RENEWABLE ENERGY USE FOR CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC

VEHICLES BATTERY CHARGING CAPACITY

 ABSTRACT

It attempts to explain an innovative method of generating clean energy in a fast

moving vehicle (train) by various courses. The energy generated from this method
is produced as the consequences of human activity. Two methods used to produce
energy are from wind, solar and excreta as available from a moving train. One of
the biggest obstacles to the widespread use of wind power generation is that many
areas just arent that windy. The use of renewable energy increased greatly just
after the first big oil crisis in the late seventies. At that time, economic issues were
the most important factors, hence interest in such processes decreased when oil
prices fell. The alternative form of wind energy produced by trains is very unique,
as it does not depend on any natural energy resource. Next method is to integrate
solar cell modules into traditional roof materials of train in order to generate clean
energy.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The use of renewable energy increased greatly just after the first big oil crisis in the late
seventies. At that time, economic issues were the most important factors, hence interest in such
processes decreased when oil prices fell. The current resurgence of interest in the use of
renewable energy is driven by the need to reduce the high environmental impact of fossil-based
energy systems. Harvesting energy on a large scale is undoubtedly one of the main challenges of
our time. Future energy sustainability depends heavily on how the renewable energy problem is
addressed in the next few decades. Although in most power generating systems, the main source
of energy (the fuel) can be manipulated, this is not true for solar and wind energies. The main
problems with these energy sources are cost and availability: wind and solar power are not
always available where and when needed. Unlike conventional sources of electric power, these
renewable sources are not dispatch ablethe power output cannot be controlled. Daily and
seasonal effects and limited predictability result in intermittent generation. Smart grids promise
to facilitate the integration of renewable energy and will provide other benefits as well. Industry
must overcome a number of technical issues to deliver renewable energy in significant quantities.
Control is one of the key enabling technologies for the deployment of renewable energy systems.
Solar and wind power require effective use of advanced control techniques. In addition, smart
grids cannot be achieved without extensive use of control technologies at all levels. This section
of the report will concentrate on two forms of renewable energywind and solarand on the
role of smart grids in addressing the problems associated with the efficient and reliable delivery
and use of electricity and with the integration of renewable sources. Solar and wind power plants
exhibit changing dynamics, nonlinearities, and uncertaintieschallenges that require advanced
control strategies to solve effectively. The use of more efficient control strategies would not only
increase the performance of these systems, but would increase the number of operational hours
of solar and wind plants and thus reduce the cost per kilowatt-hour (KWh) produced. Both wind
and solar have tremendous potential for fulfilling the worlds energy needs. In the case of wind,
if conventional onshore wind turbines with 80-m towers were installed on 13% of the earths
surface, the estimated wind power that could be commercially viable is 72 terawatt (TW). That
amounts to almost five times the global power consumption in all forms, which currently
averages about 15 TW. With capacity that has tripled in the last five years, wind energy is the
fastest growing energy source in the world. Although wind energy is a clean and renewable
source of electric power, many challenges must be addressed. Wind turbines are complex
machines, with large flexible structures working under turbulent and unpredictable
environmental conditions, and are connected to a constantly varying electrical grid with
changing voltages, frequency, power flow, and the like. Wind turbines have to adapt to those
variations, so their efficiency and reliability depend heavily on the control strategy applied. The
primary purpose of concentrating solar energy is to produce high temperatures and therefore high
thermodynamic efficiencies.
Hybrid models have been an effective means of producing generating electricity
throughout the world. Lots of research work has been done and continuing the
accommodate new advances in this system. This method reports the probabilistic
performance assessment of a wind, Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) Hybrid Energy
System. In addition to this solar/wind system with backup storage batteries were
designed, integrated and optimized to predict the behavior of generating system.

The basic objective is to develop an automation engine which is used to find

the detection of cracks in the railway networks. The Indian railway network today
has a track length of 115,000 km over a route of 65,000 km and 7,500 stations.
Though rail transport in India is growing at a rapid pace, the associated safety
infrastructures are not up to international standards. So in this proposed model is
giving the solution for the detection of cracks. Train automation (TA) will strongly
enhance the safety, speed, control, and characteristics of train in real time without
requirement of physical manpower. Due to advent of Wireless communication
technologies and high speed Powerful Processors, Automation will be done to
satisfy flexibility, reliability, and efficiency of trains. So need to add a kind of
intelligence to the train engines itself that it tries to avoid accidents.

Track monitoring system helps to maintain the safety of railroad tracks by

monitoring settlement, and distance between two rails. The systems are installed as
when nearby construction activities, such as tunneling or excavation, may affect
the safety of the tracks. All kinds of people prefer rail transport only. So for those
people we have to give the safety journey. Now-a-days the accidents are occurs in
the railways periodically. The accidents means it can occurs in detection, collision,
bomb disaster and fire in the compartments. Out of all the parameters we are going
to discuss about fire safety system alone. Fire safety system (FSS) can be
implemented through automation techniques.
 LITERATURE SERVEY

1. Batteries for Electric Drive Vehicles: Evaluation of Future

Characteristics and Costs Through a Delphi Study
Anant D. Vyas, Henry K. Ng, Danilo J. Santini, and John L. Anderson

Uncertainty about future costs and operating attributes of electric drive vehicles (EVs and HEVs)
has contributed to considerable debate regarding the market viability of such vehicles. One way
to deal with such uncertainty, common to most emerging technologies, is to pool the judgments
of experts in the field. Data from a two-stage Delphi study are used to project the future costs
and operating characteristics of electric drive vehicles. The experts projected basic vehicle
characteristics for EVs and HEVs for the period 2000-2020. They projected the mean EV range
at 179 km in 2000, 270 km in 2010, and 358 km in 2020. The mean HEV range on battery power
was projected as 145 km in 2000, 212 km in 2010, and 244 km in 2020. Experts` opinions on 10
battery technologies are analyzed and characteristics of initial battery packs for the mean power
requirements are presented. A procedure to compute the cost of replacement battery packs is
described, and the resulting replacement costs are presented. Projected vehicle purchase prices
and fuel and maintenance costs are also presented. The vehicle purchase price and curb weight
predictions would be difficult to achieve with the mean battery characteristics. With the battery
replacement costs added to the fuel and maintenance costs, the conventional ICE vehicle is
projected to have a clear advantage over electric drive vehicles through the projection period.

2. Vehicle Electrification: Status and Issues

Albert G. Boulanger, Andrew C. Chu, Suzanne Maxx

Concern for the environment and energy security is changing the way we
think about energy. Grid-enabled passenger vehicles, like electric vehicles
(EV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) can help address
 environmental and energy issues. Automakers have recognized that electric
drive vehicles are critical to the future of the industry. However, some
challenges exist to greater adoption: the perception of cost, EV range, access
to charging, potential impacts to the grid, and lack of public awareness about
the availability and practicality of these vehicles. Although the current initial
price for EV's is higher, their operating costs are lower. Policies that reduce
the total cost of ownership of EVs and PHEVs, compared to conventional
internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, will lead to faster market
penetration. Greater access to charging infrastructure will also accelerate
public adoption. Smart grid technology will optimize the vehicle integration
with the grid, allowing intelligent and efficient use of energy. By coordinating
efforts and using a systems perspective, the advantages of EVs and PHEVs
can be achieved using the least resources. This paper analyzes these factors,
their rate of acceleration and how they may synergistically align for the
electrification of vehicles.

3. Mathematical modeling and performance evaluation of a

stand-alone polycrystalline PV plant with MPPT facility
S. Chowdhury, Dr.G.A. Taylor, Dr.S.P. Chowdhury

Photovoltaic (PV) generation has now-a-days proved to be a cost-

effective method for renewable power generation with minimum
environmental impact. Due to environmental and economic
benefits, PV is now being widely deployed as a distributed energy
resources (DER) in distributed generation systems or microgrids.
Extensive laboratory-based research and simulation studies are
being performed for assessing its effectiveness as DER in
microgrids. Simulation studies mostly involve development of
mathematical models which can account for the variation of PV
output with solar irradiance and ambient temperature as well as
the simulation of MPPT feature that is built in the inverters usually
interfaced with the PV arrays. Simulation studies of microgrids
with interconnected DERs and elaborate control schemes often
warrants the development of simple and robust mathematical
models for PV arrays that would pose low mathematical burden
on the system, have low data storage requirements and which
can be represented by standard block sets of a modelling
software.

CHAPTER 2

EXISTING METHODS

Few years back the trains are run with fuels like that diesel. Now a days the
trains are run with electrical power like that coal, water or fissile nuclear material
as the primary fuel source. In future it is not sufficient to use in train. To
compensate this problem we can introduces the alternate method of hybrid system
based on power generation, It is renewable energy source. With increasing concern
of global warming and the depletion of fossil fuel reserves, many are looking at
sustainable energy solutions to preserve the earth for the future generations. When
a source is unavailable or insufficient in meeting the load demands, the other
energy source can compensate for the difference.

The track condition and monitoring railway roads. If any problems occur in
the track between 100m the sensor immediately indicate and display the control
room. The major problem will be avoid by using this kind of system.
2.2 Disadvantages

Initial cost is high.

Its non-renewable resource.

Continuously cant get power.

 CHAPTER 3

PROPOSED METHOD

Hybrid models have been an effective means of producing generating

electricity throughout the world. Lots of research work has been done and
continuing the accommodate new advances in this system. This paper reports the
probabilistic performance assessment of a wind, Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) Hybrid
Energy System. In addition to this solar/wind system with backup storage batteries
were designed, integrated and optimized to predict the behavior of generating
system.

This system a decision support technique to help the decision makers to

study the influencing factors in design of a hybrid-solar power system (HSWPS)
for grind linked applications. The analytic Hierarchy Process was used to quantify
the various divergences of opinions, practices and events that lead to confusion and
uncertainties in planning.

This method describes the simulation of a combined wind solar hydro

system for electric power generation with energy storage facilities. A simple
multivariable weather model including the wind speed, the solar radiation and the
rain fall was developed. This model is used to evaluate the reliability of the mixed
generating system. Different percentages of wind and solar generation capacities
were tried as well as the solar arrays.

This system gives the efficient way of automating trains using PIC
Microcontroller along with other modules to reduce human operational errors,
power consumption, high reliability, and fast operation without delay. It consists of
hardware and software modules to execute the train operations.

Fire safety system

The Fire Safety system using automation techniques. In this techniques the
train engine wants to be fully automated, so it can called (ATE) Automated train
engine. In this concept ATE is fully automated and connected to all the coaches
from engine. In all the compartments are want to fix the temperature sensor and
alarm, whenever the temperature exceeds in the coaches the temperature sensor
will sense and it will send the message to the engine through ELE. At the same
time (ECU) Engine control unit is fixed with Alarm & LED. So the signal will be
received from coaches, the alarm will blinks and at the simultaneously time the
LED will shows which compartment is having the fire.

Advantages

The hybrid system of solar/wind is environmental friendly.

Not polluted the environment.

Hardware Requirements

The following components are required to design the project.

PIC Microcontroller
Solar panel
Windmill
Battery
Dc motor
Chase
GSM Modem
Temperature sensor
LCD display
Relay

Software Requirement
Embedded c
 CHAPTER 4

BLOCK DIAGRAM

4.1 Introduction

Hybrid models have been an effective means of producing generating

electricity throughout the world. Lots of research work has been done and
continuing the accommodate new advances in this system. This method reports the
probabilistic performance assessment of a wind, Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) Hybrid
Energy System. In addition to this solar/wind system with backup storage batteries
were designed, integrated and optimized to predict the behavior of generating
system. The basic objective is to develop an automation engine which is used to
find the detection of cracks in the railway networks.
Description

Hybrid power intelligent train system is one of the interesting topics in embedded
systems industry. By using this method can able to operate the train using solar
panel and wind energy will use without fuels.

The fire is sensed by fire sensor, in case fire will occurred means the
microcontroller suddenly can take the decision and the SMS is send through the
particular in charges with the help of GSM modem the relay immediately trip
motor operation same time electric supply are cut by the relay and water will pass
through the coach.

Advantages

The hybrid system of solar/wind is environmental friendly.

To avoid ticket forgeries and fire accidents.

4.4 Solar Panel

4.4.1 Introduction

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module
can either be the top layer or the back layer. The majority of modules use wafer-
based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or
silicon. The conducting wires that take the current off the panels may contain
silver, copper or other conductive (but generally not magnetic) transition metals.

The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the
system. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most
solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or
in parallel to provide a desired current capability.

Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial

or total shading, and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells
may have adequate reverse current characteristics that these are not necessary.
Reverse currents waste power and can also lead to overheating of shaded cells.
Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide
good ventilation behind solar panels.
 Fig 4.4.1: Solar Panel

Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is

focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of
cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective
way. Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from
a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher
efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light.

4.4.2 Photovoltaic systems

A photovoltaic (PV), or solar electric system, is made up of several

photovoltaic solar cells. An individual PV cell is usually small, typically producing
about 1 or 2 watts of power. To boost the power output of PV cells, they are
connected together to form larger units called modules. Modules, in turn, can be
connected to form even larger units called arrays, which can be interconnected to
produce more power, and so on. In this way, PV systems can be built to meet
almost any electric power need, small or large.

Fig 4.4.2: Solar cell structure

The arrays do not represent an entire PV system. Systems also include

structures that point them toward the sun and components that take the direct-
current electricity produced by modules and "condition" that electricity, usually by
converting it to alternate-current electricity. PV systems may also include batteries.
These items are referred to as the balance of system (BOS) components.

4.4.3 Photovoltaic Cells Convert Sunlight into Electricity

Solar energy is leading the green revolution. If you're considering installing

a solar photovoltaic (PV) system on your home, you don't need to know how the
PV cells work. Your solar contractor knows the details, and they know which types
of panels to use in a given application.

A standard PV cell is a thin semiconductor sandwich, with two layers of

highly purified silicon. Photovoltaic arrays are nothing more than huge matrices of
interconnected semiconductor sandwiches. Usable PV systems comprised all sorts
of equipment that protects the user from electrical shock, stores the electricity in
battery banks, and converts the direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC),
which is what people use in their houses. But at the heart of each system is a
simple conversion process.
 Fig4.4.3: A photovoltaic cell changes light into electricity

A typical PV cell produces around half a volt of electrical output. When 36

PV cells are connected in series, the result is an 18-volt module. A module or panel
is a number of individual cells interconnected and housed into a finished product.
A typical PV module in a residential application measures around 2.5 feet by 5
feet, in either bluish or black. Frames are either aluminum-colored or black, with
the latter being the overwhelming choice of most homeowners these days (they just
look better). It's possible to achieve a wide range of voltage and current outputs,
depending on how the individual cells are connected together. The amount of
power a module can produce is a function of the total surface area, as well as the
amount of sunlight that strikes the module.

Typical modules are rectangular and are available in a variety of sizes and
configurations. Small modules (the kind used in hand-held calculators) output less
than a single watt of power, while a typical residential module produces around
200 watts of power, more or less.

4.4.4 Types of PV cell materials

They are Three basic types of construction of PV panels though all of those
shown here use silicon

Monocrystalline
Polycrystalline (or Multicrystalline)
Amorphous
4.4.5 Solar Panel Details

Normal voltage - 12V DC

Voc (voltage) - 21.20Volt
Isc (amps) - 8.20 Amps
Length - 1505cm
Width - 955cm4.5 Wind Mill

4.5.1 Introduction

Wind energy can be referred to as a converted type of solar energy. The

sunrays heat up the ground and this causes the atmosphere to become warm. When
the hot air goes up, it reduces the earths atmospheric pressure and cool air is
drawn to take its place. This cool air is called wind. Air contains mass and when it
moves, it has energy. Some of this energy can be converted into various types of
mechanical force that is applied in various activities.

Fig 4.5.1: Wind Mill

To convert the wind energy into mechanical energy, a wind turbine is used.
The system is effective in turning the kinetic energy found in the wind into
electrical energy or mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is usually applied
in pumping water especially in remote locations but it is also applied in other
activities. The turbines also help to generate electricity for businesses and homes.

4.5.2 Wind turbine

 The wind turbines come in two main types including the horizontal axis and
vertical axis. The horizontal-axis is the most common ones and they are used to
produce a significant amount of electric power. These systems contain various
components including blades used to convert the wind energy into shaft energy,
generator, gearbox, tower, drive train, electrical cables, controls, interconnection
and ground support equipment. The wind turbines come in a variety of sizes and
steel is used to make the towers.

4.5.3 Electricity generation

Any effective turbine will have 3 aerodynamically architecture blades. This

makes it easier to create a rotational movement every time the blades are exposed
to wind. The blades rotate a shaft which is connected to the generator(s) which in
turn create electricity. As the wind blows, the blades make lifts that are like an
airplane's wings then the blades begin rotating.

4.5.4 Mechanical strength

The wind turbine on itself also plays a very significant role in making the
generation process a success. Usually the turbine is on a firm foundation to prevent
it from uprooting. This way the turbine is protected from any strong force that may
make the turbine anticlockwise mechanism crumble.

4.5.5 Measurement of Wind Energy

 The ability of a wind turbine to create electricity can be measured in terms
of watts. The consumption and production of electricity is usually measured in
terms of kilowatts. The output of the system usually depends on the size of the
system and the wind speed. Most of the systems in the market produce about
between 250 watts and 5 megawatts.

4.5.6 Global Data

Wind energy is definitely a better alternative to the use of fossil fuels because it is
clean, safe and the operating costs are minimal. There is a move towards
environmentally friendly sources of energy and this type of energy is a suitable
option. That the only reason to usage of wind mill is increasing in every year.
4.5.7 Wind mill Details

Type of generator - Dc generator

Voltage - 12 volt

Amps - 5 amps

Rated Power - 100 Watts

Rated Speed - 860 r/m

Starting Wind Speed - 3m/s

Rated Wind Speed -12 m/s

4.6 Power Supply

The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply circuits built
using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators. Starting with an AC voltage, a
steady DC voltage is obtained by rectifying the AC voltage, then filtering to a DC
level, and finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed DC voltage. The regulation is
usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator unit, which takes a DC voltage and
provides a somewhat lower DCvoltage, which remains the same even if the input
DC voltage varies, or the output load connected to the DC voltage changes.

Fig 4.6 shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator IC

to a load. The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated DC input voltage, VI,
applied to one input terminal, a regulated output DC voltage, Vo, from a second
terminal, with the third terminal connected to ground The specifications also list
the amount of output voltage change resulting from a change in load current (load
regulation) or in input voltage (line regulation).

Fig4.6: Circuit Diagram for Power Supply

4.6.1 Fixed Positive Voltage Regulators

The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 V

shows how one such IC, a 7812, is connected to provide voltage regulation with
the output from this unit of +12V Dec. An unregulated input voltage VI is filtered
by capacitor C1 and connected to the ICs IN terminal. The ICs OUT terminal
provides a regulated + 12V which is filtered by the capacitor C2 (mostly for any
high-frequency noise). The third IC terminal is connected to ground (GND).

Fig4.6.1: Fixed Voltage Regulator

While the input voltage may vary over some permissible voltage range, and
the output load may vary over some acceptable range, the output voltage remains
constant within specified voltage variation limits. These limitations are spelled out
in the manufacturers specification sheets.

The AC voltage, typically 220V RMS, is connected to a transformer, which

steps that AC voltage down to the level of the desired DC output. A diode rectifier
then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple
capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage. This resulting DC voltage usually has
some ripple or AC voltage variation.A regulator circuit removes the ripples and
also remains the same DC value even if the input DC voltage varies, or the load
connected to the output DC voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually
obtained using one of the popular voltage regulator IC units.

Fig 4.6.1: Block Diagram of Power Supply

4.6.2 Transformer

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V)
to (0-6V) level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected
to the precision rectifier, which is constructed with the help of opamp. The
advantages of using a precision rectifier are it will give a peak voltage output as
DC, the rest of the circuits will give only RMS output.

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V)
to (0-6V) level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected
to the precision rectifier, which is constructed with the help of op-amp. The
advantages of using precision rectifier are it will give peak voltage output as DC;
rest of the circuits will give only RMS output.

4.6.3 Rectifier
 A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current to direct
current or at least to current with only positive value, a process known as
rectification. Rectifiers are used as components of power supplies and as detectors
of radio signals.

4.6.4 IC Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units

contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and
overload protection all in a single IC. Although the internal construction of the IC
is somewhat different from that described for discrete voltage regulator circuits, the
external operation is much the same. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed
positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustable set voltage.

A power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the AC supply

line to step the AC voltage to desired amplitude, then rectifying that AC voltage,
filtering with a capacitor and RC filter, if desired, and finally regulating the DC
voltage using an IC regulator. The regulators can be selected for operation with
load currents from hundreds of Mill amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to
power ratings from mill watts to tens of watts.

4.7 Relay

4.7.1 Theory and construction

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of

the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and
they are double throw (changeover) switches.
 Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely
separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to
switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay
between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a
12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from
lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is
usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the
relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so
these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of
switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to
describe them please see the page on switches.

Fig 4.7.1: construction of relay

4.7.2 Working principle

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a
12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from
lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is
usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the
relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so
these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

Fig 4.7.2: Symbol of relay

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch
contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to
describe them please see the page on switches.

The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil
will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce
brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy
transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection
diode across the relay coil.

4.7.3 Pin Diagram

4.7.4 Relay off

4.7.4(a) Relay ON
4.7.5 Advantages

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.

Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.

Relays are a better choice for switching large currents(5A).

Relays can switch many contacts at once.

4.7.6 Disadvantages

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch
many times per second.

Liquid Crystal Display

Introduction

An LCD is low cost display. It is easy to interface with a micro-controller

because of an embedded controller (the black blob on the back of the board). This
controller is standard across many displays (HD 44780), which means many
micro-controllers have libraries that make displaying messages as easy as a single
line of code.
 LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use
replacing

LEDs (seven segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the
following reasons:

The declining prices of LCDs.

The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to
LEDs, which are limited to numbers and a few characters.
Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the
CPU of the task of refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LED must be
refreshed by the CPU to keep displaying the data.
Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

These components are specialized for being used with the

microcontrollers, which means that they cannot be activated by standard IC
circuits. They are used for writing different messages on a miniature LCD.
 Fig4.10.1: LCD Display

LCD screen consists of two lines with 16 characters each. Each character
consists of 5x7 dot matrix. Contrast on display depends on the power supply
voltage and whether messages are displayed in one or two lines. For that reason,
variable voltage 0-Vdd is applied on pin marked. Trimmer potentiometer is usually
used for that purpose. Some versions of displays have built in backlight (blue or
green diodes). When used during operating, a resistor for current limitation should
be used (like with any LE diode).

LCD Connection

Depending on how many lines are used for connection to the

microcontroller, there are 8- bit and 4-bit LCD modes. The appropriate mode is
determined at the beginning of the process in a phase called initialization. In the
first case, the data are transferred through outputs D0-D7 as it has been already
explained. In case of 4-bit LED mode, for the sake of saving valuable I/O pins of
the microcontroller, there are only 4 higher bits (D4-D7) used for communication,
while other may be left unconnected. Consequently, each data is sent to LCD in
two steps: four higher bits are sent first (that normally would be sent through lines
D4-D7), four lower bits are sent afterwards. With the help of initialization, LCD
will correctly connect and interpret each data received.
 Fig4.10.2: LCD display panel

LCD (data mainly are transferred from microcontroller to LCD) one more
I/O pin may be saved by simple connecting R/W pin to the Ground. Such saving
has its price. Even though message displaying will be normally performed, it will
not be possible to read from busy flag since it is not possible to read from display.

Address code

PIC16F778A

The PIC16F887 is one of the latest products from Microchip. It features all
the components which modern microcontrollers normally have. For its low price,
wide range of application, high quality and easy availability, it is an ideal solution
in applications such as: the control of different processes in industry, machine
control devices, measurement of different values etc. Some of its main features are
listed below.

High-Performance RISC CPU

Only 35 single-word instructions to learn

All single-cycle instructions except for program branches, which are two-cycle

Operating speed: DC 20 MHz clock input DC 200 ns instruction cycle

Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data

Memory (RAM), Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory

Pinout compatible to other 28-pin or 40/44-pin PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX

microcontrollers Peripheral Features: Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit
prescaler

Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during Sleep via
external crystal/clock

Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler

Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules - Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is

12.5 ns - Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns - PWM max. resolution is
10-bit

Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master mode) and I2C
(Master/Slave)
 Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with
9-bit address detection

Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS controls
(40/44-pin only)

Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

ANALOG FEATURES:

10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D)

Brown-out Reset (BOR)

Analog Comparator module with: - Two analog comparators - Programmable on-

chip voltage reference (VREF) module - Programmable input multiplexing from
device inputs and internal voltage reference - Comparator outputs are externally
accessible.

SPECIAL MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES

100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash program memory typical

1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM memory typical

Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years

Self-reprogrammable under software control

In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins

Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming

 Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable
operation

Programmable code protection

Power saving Sleep mode

Selectable oscillator options

In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins

CMOS TECHNOLOGY

Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology

Fully static design

Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V)

Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges

Low-power consumption

PIC16F873A/876A devices are available only in 28-pin packages, while

PIC16F874A/877A devices are available in 40-pin and 44-pin packages. All
devices in the PIC16F87XA family share common architecture with the following
differences:

The PIC16F873A and PIC16F874A have one-half of the total on-chip memory of
the PIC16F876A and PIC16F877A

The 28-pin devices have three I/O ports, while the 40/44-pin devices have five
 The 28-pin devices have fourteen interrupts, while the 40/44-pin devices have
fifteen

The 28-pin devices have five A/D input channels, while the 40/44-pin devices
have eight

The Parallel Slave Port is implemented only on the 40/44-pin devices

Additional information may be found in the PICmicro Mid-Range Reference

Manual (DS33023), which may be obtained from your local Microchip Sales
Representative or downloaded from the Microchip web site. The Reference
Manual should be considered a complementary document to this data sheet and is
highly recommended reading for a better understanding of the device architecture
and operation of the peripheral modules.

PIN DIAGRAM
Fig. 1-1 PIC16F887 PDIP 40 Microcontroller

Fig. 1-2 PIC16F887 QFN 44 Microcontroller

Fig. 1-3 PIC16F887 Block Diagram

Pin Description

As seen in Fig. 1-1 above, the most pins are multi-functional. For example,
designator RA3/AN3/Vref+/C1IN+ for the fifth pin specifies the following
functions:

RA3 Port A third digital input/output

AN3 Third analog input
Vref+ Positive voltage reference
C1IN+ Comparator C1positive input

This small trick is often used because it makes the microcontroller package more
compact without affecting its functionality. These various pin functions cannot be
used simultaneously, but can be changed at any point during operation.The
following tables, refer to the PDIP 40 microcontroller.
Table 1-1 Pin Assignment
Table 1-1 cont. Pin Assignment
Table 1-1 cont. Pin Assignment
CENTRAL PROCESSOR UNIT (CPU)

RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer gives the PIC16F887 two great
advantages:

The CPU can recognize only 35 simple instructions (In order to program
some other microcontrollers it is necessary to know more than 200 instructions
by heart).
The execution time is the same for all instructions except two and lasts 4
clock cycles (oscillator frequency is stabilized by a quartz crystal). The Jump
and Branch instructions execution time is 2 clock cycles. It means that if the
microcontrollers operating speed is 20MHz, execution time of each instruction
will be 200nS, i.e. the program will be executed at the speed of 5 million
instructions per second.
Fig. 1-4 CPU Memory

Memory

This microcontroller has three types of memory- ROM, RAM and

EEPROM. All of them will be separately discussed since each has specific
functions, features and organization.

ROM Memory

ROM memory is used to permanently save the program being executed. This
is why it is often called program memory. The PIC16F887 has 8Kb of
ROM (in total of 8192 locations). Since this ROM is made with FLASH
technology, its contents can be changed by providing a special programming
voltage (13V).

Anyway, there is no need to explain it in detail because it is automatically

performed by means of a special program on the PC and a simple electronic
device called the Programmer.
 Fig. 1-5 ROM Memory Concept

EEPROM Memory

Similar to program memory, the contents of EEPROM is permanently saved,

even the power goes off. However, unlike ROM, the contents of the EEPROM can
be changed during operation of the microcontroller. That is why this memory (256
locations) is a perfect one for permanently saving results created and used during
the operation.

RAM Memory

This is the third and the most complex part of microcontroller memory. In
this case, it consists of two parts: general-purpose registers and special-function
registers (SFR).Even though both groups of registers are cleared when power goes
off and even though they are manufactured in the same way and act in the similar
way, their functions do not have many things in common.
General-Purpose Registers

General-Purpose registers are used for storing temporary data and results
created during operation. For example, if the program performs a counting (for
example, counting products on the assembly line), it is necessary to have a register
which stands for what we in everyday life call sum. Since the microcontroller is
not creative at all, it is necessary to specify the address of some general purpose
register and assign it a new function. A simple program to increment the value of
this register by 1, after each product passes through a sensor, should be created.

Therefore, the microcontroller can execute that program because it now

knows what and where the sum which must be incremented is. Similarly to this
simple example, each program variable must be pre assigned some of general-
purpose register.

SFR Registers

Special-Function registers are also RAM memory locations, but unlike

general-purpose registers, their purpose is predetermined during manufacturing
process and cannot be changed. Since their bits are physically connected to
particular circuits on the chip (A/D converter, serial communication module, etc.),
any change of their contents directly affects the operation of the microcontroller or
some of its circuits. For example, by changing the TRISA register, the function of
each port A pin can be changed in a way it acts as input or output. Another feature
of these memory locations is that they have their names (registers and their bits),
which considerably facilitates program writing. Since high-level programming
language can use the list of all registers with their exact addresses, it is enough to
specify the registers name in order to read or change its contents.
RAM Memory Banks

The data memory is partitioned into four banks. Prior to accessing some
register during program writing (in order to read or change its contents), it is
necessary to select the bank which contains that register. Two bits of the STATUS
register are used for bank selecting, which will be discussed later. In order to
facilitate operation, the most commonly used SFRs have the same address in all
banks which enables them to be easily accessed.
Table 1-2 Address Banks
STACK

A part of the RAM used for the stack consists of eight 13-bit registers.
Before the microcontroller starts to execute a subroutine (CALL instruction) or
when an interrupt occurs, the address of first next instruction being currently
executed is pushed onto the stack, i.e. onto one of its registers. In that way, upon
subroutine or interrupt execution, the microcontroller knows from where to
continue regular program execution. This address is cleared upon return to the
main program because there is no need to save it any longer, and one location of
the stack is automatically available for further use.

It is important to understand that data is always circularly pushed onto the stack. It
means that after the stack has been pushed eight times, the ninth push overwrites
the value that was stored with the first push. The tenth push overwrites the second
push and so on. Data overwritten in this way is not recoverable. In addition, the
programmer cannot access these registers for write or read and there is no Status
bit to indicate stack overflow or stack underflow conditions. For that reason, one
should take special care of it during program writing.

Interrupt System

The first thing that the microcontroller does when an interrupt request
arrives is to execute the current instruction and then stop regular program
execution. Immediately after that, the current program memory address is
automatically pushed onto the stack and the default address (predefined by the
manufacturer) is written to the program counter. That location from where the
program continues execution is called the interrupt vector. For the PIC16F887
microcontroller, this address is 0004h. As seen in Fig. 1-7 below, the location
containing interrupt vector is passed over during regular program execution.
 Part of the program being activated when an interrupt request arrives is
called the interrupt routine. Its first instruction is located at the interrupt vector.
How long this subroutine will be and what it will be like depends on the skills of
the programmer as well as the interrupt source itself.

Some microcontrollers have more interrupt vectors (every interrupt request

has its vector), but in this case there is only one. Consequently, the first part of the
interrupt routine consists in interrupt source recognition. Finally, when the
interrupt source is recognized and interrupts routine is executed, the
microcontroller reaches the RETFIE instruction, pops the address from the stack
and continues program execution from where it left off.

GSM Modem
4.12.1 Introduction
This method describes the hardware interface of the sim300 module that
connects to
the specific application and the air interface. As sim300 can be integrated with a
wide range of applications, all functional components of sim300 are described in
great detail.
This document can help you quickly understand sim300 interface
specifications, electrical and mechanical details. With the help of this document
and other sim300 application notes, user guide, you can use sim300 module to
design and set-up mobile applications quickly.

Fig4.12.1: Model of GSM modem

Sim300 - GSM/GPRS engine.

Works on frequencies egsm 900 MHZ, dcs 1800 MHZ and pcs 1900 mhz.
Sim300 features GPRS multi-slot class 10/ class 8 (optional) and supports
the GPRS coding schemes.
4.12.2 Futures of GSM Modem
GSM modem is a highly flexible plug and play quad band gsm modem for
direct and as integration to rs232.
 Supports features like voice, data/fax, sms, GPRS and integrated tcp/Ip
stack.
Control via at commands.
Use ac dc power adaptor with following ratings dc voltage: 12v /1a.
Current consumption in normal operation 250ma, can rise up to 1amp while
transmission.

CHAPTER 6
APPENDIX
6.1SOFTWARE ANALYSIS
Introduction to AVR compiler
Keil IDE:
 Keil Vision is what the software we are using for the programming. In this
software editor we are writing the program in any of the languages like ASM or
Embedded C.

-vision overview

The Vision3 IDE is a Windows-based software development platform that

combines a robust editor, project manager, and makes facility. Vision3 integrates
all tools including the C compiler, macro assembler, linker/locator, and HEX file
generator. Vision3 helps expedite the development process of your embedded
applications by providing the following:

Full-featured source code editor,

Device database for configuring the development tool setting,

Project manager for creating and maintaining your projects,

Integrated make facility for assembling, compiling, and linking your

embedded applications,

Dialogs for all development tool settings,

True integrated source-level Debugger with high-speed CPU and peripheral

simulator,

Advanced GDI interface for software debugging in the target hardware and
for connection to Keil ULINK.

Flash programming utility for downloading the application program into

Flash ROM.
Features

The Vision3 Simulator is the only debugger that completely simulates all
on-chip peripherals

The Vision3 Device Database automatically configures the development

tools for the target microcontroller.

Identical Target Debugger and Simulator User Interface.

Vision3 incorporates project manager, editor, and debugger in a single

environment.

Benefits

Write and test application code before production hardware is available.

Investigate different hardware configurations to optimize the hardware
design.
Sophisticated systems can be accurately simulated by adding your own
peripheral drivers.
Mistakes in tool settings are practically eliminated and tool configuration
time is minimized.

Advantages

Higher security provided

GSM for user awareness

Avoid theft immediately

 Highly reliable

Embedded C

Micro controller program is written in Embedded C Language and It Is

Compile and Converter D into Hex File Using Code vision Software. The hex file
is loaded into the micro controller for performing the operation.

PROGRAM

#include <EEPROM.h>
#include <SoftwareSerial.h>
// include the library code:
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<String.h>

// initialize the library with the numbers of the interface pins

LiquidCrystal lcd(8,9,10,11,12,13);

char mystrcmp(unsigned char *temp);

char num [ 11 ] ;
char card_id[11];
char ch;
void rec();
void tst_strcmp();

char phone_index ;
 //bit send_fail;
char display(int index,int count);

void edit_number_position ( int pos ,int max);

void edit_num ( );
void edit_bal(int pos_dig);
void edit_number(int pos_dig);
int stringtoint(char * string);

void retrieve_phone_num();
void save_phone_num();
char get_key (char flag );

unsigned char* get_string_gsm();

void gsm_control();
unsigned char gsm_string[15] ;

char send_message(char *number,char*message);

char temp;
// int phone_index ;
int buttonPin = 7; //menu
int buttonPin1 = 6; //up
int buttonPin2 = 5; //down
int buttonPin3 = 4; //edit

int ledd;
int buttonState , buttonState1 , buttonState2 , buttonState3,buttonState4;

char phone_num[8][11]={

"7092678326",
"8883067199",
"9626070094",
};
int z;

int fire = 2;
int fire_state = 0;
int ir = 3;
int ir_state = 0;

int count = 0;
int x = 0;
int w=0;
int star_state=0;

int star = A0;

int t,T=0;
void setup()
{
// set up the LCD's number of columns and rows:
pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT);
pinMode(buttonPin1, INPUT);
pinMode(buttonPin2, INPUT);
pinMode(buttonPin3, INPUT);
pinMode(star, INPUT);
digitalWrite(star,HIGH); pinMode(fire,INPUT);
digitalWrite(fire,LOW);
pinMode(ir,INPUT);
digitalWrite(ir,LOW);

pinMode(A0,INPUT);
pinMode(A2,OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(A2,HIGH);
pinMode(A1,OUTPUT);
pinMode(A5,OUTPUT);
pinMode(A4,OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(A0,HIGH);
digitalWrite(A1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(A5,LOW);
digitalWrite(A4,HIGH);

pinMode(A3,OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(A3,HIGH);

digitalWrite(buttonPin,HIGH);
digitalWrite(buttonPin1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(buttonPin2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(buttonPin3,HIGH);
 lcd.begin(16, 2);
Serial.begin(9600);
// disp_mainscreen();
for(int i=0;i<35;i++){
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
// _lcd_ready();
lcd.scrollDisplayLeft();
lcd.print( "INTELLIGNET AUTOMATION " ) ;

lcd.setCursor(0,1);
// _lcd_ready();
lcd.print( " SYSTEM IN TRAIN " ) ;
delay(350);

}
lcd.clear();

//save_phone_num();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
// _lcd_ready();
lcd.print( "INITIALIZE MODEM" ) ;
// sprintf( buffer,"ATE0%c%c" , 0x0D , 0x0A ) ;
Serial.print("ATE0");
delay ( 500 ) ;
Serial.print("\r\n");
delay ( 500 ) ;
// sprintf( buffer, "AT+CMGF=1%c%c" , 0x0D , 0x0A ) ; Serial.print(buffer);
 Serial.print("AT+CMGF=1");
Serial.print("\r\n");
delay ( 500 ) ;
// sprintf( buffer, "at+cnmi=2,2,0,0,0%c%c" , 0x0D , 0x0A ) ;
Serial.print(buffer);
Serial.print("at+cnmi=2,2,0,0,0");
Serial.print("\r\n");
delay ( 500 ) ;
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
// _lcd_ready();
for ( z = 0 ; z <3 ; z++ )
{
delay( 5 ) ;

// sprintf( buffer, "at+cmgd=%d%c%c" , z , 0x0D , 0x0A ) ;

Serial.print(buffer);
Serial.print("at+cmgd=");
if (z==0) Serial.print("0");
if (z==1) Serial.print("1");
if (z==2) Serial.print("2");
Serial.print("\r\n");
delay ( 10 ) ;
}

save_phone_num();
//retrieve_phone_num();
 }
char getchar1()
{
char data;
int counter = 2;
while ( Serial.available()<=0 )
{
delay( 10 ) ;
counter-- ;
if ( counter == 0 )
return 0 ;
}
data = Serial.read();
return data;
}
void loop()
{
Serial.flush();
lcd.clear();
while(1)
{
if (Serial.available())
{
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" PROCESSING ");
delay(1000);
 while (Serial.available() > 0)
{
for(int r=0;r<8;r++)
{
card_id[r] = getchar1();
delay(100);
}
Serial.flush();
tst_strcmp();Serial.flush();
}
else
{
buttonState = digitalRead(buttonPin);
if(buttonState==LOW)
{
for ( temp = 0 ; temp<4 ; temp++ )
{
if (display(temp,1)==0)
display(temp,0);
edit_num();
}
}
}
else
{
fire_state = digitalRead(fire);
ir_state = digitalRead(ir);
}

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
With increasing concern of global warming and the depletion of fossil fuel
reserves, many are looking at sustainable energy solutions to preserve the earth for
the future generations. Other than hydro power, wind and photovoltaic, fuel cells
energy holds the most potential to meet our energy demands. This work is
concentrated on predicting the major cause of railway accidents that is collision on
the same track. .It is expected that if this system is implemented widely, train
collisions and accidents can be avoided.
 CHAPTER 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.An integrated hybrid power supply for distributed generation applications fed by
nonconventional energy sources. sachin jain and vivek agarwal, senior member
ieee vol. 23, no. 2, june 2008
2.control strategy for a variable-speed wind turbine using dc bus measurements,
sisy 2010, ieee 8th international symposium on intelligent systems and informatics
september 10-11, 2010 by c. koch- ciobotaru, R. Boraci, I. Filip, C. Vasar, G.
Prostean.
3.ATMEGA microcontroller and Embedded Systems: Using Assembly and C for
ATMEGA 16 by Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Rolin D. McKinlay, Danny Causey .
4.Microcontroller Project Book For PIC Basic and PIC Basic Pro Compliers by
JOHN IOVINE.
5.The ATMEGA Microcontroller Your Personal Introductory Course by JOHN
MORTON.
6.2 Hardware Result