tool, 2:1,7 Joekes, Susan, Children as a resource:
Antrobus, Peggy, The road to Cairo, 2:2,55 environmental degradation and fertility,
Armstrong, Sue, Rape in South Africa: an 2:2,13
invisible part of apartheid's legacy, 2:2,35 Khanna, Renu and Janet Price, Female sex-
Birch, Izzy, Emergency food distribution in uality, regulation and resistance, 2:2,29
Turkana: a developmental approach, 2:1, Longwe, Sara Hlupekile, Breaking the
30 patriarchal alliance: governments, bilater-
Butalia, Urvashi and Rita Menon, A valu- als, and NGOs, 2:3,62
able lesson, 2:2,57 Macbean, Nicola, Breaking down the bar-
Carbajal, Carola, A women's approach to riers: European and Chinese women link-
North-South co-operation, 2:3,82 ing, 2:3,58
Eade, Deborah and Suzanne Williams, Maybin, Eileen, Rebuilding shattered
Emergencies and development: ageing lives, 2:1,34
with wisdom and dignity, 2:1,17 Menon, Ritu and Urvashi Butalia, A valu-
Faure, Denise, Women's health and femi- able lesson, 2:2,57
nist politics, 2:2,51 Morgan, Joy, Sudanese refugees in
Greet, Pamela, Making good policy into Koboko: environmental health interven-
good practice, 2:1,11 tions, 2:1,41
Gray, Linda, Scotching myths: SEAD's Mosse, Julia Cleves, From family planning
experience in North-South co-operation, and maternal and child health to reproduc-
2:3,20 tive health, 2:2,6
Hardon, Anita, The development of con- Myers, Mary, 'Women and children first':
how to introduce a gender strategy into
94 Focus on Gender

disaster preparedness, 2:1,14 rience of WEDO, 2:3,52


Nguyen, Minh Chau, et al, Implementing Williams, Suzanne and Deborah Eade,
gender issues in multilaterals: the experi- Emergencies and development: ageing
ence of the World Bank, 2:3,70 with wisdom and dignity, 2:1,17
Oxfam's Gender Team, 'Women Linking Wilshaw, Rachel, Invisible threads:
for Change': Oxfam's Women's Linking Oxfam's Bridge programme, 2:3,23
Project, 2:3,29
Parthasarathy, Kokila, Feminising the Listings
workplace: how can organisations
respond?, 2:3,77 Organisations working in the fields of pop-
Pearson, Ruth and Caroline Sweetman, ulation and women's health, 2:2,64
Abortion, reproductive rights and maternal Organisations working on co-operation,
mortality, 2:2,45 2:3,89
Price, Janet and Renu Khanna, Female sex-
uality, regulation and resistance, 2:2,29 Book reviews
Pushpanath, Krishnamurthy, Interview,
2:1,54 Dorkenoo, Efua and Scilla Elworthy, Female
Genital Mutilation: Proposals for Change,
Ranjo-Libang, Gertrudes, Of borders,
Minority Rights Group, London, (1992),
bridges, and sisterhood: reflections on the 2:2,59
WLP Thailand meetings, 2:3,37
Smyth, Ines, 'Safe Motherhood', family Kabeer, Naila, Reversed Realities: Gender
planning and maternalmortality: an Hierarchies in Development Thought, Verso,
London and New York, (1994), 2:3,87
Indonesian case study, 2:2,19
Vickers, Jeanne, Women and War, Zed Press,
Sweetman, Caroline, Editorial, 2:3,1
London, (1993), 2;1,59
Sweetman, Caroline and Ruth Pearson,
Abortion, reproductive rights and maternal
mortality, 2:2,45
Tichagwa, Wilfred, The effects of drought
on the condition of women, 2:1,20
Tokle, Manisha, Some problems women
are facing, 2:1,37
Toro, Maria Suarez, Treading new paths:
the methodology of the Women Linking
for Change Conference, 2:3,54
van Lieshout, Mary, International lobbying
for change: a Northern view of South-
North linking, 2:3,48
Wahra, Gawher Nayeem, Women refugees
in Bangladesh, 2:1,45
Walker, Bridget, Editorial, 2:1,2
Wallace, Tina, Saharawi women: 'between
ambition and suffering', 2:1,50
WEDO staff writers, Facilitating women's
participation in UN conferences: the expe-

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