Nptel Learning Courses Composite Materials and Structures

NPTEL Online - IIT Bombay
Course Name Composite Materials

and Structures

Department Aerospace Engineering
IIT Kanpur

Instructor Dr. P. M. Mohite

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/main.html[8/18/2014 11:16:52 AM]

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Module 1: Introduction to Composites
Lecture 1: Definition and Introduction

The Lecture Contains:

Definition of a Composite Material

History of Composites

The Constituents in a Typical Composite

References

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/1_1.htm[8/18/2014 11:16:53 AM]

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Introduction

There is an unabated quest for new materials which will satisfy the specific requirements for various
applications like structural, medical, house-hold, industrial, construction, transportation, electrical;
electronics, etc. Metals are the most commonly used materials in these applications. In the yore of
time, there have been specific requirements on the properties of these materials. It is impossible of
any material to fulfill all these properties. Hence, newer materials are developed. In the course, we
are going to learn more about composite materials. First, we will deal with primary understanding of

these materials and then we will learn the mechanics of these materials.

In the following lectures, we will introduce the composite materials, their evolution; constituents;
fabrication; application; properties; forms, advantages-disadvantages etc. In the present lecture we
will introduce the composite materials with a formal definition, need for these materials, their
constituents and forms of constituents.
Definition of a Composite Material
A composite material is defined as a material which is composed of two or more materials at a

microscopic scale and has chemically distinct phases.
Thus, a composite material is heterogeneous at a microscopic scale but statistically homogeneous at

macroscopic scale. The materials which form the composite are also called as constituents or
constituent materials. The constituent materials of a composite have significantly different properties.
Further, it should be noted that the properties of the composite formed may not be obtained from
these constituents. However, a combination of two or more materials with significant properties will
not suffice to be called as a composite material. In general, the following conditions must be satisfied
to be called a composite material:
1. The combination of materials should result in significant property changes. One can see
significant changes when one of the constituent material is in platelet or fibrous from.
2. The content of the constituents is generally more than 10% (by volume).
3. In general, property of one constituent is much greater than the corresponding
property of the other constituent.
The composite materials can be natural or artificially made materials. In the following section we will
see the examples of these materials.
Why we need these materials?
There is unabated thirst for new materials with improved desired properties. All the desired
properties are difficult to find in a single material. For example, a material which needs high fatigue
life may not be cost effective. The list of the desired properties, depending upon the requirement of
the application, is given below.

1. Strength
2. Stiffness
3. Toughness
4. High corrosion resistance
5. High wear resistance

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6. High chemical resistance

7. High environmental degradation resistance
8. Reduced weight
9. High fatigue life
10. Thermal insulation or conductivity
11. Electrical insulation or conductivity
12. Acoustic insulation
13. Radar transparency
14. Energy dissipation
15. Reduced cost
16. Attractiveness
The list of desired properties is in-exhaustive. It should be noted that the most important
characteristics of composite materials is that their properties are tailorable, that is, one can design
the required properties.
Figure 1.1 Types of reinforcement in a composite


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History of Composites

The existence of composite is not new. The word composite has become very popular in recent
four-five decades due to the use of modern composite materials in various applications. The
composites have existed from 10000 BC. For example, one can see the article by Ashby [1]. The
evolution of materials and their relative importance over the years have been depicted in Figure 1 of
this article. The common composite was straw bricks, used as construction material.

Then the next composite material can be seen from Egypt around 4000 BC where fibrous composite
materials were used for preparing the writing material. These were the laminated writing materials
fabricated from the papyrus plant. Further, Egyptians made containers from coarse fibres that were
drawn from heat softened glass.
One more important application of composites can be seen around 1200 BC from Mongols. Mongols
invented the so called modern composite bow. The history shows that the earliest proof of
existence of composite bows dates back to 3000 BC - as predicted by Angara Dating. The bow used
various materials like wood, horn, sinew (tendon), leather, bamboo and antler. The horn and antler
were used to make the main body of the bow as it is very flexible and resilient. Sinews were used to
join and cover the horn and antler together. Glue was prepared from the bladder of fish which is
used to glue all the things in place. The string of the bow was made from sinew, horse hair and silk.
The composite bow so prepared used to take almost a year for fabrication. The bows were so
powerful that one could shoot the arrows almost 1.5 km away. Until the discovery of gun-powder the
composite bow used to be a very lethal weapon as it was a short and handy weapon.
As said, Need is the mother of all inventions, the modern composites, that is, polymer composites
came into existence during the Second World War. During the Second World War due to constraint
impositions on various nations for crossing boundaries as well as importing and exporting the
materials, there was scarcity of materials, especially in the military applications. During this period
the fighter planes were the most advanced instruments of war. The light weight yet strong materials
were in high demand. Further, applications like housing of electronic radar equipments require non-
metallic materials. Hence, the Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GFRP) were first used in these
applications. Phenolic resins were used as the matrix material. The first use of composite laminates
can be seen in the Havilland Mosquito Bomber of the British Royal Air Force.
The composites exist in day to day life applications as well. The most common existence is in the
form of concrete. Concrete is a composite made from gravel, sand and cement. Further, when it is
used along with steel to form structural components in construction, it forms one further form of
composite. The other material is wood which is a composite made from cellulose and lignin. The
advanced forms of wood composites can be ply-woods. These can be particle bonded composites or
mixture of wooden planks/blocks with some binding agent. Now days, these are widely used to make
furniture and as construction materials.
An excellent example of natural composite is muscles of human body. The muscles are present in a
layered system consisting of fibers at different orientations and in different concentrations. These
result in a very strong, efficient, versatile and adaptable structure. The muscles impart strength to
bones and vice a versa. These two together form a structure that is unique. The bone itself is a
composite structure. The bone contains mineral matrix material which binds the collagen fibres

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together.
The other examples include: wings of a bird, fins of a fish, trees and grass. A leaf of a tree is also an
excellent example of composite structure. The veins in the leaf not only transport food and water,
but also impart the strength to the leaf so that the leaf remains stretched with maximum surface
area. This helps the plant to extract more energy from sun during photo-synthesis.

What are the constituents in a typical composite?
In a composite, typically, there are two constituents. One of the constituent acts as a reinforcement
and other acts as a matrix. Sometimes, the constituents are also referred as phases.
What are the types of reinforcements?
The reinforcements in a composite material come in various forms. These are depicted through
Figure 1.1.

1. Fibre: Fibre is an individual filament of the material. A filament with length to diameter ratio
above 1000 is called a fibre. The fibrous form of the reinforcement is widely used. The fibres
can be in the following two forms:
a. Continuous fibres: If the fibres used in a composite are very long and
unbroken or cut then it forms a continuous fibre composite. A composite, thus
formed using continuous fibres is called as fibrous composite. The fibrous
composite is the most widely used form of composite.
b. Short/chopped fibres: The fibres are chopped into small pieces when used in
fabricating a composite. A composite with short fibres as reinforcements is called
as short fibre composite.
In the fibre reinforced composites, the fibre is the major load carrying constituent.
2. Particulate: The reinforcement is in the form of particles which are of the order of a few
microns in diameter. The particles are generally added to increase the modulus and decrease
the ductility of the matrix materials. In this case, the load is shared by both particles and
matrix materials. However, the load shared by the particles is much larger than the matrix
material. For example, in an automobile application carbon black (as a particulate
reinforcement) is added in rubber (as matrix material). The composite with reinforcement in
particle form is called a particulate composite.
3. Flake: Flake is a small, flat, thin piece or layer (or a chip) that is broken from a larger piece.
Since these are two dimensional in geometry, they impart almost equal strength in all
directions of their planes. Thus, these are very effective reinforcement components. The flakes
can be packed more densely when they are laid parallel, even denser than unidirectional
fibres and spheres. For example, aluminum flakes are used in paints. They align themselves
parallel to the surface of the coating which imparts the good properties.
4. Whiskers: These are nearly perfect single crystal fibres. These are short, discontinuous and
polygonal in cross-section.

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The classification of composites based on the form of reinforcement is shown in Figure 1.2. The
detailed classification further is given in Figure 1.3. The classification of particulate composites is
depicted further in Figure 1.4. Some of the terms used in these classifications will be explained in
the following paragraphs/lectures.

Figure 1.2: Classification of composites based on reinforcement type
Figure 1.3: Classification of fibre composite materials
Figure 1.4: Classification of particulate composites


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Why are reinforcement made in thin fibre form?

There are various reasons because of which the reinforcement is made in thin fibre form. These
reasons are given below.

a) An important experimental study by Leonardo da Vinci on the tensile strength of iron wires of
various lengths (see references in [2, 3]) is well known to us. In this study it was revealed that the
wires of same diameter with shorter length showed higher tensile strength than those with longer
lengths. The reason for this is the fact that the number of flaws in a shorter length of wire is small as
compared longer length. Further, it is well known that the strength of a bulk material is very less than
the strength of the same material in wire form.
The same fact has been explored in the composites with reinforcement in fibre form. As the fibres
are made of thin diameter, the inherent flaws in the material decrease. Hence, the strength of the
fibre increases as the fibre diameter decreases. This kind of experimental study has revealed the
similar results [2, 3]. This has been shown in Figure 1.5 qualitatively.
Figure 1.5: Qualitative variation of fibre tensile strength with

fibre diameter
b) The quality of load transfer between fibre and matrix depends upon the surface area between
fibre and matrix. If the surface area between fibre and matrix is more, better is the load transfer. It
can be shown that for given volume of fibres in a composite, the surface area between fibre and
matrix increases if the fibre diameter decreases.


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Let be the average diameter of the fibres, be the length of the fibres and be the number of
fibres for a given volume of fibres in a composite. Then the surface area available for load transfer is

(1.1)

The volume of these fibres in a composite is

(1.2)

Now, let us replace the fibres with a smaller average diameter of such that the volume of the fibres
is unchanged. Then the number of fibres required to maintain the same fibre volume is
(1.3)
The new surface area between fibre and matrix is
(1.4)
Thus, for a given volume of fibres in a composite, the area between fibre and matrix is inversely
proportional to the average diameter of the fibres.
c) The fibres should be flexible so that they can be bent easily without breaking. This property of the
fibres is very important for woven composites. In woven composites the flexibility of fibres plays an
important role. Ultra thin composites are used in deployable structures.
The flexibility is simply the inverse of the bending stiffness. From mechanics of solids study the
bending stiffness is EI, where is Youngs modulus of the material and is the second moment of
area of the cross section of the fibre. For a cylindrical fibre, the second moment of area is
(1.5)
Thus,
Flexibility (1.6)
Thus, from the above equation it is clear that if a fibre is thin, i.e. small in diameter, it is more
flexible.


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References:

MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for
the discovery of engineering mechanics. Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18,
pp. 243-250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate
tensile strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and
Technology, 1970; Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New
York, 1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of
Fibre Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
Series.2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York,
2006.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing,
Lancaster, PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge
University, Press, New York, 1996.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford
University Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil
construction: A general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
http://composite.about.com/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.gurit.com/
http://www.hexcel.com/
http://www.toraycfa.com/
http://www.e-composites.com/
http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
http://jpsglass.com/
http://www.eirecomposites.com/
http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm

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Lecture 2: Reinforcement: Materials and Forms


Types of Fibres

Boron Fiber

Carbon Fiber

Glass Fibre

References


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Introduction

In the previous lecture we have introduced the composite. Then we have seen the constituents of a
typical composite material. Further, based on the reinforcement, the classification of the composite
was presented.

In the present lecture we will introduce natural fibres and some advanced fibres. We will see, in
brief, the key features of these advanced fibres.

What are the functions of a reinforcing agent?

The functions of a reinforcing agent are:
1. These are the main load carrying constituents.
2. The reinforcing materials, in general, have significantly higher desired properties. Hence, they
contribute the desired properties to the composite.
3. It transfers the strength and stiffness to the matrix material.
What are the functions of a matrix material?
The matrix performs various functions. These functions are listed below:
1. The matrix material holds the fibres together.
2. The matrix plays an important role to keep the fibres at desired positions. The desired
distribution of the fibres is very important from micromechanical point of view.
3. The matrix keeps the fibres separate from each other so that the mechanical abrasion
between them does not occur.
4. It transfers the load uniformly between fibers. Further, in case a fibre is broken or fibre is
discontinuous, then it helps to redistribute the load in the vicinity of the break site.
5. It provides protection to fibers from environmental effects.
6. It provides better finish to the final product.
7. The matrix material enhances some of the properties of the resulting material and structural
component (that fibre alone is not able to impart). For example, such properties are:
transverse strength of a lamina, impact resistance

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What are the types of fibres?

The fibres that are used in the fabrication of a composite can be divided into two broad categories as
follows:

A. Natural fibres and

B. Advanced fibres

A. Natural fibres

The natural fibres are divided into following three sub categories.
Animal fibers: silk, wool, spider silk, sinew, camel hair, etc.
Plant/vegetable fibers: cotton (seed), jute (stem), hemp (stem), sisal (leaf), ramie,
bamboo, maze, sugarcane, banana, kapok, coir, abaca, kenaf, flax, raffia palm, etc.
Mineral fibers: asbestos, basalt, mineral wool, glass wool.
B. Natural fibresAdvanced fibers:
An advanced fibre is defined as a fibre which has a high specific stiffness (that is, ratio of Youngs
modulus to the density of the material, ) and a high specific strength (that is the ratio of ultimate
strength to the density of the material, ).

What are the advanced fibres?
The fibres made from following materials are the advanced fibres.
1. Carbon and/or Graphite

2. Glass fibers
3. Alumina
4. Aramid
5. Silicon carbide
6. Sapphire

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Figure 1.6: Periodic Table showing the materials used in advanced

composites (blue blocks) and conventinal metals (yellow blocks)
Figure 1.6 shows the periodic table. The conventional metals are shown in yellow colour whereas
the materials of the advanced fibres are shown in blue colour. It can be seen that the materials of
the advanced fibres are lighter than the conventional metals. These materials occupy higher position
as compared to metals in the periodic table. Thus, one can easily deduce that, in general, these
materials have higher specific properties (property per unit weight) than that of metals.


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Boron Fiber

This fibre was first introduced by Talley in 1959 [15]. In commercial production of boron fibres, the
method of Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is used. The CVD is a process in which one material
is deposited onto a substrate to produce near theoretical density and small grain size for the
deposited material. In CVD the material is deposited on a thin filament. The material grows on this
substrate and produces a thicker filament. The size of the final filament is such that it could not be
produced by drawing or other conventional methods of producing fibres. It is the fine and dense
structure of the deposited material which determines the strength and modulus of the fibre.

In the fabrication of boron fibre by CVD, the boron trichloride is mixed with hydrogen and boron is
deposited according to the reaction
In the process, the passage takes place for couple of minutes. During this process, the atoms
diffuse into tungsten core to produce the complete boridization and the production of and
. In the beginning the tungsten fibre of 12 diameter is used, which increases to 12 .
This step induces significant residual stresses in the fibre. The core is subjected to compression and
the neighbouring boron mantle is subjected to tension.
The CVD method for boron fibres is shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Schematic of reactors for silicon carbide fibres by Chemical Vapour
Deposition
The key features of this fibre are listed below:
These are ceramic monofilament fiber.

Fiber itself is a composite.
Circular cross section.
Fiber diameter ranges between 33-400 and typical diameter is 140 .
Boron is brittle hence large diameter results in lower flexibility.
Thermal coefficient mismatch between boron and tungsten results in thermal residual stresses
during fabrication cool down to room temperature.
Boron fibres are usually coated with SiC or so that it protects the surface during contact
with molten metal when it is used to reinforce light alloys. Further, it avoids the chemical
reaction between the molten metal and fibre.
Strong in both tension and compression.

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Exhibits linear axial stress-strain relationship up to 650 .

Since this fibre requires a specialized procedure for fabrication, the cost of production is
relatively high.
The boron fibre structure and its composite is elucidated in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8: Boron fibre structure and its composite

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Carbon Fiber:

The first carbon fibre for commercial use was fabricated by Thomas Edison.

Sixth lightest element and carbon - carbon covalent bond is the strongest in nature.
Edison made carbon fiber from bamboo fibers.
Bamboo fiber is made up of cellulose.
Precursor fiber is carbonized rather than melting.
Filaments are made by controlled pyrolysis (chemical deposition by heat) of a precursor
material in fiber form by heat treatment at temperature of 1000-3000
The carbon content in carbon fibers is about 80-90 % and in Graphite fibers the carbon
content is in excess of 99%. Carbon fibre is produced at about 1300 while the graphite fibre
is produced in excess of 1900 .
The carbon fibers become graphitized by heat treatment at temperature above 1800 .
Carbon fibers term is used for both carbon fibers and graphite fibers.
Different fibers have different morphology, origin, size and shape.
The size of individual filament ranges from 3 to 147 .
Maximum use of temperature of the fibers ranges from 250 to 2000 .
The use temperature of a composite is controlled by the use temperature of the matrix.
Precursor materials: There are two types of precursor materials (i) Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and
(ii) rayon pitch, that is, the residue of petroleum refining.
Fiber properties vary with varying temperature.
Fiber diameter ranges from 4 to10 .

A tow consists of about 3000 to 30000 filaments.
Small diameter results in very flexible fiber and can actually be tied in to a knot without
breaking the fiber.
Modulus and strength is controlled by the process. The procedure involves the thermal
decomposition of the organic precursor under well controlled conditions of temperature and
stress.
Cross section of fiber is non-circular, in general, it is kidney bean shape.
Heterogeneous microstructure consisting of numerous lamellar ribbons.
Morphology is very dependent on the manufacturing process.
PAN based carbon fibers typically have an onion skin appearance with the basal planes in
more or less circular arcs, whereas the morphology of pitch-based fiber is such that the basal
planes lie along radial planes. Thus, carbon fibers are anisotropic.

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Glass Fibre

Fibers of glass are produced by extruding molten glass, at a temperature around 1200
through holes in a spinneret with diameter of 1 or 2 mm and then drawing the filaments to
produce fibers having diameters usually between 5 to15 .
The fibres have low modulus but significantly higher stiffness.
Individual filaments are small in diameters, isotropic and very flexible as the diameter is small.
The glass fibres come in variety of forms based on silica which is combined with
other elements to create speciality glass.

What are the different types of glass fibres? What are their key features?

The types of glass fibres and their key features are as follows:
E glass - high strength and high resistivity.

S2 glass - high strength, modulus and stability under extreme temperature and corrosive
environment.
R glass enhanced mechanical properties.
C glass - resists corrosion in an acid environment.
D glass good dielectric properties.

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References:



JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the

discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-
250.
E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate tensile
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970;
Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006.
AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York, 2006.
IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.


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Lecture 3: Reinforcement: Materials


Alumina Fibre

Aramid Fibre

CVD on Tungsten or Carbon Core

NICALON TM by NIPPON Carbon Japan

References


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Introduction

In this lecture we are going see some more advanced fibres. Further, we will see their key features,
applications and fabrication processes.

Alumina Fibre

These are ceramics fabricated by spinning a slurry mix of alumina particles and additives to
form a yarn which is then subjected to controlled heating.
Fibers retain strength at high temperature.
It also shows good electrical insulation at high temperatures.
It has good wear resistance and high hardness.
The upper continuous use temperature is about 1700 .
Fibers of glass, carbon and alumina are supplied in the form of tows (also called rovings or
strands) consisting of many individual continuous fiber filaments.
Du Pont has developed a commercial grade alumina fibre, known as Alumina FP
(polycrystalline alumina) fibre. Alumina FP fibres are compatible with both metal and resin
matrices. These fibres have a very high melting point of 2100 . They can withstand
temperatures up to 1000 without any loss of strength and stiffness properties at this
elevated temperature. They exhibit high compressive strengths, when they are set in a matrix.
The Alumina whiskers are available and they exhibit excellent properties. Alumina whiskers
can have the tensile strength of 20700 MPa and the tensile modulus of 427 GPa.
What are the applications of Alumina fibres?
The Alumina has a unique combination of low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity
and high compressive strength. The combination of these properties gives good thermal shock
resistance. These properties make Alumina suitable for applications in furnace use as
crucibles, tubes and thermocouple sheaths.
The good wear resistance and high hardness properties are harnessed in making the
components such as ball valves, piston pumps and deep drawing tools.

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Aramid Fibre

These fibres are from Aromatic polyamide, that is, nylons family.
Aramid is derived from Ar of Aromatric and amid of polyamide.
Examples of fibres from nylon family: Polyamide 6, that is, nylon 6 and Polyamide 6.6, that is,
nylon 6.6
These are organic fibers.
Melt-spun from a liquid solution.
Du Pont developed these fibers under the trade name Kevlar. From poly (p-phenylene
terephthalamide (PPTA) polymer.
Morphology radially arranged crystalline sheets resulting into anisotropic properties.
Filament diameter about 12 and partially flexible.
High tensile strength.
Intermediate modulus.
Significantly lower strength in compression.
5 grades of Kevlar with varying engineering properties are available. Kevlar-29, Kevlar-49,
Kevlar-100, Kevlar-119 and Kevlar-129.
Silicon Carbide Fibre (SiC)
Silicon carbide fibres are ceramic fibers. These fibres are produced in similar fashion as boron fibres
are produced. The fibres are produced by two methods as follows:
CVD on Tungsten or Carbon Core
NICALON by NIPPON Carbon Japan

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CVD on Tungsten or Carbon Core:

This fiber is similar in size and microstructure to boron.
The fibres are produced on both tungsten and carbon cores.
These fibres are relativity stiff due to thicker diameter of the fibres. The diameter of the fibres
is about 140 .
The fibres have strength in the range of 3.4 4.0 GPa.
Failure strain is in the range of 0.8 - 1%.
The Youngs modulus is about 430 GPa.
The fibres show high structural stability and strength retention even at temperatures above
1000 .
The CVD with as the reactant, SiC is deposited on the core as follows:
The SiC fibres produced on a tungsten core with a diameter about 12 . It shows a thin
interfacial layer between the SiC mantle and the tungsten core. In case, when carbon fibre is
used the fibre diameter of the carbon fibres is about 33 .
Both type of SiC fibre have smoother surfaces than a boron fibre. This is because there is a
deposition of small columnar grains as compared to conical nodules in boron fibres.
The SiC fibres produced with carbon core are used in light reinforced alloys. These fibres are
produced with a surface coating. The composition of this coating varies from carbon rich from
inner surface to silicon carbide at the outer surface.
The fibres that are used to reinforce the titanium have a protective layer which varies from a
carbon rich to silicon rich and again to a composition which is rich in carbon at the surface.
The outer surface acts as a protective surface and when it comes in contact with molten and
highly reactive titanium. The fibres are made by Specialty Materials Inc. under the trade name
SCS-6. The coating increases the fibres diameter by 6 .

The fibre has low failure stresses due to surface flaws.
The higher strength of fibre is due to the controlled defects at the core-mantle interface.
The strength of SiC fibres produced using CVD is seen to be anisotropic. The radial strength
is significantly lower than longitudinal tensile strength.
When the fibres are heated to above 800 C in air for a long period, they lose their strength
due to oxidation of the carbon rich outer layers.
The CVD for SiC fibres is shown in Figure 1.9.

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Figure 1.9: Schematic of reactors for silicon carbide fibres by Chemical Vapour Deposition

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NICALON by NIPPON Carbon Japan

The fibres are manufactured by the process of controlled pyrolysis (chemical deposition by

heat) of a polymeric precursor.

The fiber is homogeneously composed of ultrafine beta-SiC crystallites and carbon.

The filament is similar to carbon fiber in size.
The diameter of the fibre is about 14
The fibres more flexible due to small diameter.
The fibres are arranged in tows of 250 to 500 filaments per tow.
These fibres come in two grades:
a. Ceramic Grade: provides good high temperature performance and mechanical
properties
b. High Volume Resistivity Grade: It is a low dielectric fibre. It has good electrical and
mechanical properties. These are used in dielectric structures.
Uses of the NICALON Fibres

These fibres are used to form fibrous products such as high temperature insulation, filters, etc. These
fibres have high resistance to chemical attack. Hence, these can be used in harsh environments.
These are also used as a reinforcement in plastic, ceramic and metal matrix composites.


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Cross Sectional Shapes of Fibres

The cross sectional shapes of fibre of various types we have studied above are different. The cross
sectional shape of the fibres, although is assumed to be circular, is not circular in general. The
various cross sectional shapes of the fibre are shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10: Cross sectional shapes of fibres
Fiber Properties
The following are the important points regarding the fibre properties.
Density, axial modulus, axial Poissons ratio, axial tensile strength and coefficient of thermal
expansion are some of the important properties.
Advanced fibers exhibit a broad range of properties.
Properties of carbon fiber can vary significantly depending upon fabrication process.
For the advanced fibres studied above one can attain either high modulus (> 700 GPa) or
high strength (> 5 GPa) but not both attainable simultaneously.
SCS-6, IM8, boron and sapphire fibers offer the best combination of stiffness and strength
but have large diameters and thus limited flexibility. However, IM8 fibers are exception for
flexibility.

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The specific stiffness of some of these fibres is almost 13 times of structural metals.
Similarly, the specific strength of some of these fibres is almost 16 times of structural metals.
Weight saving, when the composites of these fibres are used, is tremendous due to high
specific stiffness and strength.
Actual properties of composite (fiber + matrix) are reduced.
Specific properties are reduced even further when the loading is in a direction other than the
length direction of fibers.
Tailorable properties.
One can get the desired heat transfer or electrical conductivity with proper designing.
The increased fatigue resistance is attainable with the use of these fibre composites.
Aging effect can be significantly lowered.
Note: The fibres are classified based on their values of modulus as follows:
1. Ultra-high-modulus, type UHM (modulus > 450 GPa)

2. High-modulus, type HM (modulus between 350-450 GPa)
3. Intermediate-modulus, type IM (modulus between 200-350 GPa)
4. Low modulus and high-tensile, type HT (modulus < 100 GPa, tensile strength > 3.0 GPa)

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References:


250.
Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.

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Lecture 4: Matrix Materials


Matrix Materials used in Composites

Thermoplastic and Thermoset Matrix Materials

Comparison between Thermoplastics and Thermosets

The Different Forms of Composites

The Factors that Affect the Composite Properties

References

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Introduction

In the previous lecture we have introduced various advanced fibres along with their fabrication
processes, precursor materials and key features. In the present lecture we will introduce some matrix
materials, their key features and applications.

What are the matrix materials used in composites?

The matrix materials used in composites can be broadly categorized as: Polymers, Metals, Ceramics
and Carbon and Graphite.

The polymeric matrix materials are further divided into:
1. Thermoplastic which soften upon heating and can be reshaped with heat and pressure.
2. Thermoset which become cross linked during fabrication and does not soften upon
reheating.
The metal matrix materials are: Aluminum, Copper and Titanium.
The ceramic materials are: Carbon, Silicon carbide, Silicon nitride.
The classification of matrix materials is shown in Figure 1.11.
Figure 1.11: Matrix materials

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What are the thermoplastic matrix materials? What are their key features?

The following are the thermoplastic materials:

1. polypropylene,
2. polyvinyl chloride,
3. nylon,
4. polyurethane,
5. poly-ether-ether ketone (PEEK),
6. polyphenylene sulfide (PPS),
7. polysulpone.
The key features of the thermoplastic matrix materials are:
1. higher toughness
2. high volume
3. low cost processing
4. The use temperature range is upto 225 .
What are the thermoset matrix materials? What are their key features?
The thermoset matrix materials are:
1. polyesters,
2. epoxies,
3. polyimides
The key features of these materials are given for individual material in the following.
Polyesters
1. Used extensively with glass fibers

2. Inexpensive
3. Light weight
4. Temperature range upto 100 .
5. Resistant to environmental exposures

Epoxy
1. Expensive
2. Better moisture resistance
3. Lower shrinkage on curing
4. Use temperature is about 175
Polyimide
1. Higher use temperature about 300

2. Difficult to fabricate

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What are the problems with the use of polymer matrix materials?
1. Limited temperature range.

2. Susceptibility to environmental degradation due to moisture, radiation, atomic oxygen (in
space)
3. Low transverse strength.
4. High residual stress due to large mismatch in coefficients of thermal expansion between fiber
and matrix.
5. Polymer matrix cannot be used near or above the glass transition temperature.

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Comparison between Thermoplastics and Thermosets:

The comparison between the thermoplastic and thermoset matrix materials is given in Table 1
below:

Table 1.1: Comparison between thermoplastics and thermosets.

Thermoplastics Thermosets

Soften upon heat and pressure Decompose upon heating

Hence, can be repaired Difficult to repair
High strains are required for failure Low strains are required for failure
Can be re-processed Can not be re-processed
Indefinite shelf life Limited shelf life
Short curing cycles Long curing cycles

Tacky and therefore, difficult to
Non tacky and easy to handle
handle
Excellent resistance to solvents Fair resistance to solvents
Higher processing temperature is required. Hence, Lower processing temperature is

viscosities make the processing difficult. required.

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What are the common metals used as matrix materials? What are their advantages and
disadvantages?

The common metals used as matrix materials are aluminum, titanium and copper.

Advantages:

1. Higher transfer strength,
2. High toughness (in contrast with brittle behavior of polymers and ceramics)
3. The absence of moisture and
4. High thermal conductivity (copper and aluminum).
Dis-advantages:
1. Heavier
2. More susceptible to interface degradation at the fiber/matrix interface and
3. Corrosion is a major problem for the metals
The attractive feature of the metal matrix composites is the higher temperature use. The
aluminum matrix composite can be used in the temperature range upward of 300C while the
titanium matrix composites can be used above 800 .

What are the ceramic matrix materials? What are their advantages and disadvantages?
The carbon, silicon carbide and silicon nitride are ceramics and used as matrix materials.
Ceramic:

The advantages of the ceramic matrix materials are:
1. The ceramic composites have very high temperature range of above 2000 .
2. High elastic modulus
3. Low density
The disadvantages of the ceramic matrix materials are:
1. The ceramics are very brittle in nature.

2. Hence, they are susceptible to flows.
Carbon
The advantages of the carbon matrix materials are:
1. High temperature at 2200 .

2. Carbon/carbon bond is stronger at elevated temperature than room temperature.
The disadvantages of the carbon matrix materials are:

1. The fabrication is expensive.

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2. The multistage processing results in complexity and higher additional cost.
It should be noted that a composite with carbon fibres as reinforcement as well as matrix material is
known as carbon-carbon composite. The application of carbon-carbon composite is seen in
leading edge of the space shuttle where the high temperature resistance is required. The carbon-
carbon composites can resist the temperatures upto 3000 .
The advantages of these composites are:
1. Very strong and light as compared to graphite fibre alone.

2. Low density.
3. Excellent tensile and compressive strength.
4. Low thermal conductivity.
5. High fatigue resistance.
6. High coefficient of friction.
The disadvantages include:
1. Susceptible to oxidation at elevated temperatures.

2. High material and production cost.
3. Low shear strength.
Figure 1.12 depicts the range of use temperature for matrix material in composites. It should be
noted that for the structural applications the maximum use temperature is a critical parameter. This
maximum temperature depends upon the maximum use temperature of the matrix materials.
Figure 1.12: Range of use temperature for matrix materials in composites

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What are the different forms of composites?

1. Unidirectional lamina:
It is basic form of continuous fiber composites.

A lamina is also called by ply or layer.
Fibers are in same direction.
Orthotropic in nature with different properties in principal material directions.
For sufficient number of filaments (or layers) in the thickness direction, the effective
properties in the transverse plane (perpendicular to the fibers) may be isotropic. Such a
composite is called as transversely isotropic.
2. Woven fabrics:
Examples of woven fabric are clothes, baskets, hats, etc.
Flexible fibers such as glass, carbon, aramid can be woven in to cloth fabric, can be
impregnated with a matrix material.
Different patterns of weaving are shown in Figure 1.13.
Typical weaving patterns are shown in Figure 1.13.
Figure 1.13: Types of weave
3. Laminate:
1. Stacking of unidirectional or woven fabric layers at different fiber orientations.
2. Effective properties vary with:
1. orientation
2. thickness
3. stacking sequence
A symmetric laminate is shown in Figure 1.14.


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Figure 1.14: A symmetric laminate
4. Hybrid composites:
The hybrid composite are composites in which two or more types of fibres are used.
Collectively, these are called as hybrids. The use of two or more fibres allows the combination
of desired properties from the fibres. For example, combination of aramid and carbon fibres
gives excellent tensile properties of aramid and compressive properties of carbon fibers.
Further, the aramid fibres are less expensive as compared to carbon fibres.

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What are the factors that affect the composite properties?

There are various factors upon which the properties of the composite depend. Following are the
various factors:

1. Properties of the constituent materials. Apart from this, the properties of other phases present,
like additives, fillers and other reaction phases also affect the properties of the composite.
2. Length of the fibre.
3. Orientation of the fibres (with respect to the loading direction).
4. Cross sectional shape of the fibre.
5. Distribution and arrangement of the fibres in the matrix material.
6. Proportions of the fibre and matrix material, that is, volume fractions of the constituent
materials.
Notation for Composite Designation:

The composites are designated by the combination of the fibre and matrix system. The fibre and
matrix materials are separated by a slash , that is, fibre material/matrix material. Further, one
needs to specify the volume fractions of the constituents. In general, the fibre volume fraction is
specified. For example: AS4/PEEK, , that is, a carbon composite with AS4 fibres and
PEEK as the matrix material with fibre volume fraction of 45%. Other examples are: T300/5208,
T700/M21, Kevlar/Epoxy, Boron/Al, SCS-6/Ti-15-3, S2 Glass/Epoxy.


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References:




250.
Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.


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Lecture 5: Terminologies


Terminologies Used in Fibrous Composites

The Advantages of Composite Materials

References


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Introduction

In this lecture we are going to discuss some of the terms and their definitions that are used in the
composites. These terms will be frequently used in our course. We will conclude this lecture with
advantages and disadvantages of the composite materials.

Terminologies Used in Fibrous Composites

The following are the useful terminologies used in the composite related studies.

1. Filament: individual element
2. Strand: Bundles of 204 filaments or multiple of these.
3. Roving: Combination of strands to form thicker parallel bundles.
4. Yarns: strands are twisted to form yarns.
5. Aspect ratio: The ratio of length to diameter of a fiber.
6. Bi-component fibers: A fiber made by spinning two compositions concurrently in each
capillary of the spinneret.
7. Blend: A mix of natural staple fiber such as cotton or wool and synthetic staple fibers such
as nylon, polyester. Blends are made to take advantages of the natural and synthetic fibers.
8. Braiding: Two or more yarns are intertwined to form an elongated structure. The long
direction is called the bias direction or machine direction.
9. Carding: Process of making fibers parallel by using rollers covered with needles.
10. Chopped strands: Fibers are chopped to various lengths, 3 to 50 mm, for mixing with
resins.
11. Continuous fibers: Continuous strands of fibers, generally, available as wound fiber spools.
12. Cord: A relatively thick fibrous product made by twisting together two or more plies of yarn.
13. Covering power: The ability of fiber to occupy space. Noncircular fibers have greater
covering power then circular fibers.
14. Crimp: Waviness along the fiber length. Some natural fibers e.g. wool, have a natural crimp.
In synthetic polymeric fibers crimp can be introduced by passing the filament between rollers
having teeth. Crimp can also be introduced by chemical means. This is done by controlling the
coagulation of the filament to produce an asymmetrical cross-section.
15. Denier: A unit of linear density. It is the weight in grams of 9000m long yarn. This unit is
commonly used in the US textile industry.
16. Fabric: A kind of planar fibrous assembly. It allows the high degree of anisotropy
characteristic of yarn to be minimized, although not completely eliminated.
17. Felt: Homogeneous fibrous structure made by interlocking fibers via application of heat,
moisture and pressure.
18. Filament: Continuous fiber, i.e. fiber with aspect ratio approaching infinity.
19. Fill: see Weft.
20. Handle: Also known as softness of handle. It is a function of denier (or tex), compliance,
cross-section, crimp, moisture absorption, and surface roughness of the fiber.
21. Knitted fabric: One set of yarn is looped and interlocking to form a planar structure.
22. Knitting: This involves drawing loops of yarns over previous loops, also called interlooping.
23. Mat: Randomly dispersed chopped fibers or continuous fiber strands, held together with a
binder. The binder can be resin compatible, if the mat is to be used to make a polymeric
composite.
24. Microfibers: Also known as microdenier fibers. These are fibers having less than 1denier per

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filament (or less than 0.11 tex per filament). Fabrics made of such microfibers have superior
silk-like handle and dense construction. They find applications in stretch fabrics, lingerie, rain
wear, etc.
25. Monofilament: A large diameter continuous fiber, generally, with a diameter greater than 100
m.
26. Nonwovens: Randomly arranged fibers without making fiber yarns. Nonwovens can be
formed by spunbonding, resinbonding, or needle punching. A planar sheet-like fabric is
produced from fibers without going through the yarns spinning step. Chemical bonding and/or
mechanical interlocking is achieved. Fibers (continuous or staple) are dispersed in a fluid (i.e.
a liquid or air) and laid in a sheet-like planar form on a support and then chemically bonded
or mechanically interlocked. Paper is perhaps the best example of a wet laid nonwoven fabric
where we generally use wood or cellulosic fibers. In spunbonded nonwovens, continuous
fibers are extruded and collected in random planar network and bonded.
27. Particle: Extreme case of a fibrous form: it has a more or less equiaxial form, i.e. the aspect
ratio is about 1.
28. Plaiting: see Braiding.
29. Rayon: Term use to designate any of the regenerated fibers made by the viscose,
cuprammonium, or acetate processes. They are considered to be natural fibers because they
are made from regenerated, natural cellulose.
30. Retting: A biological process of degrading pectin and lignin associated with vegetable fibers,
loosening the stem and fibers, followed by their separation.
31. Ribbon: Fiber of rectangular cross-section with width to thickness ratio greater than 4.
32. Rope: Linear flexible structure with a minimum diameter of 4mm. it generally has three
strands twisted together in a helix. The rope characteristics are defined by two parameters,
unit mass and break length. Unit mass is simply g/m or ktex, while breaking length is the
length of rope that will break under the force of its own weight when freely suspended. Thus,
break length equals mass at break/unit mass.
33. Roving: A bundle of yarns or tows of continuous filaments (twisted or untwisted).
34. Spinneret: A vessel with numerous shaped holes at the bottom through which a material in
molten state is forced out in the form of fine filaments or threads.
35. Spunbonding: Process of producing a bond between nonwoven fibers by heating the fibers
to near their melting point.
36. Staple fiber: Fibers having short, discrete lengths (10-400 mm long) that can be spun into a
yarn are called staple fibers. This spinning quality can be improved if the fiber is imparted a
waviness or crimp. Staple fibers are excellent for providing bulkiness for filling, filtration, etc.
Frequently, staple natural fibers, e.g. cotton or wool, are blended with staple synthetic fibers,
e.g. nylon or polyester, to obtain the best of both types.
37. Tenacity: A measure of fiber strength that is commonly used in the textile industry.
Commonly, the units are gram-force per denier, gram-force per tex, or Newton per tex. It is a
specific strength unit, i.e. there is a factor of density involved. Thus, although the tensile
strength of glass fiber is more than double that of nylon fiber, both glass and nylon fiber have
a tenacity of about 6g/den. This is because the density of glass is about twice that of nylon.
38. Tex: A unit of linear density. It is the weight in grams of 1000m of yarn. Tex is commonly
used in Europe.
39. Tow: Bundle of twisted or untwisted continuous fibers. A tow may contain tens or hundreds of
thousands of individual filaments.
40. Twist: the angle of twist that individual filaments may have about the yarn axis. Most yarns
have filaments twisted because it is easier to handle a twisted yarn then an untwisted one.
41. Wire: Metallic filament.
42. Warp: Lengthwise yarn in a woven fabric.
43. Weft: Transverse yarn in a woven fabric. Also called fill.

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44. Whisker: Tiny, whisker-like fiber (a few mm long, a few m in diameter) that is a single
crystal and almost free of dislocations. Note that this term involves a material requirement.
The small size and crystalline perfection make whiskers extremely strong, approaching the
theoretical strength.
45. Woven fabric: Flat, drapeable sheet made by interlacing yarns or tows.
46. Woven roving: Heavy, drapeable fabric woven from continuous rovings.
47. Yarn: A generic term for a bundle of untwisted or twisted fibers (short or continuous). A yarn
can be produced from staple fibers by yarn spinning. The yarn spinning process consists of
some fiber alignment, followed by locking together by twisting. Continuous synthetic fibers are
also used to make yarns. Continuous fibers are easy to align parallel to the yarn axis.
Generally, the degree of twist is low, just enough to give some interfilament cohesion.

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What are the advantages of the composite materials?

The following are the advantages of composites:

1. Specific stiffness and specific strength:

The composite materials have high specific stiffness and strengths. Thus, these material offer
better properties at lesser weight as compared to conventional materials. Due to this, one gets
improved performance at reduced energy consumption.

2. Tailorable design:
A large set of design parameters are available to choose from. Thus, making the design
procedure more versatile. The available design parameters are:
1. Choice of materials (fiber/matrix), volume fraction of fiber and matrix, fabrication

method, layer orientation, no. of layer/laminae in a given direction, thickness of
individual layers, type of layers (fabric/unidirectional) stacking sequence.
2. A component can be designed to have desired properties in specific directions.
3. Fatigue Life:
The composites can with stand more number of fatigue cycles than that of aluminum. The
critical structural components in aircraft require high fatigue life. The use of composites in
fabrication of such structural components is thus justified.
4. Dimensional Stability:
Strain due to temperature can change shape, size, increase friction, wear and thermal
stresses. The dimensional stability is very important in application like space antenna. For
composites, with proper design it is possible to achieve almost zero coefficient of thermal
expansion.
5. Corrosion Resistance:
Polymer and ceramic matrix material used to make composites have high resistance to
corrosion from moisture, chemicals.
6. Cost Effective Fabrication:
The components fabricated from composite are cost effective with automated methods like
filament winding, pultrusion and tape laying. There is a lesser wastage of the raw materials as
the product is fabricated to the final product size unlike in metals.
7. Conductivity:
The conductivity of the composites can be achieved to make it a insulator or a highly

conducting material. For example, Glass/polyesters are non conducting materials. These
materials can be used in space ladders, booms etc. where one needs higher dimensional
stability, whereas copper matrix material gives a high thermal conductivity.

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The list of advantages of composite is quite long. One can find more on advantages of composite in
reference books and open literature.
What are the disadvantages of Composites?
1. Some fabrics are very hard on tooling.

2. Hidden defects are difficult to locate.
3. Inspection may require special tools and processes.
4. Filament-wound parts may not be repairable. Repairing may introduce new problems.
5. High cost of raw materials.
6. High initial cost of tooling, production set-up, etc.
7. Labour intensive.
8. Health and safety concerns.
9. Training of the labour is essential.
10. Environmental issues like disposal and waste management.
11. Reuse of the materials is difficult.
12. Storage of frozen pre-pregs demands for additional equipments and adds to the cost of
production.
13. Extreme cleanliness required.
14. The composites, in general, are brittle in nature and hence easily damageable.
15. The matrix material is weak and hence the composite has low toughness.
16. The transverse properties of lamina or laminate are, in general, weak.
17. The analysis of the composites is difficult due to heterogeneity and orthotropy.

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References:


250.
Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.

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Lecture 6: Applications


Applications of Composite Materials

References


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Introduction
This lecture is dedicated to the use of composites. The use of composites is almost ubiquitous! The
use of composites is an inexhaustive list. In the following we cite some important applications.

What are the applications of the composite materials?

The applications of the composites are given in the following as per the area of application.

Aerospace:

Aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, space telescopes, space shuttle, space station, missiles,
boosters rockets, helicopters (due to high specific strength and stiffness) fatigue life,
dimensional stability.
All composite voyager aircraft flew nonstop around the world with refueling.
Carbon/carbon composite is used on the leading edges nose cone of the shuttle.
B2 bomber - both fiber glass and graphite fibers are used with epoxy matrix and polyimide
matrix.
The indigenous Light Combat Aircraft (LCA - Tejas) has Kevlar composite in nose cone,
Glass composites in tail fin and carbon composites form almost all part of the fuselage and
wings, except the control surfaces of the wing.
Further, the indigenous Light Combat Helicopter (LCH Dhruvh) has carbon composites for
its main rotor blades. The other composites are used in tail rotor, vertical fin, stabilizer,
cowling, radome, doors, cockpit, side shells, etc.
Missile:
Rocket motor cases

Nozzles
Igniter
Inter stage structure
Equipment section
Aerodynamic fairings
Launch Vehicle:
Rocket motor case

Interstage structure
Payload fairings and dispensers
High temperature Nozzle
Nose cone
Control surfaces

Composite Railway Carrier:
Composite railway auto carrier

Bodies of Railway Bogeys
Seats
Drivers Cabin
Stabilization of Ballasted Rail Tracks
Doors

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Sleepers for Railway Girder Bridges

Gear Case
Pantographs
Sports Equipments
Tennis rockets, golf clubs, base-ball bats, helmets, skis, hockey sticks, fishing rods, boat
hulls, wind surfing boards, water skis, sails, canoes and racing shells, paddles, yachting rope,
speed boat, scuba diving tanks, race cars reduced weight, maintenance, corrosion resistance.
Automotive
Lower weight and greater durability, corrosion resistance, fatigue life, wear and impact
resistance.
Drive shafts, fan blades and shrouds, springs, bumpers, interior panels, tires, brake shoes,
clutch plates, gaskets, hoses, belts and engine parts.
Carbon and glass fiber composites pultruted over on aluminum cylinder to create drive shaft.
Fuel saving braking energy can be stored in to a carbon fiber super flywheels.
Other applications include: mirror housings, radiator end caps, air filter housing, accelerating
pedals, rear view mirrors, head-lamp housings, and intake manifolds, fuel tanks.

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Infrastructure Structures:

Corrosion is a major design consideration such as in the chemical and on off- shore oil plate
forms
Skeletal Structures
Walls and Panels
Doors, Windows, Ladders, Staircases
Chemical and Water Tanks
Cooling Towers
Bridge Decks
Antenna Dishes
Bridge enclosures
Aerodynamic fairings
Industrial:
Drive,
conveyer belts,
hoses,
tear and puncture resistant fabrics,
rotor vanes,
mandrels,
ropes,
cables.
Medical:
Wheelchairs,
Crutches,
Hip joints,
Heat valves,
Dentistry,
Surgical equipments
Electronic:
Chips in electronic computing devices are laminated hybrid systems composed of a number of
layers (materials) which serve different functions.
Chip must have good heat transfer properties and must be able to withstand induced thermal
stresses without delaminating.
The composite finds a vast usage in electronic packaging materials. The Styrofoam, particle
bonded materials formed from paper pulp, air-bubble cushioned plastic sheets, etc. are some
of the popular materials used in the packing.

Military:
Helmets,
bullet proof vests,
impact resistant vehicles,

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lighter and less detectable ships,

portable bridges.
Marine:
The Glass reinforced fibre plastics are used in:
Ship and Boat Hulls

Masts
Instrument Panels
Hydrofoils
Hovercrafts
Propellers
Propulsion shafts
Rudders
Heat exchangers
Flywheel
Piping
Ventilation ducts
Engine and equipment foundations
Wind Power Engineering:
Rotor blades including blade shell, integral webs, spars or box structure.
Mast
Generator housing

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References:


250.
Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.

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Lecture 7: Fabrication Processes


Wet/Hand Lay-Up

Spray Lay-Up

Autoclave Curing

Filament Winding

Pultrusion

References

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Introduction:

In this lecture we will see some of the important fabrication processes of composites. Further, we will
see their advantages, disadvantages and applications.

What are the fabrication processes of composites materials? Describe the processes in brief
along with the materials used in the process, their advantages, disadvantages and
applications.

The fabrication processes are described in the following along with their advantages, disadvantages
and applications in the following.

A. Wet/Hand Lay-Up:
The fibres are first put in place in the mould. The fibres can be in the form of woven, knitted,
stitched or bonded fabrics. Then the resin is impregnated. The impregnation of resin is done
by using rollers, brushes or a nip-roller type impregnator. The impregnation helps in forcing
the resin inside the fabric. The laminates fabricated by this process are then cured under
standard atmospheric conditions. The wet/hand lay-up process is depicted in Figure 1.15.
The materials that can be used have, in general, no restrictions. One can use combination of
resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester, phenolic and any fibre material.
Advantages:
The process results in low cost tooling with the use of room-temperature cure resins.
The process is simple to use.
Any combination of fibres and matrix materials are used.
Higher fibre contents and longer fibres as compared to other processes.
Disadvantages:
Since the process is worked by hands, there are safety and hazard considerations.
The resin needs to be less viscous so that it can be easily worked by hands.
The quality of the final product is highly skill dependent of the labours.
Uniform distribution of resin inside the fabric is not possible. It leads to voids in the

laminates.
Possibility of diluting the contents.
Applications:
The process is suitable for the fabrication of wind-turbine blades, boats and architectural
mouldings.

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Figure 1.15: Wet or hand lay-up fabrication

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B. Spray Lay-Up:

Fibre is chopped in a hand-held gun and fed into a spray of catalyzed resin directed at the

mould. The deposited materials are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions. The

fabrication method is depicted in Figure 1.16.

The polyester resins can be used with glass rovings is best suited for this process.

Figure 1.16: Wet or hand lay-up fabrication
Advantages:
The spray-up process offers the following advantages:
It is suitable for small to medium-volume parts.

It is a very economical process for making small to large parts.
It utilizes low-cost tooling as well as low-cost material systems.
Limitations:

The following are some of the limitations of the spray-up process:
It is not suitable for making parts that have high structural requirements.
It is difficult to control the fiber volume fraction as well as the thickness. These
parameters highly depend on operator skill.
Because of its open mold nature, styrene emission is a concern.
The process offers a good surface finish on one side and a rough surface finish on the
other side.
The process is not suitable for parts where dimensional accuracy and process
repeatability are prime concerns. The spray-up process does not provide a good
surface finish or dimensional control on both or all the sides of the product.
Cores, when needed, have to be inserted manually.
Only short fibres can be used in this process.

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Since, pressurized resin is used the laminates tend to be very resin-rich.

Similar to wet/hand lay-up process, the resins need to be of low viscosity so that it can
be sprayed.
Applications:
Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings,
bathtubs, shower trays, some small dinghies.

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C. Autoclave Curing:

The key features of this process are as follows:

An autoclave is a closed vessel for controlling temperature and pressure is used for
curing polymeric matrix composites.
Composites to be cured is prepared either through hand lay up or machine placement

of individual laminae in the form of fibers tape which has been impregnated with resin.

Components is then placed in an autoclave and subjected to a controlled cycle of

temperature and pressure.

After curing, the composite is solidified.
One can use the fibres like carbon, glass, aramid etc. along with any resin.
Advantages:
Large components can be fabricated.

Since, the curing of matrix material is carried out under controlled environment, the
resin distribution is better as compared to hand or spray lay-up processes.
Less possibility of dilution with foreign particles.
Better surface finish.

Disadvantages:
Initial cost of tooling is high.

Running and maintenance cost is high.
Not suitable for small products.
Applications:
The process is suitable for aerospace, automobile parts like wing box, chassis, bumpers, etc.

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D. Filament Winding:
This process is an automated process. This process is used in the fabrication of components

or structures made with flexible fibers. This process is primarily used for hollow, generally

circular or oval sectioned components. Fibre tows are passed through a resin bath before

being wound onto a mandrel in a variety of orientations, controlled by the fibre feeding

mechanism, and rate of rotation of the mandrel. The wound component is then cured in an
oven or autoclave.

One can use resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic along with any fibre. The
fibre can be directly from creel, non-woven or stitched into a fabric form.

The filament winding process is shown in Figure 1.17.
Advantages:
Resin content is controlled by nips or dies.

The process can be very fast.
The process is economic.
Complex fibre patterns can be attained for better load bearing of the structure.
Disadvantages:
Resins with low viscosity are needed.

The process is limited to convex shaped components.
Fibre cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.
Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
The external surface of the component is not smoothly finished.
Figure 1.17: Filament winding
Applications:
Pressure bottles, rocket motor casing, chemical storage tanks, pipelines, gas cylinders, fire-
fighters, breathing tanks etc.

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E. Pultrusion:

It is a continuous process in which composites in the form of fibers and fabrics are pulled

through a bath of liquid resin. Then the fibres wetted with resin are pulled through a heated

die. The die plays important roles like completing the impregnation and controlling the resin.
Further, the material is cured to its final shape. The die shape used in this process is nothing
the replica of the final product. Finally, the finished product is cut to length.

In this process, the fabrics may also be introduced into the die. The fabrics provide a fibre
direction other 0. Further, a variant of this method to produce a profile with some variation in
the cross-section is available. This is known as pulforming.
The resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic can be used with any fibre.
The pultrusion process is shown in Figure 1.18.
Advantages:
The process is suitable for mass production.

The process is fast and economic.
Resin content can be accurately controlled.
Fibre cost is minimized as it can be taken directly from a creel.
The surface finish of the product is good.
Structural properties of product can be very good as the profiles have very straight
fibres.
Disadvantages:
Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.

Heated die costs can be high.
Products with small cross-sections alone can be fabricated.
Applications:

Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks

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Figure 1.18: Pultrusion

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References:


250.
Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.

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Braiding

Vacuum Bagging

Resin Transfer Molding - RTM

Centrifugal Casting

References


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Introduction
In this lecture we will see some more composites fabrication processes. Further, as we have done in
the previous lecture, we will see the advantages, disadvantages and application of these processes.

A. Braiding:

This is an automatic fabrication process. The toes are interlaced together to the final form of
the product. Further, this interlacing can be over the mandrel which has the final shape of the
product. The toes can be impregnated with the resin. Then the product is cured at room
temperature or in autoclave.

Advantages:
Cost effective automated technique for interlacing fibers into complex shapes.
Final product is obtained.
Structural properties obtained are good.
Disadvantages:

The initial tooling cost is high.
Applications:
Rope, tubes, narrow flat strips, contoured shapes, solid 3-D shape including I-beams and T-
beams.

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B. Vacuum Bagging:

This is basically an extension of the wet lay-up process described above where pressure is

applied to the laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation. This is achieved by

sealing a plastic film over the wet laid-up laminate and onto the tool. The air under the bag is

extracted by a vacuum pump and thus up to one atmosphere of pressure can be applied to
the laminate to consolidate it.

Materials Options:

Resins: Primarily epoxy and phenolic. Polyesters and vinylesters may have problems
due to excessive extraction of styrene from the resin by the vacuum pump.
Fibres: The consolidation pressures mean that a variety of heavy fabrics can be wet-
out.
Cores: Any.
Advantages:
Higher fibre content laminates can usually be achieved than with standard wet lay-up
techniques.
Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibres, with
excess into bagging materials.
Health and safety: The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during
cure.
Disadvantages:
The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
A higher level of skill is required by the operators.
Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill.

Applications:
Large one-off cruising boats, race car components, core-bonding in production boats.
Figure 1.19: Vacuum Bagging

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C. Resin Transfer Molding - RTM

The process consists of arranging the fibres or cloth fabrics in the desired configuration in a

preform. These fabrics are sometimes pre-pressed to the mould shape, and held together by

a binder. A second matching mould tool is then clamped over the first. Then pressurized resin
is injected into the cavity. Vacuum can also be applied to the mould cavity to assist resin in
being drawn into the fabrics. This is known as Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding
(VARTM) or Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection (VARI). The laminate is then cured. Both
injection and cure can take place at either ambient or elevated temperature.

In this process, the resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic can be used. Further,
one use the high temperature resins such as bismaleimides can be used at elevated process
temperatures. The fibres of any type can be used. The stitched materials work well in this
process since the gaps allow rapid resin transport. Some specially developed fabrics can
assist with resin flow.
Advantages:
The process is very efficient.

Suitable for complex shapes.
High fibre volume laminates can be obtained with very low void contents.
Good health and safety, and environmental control due to enclosure of resin.
Possible labour reductions.
Both sides of the component have a moulded surface. Hence, the final product gets a
superior surface finish
Better reproducibility.
Relatively low clamping pressure and ability to induce inserts.
Disadvantages:
Matched tooling is expensive and heavy in order to withstand pressures.

Generally limited to smaller components.
Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.
Applications:
The applications include the hollow cylindrical parts like motor casing, engine covers,
etc.

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Figure 1.21: Centrifugal casting

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D. Centrifugal Casting:
In this process the chopped fibres and the resin is sent under pressure to the cylindrical

moulding. The moulding is rotating. Due to centrifugal action, the mixture of resin and chopped

fibres get deposited on wall of the moulding. Thus, the mixture gets the final form of the

product.

Advantages:

1. Suitable for small hollow cylindrical products.
2. Economic for small production.

Disadvantages:
1. Complex shape can not be made.

2. Resin with low viscosity is needed.
3. The finish of the inner side of the product is not good.
4. The structural properties may not be good as the chopped fibres are used.
Figure 1.21: Centrifugal casting
Applications:
The applications include the hollow cylindrical parts like motor casing, engine covers, etc.

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References:


250.
Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.

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Module 2: Concepts of Solid Mechanics

Lecture 9: Basic Concepts


Concept of Tensors

Deformation of a Body

Stress

Equilibrium Equations

Constitutive Equations

Principles from Work and Energy
Homework
References

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In this lecture, we are going to introduce some concepts from solid mechanics which will be useful
for better understanding of this course. It is presumed that the readers have some basic knowledge
of linear algebra and solid mechanics.
In solid mechanics, each phase of a material is considered to be continuum, that is, there is no
discontinuity in the material. Thus, in this course individual fibres and the matrix of a
lamina/composite are considered to be continuum. Further, this results in saying that heterogeneous
composite is also a continuum.

In this lecture, we will introduce some of the notations that will be followed for the rest of the course.

Hence, the readers are advised to understand them clearly before they proceed to further lectures.

Concept of Tensors
Tensors are physical entities whose components are the coefficients of a linear relationship between
vectors.
The list of some of the tensors used in this course is given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 List of some of the tensor quantities
Quantity Live subscripts

Scalar (zeroth order tensor) 0
vi Vector (first order tensor) 1
ij, ij Second order tensor 2
Cijkl Fourth order tensor 4
It is often needed to transform a tensorial quantity from one coordinate system to another coordinate
system. This transformation of a tensor is done using direction cosines of the angle measured from
initial coordinate system to final coordinate system. Let us use axes as the initial coordinate axes
and as the final coordinate axes (denoted here by symbol prime ). Now, we need to find the
direction cosines (denoted here by a ij) for this transformation relation. Let us use the convention for
direction cosines that the first subscript (that is, i) of a ij corresponds to the initial axes and the
second subscript (that is, j) corresponds to final axes. The direction cosine correspondence with this
convention in 3D Cartesian coordinate system is given in Table 2.2. The corresponding Cartesian
coordinate systems are shown in Figure 2.1.

Table 2.2 Direction cosines for 3D Cartesian coordinate system
From/To

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Figure 2.1 Rectangular or Cartesian coordinate systems

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Let us derive the direction cosines for a transformation in a plane. Let the coordinate axes x 1 -x 2 (that
is, plane 1-2) are rotated about the third axis x3 by an angle as shown in Figure 2.2. Thus, from the
figure it is easy to see that . A careful observation of the figure shows that the angle

between is not the same as the angle between . It means that the direction
cosines .

Figure 2.2 Transformation about x 3 axis
Now, we will find all the direction cosines. The list is given below.
The above can be written in a matrix form as
(2.1)
The matrix of direction cosines given above in Eq. (2.1) is also written using short forms for
. Then Equation (2.1) becomes
(2.2)
Note: Some of the books and research articles also use .
Note: This matrix is also called Rotation Matrix.
Note: The above direction cosine matrix can be obtained from the relation between unrotated and
rotated coordinates. For the transformation shown in Figure 2.2 (a) one can write this relation using

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the geometrical relations shown in Figure 2.2 (b) as
Now the direction cosines are given by the following relation:
Now we will use the direction cosines to transform a vector, a second order tensor and a fourth order
tensor from initial coordinate (unprimed) system to a vector, a second order tensor and a fourth order
tensor in final coordinate (primed) system.
First, let us do it for a vector. Let denote the components of a vector P in unprimed and
primed coordinate axes. Then the components of this vector in rotated coordinate system are given in
terms of components in unrotated coordinate system and corresponding direction cosines as
(2.3)
Now, putting the direction cosines in terms of angles and summing over the repeated index j (=1, 2, 3)
in Equation (2.3) we get
(2.4)

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Let us assume that, the unprimed and primed coordinate systems are as shown in Figure 2.2. The
transformation matrix for this rotation is given in Equation (2.1). Then, the components can be
given as

Note: In two dimensional case, the above transformation is written as

Equation (2.3) can also be written in an inverted form to give the components Pi in unrotated axes in
terms of components in rotated axes system as
(2.5)
The rotation matrix a ij in Equation (2.2) has a property that
(2.6)
Now, we will extend the concept to transform a second order tensor. Let us transform the stress
tensor as follows
(2.7)
The transformation of a fourth order tensor is given as
(2.8)
The readers are suggested to write the final form of Equation (2.8) using similar procedure used to
get the last of Equation (2.7).


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Deformation of a Body

When a deformable body is subjected to external forces, a body may translate, rotate and deform as
well. Thus, after deformation the body occupies a new region. The initial region occupied by the
body is called Reference Configuration and the new region occupied by the body after translation,
rotation and deformation is called Deformed Configuration. Let us consider a point P in reference
configuration. Its position with respect to origin of a reference axes system is shown in Figure
2.3. The point P occupies a new position and its position vector is also given.

Figure 2.3 Reference and deformed configurations
The deformation map is defined as
(2.9)
Thus, deformation map is a vector valued function. Similarly, for deformation of a point Q to , we
can write
(2.10)
We can find the deformation as
(2.11)
where is called Deformation Gradient. In component form, one can write
(2.12)
Now, let us give the deformation map for the displacement of a point. Let us consider the point P in
reference configuration again. It undergoes a deformation and occupies a new position .
Thus, we can write this deformation as follows

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(2.13)
This gives us the deformation gradient as
(2.14)
or in component form
(2.15)

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Now, we will define strain tensor. We are going to find . We know that
. Thus,

(2.16)

where E is Lagrangian Strain Tensor. Now using the last two of Equation (2.16) for we

get,
(2.17)
This equation can be written in index form as
(2.18)
where is given as . Thus, the strain components are nonlinear in . Here,
are the displacement components in three directions. For example, let us

write the expanded form of strain components .
(2.19)
Similarly,
(2.20)
The readers should observe that from the definition of strain tensor in Equation (2.18), the strain tensor is
symmetric (that is, ). If the gradients of the displacements are very small the product terms in
Equation (2.18) can be neglected. Then, the resulting strain tensor (called Infinitesimal Strain Tensor) is
given as
(2.21)
The individual strain components are given as
(2.22)

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The readers are very well versed with these definitions. This strain tensor can be written in matrix form as
(2.23)
Note: The shear strain components mentioned above are tensorial components. In actual practice,
engineering shear strains (which are measured from laboratory tests) are used. These are denoted by .
The relation between tensorial and engineering shear strain components is
(2.24)

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The engineering shear strain components are given as follows:

(2.25)

Using the engineering shear strain components, the strain tensor can be written in matrix form as

(2.26)

Stress
Now, we will introduce the concept of stress. The components of stress at a point (also called State
of Stress) are (in the limit) the forces per unit area which are acting on three mutually perpendicular
planes passing through this point. This is represented in Figure 2.4. Stress tensor is a second order
tensor and denoted as . In this notation, the first subscript corresponds to the direction of the
normal to the plane and the second subscript corresponds to the direction of the stress. For
example, denotes the stress component acting on a plane which is perpendicular to direction 2
and stress is acting in direction 3. The tensile normal stress components are
positive. The shear stress components are defined to be positive when the normal to the
plane and the direction of the stress component are either both positive or both negative.
The readers should note that the state of stress shown in Figure 2.4 represents all stress
components in positive sense. In this figure, the stress components are shown on positive faces
only.
Figure 2.4 State of stress at a point

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The stress tensor can be written in matrix form as follows:
(2.27)
In general, instead of using global 1-2-3 coordinate system, x-y-z global coordinate system is used.
Further, the shear stress components are shown using notation . Thus, the stress tensor in this
case can be written as
(2.28)
Note: The stress tensor will be symmetric, that is only when there are no distributed
moments in the body. The readers are suggested to read more on this from any standard solid
mechanics book. In this entire course, we will deal with symmetric stress-tensor.


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Equilibrium Equations

The equilibrium equations for a body to be in static equilibrium at a point are given in index notations
as

(2.29)

where, are the body forces per unit volume. If the body forces are absent, then the equilibrium

equation becomes

(2.30)
The equilibrium equations, without body forces are written using xyz coordinates as follows:
(2.31)
Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions are very essential to solve any problem in solid mechanics. The boundary
conditions are specified on the surface of the body in terms of components of displacement or
traction. However, the combination of displacement and traction components is also specified.
Figure 2.5 shows a body, where the displacement as well as traction components are used to specify
the boundary conditions.
We define traction vector for any arbitrary point (for example, point P in Figure 2.5) on surface as
a vector consisting of three stress components acting on the surface at same point. Here, the three
stress components are normal stress and shear stress and . The traction vector at this
point is written as
(2.32)

where is the ith component of the unit normal to the surface at point P. For example, if this
surface is perpendicular to axis 2, then and the components of traction acting at a
point on this surface are given as follows
(2.33)

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Figure 2.5: (a) A body showing displacement and traction boundary

conditions,(b) Traction vector at any arbitrary point P on the surface of a
body

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:
Constitutive Equations

The relationship between stress and strain is known as constitutive equation. The general form of
this equation is

(2.34)

Here, are called elastic constants. This is also referred to as elastic moduli or elastic

stiffnesses. This form of constitutive equation is known as generalized Hookes law. Very soon, we
will see this equation in detail for various material types.
The inverse of this equation can be written as
(2.35)
where is known as compliance.
Plane Stress Problem
Plane stress problem corresponds to a situation where out of plane stress components are negligibly
small. Thus, we can say that the state of stress is planar. The planar state of stress in x-y plane is
shown in Figure 2.6. For the case shown in this figure, the normal and shear stress components in z
directions, that is are zero. Please note that the state of stress shown in this figure
assumes the stress symmetry.
Note: A careful observation for strain components in z direction ( ) reveals that

these need not be zero. This is a common mistake made by many readers. The magnitude of these
strain components can be found with the help of constitutive equation given in Equation (2.34).
Figure 2.6: Plane stress problem
For plane stress problem the equilibrium equations take the following form

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(2.36)
Plane Strain Problem
Plane strain problem corresponds to a condition where all the out of plane strain components are
negligibly small. Here, we denote as out of plane strain components. The readers
are again cautioned to note that the out of plane stress components need not be zero. These
depend upon the constitutive equation. Further, the equilibrium equation is same as Equation (2.36)
and .

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Principles from Work and Energy

Strain Energy Density

The strain energy stored in a body per unit volume is called as strain energy density. In
the absence of internal energy, the strain energy density for a linearly elastic body is given as

(2.37)

The expanded form of the above equation using symmetry of stress and strain components is
(2.38)
The readers should note that strain energy density is a scalar quantity. Further, it is a positive
definite quantity.
Principle of Minimum of Total Potential Energy
The principle of minimum of total potential energy states that of all possible kinematically admissible
displacement fields, the actual solution to the problem is one which minimizes the total potential
energy .
The total potential energy (for linearly elastic material) is defined as
(2.39)

Note: The kinematically admissible displacement field is a single valued and continuous
displacement field that satisfies the displacement boundary condition.
Principle of Minimum of Total Complementary Potential Energy
The principle of minimum of total complementary potential energy states that of all possible statically
admissible stress fields, the actual solution to the problem is one which minimizes the total
complementary potential energy .
The total complementary potential energy (for linearly elastic material) is defined as
(2.40)
Note: The statically admissible stress field is one that satisfies both equilibrium equations and
traction boundary condition.


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Homework

1. Verify the property given in Equation (2.6) for rotation matrix.

2. Using Equation (2.6), show that

where the term , called Kronecker delta, has the value 1 on the diagonal and 0 on the off

diagonal, that is, it represents an identity matrix when represented in matrix form.

3. Using relation for strain components (given in Equation (2.21)) write the expanded form of all
strain components and understand the physical significance of all strain components. (The
normal strain components denote the stretching of a line element, etc.)
4. Derive the principles of minimum of total potential and total complementary potential energy.
5. Derive the principle of virtual work.

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References:

IH Shames, CL Dym. Energy and Finite Element Methods in Structural Mechanics,

Hemisphere Publishing Corp. New York, 1985.

IS Sokolnikoff. Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, First Edition, McGraw Hill
Publications, New York.
LE Malvern. Introduction to Mechanics of a Continuous Medium, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New
Jersey, 1969.
SH Crandall, NC Dahl, TJ Lardner. An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids, Second
Edition, McGraw-Hill Publications, New Delhi.
SP Timoshenko, JN Goodier. Theory of Elasticity, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill
Publications, New Delhi.
E Kreyszig. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Eighth Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York.

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Module 3: 3D Constitutive Equations

Lecture 10: Constitutive Relations: Generally Anisotropy to Orthotropy


Stress Symmetry

Strain Symmetry

Strain Energy Density Function

Material Symmetry

Symmetry with respect to a Plane

Symmetry with respect to two Orthogonal Planes
Homework
References
file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture10/10_1.htm[8/18/2014 12:09:30 PM]

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Introduction

In this lecture, we are going to develop the 3D constitutive equations. We will start with the the
generalized Hookes law for a material, that is, material is generally anisotropic in nature. Finally, we
will derive the constitutive equation for isotropic material, with which the readers are very familiar.
The journey for constitutive equation from anisotropic to isotropic material is very interesting and will
use most of the concepts that we have learnt in earlier Lecture 9.

The generalized Hookes law for a material is given as

(3.1)

where, ij is a second order tensor known as stress tensor and its individual elements are the
stress components. is another second order tensor known as strain tensor and its individual
elements are the strain components. C ijkl is a fourth order tensor known as stiffness tensor. In the
remaining section we will call it as stiffness matrix, as popularly known. The individual elements of
this tensor are the stiffness coefficients for this linear stress-strain relationship. Thus, stress and
strain tensor has ( ) 9 components each and the stiffness tensor has (=) 81 independent
elements. The individual elements =) 81 are referred by various names as elastic constants,
moduli and stiffness coefficients. The reduction in the number of these elastic constants can be
sought with the following symmetries.
Stress Symmetry:
The stress components are symmetric under this symmetry condition, that is, . Thus, there
are six independent stress components. Hence, from Equation. (3.1) we write
(3.2)
Subtracting Equation (3.2) from Equation (3.1) leads to the following equation
(3.3)
There are six independent ways to express i and j taken together and still nine independent ways to
express k and l taken together. Thus, with stress symmetry the number of independent elastic
constants reduce to ( ) 54 from 81.
Strain Symmetry:
The strain components are symmetric under this symmetry condition, that is, . Hence, from
Equation (3.1) we write

Subtracting Equation (3.3) from Equation (3.2) we get the following equation

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(3.4)
It can be seen from Equation (3.4) that there are six independent ways of expressing i and j taken
together when k and l are fixed. Similarly, there are six independent ways of expressing k and l taken
together when i and j are fixed in Equation (3.4). Thus, there are independent constants
for this linear elastic material with stress and strain symmetry.
With this reduced stress and strain components and reduced number of stiffness coefficients, we can
write Hookes law in a contracted form as
(3.5)
where
(3.6)
Note: The shear strains are the engineering shear strains.
For Equation (3.5) to be solvable for strains in terms of stresses, the determinant of the stiffness
matrix must be nonzero, that is .
The number of independent elastic constants can be reduced further, if there exists strain energy
density function W, given as below.

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Strain Energy Density Function (W):

The strain energy density function W is given as

(3.7)

with the property that

(3.8)
It is seen that W is a quadratic function of strain. A material with the existence of W with property in
Equation (3.8) is called as Hyperelastic Material.
The W can also be written as
(3.9)
Subtracting Equation (3.9) from Equation (3.7) we get
(3.10)
which leads to the identity . Thus, the stiffness matrix is symmetric. This symmetric matrix
has 21 independent elastic constants. The stiffness matrix is given as follows:
(3.11)
The existence of the function W is based upon the first and second law of thermodynamics. Further,
it should be noted that this function is positive definite. Also, the function W is an invariant (An
invariant is a quantity which is independent of change of reference).
The material with 21 independent elastic constants is called Anisotropic or Aelotropic Material.
Further reduction in the number of independent elastic constants can be obtained with the use of
planes of material symmetry as follows.
Material Symmetry:

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It should be recalled that both the stress and strain tensor follow the transformation rule and so does
the stiffness tensor. The transformation rule for these quantities (as given in Equation (3.1)) is known
as follows
(3.12)
where are the direction cosines from i to j coordinate system. The prime indicates the quantity in
new coordinate system.
When the function W given in Equation (3.9) is expanded using the contracted notations for strains
and elastic constants given in Equation (3.11) W has the following form:
(3.13)
Thus, from Equation (3.13) it can be said that the function W has the following form in terms of strain
components:
(3.14)
With these concepts we proceed to consider the planes of material symmetry. The planes of the
material, also called elastic symmetry are due to the symmetry of the structure of anisotropic body.
In the following, we consider some special cases of material symmetry.


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(A) Symmetry with respect to a Plane:
Let us assume that the anisotropic material has only one plane of material symmetry. A material with

one plane of material symmetry is called Monoclinic Material.

Let us consider the x 1 - x 2 ( x 3 = 0) plane as the plane of material symmetry. This is shown in Figure
3.1. This symmetry can be formulated with the change of axes as follows

(3.15)

With this change of axes,

(3.16)
This gives us along with the use of the second of Equation (3.12)
(3.17)
Figure 3.1: Material symmetry about x1-x2 plane

First Approach: Invariance Approach
Now, the function W can be expressed in terms of the strain components . If W is to be invariant,
then it must be of the form
(3.18)
Comparing this with Equation (3.13) it is easy to conclude that
(3.19)

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Thus, for the monoclinic materials the number of independent constants are 13. With this reduction
of number of independent elastic constants the stiffness matrix is given as
(3.20)

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Second Approach: Stress Strain Equivalence Approach

The same reduction of number of elastic constants can be derived from the stress strain equivalence
approach. From Equation (3.12) and Equation (3.16) we have

(3.21)

The same can be seen from the stresses on a cube inside such a body with the coordinate systems
shown in Figure 3.1. Figure 3.2 (a) shows the stresses on a cube with the coordinate system x 1 ,

x 2 ,x 3 and Figure 3.2 (b) shows stresses on the same cube with the coordinate system .
Comparing the stresses we get the relation as in Equation (3.21).
Now using the stiffness matrix as given in Equation (3.11), strain term relations as given in Equation
(3.17) and comparing the stress terms in Equation (3.21) as follows:
Using the relations from Equation (3.17), the above equations reduce to
Noting that , this holds true only when
Similarly,
This gives us the matrix as in Equation (3.20).

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Figure 3.2: State of stress (a) in x 1 , x 2 , x 3 system

(b) with x 1 -x 3 plane of symmetry

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Symmetry with respect to two Orthogonal Planes:

Let us assume that the material under consideration has one more plane, say x 2 -x 3 is plane of
material symmetry along with x 1 -x 2 as in (A). These two planes are orthogonal to each other. This
transformation is shown in Figure 3.3.
This can be mathematically formulated by the change of axes as

(3.22)

And
(3.23)
This gives us the required strain relations as (from Equation (3.12)).
or using contracted notations, we can write,
(3.24)
Figure 3.3: Material symmetry about x 1 -x 2 andx 2 -x 3

planes

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We can get the function W simply by substituting in place of and using contracted notations
for the strains in Equation (3.18). Noting that W is invariant, its form in Equation (3.18) must now be
restricted to functional form

(3.25)

From this it is easy to see that

Thus, the number of independent constants reduces to 9. The resulting stiffness matrix is given as
(3.26)
When a material has (any) two orthogonal planes as planes of material symmetry then that material
is known as Orthotropic Material. It is easy to see that when two orthogonal planes are planes of
material symmetry, the third mutually orthogonal plane is also plane of material symmetry and
Equation (3.26) holds true for this case also.

Note: Unidirectional fibrous composites are an example of orthotropic materials.
Second Approach: Stress Strain Equivalence Approach
The same reduction of number of elastic constants can be derived from the stress strain equivalence
approach. From the first of Equation (3.12) and Equation (3.23) we have
(3.27)

The same can be seen from the stresses on a cube inside such a body with the coordinate systems
shown in Figure 3.3. Figure 3.4 (a) shows the stresses on a cube with the coordinate system x 1 , x 2 ,
x 3 and Figure 3.4 (b) shows stresses on the same cube with the coordinate system .
Comparing the stresses we get the relation as in Equation (3.27).
Now using the stiffness matrix given in Equation (3.20) and comparing the stress equivalence of
Equation (3.27) we get the following:

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This holds true when . Similarly,
This gives us the matrix as in Equation (3.26).


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(b) with x 1 -x 2 andx 2 -x 3 planes of symmetry
Alternately, if we consider x 1 -x 3 as the second plane of material symmetry along with x 1 -x 2 as

shown in Figure 3.5, then
(3.28)
And
(3.29)
This gives us the required strain relations as (from Equation (3.12))
or in contracted notations, we write
Substituting these in Equation (3.18) the function W reduces again to the form given in Equation
(3.25) for W to be invariant. Finally, we get the reduced stiffness matrix as given in Equation (3.26).

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Figure 3.5: Material symmetry about x 1 -x 2 andx 1 -x 3

planes

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:

The stress transformations for this coordinate transformations are (from the first of Equation (3.12)
and Equation (3.29))

The same can be seen from the stresses shown on the same cube in x 1 , x 2 , x 3 and

coordinate systems in Figure 3.6 (a) and (b), respectively. The comparison of the stress terms leads
to the stiffness matrix as given in Equation (3.26).

Note: It is clear that if any two orthogonal planes are planes of material symmetry the third mutually
orthogonal plane has to be plane to material symmetry. We have got the same stiffness matrix when
we considered two sets of orthogonal planes. Further, if we proceed in this way considering three
mutually orthogonal planes of symmetry then it is not difficult to see that the stiffness matrix remains
the same as in Equation (3.26).

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Homework:

1. Starting with hyperelastic material, first take x 2 -x 3 plane as plane of material symmetry and
obtain the stiffness matrix. Is this matrix the same as in Equation (3.20) ? Justify your answer.

2. Starting with the stiffness matrix obtained in the above problem, take x 1 -x 3 as an additional
plane of symmetry and obtain the stiffness matrix. Is this matrix the same as in Equation
(3.26)? Justify your answer.


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References:

AE Green, W Zerna. Theoretical Elasticity. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1963.

SG Lekhnitskii. Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body. Mir Publishers, Moscow,
1981.


Jersey, 1969.

1998.

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Lecture 11: Constitutive Relations: Transverse Isotropy and Isotropy


Transverse Isotropy

Isotropic Bodies

Homework

References


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Lecture 11: Constitutive relations: Transverse isotropy and isotropy

Transverse Isotropy:

Introduction:

In this lecture, we are going to see some more simplifications of constitutive equation and develop
the relation for isotropic materials.

First we will see the development of transverse isotropy and then we will reduce from it to isotropy.


This is obtained from an orthotropic material. Here, we develop the constitutive relation for a material
with transverse isotropy in x 2 -x 3 plane (this is used in lamina/laminae/laminate modeling). This is
obtained with the following form of the change of axes.
(3.30)
Now, we have

(b) with x 1 -x 2 and x 1 -x 3 planes of symmetry
From this, the strains in transformed coordinate system are given as:

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(3.31)
Here, it is to be noted that the shear strains are the tensorial shear strain terms.
For any angle ,
(3.32)
and therefore, W must reduce to the form
(3.33)
Then, for W to be invariant we must have
Now, let us write the left hand side of the above equation using the matrix as given in Equation
(3.26) and engineering shear strains. In the following we do some rearrangement as
Similarly, we can write the right hand side of previous equation using rotated strain components.
Now, for W to be invariant it must be of the form as in Equation (3.33).
1. If we observe the terms containing and in the first bracket, then we conclude
that is unchanged.
2. Now compare the terms in the second bracket. If we have then the first of
Equation (3.32) is satisfied.

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3. Now compare the third bracket. If we have , then the third of Equation (3.32) is
satisfied.
4. Now for the fourth bracket we do the following manipulations. Let us assume that
and is unchanged. Then we write the terms in fourth bracket as
To have W to be invariant we need to have so that the third of Equation (3.32) is
satisfied.
Thus, for transversely isotropic material (in plane x 2 -x 3 ) the stiffness matrix becomes
(3.34)
Thus, there are only 5 independent elastic constants for a transversely isotropic material.


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Second Approach: Comparison of Constants

This can also be verified from the elastic constants expressed in terms of engineering constants like
. Recall the constitutive equation for orthotropic material expressed in terms of
engineering constants. For the transversely isotropic materials the following relations hold.

When these relations are used in the constitutive equation for orthotropic material expressed in
terms of engineering constants, the stiffness matrix relations in Equation (3.34) are verified.
Isotropic Bodies
If the function W remains unaltered in form under all possible changes to other rectangular Cartesian
systems of axes, the body is said to be Isotropic. In this case, W is a function of the strain
invariants. Alternatively, from the previous section, W must be unaltered in form under the
transformations
(3.35)
and
(3.36)
In other words, W when expressed in terms of must be obtained from Equation (3.33) simply by
replacing by . By analogy with the previous section it is seen that for this to be true under the
transformation Equation (3.35). We can write
And the transformed strains are given as

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(3.37)
Thus, for any angle ,
(3.38)
and therefore, W must reduce to the form

(3.39)
Then, for W to be invariant we must have
Now, let us write the left hand side of above equation using the matrix as given in Equation
(3.34) and engineering shear strains. In the following we do some rearrangement as
(3.40)
Similarly, we can write the right hand side of the previous equation using rotated strain components.
Now, for W to be invariant it must be of the form as in Equation (3.39)
1. From the second bracket, if we propose , then we can satisfy the first of Equation
(3.38).
2. From the third bracket, third of Equation (3.38) holds true when
3. The fourth bracket is manipulated as follows:

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Thus, to satisfy the second of Equation (3.38) we must have . Further, we should
have . From our observation in 2, we can write .
It follows automatically that W is unaltered in form under the transformation in Equation (3.36).
Thus, the stiffness matrix for isotropic material becomes as
(3.41)
Thus, for an isotropic material there are only two independent elastic constants. It can be verified
that W is unaltered in form under all possible changes to other rectangular coordinate systems, that
is, it is the same function of as it is of when is changed to .

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Homework:

1. Starting with the stiffness matrix for transverse isotropic material, take the transformations
about x 1 and x 2 and show that you get the stiffness matrix as given in Equation (3.41).


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References:

1. AE Green, W Zerna. Theoretical Elasticity. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1963

2. SG Lekhnitskii. Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body. Mir Publishers, Moscow,
1981.

3. IS Sokolnikoff. Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, First Edition, McGraw Hill

4. LE Malvern. Introduction to Mechanics of a Continuous Medium, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New
Jersey, 1969.
5. CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New

York, 1998.

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Lecture 12: Constitutive Relations for Orthotropic Materials and Stress-Strain Transformations


Engineering Constants

Constitutive Equation for an Orthotropic Material

Constraints on Engineering Constants in Orthotropic Materials
Stress and Strain Transformation about an Axis

Strain Transformation

Homework
References


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In the previous lecture we have seen the constitutive equations for various types of (that is, nature
of) materials. There are 81 independent elastic constants for generally anisotropic material and two
for an isotropic material. Let us summarize the reduction of elastic constants from generally
anisotropic to isotropic material.

1. For a generally anisotropic material there are 81 independent elastic constants.

2. With additional stress symmetry the number of independent elastic constants reduces to 54.

3. Further, with strain symmetry this number reduces to 36.

4. A hyperelastic material with stress and strain symmetry has 21 independent elastic constants.
The material with 21 independent elastic constants is also called as anisotropic or aelotropic
material.
5. Further reduction with one plane of material symmetry gives 13 independent elastic constants.
These materials are known as monoclinic materials.
6. Additional orthogonal plane of symmetry reduces the number of independent elastic constants
to 9. These materials are known as orthotropic materials. Further, if a material has two
orthogonal planes of symmetry then it is also symmetric about third mutually perpendicular
plane. A unidirectional lamina is orthotropic in nature.
7. For a transversely isotropic material there are 5 independent elastic constants. Plane 2-3 is
transversely isotropic for the lamina shown in Figure 3.7.
8. For an isotropic material there are only 2 independent elastic constants.
Principal Material Directions:
The interest of this course is unidirectional lamina or laminae and laminate made from stacking of
these unidirectional laminae. Hence, we will introduce the principal material directions for a
unidirectional fibrous lamina. These are denoted by 1-2-3 directions. The direction 1 is along the
fibre. The directions 2 and 3 are perpendicular to the direction 1 and mutually perpendicular to each
other. The direction 3 is along the thickness of lamina. The principal directions for a unidirectional
lamina are shown in Figure 3.7.
Engineering Constants:
The elastic constants which form the stiffness matrix are not directly measured from laboratory tests
on a material. One can measure engineering constants like Youngs modulus, shear modulus and
Poissons ratio from laboratory tests. The relationship between engineering constants and elastic
constants of stiffness matrix is also not straight forward. This relationship can be developed with the
help of relationship between engineering constants and compliance matrix coefficients.
In order to establish the relationship between engineering constants and the compliance coefficients,
we consider an orthotropic material in the principal material directions. If this orthotropic material is
subjected to a 3D state of stress, the resulting strains can be expressed in terms of these stress
components and engineering constants as follows:

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Figure 3.7: Unidirectional lamina with principal material directions

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(3.42)

whereas the engineering shear strain components are given as

(3.43)
Here, are the Youngs moduli in 1, 2 and 3 directions, respectively. Thus,

represents the axial modulus and represent in-plane transverse and out-of-plane
transverse moduli, respectively. Note that axial direction is along the fibre direction.
represents the shear moduli. G 12 ,G 13 are the axial shear moduli in two orthogonal planes that
contain the fibers.G 23 represents out-of-plane transverse shear modulus. Further, it should be noted
that .
The term represents the Poissons ratio. It is defined as follows
(3.44)
where represents the strain in the direction of applied stress and represents the strain the
associated lateral direction. It should be noted that, in general .
We will mimic some (thought) experiments that we actually do in laboratory to extract these
engineering constants. For example, we find engineering constants of a transversely isotropic lamina .

Experiment 1: The lamina is loaded in traction along the axial direction as shown in Figure 3.8 (a)
and the strains in along three principal directions are recorded as the load is varied. The slope of the
axial stress versus axial strain curve yields the axial Youngs modulus . The ratios
give the Poissons ratios respectively.
Experiment 2: The lamina is loaded in traction along direction 2. The two views of this loading

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case are shown in Figure 3.8 (b). The slope of stress-strain curve in direction 2 gives the in-plane
transverse Youngs modulus . Since, the material is isotropic in 2-3 plane, is also equal .
The strains in all three directions are measured. The ratios give the Poissons
ratios , respectively.
Experiment 3: The lamina is loaded in shear in plane 1-2 as shown in Figure 3.8 (c). The slope of
the in-plane shear stress and engineering shear strain curve gives the shear modulus . Please
note that if we load the lamina in 1-3 plane by shear then also we will get this modulus because the
behaviour of material in shear in these two planes is identical. Thus, by shear loading in plane 1-2
gives .
Experiment 4: The lamina is loaded in shear in 2-3 plane as shown in Figure 3.8(d). The
corresponding shear stress and engineering shear strain curve yields the shear modulus .
Note: We will see the experimental details to measure some of these engineering constants in a
chapter on experimental characterization of lamina, laminates, fibres and matrix materials.


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Constitutive Equation for an Orthotropic Material:

Now, let us assume that we have measured all the engineering constants of an orthotropic material
along principal directions. With these engineering constants we know the relation between the strain
and stress components as given in Equation (3.42) and Equation (3.43). Thus, it is easy to see that
we can relate the strain components to stress components through compliance matrix. Let us recall
from previous lecture the stiffness matrix for orthotropic material (Equation (3.26)). The inverse of
this matrix (compliance) will have the same form as the stiffness matrix. Thus, we write the
relationship between strain and stress components using compliance matrix as follows

Figure 3.8: Experiments to extract engineering

constants for a transversely isotropic material
(3.45)
Now compare Equation (3.42) and Equation (3.43) with Equation (3.45). This gives us the
compliance coefficients in terms of engineering constants. The coefficients are given in Equation
(3.46).

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(3.46)
It should be noted that like stiffness matrix, the compliance matrix is also symmetric. The compliance
matrix given in Equation (3.45) is shown symmetric.
Note: It is known from our elementary knowledge of linear algebra that inverse of a symmetric matrix
is also a symmetric matrix. Since, the stiffness matrix, which is the inverse of compliance matrix, is
symmetric; the compliance matrix has to be symmetric .
Now, let us derive some more useful relations using the symmetry of compliance matrix. If we
compare and we get . Similarly, comparison of and and comparison of
and give two more similar relations. All these relations are given in Equation (3.47).
(3.47)
or one can write this relation in index form as
(3.48)

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The relations in Equation (3.47) or Equation (3.45) are referred to as the reciprocal relations. These
relations are also written as

(3.49)

It should be noted that, in general . From Equation (3.48) we can write for

as

(3.50)

It is known that for transversely isotropic material (in 2-3 plane) is much greater than and
Thus, from the first of Equation (3.47) one can easily see that is much smaller than
. Further, it is clear from the relation that .
Note: Since value of (and may be of other Poissons ratios) will be small, the readers are
suggested to use appropriate precision level while calculating (in examinations and writing computer
codes) any data involving these coefficients.

We will get the stiffness matrix by inversion of compliance matrix. Equation (3.46) is substituted in
Equation. (3.45) and the resulting equation is inverted to give the stiffness matrix of an orthotropic
material as
(3.51)
where
(3.52)
is the determinant of stiffness matrix in Equation (3.51). We can write the stiffness matrix for
transversely isotropic material with the following substitutions in the stiffness matrix.

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Further, from the resulting, one can reduce the constitutive equation for isotropic material with
following substitutions:
The readers should verify these results.


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Constraints on Engineering Constants in Orthotropic Materials

For orthotropic materials there are constraints on engineering constants. These constrains arise due
to thermodynamic admissibility. For example, in case of isotropic materials it is well known that the
Youngs modulus and shear modulus are always positive. Further, the Poissons ratio lager than half
are not thermodynamically admissible. If these constrains are violated then it is possible to have a
nonpositive strain energy for certain load conditions. However, for isotropic materials the strain
energy must be a positive definite quantity.

In this section, based on the work done by Lempriere we are going to assess the implications of this
thermodynamic requirement (positive definiteness of strain energy) for orthotropic materials.
The sum of work done by all stress components must be positive, otherwise energy will be created.
This condition imposes a thermodynamic constraint on elastic constants. This condition requires that
both compliance and stiffness matrices must be positive definite. In other words, the invariants of
these matrices should be positive.
Let us look at this condition with physical arguments. For example, consider that only one normal
stress component is applied. Then we can find the corresponding strain component from the
corresponding diagonal entry of the compliance matrix. Thus, we can say that for the strain energy to
be positive definite the diagonal entries of the compliance matrix must be positive. Thus,
(3.53)
In a similar way, it is possible under certain conditions to have a deformation which will give rise to
only one normal strain component. We can find the corresponding stress using the corresponding
diagonal entry in stiffness matrix. For the strain energy produced by this stress component to be
positive the diagonal entry of the stiffness matrix must be positive. Thus, this condition reduces to
(3.54)
and the determinant of the compliance matrix must also be positive. That is,
(3.55)
Now, using the reciprocal relations given in Equation (3.49), the condition in Equation (3.54) can be
expressed as
(3.56)

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This condition also justifies that the Poissons ratio greater than unity is feasible for orthotropic
lamina. Poissons ratio greater than unity is sometimes observed in experiments.
The condition in Equation (3.55) can be written as
The terms inside the brackets are positive. Thus, we can write
(3.57)
This condition shows that all three Poissons ratios cannot have large positive values and that their
product must be less than half. However, if one of them is negative no restriction is applied to
remaining two ratios.
Let us consider the transverse isotropy as a special case. Let us consider transverse isotropy in 2-3
plane. Let
(3.58)
Then, the conditions in Equation (3.56) reduce as
(3.59)
and Equation (3.57) (using reciprocal relations in Eq. (3.49)) becomes as
(3.60)
The condition posed by above equation is more stringent than that posed in Equation (3.59). Note
that the quantities and are both positive. Thus, the limits on Poissons ratio in
transverse plane are
(3.61)
Further, consider a special case of isotropic material where and . This simplifies
Equation (3.61) to a well known condition

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(3.62)

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Stress and Strain Transformation about an Axis

Often it is required to transform the stress or strain tensor from one coordinate axes system to
another. For example, if the fibres in a lamina are not oriented along direction x, then we may need
to transform the stress and strain components from principal material directions 1-2-3 to global
directions xyz or vice-a-versa. It should be noted that the stress and strain tensors are second order
tensors. Hence, they follow tensor transformation rules.

In this section we are going to introduce two notations. The subscripts 123 will denote a quantity (like
constitutive equation, engineering constants, etc.) in principal material directions, while subscripts xyz
will denote the corresponding quantity in global coordinate directions.
Figure 3.9: Unidirectional lamina with global xyz

directions and principal material 1-2-3 directions
Let us transform the stress and strain components for the case shown in Figure 3.9. Here, xy plane
is rotated about direction z to 1-2 plane. Here, direction z and direction 3 are in same directions, that
is, along the thickness direction of lamina. The direction cosines for this axes transformation are as
given in Equation (2.2). However, these are again given below.
Stress Transformation:
Let us do the stress transformation as given in Equation (2.7). In this equation the primed stress
components denote the component in 123 coordinate system. Using the expanded form of Equation
(2.7) and stress symmetry, let us obtain component of stress

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture12/12_7.html[8/18/2014 12:13:05 PM]

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Thus, substituting the values of direction cosines from above, we get
The remaining five stress terms (using stress symmetry) on the left hand side are also obtained in a
similar way. Let us write the final form of the relation as
(3.63)
Here, and and is the

stress transformation matrix. Thus, comparing all the terms as in Equation (3.63), we can write
as
(3.64)
where . It should be noted that is not symmetric.


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Strain Transformation:

In a similar way, we can transform the strain components from xy plane to 1-2 plane. In this
transformation we will use engineering shear strains. Let us find the using the transformation
equation similar to stress transformation and using strain symmetry as

(3.65)

Substituting the direction cosines and rearranging, we get
(3.66)
We know from Equation (2.24) that the tensorial shear strains are half the engineering shear strains.
Thus, in Equation (3.53) we substitute
On simplification and putting , we get
(3.67)
The other five strain terms (using strain symmetry) on the left hand side are also obtained in a
similar way. Let us write the final form of the relation as
(3.68)

Here, and and is the strain
transformation matrix. Thus, comparing all the terms as in Equation (3.68), we can write as
(3.69)
Note : The transformation matrices, and differ by factors 2 in two terms.

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Note: The transformation matrices, and are not symmetric.
Note : The order of stress and strain components in Equatjion (3.63) and Equation (3.68) is
important. Some books and research articles follow different orders. The readers are cautioned to
take a note of it.


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Examples:

Example 1: Calculate the stiffness and compliance coefficients for transversely isotropic material

AS4/3501 Epoxy. The properties are as given below for a fibre volume fraction of 60%.

Solution:

Unit of all compliance coefficients is 1/GPa.
The corresponding stiffness coefficients are calculated by inversion of the compliance matrix.

Unit of all stiffness coefficients is GPa.
Note : Both stiffness and compliance matrices are symmetric.


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Homework:

1. Write the number of independent elastic constants for 3D hyperelastic, monoclinic, orthotropic,
transversely isotropic and isotropic materials.

2. Are the Poissons ratio and independent of each other for an orthotropic unidirectional
lamina?

3. Take the form of stiffness matrix for an orthotropic material as given in Equation (3.26). Using
any symbolic calculation software like Maple or Mathematica, obtain the inverse of this matrix
and confirm that the form of compliance matrix written in Equation (3.42) is correct. Further,
confirm that this matrix is symmetric. (One should be able to do this using the concepts of
linear algebra alone.)

4. Extend the Problem 3 to get the stiffness matrix given in Equation (3.51).

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References:


1981.



1998.
BM Lempriere. Poissons ratio in orthotropic materials. AIAA Journal, 1968;6(11):2226-

2227.
RB Pipes, JR Vinson, TW Chou. On the hygrothermal response of laminated composite

systems. Journal of Composite Materials, 1976;10:129-148.
PD Soden, MJ Hinton, AS Kaddour. Lamina properties, lay-up configurations and

loading conditions for a range of fibre-reinforced composite laminates. Composite
Science and Technology, 1998;58:1011-1022.

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Lecture 13: Stiffness, Compliance Transformation and Hygro-thermo-elastic Constitutive Relation


Stiffness Transformation

Compliance Transformation
Thermal Effects

Thermo-Elastic Constitutive Equation

Hygro-Thermo-Elastic Constitutive Equation
Homework
References

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Introduction

In the previous lecture we have derived the stiffness matrix in terms of engineering constants using
the compliance relations. Further, we have seen the constraints over the engineering constants in
orthotropic materials. Then we have visited the stress and strain transformation. In the present
lecture we will see the stiffness and compliance transformation about an axis. Further, we will
address the effect of thermal and hygroscopic actions on lamina constitutive equations.

Stiffness Transformation:

It is required to relate the stress components with strain components in global xyz directions. The
stiffness matrix which relates the stress and strain components in global directions is called as
transformed stiffness matrix. We will derive an expression for the transformed stiffness matrix as
follows.
The constitutive equation in principal material coordinates, as given in Equation (3.11), is
(3.70)
Now, we express using Equation (3.63) to transform stresses and Equation (3.68)
to transform strains. Substituting these equations, we get
(3.71)
Pre-multiplying both sides by , we get
(3.72)
where we define the transformed stiffness matrix as
(3.73)
The transformation matrices and can be inverted as follows
(3.74)
The final form of the transformed stiffness matrix is given in Equation (3.75).
(3.75)

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The individual terms of this matrix are determined using and relation for . The
individual terms are given in Equation (3.76).
Note: The transformed stiffness matrix is symmetric in nature.

Note : The transformed stiffness matrix given in Equation (3.75) has exactly the same form as a
stiffness matrix for a monoclinic material. Thus, we can conclude that a transformation through an
arbitrary angle about direction 3, leads to a monoclinic material behaviour.
The same can be seen from the plane of elastic symmetry considerations in xyz coordinate system.
The given lamina is symmetric only about xy plane. Thus, the transformed stiffness matrix in
Equation (3.75) is consistent with monoclinic material.
Note : Transformed stiffness coefficient terms are fourth order in the sine and cosine functions. It is
very important to use appropriate precision level while calculating (in examinations and writing
computer codes) these coefficients.
(3.76)
The constitutive equation becomes

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Compliance Transformation:

We are going to follow a procedure to transform compliance matrix similar to one used for
transformation of a stiffness matrix. We have the constitutive equation in principal material direction
as in Equation (3.70). We can write this in inverted form as

(3.77)

using Equation (3.63) and Equation (3.68) we get

(3.78)
Pre-multiplying both sides by , we get
(3.79)
where, we define the transformed compliance matrix as
(3.80)
Alternately, we can find by inverting the transformed stiffness matrix . Thus, inverting
from Equation (3.73), we get
After carrying out the calculation for , it is easy to give its form as follows
(3.81)
Note that has the same symmetric form as the transformed stiffness matrix.
The individual terms of the compliance matrix are obtained by carrying out multiplication of matrices

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as in Equation (3.82) and are given below.
(3.82)

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Thermal Effects:

Thermal effects (effects due to change in temperature) are very important in composite materials for
various reasons. The analysis of composites with thermal effects and effective thermal properties of
the composite are two of the main reasons.

Important issues from analysis point of view:

1. The composite materials are used in environment where thermal gradients are unavoidable.
For example, the helicopter containing composite fuselage operates at -50 C during winter at

Leh and same helicopter can operate at +50 C during summer in the desert of Rajasthan.
Thus, the effect of temperature gradient on the service performance of the composite is very
important. In such service conditions, the layers of composite material tend to expand or
contract but are restricted due to adjacent layers. Thus, it induces thermal stresses.
2. Most of the fabrication processes of polymer matrix composites have thermal cycles for matrix
curing. A typical cycle involves raising the temperature to a certain level and holding it there
for specified time and bringing it back to room temperature. It is well known that the fibre and
matrix materials have different coefficients of thermal expansion (defined below). This
mismatch produces residual thermal stresses because the fibres and matrix material are
constrained in a composite.
Important issues from effective thermal properties point of view:
The second reason for the study of thermal effects is the effective properties of the composite
materials.
1. Finding effective thermal properties of the composite theoretically to get an estimate requires
sophisticated mathematical modeling when one considers:
a. Difference in coefficients of thermal expansion of fibre and matrix materials
b. The direction dependence of coefficients of thermal expansion in these materials
c. Curing cycle temperature variations. This point is important because for some of the
materials the coefficient of thermal expansion changes with temperature.
2. Finding the effective thermal properties for lamina in global direction with oriented fibres as
shown in Figure 3.9 requires a special attention.
Further, finding these effective properties by laboratory test is also a challenge. Thus, for the various
reasons mentioned above the study of thermal effect is very important. In the following, we develop
a systematic way to handle effective thermal properties of a lamina along global directions.
It is well known that when a material is subjected to thermal gradient, it undergoes a deformation.
The strain due to thermal changes is called thermal strain (denoted by superscript (T)). In general,
the thermal strain is proportional to the temperature change . The constant of proportionality is
called coefficient of thermal expansion. Thus, we can write the thermal strains in principal material
directions for an orthotropic material as

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(3.83)
where denote the coefficients of thermal expansion in principal

material directions. It should be noted that for an orthotropic material in principal directions there are
no shear strains due to thermal effects like in an isotropic material. For an isotropic material the
coefficient of thermal expansion is same in any direction. However, for an orthotropic material
. The thermal expansion of an elemental cube in principal directions for an isotropic
and orthotropic material is shown in Figure 3.10.
These thermal strains will not produce stresses unless these are constrained. The thermal strains
which do not produce stresses are known as free thermal strains. However, in case of composites
the fibres and matrix are constrained in a lamina and layers are constrained in a laminate. Thus, in
composite the thermal strains produce the thermal stresses.
The thermal strains are given in principal material directions as given in Equation (3.83). Let us
consider that we need to find these strains in a global coordinate system (refer Figure 3.9). We need
to transform them from 123 coordinate system to xyz coordinate system by a rotation about 3-
axis. Thus, similar to Equation (3.68), we can write
(3.84)
Substituting Equation (3.83) in the above equation,
(3.85)
where
(3.86)
Figure 3.10: Thermal expansion in an isotropic and

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orthotropic material
On substitution of in the above equation, we get the following individual terms of coefficients
thermal expansion in xyz directions.
(3.87)
Using Equation (3.87) in Equation (3.85), the engineering thermal strains in global coordinates are
given as
(3.88)
Thus, from this equation it should be noted that the transformation of thermal strains in global
coordinates gives normal strain components and a shear strain component in xy plane for an
orthotropic material with and fiber orientations other than .


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Thermo-Elastic Constitutive Equation:

Let us assume that the total strain, in a composite is a superposition of the free thermal strain
and the strain due to mechanical loads (also known as mechanical strains) . Thus,

Now, for mechanical strains we use the constitutive equation as

Thus, we can write the total thermo-elastic strain as
(3.89)
Equation (3.89) can be written as
Premultiplying the above expression by , we get the stresses as
(3.90)
Equation (3.90) is the basic constitutive equation for thermo-elastic stress analysis.
Using Equation (3.90) and similar to Equation (3.72) we can find the stresses due to thermo-elastic
effects in global directions as,
(3.91)
where
Equation (3.91) is inverted to give the total strains in terms of the mechanical and free thermal
strains as
(3.92)
Effect of Moisture :
The polymer matrix composite materials, during their service can absorb moisture from the

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environment. The effect of absorption of moisture is to degrade the various material properties of the
composite. Further, this results in an expansion. It is called hygroscopic expansion. However, this
expansion is again constrained as in thermal expansion. Hence, when dealing with the hygroscopic
expansions, a treatment similar to thermal expansion is used.
The hygroscopic strains are assumed to be proportional to the percentage moisture absorbed,
This percentage is measured in terms of weight of the moisture. The constant of
proportionality, is the coefficient of hygroscopic expansion.
Thus, in principal coordinates the hygroscopic strains are
(3.93)
where
(3.94)
denotes the coefficients of hygroscopic expansion in principal material directions. Following a similar
procedure for thermal strains, we can write strains due to hygroscopic expansion in xyz coordinates
as
(3.95)
We can write using values of in 123 directions as
Thus, comparing Equation (3.85) and Equation (3.95), it is easy to conclude that the coefficients of
hygroscopic expansion will vary similar to the coefficients of thermal expansion as a function of
orientation of fibres.


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Hygro-Thermo-Elastic Constitutive Equation:

This is the most general formulation for the mechanical, thermal and hygral effects on stress
analysis in composites. Here, we superimpose the strains due to these three effects to give us the
total strain as

(3.96)

Using constitutive equation for mechanical strains, we get

(3.97)
The stresses in the composite can be given as
(3.98)
These stresses in global coordinates xyz can be written as
(3.99)
where
(3.100)

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Examples:

Example 2: Transform the stiffness and compliance matrix of Example 1 about axis 3 by an angle

of

= 30.

Solution:

Approach 1: One can find the transformation matrices and do the matrix
multiplication as given in Equation (3.73) for transformed stiffness matrix and then inverse this matrix
or do the matrix multiplication as given in Equation (3.80) to get the transformed compliance matrix.
The use of Equation (3.73) and Equation (3.80) is suggested because remembering is
not so difficult. Further, their inverse can be easily found with the help of Equation (3.74).
For
Thus

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Unit of all transformed stiffness coefficients is GPa.
Unit of all transformed compliance coefficients is 1/GPa.
Approach 2: You can write the expanded form for transformed stiffness and compliance
coefficients in Equation (3.76) and Equation (3.82). However, the readers are suggested to use this
approach only when they are confident of remembering these terms.
Example 3: The coefficients of moisture absorption for T300/5208 composite material are

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. Plot the variation these coefficients between

.
Solution:
We have the expression for variation of the coefficients of moisture absorption as
where, . We plot the above variation using a computer code. The

final plot is shown in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11: Variation of coefficients of moisture

expansion with orientation of fibres


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Homework:

1. Verify the result given in Equation (3.74).

2. Using the invariance property of strain energy density function, show that
and

3. Obtain the individual terms of transformed stiffness and compliance matrices using Equation
(3.73) and Equation (3.80), respectively and verify it with Equation (3.76) and Equation (3.82),
respectively.
4. Obtain the strain transformation matrix using tensorial shear strains. Further, using this
transformation matrix obtain the transformed stiffness and compliance matrix in the form
similar to Equation (3.75) and Equation (3.81). Compare the new matrices and comment on
the observations with justifications.
5. Calculate the stiffness and compliance coefficients for following transversely isotropic
materials given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Properties for unidirectional transversely isotropic lamina
T300/BSL914C E-glass/LY556/ S-glass/MY750/

Property\Material Epoxy HT907/DY063 Epoxy HY917/DY063 Epoxy
E1 (GPa) 138 53.48 45.6
E2 =E3 (GPa) 11 17.7 16.2
G 12 = G 13 (GPa) 5.5 5.83 5.83
12 = 13 0.28 0.278 0.278
23 0.4 0.4 0.4
1 (10 -6 /C) -1 8.6 8.6
2 = 3 (10 -6 /C) 26 26.4 26.4
6. The stiffness matrix for an orthotropic material is given as

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Find:
a. The compliance matrix

b. The engineering constants .
7. Why are the thermal effects important in composite materials? Explain in detail.
8. Plot variation of between for T300/BSL914C Epoxy

and E-glass/LY556/ HT907/DY063 Epoxy. See Table 3.1 for the required thermal properties.
9. Why are the hygral effects important in composite materials? Explain.
10. Search literature to get the coefficients of moisture absorption for at least two composite
materials and plot its variation between
11. Write a computer code to read the properties of a transversely isotropic material and calculate
all the terms of stiffness and compliance matrix. Verify your results with the results given in
Example 1. Then use this code to get the stiffness and compliance matrices of T300/BSL914C
Epoxy and S-glass/MY750/ HY917/DY063 Epoxy.
12. Add another module to the code written for above problem to calculate the transformed
stiffness and compliance matrices. Plot all the coefficients between .
Compare the corresponding terms of these materials and comment.

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References:


1981.



1998.

2227.



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Module 4: Plane Stress Constitutive Equations

Lecture 14: 2-Dimensional Lamina Analysis


Plane Stress for Monoclinic (or Rotated Orthotropic) Material

Reduced Transformed Stiffness Matrix

Plane Stress for Orthotropic Material

Compliance and Stiffness Coefficients Using Engineering Constants

2D Transformations about an Axis

Lamina Constitutive Relations in Global Coordinates
Thermal Effects
Moisture Effect
Examples

Homework
References

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Introduction

In the previous chapter, we have developed 3D constitutive equations. While analyzing composites,
most of the times a planar state of stress actually exists. It is noted that a typical unidirectional
lamina has very small thickness compared to its planar (xy) dimensions. Thus, it is appropriate to
assume a planar state of stress in a lamina. In this chapter, we are going to derive a constitutive
equation for plane stress problem in unidirectional laminar composite.

Plane Stress for Monoclinic (or Rotated Orthotropic) Material

3D constitutive equation for a single layer of a unidirectional composite with a fiber orientation
relative to the global coordinate is
(4.1)
For a state of plane stress, we have
(4.2)
Thus, it is easy to see that the two out of plane shear strains are zero. We can write
these strains using Equation (4.1) as
(4.3)
The out of plane normal strain is expressed using Equation (4.1) and Equation (4.2) as

(4.4)
Note that this strain component is not zero.
In plane components of strain for a plane stress state can be written using Equation (4.1) as
(4.5)

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From 3D constitutive equation (Equation (3.72)) for the transformed stiffness, we can write as
(4.6)
From this equation, we can get the out of plane transverse normal strain as
(4.7)
Thus, the out of plane normal strain is expressed in terms of in-plane strain components and known
stiffness coefficients.


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Reduced Transformed Stiffness Matrix

The equation for in-plane components of stress in terms of the transformed stiffness coefficients is

(4.8)

Substituting from Equation (4.7) into Equation (4.8) and upon simplification, we get

(4.9)
The above equation is written in matrix form as
(4.10)
where the transformed reduced stiffness coefficients are defined as
(4.11)
Note: Transformed reduced stiffness matrix is symmetric.
Note: It is very important to note that the transformed reduced stiffness terms for plane stress, ,
are not simply the corresponding terms, taken from the 3D stiffness matrix. This should be clear
from the fact that the inverse of a matrix is different from that of a . This can easily be
seen from Equation (4.11). The readers should easily understand that when terms are used to
define a constitutive equation, then it is a reduced transformed constitutive equation.
Plane Stress for Orthotropic Material
Let us recall the constitutive equation for orthotropic material in principal directions.We can write the
constitutive equation using compliance matrix as (Equation (3.45))

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(4.12)
We have planar state of stress for orthotropic lamina. Then we have out of plane transverse stress
components zero, that is,
(4.13)
Let us write the out of plane transverse shear strains using this information and Equation (4.12) as
(4.14)

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Thus, the out of plane transverse shear strains are zero. Now, let us write the out of plane
transverse normal strain using Equation (4.12) as

(4.15)

Using and Equation (4.13) in the above equation, we get

(4.16)

and the inplane strain components are given as
(4.17)
This equation is called reduced constitutive equation using compliance matrix.
We have the 3D constitutive equation using stiffness matrix in principal material directions as
(Equation . (3.26))
(4.18
We have from the condition of plane stress problem that . Thus, using Equation. (4.18), we
can write
(4.19)
This leads to non-zero transverse normal strain as
(4.20)

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Using Equation. (4.18), we can write the inplane stress components as
(4.21)
Putting the expression for from Equation. (4.20) in above equation, we get
(4.22)
This equation is written in matrix form as
(4.23)
where, the terms can be written using index notations as follows
(4.24)
Note: The reduced stiffness matrix is symmetric.
Note: The readers should again understand the difference between and terms. They are not
the same.
The inversion of Equation (4.23) should give us Equation (4.17), that is,

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Let us compare this equation with corresponding 3D equation (Eq. (4.12). It can easily be seen that
the compliance terms of the constitutive equation are identical for 3D and plane stress problems.
Thus, we can write for the plane stress problems as

(4.25)

It is easy to invert a matrix. In fact, you need to invert a matrix. Thus, we can write the
individual reduced stiffness entries in terms of compliance entries as

(4.26)
Compliance and Stiffness Coefficients Using Engineering Constants
Let us write the compliance and stiffness matrices using engineering constants. It is easy to see that
the individual entries of the compliance matrix in plane stress problem are same as the 3D
compliance. Thus, we write for the plane stress problem the compliance entries as
(4.27)
Here, we have used the property that compliance matrix is symmetric, that is, . Using
, we can develop the reciprocal relationship for 2D case as
(4.28)
Note: It is easy to see for a plane stress problem of an orthotropic material that only four of the five
material constants are independent.
We can write the individual terms of reduced stiffness matrix in principal material directions by using
Equation (4.26) and Equation (4.27) as

(4.29)

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Note: For a transversely isotropic material there is no reduction of the number of independent
constants for plane stress problem.

One can write the constitutive equation in material coordinates, using Equation (3.42), Equation
(3.43) and introducing the corresponding reduction in out of plane direction as
(4.30)
It is easy to write the compliance coefficients in Equation (4.27) from these relations. Further, we can
write the above relations in inverted form as
(4.31)
These relations lead to individual reduced stiffness coefficients given in Equation (4.29).


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2D Transformations about an Axis:

In planar stress condition we need to transform the stresses in plane. Let us write, similar to
Equation (3.63), the transformation equation for stresses as

(4.32)

where is the transformation matrix for stress tensor. For the above equation, using Equation
(3.64), this matrix can be written as
(4.33)
Similarly, we can write the strain transformation equation in the following form.
(4.34)

where is the transformation matrix for strain tensor. We can find this matrix using Equation
(3.69) and the above relations as
(4.35)
Note: The transformation matrices and are not symmetric. There is a difference of factor 2
in two entries of these matrices.
Note: The transformation matrices and can be inverted using following relation
(4.36)
The readers should verify this result.


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Note: We have used the same matrix notation for stress and strain transformation matrices (
and ) in 3D case and plane stress case. However, the readers should note the corresponding
differences.


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Lamina Constitutive Relations in Global Coordinates:

The plane stress constitutive equation in principal material coordinates is

(4.37)

Let us write the stresses and strains in terms of components in global directions using Equation
(4.32) and Equation (4.34). The above equation can be re-written to give stresses in global
coordinates as

(4.38)

We define the plane stress transformed reduced stiffness matrix as
(4.39)
Introducing this definition in Equation (4.38), we get
(4.40)
The above equation is written in expanded form as
(4.41)
Note: is a symmetric matrix. Further, it is a fully populated matrix with non zero
coefficients.
Thus, using Equation (4.33), Equation (4.35 in Equation (4.39), we can write the individual terms in
expanded form as
(4.42)

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Note: Reduced stiffness coefficients are fourth order in the sine and cosine functions.
Note: are very important. They define the coupling between in-plane normal and shear
responses. Figure 4.1 shows response of an isotropic and orthotropic material under traction. The
behaviour of an orthotropic lamina loaded along fibre direction and perpendicular to fibre direction is
essentially similar to an isotropic material. However, for an off axis lamina, the behaviour clearly
shows the coupling between normal and shear terms.
Figure 4.1: Normal shear coupling in orthotropic lamina
The transformed plane stress constitutive equation can also be given in inverted form of Equation
(4.40) as
(4.43)
where
(4.44)
Using from Equation (4.33) and from Equation (4.35) in the above equation, we get the
individual coefficients of transformed reduced compliance matrix as

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(4.45)
Note: The same notation has been used for compliance matrices in principal directions and
transformed directions in 2D and 3D. This is because the corresponding terms are identical.
However, for the stiffness coefficients these are different in 2D and 3D.
Note: One can see the difference between the stiffness values by algebra involved. The inverse of
the compliance matrix for plane stress case is different from the inverse of the matrix for
3D case.


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Thermal Effects:

Thermal strains in principal material coordinates are proportional to the temperature change .
These are given using coefficient of thermal expansion as

(4.46)

where .

Transformation of the thermal strains to the strains in global coordinates gives
(4.47)
Let . Thus, Equation (4.47) becomes
(4.48)
or
(4.49)

Thermo-Elastic Constitutive Equation:
The total strain due to mechanical and thermal loading in principal material directions is given as

(4.50)
We can write for the mechanical strains as
(4.51)
Thus, Equation (4.50) becomes
(4.52)

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Re-arranging the above equation, we can write for the stresses as
(4.53)
The above equation can be written in global coordinate system as

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Moisture Effect:

The hygroscopic expansion in principal material direction is proportional to the amount of percentage
weight of moisture absorbed. Further, the hygroscopic expansion will be in principal normal directions
only. This expansion will not lead to any shear. Thus, we write the hygral strains in principal
directions for planar problem as

(4.54)

Here, denotes the coefficient of hygroscopic expansion in principal material directions for
planar problem and denotes the amount by percentage weight of moisture absorbed.
Now let us transform the hygroscopic strains in global coordinate system as
(4.55)
Using Equation (4.54), we can write
(4.56)
where
(4.57)
It is clearly seen from Equation (4.48) and Equation (4.57) that and behave in a
similar way.
Hygro-Thermo-Elastic Constitutive Equations:
When hygral and thermal effects are present along with mechanical strains, then the total strain in
principal material direction is given as
(4.58)
Using Hookes low for mechanical strain and solving for stress the hygro-thermal constitutive
equation, we get

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(4.59)
Equation (4.59) can be written to give stresses in global directions as
(4.60)
where and are as given in Equation (4.48) and Equation (4.57), respectively.

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Examples:

Example 4.1: Calculate for AS4-3501-6 Epoxy material for fibre orientation of .

Solution:

Calculate the Poissons ratio as

Calculate the reduced stiffness matrix entries in principal material directions as
Now, calculate and as from Equation (4.33), Equation (4.35) and Equation (4.36) with
and .
and
Now, . This gives us
Example 4.2: In the above example, if the state of strain at a point in principal material directions is
, then find the corresponding state of stress in global directions for fibre
orientation of .
Solution:
We find stresses in global directions as

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We calculate the strains in global directions as
And
Thus,
And
Example 4.3: In Example 1, the coefficients of thermal expansion in principal material directions are
. Calculate the stresses developed due to temperature rise of
in principal material directions as well as in global material directions.
Solution:
Stresses in principal material directions due to thermal strains alone are given as
Here, . Thus,
And stresses in global directions are

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Homework:

1. Verify the result given in Equation (4.36).
2. Using the invariance property of strain energy density function, show that:
and

3. Using the relation between and as given in Equation (4.24) and in terms of

engineering constants, show that are as given in Equation (4.29).

4. Write the compliance coefficients in Equation (4.45) in terms of engineering constants.
5. Using Equation (4.24) in Equation (4.42) obtain the individual terms of in terms of .
6. For fibre orientation and obtain matrix for materials given in Table 3.1.
7. The matrix for a composite with fibre orientation of is given as
Find all engineering constants for this material.

8. Write a computer code to calculate reduced transformed stiffness and compliance matrix for
any angle of fibre orientation with respect to global coordinate system.
9. Extend the code written for the above problem to plot the variation of terms for
orientation of fibres between . Plot the variation for materials given in Table
3.1.
10. Write a computer code to plot the variation of thermal and hygroscopic expansion coefficients
with fibre orientation between for T300/5208 composite.

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References:

1981.



1998.

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Lecture 15: Lamina Engineering Constants


Axial Modulus

Transverse Modulus

In-plane Shear Modulus

Coefficients of Mutual Influence

Significance of Shear Loading Directions in Off-Axis Lamina

Examples
Homework
References

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Introduction

In the previous lecture we have derived constitutive equation for planar state of stress in a lamina.
We have derived these constitutive equations in principal material and global directions. In this
lecture, we are going to see a practical application of the planar constitutive equations in industry.
Although, the engineering constants in principal material directions are known, it is difficult to
comment on the engineering constant for off axis lamina, instantly. When laminae are used for
designing a structure, the engineering constants in global directions become very useful for a quick

estimate of the behavior of the structure under certain loads. Thus, for practical application purpose,

the various lamina engineering constants are obtained and their variation for fibre orientation

for a range of composite materials is given together. Thus, a designer
between
can use the required lamina with appropriate fibre orientation and material.
Here we are going to obtain engineering constants for any off axis lamina as a function of
engineering constants of that lamina in principal material directions and fibre orientation. This can be
done with the help of lamina constitutive equation with appropriate one dimensional state of stress.
We have constitutive equation in global directions as given in Equation (4.5)

Thus, for a given state of stress in global directions we can find the strains in global directions from
this equation.


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Axial Modulus:

Consider a unidirectional off axis lamina. This lamina is subjected to the loading and
as shown in Figure 4.2.
Thus, from Equation (4.5) for this state of stress we can write the axial strain as

(4.61)

The Youngs modulus in x-direction is now defined as

(4.62)
Thus, from Equation (4.61), we can write
(4.63)
Figure 4.2: Off axis lamina loaded in traction along x direction
In the above equation, is written using compliance terms in principal material directions as
(4.64)
Further, it can be writing compliance terms in principal directions using engineering constants doing
some rearrangements as
(4.65)
From this expression it is easy to see that the modulus when and when
. The variation of the modulus with fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material is
shown in Figure 4.3. The variation of the modulus for both positive and negative fibre
orientations is identical in nature.


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Figure 4.3: Variation of axial modulus with fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy
Axial Poissons Ratio:
The axial Poissons ratio can also be obtained for above loading condition. This Poissons ratio
is defined as
(4.66)
Using Equation (4.61) we can write
(4.67)
Further, expressing the compliance terms in above equation in terms of engineering constants we
can write
(4.68)

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Transverse Modulus:

Consider an off-axis lamina subjected to in-plane transverse loading as shown in Figure 4.4. Thus,
for this loading condition we have and .

Figure 4.4: Off axis lamina loaded in traction along y direction
Let us define the transverse modulus as
(4.69)
Thus, from Equation (4.5) for the above loading, we can write
(4.70)
If we express using engineering constants, we get
(4.71)
From this expression, we can see that the modulus when and when
. The variation of the modulus with fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material is
shown in Figure 4.5. The variation of the modulus , similar to the variation of , for both positive
and negative fibre orientations is identical in nature. Further, it can be observed that the curve for
is shifted by to that of .

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Figure 4.5: Variation of transverse modulus with

fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy
Other Poissons Ratio:
The other Poissons ratio can be obtained from the loading condition given in Figure 4.4. Let us
define this Poissons ratio as
(4.72)
Thus, using Equation (4.5) for this loading, it becomes
(4.73)
which can be written using engineering constants as
(4.74)
The fibre orientation dependence of axial Poissons ratio and the other Poissons ratio for AS4/3501-
6 Epoxy is shown in Figure 4.6.

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Figure 4.6: Variation of Poisson's ratios with fibre orientation

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In-plane Shear Modulus:

The in-plane or axial shear modulus for an off axis lamina can be obtained when it subjected to a
pure shear loading as shown in Figure 4.7. Thus, for this loading condition we have and .

.

For this loading, we define the in-plane shear modulus as

(4.75)

With the help of Equation (4.5) we rewrite this equation as
(4.76)
And in terms of engineering constants, it becomes
(4.77)
The variation of with fibre orientation between to for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material is
shown in Figure 4.8. From this figure it can be seen that shear modulus is maximum when
. At the value of shear modulus is
(4.78)
Figure 4.7: Off axis lamina loaded in pure shear
Note : When the material is isotropic, that is and , then the above expression
reduces to the familiar relation

(4.79)

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The minimum value of shear modulus is seen when the lamina is loaded in shear in principal
material directions and its value becomes
(4.80)
Note: It is very important to note that the shear modulus of the lamina is a minimum when lamina is
in principal directions and a maximum when fibre orientation is or . Further, the behavior
of a lamina under same pure shear for fibre orientation is significantly different from that of
lamina with fibre orientation of . The physical significance of this phenomenon is explained in
greater details in the later section.
Figure 4.8: Variation of shear modulus

with fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6

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Coefficients of Mutual Influence :

It is well understood by now that for an off-axis lamina there is normal-shear coupling. The terms

and denote the normal-shear coupling. In other words, these terms express that when

there is a normal stress there will be associated shear strain and in a similar way when there is a
shear stress there will be associated normal strain or vice-a-versa.

The normal and shear coupling has been quantified by Lekhnitskii by coefficients of mutual influence.

Two kinds of coefficients of mutual influence have been defined. The first one is defined for applied
shear stress and the second one is defined for applied normal stress. These are defined as the ratio
of an associated strain to the applied strain for the given state of stress. Thus, the coefficients of
mutual influence of the first kind are defined as
(4.81)
where denotes the axial normal strains, that is or , and denotes the in-plane
engineering shear strain. For this case, the state of stress would be and .
Similarly, the coefficients of mutual influence of the second kind are defined as
(4.82)
The state of stress for this case could be either and or and
.
Now, let us obtain expressions for the coefficients of mutual influence of the first kind. We have
(4.83)
(4.84
Now, we will obtain expressions for the coefficients of mutual influence of the second kind. For the
loading shown in Figure 4.2, we will get
(4.85)
which will be simplified and expressed in terms of engineering constants in principle material
directions and fibre orientation as
(4.86)

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Similarly, for the loading shown in Figure 4.4, we get the remaining coefficient of mutual influence as
(4.87)
The variation of the coefficients of mutual influence of the first kind and second kind for AS4/3501-6
Epoxy material with fibre orientation between to is shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Variation of coefficients of mutual influence with

fibre orientation for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy

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Significance of Shear Loading Directions in Off-Axis Lamina:

The direction of shear loads applied to a lamina, especially an off-axis lamina, is very important both
from shear stiffness as well as strength point of view. This is explained with respect to an off-axis
lamina. Here we have illustrated for .
The two cases of pure shear loading of a lamina are shown in Figure 4.10. In these cases
the direction of loading is reversed. The pure shear loading can be shown to be equivalent traction

and compression loading along the diagonals of a square element. This is depicted in Figure

4.10 for both cases. For the first case, the fibres are subjected to tensile normal stress and matrix is
subjected to compressive normal stress, whereas for the second case, the fibres are subjected to
compressive normal stress and matrix is subjected tensile normal stress. The first case of shear
loading shown in Figure 4.10 is called Positive Shear and the second case is called Negative
Shear.
In the case when fibres are oriented at , either tensile or compressive normal stress is aligned
along the fibres, thus resulting in higher shear stiffness at . However, when the lamina is
loaded in pure shear in principal material directions (as shown in Figure 4.11), the equivalent stress
in fibre is neither pure normal tensile stress nor pure normal pure compressive stress. Thus, it
results in lower shear stiffness, that is
.
Figure 4.10: Off-axis lamina loaded in pure shear
It is well known that fibres are good in traction and weak in compressive loading. Thus, it is desirable
from designing point of view that the shear loading should results in an equivalent loading in which
the fibres are subjected to tensile normal stress. This kind of shear loading of an off-axis lamina will
ensure the higher shear strength of the lamina. In case of off-axis lamina the fibres are in

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pure tensile for their positive shear loading. Thus, it results into the highest shear strength.
The loading of an off-axis lamina in pure shear should be, in general, positive shear. This is one of
the important design consideration.
Figure 4.11: Unidirectional lamina loaded in pure shear

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Examples:

Example 4.4 : Calculate all the lamina engineering constants for an off-axis lamina of AS4/3501-6 Epoxy
with fibre orientation of .

Solution:

We know that all the lamina engineering constants are either reciprocal of ratio of two compliance terms in
global material directions. So, we obtain compliance terms in principal material directions and then we
transform it into global directions with .

Unit of all terms is 1/MPa.
Now, for
Thus, carrying out matrix multiplications, we get
1/MPa
Now, we calculate the lamina engineering constants as


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Using direct equations given above can also be used but this should be done only when one is confident of
remembering these relations in terms engineering constants in principal material directions.


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Homework:

1. Obtain the lamina engineering constants for materials given in Table 3.1 for fibre orientation
of

2. Write a computer code to plot the variation of all lamina engineering constants and
coefficients of mutual influence against the fibre orientation from . Further,
plot the variations for the materials given in Table 3.1 simultaneously and compare their
behaviour and comment on key observations.


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References:


1998.




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Module 5: Laminate Theory

Lecture 16: Introduction to Classical Plate Theory


Stacking Sequence Notation

Classical Laminate Theory

Displacement Field

Strain Displacements Relations

Inplane Resultant Forces
Resultant Moments
Homework

References

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Introduction:

In this lecture we are going to introduce the concept of laminate and its analysis based on Classical
Laminate Theory. Further, we will introduce the notations to designate a laminate and will explain in
detail the development of the classical laminate theory.

As we have studied earlier, laminate is defined as stacking of two or more laminae with same or
different fibreorientation with respect to global direction. The laminae may be made of same or
different material and have individual thicknesses.

Stacking Sequence Notation:
A laminate is designated by using a special nomenclature. In this nomenclature, the fibre orientation
of all layers stacked in the laminate is given. In the following the main steps are given to designate a
laminate.
1. The stacking of layers starts from the top of the laminate.
2. The stacking sequence gives the orientation of fibres with respect to global axis in degrees.
3. The stacking sequence is enclosed in square brackets symbol,
4. The distinct layers or groups of layers are separated with a slash symbol, /.
5. For repeated groups or layers, subscript n is used to designate.
6. The symmetric laminate is designated by subscript S on the square bracket, that is, by
.
7. The total stacking sequence is designated by subscript T, that is, by . However, in

general, this is not used for denoting a complete stacking sequence.
To help the readers to understand the designation of stacking sequence of laminates, in the
following Table 5.1, some laminate sequences, their description and total number of laminae in that
laminate are given. A laminate with coordinate system and ply numbering is shown in Figure 5.1(a).
Note : In some of the books on composites and research articles the coordinate systems used have
z direction positive in upward direction. In that case the stacking of layers in a laminate starts from
the bottom. Accordingly, the ply top and bottom coordinate designation also changes. However, the
end results remain unchanged.
Table 5.1: Sample laminate stacking sequence notations and their description
Laminate Description Layers

One layer each of and 3
One layer of and 2
Two layer of 2
Two layers of (in a group of two 3
layers) and one layer of

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Symmetric with and layers 4

Symmetric with and 8
and layers
Symmetric with two groups of 16
and two groups of
and layers
Symmetric with one layer of 4
and one layer of
Symmetric with 12
and
layers

Laminate Coordinate System:
The coordinate systems for global and principal material directions for laminae are same as given
earlier. Here, we introduce the coordinates in the thickness direction to get the z coordinate of the
top and bottom of each ply. For example, the bottom coordinate of the kth ply is and the top
coordinate of the ply is . Thus, the bottom coordinate of the first ply is and the top coordinate of top
ply is . The total thickness of the laminate is taken as 2H. Thus, the bottom most coordinate of the
laminate is H and top most coordinate is H. The lamina thickness coordinate notations are shown
in Figure 5.1(b).
Figure 5.1: (a) Stacking of laminae in a laminate and

(b) coordinate designation for laminate

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Lecture 16: Introduction to Classical Plate Theory8

Classical Laminate Theory:

The classical laminate theory is a direct extension of the classical plate theory for isotropic and
homogeneous material as proposed by Kirchhoff Love (see [1, 2] for details). However, the
extension of this theory to laminates requires some modifications to take into account the
inhomogeneity in thickness direction. In the following, the assumptions made in this theory along
with the assumptions made for classical plate theory are given.

Assumptions of Classical Lamination Theory:

1. The laminate consists of perfectly bonded layers. There is no slip between the adjacent
layers. In other words, it is equivalent to saying that the displacement components are
continuous through the thickness.
2. Each lamina is considered to be a homogeneous layer such that its effective properties are
known.
3. Each lamina is in a state of plane stress.
4. The individual lamina can be isotropic, orthotropic or transversely isotropic.
5. The laminate deforms according to the Kirchhoff - Love assumptions for bending and
stretching of thin plates (as assumed in classical plate theory). The assumptions are:
a. The normals to the mid-plane remain straight and normal to the midplane even after
deformation.
b. The normals to the mid-plane do not change their lengths.
The classical laminate theory is abbreviated as CLT. This theory is known as the classical laminated
plate theory and abbreviated as CLPT.


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Displacement Field:
The strain-displacement field is derived using two approaches. In the first approach the deformation

of the laminate according to the Kirchhoff - Love assumptions for bending and stretching is used.

The undeformed and deformed geometries of laminate are used to develop the displacement field. In

the second approach the transverse strain components resulting from the above assumptions are
used. Further, using mathematical definitions of these strain components the displacement field is
obtained. Thus, from this displacement field all strain components are obtained.

First Approach:

The Figure 5.2(a) shows the geometry of a laminate in undeformed configuration and Figure 5.2(b)
shows the deformed geometry according to Kirchhoff-Love assumptions in xz plane. Any generic
normal to the undeformed mid-plane remains normal to the deformed mid-plane. This assumption
results in zero transverse shear strains, that is, . However, due to stretching action the point of
intersection of midplane and a normal moves by a distance along x axis. Further, the same point
moves by distance in z direction due to bending action. The second assumption that the normal to
the mid-plane does not change in length requires that the transverse normal strain, that is, . This
holds true when the transverse deflection of any point in the laminate is independent of z location,
that is, it is a function of x and y only and a constant for a given x and y location. So, we can write
(5.1)
Now, from the figure it is easy to find the slope of the deformed mid-plane as
(5.2)
Since, the deformations in this theory considered are very small, we can write
(5.3)

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Figure 5.2: Laminate geometry (a) undeformed and (b) deformed
Now consider a generic point P on the mid-plane which is located at distance z from the mid-plane.
After deformation, the displacement of this point along x direction can be given from the Figure 5.2
as
(5.4)
Similarly, for the deformation in yz plane we can express the slope of the deformed mid-plane as .
Thus, the displacement of a generic point along y axis can be given as
(5.5)

Thus, the complete displacement field for a generic point in the laminate according to the classical
laminate theory is given below:
(5.6)
Note that the displacements , and correspond to the mid-plane. Hence,

they are called mid-plane displacements.
Second Approach:
The second assumption is that the length of the normal to the mid-plane does not change even after
deformation results into zero transverse normal strain. Thus,
(5.7)

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Thus, from this expression it is clear that is a function of and coordinates only. Thus, for any
given location we can write the transverse deflection component as
(5.8)
From the first assumption of the Kirchhoff-Love theory that the normals remain straight and normal
to mid-plane even after deformation, results into zero transverse shear strains. Thus,
.
Using the definitions of small strain, we can write the above equation as
(5.9)
From the first of the above equation we can write
Integrating this with respect to z, we get
(5.10)
where is a constant of integration which is function of x and y alone. Similarly, from the
second of Equation (5.9), we can get
(5.11)
Thus, Equations (5.8), (5.10) and (5.11) lead to the displacement field as in Equation (5.6).


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Strain Displacements Relations:

The strain displacement relations for infinitesimal strains using the displacement field as in Equation

(5.6) can be given as

(5.12)

The above equation can be written as
(5.13)
where are the midplane strains and
represents the midplane curvatures.
The terms and are the bending moment curvatures and is the twisting moment
curvature.
Note: It is clear from Equation (5.6) and Equation (5.13) that the midplane strains and the
curvatures are independent of z location.
Note: From Equation (5.13), we see that the strains are continuous through the thickness of
laminate and they vary linearly.
State of Stress in a Laminate:
The stresses at any location can be calculated from the strains and lamina constitutive relations. It is
assumed that the lamina properties are known. Hence, the constitutive equation for a kth lamina is
known, that is, the reduced stiffness matrices (in principal material directions and global directions)
are known. Thus, the stresses in k th lamina can be given as
(5.14)

Now, using Equation (5.13), we can write the stresses as
(5.15)

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In these equations, the strains are given at a z location where the stresses are required. It should be
noted that the strains are continuous and vary linearly through the thickness. If we look at the stress
distribution through the thickness it is clear that the stresses are not continuous through the
thickness, because the stiffness is different for different laminae in thickness direction. In a lamina
the stress varies linearly. The slope of this variation in a lamina depends upon its moduli. However,
at the interface of two adjacent laminae there is a discontinuity in the stresses. The same thing is
depicted in Figure 5.3 with three layers.
Figure 5.3: Elucidation of stress discontinuity at lamina interfaces in a laminate
Note: The reduced transformed stiffness matrix fork th lamina used in Equation (5.15) is the
same as in the chapter on Planar Constitutive Equations. There we considered the state of stress as
planar and the transverse normal strain was not zero. However, in this laminate theory we have
plane stress assumption as well as all transverse strains are zero (plane strain conditions as well).
Thus, we have an anomaly of transverse normal strains in using Equation (5.14). However, we will
use this reduced transformed stiffness for a lamina. Inspite of this anomaly, the laminate theory
works well (within its own scope). A detailed study on this issue can be seen in literature. However,
this issue is out of scope of this course and will not be dealt with here.


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Inplane Resultant Forces:

The inplane forces per unit length are defined as

(5.16)

Or these can be written as

(5.17)

Now, using Equation (5.15) we can write
(5.18)
Now recall that the midplane strains and the curvatures are independent of z
location. The reduced transformed stiffness matrix is function of thickness and constant over a
given lamina thickness. Now we can replace the integration over the laminate thickness as sum of
the integrations over individual lamina thicknesses. Thus, Equation (5.18) can be written as
(5.19)
Here, is the total number of layers in the laminate. This equation can be written as
(5.20)
where
(5.21)

The matrix represents the in-plane stiffness, that is, it relates the in-plane forces with mid-plane
strains and the matrix represents the bending stiffness coupling, that is, it relates the in-plane
forces with mid-plane curvatures.
It should be noted that the matrices and are symmetric as the matrix is also symmetric
for each lamina in the laminate.
The resultant in-plane forces are shown in Figure 5.4.

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Figure 5.4: In plane resultant forces per unit length on a laminate

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Resultant Moments:

The resultant moments per unit length are defined as

(5.22)

Or these can be written as

(5.23)

Now, using Equation (5.15) we can write,
(5.24)
Now, with the same justification as given for Equation (5.19), we can write the above equation as
(5.25)
This can be written as
(5.26)
where
(5.27)

The matrix represents the bending stiffness, that is, it relates resultant moments with mid-plane
curvatures. Again, the matrix is also symmetric. Further, it is important to note that the matrix
relates the resultant moments with mid-plane curvatures as well.

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Figure 5.5: Resultant moments per unit length on a laminate

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Homework:
1. Write the key points in the designation of laminate sequence.

2. What are the assumptions in the classical laminate theory?

3. What are the assumptions in the classical laminate theory?

4. Why the stresses at the interface of two laminae are different according to the classical plate
theory?

5. Derive the expressions for resultant inplane forces and bending moments for laminate

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References:

G Kirchhoff. ber das Gleichgewicht und die Bewegung einer elastischen Scheibe", J.

Reine und Angewante Mathematik (Crelle). 1850, Vol. 40, pp. 51-88.

AEH Love. A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 2nd Edition, Cambridge

1998.

BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman. Analysis and Performance of Fibre Composites, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. New York, 1980.

AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials, CRC Press Boca Raton, New York, 1997

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Lecture 17: Laminate Constitutive Relations


Laminate Constitutive Relations

Classification of Laminates

Cross-Ply Laminates

Specially Orthotropic Laminates

Examples
Homework
References

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Lecture 17: Laminate Constitutive Relations 128_5_128_5

Introduction:

In the previous lecture we have introduced the laminate theory. In this lecture we are going to
develop laminate constitute equations for classical laminate theory. In the previous lecture we have
introduced the in-plane stress resultants and resultant moments. These resultant quantities will be
related to mid-plane strains and curvatures. Further, we will introduce classification of laminates.

Laminate Constitutive Relations:

Using Equations (5.18) and (5.24) we can write a combined equation as

(5.28)
This equation is the fundamental equation in classical laminate theory and is known as constitutive
equation. This equation can be written in expanded form as
(5.29)
It should be noted that the matrices A, B and D are symmetric. Hence, the matrix in above equation
is also a symmetric matrix. The inverse constitutive relations of Equation (5.28) can be written as
(5.30)

The matrix is obtained by using individual relations for and as follows. We write
for and as
(5.31)
From the first of the above equation we can write
(5.32)
Putting this in second of Equation (5.31) we get
(5.33)

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We define

(5.34)

We make a note that and we can write

Using the above definitions, Equation (5.32) and Equation (5.33) can be written together as
(5.35)
The above equation is called as partially inverted constitutive equation for laminate. From the second
of the above equation we write
(5.36)
Putting this in Equation (5.35) we can get for as
(5.37)
Let us define
(5.38)
Combining Equations (5.37) and (5.36) and using the definitions in Equation (5.38), we can write

(5.39)
This equation is the fully inverted form of laminate constitutive equation. Using Equation (5.34) in
Equation (5.38) we can write the above equation in terms of A, B and D matrices as
(5.40)

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From this equation it is easy to deduce that
(5.41)
The full matrix is symmetric. This also follows from the fact that this is an inverse of a
symmetric matrix, that is , and the inverse of a symmetric matrix is also a symmetric matrix.
Equation (5.28) and Equation (5.39) are very important equations in laminate analysis. These
equations relate the mid-plane strains and curvatures with resultant in-plane forces and moments
and vice versa.


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Classification of Laminates:

In this section we are going to classify the laminates depending upon the stacking sequence nature.
This classification is very helpful in the laminate analysis as some of the coupling terms become zero
under specific laminate sequence and their arrangement with respect to the midplane.

Symmetric Laminates:

A laminate is called symmetric when the material, angle and thickness of the layers are the same above
and below the mid-plane. For example laminate is shown in Figure 5.6(a).
For symmetric laminates the matrix B is zero. This can be proved as follows:
Consider two layers r and s which have the same material, angle and thickness and are located
symmetrically with respect to the mid-plane as shown in Figure 5.7. For these layers we can write the
relation about the reduced stiffness matrix entries as
(5.28)
Figure 5.6: Classification of laminates examples (a) Symmetric laminate (b)

Cross-ply laminate (c) Angle-ply laminate (d) Anti-symmetric laminate and (e)

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Balanced laminate
The symmetry of location of these layers results in the following relation
(5.43)
For these two layers, the contribution of to B matrix of the laminate is
(5.44)
which upon substituting Equations (5.42) and (5.43) becomes
(5.45)
From this derivation it is very clear that the contribution of any pair of symmetric layers to B matrix is
always zero. Thus, the B matrix is zero for symmetric laminates. However, one can show that the
matrices A and D are not zero for symmetric laminates.

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Figure 5.7: Coordinates for a pair of symmetric

layers
The constitutive equation for symmetric laminates (with ) becomes
(5.46)
The inverse constitutive relations can be given as
(5.47)
This equation is consistent with Equation (5.39) through Equation (5.40). Setting in
Equation (5.40), we get
(5.48)
Thus, we can write Equation (5.39) or Equation (5.47) as
(5.49)
Note: For symmetric laminates B matrix is zero. It means that there is no coupling between
extension and bending action. Thus, the applied stresses will produce only in-plane and shear
strains and it will not produce any curvatures. Thus, it is easy to understand that the mid-plane
strains will be the strains in each ply.
Note : For symmetric laminates, the A and D matrices can be given as

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(5.50)
For symmetric laminates, the uncoupling between extension and bending makes the analysis of
laminates simpler. This is very useful because during thermal cooling down in the processing of such
laminates there will not be any twisting due thermal loads.

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Cross-Ply Laminates:

A laminate is called cross-ply laminate if all the plies used to fabricate the laminate are only and

For example is shown in Figure 5.6 (b).

For a cross ply laminate the terms . This is because
these terms involve the terms and which have the products of mn terms. This product is
zero for any cross-ply. Thus, the terms and are identically zero for each ply.

Note: For a cross-ply following relations hold true. The readers should verify these relations from
earlier lectures on planar constitutive relations.
(5.51)
Angle-Ply Laminates:
A laminate is called angle-ply laminate if it has plies of the same thickness and material and are
oriented at and . For example is shown in Figure 5.6(c).
For angle-ply laminates the terms are zero. This can be justified by that fact that
and have the term mn. Due to this term and have opposite signs for layers with
and fibre orientation. Since the thicknesses and materials of these layers are same, by the
definition the terms are zero for the laminate.
Note: For angle-ply laminates the following relations are very useful in computing and .

(5.52)
Anti-symmetric Laminates:
A laminate is called anti-symmetric when the material and thickness of the plies are same above and
below the mid-plane but the orientation of the plies at same distance above and below the mid-plane
have opposite signs. For example, is shown in Figure 5.6(d).
For anti-symmetric laminates the terms . The proof is left to the
readers as an exercise.
Balanced Laminates:
A laminate is called balanced laminate when it has pairs of plies with same thickness and material
and the angles of plies are and . However, the balanced laminate can also have layers

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oriented at and . For this laminate also are zero. It should be noted that angle-ply
laminates are balanced laminates. For example, is shown in Figure
5.6(e).


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Specially Orthotropic Laminates:

The laminates for which the terms are zero are called specially orthotropic laminates. It
is clear that such laminates do not show coupling between in-plane extensional and shear
responses.

Note that the cross-ply, angle-ply and anti-symmetric laminates are specially orthotropic laminates.

These laminates by their design have . For cross-ply laminates, the terms and

are identically zero. Hence, there is no restriction on the lamina thickness for cross-ply laminate
to be a specially orthotropic laminate. However, for an angle ply and anti-symmetric laminates the
thicknesses of a pair of and laminate should be same.

Other specially orthotropic laminates includes the combination of cross-ply and angle ply laminates .
For example,
Quasi-Isotropic Laminates:
A laminate is called quasi-isotropic when its extensional stiffness matrix behaves like an isotropic
material. This requires that , and . Further, this
extensional stiffness matrix is independent of orientation of layers in laminate. This requires a
laminate with equal thickness layers and N equal angles between adjacent fibre orientations.
The N equal angles, between the fibre orientations in this case can be given as
(5.53)

The quasi-isotropic laminate with this construction for N=3, 4 and 6 will have fibre orientations as
shown in Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Fibre orientations in a typical quasi-isotropic laminates
It should be noted that the isotropy in these laminates is in-plane only. The matrices B and D may
not behave like an isotropic material. Hence, such laminates are quasi-isotropic in nature.

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Some examples of quasi-isotropic laminate are: , .


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Examples:

Calculate , and for following laminate sequences.

Note: In all following examples, each lamina has a thickness of 1 mm and material is AS4/3501-6

Epoxy from Soden et al [4].

Example 5.1: Cross-ply laminate with two layers

Solution: The matrix for this material is calculated as

Now, matrix for and is calculated as
Equation (5.51) can be used for calculation.

For this laminate, ,as shown in Figure 5.9(a). The entries of ,
and are calculated as:
that is,
which gives

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and
which gives,

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Example 5.2: Cross-ply laminate with three layers

Solution: , and will be the same as in Example 5.1. For this laminate
as shown in Figure 5.9(b). The entries of , and

are calculated as:

that is,
Now we calculate
That results in .
Note: is a symmetric laminate. Hence, can be directly written without any

calculations.
Thus,

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Figure 5.9: Example problems (a) Example 5.1 laminate (b) Example
5.2 laminate
Figure 5.10: Example problems (a) Example 5.3 laminate (b) Example
5.4 laminate

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Example 5.3: Angle-ply symmetric laminate .

Solution: The coordinates for this laminate are shown in Figure 5.10 (a). For this laminate
. is the same as in Example 5.1. Now, for and

is calculated below.

Thus,
Since the laminate is symmetric, .
Putting the values of and , we get
Note: In this example, the middle two layers of 1 mm thickness can be treated as one layer of
layer with 2 mm thickness. The A, B and D matrices should be the same. The readers are suggested
to check this.
Example 5.4: Angle-ply anti-symmetric laminate
Solution: The coordinates for this laminate is shown in Figure 5.10(b). Here,
. is the same as in Example 5.1. for and

are the same as in Example 5.3.
is the same as in Example 5.3.

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This gives,
Now we calculate matrix D as
Putting and gives

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Example 5.5: laminate

Solution: This is a general laminate and does not follow in any category of classification. Hence,
we can call it as an unsymmteric laminate. Further, in this laminate there are two layers of and 3
layers of fibre orientation. Since, thickness of each layer is 1 mm, we can consider this laminate

as one layer of fibre orientation with thickness of 2 mm and one layer of fibre orientation
with thickness of 3 mm. This is shown in Figure 5.11.

Here, . and are the same as in earlier

examples.
A matrix is calculated as
This gives us
Matrix B is calculated as
Thus,
Now matrix D is calculated as

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which gives,
Figure 5.11: Example problem 5.5, (a) Actual laminate (b) Equivalent laminate

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Example 5.6: Find the partially and fully inverted form of laminate constitutive equation for laminate in
Example 5.5.

Solution:
First we find as

is calculated as
is given as
is calculated as
Thus,
Now, the partially inverted constitutive equation for laminate can be written as

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Now we will obtain the fully inverted laminate constitutive equation.

Thus, the fully inverted laminate constitutive equation can be written as

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Example 5.7: Consider Example 5.3. Let this laminate be subjected to the forces
, and . Calculate global strains and
stresses in each ply.

Solution: The laminate in this example is a symmetric laminate. Hence, B matrix is zero. It means
that there is no coupling between extension and bending actions. Thus, the applied stresses will
produce only in-plane and shear strains and it will not produce any curvatures. Thus, it is easy to
understand that the mid-plane strains will be the strains in each ply.

We can find the mid-plane strains as follows:

This gives
Thus,
The strains are same in all layers. However, the stresses in each layer will be different as their
stiffnesses are different.
Stresses in layer are
And stresses in layer are
Now, let us find the strains and stresses in principal material directions as well for these laminae.

Let us transform the strains in layer as

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Similarly, the strains in layer in principal directions are
Now, stresses in principal directions in layer are
And stresses in principal material directions for layer are

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Homework:

1. Write laminate constitutive equation and obtain its partially and fully inverted form.

2. What are the types of laminate?

3. Differentiate between symmetric and unsymmteric laminates.

4. What is an unsymmteric and antisymmetric laminate? Are they the same?
5. For antisymmetric laminates show that the terms are zero.
6. Show that for a symmetric laminate there is no coupling between extension and bending
responses.
7. Classify the following laminates
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
8. Write an example for following laminates:
a. Antisymmetric laminate
b. Cross-ply
c. Cross-ply symmetric
d. Angle ply symmetric

e. Balanced angle ply
f. Quasi-isotropic

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g. Specially orthotropic
9. For the composite material T300/5208, calculate the and for the following
laminates. The thickness of each lamina is 0.1 mm.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
10. For the above laminate sequences calculate the compliance relation (for midplane strains and
curvatures). Develop a computer code for this.
11. Using the code developed in exercise (10), verify the solutions given for Example 5.6 and
Example 5.7.
12. Show that the T300/5208 laminate is a quasi-isotropic laminate. Is it an isotropic

laminate?

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References:

1998.


AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials, CRC Press Boca Raton, New York, 1997.


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Lecture 18: Laminate Engineering Constants


Laminate Engineering Constants

In-plane Laminate Engineering Constants

Flexural Engineering Constants of a Laminate

Examples

Homework

References

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Introduction:

In the previous lecture, we have introduced the laminate constitutive equation and classification of
laminates. Further, we have seen the partially and fully inverted form of the constitutive equations. In
this lecture we are going to see the laminate engineering constants and some numerical examples
based on this.

Laminate Engineering Constants:

In this section we will develop the laminate engineering constants, similar to lamina engineering
constants as we have done earlier. Here, we will consider only symmetric laminates as the
extension-bending coupling is absent. We have constitutive equation from Equation. (5.28) as
For the symmetric laminate with , we get
From the first of the above equation, we can write
(5.54)
Let us define the laminate average stress as
(5.55)
Using Equation (5.54), we get

(5.56)
The strains can be given by inverting the above equation as
(5.57)
Let us define, as laminate compliance. Thus,
(5.58)

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The expanded form of above equation is written as
(5.59)

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In-plane Laminate Engineering Constants:

Now we express the laminate engineering constants with the help of thought experiments as follows.

Effective in-plane longitudinal modulus :

The state of stress applied is

and (5.60)

For this state of stress, we get the relation as
(5.61)
Let us define effective in-plane longitudinal modulus as
(5.62)
Using Equation (5.61) we get
(5.63)
Effective in-plane Poissons ratio :
Let us define the effective in-plane Poissons ratio as
(5.64)
For the state of stress in Equation (5.60) we have
(5.65)
From Equation (5.61) and Equation (5.65), we can write for Equation (5.64) as
(5.66)

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Coefficient of mutual influence of first kind :

Let us define the coefficient of mutual influence for the loading in Equation (5.60) as

(5.67)

For the loading of Equation (5.60) we have

(5.68)
Thus
(5.69)
Effective in-plane transverse modulus :
The state of stress applied is
and (5.70)
For this state of stress, we get the relation as

(5.71)
Let us define the effective in-plane transverse modulus as
(5.72)
This can be written as using the second of Equation (5.71) as
(5.73)

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Effective in-plane Poissons ratio :
Let us define this Poissons ratio as follows

(5.74)

Using the first and second of Equation (5.71) we can write

(5.75)

Coefficient of mutual influence of first kind :
Let us define the coefficient of mutual influence for the loading in Equation (5.70) as
(5.76)
For the second and third of Equation (5.71) we have
(5.77)
In-plane effective shear modulus :
Let the loading on laminate be
and (5.78)

Thus, for this loading we can write from Equation. (5.59) as
(5.79)
Let us define the inplane effective shear modulus for laminate as
(5.80)
With the use of Equation (5.79), we can write

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(5.81)

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Coefficient of mutual influence of second kind and :

Let us define these coefficients as follows

(5.82)

Using Equation (5.79), these coefficients are given as
(5.83)
Reciprocal relationship for Poissons ratios:
We have reciprocal relations for lamina. Similarly, we can have reciprocal relations for laminate as
well.
From Equation (5.63) and Equation (5.66), we can write
(5.84)
Similarly, from Equation (5.73) and Equation (5.75), we can write
(5.85)
Thus, combining Equation (5.83) and Equation (5.84), we get the required reciprocal relation for
laminate as
(5.86)

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Flexural Engineering Constants of a Laminate:

For a symmetric laminate, we have . Hence, from the second of Eq. (5.28) we write

(5.87)

Let us define the laminate average moments as

The inverse of this equation is written as
Writing this in expanded form
(5.88)
Now the applied resultant moments be
(5.89)
Effective Flexural Longitudinal Youngs Modulus :
Let us define the effective flexural Youngs modulus as
(5.90)
Thus, using Equation (5.87) and Equation (5.88),
(5.91)

Flexural Poissons Ratio :
Let us define flexural Poissons ratio as

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(5.92)
Thus, from Equation (5. 87) and Equation (5.88),
(5.93)
In a similar way, one can show that the other flexural moduli can be given by following relations.
(5.94)
Further, it can be shown that the reciprocal relation also holds true for flexural Poissons ratios as
(5.95)

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Examples:

Note: In the following examples, each lamina has a thickness of 1 mm and material is AS4/3501-6


Example 5.8 :For the laminate in Example 5.2 (that is, ), find the effective in-plane and

flexural laminate engineering constants.

Solution: This is a symmetric matrix. Hence, . A and D matrices are given as:

Now we have
Thus, we can find the in-plane laminate engineering constants as

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Now,
Now, we calculate the flexural engineering constants as

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Homework:

1. Derive the effective in-plane engineering constants for a laminate.

2. Derive the effective flexural engineering constants for a laminate.

3. For the composite material T300/5208, calculate the effective in-plane and engineering

constants for the ollowing laminates. The thickness of each lamina is 1 mm.

a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

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References:


1998.



Science and Technology, 1998, Vol. 58, pp. 1011-1022.

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Lecture 19: Hygro -thermal Laminate Theory

Introduction:

In this lecture we are going to develop the laminate theory with thermal and hygral effects. Then we
will develop the relations for effective coefficients of thermal and hygral expansion for laminate.
Further, we will develop governing differential equation for laminate. We will conclude this lecture with
some sample numerical examples based on this.


Laminate Theory with Thermal Effects

Laminate Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Laminate Theory with Hygral Effects
Laminate Coefficients of Hygral Expansion
Hygro-thermal Effects on Laminate
Governing Differential Equations for Classical Laminate Theory

Examples
Homework
References

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Laminate Theory with Thermal Effects:

In the classical laminate theory we make the assumption that the total strain is superposition of
mechanical strain and thermal strains. Thus,

(5.96)

where, is the thermal strain in laminate. We can write the stresses in global direction for

laminate as

Thus, using Equation (5.95) in above equation, we get
(5.97)
Now we find the resultant in-plane forces as
Recalling the development of classical laminate theory with the use of Equation (5.21), we write
(5.98)
Let us define
(5.99)
as the effective laminate thermal forces per unit length. Thus, with this definition we can write
Equation (5.97) as
(5.100)

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Now let us define the resultant moments using Equation (5.96) as
With the use of Equation (5.21) and Equation (5.27), we write
(5.101)
Let us define
(5.102)
as the effective laminate thermal moments per unit length. Thus, with this definition we can write
Equation (5.101) as
(5.103)
Combining Equation (5.99) and Equation (5.102), we write
(5.104)
(5.105)

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Laminate Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The derivation of laminate coefficients of thermal expansion is dealt here for symmetric laminates.
This is because there is no extension-bending coupling due to the fact that for symmetric laminates
.
Let us derive the expression for the coefficient of thermal expansion for laminate. Let us define the
coefficient of thermal expansion for laminate, , as the laminate mid-plane strain, , to the

per unit uniform change in temperature, . Thus,

(5.106)
Now for symmetric laminates with pure thermal loading, we have
(5.107)
Combining Equation (5.105) and Equation (5.106), we get
(5.108)
For a uniform temperature change the equivalent thermal force is given as
(5.109)
Thus, the laminate coefficient of thermal expansion becomes
(5.110)
It is known that the and are constant in each lamina in thickness direction. Thus, the
integration over thickness can be simplified as the summation over laminae thicknesses as
(5.111)
where, is the thickness of kth lamina.
Figure 5.12 shows the variation of for laminate along with of layer for for
AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material from Soden et al [4]. Similarly, Figure 5.13 and Figure 5.14 show the
variation of and .
From these figures it is seen that these coefficients vary from positive to negative values. Further, it

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is observed that the coefficient of thermal expansion depends upon stacking sequence. This fact is
very important from laminate designing point of view where it is used in an environment with large
thermal gradient. One can choose a laminate sequence for which a coefficient of thermal expansion
is zero.
From Equation (5.109) and Equation (5.110) for a uniform temperature change, the equivalent
thermal force is written as
(5.112)
Figure 5.12: Variation of for lamina and of for laminate

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Laminate Theory with Hygral Effects:

In this study, the total strain is assumed to be superimposition of mechanical and hygral strains.

(5.113)

where, is the hygral strain in laminate. The stress in global direction is given as

(5.114)
The resultant in-plane forces are given as
(5.115)
where,
(5.116)
is defined as the resultant in-plane forces per unit length due to hygral strains.
In a similar way, we can give the resultant moments as
(5.117)

where,
(5.118)
is defined as resultant moments per unit length due to hygral strains. Combining Equation (5.116)
and Equation (5.118), we write
(5.119)
(5.120)

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Laminate Coefficients of Hygral Expansion

Here we derive the laminate coefficients hygral expansion, , for symmetric laminates. Let us
define the coefficient of hygral expansion for laminate as laminate mid-plane strains to the per
percentage change in moisture absorption, . Thus,

(5.121)

For symmetric laminates with hygral loads alone, we can write

(5.122)
Combining Equation (5.121) and Equation (5.122), we get
(5.123)
For a uniform moisture absorption the equivalent hygral force is given as
(5.124)
Thus, the laminate coefficient of hygral expansion becomes
(5.125)
It is known that the and are constant in each lamina in thickness direction. Thus, the
integration over thickness can be simplified as summation over laminae thicknesses as
(5.126)
Combining Equation (5.124) and Equation (5.125) we can get the effective hygral force as
(5.127)
Figure 5.15 shows the variation of for laminate along with of a layer of for
T300/5208 material from Pipes et al [5]. Similarly, Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.16 show the variation of
and .

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Hygro-thermal Effects on Laminate:
When thermal as well as hygral strains are present in total strain, then

(5.128)

The resultant in-plane forces are given as

(5.129)

and the resultant moments are given as
(5.130)
Equation (5.115) and (5.116) are combined as

(5.131)
(5.132)

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Governing Differential Equations for Classical Laminate Theory

The equilibrium equations for a laminate are

(5.133)

In the laminate, in general, we consider that the transverse shear stresses are vanishing at the top
and bottom of the laminate, that is at and . Now, integrate
Equation (5.133) with respect to z. The first two of the above equation give us
(5.134)
The third of the Equation (5.133) gives
(5.135)
where,
and
Now, multiply the first of Equation (5.133) with z and integrate with respect to z to get
(5.136)
Now, let us write
Now recalling that at and we can write for the third term in Equation
(5.136) as
and

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(5.137)
Similarly, we can write
(5.138)
Now putting Equation (5.137) and Equation (5.138) in Equation (5.135) we get
(5.139)
Note that this equation is identical with the homogeneous plate theory. However, in these equations
the definition of the resultants is different.
One can express the moment resultants in terms of A, B and D matrices and the derivatives of mid-
plane displacements as given below.
Equation (5.137) can be written as
(5.140)
Equation (5.138) becomes
(5.141)
And Equation (5.139) becomes
(5.142)

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Examples:

Note: In the following examples, each lamina has a thickness of 1 mm and material is AS4/3501-6

Example 5.9:For the laminate in Example 5.2 (that is, ), calculate the laminate
coefficients of thermal expansions.

Solution: This is a symmetric matrix. Hence, . A matrix is given as:

Now we have
Now we calculate effective thermal forces for fictitious thermal change of .
which gives,
The laminate coefficients of thermal expansion are calculated as

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Example 5.10:For the laminate in Example 5.3 (that is, ), calculate the laminate coefficients of
thermal expansions.


And

Now we calculate effective thermal forces for fictitious thermal change of . In the thermal force
calculation we have assumed that the middle two layers are combined to form one layer of 2 mm
thickness.
which gives,
The laminate coefficients of thermal expansion are calculated as

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Example 5.11: Material properties for T300/5208 material are given here [Error! Reference source not
found.]. Calculate the laminate coefficients of hygral expansion for laminate with each layer of 1
mm thickness.
And
Now we calculate effective thermal forces for fictitious hygral change of . In the hygral force
calculation we have assumed that the middle two layers are combined to form one layer of 2 mm
thickness

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which gives,
The laminate coefficients of hygral expansion are calculated as

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Example 5.12: The laminate in Example 5.1 is subjected to a thermal gradient of .
Calculate the thermal residual stress at the top of the laminate.

Solution: The matrix for this material is calculated as

Now, matrix for and is calculated as

The coefficients of thermal expansion in global directions for and layers are
and
And the A, B and D matrices are calculated as
The thermal forces are

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Now we calculate the thermal moments as
We can write for the thermal forces and moments as
which becomes,
Solving for the mid-plane strains and curvatures

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The total strains at the top of the laminate, that is, at in lamina is
We calculate the mechanical strains by subtracting the thermal strains from total strains.
Now the thermal strain in top lamina is
Thus, the mechanical strains become
And the stresses at the top of the laminate are given as

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Homework:

1. Derive the resultant in-plane forces and moments for a laminate with thermal effects.

2. Derive the resultant in-plane forces and moments for a laminate with hygral effects.

3. Derive an expression for laminate coefficient of thermal expansion under the uniform
temperature condition.

4. Derive an expression for laminate coefficient of hygral expansion under the condition of
uniform moisture absorption.
5. Derive the expressions for resultant in-plane forces and moments for a laminate with hygro-
thermal effects.
6. Derive the governing differential equations for classical laminate theory.
7. Calculate the laminate coefficients of thermal expansion for the following laminates of
AS4/3501-6 Epoxy from Soden et al [4]. Take thickness of each layer as 1 mm.
a.
b.
c.
d.
8. Calculate the thermal residual stresses for a temperature change of at the top and
bottom of the following laminates of AS4/3501-6 Epoxy. (Write a computer code for this
problem. Repeat the Example 5.12).
a.
b.
9. Calculate the laminate coefficients of hygral expansion for laminate sequences in exercise
example 7 with T300/5208 material as in Example 5.11. Take thickness of each layer as 1
mm.

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References:


1998.





systems. Journal of Composite Materials, 1976, Vol. 10, pp. 129-148.

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Module 6: Failure and Damage

Lecture 20: Damage Mechanisms in Unidirectional Composites

Introduction
In this module we will be dealing with failure in unidirectional fibrous composites. We will look at the

meaning of failure and damage in context of composites. We will be addressing the commonly used

lamina/laminate failure theories used in the design of laminated composites. Further, we will address
the difficulties envisaged in the development or extension of the theories for homogeneous, isotropic
materials to heterogeneous and orthotropic composite laminates. We will deal with the popularly used
failure theories in detail along with some numerical examples.

In the present module we will deal with failure and damage in context of unidirectional fibrous
laminated composites.
Failure and Damage
Defects in Composites
Damage Mechanisms in Fibrous Composites
Micro-level Damage Mechanisms

Matrix Level Damage Mechanisms
Coupled Fibre-Matrix Level Mechanisms
Macrolevel Failure Mechanism
Coupled Micro-Macrolevel Failure Mechanisms
Homework
References

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Failure and Damage

Failure of a structure or a system, in general, refers to the condition that the structure or system
stops functioning satisfactorily. The criteria to decide the satisfactory functioning can be subjective or
quantitative. In general, in engineering applications the failure is quantified using various criteria. The
following are some of the criteria used to quantify a failure:

1. Strength

2. Form failure

3. Stiffness
4. Yielding
5. Fatigue life
6. Bending
7. Corrosion resistance
8. Impact resistance
9. Resistance to lightening
10. Resistance to hazardous environmental agents
However, the list is in-exhaustive with many such criteria. In general, failure is understood as
complete de-functioning of the structure.
In case of composites, the failure of a lamina or laminate needs special attention. In case of
laminates there are a number of local failures before it completely breaks into two or more pieces.

The local level failure is called as damage. In case of fibrous composites the term local refers to
the individual constituent phases fibre and matrix. Thus, damage in case of fibrous composites is a
micro level event.
It is important to note that the ultimate failure (rupture/breaking) of the laminate takes place by
gradual accumulation of damage. In turn, this is manifested at the lamina or laminate level by some
form of failure. Thus, the first failure in laminates does not mean the final failure. The
development of additional local failures with increasing loads or time is termed as damage
accumulation. The terms damage growth and damage propagation are equivalently used for
damage accumulation. The branch of mechanics which deals with the study of initiation and
accumulation of damage until and including complete rupture is called as damage mechanics.
In this lecture we are going to see the fibre-matrix level failure mechanisms in detail. The failure at
lamina/laminate or macro-level is the ultimate result of the local failures. Thus, the understanding of
these mechanisms is a key point in the development of a reliable and accurate failure theory for
laminated composites. Further, this understanding also helps in developing new materials with higher
strength.


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Defects in Composites

The following are the types of defects that generally occur in a composite:

1) Fibre-matrix debonding 8) Matrix cracking and crazing

9) Density variation (due to resin
2) Fibre misalignment
distribution)

3) Cut or broken fibres 10) Improper curing of resin

4) Delamination 11) Impact damage (tool drop)

5) Inclusions 12) Abrasion and scratches
6) Voids and blisters 13) Machining problems
7) Wrinkles
Sources of Defects and Damages in Composite:
There are two main sources which can introduce defects and/or damage in a composite. These two
sources are:
1. Fabrication or processing defects and
2. In-field or service defects
The defects in these two categories are listed below.
1) Fabrication or Processing Defects:
The defects that can occur during fabrication or processing are listed below:
1. Abrasions, scratches, dents and punctures
2. Cut fibres
3. Knots and kinks in fibres
4. Improper splicing (joining) of layers
5. Voids (due to poor processing, high humidity)
6. Inferior quality of the materials used
7. Improper curing of resin
8. Resin rich or resin lean areas due to improper distribution of resin

9. Inclusions and contamination
10. Mandrel removal problem

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11. Machining problems
12. Improper tooling
13. Tool drop causing low energy impact which results in impact damage
2) In-field or Service Defects:
The defects that can occur during in-field or service are listed below:
1. Shock
2. Environmental cycle of temperature and humidity
3. Exposure to hazardous chemicals
4. Exposure to radiations
5. Bacterial degradation
6. Vibrations
7. Improper handling and storage
8. Tool drop
9. Abrasions, dents and punctures
10. Corrosion
11. Erosion due to sand and dust
12. Improper maintenance or repair

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Damage Mechanisms in Fibrous Composites:

The damage mechanisms in a fibrous composite are broadly categorized as:

1. Micro-level damage mechanisms

2. Macro-level damage mechanisms and

3. Coupled micro-macro-level damage mechanisms

The local level mechanisms are further subcategorized based on constituent level as

i. Fibre level damage mechanisms
ii. Matrix level damage mechanisms and
iii. Coupled fibre-matrix level damage mechanisms
A. Micro-level Damage Mechanisms:
First, we will look at the micro-level mechanisms in detail as follows:
a) Fibre Level Damage Mechanisms:

The fibre failure mode is considered to be the most catastrophic mode of failure in laminates. This is
because the fibre is the load carrying constituent. The failure of fibres can take place due to various
stress components. The damage mechanisms for fibre are explained below in detail.
1) Fibre Fracture/Breaking:
The fibre breaks into two or more pieces along its length when the axial tensile stress (or strain) in
the fibre exceeds the axial strength (or maximum allowable strain) of the fibre. This kind of fracture
occurs in brittle fibres. Such fractures are more catastrophic in nature than other modes of fibre
failure.
The fibre fracture may also take place in shearing when the shear stress or strain exceeds the
maximum allowable stress or strain.
The fibre fracture is depicted in Figure 6.1(a).
2) Fibre Buckling or Kinking:
This type of failure occurs when the axial load on the fibre is compressive in nature. The axial
compressive stress causes the fibre to buckle. This form of fibre failure is also called as fibre kinking.
The critical stress at which the kinking takes place is function of material properties of fibre and
matrix properties and the distribution of fibres in the matrix. In general, the fibre kinking first starts at
the site of fibre misalignment or local defects.
It is seen that the kinking of fibres takes place in a sharply defined region. This region is called as
kink band. In general, the kink band is oriented at an angle with respect to fibre direction.
This mechanism is one of the key failure mechanisms for laminates under compression. This failure
mechanism triggers the other failure mechanisms leading to a complex and inter-related

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mechanisms.
The fibre kinking is depicted in Figure 6.1(b).
3) Fibre Bending:
The bending of fibre can take place under flexural load. The bending of fibres also depends upon the
properties of fibre and matrix along with the fibre arrangement.
The fibre bending is shown in Figure 6.1(c).
4) Fibre Splitting:
The fibre fails in this mode when the transverse or hoop stresses in the fibre exceeds the maximum
allowable value. Further, this can also happen when these stresses in the interface/interphase region
(region in matrix very close to the fibre) exceed the maximum allowable stress. The fibre splitting is
elucidated in Figure 6.1(d).
5) Fibre Radial Cracking:
The hoop stresses can also cause the radial cracking of the fibre. This type of cracking is seen in
some of the fibres. The radial cracking of a fibre is shown in Figure 6.1(e).


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b) Matrix Level Damage Mechanisms:

There are two main damage mechanisms in matrix. These are: Matrix cracking and fibre interfacial
debonding. These are explained below.

1) Matrix Cracking:

When the stress in the matrix exceeds the strength of the matrix, matrix cracks are developed. There
are two types of matrix cracks that are developed in a unidirectional lamina. The cracks are either
perpendicular or parallel to the fibre direction. In the first type, the cracks are developed when axial
stress in the lamina is tensile in nature. In the second type, the cracks are developed when the in-
plane transverse stress in the lamina is tensile in nature.
It is generally seen that the matrix cracks develop along the preferred directions in unidirectional
lamina. The matrix cracks which are parallel to the fibre direction cause significant modulus
degradation whereas the matrix cracks which are perpendicular to the fibre direction cause less
degradation in modulus. The first mode of damage is very critical as one of them causes significant
degradation. The second mode can go undetected sometimes. This is very dangerous from safety
point of view. For example, for gas pipes leakage is an important criterion. If such damage is not
detectable, it can lead to a catastrophe. This damage is shown in Figure 6.2(a), (b).
2) Fibre Interfacial Cracking:
When the in-plane transverse stresses in matrix are tensile in nature, the weaker interface between
fibre and matrix is broken. A crack in the matrix region at this location is initiated. This crack grows
along the fibre length. This leads to the debonding of the interphase between fibre and matrix. This
mode of damage is also called transverse fibre debonding. This damage is shown in Figure
6.2(c).

Figure 6.1: Fibre-level damage mechanisms


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c) Coupled Fibre-Matrix Level Mechanisms :

1) Fibre Pullout:

The fibre pullout takes place when the bonding between fibre and matrix is weakened and the fibres
are subjected to tensile stresses. If the fibres are already broken then the fibres just slide through
the matrix and come out of it. This phenomenon is called fibre pullout.

The fibre pullout is shown in Figure 6.3(a).

2) Fibre Breakage and Interfacial Debonding:
When the fibres break the interface close to the tip of broken fibre, acts as a site of stress
concentration. The interface may then fail, leading to debonding of the fibre from matrix.
The fibre breakage leading to interfacial debonding is shown in Figure 6.3(b).
3) Transverse Matrix Cracking:
The interface failure causing debonding (as in fibre breaking and interfacial debonding in above
case) from the matrix may act like as a stress concentration site for the in-plane transverse tensile
stress. When this stress exceeds the limiting stress in matrix, it leads to through thickness transverse
crack in the matrix.
The through thickness transverse matrix cracking is shown in Figure 6.3(c).
4) Fibre Failure due to Matrix Cracking:
The matrix cracks formed (as in matrix cracking case above) may terminate at fibre interface at low
strains, while, at high strains, the stress at the crack tip may exceed the fracture stress of the fibres,
leading fibre failure.
The fibre failure due to matrix cracking is depicted in Figure 6.3(d).
5) Interfacial Shear Failure:
The fibre fracture or fibre failure due to matrix cracking may cause the matrix crack to propagate as
macro-crack under opening mode until it hits an interface. The shear stresses may cause its
propagation in sliding mode leading to a progressive failure of the interface.
The interfacial shear failure is shown in Figure 6.3(e).

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Figure 6.2: Matrix-level damage mechanisms
Figure 6.3: Fibre-matrix coupled failure mechanisms

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B. Macro-level Failure Mechanism:

The macro-level mechanisms are laminate level mechanisms. Here, we are addressing the
delamination. It is seen that the adjacent layers are bonded together by a thin layer of resin between
them. This interface layer transfers the displacement and force from one layer to another layer. When
this interface layer weakens or damages completely, it causes the adjacent layers to separate. This
mode of failure is called delamination. It is shown in Figure 6.4.

Delamination reduces the strength and stiffness and thus limits the life of a structure. Further, it
causes stress concentration in load bearing plies and a local instability leading to a further growth of
delamination which results in a compressive failure of the laminate. In these two cases delamination
leads to a redistribution of structural load paths which, in turn, precipitates structural failure. Hence,
delamination indirectly affects the final failure of the structure thus affecting its life. Therefore,
delamination is known as the most prevalent life limiting damage growth mode.
Figure 6.4: Macro-level damage mechanism (Delamination)
Causes of Delamination:
Delamination can occur due to variety of reasons. The situations which can lead to delamination
initiation and its growth are explained below.
a) Manufacturing Defects
This is the most common reason for existence of delaminations in a laminate. Improper laying of
laminae, insufficient curing temperature; pressure and duration of curing, air pockets and inclusions
are some of the reasons which lead the manufacturing defects causing delamination.
b) Loading Generating Transverse Stresses
The interface is weaker in transverse strength as compared to the layers. Hence, its failure is
dominated by the transverse stresses. The interface generally fails under tensile load applied normal
to it (see Figure 6.5(a)). Also, the delamination can take place due to compressive stresses in its
inplane direction causing buckling, which in turn, causes delamination.
The inplane loads applied to angle ply laminate can cause delamination in it. This is because the
bending-stretching coupling can give rise to transverse stresses in the interface. A schematic
illustration of how axial tensile loading of angle ply laminates cause rotation of the plies is shown in
Figure 6.5(b). This rotation of the plies generates the interlaminar shear stresses, which is one of the
crucial factors in delamination.

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Note: The Inter-laminar stresses are the stresses in the interface between two adjacent layers. The
existence to these stresses is shown in various references. Further, these stresses can be very high
locally depending upon various situations. We will also see the existence of these stresses in a later
chapter.
c) Laminate Geometry
The geometry of the laminate can lead to a three dimensional state of stress locally in the interface
leading to high interlaminar stresses. Some of the geometries of the laminate and structures are
shown below in which delamination damage will be a major damage mode.
i. Free Edge:
The free edges of the laminate have very high transverse normal and shear
stresses. It is shown that significant interlaminar stresses are induced in regions near the
laminate free edges. Interlaminar stresses near the free edges can be controlled to an extent
through the choice of materials, fibre orientations, stacking sequence, layer thickness and the
use of functionally graded materials. However, when free edges are present, interlaminar
stresses can be completely eliminated through the use of a homogeneous material, locally.

The delamination shown in Figure 6.4, infact, is an edge delamination.
ii. Notch:
Notch in the laminates acts like an external crack giving rise to high three dimensional stress
state in the vicinity of the notch (See Figure 6.5(c)).
iii. Cut-out:
Cutouts are inevitable in structures. Cutouts are made to pass electric wires; fluid passage as
in the wings, doors and windows in the fuselage of an air vehicle. These are, especially in
aerospace vehicles, made also to reduce the weight of the component. The cutout boundaries
act like free edges leading to significant transverse stresses. This is one of the most common
site for onset of delamination. A laminate with cutout is shown in Figure 6.5(d).
iv. Ply Drop/Termination:

The optimum design of composite structures in air vehicles is important. As a result of the
optimization (e.g. weight minimization) process or sometimes purely due to geometric
requirements/constraints, one or more of the plies have to be terminated (also known as ply
drop) inside the laminate. The region of ply termination acts like a region of high stresses for
neighbouring laminae which can be a reason for delamination of the plies adjacent to the ply
drop region. A ply drop in laminate is shown in Figure 6.5(e).
v. Bonded Joints:
Sometimes laminates are bonded together using resin. Improper bonding leads to weaker
joints. When such weak joints are subjected to serve loading conditions delamination can
occur. A bonded joint in composite is shown in Figure 6.5(f).
vi. Bolted Joints:

Sometimes it is required to attach the composite structures to metallic structures. In such
situations, bolted joints are imperative. The free edges of the cutout made in composite and
additional load applied by tightening of the joint leads to a complex local state of stress. When
these composite structures are T or L sections carrying additional loads, the situation is the
worst. In such a situation delamination starts at cutout edges or at the curved edges of the T

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or L sections. A L-bolted joint is shown in Figure 6.5(g).
vii. Doublers:
These are needed due to geometric or functional requirements in the structures. In this case a
laminate is split into two or more set of laminae (or vice a versa). Thus, at the bifurcation
laminae (or where the laminae join together to form laminate) give rise to high stresses. These
locations are potential zones for delamination initiation. Typical doublers are shown in Figure
6.5(h).
Suppression of Delamination:
Several possible design changes are suggested for delaying/suppressing the onset and growth of
delamination.
The primary cause of delamination is the low interlaminar fracture toughness. This is due to brittle
nature of most resins (epoxy) used as matrix material, which have low mode I fracture toughness.
The suggested models for improving this property are:
a. Adding thermoplastics, interleafing soft and hard layers, increasing length of cross-links
b. Adding second phase materials to matrix like rubber; chopped fibre, fibrils, etc.
c. Through thickness reinforcement by 3D braiding or stitching

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C) Coupled Micro-Macrolevel Failure Mechanisms:

The transverse matrix cracking of a lamina as shown in Figure 6.3(c) is an important failure
mechanism. The through thickness transverse crack may propagate to neighbouring lamina causing
it to break.

There can be another scenario that this crack terminates at the neighboring interface. This crack
front act as a stress concentration site for interface between the adjacent layer causing it to weaken,
thus initiating a delamination crack in the interface. This delamination growth can lead to failure of
the laminate. This is depicted in Figure 6.6(a).

A third scenario is also possible in which the transverse through thickness crack leads to interface
crack in adjacent layer causing partial delamination. This delamination may cause a transverse crack
in the next layer. Then this crack initiates a interfacial debonding of that layer and so on causing the
failure of laminate.
The coupling between the transverse cracking of lamina and delamination is depicted in Figure
6.6(b).
Thus, the transverse cracking of lamina and delamination are strongly coupled.
Figure 6.5: Situations conducive for delamination

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Figure 6.6: Coupled micro-macro damage mechanisms

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Home Work:

1. What is meant by failure and damage?
2. Why is the study of damage mechanisms and their mechanics important for fibrous

composites?

3. What are the defects in a composite?

4. What are the sources of defects in a laminated composite?

5. What are the damage mechanisms in a fibrous laminated composite?
6. What are the causes of delamination?
7. What are the remedies to suppress the delamination?

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References:

Sierakowski RL, Newaz GM. Damage Tolerance in Advanced Composites, Technomic

Publishing Co. Inc., Lancaster, 1998.

Garg AC. Delamination - a damage mode in composite structures. Engineering Fracture

Mechanics, 1998; Vol 29(5), pp. 557-584.

Mechanics of Composite Materials. Selected Works of Nicholas J Pagano. Reddy JN,
Editor. Solid Mechanics and its Applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
1994.
Talreja R. Damage development in composites: Mechanisms and modeling. Journal of

Strain Analysis for Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 215-222.
Damage Mechanics of Composite Materials, Composite Materials Series, 9. Ed. R.

Talreja, Elsevier New York, 1994.

Beaumont PWR. The failure of fibre composites: An overview. Journal of Strain
Analysis for Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 189-205.
Herakovich CT. Edge effects and delamination failures. Journal of Strain Analysis for
Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 245-252.

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Lecture 21: Macroscopic Failure Theories


Macroscopic Failure Theories

Maximum Stress Theory

Maximum Strain Theory

Tsai-Hill Theory

Examples

Homework
References

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Introduction

In this lecture we will first present the issues or difficulties in failure theories for composite as
compared to the homogeneous and isotropic materials. Then we will introduce some failure theories
for unidirectional composites. We will conclude this lecture with some numerical examples.

Many theories are available for predicting failure of composites. These theories predict the failure of
a lamina or laminate. Hence, these theories are called lamina failure or laminate failure theories.

Further, these theories predict the very first failure in a lamina. Hence, these theories are popularly

known as first-ply failure theories.

The macroscopic theories presented here are the early theories. From a designer point of view, any
theory should be applicable at lamina, laminate as well as at component level. The aims of these
theories were to give reasonably accurate prediction of failure as compared to experimental results
and ease of implementation for analysis and design. Hence, some of theories were based on
physical basis. Some of them were just extensions of theories for homogeneous; isotropic materials
to composite materials. While most of the theories provided mere mathematical expressions such
that it gave a best fit of the available experimental data.

All together, these theories are not good enough to predict the failure at all levels (like constituent,
lamina and laminate). Further, none of them can be used for a general loading and any composite
material as most of them were loadings and materials specific. At present, a significant progress has
been made to address most of these issues.
Issues in Failure Theories for Unidirectional Composites:
The failure theories for unidirectional composites have some difficulties when they are extended from
homogeneous, isotropic materials. In the following, we list some of the issues related to composite
failure theories.
1. The composites are heterogeneous and orthotropic in nature. Hence, the effective properties
in three directions need to be found.
2. The unidirectional laminae are orthotropic in nature. Hence, the strength parameters (like
ultimate stress or strain) in three directions will be different.

3. In a given direction, the strength parameters will be different in tension and compression.
4. The strengths in normal direction and in shear directions are different.
5. For off axis laminae, the shear strength is different in positive and negative directions. If one
is using the global coordinate system to decide the shear failure, then the positive and
negative shear should be considered carefully. However, in principal material directions the
positive and negative shear has no effect on shear strength.
6. The strength parameters are generally obtained experimentally in principal directions. Hence,
the stresses or strains used in the failure theories should also be in principal directions. Thus,
the transformation of stresses or strains from global coordinate system to principal material
direction in each lamina is imperative.

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7. Most of the theories do not give the mode of failure (like fibre breaking, matrix cracking, etc.).
It just mentions that the lamina has failed. Further, they do not give propagation of damages
until final failure.
8. The link between damage and first-ply failure is difficult to establish for failure theories.
Note: (We refer to point 6 in the above.) One should not transform the strength parameters from
principal coordinate system to global coordinate system to use it in a failure theory. This
transformation from principal to global direction is not known. The strengths should be obtained by
experiments on off-axis laminae.


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Macroscopic Failure Theories:

In the following we will present some of the popular macroscopic failure theories used in design and
analysis of composites.

In these theories we will use following quantities and symbols.

1. X denotes the ultimate normal stress magnitude in fibre direction (1-direction).

2. Y denotes the ultimate normal stress magnitude in in-plane transverse direction (2-direction).

3. Z denotes the ultimate normal stress magnitude in transverse direction (3-direction)
4. Subscript T and C denote tension and compression, respectively.
5. Q, R and S denote the ultimate shear stresses corresponding to 23, 13 and 12 planes.
We will see some definitions related to failure theories.
Strength Ratio (SR):
It is defined as the ratio of maximum load which can be applied such that a lamina does not fail to
the actual load applied. Thus,
(6.1)
This concept can be extended to any failure theory. The strength ratio gives the factor by which the
actual applied load can be increased or decreased upto a lamina failure. For example, if , it
means that the lamina is safe and load applied can be increased by this factor and if , it
means that the lamina is unsafe and the load applied must be decreased by this factor. It is
needless to say that when the condition corresponds to failure load.
Failure Envelope:
The failure envelope is a surface formed by various combinations of normal and shear stresses (or
strains) that can be applied to a lamina just before it fails. Thus, any state of stress (or strain) which
lies inside the envelope is safe whereas the one which lies on or outside the envelope is unsafe.
1. Maximum Stress Theory:

This theory is a direct extension of maximum normal stress theory proposed by Rankiene [1] and
maximum stress theory proposed by Tresca [2] for homogeneous, isotropic materials. In this theory
the three normal and three shear stress components are compared with corresponding ultimate
stresses. A given normal stress is compared with corresponding positive and negative, that is tensile
and compressive ultimate stresses. The magnitude of shear stress is compared with corresponding
ultimate shear stress.


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Thus, the maximum stress theory results in the following expression for the safe condition.

For normal stresses,
(6.2)
For shear stresses,
OR (6.3)
Thus, according to this theory initiation of failure will correspond to one or more inequalities in
Equations (6.2) and (6.3) become an equality. The maximum stress theory can be represented as
intersecting planes in 3D stress space or intersecting lines in 2D stress space.


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The stress space is shown as intersecting planes in Figure 6.7. The region inside this
space is regarded as safe, whereas any point on or outside the intersecting planes will be an unsafe
or a failure point. A safe state of stress with normal stresses alone is shown inside the envelope.
A fully 3D state of stress will represent an envelope or surface in six dimensional stress space.

The maximum stress theory for planar state of stress is given for normal stresses as

(6.4)

and for shear stress as
(6.5)
Now, consider that an off axis lamina is subjected to an axial stress of . Then, we can write the
maximum stress theory for the planar state of stress for off axis lamina as follows.

Recalling the stress transformation for planar state of stress, we write the stress components in
principal material directions as
(6.6)
Thus, the maximum stress theory for off-axis lamina loaded axially can be written as
Figure 6.7: Failure envelope for normal stress space with an example safe
stress state inside the envelope

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(6.7)

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2. Maximum Strain Theory:

Maximum strain theory is equivalent to maximum stress theory. This theory is based on maximum
normal strain theory of St. Venant and the strain equivalent of maximum shear stress theory of
Tresca for isotropic materials.

According to this theory, a lamina fails if either of the normal strain exceeds the maximum allowable
strain in tension or compression or any of the shear strain exceeds the maximum allowable shear
strain. The inequalities resulting are:

For normal strains,
(6.8)
For shear stresses,
OR (6.9)
where, and are the ultimate normal strains in tension and compression,
respectively. Further, are ultimate shear strains in 23, 13, 12 planes, respectively.
Thus, according to this theory initiation of failure will correspond to one or more inequalities in
Equations (6.8) and (6.9) become equality.

The maximum strain theory for planar stress can be expressed as
(6.10)
and for shear strain as
(6.11)
The strains can be obtained from constitutive equation for strains in terms stresses as

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(6.12)
These equations can be put in Equation (6.10) and Equation. (6.11). Further, for axial stress applied
we can write the stresses in principal directions as in Equation (6.6).
Note: The maximum stress and maximum strain theories are similar. In both theories there is no
interaction between various components of stress or strain. However, the two theories yield different
results.


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3. Tsai-Hill Theory:

This theory is an extension of distortional energy yield criterion of von-Mises [3] for isotropic materials
as applied to anisotropic materials. It is known that total strain energy in a body is composed of two
parts: One is distortion energy which cause change in shape and second one is dilation energy which
causes the change in size or volume. In the von-Mises criterion it is assumed that the material fails
when the maximum distortion energy of the body exceeds the distortion energy corresponding to
yielding of the same material in tension.

Hill [4] extended the von-Mises distortion energy criterion of isotropic materials to anisotropic
materials. Later Tsai [5, 6] extended this criterion for anisotropic materials to a unidirectional lamina.
Hence, the theory is called Tsai-Hill theory.

According to this theory the failure takes place when the stress state is such that
(6.13)
which upon simplifications can be written as
(6.14)
where, F, G, H, L, M and N are the material strength parameters. Thus, any state of stress which lies
inside this envelope is safe and the one which lies on or outside the envelope is unsafe.
The strength parameters correspond to failure stresses in one dimensional loading. These can be
obtained by a set of thought experiments. For example, consider that for the pure shear loading in 2-
3 plane, that is with , with corresponding shear strength Q and all other stress
components are zero, the Equation (6.14) becomes
(6.15)
Similarly, for the other two shear stress components, we can get
(6.16)
Now the strength parameters F, G and H are obtained by three states of stress. The state of stress
with corresponding strength X and all other stress components being zero, in Equation (6.14)
leads to
(6.17)
Now the conditions and (and other stress components being zero) in Equation (6.14)
result in

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(6.18)
solving the simultaneous equations in Equation (6.17) and Equation (6.18), we get the required
strength parameters as
(6.19)
(6.20)
This is Tsai-Hill theory for 3D state of stress. Note that this is quadratic in stress terms with no linear
terms.


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Now consider a transversely isotropic material with inplane stresses as the significant stresses. For
this planar state of stress, we have and remaining stress components are non
zero. In this case the failure envelope becomes a three dimensional space. Thus, the failure
condition in Equation (6.14) becomes

(6.21)

Now, using the strength parameters from Equation (6.17), Equation (6.18) and Equation (6.19), we
get

(6.22)
For transverse isotropy, we also have . Thus, the above equation is rearranged as
(6.23)
The above equation gives the Tsai-Hill criterion for failure for planar state of stress. From Tsai-Hill
theory it is clear that it does not differentiate between tension and compression strengths for normal
stresses. Infact, Tsai-Hill theory assumes same strengths in tension and compression. However, this
situation does not occur in case of shear stresses. Thus, for normal stresses the theory represents a
severe limitation that the sign of the normal stresses should be known a priori and the appropriate
strength value should be used for normal stresses in the failure theory.

It should be noted that unlike maximum stress theory or maximum strain theory Tsai-Hill theory
considers the interaction between three lamina strength parameters or interaction between stress
components.

Further, it should be noted that Tsai-Hill theory is a unified theory and does not give the mode of
failure like the maximum stress and maximum strain theory. However, one can make a guess of
failure mode by calculating the quantities , and . The maximum of these three values can be
said to give the mode of failure.
Note: The right hand side of Equation (6.20) or (6.23) is called as failure index.


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Examples

In the following examples the strength parameters for various composites used are given (properties
from Soden et al [9]). In these examples AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material is used.

Table 6.1: Strength parameters for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy [9]

Composite MPa MPa MPa MPa S MPa

AS4/3501-6 Epoxy 1950 1480 48 200 79

T300/BSL914C Epoxy 1500 900 27 200 80
E-glass 21xK43 Gevetex/

1140 570 35 114 72
LY556/HT907/DY063 Epoxy
Silenka E-glass 1200tex/

1280 800 40 145 73
MY750/HY917/DY063 Epoxy
Table 6.2: Ultimate strains for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy [9]
% % % % %
Composite
AS4/3501-6 Epoxy 1.38 1.175 0.436 2.0 2.0
T300/BSL914C Epoxy 1.087 0.652 0.245 1.818 4.0
E-glass 21xK43 Gevetex/

2.132 1.065 0.197 0.644 3.8
LY556/HT907/DY063 Epoxy
Silenka E-glass 1200tex/

2.807 1.754 0.246 1.2 4.0
MY750/HY917/DY063 Epoxy
Example 6.1: A ply of fibre orientation is in the planar state of stress. The strains are
. Check that whether lamina will fail if a) maximum stress theory
b) maximum strain theory and c) Tsai-Hill theory is used.
Solution:

The strains given in global direction need to be transformed in principal directions. The state of strain
and stress given here is planar. Hence, we need to use the planar transformations. For ,
we have
and

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First, we find the strains and stresses in principal material directions as:
Maximum Stress Theory:

From stresses we see that , and . Hence, according to this theory the
lamina fails as has exceeded .
Maximum Strain Theory:

From the strains in principal direction we see that , and . Thus,
according to this theory the strain component has exceeded the limiting value . Hence, this
lamina fails according to this theory.
Tsai-Hill Theory:
For planar stress the Tsai-Hill theory is
Now we have to check whether left hand side exceeds unity or not. Here, the normal stresses are
positive (tensile) hence we use tensile strength parameters in respective mode.
Putting the values of stresses and strength parameters
The failure index is more than unity. Hence, according to this theory lamina will fail. Further, it can
be seen that the contribution to failure index due to is significant compared to other terms. Hence,
the major mode of failure is tension in 2-direction of lamina.


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Example 6.2: Find the maximum value of if a state of stress of
and is applied to the lamina using a) maximum stress theory b) maximum strain
theory and c) Tsai-Hill theory.

Solution:

The strain transformation matrix and reduced stiffness matrix are as given above. The stress
transformation matrix is given as

The stresses in principal direction are
The strains in principal direction are
Maximum Stress Theory:
Using the inequalities for this theory, we have
Thus, we see that for will cause failure as will exceed the limiting value.

Maximum Strain Theory:
Using the inequalities for this theory, we get
Thus, we see that for will cause failure as will exceed the limiting value in tension.
Tsai-Hill Theory:


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The expression of failure envelope of this theory for planar stresses becomes
This gives . For this value of the lamina fails by Tsai-Hill theory.

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Home Work:

1. What are issues in failure theories for composites as compared to theories for homogeneous
and isotropic materials?

2. Explain in detail the following failure theories.

a. Maximum stress theory

b. Maximum strain theory

c. Tsai-Hill theory
3. What are the differences between maximum stress (or strain) and Tsai-Hill theory?
4. The strains are acting on ply. Check weather this ply

of AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material will fail or not using a) Maximum stress b) maximum strain and
c) Tsai-Hill theory.
5. For ply the state of stress acting on it is . Find the value of

for which this ply of AS4/3501-6 Epoxy material will fail by a) Maximum stress b) maximum
strain and c) Tsai-Hill theory.

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References:

Rankine WJM. On the stability of loose earth. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal

Society of London, 1857; 147(I), pp. 9-27.

Tresca H. Mmoire sur l'coulement des corps solides soumis de fortes pressions.
C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 1864; 59, pp. 754-758.

von Mises R. Mechanik der festen Krper im plastisch deformablen Zustand. Gttin.
Nachr. Math. Phys., 1913; 1, pp. 582592.

Hill R. The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford U.P., Oxford, 1950.
Tsai SW. Strength Theories of Filamentary Structures, in Schwartz RT and Schwartz

HS, Eds., Fundamental Aspects of Fibre Reinforced Plastic Composites, Chapter 1,
Interscience, New York, 1968.
Azzi VD, Tsai SW. Anisotropic strength of composites, Experimental Mechanics, 1965;
5(9), pp. 283-288.
Tsai SW. A survey of macroscopic failure criteria for composite materials. Technical
Report, AFWAL-TR-84-4025.
Tsai SW. Strength characteristics of composite materials. NACA CR-224, 1965.

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Introduction

In the previous lecture we have seen maximum stress theory, maximum strain theory and Tsai-Hill
theory. The former two theories are similar but do not have interaction with other stress or strain
components. The Tsai-Hill theory is quadratic in stress and has interactive terms. In this lecture we
will see some more failure theories for composite. Then we will see some numerical examples.

The Lecture Contains

Hoffman Theory

Tensor Polynomial Failure Criterion
Examples
Homework
References

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4. Hoffman Theory

The Hoffman criterion [1] is extension of Tsai-Hill theory. In Tsai-Hill theory the strength parameters
are obtained without considering the difference in values in tension and compression. However, one
should realistically consider the differing tension and compression strengths that characterize brittle
behaviour. This can be done by adding odd functions of and in the expression of Tsai-Hill

criterion. Thus, Equation (6.13) becomes

(6.24)

where, are the material parameters. These are uniquely determined from nine basic
strength data, namely, three uniaxial tensile strengths, and ; three uniaxial compressive
strengths, and and three shear strength parameters, Q, R and S. To determine these
material strength parameters, we need to do thought experiments as follows:

First, consider the state of stress such that and all other stress components will be zero. For
shear failure in this mode, we need . Putting this in Equation (6.24), we get
(6.25)
Similarly, we get the constants
(6.26)
(6.27)
Now, to find remaining constants we apply following state of stress. Let and all other stress
components be zero. For tensile failure, we need for this stress state. Putting this in
Equation (6.24) we get
(6.28)
Similarly for this stress state, the compression failure requires . This results the Equation
(6.24) to give
(6.29)
Now, we have two stress states: First one as and all other stress components are zero and
the second one as and all other stress components are zero. Again, as in previous case for
failure in tension and compression, Equation (6.24) results into following conditions:

(6.30)

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Thus, Equations (6.28), (6.29) and (6.30) give a set of six simultaneous equations in
. Solving these, we get
(6.31)
and
(6.32)
Thus, the Hoffman criterion as given in Equation (6.24) becomes
(6.33)
Now consider transverse isotropy of the material in 2-3 plane. Thus, and . For
shear strength, we have . Then for plane stress condition , the criterion in
Equation. (6.33) becomes
(6.34)
Equation (6.34) represents Hoffman criterion for planar state of stress in transversely isotropic
materials. It should be noted that in this criterion there is no need to check the sign of the stress
components to decide whether a tensile or compressive strength is to be used.


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5. Tensor Polynomial Failure Criterion:

Tensor polynomial criterion attempts to mathematically overcome one of the shortcomings of the
quadratic criteria that they do not account for differences between tensile and compressive strengths.

In the present lecture we will see the second order tensor polynomial criterion proposed by Tsai and
Wu [2]. This is a complete quadratic tensor polynomial which includes the linear terms.

The failure surface in the stress space has the following scalar form:

(6.35)
where, and are strength tensors of the second and fourth order, respectively. The expanded
form of the above equation is
(6.36)
It should be noted that the linear term take into account the difference between tensile stress and
compressive stress induced failures. The quadratic terms define an ellipsoid in the stress
space.
The features of this theory are given below:
1. The resulting criterion is a scalar function and thus an invariant. Further, the interactions
between various components are independent unlike in Tsai-Hill theory where interactions are
fixed and in case of maximum stress or maximum strain theory these interactions are not
possible.
2. The strength components are expressed as tensors; one can use the transformation rules as
discussed earlier for their transformations. Further, the invariants of these strength tenors are
also well defined.
3. The property of symmetry of strength tenors and number of independent and non-zero
components can be derived in similar way that we carried out for anisotropic materials earlier.
4. One can either transform the strength parameters from to and to or transform
to . Most of the existing criteria are limited to specially orthotropic materials. Such criteria
can be applied only by transforming the external stresses to material axes. However, the
transformations of strength criteria cannot be done as this transformation is not known.

5. Since Equation (6.36) is an invariant, hence, an invariant for any other coordinate system.
This also holds for curvilinear coordinate system as well.

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6. The theory has also introduced constraints over the magnitude of the strength interaction
terms in the following manner :
(6.37)
The terms represent diagonal terms and are positive terms, whereas the off-diagonal
terms can be positive or negative depending upon their interaction with other terms. However,
their magnitudes are constrained by Equation (6.37). Further, the inequality in Equation (6.37)
is very important as it assures the failure envelope in Equation (6.35) intersects all stress
axes. The surface formed by Equation (6.35) is an ellipsoid and Equation (6.37) ensures that
it is a closed surface unlike a hyperboloid. It should be noted that the positive definiteness is
also imposed for terms.
7. Goldenbalt and Kopnov [3] proposed a tensorial criterion in a general form of
(6.38)
This form of the equation is more complicated than in Equation (6.35). Further, the size of the
strength terms is enormously very high to handle and the additional terms do not yield more
generality than the linear and quadratic terms.
Note: Statement 4 above equivalently says that the Tsai-Wu strength criterion can be given in
transformed coordinate system. The transformed criterion may be given as
(6.39)
And the strength terms can be transformed using the following relations
(6.40)
However, the transformation of any other strength criteria may not hold true.


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Now we will seek simplifications to Equation (6.36) as follows. The strength tensors can be written in
the form

(6.41)

and

(6.42)
where, both strength tensors are assumed to be symmetric with 6 and 21 independent constants for
and , respectively.

The number of independent strength parameters can be further reduced if we have some form of
material symmetry. We consider a special case of specially orthotropic material. Thus, for specially
orthotropic material the terms and will vanish. Further, the off-diagonal terms which give
normal shear coupling like , etc. will also become zero if we assume that the sign of
shear stress does not change the failure stress. Further, with same reasoning we assume that the
shear strengths are also uncoupled leading to . Thus, with this material
symmetry, we have
and
The number of independent strength parameters are now 3 and 9 for and , respectively. Thus,
for orthotropic material the criterion becomes
(6.43)
Now we will determine the strength parameters by thought experiments. First, we apply and
other stress components being zero. For this state of stress, the failure in tension requires .
(6.44)
Similarly, for this state of stress, the failure in compression requires . This results in
Equation (6.43) to become

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(6.45)
Equation (6.44) and Equation (6.45) are two simultaneous equations with and as two
unknowns.
Solution of these two equations gives
(6.46)

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Likewise, if we apply stress states as and with other stresses being zero, it will give
us the following constants:

(6.47)

(6.48)

Similarly, if we apply , , and with other stress components as zero, as three
separate states of stress, then we get following constants:

(6.49)
So far we have developed expressions for 3 strength terms for and diagonal terms of . Now
the expressions for off-diagonal terms of require combined state of stress to be applied. The
pure axial or shear state of stress will not be sufficient. In other criteria the interaction terms like
are assumed to be dependent or terms like are zero.

There are an infinite combinations of the stresses from which these terms can be obtained. However,
one should choose those combinations which can yield the desired result in a reliable and easy
manner. In the following, we will see typical combinations of stresses to find .
Consider the equivi-biaxial stress state and other stress components are zero. Putting
this in Equation (6.43), we get

(6.50)

Solving for , we get

(6.51)
Similarly, if we apply equivi-biaxial stress states in 1-3 and 2-3 planes, then we get the following
constants:

(6.52)

(6.53)

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We can find the constants and by imposing the equivi-biaxial state of stress. However,
practically it is very difficult to impose such a state of stress. Hence, many researchers have
proposed tests on angle specimens to determine these strength parameters.


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Consider the stress state

(6.54)

and other stresses are zero. Here, is the axial tensile strength of specimen. The stress state

in Equation (6.54) is obtained by applying in axial direction for specimen. One should be able
to get the state of stress in Equation (6.54) from our earlier stress transformation equations. Putting
Equation (6.54) in Equation (6.43), we get

(6.55)
which upon solving for gives

(6.56)
A similar expression can be derived with compressive strength of specimen. One can further find
this constant using the in-plane shear strength of specimen, which produces the stress state
as

(6.57)
This reduces Equation (6.43) to

(6.58)
The solution from this equation is

(6.59)
Note: In case of anisotropic materials the constant

is no longer zero. This can be obtained by a
tension-torque test such that it results in following stress state

(6.60)
Using this in Equation (6.43), we get

(6.61)

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which gives

(6.62)
The Tsai-Wu criterion for planar state of stress can be given as

(6.63)
The strength parameters are as given above. If the strength term then, the criterion
becomes

(6.64)

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Examples

Example 6.3: For the data in Example 6.1, find whether lamina will fail if a) Hoffman and b) Tsai-

Wu theory is used.
Solution: The strain transformation and are as given in Example 6.1.

Hoffman Theory:

For planar stress the Hoffman theory is

Using the strength parameters and stresses we get
Thus, the failure index is greater than unity. Hence, according to this theory, for the given state of
strain/stress the lamina fails.
Tsai-Wu Theory:
Using the stresses and strength parameters, for planar stress state the Tsai-Wu theory with term
is given as
The strength parameters are calculated as

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Thus, putting the stress values, we get
Since, the value of failure index by Tsai-Wu theory is greater than unity, the lamina will fail.


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Example 6.4: For the data in Example 6.2, find the maximum value of if a) Hoffman and b) Tsai-
Wu theory is used.

Solution:

Hoffman Theory:

For planar stress the Hoffman theory is rearranged as

Using the stresses and strength parameters,
Thus, we get
Solving this quadratic equation for we get .

Tsai-Wu Theory:
For planar stress state the Tsai-Wu theory with term is given as
The strength parameters are as given in Example 6.3. Putting the stresses, we get
Solving this for , we get .


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Home Work:

1. Explain in detail the following failure theories.
a. Hoffman Theory

b. Tsai-Wu Theory

2. What is the difference between Tsai-Hill and Hoffman theory?

3. What are the key features of the Tsai-Wu theory?

4. What are the different methods to find the strength parameter in Tsai-Wu theory?
5. Explain the methods to find the strength parameter in Tsai-Wu theory.
6. A ply of AS4/3506-1 material with fibre orientation is in the planar state of stress. The
strains are . Check that whether lamina will fail if a)
Hoffman theory b) Tsai-Wu theory is used.
7. Find the maximum value of if a state of stress of and

is applied to the lamina of AS4/3506-1 material using a) Hoffman theory b)
Tsai-Wu theory.

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References:

Hoffman O. The brittle strength of orthotropic materials. Journal of Composite

Materials, 1967; 1, pp. 200-206.

Tsai SW, Wu EM. A general theory of strength for anisotropic materials. Journal of
Composite Materials. 1971; 5(1), pp. 58-80.

Goldenbat II, Kopnov VA. Strength of glass-reinforced plastics in complex stress state.
Mekhanika Polimerov , 1965; 1, pp. 70; English translation: Polymer Mechanics, 1966; 1,
pp. 54, Faraday Press.
Reddy JN, Pandey AK. A first-ply failure analysis of composite laminates. Computers
And Structures, 1987; 25(3), pp. 371-393.
Reddy JN, Miravete A. Practical Analysis of Composite Laminates. Computational

Mechanics and Applied Analysis, CRC Press, 1995.

Science and Technology. 1998; 58, pp. 1011-1022.

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Introduction

We have seen in the previous lecture the improvements over Tsai-Hill theory by Hofftman theory.
Further, we have seen in detail a tensor polynomial theory proposed by Tsai and Wu. In this lecture
we will see the criteria proposed by Hashin [1] which give various modes of failure. Then we will see
how all mentioned theories or criteria can be expressed in terms of a tensor polynomial.

We will conclude this lecture with some numerical examples.

The Lecture Contains :

Hashin Criteria
Plane Stress Hashin Criteria
Various Criteria in Tensor Polynomial Form
Examples
Homework
References

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6. Hashin Criteria:

In the Tsai-Wu theory, the determination of constants like etc. requires a combined state of
stress. These tests are very complicated and expensive. Further, Tsai-Wu theory is mathematically a
smooth failure criterion which holds true for fibrous composite as well as an hexagonal crystal with

only difference in the values of coefficients. These two materials have same material symmetry.

However, their modes of failure are totally different.

In case of composites, the modes of failure can be fibre rupture in tension or buckling in
compression, matrix may fail in transverse tension or compression. The Tsai-Wu theory predicts the
ultimate failure very closely with experimental results, but the distinction between various modes of
failure is not possible.

In the following we will see the mode dependent criteria proposed by Hashin [1].
Tensile Fibre Mode:

If
(6.65)
Compressive Fibre Mode:

If
(6.66)
Tensile Matrix Mode:

If
(6.67)
Matrix Compressive Mode:

If
(6.68)

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Interlaminar Tensile Failure:

If
(6.69)
Interlaminar Compressive Failure:

If
(6.70)

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7) Plane Stress Hashin Criteria:

Hashin criteria in plane stress state is given below.

Tensile Fibre Mode:
If

(6.71)

Compressive Fibre Mode:
If
(6.72)
Tensile Matrix Mode:

If

(6.73)
Matrix Compressive Mode:

If
(6.74)

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Various Criteria in Tensor Polynomial Form:

In this section we express the criteria/theory we have seen in tensor polynomial form as expressed
by Equation (6.35).

1) Maximum Stress Theory:

The maximum stress theory can be given in tensor polynomial form as

(6.75)

Thus, the strength parameters corresponding to tensor polynomial criterion as in Equation (6.35) for
maximum stress theory are:
(6.76)

The remaining strength parameters are zero. In above equation the higher order terms are neglected.
2) Tsai-Hill Theory:

Comparing Equation (6.20) with Equation (6.35), we get

(6.77)
3) Hoffman Theory:

Comparing Equation (6.33) and Equation (6.35), we get

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(6.78)

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Examples:

Example 6.5: For the details in Example 6.1, check the modes of failure using Hashins criteria.

Example 6.6: For the details in Example 6.2, check the modes of failure using Hashins criteria.


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Home Work:

1. Explain Hashins criteria for three dimensional and planar state of stress.
2. Explain connection of various failure theories with respect to tensor polynomial criterion.

3. Verify the strength parameters of all the theories studied according tensor polynomial criterion.


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References:

Hashin Z. Failure criteria for unidirectional fibre composites, ASME Journal of Applied

Mechanics, 1980; 47(2), pp. 329-334..

Reddy JN, Pandey AK. A first-ply failure analysis of composite laminates. Computers
And Structures, 1987; 25(3), pp. 371-393.


Science and Technology. 1998; 58, pp. 1011-1022.

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Module 7: Micromechanics
Lecture 24: Strength of Materials Approach

Introduction
In the earlier lectures we have used the effective properties of the unidirectional layers in the

development of various lamina or laminate mechanics issues. However, we know that at microscale

the fibrous composites are heterogeneous. A composite is made of two main phases - fiber and
matrix. Further, we know that apart from these two phases, additional phase may be present in the
composite. These phases may be fillers, zones formed due to reaction between fibre and matrix and
the coatings applied to the fiber, if any. The properties of these constituents, their amounts present
and their distribution affect the effective properties of the composite.

It is now well understood that to determine the effective properties of a composite one needs to
consider the microscale, that is, the scale at which the fibre and matrix are present. Thus, the study
of composites at the fiber and matrix level is referred to as micromechanics.
In the present lecture we will present various methods to determine the effective hygro-thermo-
mechanical properties of the composite. It is assumed that the properties of constituents, their
arrangements and amounts are known a-priori.
Effective Elastic Constants
Idealization of Microstructure of Fibrous Composite
Volume and Mass Fractions, Density and Void Content
Mass Fractions
Density
Strength of Material Approximations
Effective Axial Modulus
Effective Axial (Major) Poison's Ratio
Effective Transverse Modulus
Homework
References

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Effective Elastic Constants:

The unidirectional lamina is interest of this course. The unidirectional lamina is orthotropic in nature.
We know from the 3D constitutive equations that an orthotropic material has 9 independent
constants. Further, for a transversely isotropic material there are 5 independent constants. The
average or effective constitutive equation for transversely isotropic material is given as below. The
transverse isotropy is in plane 2-3.

where , are the effective elastic constants of the equivalent homogeneous

material.
In this chapter, we are going to see the micromechanical methods to obtain the effective engineering
constants that define the above effective elastic constants of the equivalent homogeneous material.


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Idealization of Microstructure of Fibrous Composite:

As mentioned earlier, the micromechanics is a study at fibre and matrix level. Thus, the geometry of
arrangement of the fibres and matrix in a composite is an essential requirement to develop a model
for the study. Some of the methods do not use the geometry of arrangement. Most of the methods
developed for micromechanical analysis assume that:

1. The fibers and matrix are perfectly bonded and there is no slip between them.

2. The fibres are continuous and parallel.

3. The fibres are assumed to be circular in cross section with a uniform diameter along its
length.
4. The space between the fibres is uniform throughout the composite.
5. The elastic, thermal and hygral properties of fibre and matrix are known and uniform.
6. The fibres and matrix obey Hookes law.
7. The fibres and the matrix are only two phases in the composite.
8. There are no voids in the composite.
There are many ways to idealize the cross section of a lamina. In Figure 7.1 are shown two popular
idealizations. The most commonly preferred arrangements are square packed and hexagonal packed
arrays of fibres in matrix. The square and hexagonal packed arrays can be as shown in Figure
7.1(a), and (b), respectively.
In these idealizations it is seen that due to symmetry and periodicity of these arrays one can
consider only one array to analyze the lamina at micro scale. Further, if this one array represents the
general arrangement of fibres with respect to matrix and the interactions of fibre and matrix phases,
then such array is called Representative Volume Element (RVE). Further, this RVE as a volume of
material statistically represents a homogeneous material. In the analysis of an RVE the boundary
conditions are chosen such that they reflect the periodicity. Thus, the arrays shown in Figure 7.1 are
various RVEs. One should be able to see that the RVE also reflects the volume fractions. The term
RVE was first coined by Hill in 1963.
For example, the square RVE represents a lower fibre volume fraction than a hexagonal RVE. Note
that RVE is also called as Unit Cell.

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Figure 7.1: Idealization of cross section of a lamina


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Volume and Mass Fractions, Density and Void Content:

In the present section we are going to introduce some important concept of relative fraction of fibres
and matrix by volume and mass. This is very important from the point that the most of the
micromechanics based approaches use these fractions, along with the properties of individual
phases, to express the properties of the equivalent homogeneous material.

In the present case, the effective properties of a composite are obtained with the assumption that
the fibre is orthotropic or transversely isotropic and matrix is isotropic in behaviour. However, with
appropriate changes, fibre can also be considered to be isotropic. In the following, the subscripts or
superscripts and will denote fibre and matrix, respectively.
Volume Fractions:
As stated earlier, the fibre volume fraction is defined as the ratio of fibre volume to composite volume
and matrix volume fraction is defined as the ratio of matrix volume fraction to composite volume. Let,
be the volume occupied by fibres and matrix, respectively. Let, be the composite volume.
We know that,
(7.1)
Thus, from these two definitions of volume fractions, we can write
(7.2)
Thus, in notations
(7.3)
where, denotes the fibre volume fraction and denotes the matrix volume fraction. Note that
total volume and composite volume are used interchangeably.

Note: If the interphase is also present as a third phase then, Equation (7.2) is modified as
or
(7.4)
where, denotes the interphase volume fraction and denotes the interphase volume.

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In case, there are voids present in composite, then the above equation becomes as
or
(7.5)
where, denotes the void volume fraction and denotes the void volume. In the remaining,
we will consider that there are only two phases and Equation (7.3) is used.


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Mass Fractions:

Let and be the mass of fibres, matrix and composite, respectively. We know that

(7.6)

The mass fractions, similar to volume fractions, are defined as the ratio of mass of respective phase

to the mass of composite. Thus, we can write,

(7.7)
where, is fibre mass fraction and is matrix mass fraction. Now, let us write the mass of
each phase in terms of density and volume of respective phase as
(7.8)
where, and are the densities of fibre, matrix and composite, respectively. Now, mass
fractions can be written in terms of density and volume fractions as
(7.9)
This relation between mass and volume fractions is given in terms of individual constituent properties
(using Equations (7.6) and (7.8)) as
(7.10)
Thus, it is clear from the above equation that the volume and mass fractions are not the same. One
should always state the basis for calculating the fibre content in a composite.
Density:


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The density of composite is derived in terms of densities and volume fractions of the individual
phases as follows. The mass of composite is given by Equation (7.6). We can write this in terms of
respective volume fractions and densities (with rearrangement) as
(7.11)
This is written using the definition of volume fraction for fibre and matrix as
(7.12)
We will write the density of composite in terms of mass fraction from Equation (7.9) as
(7.13)

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Strength of Material Approximations:

In general, the laminates made are thin. Hence, for such laminates the analysis done using Kirchhoff
and plane stress assumptions is reasonably good. For such analysis, one needs the engineering
constants that occur in defining planar constitutive equations. These engineering constants are:

1. - the axial modulus

2. = - transverse modulus

3. - axial Poissons ratio (for loading in - direction)
4. - axial shear modulus (shear stress parallel to the fibers)
Further, it is seen that for transversely isotropic composite, four out of five (the fifth one is )
properties can be developed from this approach. For the planar hygro-thermal analysis of such
laminates, one can also obtain the in-plane coefficients of thermal expansions and and
hygroscopic expansion and as well.
It is important to note that this approach involves assumptions which do not necessarily satisfy the
requirements of an exact elasticity solution. In this approach the effective properties will be
expressed in terms of the elastic properties and volume fractions of the fiber and matrix. The lamina
is considered to be an alternate arrangement of fibres and matrix. The RVE chosen in these
derivations is shown in Figure 7.2. The RVE here does not take into account the cross sectional
arrangement of fibres and matrix, rather it represents volume of the material through the cross
sectional area of fibre and matrix.
Figure 7.2: (a) Unidirectional lamina, (b) RVE for unidirectional composite for
prediction of elastic properties
Let, and represent fibre area and matrix area, respectively. and represent fibre
and matrix widths, respectively. be the length of the RVE.

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Effective Axial Modulus :

The unit cell as shown in Figure 7.2 is used to compute the effective axial modulus . It should be
noted that the thickness of the unit cell is not important in this computation. Further, the cross

sectional shapes are not considered in this calculation. However, the cross sectional areas are

important in this calculation. The thicknesses of the fibre and matrix constituents are same in the unit

cell. Hence, the areas of the constituents represent the volume fractions of the constituents.

In the calculation of effective axial modulus, it is assumed that the axial strain in the composite is
uniform such that the axial strains in the fibers and matrix are identical. This assumption is justified
by the fact that the fibre and the matrix in the unit cell are perfectly bonded. Hence, the elongation in
the axial direction of the fibre and matrix will also be identical. Thus, the strains in the fibre and
matrix can be given as
(7.14)
where, is the axial strain in the composite and and are the axial strains in fibre and
matrix, respectively. Now, let and be the axial Youngs moduli of the fibre and matrix,

respectively. We can give the axial stress in the fibre, and matrix, as
(7.15)
Using the above equation and the cross section areas of the respective constituent in the unit cell,
we can calculate the forces in them as
(7.16)

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The total axial force in the composite is sum of the axial forces in fibre and matrix. Thus, the total
axial force in the composite substituting the expressions for axial strains in fibre and matrix from
Equation (7.14) in above equation, can be given as

(7.17)

Now be the average axial stress in composite. The total cross sectional area of the composite is
. Thus, using the average axial stress and cross sectional area of the composite, the

axial force is
(7.18)
Thus, combining Equation (7.17) and Equation (7.18) and rearranging, we get
(7.19)
Figure 7.3: (a) Undeformed unit cell under (b) and (c) deformed individual
constituents of the unit cell

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Let us define
(7.20)
Further, noting that the ratios and for same length of fibre and matrix represent the fibre
and matrix volume fractions, respectively. Thus, combining Equations (7.19) and (7.20), we get
(7.21)
The above equation relates the axial modulus of the composite to the axial moduli of the fibre and
matrix through their volume fractions. Thus, the effective axial modulus is a linear function of the
fiber volume fraction. This equation is known as rule of mixtures equation. It should be noted that the
effective properties are functions of the fiber volume fractions; hence it should always be quoted in
reporting the effective properties of a composite.

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Effective Axial (Major) Poisons Ratio :

To determine the effective axial Poissons ratio we consider the loading as in the case applied for
determining the effective axial modulus. Here, for this loading we have and other stresses

are zero. We define the effective axial Poissons ratio as

(7.22)

The effective strain in direction 2 from Figure 7.3(b) and (c) can be given as
(7.23)
Now, the changes in and can be obtained using the Poissons ratio of individual
constituents. The axial Poissons ratios for fibre and matrix are given as
(7.24)
Thus, the changes in and are given as
(7.25)
The total change in is given as
(7.26)
The strain in direction 2 for the composite can be given using Equation (7.25) and Equation (7.26)
as
(7.27)
Here, and denote the fibre and matrix volume fractions for same length of fibre and
matrix. Note that denotes the effective axial strain . Thus, from Eq. (7.27) the effective axial
Poissons ratio is written as
(7.28)
The above equation is the rule of mixtures expression for composite axial Poissons ratio.

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Effective Transverse Modulus :

Here, we are going to derive the effective transverse modulus by loading the RVE in direction 2 as
shown in Figure 7.4(a). There are two considerations while deriving this effective modulus. The first
approach considers that the deformation of the each constituent is independent of each other as
shown in Figure 7.4(b) and (c) and the deformation in direction 1 is not considered. The second
approach considers that deformations of the fibre and matrix in direction 1 are identical as they are
perfectly bonded.

is applied to the RVE as shown in
To calculate the effective modulus in direction 2, a stress
Figure 7.4(a).
First Approach:
As mentioned, the fibre and matrix deform independently of each other. The resulting deformation in
direction 1 is not considered here. This assumption is simplistic and was used by early researchers.
The fibre and matrix are subjected to same state of stress. The state of stress is unidirectional, that
is, . Now, using the individual moduli and deformations in direction 2, these
stresses can be given as
(7.29)
From this equation we can write the individual deformations, which give the total deformation in
direction 2 as
(7.30)
Now, the composite strain in direction 2 can be calculated from the definition as
(7.31)

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Figure 7.4: (a) Undeformed unit cell under uniform stress (b) and (c)
deformed individual constituents of the unit cell
Introducing the volume fractions in the above equation,
(7.32)
Noting that , from the above equation, we get
(7.33)
This equation is the rule of mixtures equation for effective modulus .

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Home Work:

1. What are the assumptions in a typical micromechanical analysis?
2. Write a short note on RVE/Unit Cell.

3. Define volume and mass fractions for fibre and matrix and derive expressions for them.

4. Derive an expression for density of a composite in terms of densities of its constituents.

5. Using strength of materials approach, derive expressions for effective axial modulus, Poissons
ratio and transverse modulus.

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References:

R Hill. Elastic properties of reinforced solids: some theoretical principles. J. Mech.

Phys. Solids, 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.


MW Hyer, AM Waas. Micromechanics of linear elastic continuous fibre composites, in
Comprehensive Composite Materials. Vol. 1: Fiber Reinforcements and General Theory
of Composites, Eds. Kelly A, Zweben C. Elsevier 2000.
1998.


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Introduction

In the previous lecture we have introduced the concept of Representative Volume Element or Unit
Cell. This is the basic building block in a micromechanical study. Further, we explained the need of
micromechanical study. In the previous lecture we have obtained effective axial and transverse
modulus and axial Poissons ratio using the strength of materials approach. In the present lecture we
will derive the expressions for effective transverse and axial shear moduli. Further, we will derive the
expressions for coefficients of thermal and hygral expansions as well. We will conclude this lecture
with some numerical examples.

Effective Transverse Modulus
Effective Axial Shear Modulus
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion
Coefficients of Hygral Expansion
Examples
Homework
References

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Effective Transverse Modulus :
In the earlier lecture we have seen the first approach, where the deformation of individual

constituent is independent of each other and the deformation in direction 1 is not considered. In this

lecture we are going to derive an expression for effective transverse modulus using second approach

as follows.

Second Approach:

In this approach, we consider the resulting deformation in direction 1. It should be noted that when
the stress is applied in direction 2, the deformations of fibre and matrix in direction 1 are identical.
The deformation in direction 1 is calculated from two dimensional state of stress in fibre and matrix.
The deformations are shown in Figure 7.5.
The axial and transverse stresses in fibre and matrix can be given using planar constitutive relations
as
(7.34)
where,
(7.35)
To compute the effective transverse modulus we need to find the total deformation as a
function of the applied transverse stress . It should be noted that the net force in the direction 1
is zero. Thus,
(7.36)

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Figure 7.5: (a) Undeformed unit cell under uniform stress (b) and (c)
deformed individual constituents of the unit cell


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Generally, the stresses are uniform in the fibre and matrix. Thus above equation reduces to

(7.37)

Further, for equilibrium in transverse direction, we have

(7.38)

The axial and transverse strains in fibre and matrix are

(7.39)
Using Equations (7.34) and (7.39) in (7.37), we get
(7.40)
Further, using Equation (7.34) in Equation (7.38), we get
(7.41)
We solve Equations (7.40) and (7.41) for , and . The transverse composite
strain then is obtained as
(7.42)

Finally, putting the values of and in the above equation, we get an expression for
as
(7.43)
where,

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(7.44)
Equation (7.43) is an alternate equation for effective transverse modulus . This is also a rule of
mixtures equations. It should be noted that the factors and are the nondimensional
factors.


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Effective Axial Shear Modulus :

To derive the effective axial shear modulus of the composite the RVE is loaded in shear as shown
in Figure 7.6(a). The fibre and matrix are assumed to deform independently. Figure 7.6(b) shows the
overall deformation of the RVE. The overall axial deformation is denoted by . It is important to
note that for equilibrium considerations the shear stresses acting on fibre and matrix are assumed to
be identical.

Under the pure shear loading, that is, and other stress components are zero, the effective

axial shear modulus is defined as

(7.45)
Figure 7.6: (a) Undeformed unit cell under uniform stress (b) overall
deformation of unit cell (c) and (d) deformed individual constituents of the unit
cell
where, and are the effective applied shear stress and the resulting effective shear strain in
the composite, respectively. The effective shear strain in composite is obtained from the
deformations of the fibre and matrix in RVE. The fibre and matrix undergo deformations and
, respectively. These deformations are shown in Figure 7.6(c) and (d), respectively.
The shear strains in the fiber and matrix are given as
(7.46)

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where, is the inplane shear modulus of the fibre and is the shear modulus of the matrix
material. From Figure 7.6(c) and (d), we can write the individual deformations in fibre and matrix as
(7.47)
Using Equation (7.46) in above equation, the total axial deformation is given as
(7.48)
Now, we can give the overall shear strain of the RVE as
(7.49)
Finally, the effective axial shear modulus of the composite can be given from above equation as
(7.50)
This is the rule of mixtures equation for the effective axial shear modulus. This equation is analogous
to Equation (7.33) for the effective transverse modulus of the composite.


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Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and :

The coefficients of thermal expansion are very important as the composite is fabricated as elevated
temperature and cooled down to room temperature. In this process, due to difference in the
coefficients of thermal expansion of fibre and matrix materials, the thermal residual stresses are
developed. The determination of the coefficients of thermal expansion of the composite is dealt in
this section.

First, we will derive an expression for the coefficients of thermal expansion in transverse direction,

. We will use the deformation same as shown in Figure 7.5. The only difference is that the
effective stress in transverse direction must be zero. This is because that the thermal expansion
should occur without any applied stress. Thus, for the deformations as shown in Figure 7.5, we take
. Now the deformation in fibre and matrix in transverse direction can be given as
(7.51)
where, is the coefficient of thermal expansion of fibre in transverse direction and is the
coefficient of thermal expansion of matrix. It should be noted that the matrix is assumed to be
isotropic in nature. is increase in temperature. Let us define the coefficient of expansion for
composite in transverse direction, as
(7.52)
Using Equation (7.51) in above equation, we get
(7.53)
Thus, using the volume fraction definitions, we get

(7.54)
This is the rule of mixtures for the transverse coefficient of thermal expansion. It should be noted
that in this derivation the interaction between fibre and matrix under the temperature effect is not
constant. Thus, this derivation neglects the thermally induced stresses in fibre and matrix. However,
this is not true as thermal stresses will be induced in fibre and matrix. We take into account this fact
and derive alternate expression for this coefficient of thermal expansion as follows.

The stresses in fibre can be given for the temperature change of as
(7.55)

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and in matrix can be given as
(7.56)

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Now it should be noted that due to temperature change the force in direction 1 should be zero.
Further, the stresses in transverse direction in fibre and matrix should be identically zero. The first
condition leads to

(7.57)

Further, assuming that the stresses in fibre and matrix are uniform, the above equation becomes

(7.58)

The second condition that the stresses in transverse direction are zero leads to
(7.59)
Putting the first of Equation (7.55) and Equation (7.56) in Equation (7.58), we get
(7.60)
Using the second of Equation (7.55) and Equation (7.56) in Equation (7.59), we get
(7.61)
Thus, Equation (7.60) and Equation (7.61) are three simultaneous equations in , and

. We solve these three equations and define the coefficients of thermal expansions for
composites as
(7.62)
and
(7.63)

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The above expressions are the rule of mixture for coefficients of thermal expansions for composite in
terms of individual coefficients of thermal expansion, volume fractions and other properties. In the
above equation is the effective axial modulus, as given earlier. Comparing Equation (7.54) and
Equation (7.63), it is clear that the last term in Equation (7.63) is due to the imposition of deformation
constraint under thermal loading.

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Coefficients of Hygral Expansion and :

When the composite is subjected to hygroscopic environment, it absorbs the moisture and deforms.
It should be noted that the deformation of the fibre and matrix depends upon the amount of moisture
absorbed. Further, the amount of moisture absorbed by fibre and matrix in same environment are, in
general, not same. It will be shown that, unlike the coefficients of thermal expansion, the moisture
content will enter into the expressions of coefficients of hygral expansion of composite.

The derivation also follows similar procedure as used in the derivation of coefficients of thermal

expansion. The deformation constraints, similar to the derivation of coefficients of thermal expansion,

are also imposed in this derivation.

The force in axial direction in composite should be zero. This condition leads to the equation
(7.64)
The axial stresses in fibre and matrix due to moisture absorption alone are given as
(7.65)
where, and are the coefficients of hygral expansion of fibre and matrix, respectively.
and are the per weight % moisture absorption for fibre and matrix, respectively.
Putting this in Equation (7.64) and knowing that the axial strain in fibre and matrix are equal, that is,

(7.66)
The effective coefficient of hygral expansion in axial direction is defined as
(7.67)
where, is the per weight % moisture absorption for composite. Thus, the above equation
becomes
(7.68)
The above equation can be further simplified by expressing the percentage weight moisture
absorbed by composite to the moisture absorbed by fibre and matrix. Thus,

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(7.69)
where, , and are the masses (as defined earlier) of composite, fibre and matrix,
respectively. The above equation can be written as
(7.70)
(7.71)
The mass fractions are written in terms of volume fractions with the use of densities of composite,
fibre and matrix. Then the above equation becomes
(7.72)
The coefficient of thermal expansion in transverse direction, is given as
(7.73)

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Examples:
Table 7.1: Mechanical and thermal properties of fibres [5]

E-Glass 21xK43 Silenka E-Glass
Property/Fibre AS4 T300
Gevetex 1200tex

GPa 225 230 80 74

GPa 15 15 80 74

GPa 15 15 33.33 30.8
G 23 GPa 7 7 33.33 30.8
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
-0.5 -0.7 4.9 4.9
15 12 4.9 4.9
Table 7.2: Mechanical and thermal properties of matrix [5]
3501-6 BSL914C LY556/HT907/DY063 MY750/HY917/DY063

Property/Matrix
epoxy epoxy epoxy epoxy
GPa 4.2 4.0 3.35 3.35
GPa 1.567 1.481 1.24 1.24
0.34 0.35 0.35 0.35
45 55 58 58
Example 7.1 : For AS4/3501-6 Epoxy with 0.6 fibre volume fraction calculate all mechanical and
thermal properties using strength of materials approach of composite.
Solution:
1. Effective axial modulus:
2. Effective transverse modulus without deformation constraint satisfied

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Effective transverse modulus with deformation constraint satisfied
where,
Putting these values, we get
3. Effective axial shear modulus
4. Effective axial coefficient of thermal expansion with deformation constraint satisfied

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5. Effective transverse coefficient of thermal expansion without deformation constraint satisfied
Effective transverse coefficient of thermal expansion with deformation constraint satisfied

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Home Work:

1. Using strength of materials approach, derive the expression for effective transverse modulus
with deformation constrains satisfied.

2. Derive an expression for effective axial shear modulus of the composite using strength of

materials approach.

3. Using strength of materials approach, derive the expressions for effective coefficients of
thermal and hygral expansions in axial and transverse directions.

4. For fibre volume fraction of 0.6, determine all the effective mechanical and thermal properties
of the fibre and matrix materials given in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2 and compare them with the
experimental effective properties as reported in Soden et al [5]. Calculate percentage
difference for all properties with respect to experimental effective properties.


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References:



of Composites, Eds. A Kelly, C Zweben. Elsevier, 2000.

RA Schepery. Thermal expansion coefficients of composite materials based on energy
principles. Journal of Composite Materials, 1972, Vol. 2, pp. 380-404.

BW Rosen. A simple procedure for experimental determination of the longitudinal shear
modulus of unidirectional composites. Journal of Composite Materials, 1972, Vol. 21,
pp. 552-554.



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Lecture 26:Concepts of Equivalent Homogeneity, Volumetric Averaging and Standard Mechanics

Introduction

In the previous lectures, we have seen the use of RVE along with strength of materials approach in
determining the effective elastic, thermal and hygral properties of the composite in terms of properties
of individual constituents.

In this lecture and the following lectures we are going to see some more concepts and approaches to
determine the effective properties of the composite. In this lecture and the subsequent lectures we will
use the continuum approaches.

The Concept of Equivalent Homogeneity
Concept of Energy Equivalence
Standard Mechanics Approach
Homework
References

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The Concept of Equivalent Homogeneity

As we have understood, at sufficiently small scale all materials are heterogeneous in nature. In such
a situation, one would like to start at atomistic or molecular level. This will lead to an intractable
situation for engineering materials. Hence, the continuum hypothesis is invoked in such situations. In
this hypothesis, a statistical averaging process is considered. Further, the actual constituents and
their structures are idealized in such a way that resulting material is considered to be a continuum.
Once we establish the existence of continuum hypothesis then the concept of equivalent

homogeneity can be developed based on the structure of the material.

In general, the heterogeneity can be divided into two types. In the first type, the heterogeneity occurs
as an idealized continuous variation of properties with the position and in the second type there is an
abrupt change in properties across the interfaces of the constituents. In unidirectional fibrous
composites, in cross sectional planes, we get the second type of inhomogeneity. Hence, the second
type of inhomogeneity is of our concern in this micromechanical study. However, within the
constituent we assume that the constituents are homogeneous and orthotropic, transversely isotropic
or isotropic in nature.
Now we will introduce the characteristic dimension of inhomogeneity based on the constituent
arrangement and nature. We will consider an idealized system of fibres and matrix in a composite as
shown in Figure 7.7. For this system the characteristic dimension of inhomogeneity is the mean
distance between fibres, as shown. Now there also exits a length scale over which the properties
can be averaged in some meaningful way, that is, . The length scale of averaging must be a
dimension much larger than that of the characteristic dimension of the inhomogeneity, that is, .
When this condition is satisfied the material can be idealized as being effectively homogeneous and
the analysis of such a body can be done using the average properties associated with length scale
.
The condition mentioned above is called the effective or equivalent homogeneity. The other terms
used are macroscopic homogeneity and statistical homogeneity.
Concept of Volumetric Averaging
The effective or the average properties of the composite can be given through the relations between
the average stress and average strain in the composite. Here, we introduce the concept of volumetric
averaging.
Let us consider an RVE with dimension of inhomogeneity of and averaging dimension of (see
Figure 7.7). Let be the volume of the RVE. Let us further assume that this RVE is subjected
to macroscopically homogeneous stress or deformation field. Let us define the average stress as

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Figure 7.7: Scale of inhomogeneity and averaging of properties along with an RVE
(7.74)
and the average strain as
(7.75)
where, is the infinitesimal strain tensor at . Now, the effective, linear stiffness tensor is
given by the relation
(7.76)
The process of volume averaging may look very simple at the first sight. However, the averaging of
stresses and strains involves a significant amount of task. The exact stress and strain fields, that is,
and in heterogeneous material are needed.
The inverse of the relation in Equation (7.76) can be given as
(7.77)
where, is the effective compliance tensor.

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Concept of Energy Equivalence:

The effective properties of composite are defined through Equation (7.76) using the average stress
and strain in the RVE. One can propose the alternate definition of the effective properties using the
concept of energy equivalence.

Let us write the Equation (7.76) by contracting it with average strain tensor as

(7.78)

It should be noted that the average stress and strain field used in Equation (7.78) are obtained by
solving the problem with RVE applied by appropriate boundary conditions. The stresses and the
strains in RVE are macroscopically homogeneous. Hence, the averages can also be obtained by
boundary values instead of volume integrations. Thus, the left hand side of Equation (7.78) can be
given in terms of surface tractions and displacements as
(7.79)
where, denotes the RVE boundary, and denote the traction and displacement vector on
RVE boundary. Using the divergence theorem and equilibrium equations for the body without
anybody forces, , we get
(7.80)
Thus, the above relation gives the effective properties through the equivalence of the strain
energy stored in the heterogeneous material to that stored in the equivalent homogeneous material.
In the following example, we explain concept of averaging. Consider the Figure 7.8(a). This figure
represents the alternate repetition of two different materials with Youngs modulus and and
and be their respective axial lengths. Further, let be the cross sectional area of the bar.
This is equivalent to the alternate repetition of fibre and matrix in cross section. The bar made of
such a material is subjected to axial force . From the equilibrium consideration between the
interface of fibre and matrix, it is clear that the force is uniform throughout the bar as shown in
Figure 7.8(b). Thus, the axial force in any section . The axial strain in each of the
segment of the bar is given as
(7.81)
From the above equation it is clear that the axial strains in fibre or matrix element are constants but
there is a jump between interface of adjacent fibre and matrix. This is shown in Figure 7.8(c).
Now replace the material by an equivalent homogeneous material. Let be the equivalent or
homogeneous modulus of this material. Then, the force in equivalent material can be given as
(7.82)

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Figure 7.8: (a) A beam representing alternate fibre and matrix (b)
force distribution and (c) strain distribution along the length of the
beam
where, is the average or equivalent axial strain in the homogeneous material. Now, for a fibre
and matrix element and its equivalent element the axial deformation is same. Thus,
(7.83)
Thus, from this equation we can write the average axial strain in the element as
(7.84)
Now, from Equation (7.82) and Equation (7.84) we can give the equivalent axial Youngs modulus as
(7.85)
In the above derivation Equation (7.81) has been used. Thus, Equation (7.85) gives the equivalent
axial Youngs modulus based on equilibrium considerations.
Now we will use the equivalence of strain energy approach to derive the equivalent axial Youngs
modulus. Let us consider that the fibre and matrix materials are linear elastic in behaviour. The strain
energies of the non-homogeneous and homogeneous materials are equated as follows:
(7.86)
Using Equation (7.81), we get
(7.87)

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which upon simplification gives us
(7.88)
Thus, Equation (7.88) gives the equivalent axial Youngs modulus based on energy equivalence
approach.
Note: In the above example, the equilibrium approach and energy equivalence approach gave the
same expression for effective axial Youngs modulus. However, for other examples and geometric
details the effective properties obtained at the end may be different.


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Standard Mechanics Approach:

In this approach the standard mechanics based problems imposed on an RVE are solved. There can

be two types of loads: displacements or tractions. The boundary conditions that are imposed on RVE
are such that in case of displacement loading an average strain is produced in homogeneous
material of same size as the RVE. While in case of traction loading, the boundary conditions are
chosen such that an average stress is produced in homogeneous material of same size as the RVE.

The average strain as defined in Equation (7.75) is further written in terms of displacements using
divergence theorem as

(7.89)
where, denotes the unit normal to the RVE boundary and other quantities are as defined earlier.
Now, let us write the average stress in Equation (7.74) as
(7.90)
where, denotes the local boundary coordinates. For more details of the above derivation one can
see work due to Hill [4].
Now the important task is to choose the boundary conditions that will give us either averages strain
or stress for displacement or traction loading. However, there is no unique relationship either
between average strain and displacements or average stress and tractions. For example, a number
of different combinations of displacements can produce the same average strain. Similarly, for the
average stress in the material case there can be different combinations of tractions. Thus, in general,
a uniform displacement or traction loading is chosen as boundary condition. These boundary
conditions are shown in Figure 7.9. It should be noted that the applied boundary condition shown in
this figure is displacement when average strain is desired and is traction if average stress is desired.
Further, it should be noted that the boundary conditions shown in this figure are for a planar
problem.
Figure 7.9: Uniform boundary conditions on an RVE


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The standard weak form of the equilibrium equation is solved to calculate the local RVE strain. In
case of the applied displacements, the weak form of the RVE equilibrium equations is

(7.91)

where, is the point-wise stiffness tensor in the RVE materials, are the virtual strains,

are the microstructural strains due to the applied displacements, is the applied

displacement, is the specified boundary displacement which produces the desired uniform
average strain in a homogeneous material and is the virtual displacement. Here, the
boundary displacements are implemented using a penalty method with as the penalty parameter.
In case of applied tractions the weak form the equilibrium equation to be solved for each applied
mn th stress component is
(7.92)
where, is the applied traction which produces the average stress in a homogeneous
material. Further, are the microstructural strains due to the applied mnth traction. The other
terms in above equation are as defined earlier.
Equation (7.91) and Equation (7.92) need to be solved only for three times. In these two equations
we solve for local or microstructural strains. In this case we are considering symmetry of stress and
strain tensors. In case of three dimensional problems we need to solve for six problems.
The relation between the average strain and local or microstructural strains is given as
(7.93)
where, is called as local structure tensor or strain concentration factors. It should be noted
that this tensor has minor symmetries like . .However, it does not have the
major symmetry .. Thus, if the local structure tensor is known then local strain at any
point can be given as
(7.94)

Now the effective stiffness tensor is as defined by Equation (7.76). This tensor can be
calculated from . Using the Hookes law at microscopic level, we can write
(7.95)

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Now, using the definition of average stress as in Equation (7.74), the above equation can be written
as
(7.96)
Now using Equation (7.94) for the above equation becomes
(7.97)
Now, it should be noted that is the average strain.
Thus, we can define the effective stiffness tensor as
(7.98)
The tensors and are the local tensors and can be obtained in individual
constituents of the RVE. Once, the effective stiffness tensor is obtained the inverse of this gives the
effective compliance tensor. Now the relation between the individual elements of this tensor and
engineering constants can be used to determine the effective engineering constants.


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Home Work:

1. What is statistical homogeneity?
2. Write a short note on volumetric averaging.

3. Write a short note on energy equivalence approach in averaging.

4. Explain in detail the standard mechanics approach.

5. For the one dimensional problem as shown in Figure 7.8, show that the effective Youngs
modulus determined using standard mechanics approach is same as given in Equation (7.85)
(which is same as in Equation (7.88)).


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References:


1998.

RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1991.

SJ Hollister, N Kikuchi. A comparison of homogenization and standard mechanics
analyses. Computational Mechanics. 1992, Vol. 10, pp. 73-95.

Phys. Solids. 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.

R Hill. Theory of mechanical properties of fibre-strengthened materials-I. Elastic
behaviour. J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 1964, Vol. 12, pp. 199-212.

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Lecture 27: Hill's Concentration Factors Approach

Introduction

In the previous lecture we have introduced the concepts of statistical homogeneity, volumetric
averaging and standard mechanics approach. In case of standard mechanics, the effective stiffness
tensor for the composite is given in terms of local structure tensor and pointwise stiffness tensor. In
this lecture we will introduce another approach of Hills concentration factors. This approach is an
extension of standard mechanics approach to two phase composites.


Voigt Approximation
Reuss Approximation
Examples

Homework
References

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Hills Concentration Factors Approach

The Hills concentration factors approach is based on the concept similar to the standard mechanics
approach. In this approach, a composite with two elastic phases is considered. These phases are
fibre and matrix.

The average stress in composite is given from Equation (7.74). In this equation, the stresses in
individual phases are used to give following equation

(7.99)

where and are the local stresses in fibre and matrix, respectively. Now let us
define the volume averaged stress in fibre as
(7.100)
and volume averaged stress in matrix as
(7.101)
Putting these two definitions in Equation (7.99) and adjusting the and terms properly, we get
the average stress in composite as
(7.102)
Similarly, we define the volume averaged strains in fibre and matrix as

(7.103)
Note: The average stresses in Equation (7.100) and (7.101) and average strains in Equation (7.103)
are also known as phase averaged stresses and phase averaged strains, respectively.
Putting these definitions for the definition of average strain in composite, we get
(7.104)
Now let us derive the average stress in fibre and matrix using the pointwise constitutive equation for
fibre and matrix in Equations (7.100) and (7.101) as

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(7.105)

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In the above derivation it is assumed that the material behaviour is same everywhere for fibre and
matrix. Further, Equation (7.103) has been used in above equation. The above equation can be
written in terms of compliance of fibre and matrix material as

(7.106)

Using Equation (7.105) in Equation (7.102) we get the average stress in composite in terms of
volume fractions, stiffness tensor and phase averaged strains as
(7.107)
Similarly, the average composite strain in terms of phase averaged stresses in the fiber and matrix,
respective compliances and volume fractions using Equation (7.106) in Equation (7.104) is given as
(7.108)
Note: It can be shown that if an RVE is subjected to homogeneous traction on its boundary, that is,
with is a constant state of stress, then the average stress in composite is
Similarly, if an RVE is subjected to homogeneous displacement on its boundary, that is,

with is a constant strain, then the average strain in the composite is
The local structure tensor used in Equation (7.94) in standard mechanics approach to define the
local strains in terms of composite average strains. Hill [4] used this concept to relate the pointwise
stresses and strains in fibre and matrix with average stresses and strains in composite through
pointwise phase concentration factors. The pointwise strains in fibre and matrix are given as
(7.109)
where and are the pointwise fibre and matrix strain concentration factors,
respectively. Similarly, the pointwise stresses in fibre and matrix are given as
(7.110)

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where and are the pointwise fibre and matrix stress concentration factors,
respectively.
The local strains and stresses in fibre and matrix as given in Equation (7.109) and Equation (7.110)
can be integrated over their respective volumes to give the phase averaged strains and stresses in
terms of phase averaged concentration factors and . The phase averaged
concentration factors as defined are given below.
(7.111)

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Thus, using this definition the phase averaged strains in fibre and matrix can be written using
Equation. (7.109) and Equation (7.110) as

(7.112)

Now, using the first of Equation (7.112) in Equation (7.107) composite average stress is given as

(7.113)
Similarly, using the second of Equation (7.112) in Equation (7.108) composite average strain is given
as
(7.114)
Equation (7.102) can be written using the second of Equation (7.112) as
(7.115)

It should be noted that in above equation the stresses on left and right hand side are the composite
average stresses. Hence, they are same. Thus, the bracketed term in above equation is an identity
tensor of fourth order, that is,
(7.116)
Likewise, from Equation (7.104) and the first of Equation (7.112) we can write
(7.117)
Now using the Eq. (7.117) in Eq. (7.113), we can write
(7.118)
Similarly, using Equation (7.116) in Equation (7.114), we can write
(7.119)

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Voigt Approximation

Voigt [5] assumed that the strains are constants throughout the composite. Thus, we can say that

(7.120)

From the first of Equation (7.112), this leads to

(7.121)

Now, Equation (7.117) is written as
(7.122)
Thus, we can write

(7.123)
Using this relation in Equation (7.118) we write
(7.124)

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Reuss Approximation

Reuss [6] assumed that the stresses are constant throughout the composite. This assumption leads
to the relation

(7.125)

which upon substitution in Equation (7.116) leads to the relation

(7.126)

Putting the above relation in Equation (7.119) gives

(7.127)

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Examples
Example 7.2: For AS4 fibre and 3501-6 Epoxy material with 0.6 fibre volume fraction calculate all

effective engineering constants of the composite using a) Voigt and b) Reuss approximations. The

properties are given in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2.

Solution:

a) Voigt Approximation:
According to this approximation the effective stiffness tensor for composite is given as

The stiffness matrices for fibre and matrix are calculated using the respective engineering constants
and are given below.
For this purpose it is better to calculate first the compliance matrices for fibre and matrix materials
and invert them to get the stiffness matrices. We know that getting stiffness from compliance can be
easier than remembering individual stiffness entries in terms of engineering constants. The
compliance matrices for fibre and matrix material are calculated as below.
Now the stiffness matrices of fibre and matrix are:

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Thus, the effective stiffness matrix according to Voigt approximation for fibre volume fraction of 0.6 is
The inverse of this effective stiffness matrix is
Effective engineering constants:
b) Reuss Approximation:
According to this approximation the effective compliance tensor for composite is given as

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Using the compliance matrices for fibre and matrix we get the effective compliance for composite as
Effective engineering constants:

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Example 7.3: Plot the variation of following effective stiffness terms against the fibre volume
fractions for both Voigt and Reuss approximation. .

Solution: The plots of are shown in Figure 7.10 and plots of
are shown in Figure 7.11. The Voigt approximation gives upper bound for the
terms whereas Reuss approximation gives the lower bound for these terms.

However, for the terms Voigt approximation gives lower bound and Reuss
approximation gives upper bound.


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Example 7.4: Plot the variation of following effective compliance terms against the fibre volume
fractions for both Voigt and Reuss approximation. .

Solution: The plots of are shown in Figure 7.12 and plots of
are shown in Figure 7.13. The Voigt approximation gives lower bound and Reuss
approximation gives upper bound for terms. Further, for terms
Voigt approximation gives upper bound and Reuss approximation gives lower

bound.


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Figure 7.10: Variation of terms with

fibre volume fractions for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy composite
Figure 7.11: Variation of terms with fibre

volume fraction for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy composite

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volume fractions for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy composite

volume fraction for AS4/3501-6 Epoxy composite

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Home Work:

1. Explain in detail the Hills concentration factors approach.
2. What are Reuss and Voigt approximations in connection with Hills concentration factors

approach?

3. For fibre volume fraction of 0.6, determine all the effective mechanical properties for the fibre
and matrix materials given in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2 and compare them with the
experimental effective properties as reported in Soden et al [7]. Calculate percentage

difference for all properties. Use Voigt and Reuss approximation for this exercise.


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References:


1998.

Florida, 1991.

Phys. Solids. 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.

W Voigt. ber die Beziehung zwischen den beiden Elastizitskonstanten isotroper

Krper. Wied. Ann. 1889, Vol. 38, pp. 573587.
A Reuss. Berechnung der Fliegrenze von Mischkristallen auf Grund der

Plastizittsbedingung fr Einkristalle. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics.
1929, Vol. 9, pp. 4958.


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Lecture 28: Homogenization

Introduction

In the previous lectures, we have seen the various micromechanics based approaches to find the

effective composite properties. In the standard mechanics approach we introduced the concept of
local structure tensor which relates the macroscopic or average strains or stresses in composite to
microscopic or local strains or stresses in the phases of composite. In the standard mechanics
approach the boundary conditions are chosen such that the applied displacements or tractions
produce average strains or stresses in the RVE material.

In this lecture we are going to introduce the concept of homogenization.
Homework
References

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Homogenization

First, we will discuss the key points from statistical homogeneity and standard mechanics approach
in the RVE analysis to determine the effective RVE properties. In micromechanical analysis most of
the methods accurately predicts the effective composite properties provided that the ratio of the RVE
size to the global structural dimension is very small tending to zero. In reference to Figure 7.9, we

. We denote .
have

In the micromechanics based methods the local level and global level analyses are decoupled. The
local level analysis considers the microstructural details in its modeling. This analysis gives the
effective elastic properties. Further, as we have seen in standard mechanics approach, the local
level analysis can also be used to calculate the relationship of the effective or average RVE strain to
the local strain within the RVE. However, the global level analysis is used to calculate the effective
or the average stress and strain within the equivalent homogenous structure.

The process of calculating effective properties has been termed homogenization by Suquet [1].
Further, the local strains can be estimated from the relationship between average and local strains
through local structure tensor obtained from local analysis. This process is called as localization.

In the RVE analysis the RVE is subjected to boundary condition. The solution of this boundary value
problem gives the average properties along with the relation between the average and local strains.
However, the accuracy of the results depends upon the fact that the applied boundary conditions
should be able to reflect the in-situ (or the actual) boundary conditions to which an RVE is
subjected. This is explained in the following paragraph.

Consider that the applied boundary conditions to the RVE which produce the same average strain in
RVE are not same as the in-situ boundary conditions. Using the principle of minimum of strain
energy the average stiffness predicted by the RVE analysis with assumed boundary conditions will
be higher than that with in-situ boundary conditions. This is because the in-situ boundary conditions
will minimize the strain energy. On the contrary, although the assumed boundary conditions are
admissible they produce higher strain energy as the average stress produced is higher. Similarly, for
the applied tractions by the principle of minimum of complementary energy the RVE analysis with
applied homogeneous boundary produces higher complementary energy than that with in-situ
boundary conditions. The applied boundary conditions would produce higher average stress in RVE
than due to in-situ boundary conditions and also results in higher compliance. Thus, the RVE
analyses with applied displacement boundary conditions give upper bound on effective stiffness
whereas applied traction boundary conditions give the lower bound.

The homogenization theory is developed from studies of partial differential equations with rapidly
varying coefficients. This theory is based on the two assumptions: the first one is that the fields vary
on multiple scales due to existence of a microstructure and second one is that the microstructure is
spatially periodic.

In the composite, it is well known to us that the microstructure is spatially periodic. Now in the
following we explain that the displacement field is oscillating around the mean displacement and
strain field is periodic over this microstructure. Further, the displacement and strain fields are varying
over the two length scales.

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Figure 7.9: (a) A bar representing alternate fibre and matrix (b)
actual and average strain (c) actual and average displacement and
(d) periodic nature of displacement difference over RVE length
Consider Figure 7.9. Figure 7.9 (a) represents a bar with alternating materials. This bar represents alternate
arrangement of fibre and matrix material in cross section. Let be the RVE length such that . Figure
7.9 (b) shows the variation of strain field. It should be noted that the strain in either of the element is constant
and periodic in nature. However, the average strain in the bar is constant. Figure 7.9(c) shows the variation of
actual displacement and average displacement field . From this figure it is clear that the actual
displacement is oscillating around the average displacement. Figure 7.9 (d) shows the variation of
and one can easily notice that this variation is periodic over the RVE length. Thus, displacement and strain
fields are varying over the two length scales, that is, at micro and macro scales. Further, the strain field and
are periodic over the RVE. Thus, the problem of determining effective stiffness can be addressed by
using the homogenization concept. The details of theory can be seen in [1-3].

In the following we explain the theory of homogenization in brief.
Let denote the global level or macro coordinates and denote the micro level coordinates. These two level
coordinates are related through

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(7.128)
Here is the ratio of the RVE size to the size of the macroscopic region in which it exists. The field variables
involved in this study are approximated by an asymptotic expansion as
(7.129)
where is the exact value of the field variable, is the macroscopic or average value of the field
variable. In elasticity theory, this is known as continuum level displacement field. The displacements
etc. are the perturbations in the field variable due to the microstructure. These are also called microstructural
displacements.
Now, using the small deformations the strain tensor is written as
(7.130)
In this derivation, the derivative of any function is given using chain rule as
(7.131)
has been used.
Note: The perturbation part of the solution is small, but clearly the corresponding strain is not. This strain is of
the same order as the average strain.
Note: The quantities on the local level like stress vary times more rapidly than the corresponding global level
quantities.


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Equation (7.130) can be simplified neglecting the terms of and higher order. Further, from Equation
(7.131) we define the following strain tensors as

(7.132)

where , as defined earlier, is the local or microstructural strain tensor, is the average or macroscopic

strain tensor corresponding to the average displacements and is fluctuating strain tensor corresponding to
the oscillating displacements. As shown earlier, the fluctuating strain tensor is assumed to vary periodically.
Now for the virtual displacement or weak form of the equilibrium equations let us assume that the virtual
displacement and hence the virtual strain can also be expressed as asymptotic functions of
and . Thus, the virtual strain is given as
(7.133)
Further, this strain can be written as average and microscopic strain due to virtual displacement as
(7.134)
The weak form of the equilibrium equations is given by

(7.135)
Here, denotes the total, that is, macroscopic plus microscopic domain of the composite. The tractions
and the boundary displacements, if any, are applied only on the macroscopic boundaries of the composite. The
first of Equation (7.132) and the first of Equation (7.134) are used in above equation. The resulting expanded
form of the above equation is then given as
(7.136)

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It should be noted that the virtual displacement is any arbitrary displacement. It can be chosen
to vary on macroscopic or microscopic level. If we choose to vary only on macroscopic level
and be a constant on microscopic level then we get the macroscopic equilibrium equation as

(7.137)

Here, for the chosen variation of virtual displacement. However, if we choose to
vary only on microscopic level and be a constant on macroscopic level then we get the microscopic
equilibrium equation as
(7.138)
Here, for the chosen variation of virtual displacement. Since varies periodically,
Equation (7.137) and Equation (7.138) may be simplified assuming approaching zero in the limit
as
(7.139)
and

(7.140)
Equation (7.140) to be true, the integration term over the RVE should be zero. This leads to the
following condition:
(7.141)
Here, in general, the strain is not known. However, for a linear problem, any arbitrary can
be written as linear combination of unit strains as given in the following equation. The unit strains in
the following equation are given for 3D case.


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(7.142)

Due to symmetry considerations one needs to consider only the first six strains components in the
linear combination. Substituting these unit strains in right hand side of Equation (7.141) we get the
stress tensor
Now, putting this stress tensor in Equation (7.141) we solve the resulting auxilliary problem as
(7.143)
The periodicity of the strain field is obtained by constraining equal displacements on opposite
sides of RVE. Once is determined, the solution to Equation (7.141) is obtained by
(7.144)
where is Kronecker delta and is the local structure tensor. When the relationship between
local RVE strain and the average strain is substituted into the macroscopic equilibrium equations, we
get
(7.145)
Here, it should be noted that the terms and are outside the integration over the RVE as
they represent the average strain, which is constant, over RVE. The homogenization approach gives
the equivalent properties of the composite laminate. The effective stiffness tensor, is defined
(as in standard mechanics approach in Equation (7.98))
(7.146)
Using this effective stiffness tensor, the final form of macroscopic equilibrium equation may be written

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as
(7.147)
It is important to note that the effective stiffness tensor obtained from Equation (7.146) is
independent of size of RVE due to periodicity assumption used in obtaining .
Note: The effective stiffness tensor obtained using homogenization approach is independent of size
of RVE as periodicity assumption has been imposed on RVE. In case of standard mechanics such
boundary conditions are not imposed. Hence, the effective stiffness obtained is dependent on the
size of RVE. This fact can be explained by St. Venants principle for applied displacement or traction
boundary conditions. However, when St. Venant effect is not significant (as in case of analysis with
multi cell RVE) the two approaches may yield the same results.

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Home Work:

1. What are the lacunas in standard mechanics approach?
2. Explain the importance of applied boundary conditions on RVE in determining the effective

properties.

3. Explain in detail the concept of homogenization.

4. Show that for the one dimensional case as shown in Figure 7.9 the effective Youngs modulus
determined using homogenization approach is same as given by the standard mechanics
approach.


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References:

P Suquet. Elements of homogenization theory for inelastic solid mechanics. In: E

Sanchez-Palencia, A Zaoui. (eds): Homogenization techniques for composite media, pp.

194-278. Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer, New York, 1987.

analyses for periodic porous composites. Computational Mechanics. 1992, Vol. 10, pp.
73-95.

NS Bakhvalov, G Panasenko. Homogenisation: Averaging Processes In Periodic Media:
Mathematical Problems In The Mechanics Of Composite Materials, Springer, 1989.


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Lecture 29: Background of Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Model

Introduction

In this lecture we are going to introduce a new micromechanics model to determine the fibrous
composite effective properties in terms of properties of its individual phases. In this model a
composite is represented as an assemblage of concentric cylinders. The core of this cylinder is a fibre
and surrounding annulus is a matrix material. This model is called concentric cylinder assemblage
(CCA) model.

In this lecture we give the introduction and back ground of this model.

Concentric Cylinder Assemblage (CCA) Model
Background of CCA Model

Analysis of Concentric Cylinders
Home Work
References

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Concentric Cylinder Assemblage (CCA) Model

As we know, the unidirectional fibrous composite has fibres embedded in matrix material. The fibres
are, in general, cylindrical in nature. Thus, Hashin and Rosen [1] introduced a micromechanical
model in which the composite is represented as an assemblage of concentric cylinders. The inner
cylinder represents the fiber and outer annulus is matrix. The fibres are considered to be infinitely
long cylinders and matrix is considered to be continuous.

The model is shown in Figure 7.10(a). For each individual fibre of radius , there is associated an

annulus of matrix material of inner radius and outer radius . The individual cylinder, thus formed,
is called as a composite cylinder. This is shown in Figure 7.10 (b). It should be noted that the all
cylinders do not have the same radii. The radii of each cylinder vary in a way such that they
completely fill the composite volume. However, the ratio of the fiber cylinder to the outer radius of
matrix cylinder is same for all cylinders. This leads to the fact that all composite cylinders have the
same volume fractions. Further, the resulting material is transversely isotropic in nature.
The advantage of this model is that analysis of one composite cylinder is sufficient to determine the
four out of five effective elastic moduli of a transversely isotropic material.
Figure 7.10: (a) Concentric cylinder assemblage model (b)

composite cylinder and (c) homogeneous single cylinder

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Background of CCA Model

Here, we will relate five effective independent stiffness coefficients with the measurable effective
engineering constants. In the following, for a transversely isotropic material we derive relations
between the stiffness coefficients and engineering constants.

The unidirectional fibrous composite is transversely isotropic in nature in plane perpendicular to fibre
direction (or in plane perpendicular to the plane in which fibres are placed together). The stress

strain relations for the transversely isotropic material in 23 plane is written as

(7.148)

Thus, there are five constants, and are independent constants. These
constants define the effective properties of the composite. Note that in above relations tensorial
shear strains are used. The relation between these independent constants and effective engineering
constants can be given as follows:

Consider an uniaxial stress state such that and .
. Putting this in Equation (7.148) we can solve for the normal strains. The normal strains in terms of
and are given as

(7.149)
From the first of the above equation, we can write
(7.150)
We define the effective axial modulus through following equation as
(7.151)
Comparing this equation with Equation (7.150) we can write for as

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(7.152)

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Similarly, we define the following the Poissons ratios and as

(7.153)

Thus, using Equation (7.149), we get

(7.154)

The other engineering constants that can be directly related to the effective stiffness coefficients are
(7.155)
Equations (7.152), (7.154) and (7.155) are four equations with five effective stiffness constants. We
need one more equation in effective stiffness constants that relates an effective engineering constant.
Then we can solve for and in terms of effective engineering constants.

We develop this equation as follows. Let us define the plane strain bulk modulus, corresponding
to the state of strain
(7.156)
For this state of strain, from the constitutive equation in Equation (7.148) the normal stresses are
given as
(7.157)
Let us define where
(7.158)
is defined as effective plane strain bulk modulus.

Now, Equations (7.152), (7.154), (7.155) and (7.158) can be inverted to give
(7.159)
In the above exercise, the measurable properties are and . However, one can

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measure the other engineering properties and express the effective stiffness coefficients. Let us
consider that a uniaxial tension normal to the fibre direction is applied such that and
. Putting this in Equation (7.148) we can solve for the normal
strains. The normal strains in terms of and are given as
(7.160)
From the second of the above equation, we can write
(7.161)

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Now we define the effective Poissons ratios and as

(7.162)

Thus, using Equation (7.149), we get

(7.163)

and
(7.164)
Further, from the symmetry consideration we have the following relations
(7.165)
and from the reciprocal relations
(7.166)
Thus, we can write the following useful relations as
(7.167)
Thus, if we know the effective engineering constants and ,then we can find the
effective stiffness coefficients for transversely isotropic material. Further, the remaining engineering
constants can also be determined.
The effective stiffness can be determined from the composite cylinder either using the concept of
equivalence of strain energy or the basic definitions for each of the engineering property. For the
equivalence of strain energy approach the strain energy of the composite cylinder must be equal to
the strain energy of the single homogeneous cylinder. The strain energy in a given volume of the
cylinder is given as
(7.168)

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In the case of a composite cylinder, the integral over volume extends over the volume of the core
cylinder plus the volume of the annulus and in case of homogeneous cylinder it is over the one
cylinder. It should be noted that both cylinder systems are subjected to same deformations. This
approach can be complicated in the case of concentric cylinders as it involves both the geometry
and elastic properties of two cylinders.
In the following sections we derive the effective engineering constants using the CCA model and
basic definitions of engineering properties as follows. In this, the concentric cylinders are axially
loaded. The composite axial modulus can be defined as axial force divided by axial strain produced
by this axial force. Further, in this loading the assumption is that no other stresses are applied and
the cylinders are free to deform.


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Analysis of Concentric Cylinders

When the concentric cylinders are subjected to either an axial load or a uniform radial stress then
there are no shear stresses produced. Further, in an infinite cylinder away from the ends, the
stresses are independent of . For this state of stress, there will be one equilibrium equation given
as

(7.169)

where, and are radial and circumferential stresses, respectively. For a cylindrical coordinate
system with no shear stresses, we can write normal stresses for transversely isotropic material as
(7.170)
Similarly, for transversely isotropic fibre and isotropic matrix the normal stresses are given as
(7.171)
Now, we write the strain displacement relations in cylindrical coordinates as
(7.172)

where, and are axial, circumferential or tangential and radial displacements, respectively.
Further, with no shear effects and axisymmetry the tangential displacement is zero. It should be
noted that the stresses are not function of . Hence, the strains are independent of . Hence, the
displacement can be a function of . However, can be function of and, at most, a linear
function of . Hence, in the expression for strain there is partial derivative and not in the
expression for . For the expression of we have the full derivative with respect to .
Thus, the normal strains for the displacements in this case simplify to
When these strain-displacement relations are used in stress-strain relations then the equilibrium
equation in Equation (7.169) gives an ordinary differential equation in as

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(7.173)

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The solution to this equation is

(7.174)

Thus, the solution for fibre is

(7.175)
and the solution for the matrix is
(7.176)
The axial displacement in fibre and matrix can be determined by integrating the first of Equation
(7.172) with respect to . In this equation the left hand side is independent of .
Thus,
(7.177)
It should be noted that and are constants and and are the arbitrary
constants of integration. The constants and and functions and
are unknown. These can be determined from specific boundary conditions.
The displacement in fibre as given in Equation (7.175) should be bounded when . This
requires the condition that
(7.178)
Further, the displacements are continuous at the interface of fibre and matrix. This results in
(7.179)
Using Equation (7.178) and Equation (7.179), the continuity conditions become

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(7.180)
On equating the terms in and in the second of Equation (7.180), we get
(7.181)
This means that the strains in -direction in fibre and matrix are given by same function of .
Further, the unknown constant in fibre and matrix is same. This constant, in fact, is the axial
strain. Therefore, it is denoted as .


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The third continuity condition required is the continuity of the stress component normal to the
interface between the fibre and matrix, that is,

(7.182)

Using, Equation (7.171) and the unknown constants in above condition, we get

(7.183)

The unknown constants and
(7.183)
can be determined from the first of Equation (7.180) and Equation (7.183) along with additional
equations that will result due to the application of specific load or deformation, which in turn will
depend upon which of the engineering property is to be determined.
Let us write the strain displacement relations for fibre and matrix using Equation (7.172) and
Equation (7.175) through Equation (7.177).
(7.184)
Note that the strains in the fibre are spatially uniform.

Using above relation in Equation (7.171) we get the stresses in fibre and matrix as
(7.185)
From the above equation, it is easy to see that like strains, the stresses are also spatially uniform in
the fibre. Further, the radial and hoop/transverse stresses are identical for this case.

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Home Work:

1. What is a CCA model?
2. Give a brief description of the background for CCA model.


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References:

Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech.

1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Z Hashin. Analysis of properties of fiber composites with anisotropic constituents. J.
Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

Florida, 1991.

Z. Hashin: On elastic behaviour of fibre reinforced materials of arbitrary transverse
phase geometry. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1965, Vol. 13, pp. 119-134.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol.
50, pp. 481-505.
YC Fung. Foundations of Solid Mechanics. Prentice Hall International, Inc., 1965.
1998.

JC Halpin Affdl, JL Kardos. The Halpin-Tsai equations: A review. 1976, Vol. 16(5), pp.
344-352.
Z Hashin, S Shtrikman. A variational approach to the theory of elastic behaviour of

multiphase materials. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 127-140.

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Lecture 30: CCA Model: Effective Axial Modulus and Poisson's Ratio

Introduction
In this lecture we are going to determine the effective properties of a composite cylinder in terms of

properties of fibre and matrix materials using CCA model. We will use the relations and concepts

developed in the previous lecture for concentric cylinders.

In this approach the fibre is considered to be transversely isotropic and matrix is isotropic in nature.
However, as a special case and whenever possible, we will derive expressions considering both fibre
and matrix as isotropic materials.

In the present lecture we will derive the expressions for effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio.
Special Case: Fibre and Matrix Materials are Isotropic
Equivalence of Strain Energy Approach
Effective Axial Poisson's Ratio
Homework
References

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The effective axial modulus is determined from the basic definition of axial modulus. The axial load is
applied to the composite cylinder. The axial stress is uniform across the cross section. Further, this stress
can be given as the axial load divided by the cross sectional area, that is,

(7.186)

If the effective axial modulus is is known then the axial strain can be given as

(7.187)
For the axial load applied, the radial stress on the outer boundary, that is, at is zero. Thus,
(7.188)
Thus, from the last of Equation (7.185), this becomes
(7.189)
The effective axial force can also be obtained by integrating the axial stresses in fibre and matrix over the
cross sectional area as
(7.190)
Putting the expressions for and from Equation (7.185) and carrying out the integration we get

(7.191)
The unknown constants and can be determined by solving Equations (7.180), (7.183),
(7.189) and (7.191). The unknowns and then can be used in Equation. (7.191) to calculate the axial
force .
The unknown constants and are given as
(7.192)
where,

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(7.193)

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The denominator is given as

(7.194)

with

(7.195)

Thus, the effective axial modulus can be found from Equation (7.187) as
(7.196)
Note: One can determine the effective axial modulus from Equation (7.191). The unknown can
be expressed from this equation in terms of unknown . For this, one has to solve Equations (7.180),

(7.183) and (7.189) for and . Then divide both sides of this equation by cross sectional area
of the composite cylinder and . This gives the effective axial modulus. For this case, the unknown
constants are given as
(7.197)

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The constitutive equations for an isotropic and linear elastic material, we write

(7.198)

where, and are the Lam constants. Further, is shear modulus. To be consistent with the

notations for shear modulus one can use the symbol in the following derivations. However, we
will use the symbol in this case. The axial stresses in fibre and matrix are given as
(7.199)
Here, is defined as bulk modulus. The axial stress in fibre and matrix is spatially
uniform. The radial stresses in fibre and matrix are given as
(7.200)

The hoop stresses in fibre and matrix are
(7.201)
These are the same as radial stresses. Further, as mentioned earlier all shear stresses are zero.

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The first continuity condition is the first of Equation (7.180). The continuity of radial stresses at the fibre and
matrix interface from Equation (7.182) gives

(7.202)

The radial stress free condition on outer surface as in Equation (7.188) gives the relation

(7.203)
The effective axial force as given in Equation (7.190) is written as
(7.204)
Here, and are the unknowns. These can be obtained by solving the Equations (7.180) and
Equations (7.202) through (7.204). These are given as
(7.205)
where,
(7.206)
and
(7.207)
with
(7.208)

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Then the effective axial modulus can be determined from Equation (7.196) with appropriate substitutions
of equations for isotropic assumption of fibre and matrix materials.


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As an alternate approach, one can determine the effective axial modulus from Equation (7.204) if
and are expressed in terms of unknown and divide both sides of this equation by

and cross sectional area of . and are obtained along with by solving Equations

(7.180), (7.202) and (7.203). These unknown constants are given in Equation (7.209).

(7.209)

The effective axial modulus for this special case is then given as
(7.210)

In this equation the fibre volume fraction is given as

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In this approach the strain energies of the concentric cylinders and equivalent homogeneous cylinder are equated.
The strain energy of the equivalent homogeneous cylinder is written as

(7.211)

In this equation a unit length of the cylinders has been assumed. Further, use of Equation (7.191) can be made in
this equation. Now, the strain energy of the concentric cylinders is given as
(7.212)
Recall that the stresses are functions of alone. They are independent of and . Further, for this cylinder
system also a unit length has been assumed. Equation (7.184) and Equation (7.185) are substituted in the above
equation and integration over is carried out. It gives us
(7.213)
Further, the unknown constants , and as given in Equation (7.192) are used. Then comparison of
Equation (7.211) and Equation (7.213) gives the effective axial modulus .

The strain energy of the equivalent homogeneous cylinder obtained using Equation (7.211) and Equation (7.204).
The strain energy of the concentric cylinders can be obtained using Equation (7.199) Equation (7.201) and
Equation (7.184) in the last of Equation (7.212). The strain energy for concentric cylinders is given as
(7.214)

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In above equation, the unknown constants , and and as given Equation (7.205) can be used for
further simplifications. Thus, equivalence of strain energies of concentric and equivalent homogeneous cylinder
will lead to effective axial modulus .

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Effective Axial Poissons Ratio:

The effective axial Poissons ratio can be determined from the preceding problem definition. Here, we
define the effective axial Poissons ratio as the ratio of associated lateral strain to the axial strain due to
applied load in axial direction. Thus,

(7.215)

From Equation (7.176) we can write

(7.216)
The constants , and and given from Equation (7.192) can be used in the above equation.
Further, one can give the constants and in terms of as in Equation (7.197).
(7.217)

When both fibre and matrix materials are isotropic in nature, then using either Equation (7.205) or
Equation. (7.209), the axial Poissons ratio is given as
(7.218)
Comparing this equation with the corresponding equation in strength of materials approach, we see that
the first two terms are exactly same. It should be noted that the third term is not a small term.

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Home Work

1. What are the deformations or load conditions to be imposed on the concentric cylinders to
determine the effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio?

2. What are the continuity conditions to be imposed on the concentric cylinders to determine the

effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio?

3. Outline the methodology with key points to determine the effective axial modulus and
Poissons ratio using CCA model.


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References:


1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

Florida, 1991.

50, pp. 481-505.
PC Chou, NJ Pagano. Elasticity: Tensor, Dyadic and Engineering Approaches, General

Publishing Company, Ltd. Canada, 1967.
1998.

Z Hashin. Viscoelastic fiber reinforced materials. AIAA J, 1966, Vol. 4, pp. 1411-1417.


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Lecture 31: CCA Model: Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus

Introduction
In the previous lectures we have introduced the concept of CCA model. Further, we have determined

the effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio using the concepts of mechanics and equivalence of

strain energy approach.

In the present lecture we will derive the expressions for effective plane strain bulk modulus.


Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus
Homework
References

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Effective Plane Strain Bulk Modulus

We need to find the effective plane strain bulk modulus such that the axial strain is zero and there is
same strain in two transverse directions. This state of strain can be applied as follows:

(7.219)

For this state of strain, the displacement field in cylindrical coordinates system on the outer
boundary of the cylinders becomes

(7.220)
The displacement field at the outer boundary of the cylinders reflects a pure radial stress tractions,
that is, will give us the same boundary conditions of a homogeneous cylinder. If these
tractions are transferred to the Cartesian coordinate system, then we get
(7.221)
Alternatively, for the displacement field in Equation (7.220) on the outer surface of the cylinder, the
tractions in cylindrical coordinates are

(7.222)
and the strains can be given in terms of stresses as
(7.223)
However, one can give the strains from the displacement field in Equation (7.220).

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It should be noted that the axisymmetric problem given here has the same form of solution as given
previously. However, the constants involved in this problem will take different values depending upon the
boundary conditions of this problem. For this problem in hand, we have the following boundary conditions:

The radial displacement at the fibre and matrix interface should be continuous as in the first of Equation
(7.180).

The second condition is continuity of radial stresses at the fibre and matrix interface as in Equation (7.182).
With transversely isotropic fibre, this condition leads to

(7.224)
and with isotropic fibre, this condition from Equation (7.202) with becomes
(7.225)
The third condition is that the outer boundary of the cylinder has the radial stress equal to the as in
Equation (7.221) or Equation (7.222). In case of fibre with transversely isotropic material, this leads to
(7.226)
and in case of fibre with isotropic material, from Equation (7.200) with it becomes
(7.227)
For the case of transversely isotropic fibre the constants and are determined by solving the
Equations. (7.180), (7.224) and (7.226). These constants are
(7.228)
For the case of isotropic fibre the the constants and are determined by solving the Equations
(7.180), (7.225) and (7.227). These constants are given as
(7.229)

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Thus, all stresses and strains can be given in terms of unknown and constants. The effective
plane strain bulk modulus of the equivalent homogeneous material is then defined as
(7.230)
From Equation (7.220), we can write

(7.231)
Thus, combining Equation (7.230) and Equation (7.231) we get
(7.232)
The effective plane strain bulk modulus can be also defined as
(7.233)
where, is the ratio of change in volume per unit volume of the concentric cylinders. It is given as
(7.234)
In this the second order terms are ignored. Thus, the effective plane strain bulk modulus for this definition
gives us same expression for plane strain bulk modulus as in Equation (7.232).
Thus, for the transversely isotropic fibre, using the constants as given in Equation (7.228) the effective plane
strain bulk modulus becomes
(7.235)
Dividing the numerator and denominator by , we get

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(7.236)
For isotropic fibre, using the constants from Equation (7.229) the effective plane strain bulk modulus is given
as
(7.237)

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Equivalence of Strain Energy Approach:

We can derive the effective bulk modulus using the concept of equivalence of strain energy. The
strain energy of the equivalent homogeneous single cylinder is given as

(7.238)

The stresses and strains are known from Equation (7.219), Equation (7.222) and Equation (7.223).
When these are substituted in above equation, for a unit length, it gives
(7.239)

Now this strain energy is compared with that obtained for concentric cylinders as given in Equation
(7.212). The stresses and strains in fibre and matrix for this expression can be obtained as the
constants and are known.

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Home Work:

1. Write a short note on deformations/loads to be imposed on the concentric cylinders to obtain
the effective plane strain bulk modulus.

2. Derive an expression for the effective plane strain bulk modulus using CCA model.


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References:


1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

Florida, 1991.

50, pp. 481-505.

1998.



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Lecture 32: CCA Model: Effective Axial Shear Modulus

Introduction
In the previous lectures we have introduced the concept of CCA model and then used those concepts

to derive the expressions for effective axial modulus and Poissons ratio.

In this lecture, we continue with the CCA model to derive the expressions for effective axial shear
modulus.


Homework

References

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The effective axial shear modulus is obtained by subjecting the concentric cylinders and equivalent
homogeneous single cylinder to pure axial shear loading. Consider the concentric cylinders as shown
in Figure 7.11. The outer surface of the cylinder in plane is subjected to a displacement

field such that the overall strain produced in this plane is equal to , that is,

(7.240)

The displacement components on the boundary of the cylinder then becomes

(7.241)
Let us assume that both fibre and matrix materials are transversely isotropic in nature. Further,
assume that they experience only shear strains. Under these assumptions, it can be shown that the
each component of the displacement in either of the phase is governed by Laplace equation. For the
details of the derivation one can see work by Chou and Pagano [7]. For the present case of
deformations, the strains are not the function of . The displacement components in each
constituent are then given with corresponding simplification in the general solution as
(7.242)

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Here, and are the unknown constants. Further, it should be noted that for
the axisymmetric problem the displacement in fibre must be bounded. This poses a condition that
the constant as in Equation (7.178). The continuity of the displacement components at the
interface may be written as

(7.243)

Figure 7.11: Undeformed and deformed concentric cylinders

under shear
The first continuity condition of the above equation gives the relation
(7.244)
which is same as the first of Equation (7.180). The remaining two displacement continuity conditions
give
(7.245)

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The non-zero stresses resulting from the displacement field in Equation (7.242) are

(7.246)

The continuity of the stresses in radial direction leads the continuity of the stress at the interface.
This condition becomes

(7.247)
Now, at the outer boundary of the concentric cylinders the displacements must match the following
boundary conditions.
(7.248)
Note that from the second and the third of the above condition, we get
(7.249)

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The constants and can be determined in terms of by solving Equations (7.244), (7.247), the first
of Equations(7.248) and (7.249). These are

(7.250)

At last, at the outer boundary the shear stress must match the shear stress in coordinate system. Thus, at
, the shear stress then becomes
(7.251)
The right hand side of above equation can be written as
(7.252)
Thus, the equivalent axial shear modulus can be given combining Equation (7.251) and Equation (7.252). Then
values of constants and are substituted from Equation (7.250). Thus, we get the result
(7.253)

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Home Work:

1. Write a short note on the deformation or the loads to be imposed on the concentric cylinders
to determine the effective axial shear modulus.

2. Derive the expression for the effective axial shear modulus of the composite using CCA

model.


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References


1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

Florida, 1991.

50, pp. 481-505.


1998.



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Lecture 33: Three Phase CCA Model: Effective Transverse Shear Modulus

Introduction
In the previous lectures we have introduced the concept of CCA model and have derived the

expressions for effective axial modulus; Poissons ratio; shear modulus and plane strain bulk modulus.

Now, only one of the effective properties is left to be determined so that we can get all effective
properties of the composite. This property is transverse shear modulus.

In the present lecture, we will derive the expression for effective transverse shear modulus.


Three-Phase Composite Cylinder for Transverse Shear Modulus
Homework

References

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Three-Phase Composite Cylinder for Transverse Shear Modulus

The determination of effective transverse shear modulus with concentric cylinders is quite difficult. At
present, for this problem no exact solution has been presented. Hence, a different model is
presented for the determination of transverse shear modulus. In this model, all cylinders except one
are replaced with equivalent homogeneous material. This model is shown in Figure 7.12. In this
model, the outer composite cylinder can have infinite radius. The outer cylinder represents the
composite and hence, it should not affect the overall effective properties of the three cylinders. This

model is called as three phase composite cylinder model or three phase model. The closed form

expression for this property proposed by Christensen and Lo [10] has been presented here.

Figure 7.12: (a) Three phase concentric

cylinder assemblage model (b) homogeneous
single cylinder

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The state of deformation imposed is such that the far away from the fibre and matrix a state of pure
shear is produced.

The planar stresses for the cylinder can be given in terms of stress function as

(7.254)

where, the stress function , following the work of [11], is given as
(7.255)
Here, and are the constants that are evaluated using the boundary conditions. Using Equation
(7.255) in Equation (7.254), the stresses become
(7.256)
Now, considering the plane strain condition with and using the stress-strain relations, the
strains in composite material are written as
(7.257)
where, . Now using the strain displacement relations as in Equation (7.172) the
displacement components in composite material are obtained as
(7.258)

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Here, the polar coordinates are used. Further, as the above equation leads to the imposed
state of simple shear deformation. It should be noted that the displacements in this equation satisfy
the equilibrium equations.

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In a similar way, we can derive the displacement field in matrix phase. It is given as

(7.259)

The displacement in fibre phase is given as

(7.260)
where,

and (7.261)
There are eight unknowns to be determined. These are and . Now, we

need to develop eight equations in these unknowns to solve for these unknowns. These equations
can be developed using the continuity of displacements and stress at the fibre and matrix interface
and that between the matrix and the equivalent homogeneous material.


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The displacement continuity at gives the relations

(7.262)

The displacement continuity at gives
(7.263)
The stress continuity at gives the following relations
(7.264)
And the stress continuity at leads to
(7.265)
Now the effective properties are determined from the equivalence of strain energy in heterogeneous
media and in the equivalent homogeneous media. Thus, we write this condition as
(7.266)
The strain energies in the above equation can be given in terms of Eshelby formula.
(7.267)
where is the strain energy of a homogeneous medium containing an inclusion under the conditions
of applied displacements. is the surface of the inclusion and is the strain energy in the same
medium when the medium does not contain any inclusion. Further, and are the tractions and
displacements on the surface when the medium has no inclusion. and are the tractions and
displacements on the surface when the medium has inclusion. It should be noted that the context of

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three phase cylinder model the inclusion here it means the concentric cylinders. Thus, refers to the
strain energy of the Figure 7.12(a). refers to the strain energy of the Figure 7.12(b) when the
inclusion is replaced by the equivalent homogeneous material outside. However, this energy is
.
Thus, we can write
(7.268)
Thus, from Equation (7.266) and Equation (7.268) we can write that
(7.269)

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Using the definitions of stresses and displacements this equation is written as

(7.270)

The various quantities in above equation are given as

(7.271)

This expression is derived from the condition that the displacements must be bounded at .
Thus, from Equation (7.256), . Thus, we can write
(7.272)
Similarly, with in Equation (7.256), the stresses become
(7.273)

The stresses at can be given again using Equation (7.256) as
(7.274)
Finally, and are evaluated at from Equation (7.258) and are given as
(7.275)

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Now using all the required terms in Equation (7.270) and carrying out the integration, we get

(7.276)

The solution for obtained by solving eight simultaneous equations is thus set equal to zero. This leads to the
following equation.

(7.277)

where
(7.278)

(7.279)
and
(7.280)

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Further, in the case of dilute suspension, that is, a single inclusion or fibre in an infinite equivalent
homogeneous medium (that is, a condition leading to a low fibre volume fraction) the following
relation is given

(7.281)

where is the bulk modulus of the matrix relating hydrostatic stress to the change in volume. The
bulk modulus relates the hydrostatic stress and the change in volume as
(7.282)
It should be noted from Equation (7.281) that there is no correlation with rule of mixture for
transverse shear modulus.
Note: The remaining effective properties like and can be obtained from the
relations given in Equation (7.167).


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Home Work:

1. What is a three-phase cylinder model? Why is it required?
2. Write a short note on determination of transverse shear modulus using three phase cylinder

model.


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References


1964, Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Appl. Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

Florida, 1991.

50, pp. 481-505.

1998.

RM Christensen, KH Lo. Solutions for effective shear properties in three phase sphere
and cylinder models. J. Appl. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1979, Vol. 27(4), pp. 315-330.
GN Savin. Stress Concentration Around Holes, Pergamon Press, New York, 1961.


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Lecture 34: Self Consistent, Mori -Tanaka and Halpin -Tsai Models

Introduction
In this lecture we will introduce some more micromechanical methods to predict the effective

properties of the composite. Here we will introduce expressions for the effective properties without the

detailed derivations.

In the present lecture we will study the self consistent method, Mori-Tanaka method and some

relations based on semi-empirical method introduced by Halpin-Tsai.


Self Consistent Method
Mori-Tanaka Method
Halpin-Tsai Semi-Empirical Relations

Homework
References

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Self Consistent Method

The self consistent method is based on the solution to an auxiliary inclusion problem where a single
ellipsoidal inclusion is embedded in an infinite medium. In this system it is assumed that the bond
between inclusion and the infinite medium is perfect. Therefore, there is displacement and traction
continuity across the interface of the two phases. One can determine the stresses and strains by
applying uniform stresses or strains to the system at infinity. It was shown by Eshelby [1] that in
these types of problems, the stress and strain fields in the inclusion are uniform. Further, the elastic

properties can be determined by finding the relation between far-field stresses and strains in the

homogeneous medium and stresses and strains in the inclusion, or the stress or strain concentration

factors.

The problem of determining the effective properties of such a system was dealt in depth by Hill [2]
and Budiansky [3]. In this approach the average stress and strain fields in the fiber are taken to be
equal to those in the inclusion problem. Further, the infinite medium is taken to be homogeneous
with the same properties of the composite.

For fibrous composites, which are transversely isotropic in nature with both fibre and matrix phases
also transversely isotropic, the self consistent estimates of Hill [2] of the overall moduli give the
following relations.
(7.283)
It was shown by Hill [4] that regardless of the method used to obtain the estimates, only three of the
five overall moduli of such composites are actually independent. Then the moduli and are
related through so called universal relations in terms of overall moduli and phase moduli and their
volume fractions as,
(7.284)
Therefore, only one of the three moduli is independent. This fact is clear from the relation in
Equation (7.283). This equation gives a cubic equation in and quadratic equations for and
, again, in terms of . Hence, if is known, then and can easily be obtained from Eq.
(7.284).
Note: When one or both phases are isotropic, then there are only two independent moduli in such
phase. Further, one can write then and in terms of engineering constants.


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Mori-Tanaka Method

The original method was proposed by Mori and Tanaka [5] in 1973. Further, Benveniste [6] proposed
a simpler version of the same model. The key assumption in this model is that the average strain in
the inclusion, that is fibre, is related to the average strain in the matrix by a fourth order tensor. This
fourth order tensor gives the relation between the uniform strain in the inclusion embedded in an all
matrix material. Further, this material is subjected to uniform strain at infinity.

The strain concentration factors in fibre are given as

(7.285)
where,
(7.286)
Here, is the fourth order tensor which relates the average strain in the inclusion to the average
strain in the matrix. is Eshelbys tensor, and are the stiffness tensors of fibre and
matrix materials, respectively. Dvorak et al [7-9] have given the explicit relations in terms of Hills
moduli as
(7.287)

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Halpin-Tsai Semi-Empirical Relations

A set of semi-empirical relations have been developed by Halpin and Tsai for easy design
procedure. These relations were developed by curve fitting to the results that are based on elasticity.
These relations are called semi-empirical relations because the parameters involved in these
relations have some physical significance. In the following we give these relations.

The longitudinal Youngs modulus is same as given by rule of mixtures using strength of materials
approach. Thus,

(7.288)
Further, the axial Poissons ratio is the same as given by the rule of mixtures using strength of
materials approach. Thus, the axial Poissons ratio is
(7.289)
The Hills Moduli are given as
(7.290)
where
(7.291)
Further, stands for or and and stands for corresponding values for fibre
and matrix, respectively. Here, is a measure of reinforcement geometry which depends upon
loading conditions and geometries of the inclusion, that is, fibre.

The parameters used in the Equation (7.290) have physical significance. The limiting values give
following significant information:
1. corresponds to a situation that the inclusions are rigid.
2. corresponds to a homogeneous material
3. And for voids , , then .

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The limiting values of are given as follows:

. . For this value, Equation (7.290) becomes

(7.292)

This gives,

(7.293)
It is easy to see that this is a series connected model which gives the lower bound of a composite
modulus.
.For this case, we get
(7.294)
(7.295)
This is the parallel connected model. This gives the upper bound of a composite modulus. Thus,
is regarded as a reinforcement measure. This factor covers all possible range of the composite
moduli as it varies from zero to infinity. Once this factor is known, the composite moduli are
determined from the generalized formula.

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For example, in case of for a circular fibres in a square array, and for rectangular
fibres cross section of length and width in a hexagonal array, where is in the

direction of loading. Similarly, for for circular fibres in a square array , and for
rectangular cross-section with length and width in a hexagonal array, ,

where is in the loading direction.

Note: In case of transversely isotropic material in 23 plane, the constitutive relations are given as

(7.296)
and
(7.297)
Here, the moduli and refer to the values in the longitudinal or axial direction
of straining and and refer to the values in transverse plane. Further, the
Poissons ratios are defined as and under the uniaxial tensions
in 1 and 2 directions, respectively.


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The relationship between the Hills moduli, and and the engineering moduli are given
as

(7.298)

Some additional useful relations are
(7.299)

Further, if the phase is isotropic then with bulk modulus and shear modulus , we have
(7.300)

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Home Work:

1. What is meant by self consistent method?
2. Write a short note on Mori-Tanaka method.

3. Write a short note on Halpin-Tsai semi-empirical models.


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References

JD Eshelby. The determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion, and

related problems. Proc. R. Soc. London. 1957, Vol. A241, pp.376-396.

R Hill. A self consistent mechanics of composite materials. J. Appl. Phys. Solids. 1965,
Vol. 13(4), pp. 213-212.

B Budiansky. On the elastic moduli of some heterogeneous materials. J Mech. Phys.
Solids. Vol. 13, pp. 223-227.

T Mori, K Tanaka. Average stress in matrix and average elastic energy of materials with
misfitting inclusions. Acta Metall. 1973, Vol. 21, pp. 571-574.
Y Benveniste. A new approach to the application of Mori-Tanaka theory in composite

materials. Mech. Mater. Vol. 6(2), pp. 147-157.
GJ Dvorak, MSM Rao, JQ Tarn. Yielding in unidirectional composites under external

loads and temperature changes. J Compos Mater, Vol. 7, pp. 194-216.
GJ Dvorak. Plasticity theories for fibrous composite materials, in Metal Matrix

Composites: Mechanisms and Properties, Vol. 2, RK Everett and RJ Arsenault eds., A
Volume on the Treatise on Materials Science and Technology, Academic Press, Boston,

pp. 1-77.
T Chen, GJ Dvorak, Y Benveniste. Mori-Tanaka estimates of the overall elastic moduli

of certain composite materials. J Appl. Mech. 1992, Vol. 59(3), pp. 539-546.
1998.
JC Halpin, JL Kardos. The Halpin-Tsai equations: A review. Polymer Engg. Sci., 1976,
Vol. 16(5), pp. 344-352.
JC Halpin. Effects of environmental factors on composite materials. Air Force Materials

Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, USA, AFML-TR-67-423, 1969.

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Module 8: Composite Testing
Lecture 35: Background to Mechanical Testing


Societies for Testing Standards

Background to Mechanical Testing of Composites

Effect of Anisotropy of Composites on Mechanical Testing

Nature and Quality of the Test Data

Samples and Specimens for Mechanical Testing

Homework


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Introduction

The testing of materials has got immense important because it gives the required data, that is,
mechanical and other required properties for the designing and analysis of the structures for its safe,
reliable and cost effective functioning. When one uses the data derived from tests, the following
questions arise:

1. What tests should be carried out to give the required data?
2. How precisely are these tests conducted and who guarantees it?
3. What does the data actually mean?
4. Are these data produced reliable?
5. Are data obtained from small test specimens meaningful when large structures are being
designed?
6. What will be the effect operating environment?
These questions arise when one needs to establish the response of these materials various types of
loading like tensile, compressive or shear, for short-term or long-term duration, or cyclic. Further,
their behaviour in the presence of high or low temperatures or other environments which might
significantly modify their behaviour is essential.
Societies for Testing Standards
There are few societies which develops the standards related to composites. They essentially
provide the information and guidance necessary to design and fabricate end items from composite
materials. Their primary purpose is the standardization of engineering data development
methodologies related to testing, data reduction, and data reporting of property data for current and
emerging composite materials.
In the following, we briefly give the background of these societies.
a) ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials was
founded in 1898 by chemists and engineers from Pennsylvania Railroad, USA. At the time of its
establishment, the organization was known as the American Section of the International Association
for Testing and Materials. In 2011, the society became known as ASTM International.
ASTM members deliver the test methods, specifications, guides and practices that support
industries and governments worldwide. ASTM International standards are developed in accordance
with the guiding principles of the World Trade Organization for the development of international
standards: coherence, consensus, development dimension, effectiveness, impartiality, openness,
relevance and transparency.
The ASTM standards are also available in the volume form as The Composite Materials Handbook.

b) Composites Research Advisory Group (CRAG), which set about in the early 1980s to attempt to
define what the best practice should be over a range of test methods. The CRAG recommendations
were proposed to the British Standards Institution and subsequently had a considerable effect in the
development of new international standards.

c) Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE) was formed in 1905. In early 1900s there were a lot of
automobile companies worldwide, which needed to address their common design issues, patent
protection and the development of engineering standards. The development of standards for

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composite fabrication, testing, etc. is under progress.


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Background to Mechanical Testing of Composites:

Objectives of Mechanical Testing:

The development of the mechanical testing of the materials depends upon other scientific factors.
These factors help in better understanding and facilitate the progress in evaluating the various
processes. These processes include:

1. quality control of a process
2. quality assurance for the material developed and structure fabricated from thereof
3. better material selection
4. comparisons between available materials
5. can be used as indicators in materials development programmes
6. design analysis
7. predictions of performance under conditions other than test conditions
8. starting points in the formulation of new theories
It should be noted that these processes are dependent upon each other. However, if they are
considered individually then the data required can be different for the evaluation. For example, some
tests are carried out as multipurpose tests using various processes. A conventional tensile test
carried out under fixed conditions may serve quality control function whereas one carried out varying
factors like temperature, strain rate, humidity etc. may provide information on load bearing capacity
of the material.
The properties evaluated for materials like composite is very sensitive to various internal structure
factors. However, these factors depend mainly upon the fabrication process or other factors. The
internal structure factors that affect the properties are, in general, at atomic or molecular level. These
factors mostly affect the matrix and fibre-matrix interface structure.
The mechanical properties of the fibrous composite depend on several factors of the composition.

These factors are listed below again for the sake of completeness.
1. properties of the fibre

2. surface character of the fibre
3. properties of the matrix material
4. properties of any other phase
5. volume fraction of the second phase (and of any other phase)
6. spatial distribution and alignment of the second phase (including fabric weave)
7. nature of the interfaces
Another important factor is processing of the composites. There are many parameters that control
the processing of composites that access the quality of adhesion between fibre and matrix, physical
integrity and the overall quality of the final structure.
In case of composite the spatial distribution and alignment of fibres are the most dominating factor
which causes the variation of properties. The spatial distribution and alignment of the fibres can
change during the same fabrication process. Thus, for a given fabrication process the property
evaluated from the composite material may show a large variation.


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Effect of Anisotropy of Composites on Mechanical Testing

The long fibre composite exhibits the characteristics of inhomogeneity, anisotropy and inelasticity. If
the composite is viscoelastic then the testing procedure demands much more things. However, we
will not consider this fact in this study. We will consider the effect of anisotropy on mechanical
testing.

The following are the key points in the mechanical testing of long-fibre composites:

1. generation of a uniform stress field in the critical reference volume
2. avoiding the end-effects
3. attainment of adequate loading levels without damage or failure near the loading points
4. appropriate specimen dimensions related to the scale of structural inhomogeneities
5. tension shear coupling
The first four considerations are similar to the testing of homogeneous isotropic materials. These
considerations give rise to various constraints on specimen dimension, test configurations and
machine specifications. However, the fact of heterogeneity imposes more severe constraints and
demands more considerations while testing.
In case of composite, the St. Venants Principle reflects in more stringent requirement. In anisotropic
composites, the region of uniform stress is developed more gradually. It shown that the decay
length, is of the order
(8.1)
where is the maximum dimension of the cross-section. In case of rectangular strips subjected to
end tractions
(8.2)
where, is the distance over which a self equilibrated stress applied at the ends decays to its end
value of . In above expressions, the ratio , that is degree of orthotropy, is an important factor.
For unidirectional composites this ratio varies between 40 to 50 whereas for an isotropic material this
is about 3. Thus, the ratio of respective decay lengths is about 3.5:1.

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Another problem with the composite testing arises when the loading directions do not coincide with
the symmetry axes of the specimen. This situation gives rise to coupling between the normal-shear
modes. This results in extraneous forces and deformations in the coupons. For example, a coupon
in tension will exhibit the in-plane shear and a coupon in bending will exhibit the additional twisting.
Further, if the laminate has layers oriented with respect to each other then there will be mismatch of
interface deformation due to different degree of tension-shear coupling of adjacent layers. This may
lead to delamination. The severity of the mismatch of interface deformation depends upon various
factors like stacking sequence, test modes, degree of asymmetry, end constraints, etc.

Thus, to summarize, the main practical consequences of anisotropy are as follows:

1. There will be severe end-effects, which extend in the direction of higher stiffness. Further, this
is a function of both the specimen geometry and the anisotropy.
2. A premature failure in grips or at other loading points may occur.
3. A premature delamination at free edges or other unintended failure modes may take place.
These failures emanate from the interactions between the macrostructure of the composite

and system of external forces.
4. There can be property imbalances of the lamina. For example, a tensile modulus (or strength)
which is dominated by the properties of the fibre and a shear modulus (or strength) which is
dominated by the properties of the matrix.

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Nature and Quality of the Test Data

The quality of the mechanical properties derived from the mechanical testing depends upon various
factors. These factors include:

1. Precision
2. Accuracy
3. Authenticity and repeatability
4. Relevance to the test objective
5. Physical significance

The factors precision and accuracy can be attributed to statistical analysis. However, they cannot be
separated if the data set is small. The remaining three factors can not readily be quantified.
Usually, there will be scatter in the measured data. The scatter is attributed to the combined effect of
the factors:
1. Precision with which the measurements are made

2. Accuracy with which the measurements are made
3. Variations in the structure of the test coupon in the set itself
The mean value and a measure of width of the distribution, like standard deviation or range

are the two main statistical factors that are used to characterize the distribution of the values. Apart
from their direct role as a measure of the variability in a set of data, the variance and the standard
deviation, which is square root of variance, can be used to infer following points:
1. confidence limits for a set of data

2. reliability of apparent differences between sets of data
3. combined uncertainty of measurements when there are several sources of variability
4. separate variabilities when several factors have affected a set of data
5. goodness of fit when correlation between a dependent and an independent variable is derived

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Samples and Specimens for Mechanical Testing

The samples from which the specimens are made for mechanical testing can be in the form of:

1. pultrusions,
2. filament wound tubes and
3. flat sheets

The former two types are used because they represent the most important fabrication processes and
their ease of fabrication process. As we know from our earlier studies, in pultrusion the fibres are
aligned along the pultrusion axis. In case of filament wound tubes, the fibres are aligned either
spirally or circumferentially. However, the alignment can be optimally chosen in case of other filament
shapes. In these two fabrication processes, the degree of void content is less and there is better
consolidation of structure.
The advantage of using the tubular specimens is the ease with which specimen can be subjected to
axial tension or compression, internal pressure, torsion and multi-axial loading. However, the
limitations with these specimens include the high cost of fabrication and testing, fabrication may
result in different micro-structure and hence different equivalent properties.
The flat sheets available for commercial use come in following four categories:
1. layers of unidirectional fibres aligned with reference to an axis

2. sheets of randomly oriented fibres in a plane
3. layers of woven fibres aligned with reference to an axis
4. sandwich structure

The flat sheets, depending upon the nature of alignment of the fibres can result into various
behaviours like orthotropic, transversely isotropic or even isotropic. When one uses the mechanical
properties of the composite, it is essential to quote the volume fractions and spatial arrangement of
fibres. The flat specimen is an obvious choice because of economic reason.
The limitations with flat specimens can be:
a. Specific states of stress can not be developed. For example, the state of pure shear is
difficult to develop in such specimens.
b. The axial compression is also a difficult issue due to buckling
c. Further, developing a combined state of stress in such specimens is also a difficult
task.

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Other Issues with Mechanical Testing of Specimens

The other issues associated with the mechanical testing include:

1. Stress concentrations due to material discontinuities at free edges, ply-drop off regions, which
results into early failures.
2. In case of compression testing, there is a susceptibility to buckling for thin specimens. This
type of testing demands for additional fixtures.
3. Flat specimen requires special geometry for purpose of gripping. For this reason, the flat
specimens with end-tabs are favourably used.
4. The composite is heterogeneous and the volume fractions are the essential data required with
the mechanical properties. Hence, additional tests are required to determine the volume
fractions and void content, if any.
5. The mechanical properties determined are affected by moisture content. Hence, in some
applications the amount of moisture present in the composite is required. Therefore, additional
tests are required to determine the moisture content in composite.
6. Further, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods are required to assess the quality of the
fabricated material and damage development during the loading.

The end-tabs are a special requirement in case of flat specimens. Therefore, it needs additional
information. The end-tabs are used almost universally to reduce the probability of failure initiating at
the grips during a tensile test. End-tabs can also facilitate accurate alignment of the specimen in the
test machine, provided that they are symmetrical and properly positioned on the specimen, but if they
are deficient in these respects they can cause misalignment and introduce stress concentrations.

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Home Work:

1. Write a short note on societies of mechanical testing.
2. What are the objectives of the mechanical testing?

3. What are the effects of the anisotropy of composites in their mechanical testing?

4. What are the issues with the mechanical testing of the specimen?


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Lecture 36: Quality Assessment and Physical Properties

Introduction

In the previous lecture we have introduced the needs, background and societies for mechanical
testing of composites. In this lecture and subsequent lectures we will see principles for the
measurement of physical and mechanical properties of composite. In the present lecture we will see
the methods to assess the quality of the composite and physical properties.


Primary Mechanical Properties of a Long-Fibre Composite
Quality Assessment
Physical Properties of the Composite
Homework

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Primary Mechanical Properties of a Long-Fibre Composite

There is a large set of properties of a long fibre composite that one needs in design and analysis.
However, it is generally agreed that the minimum requirement to assess the three main properties
modulus, strength and ductility, are the parameters listed below:

1. Tensile modulus
2. Compressive modulus (uniaxial)
3. Flexural modulus
4. Shear modulus (in plane)
5. Lateral contraction ratios
6. Tensile strength
7. Compressive strength (uniaxial)
8. Flexural strength
9. Apparent interlaminar shear strength
10. Fracture toughness (various modes)
The requirement of property evaluation listed above is based upon the tests for an isotropic
homogeneous sample. However, this minimum requirement is not sufficient to completely quantify
the strength and stiffness tensors. Further, it neglects the viscoelastic behaviour aspect of the
composites.
All the tests included in the minimum requirement of the property evaluation are not carried out by
most of the industries working in composites. Their objective can be different and carry out some of
the tests. For example, most of the fibres manufacturing companies give the properties of composite
which are fibre properties dominant. In such cases, the properties like axial tensile and flexure are
given more significance. However, the resin manufacturers tend to give more significance to
compression and shear properties of the composite. In this case, these properties are dominated by
matrix properties.
The call for open hole tests reflects reservations about the reliability of the theories of failure and
about the relevance and relative paucity of the empirical evidence from conventional fracture
toughness tests. The protagonists of such tests sometimes seem to be preoccupied with a search for
authentic and/or definitive data which is perpetually frustrated by a preponderance of mixed-mode
failures in their experiments.
The following are the primary engineering properties for preliminary selection of composite materials
in a commercial aeroplane industry:
1. Tensile strength at room temperature

2. Uniaxial compression at room temperature
3. Interlaminar shear at room temperature
4. Open hole tension at room temperature
5. Open hole compression at
6. Hot/wet compression strength
7. Edge-plate compression strength after impact at room temperature
The tests mentioned above are the essential tests in the initial testing phase.


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Quality Assessment

The quality assessment of the composites used in the specimens to be tested must be done prior to
the testing whenever possible. If the composite used in the specimens is of low quality with defects
then the property measured are spurious. It can mislead the design and analysis procedure and
result in a premature and catastrophic failure of the structure. Hence, the quality assessment of
composites before it is used in specimen or actual structure fabrication is essential.

The following quality assessment in composites is essential:

quality of bond between fiber and matrix,
voids,
broken fibers,
matrix cracks,
delaminations.

In the following we will see the various methods by which we can assess quality of the composites.

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1. Microscopy

The microscopy is one of the best methods that provide the first hand information on the form of

damage. The microscopy can provide the information like:

1. Shape of the fibers,

2. Geometry and uniformity of the fiber spacing,

3. Presence of voids
4. Regions rich or poor in matrix,
5. Fibre alignment.

The microscopy method has limitations like that it can give the information inside the composite. It
can give the information on the surface as mentioned above. It cannot give the information like fibre-
matrix bond, broken fibres, matrix cracks and delaminations inside the composite.
2. Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method of testing. Using this method one can assess the
quality of the composite. The ultrasonic testing method includes the propagation of mechanical
waves through the object to be inspected. The mechanical waves propagated are in the range of 100
kHz to 25 MHz. Some of the waves propagated are reflected or transmitted at the other end. The
intensity of the waves at the other end is measured by a receiving transducer.
There are two types of waves: Longitudinal and transverse waves. In longitudinal waves direction of
oscillation of atoms and the direction of propagation of the wave is along same direction. In the
transverse waves the direction of oscillation of atoms is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of wave. The longitudinal waves propagate in all materials whereas the transverse waves propagate
only in solid materials. Further, due to Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse waves travel
at lower speeds.
When the wave propagating in the material is intercepted by a defect and interfaces (like change
from fibre to matrix material and vice a versa or a foreign particle) the energy transmitted through
the material also gets reduced due the effect of reflection and attenuation. Thus, one can use both
reflection and transmission form of energy for ultrasonic inspection.
The ultrasonic beam requires a transfer medium. In general, water is used as a transfer medium.
This is a disadvantage of this method. Further, use of water during the test process can lead to
absorption water by composite.
In the recent years the new developments in the ultrasonic testing have made this process very
sophisticated and attractive. One can get the complete map or intensity distribution corresponding to
the discontinuity in the material. Such a map is called C-scan.
The detailed information on the ultrasonic inspection can be found in ASTM E114-90 for Pulse-Echo
method, E214-68(91) for Reflection method, E317-93 for Pulse-Echo and E494-91 for ultrasonic
velocities.

3. X-Ray

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X-ray technique is a very useful technique. It uses the electromagnetic waves of extremely of short
wavelength. These waves are capable of penetrating solid substances and are affected by
discontinuities much as other waves. It should be noted that the polymer composites X-rays. A X-ray
opaque penetrant is introduced in the damaged area as a liquid solution or suspension so that it fills
the cracks and delaminations and makes them clearly visible on X-ray films as a dark region.
Opaque dye penetrant such as tetra-bromo-ethane (TBE) is used in these processes.
It is cautioned that the frequent use of dye penetrant should be avoided. This is because the
penetrant actually enhances the crack growth. Thus, under loading the frequent use of penetrant will
increase the growth rate. Hence, this technique is treated as effectively destructive.
The regions with lower density such as voids, defects and cracks absorb less radiation. This result in
higher intensity of the radiation that reaches a photographic film or plate placed on the far side of
the sample. The higher intensity causes the darkening of the film or the plate. Thus, the darker
areas of the film indicate the outline of the low density region.
ASTM Standards related with this technique are E 94-93, E 142-92 and E 1316-94.
4. Thermography
This is one of the sophisticated techniques that are used in infrared thermography. The advantage of
this technique is that it does not require any interruption for inspection. Thus, it is well suited for
fatigue testing.
This technique is based on the principles that the infrared thermography detects the heat generated
from a source. In case of damage in composite there are two types of such heat sources. The first
one is hysteresis evolving from resin and interface. The second source is heating due to friction
between the cracks and delaminated interfaces. Thus, the area which appears hot on the
thermographs is the area of damage. Once the area of damage is detected, one can zoom into it
and get more details.
ASTM Standard guide for nondestructive testing of polymer matrix composites used in aerospace
applications is E2533-09.

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Physical Properties of the Composite

The physical properties of the composite play an important role in the measured mechanical
properties. There is a direct dependence of mechanical properties on the physical properties. For
example, the mechanical properties are directly dependent on fibre volume fractions. Here, we will
consider the following physical property measurements.

1. Density

From our basic knowledge, the density of a material is defined as mass of the material per unit its

volume. A test method to determine the density of a material is detailed in ASTM standard D792-91.
This method is used determine the density of the composite and its constituents. The key points of
the test procedure are explained in the following paragraphs.
The density of a material is determined using its weight in air and in water . The densities of
air (negligible) and water are taken as known parameters in this
test. The volume of the specimen is determined from the difference between the weight of the
material in air and the weight in water and using the known density of water. Then the composite
density is given as
(8.3)

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2. Fiber Volume Fraction

The fibre volume fraction is an important factor in composites as it governs the properties of a

composite. The usual fibre volume fraction ranges from 30% to 65%. As we know, the lower end
depends upon the significance of property contribution of the fibres where as the upper depends
upon the effective, defect-free packing.

In the following we will see some methods to determine the fibre volume fractions.

1st Method: In this method the number of fibers is counted in several measured representative
areas of a polished surface of the composite under magnification. Then measure the diameter or the
cross sectional area of one or more fibers. Then calculate the average fiber volume fraction as the
percentage of area that is fiber. The advantage of this method is that it is simple and provides
information about type and uniformity of fiber spacing as well as indication of the void content.
However, it should be noted that it is a crude method.
2nd Method: In this method the matrix material is digested or dissolved by putting a measured
volume of composite in an acid bath. Then weigh the (dry) fibers remaining after digestion. Thus,
knowing the density of the fibers, the volume of fibers and the fiber volume fraction can be
determined. One should be careful to choose the liquid for digestion such that the fibers are not
digested. Generally, hot nitric acid is used for carbon/epoxy. The ASTM standards used for digestion
method are D3171-76 (1990) for polymeric composites and D3553-76 (1989) for metal matrix
composites.
3rd Method: In this method one determines the density of the composites and then calculates the
fiber volume fraction knowing the density of the fiber and the matrix. This method makes an
assumption that the void content is negligible. However, which is not true for any composite. Hence,
the results of this method may vary with the results of earlier two methods.


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3. Void Content
Unlike in other conventional materials, polymer and ceramic matrix materials have to be tested for

one more physical property like void content. These composites have voids after fabrication. A

composite with voids can affect the mechanical; thermal properties, strengths and resistance to

fatigue and corrosion. A composite with less than 1% void content is treated as a well fabricated
composite. Further, a composite upto 7% void content is regarded as a poorly fabricated composite.

The void content is measured from experimental composite density and theoretical composite
density . The void content in percent is simply the ratio of difference between experimental and
theoretical densities to theoretical density. If one knows the densities of the constituents and resin
content then, theoretical density can be found. The methods are described in ASTM standard
D253491, which requires use of ASTM standard D258468(1985) for determination of the resin
content.
The theoretical density of the composite is of weight of the composite per unit its volume. The
volume of the composite is sum of the volume of the fibre and resin. The volume of the fibre and
resin can be found from their weights and respective densities. Thus,
(8.4)
Thus, using the volumes of fibre and resin, and

(8.5)
where, is the weight of the fibre, is the weight of the resin, is the density of the fibre and
is the density of resin. Now, percent the void content is given as:
(8.6)

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4. Moisture Content:
The composite materials when exposed to the environment or water absorb moisture. The absorption
of the moisture results in the expansion as we have seen already. This also affects the degradation

of the mechanical as well as thermal properties.

The moisture content in a polymeric composite is given in terms of percent of moisture by weight.
Hence, to measure the moisture content a sample is weighed at the ambient conditions. Then the
sample is dried and weighed again. The difference in these two weights per unit weight of the dry
sample gives the weight change due to moisture content. Figure 8.1 shows a qualitative variation in
weight change over time due to two different drying conditions for a polymer composite. From the
figure it can be seen that the drying in vacuum increases the desorption rate significantly. That is
why the vacuum ovens are used in laboratory for drying the specimens.
Figure 8.1: Effect of moisture on weight change (Qualitatve)

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Home Work:

1. List the parameters needed to assess the three main properties modulus, strength and
ductility.

2. What are the ways of assessing the quality of the composite?

3. What the physical properties of composite that needs to be quantified?

4. Explain the methods in short to measure the physical properties of a composite.


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Lecture 37: Tensile and Compressive Testing

Introduction

In the previous lecture we have introduced the method to assess the quality of the composite and
methods to measure the physical properties like density, volume fractions, void content and moisture
content. In the lecture we will introduce some methods used for mechanical property characterization.


Mechanical Property Characterization
Strain Measurement
Tensile Testing
Orthotropic Laminae and Laminate
Off-Axis Laminae

Measurement of Modulus
Compression Testing
Examples
Homework

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Mechanical Property Characterization

The characterization of composites for mechanical properties is very important from design and
analysis as well as life prediction point of view. The general considerations for mechanical property
characterization have already been seen in the earlier lectures. However, we will revise the key
considerations in brief in the following.

1. Specimen must provide desired state of stress and strain
2. Cost of material, fabrication, testing
3. Specimens used to generate the data must be of same fiber volume fractions, thickness and
fabrication method.
4. Flat laminates and laminated tube type specimens

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Strain Measurement

The strain measurement along with stress measurement is an essential component of the
measurements during the testing. The stress-strain variation depicts the behaviour of the composite
material under test. It gives the information about the linear and non-linear behaviour. This
information is very essential when one is measuring the other properties like moduli, Poissons ratios
and other engineering properties. When one is deriving the engineering properties from these
behaviours then the initial linear portion of the behaviour must be used. This is because in this initial
linear behaviour it is assumed that there are no damages due to the loading and plasticity effects, if
any, introduced.
There are three commonly used methods to measure the strains. The strains can be measured
using extensometers, strain gages and optical methods.
1. Extensometers: They provide average strain over a finite length, typically of the order 1 in
(25.4 mm).
These are used primarily for measurement of axial strains. They can also be used to measure
transverse strains.
2. Strain gages: The strain gages can be uniaxial, bi-directional and rosettes. They measure
strain in one, two and three directions, respectively.
3. Rosettes: They provide a complete description of the average strain over the region of
measurement through strain transformation equations.
The strain gages are available in a range of sizes with smallest of the order 1.59 mm bidirection and
rosettes can be stacked or adjacent
The length of the gauge may be specified by the relevant standards, but should always be
significantly shorter than the gauge length of the specimen. Composites can cause particular
difficulties not encountered with metals. The issues that must be addressed are as follows:
1. High gauge resistances are desirable because high voltages (24 V) with low current can then
be used; this improves hysteresis effects and zero load stability.
2. If possible, use gauges with lead wires attached, or solder wires to the gauge before
installation; this should avoid soldering damage to the composite.
3. Ideally the pattern of the autoclave scrim cloth should be removed before gauge installation;
this is particularly important if contact adhesives are used.
4. Corrections may be necessary to gauge transverse sensitivity effects; errors of over 100%
between actual and measured strains can be obtained.
5. Gauges must be precisely aligned; errors of 15% can result from a misalignment. There is
no universally acceptable way of ensuring alignment. The scrim cloth pattern can be
misleading. Sometimes C-scan after installation can be useful or checking with failure
surfaces after fracture.
6. Dummy gauges are the preferred method for temperature compensation but, again, precise
alignment is needed. It is necessary to mount the dummy gauges on an identical piece of
laminate, with the same orientation relative to the fibres as used for the active gauges.

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Rosette Principle

The normal strains are measured along any three directions and then strain
transformation equations are used to determine global strains .

(8.7)

Figure 8.2: Strain gage rosette principle
When the normal strains are known then, Eq. (8.7) is a system of three equations with
three global strains as the unknowns. It should be noted that when the rosettes are
placed on both sides of flat specimen it provides the most complete information as to axial,
transverse and shear strains. Further, it provides the information on the development of specimen
curvature. The Figure 8.2 shows the arrangement of strain gages in a rosette.
One should pay attention while using the rosettes that the measurements are sensitive to
temperature. Hence, appropriate gage should be used for the test. Further, the measurements are
sensitive to fiber orientation of the composite and gage alignment. Therefore, it is very important to
measure the fibre orientation and gage alignment accurately and must be used appropriately in the
analysis of experimental results.


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Tensile Testing

The well known purpose of the tensile testing is to measure the ultimate tensile strength and
modulus of the composite. However, one can measure the axial Poisons ratio with additional
instrumentations. The standard specimen used for tensile testing of continuous fiber composites is a
flat, straight-sided coupon. A flat coupons in ASTM standard D 3039/D 3039M-93 for and
have been shown in Figure 8.3(a) and (b), respectively.

The specimen, as mentioned above is flat rectangular coupon. The tabs are recommended for
gripping the specimen. It protects the specimen from load being directly applied to the specimen
causing the damage. Thus, the load is applied to the specimen through the grips. Further, it protects
the outer fibres of the materials. The tabs can be fabricated from a variety of materials, including
fiberglass, copper, aluminum or the material and laminate being tested. When the tabs of composite
material are used then according to ASTM specifications the inner plies of the tabs should match
with the outer plies of the composite. This avoids the unwanted shear stresses at the interface of the
specimen and tabs. However, the recent versions of the ASTM standards allow the use of tabs with
reinforcement at . Further, end-tabs can also facilitate accurate alignment of the specimen in
the test machine, provided that they are symmetrical and properly positioned on the specimen. The
tabs are pasted to the specimen firmly with adhesive.
This specimen can provide data on:
1. The axial modulus ,

2. In-plane and through thickness Poissons ratio
3. Tensile ultimate stress ,
4. Tensile ultimate strain ,
5. Any nonlinear, inelastic response
In general, the tensile tests are done on coupons with laminae/laminate for corresponding axial
properties and coupons with laminae/laminate for corresponding transverse properties. The off
axis laminae specimen also provides data on coefficient of mutual influence and the in-plane shear

response.


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Figure 8.3:Composite tensile test specimens

(a) ASTM D 3039 for 0 and
(b) ASTM D 3039 for 90.


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Orthotropic Laminae and Laminate:

For orthotropic, symmetric laminates with and laminae, the effective axial modulus and
Poissons ratio is given as

(8.8)

where, the quantities with asterisk are for laminate as mentioned in Chapter on Laminate Theory.
These properties can be measured directly from a tensile test on a specimen of thickness under
axial force per unit length as follows:
(8.9)
The tensile strength is defined as the average stress at failure. Thus, the tensile strength can be
given using the maximum applied force per unit length and thickness as

(8.10)
It should be noted that the failure of laminates is often influenced by inter laminar stresses along the
free edge effects of the coupon. These factors will be explained in brief in one of the lecture.
The measurement of tensile strength by experiments can also provide information on the comparison
of laminate theory with experiments.


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Off-Axis Laminae

One can measure the tensile properties by conducting experiments on off-axis laminae. However,
there are certain issues associated with this kind of experiments. For example, the presence of axial-
shear coupling is associated with the nonzero . Alternately, one can say that this term is
associated with coefficient of mutual influence . Hence, these tests are not straight forward as
in case of symmetric laminates with and laminae. Therefore, sometimes these tests are

called as specialized tests.

When the experiments are conducted to measure the properties like , and one can get
the other properties along with these tests. For example, the coefficient of mutual influence ,
the nonlinear response and strength of an off-axis lamina for given fibre orientation can also be
obtained.
There is an important issue associated with these tests is that what boundary conditions one should
impose on the specimen? If a pure, uniform state of axial stress can be
applied to the ends and sides of a specimen and the specimen is free to assume any desired
deformation pattern, the state of stress will be uniform and constant through-out the specimen. The
deformation pattern is shown in Figure 8.4(a).
For uniform, far-field axial stress loading, that is , the stresses in principal material
directions can be given as
(8.11)
Further, the global elastic constants associated with axial stress loading are measured as
(8.12)
Combining above two equations, we get
(8.13)
From the above equation all three strain components can be obtained for non zero value of axial
stress. Thus, from the third of the above equation we can find the shear modulus.


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Figure 8.4: Axial load on off-axis laminae with effect of end constraint
(a) unconstrained displacement and
(b) constrained displacement
It is not easy to apply pure, uniform tensile stress to an off-axis coupon. The specimens are gripped
in such a manner that the ends of the specimen are constrained and boundary condition is actually
a specification of the axial end displacement. Further, there are more issues with these tests like the
constrained displacement induces a doubly curved displacement field in the specimen. The deformed
shape of the coupon with restrictions on the ends is depicted in Figure 8.4(b). We will not deal the
complete analysis for the measurements of the properties with tests on off-axis laminae.
The bone shaped specimens for chopper-fiber, metal matrix composite tensile tests. More details can
be seen in ASTM D3552-77(1989). Further, for the tensile testing for transverse properties of hoop-
wound polymer matrix composite cylinders are used. The details of this testing can be seen in ASTM
D5450/D5450M-93.


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Measurement of Modulus

It should be noted that due to progressive damage the stiffness of the lamina or laminae/laminate
changes causing the stress strain curve to be non-linear. The measurement of modulus in a tensile
testing from a non-linear loading curve can be done by three methods.

In the first method the modulus is taken as a tangent to the initial part of the curve. In the second
method a tangent is constructed at a specified strain level. For example, in the Figure 8.5 the
modulus is measured at 0.25% strain or 0.0025 strain (Point B). In the third method, a secant is
constructed between two points. For example in Figure 8.5 a secant is constructed between points A
and B. Typically, the strain values at these points are 0.0005 and 0.0025. In ASTM standards the
secant is called as chord. The modulus measured by these methods is known as initial tangent
modulus, B% modulus and A%-B% secant (chord) modulus, respectively.
Figure 8.5: Typical tensile stress-strain curve with details

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Compression Testing

Most of the structural members include the compression members. Such members can be loaded
directly in compression or under a combination of flexural and compression loading. The axial
stiffness of such members depends upon the cross-sectional area. Thus, it is proportional to the
weight of the structure. One can alter the stiffness by changing the geometry of the cross section
within limits. However, some of the composites have low compressive strength and this fact limits the
full potential application of these composites.

The compression testing of the composites is very challenging due to various reasons. The
application of compressive load on the cross section can be done in three ways: directly apply the
compressive load on the ends of a specimen, loading the edges in shear and mixed shear and direct
loading. These three ways of imposing the loads for compression testing are shown in Figure 8.6.
During compression loading the buckling of the specimen should be avoided. This demands a
special requirement on the holding of the specimen for loading purpose. Further, it demands for
special geometry of the specimen. These specimens are smaller in size as compared to the tensile
testing specimens. A compression test specimen according to ASTM D695 (modified) standard is
The compression testing of composites is a vast topic. Additional reading on this topic from other
literature is suggested to readers.
Figure 8.6: Load imposition methods for compression testing. (a) Direct
end loading (b) Shear loading and (c) Mixed shear and direct loading

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Figure 8.7: Composite compression test specimen according to

ASTM D695 (modified) standard.

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Examples:

Example 8.1

The strain rosette is mounted on a structure as shown in Figure below. The readings in each
strain gage are , and . Determine the
strains in global directions.

Figure: Rosette on a structure (Example 8.1)
Solution:
From the figure, we have the following data:
and
Applying Equation (8.7), we get
Solving, we get
Example 8.2

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The strain rosette is mounted on a wing as shown in Figure below. The readings in each strain
gage obtained are , and . Determine
the strains in global directions.

Figure: Rosette on a wing (Example 8.2)
Solution:
From the figure, we have the following data:
and
Applying Equation (8.7), we get
Solving, we get the following set of equations
Putting the value of in the first and third of above relation and upon solving
them, we get

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Home Work:

1. What are the methods for strain measuring? Explain in detail the rosette principle.
2. What are the key points in tensile testing?

3. Explain the method of measuring the tensile modulus using symmetric laminates with and
laminae.

4. Explain the method of measuring the tensile modulus using off-axis laminae.

5. Explain the method to measure the modulus from stress-strain curve.
6. Write a short note on compression testing.
7. What are the ways of imposing a compression load on a specimen for compression testing?
8. The strain rosette is mounted on a shaft as shown in Figure below. The following
readings are obtained for each gage: , and
. Determine the strains in global directions.
Figure: Rosette on a shaft

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Lecture 38: Shear Testing

Introduction

The measurement of shear properties in composites is a very difficult and challenging task. It is very
difficult to measure the transverse shear properties like and corresponding shear strength.
Measurement of in-plane shear properties is also equally difficult. In the present chapter we will see
some of the methods used to measure the in-plane shear modulus .

Shear Testing
Tensile Test
Shear Of an Off-Axis Lamina

Thin Walled Tube in Torsion
Iosipescu Shear Test
Homework

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Shear Testing

Here we will see measurement of in-plane shear modulus only. The methods are listed below:

1. Tension of a laminate
2. Tension of an off-axis lamina
3. Torsion of a unidirectional tube
4. Iosipescu shear of unidirectional laminae and cross ply laminates

5. Rail shear of unidirectional laminae

6. Picture frame test

1. Tensile Test:
A tension test on laminate is popularly used test for the measurement of in-plane shear
modulus . The more details of this test are available in ATSM standard D3518/D3518/M91.
According to ASTM standard the method uses a 250 mm long rectangular specimen with width 25
mm and thickness 2 mm. Further, it is recommended that for materials constructed with layers
thicker than 0.125mm, the laminate should consist of 16 layers, that is, .The specimen is
shown in Figure 8.8. The dimensions in this figure are in mm.
When a is subjected to axial tensile stress then stresses in principal material

coordinates developed in each of the and lamina are given as
(8.14)
where,
(8.15)
and other quantities as defined in earlier chapters. For a special case with we get the
shear stress as
(8.16)
Thus, from this equation one can see that the shear stress in principal material directions is statically
determinate, that is, it is independent of material properties of the specimen and only depends upon
the magnitude of the applied stress. The magnitude of this stress is half of the applied stress.

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Figure 8.8: Specimen geometry and strain gage

positioning for tensile testing

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From the knowledge of linear elastic behaviour of the orthotropic materials it is clear that the shear
response is uncoupled from the normal response. Hence, in-plane shear modulus can be
determined directly from a tensile test on a laminate.

Now the shear strain in principal material coordinates can be found by transformation of the

measured axial and transverse strains and . It should be noted that the shear strain is

zero for orthotropic laminates under tension and is independent of for (see the
strain transformation relations). Thus, from the strain transformation relations, we can get the shear
strain in principal material directions as

(8.17)
Thus, from the definition of the shear modulus we get
(8.18)
The above equation can be rearranged in the following manner to express the shear modulus in

terms of effective properties of laminate.
(8.19)
Here, is the effective modulus of the laminate.

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The measurement of in-plane shear modulus from shear stress-strain curve is done as follows. The
shear stress-strain curve for specimen is obtained first. A typical shear stress-strain curve for
such a specimen is shown in Figure 8.9. The shear modulus is obtained from the initial slope of the
this curve in the range of 0.1-0.5% strain as

(8.20)

The tensile test on specimen provides an acceptable method for the measurement of in-plane
shear modulus. However, one should be careful while interpreting the ultimate shear strength and
strain. It should be noted that the laminae are subjected to a biaxial state of stress and not a pure
shear. The normal stresses act along the shear planes causing the onset of mixed mode fracture.
Other kind of failure like multiple ply cracking, fibre rotation and edge or internal delaminations occur
prior to final failure. Therefore, the true failure is very difficult to determine. The shear strength is
specified by different standards corresponding either to the ultimate load generated during the test or
to a specified strain level. It is recommended in ISO standard that the test be terminated at
. The shear strength is taken as the peak load at or before 5% strain.
Figure 8.9: Typical shear stress-strain curve for specimen


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2. Shear Of an Off-Axis Lamina:
In similar way to the tensile testing of a laminate one can use a unidirectional off-axis

tensile coupon to determine the shear response of a composite in the principal material coordinates.

A tensile test on off-axis lamina is a commonly used. Specimen has same geometry as in
Figure 8.9. The state of stress in principal material coordinate directions can be obtained from
transformation relations. Since, the shear response in the principal material coordinates is uncoupled
from the normal response we can write the shear modulus as

(8.21)
The shear stress in the principal material directions due to axial tensile stress can be given using
transformation relations as
(8.22)
The shear strain is measured from the strains and with the help of strain
transformation relations. Then the apparent shear modulus can be given as
(8.23)

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3. Thin Walled Tube in Torsion:

In this method a direct shear stress is applied to a thin walled tube by pure torsion applied along the

longitudinal axis of the tube. The thin tube is an ideal specimen for testing composite laminae in
shear as it can provide a uniform state of pure shear stress. Due to small thickness of the tube the
shear gradient in the thickness direction can be neglected. The specimen should have a gauge
length to diameter (L/D) ratio >1, and a wall thickness to diameter ratio (t/D) of 0.02, or less.

Figure 8.10: Shear test by torsion of tube
The in-plane average shear stress in a thin walled unidirectional tube under
pure torsional loading, is related to torque by
(8.24)
where, is the outer diameter and is the inner diameter of the tube.
The shear strain is measured by means of two bonded triaxial strain gauges (0/45/90). The strain
gauges are bonded diametrically opposite each other, at the centre of the specimen. The strain
gauges have a gauge length of 6 mm. The longitudinal and transverse strain gauges are monitored
to ensure there are no significant bending forces applied to the specimen during the test set-up and
no bending loads present during the test. The shear strain is determined from the average of shear
strains measured using the strain gauges. The shear modulus is then given as
(8.25)
where and denote the strain measured by and and strain gages. It should
be noted that above equation indicates that the shear modulus is obtained from the initial slope of
the shear stress strain curve in some range.
More details on this test can be seen in ASTM D5448/D5448M-93.


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4. Iosipescu Shear Test:
This test was developed by Iosipescu in 1967. The original test was designed for a round specimen

with a V-notch groove for shear testing of metals. This was extended to flat composite laminates by

Bergner et al. The flat specimen has two identical V notches symmetrically placed about the center

line at mid length. When the specimen is loaded in shear, a region of nearly uniform, pure shear
stress is present in the test section (between the notches). The actual stress distribution is a function
of the material properties and fiber orientation. In general, laminae with and orientation are
used for this test.

Figure 8.11: Iosipescu shear test
The two bi-axial strain gages, one on each face, in the area between the notches are bonded. The
strain gauges should have a gauge length of 1 mm or 2 mm, to keep within the region of uniform
stress, and are aligned at 45 to the longitudinal axis of the specimen.

The average shear strength is given as
(8.26)
and the average shear modulus is given as
(8.27)
where is ultimate failure load, is the distance between the notches, is the specimen
thickness, is the change in applied load and and are the corresponding changes
in normal strain in and and strain gages. Again, it should be noted that the shear
modulus is obtained as initial slope in some range of strain.
More details on this test can be seen in ASTM D5379.


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Home Work:

1. Explain in brief the tension test on and off-axis lamina to determine the shear
properties.

2. What is Iosipescu shear test?
3. Write short note on measurement of shear modulus by torsion of a thin walled tube.


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Lecture 39: Shear and Flexural Testing

Introduction

In the previous lecture we have seen some methods to determine the in-plane shear modulus as well
as shear strength. Some methods were easy at both experimental as well as analytical level, whereas
some were easy on analytical level but difficult at experimental level. These methods have their own
pros and cons. In this lecture we will see some more methods to determine the shear properties.
Finally we will see methods to determine the flexural properties along with shear properties.

Rail Shear Test
Picture Frame Test
Flexural Tests
Homework
References

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1. Rail Shear Test:

This is a very popular method used to measure in-plane shear properties. This method is extensively
used in aerospace industry. The shear loads are imposed on the edges of the laminate using
specialized fixtures. There are two types of such fixtures: Two rail and three rail fixture.
The ASTM D4255 standard covers the specification for two and three rail specimens for both
continuous and discontinuous ( and fibre alignment), symmetric laminates and randomly
oriented fibrous laminates.

a. Two Rail Shear Test
:
The two rail shear test fixture along with a laminate to be tested is shown in Figure 8.12. The Figure
8.13 shows the specimen geometry according to ASTM D4255 standard. The two rail shear test
fixture has two rigid parallel steel rails for loading purpose. The rails are aligned to the loading
direction as shown in Figure 8.12. Thus, it induces the shear load in the specimen which is bolted to
these rails. A strain gage is bonded at to the longitudinal axis of the specimen.
The Shear strength is obtained as
(8.28)
where, is ultimate failure load, is the specimen length along the rails and is the specimen
thickness.


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The shear modulus is given as

(8.29)

where, is the change in applied load and is the change in strain for or

strain gage in the initial linear stress-strain regime. It is suggested that the change in the strain is
taken as the average of the change in strains on the both sides of the specimen.

Various modes of failure are seen. The modes are highly dependent upon the microstructure of the
material.
Figure 8.12: Two rail shear fixture for shear testing

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Figure 8.13: Two rail shear test specimen


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b. Three Rail (Symmetric) Shear Test:

The three rail shear test is an improved version of the rail shear test. Using one more rail in two rail

shear test fixture it can produce a closer approximation to pure shear. The fixture consists of 3 pairs
of rails clamped to the test specimen as shown in Figure 8.14. The outside pairs are attached to a
base plate which rests on the test machine. Another pair (third middle) pair of rails is guided through
a slot in the top of the base fixture. The middle pair loaded in compression as shown in Figure 8.14.
The shear force in laminate is generated via friction between rail and specimen. The strain gages
bonded to the specimen at to the specimens longitudinal axis. The specimen geometry is

The shear strength is given as
(8.30)
And the shear modulus is given as
(8.31)
where, all variables in these two equations are given previously.
It should be noted that the holes in the specimen are slightly oversized than the bolts used for
clamping. Further, the bolts are tightened in such a manner to ensure that there is no bearing
contact between the bolt and specimen in the loading direction. It is recommended that each bolt is
tightened with a 100 Nm torque.
Figure 8.14: Three rail shear fixture for shear testing

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Figure 8.15: Specimen dimensions for three-rail shear test

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2. Picture Frame Test:
The picture frame test is another method for shear testing of composites. This method is mainly

used for the shear testing of woven composites.

A picture frame fixture for shear testing is sketched in Figure 8.16. The frame has four legs which
are hinged to form a picture frame. Further, there is a rod which runs across one of the diagonal of
the frame. It should be noted that this rod is not in the plane of the frame but runs behind the frame.
The lower end of the rod is hinged with the common hinge of the two legs meeting in that corner.
The other opposite corner hinge is resting in the slot provided in the rod. Further, at the lower end
the rod is again hinged to individual legs of the frame. The lower end of the rod is fixed in jaws of
the loading machine. Thus, when the load is applied through the upper end of the rod, it pushes
these two legs apart and deforms the frame. These two legs in turn push their adjacent legs making
their common hinge to slide in the slot of the rod. The plate deforms into a diamond shape. The
woven composite is clamped to the frame with the help of clamping plates.
The pre-treatment of specimen is essential in this testing. The pre-treatment is given in the following
paragraphs.
The specimen is pre-sheared several times before experiment, so as to make the yarns, as well as
their intervals, more uniform hence obtaining a more consistent geometry of the whole fabric. When
clamped into the fixture, the specimen is kept exactly loose in order to avoid pre-tension in both two
directions of yarn. Beforehand, several marks are drawn on the contacting point of fixture and
specimen; then after the test, it can be ensured by observation that the marks are still contacted;
therefore, there is no slippage between the specimen and the clamping plates.
Figure 8.16: Picture frame test fixture


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Flexural Tests:

The flexural tests are conducted to determine the mechanical properties of resin and laminated fiber
composite materials. Further, these tests are used to determine the interlaminar shear strength of a
laminate, shear modulus, shear strength, tensile and compression moduli along with flexural and
shear stiffness. These tests are not only used for composites but also for sandwich beams.

These tests are simple one. Further, they need simple instrumentation and equipment required.
These tests conducted on beams of uniform cross section. These beam specimens do not require
the end tabs.
There are two methods to carry out these tests. The beam is a flat rectangular specimen and is
simply supported close to its ends. In the first method the beam is centrally loaded. Thus gives three
point bending. Since there are three important points (two end supports and one central loading
point) along the span of the beam this method is called as three-point bending test. In the second
method the beam is loaded by two loads placed symmetrically between the supports. In this method
there are four important points (two end supports and two loading points) along the span of the
beam. Thus, it gives four-point bending. Hence, this method is called four point bending. These
methods are shown schematically in Figure 8.17(a) and (b), respectively. Also shown in this figure
are the shear force diagram (SFD) and bending moment diagrams (BMD) related to the particular
loading regimes.
From the shear force and bending moment diagrams it is clear that there is a stress concentration at
the point of loading. However, for four point bending there is uniform bending moment and both
shear force and interlaminar shear stress are zero between the loading points. Thus, it leads to the
pure bending loading. Such a state of stress is desirable in testing.
The properties are assumed to be uniform through the thickness as composite as it is a

unidirectional composite or isotropic material. For such a material the normal stress varies linearly
across the thickness. The maximum in compression is on one side and an equal maximum in
tension on other side of the thickness and passes through zero at the mid-plane. The maximum
normal stress is given as
(8.32)
where, is the bending moment, is width and is the thickness of the specimen. Further,
and denote compressive and tensile normal stresses, respectively.
The shear stress varies parabolic through the thickness with maximum at mid plane and zero at the
outer surface. The maximum shear stress at the mid plane is given as
(8.33)
where is the shear force on the specimen cross section. The normal stress and shear force
variation through the thickness is shown in Figure 8.18.

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The flexural response of the beam in three or four point bending test is obtained by recording the
load applied and the resulting strain. The resulting strains are measured using the strain gages
bonded on the beam in the gage length. It is clear from the distribution of the shear force and

bending moment that the state of stress in specimens subjected to three and four-point bending
tests are somewhat different. Thus, it may lead to differences in the results.
Figure 8.17: Shear force and bending moment diagrams for (a) three
point and (b) four point bending test
Figure 8.18: Bending and shearing stresses in the thickness direction


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In the following we will see the measurement of flexural modulus and maximum stress on the outer
surface of the beam.

Flexural strength: This is the stress on the surface of the specimen at failure, which should be
accompanied by the breaking of fibers, rather than inter laminar shear.

In the three point bending method the flexural modulus is given as

(8.34)

where, is flexural modulus, is the support span, is the slope of the load-deflection
curve, and are the width and thickness of the specimen, respectively.
In case of four point bending there are two options according to ASTM D790 standard. In the first
option the loading span is one third of the support span. For this case the flexural modulus is given
as
(8.35)
In the second option the loading span is half of the support span. The flexural modulus for this case
is given as
(8.36)

where, the parameters in these two equations are as defined earlier.

The maximum stress on outer surface of the beam is given below for all the cases.
(8.37)
It is important to note that the measurement of width and thickness of the beam is important for
accurate measurement of flexural modulus and maximum stresses.
For more details on these tests one can refer to ASTM D790-92 and ASTM D790M-93.

Objectives_template

Home Work:

1. Explain in brief: (a) Two and three rail shear test, (b) picture frame test and (c) three and four
point bending test.

2. What are differences between two and three rail shear test? Give their relative advantages

and disadvantages.

3. Differentiate between three and four point bending tests along with their pros can cons.


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References

http://www.astm.org/ABOUT/overview.html

P T Curtis (Eds.), CRAG Test Methods for the Measurement of the Engineering

Properties of Fibre Reinforced Plastics, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Technical Report
88012, February 1988.

http://www.cmh17.org/

M E Tuttle and H F Brinson, Resistance Foil Gauge Technology as Applied to
Composite Materials, Report No. VPI-E-83-19, Department of Engineering Science and
Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061,
USA, June 1983.
Mechanical Testing of Advanced Fibre Composites. JM Hodgkinson (Eds). CRC Press,

Woodhouse Publishing Limited, Cambridge, 2000.ASTM D4762-08, Standard Guide for
Testing Polymer Matrix Composite Materials. http://www.astm.org/Standards/D4762.htm.
ASTM D3039/D3039M-08, Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer

Matrix Composite Materials. http://www.astm.org/Standards/D3039.htm.
ASTM D695, Standard Test Method for Compressive Properties of Rigid Plastics.
http://www.astm.org/Standards/D695.htm.
ASTM D3410/D3410M, Test Method for Compressive Properties of Polymer Matrix

Composite Materials with Unsupported Gage Section by Shear Loading.
ASTM D3518/D3518M, Test Method for In-Plane Shear Response of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials by Tensile Test of a 45 Laminate.
ASTM D4255/D4255M, Test Method for In-Plane Shear Properties of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials by the Rail Shear Method.
ASTM D7078/D7078M, Test Method for Shear Properties of Composite Materials by V-

Notched Rail Shear Method. http://www.astm.org/Standards/D7078.htm.

ASTM D3479/D3479M, Test Method for Tension-Tension Fatigue of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials. http://www.astm.org/Standards/D3479.htm.
I De Baere, W Van Paepegem, J Degrieck, Design of a modified three-rail shear test for
shear fatigue of composites, Polymer Testing, Vol. 27(3), 2008, pp 346-359.

Objectives_template
Space Simulation, Aerospace and Aircraft, Composite Materials, ASTM Vol. 15.03.
JM Hodgkinson, Mechanical Testing of Advanced Fibre Composites, Woodhead

Publishing Limited, Cambridge, England, 2000.
DF Adams, Test methods for mechanical properties in Comprehensive Composite

Materials, Vol. 5: Test Methods, Nondestructive Evaluation and Smart Composites,
Pergamon, 2000.
GH Staab, Laminar Composites, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, 1999.
NE Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Engineering Methods for Deformation,

Fracture and Fatigue, Third Edition.
BW Rosen, A simple procedure for experimental determination of the longitudinal shear

modulus of unidirectional composites, Jl. Composite Materials, Vol. 6(4), 1972, pp 552-
554.
N Iosipescu, New accurate procedure for single shear testing of metals, Journal of
Materials, Vol. 2(3), 1967, pp 53766.
HW Jr. Bergner, JG Jr. Davis, CT Herakovich, Analysis and shear test method for
composite laminates, VPI-E77-14, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, 1977.

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Module 9: Design Considerations in Laminated Composites

Lecture 40: Design Considerations in Composites

Introduction
In this lecture we will summarize some of the key points we have studied throughout this course

which will be helpful for designing of laminated composites. Further, we will introduce some more key

points which are very peculiar to laminated composites and very important from design and analysis
point of view. Some of the considerations itself are a broad areas of study. However, in this lecture
we will just introduce these issues for the sake of completeness. An additional reading on these topics
is suggested to readers.

Orthotropic and Monoclinic Behaviour
Laminate Coefficients of Thermal and Hygral Expansions
Interlaminar Stresses

Free Edge Effects
Homework
References

Objectives_template


Orthotropic and Monoclinic Behaviour:

One of the important differences of the laminated composite as compared to metals is that they are
orthotropic in nature. Further, when these are transformed about an axis then the behaviour of the
material changes from orthotropic to monoclinic material. The terms like and
occur in constitutive (stiffness) relations when an orthotropic material is transformed about an axis.

Thus, this makes the design and analysis little complicated and longer. Further, these terms result in

unwanted coupling behaviour. The coupling effect is explained in the following.
Coupling Terms in Laminate Constitutive Relations:

The CLPT is widely used in laminate analysis. As we have studied earlier, we know that there are
many coupling terms. These coupling terms are given in brief:
- coupling between inplane normal and shear coupling for membrane action
- coupling between membrane and bending actions
- coupling between membrane and twisting actions
- coupling between membrane shear and twisting actions

coupling between bending and twisting actions
The knowledge of these coupling is very much important as one coupling actions may lead to an
unwanted action. At the same time it may helpful in design. For example, the extension-twisting
coupling through terms can be harnessed in the manufacturing of helicopter blades where
a pre-twisting of blade is done.


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Laminate Coefficients of Thermal and Hygral Expansions:

We have seen the variation of laminate coefficient of thermal and hygral expansion with the ply
orientation. From these variations it is seen that these coefficients vary from positive to negative
values. Further, it is observed that the coefficient of thermal expansion depends upon stacking
sequence. This fact is very important from laminate designing point of view where it is used in an
environment with large thermal gradient. One can choose a laminate sequence for which a
coefficient of thermal expansion is zero. Similarly, one can choose the laminate sequence and
material parameters to get a desired hygroscopic coefficient of expansion for laminates.

Thermal and Hygral Coefficients of Thermal Expansion in Off-axis Lamina:
The orthotropic materials, like isotropic materials have effects of thermal or hrgral expansion only in
principal material directions. They do not have shear effect in principal material directions. However,
when the principal material directions are rotated about an axis then there exist a shear effect due to
thermal or hygral actions. In such a rotated system one has or present in off axis laminae.
Thus, a thermal or hygral change gives rise to shear effect in such off-axis laminae/laminate. This
phenomenon should be studied carefully so that one can avoid it or harness is according to the
design needs.

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Positive and Negative Shear:

In the chapter Plane Stress Constitutive Relations we have seen the significance of positive and
negative shear. In the following we revisit that section again. The figures are re-drawn for the sake
of completeness of the explanation.

The direction of shear loads applied to a lamina, especially an off-axis lamina, is very important both
from shear stiffness as well as strength point of view. This is explained with respect to an off-axis
lamina. Here we have illustrated for .

The two cases of pure shear loading of a lamina are shown in Figure 9.1. In these cases
the direction of loading is reversed. The pure shear loading can be shown to be equivalent traction
and compression loading along the diagonals of a square element. This is depicted in Figure
9.1 for both cases. For the first case, the fibres are subjected to tensile normal stress and matrix is
subjected to compressive normal stress, whereas for the second case, the fibres are subjected to
compressive normal stress and matrix is subjected tensile normal stress. The first case of shear
loading shown in Figure 9.1 is called is Positive Shear and the second case is called as Negative
Shear.
In the case when fibres are oriented at , either tensile or compressive normal stress is aligned
along the fibres, thus resulting in higher shear stiffness at . However, when the lamina is
loaded in pure shear in principal material directions (as shown in Figure 9.1), the equivalent stress
in fibre is neither pure normal tensile stress nor pure normal compressive stress. Thus, it results in
lower shear stiffness, that is .
It is well known that fibres are good in traction and weak in compressive loading. Thus, it is desirable
from designing point of view that the shear loading should results in an equivalent loading in which
the fibres are subjected to tensile normal stress. This kind of shear loading of an off-axis lamina will
ensure the higher shear strength of the lamina. In case of off-axis lamina the fibres are in
pure tensile for their positive shear loading. Thus, it results into the highest shear strength.
The positive and negative shear loading has no effect in case of unidirectional lamina as shown in
Figure 9.2.
The loading of an off-axis lamina in pure shear should be, in general, positive shear. This is one of
the important design considerations.

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Figure 9.1: Off-axis lamina loaded in pure shear
Figure 9.2: Unidirectional lamina loaded in pure shear


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Interlaminar Stresses:

The inplane loads applied to angle ply laminate develop the interlaminar stresses. This is because
the bending-stretching coupling can give rise to transverse stresses in the interface. A schematic
illustration of how axial tensile loading of angle ply laminates cause rotation of the plies is shown in
Figure 6.5(b). This rotation of the plies generates the interlaminar shear stresses, which is one of the
crucial factors in delamination. The interlaminar stresses are very pronounced in the region of free
edges. The development of these stresses under axial extension is discussed in the following.


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Free Edge Effects:

Most of the composite laminate analysis uses the CLPT. CLPT assumes a planar state of stress
along with the kinematic assumptions resulting from Kirchhoff assumptions. The determination of
transverse stresses is not possible. Further, the CLPT is inadequate in determining the interlaminar
stresses. The transverse stresses become significant in case of thick laminates under transverse
loading. Further, these stresses are significant in case of geometric discontinuities like re-entrant
corners, cut-outs, notches, ply-drops and material discontinuity as in the interfaces near the free
edges. Thus, the state of stress in such regions is highly three dimensional and decays very fast
inside the laminate. The CLPT fails to capture these stresses accurately in these regions. However,
it is a good approximation away from these regions. It has been shown in the literature that the free-
edge stress fields decays rapidly away from the laminate edges.
The free edge effects are due to discontinuous change of elastic material properties in the adjacent
layers of the laminate. The development of interlaminar stresses near the free edges has been
shown with the help of cross-ply symmetric laminate in the following paragraphs.
Consider a laminate under axial extension as shown in Figure 9.3. The axis is along the
length of the laminate, axis is along the width and axis is along the thickness of the laminate.
The coordinate is measured inward from the laminate edge. The CLPT predicts only intralaminar,
that is, planar stresses whereas it neglects the interlaminar transverse normal and shear
stresses. However, with the use of equilibrium equations one can determine these
interlaminar stresses. It should be noted that the quality of these stresses depends upon the quality
with which the planar stresses are determined.
The laminate shown has thickness of and all the laminae are of equal thickness. Further, the
laminate is sufficiently long. Therefore, the displacement components and are independent of
coordinate. First consider that the laminae are not bonded to each other and are subjected to axial
extension. Under these constraints, each layer is free to deform individually. From our earlier studies
we know that, the transverse contraction of outer layers contract more than the inner layers.
This is because the contraction in direction is perpendicular to the principal material directions of
the layers material. Therefore, the displacement components will be discontinuous across the
thickness. However, this is not true in practical situation as the layers are perfectly bonded leading to
continuous displacement in the thickness direction. Hence, to maintain a continuous displacement
one should apply tensile stresses on layers whereas compressive stresses on
layers. This fact is depicted in figure 9.3(b). These stresses are exactly predicted by the CLPT and
together maintain the compatibility of the displacement. The absolute values of these stresses in
and layers are identical and thus the resultant value through the thickness vanishes, that is,
(9.1)
Now it should be noted that the free edge is traction free. Therefore, the stresses should

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actually vanish. Thus, for equilibrium of forces in direction there must be interlaminar shear
stresses in the interface of the and layers (at ). This is depicted in the exploded
view of Figure 9.3(a)
Thus, we can write
(9.2)
This holds true for high values of coordinate, that is, near the free edge. The variation of is
shown in Figure 9.4(a).
It can be seen that these stress resultants do not share a common line of action, thus it leads to the
bending moment about axis. Hence, for the equilibrium of this moment interlaminar stress as
depicted in Figure 9.3(c) arises at the interface between and layers (at ). Thus, we
can write
(9.3)
The interlaminar stress acts only in - direction at the interface , the upper layer as
shown in the free body diagram of Figure 9.3(d) must be sufficiently long and the resultant must
vanish. Thus,
(9.4)
From this it is clear that the interlaminar stress must change its sign along - direction. The
variation of is shown in Figure 9.4(b). The interlaminar stress shows a higher tensile value
at the free edge.
Similarly one can show the development of other interlaminar shear stress in angle ply
laminates. For details, see [2,3].
A thorough understanding of the free edge effect is essential for a designer so that there are
minimum interlaminar stresses in the structure.

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Figure 9.3: The free edge effect in laminate

under axial extension


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Interlaminar stresses near the free edges can be controlled to an extent through the choice of
materials, fibre orientations, stacking sequence, layer thickness and the use of functionally graded
materials. However, the interlaminar stresses in the vicinity of free edges can completely be
eliminated through the use of a homogeneous material, locally. The suppression of interlaminar
stresses near the free edge by the technique of reinforcement is costly. This technique provides a
restraint against the delamination due to interlaminar stress, but not a complete solution.

Figure 9.4: Variation of transverse stress across the width (a) and (b)
Notch:
Notch in the laminates acts like an external crack giving rise to high three dimensional stress state in
the vicinity of the notch. Hence, the notches should be avoided in the laminated structures.

Cut-out:
Cutouts are inevitable in structures. Cutouts are made to pass electric wires; fluid passage as in the
wings, doors and windows in the fuselage of an air vehicle. These are, especially in aerospace
vehicles, made also to reduce the weight of the component. The cutout boundaries act like free
edges leading to significant transverse stresses. This is one of the most common site for onset of
delamination. A laminate with cutout is shown in Figure 6.5(d).
Ply Drop/Termination:
The optimum design of composite structures in air vehicles is important. As a result of the
optimization (e.g. weight minimization) process or sometimes purely due to geometric
requirements/constraints, one or more of the plies have to be terminated (also known as ply drop)
inside the laminate. The region of ply termination acts like a region of high stresses for neighbouring
laminae which can be a reason for delamination of the plies adjacent to the ply drop region. A ply
drop in laminate is shown in Figure 6.5(e).


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Home Work:

1. What are the key points in the design considerations?
2. Explain in detail the development of interlaminar stresses in the free edge region.

3. What is positive and negative shear? Which one has detrimental effect?


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References

RB Pipes, NJ Pagano, Interlaminar stresses in composite laminates under uniform axial

extension. Jl. Composite Materials, Vol. 4, 1970, pp 538548.

C Mittelstedt, W Becker. Interlaminar stress concentrations in layered structures: Part I
A selective literature survey on the free-edge effect since 1967. Jl. Composite
Materials, Vol. 38(12), 2004, pp 1037-1062.

C Mittelstedt, W Becker. Free edge effects in composite laminates. Appl. Mechanics
Review, Vol. 60, 2007, pp 217-245.
AH Puppo, AH Evensen, Interlaminar shear in laminated composites under generalized

plane stress. Jl. Composite Materials, Vol. 4, 1970, pp 204-220.
T Hayashi, Analytical study of interlaminar shear stresses in a laminated composite

plate, Transactions of Japan Society of Aeronautical and Space Science, Vol. 10(17),
1967, pp 43-48.

S Tang, A boundary layer theory: Part I Laminated composites in plane stress, Jl.
Composite Materials, Vol. 9, 1975, pp 33-41.
SS Wang, I Choi, Boundary layer effects in composite laminates: Part I Free edge
stress singularities, Jl. Applied Mechanics, Vol. 49, 1982, pp 541-548.

Module 1
Lecture 1
References:
o MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil.

o JY Lund, JP Byrne. Leonardo Da Vinci's tensile strength tests: implications for the
discovery of engineering mechanics. Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp.
243-250.
o E de LaMotte, AJ Perry. Diameter and strain-rate dependence of the ultimate
tensile strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and
Technology, 1970; Vol. 3, pp. 157-166.
o CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New
York, 1998.
o BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman, K Chandrashekhara. Analysis and Performance of Fibre
o RM Jones. Mechanics of Composite Materials, Material Science and Engineering
o AK Kaw. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, New York,
2006.
o RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Dover Publications, 2005.
o SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing,
o D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge
o IM Daniel, O Ishai. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford
o Composite Handbook.
o ASTM Standards.
o SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil
o CP Talley. J. Appl. Phys. 1959, Vol. 30, pp 1114.
o http://composite.about.com/
o http://www.netcomposites.com/
o http://www.gurit.com/
o http://www.hexcel.com/
o http://www.toraycfa.com/
o http://www.e-composites.com/
o http://www.compositesone.com/basics.htm
o http://www.wwcomposites.com/ (World Wide Search Engine for Composites)
o http://jpsglass.com/
o http://www.eirecomposites.com/
o http://www.advanced-composites.co.uk/
o http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/composites/comp_intro.cfm
Lecture 2
References:
MF Ashby. Technology of 1990s: Advanced materials and predictive design. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
discovery of engineering mechanics Civil. Eng. and Env. Syst. 2001; Vol. 18, pp. 243-250.
strength and Young's modulus of carbon fibres. Fibre Science and Technology, 1970; Vol.
3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
SW Tsai, HT Hahn. Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster,
PA, 1980.
D Hull, TW Clyne. An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge University,
Press, New York, 1996.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
SS Pendhari, T Kant, YM Desai. Application of polymer composites in civil construction: A
general review. Composite Structures, 2008; Vol. 84, pp. 114-124.
Lecture 3
References:
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
PA, 1980.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
Lecture 4
References:
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
PA, 1980.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
Lecture 5
References:
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
PA, 1980.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
Lecture 6
References:
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
PA, 1980.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
Lecture 7
References:
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
PA, 1980.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
Lecture 8
References:
Soc. Lond. A. 1987; Vol. 322, pp. 393-407.
3, pp. 157-166.
1998.
PA, 1980.
Press, 1994.
Composite Handbook.
ASTM Standards.
Module 2
Lecture 9
References:
IH Shames, CL Dym. Energy and Finite Element Methods in Structural Mechanics,

Hemisphere Publishing Corp. New York, 1985.
IS Sokolnikoff. Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, First Edition, McGraw Hill Publications,
New York.
Jersey, 1969.
SH Crandall, NC Dahl, TJ Lardner. An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids, Second
Edition, McGraw-Hill Publications, New Delhi.
SP Timoshenko, JN Goodier. Theory of Elasticity, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill Publications,
New Delhi.
E Kreyszig. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Eighth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York.
Module 3
Lecture 10
References:
AE Green, W Zerna. Theoretical Elasticity. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1963.
SG Lekhnitskii. Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body. Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1981.

New York.

Jersey, 1969.
1998.
Lecture 11
References:
1. AE Green, W Zerna. Theoretical Elasticity. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1963
2. SG Lekhnitskii. Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body. Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1981.
3. IS Sokolnikoff. Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, First Edition, McGraw Hill Publications,

New York.
4. LE Malvern. Introduction to Mechanics of a Continuous Medium, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New

Jersey, 1969.
5. CT Herakovich. Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
1998.
Lecture 12
References:

New York.

New Delhi.
1998.

2227.

PD Soden, MJ Hinton, AS Kaddour. Lamina properties, lay-up configurations and loading

conditions for a range of fibre-reinforced composite laminates. Composite Science and
Technology, 1998;58:1011-1022.
Lecture 13
References:

New York.

New Delhi.
1998.

2227.


Technology, 1998;58:1011-1022.
Module 4
Lecture 14
References:

New York.

New Delhi.
1998.
Lecture 15
References:
1998.

New York.

Technology, 1998;58:1011-1022.
Module 5
Lecture 16
References:
G Kirchhoff. ber das Gleichgewicht und die Bewegung einer elastischen Scheibe", J.
Reine und Angewante Mathematik (Crelle). 1850, Vol. 40, pp. 51-88.
AEH Love. A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 2nd Edition, Cambridge
1998.
BD Agarwal, LJ Broutman. Analysis and Performance of Fibre Composites, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. New York, 1980.
Lecture 17
References:
1998.

Technology, 1998;58:1011-1022.
Lecture 18
References:
1998.

Technology, 1998, Vol. 58, pp. 1011-1022.
Lecture 19
References:

systems. Journal of Composite Materials, 1976, Vol. 10, pp. 129-148.
Module 6
Lecture 20
References:
Sierakowski RL, Newaz GM. Damage Tolerance in Advanced Composites, Technomic

Publishing Co. Inc., Lancaster, 1998.
Garg AC. Delamination - a damage mode in composite structures. Engineering Fracture

Mechanics, 1998; Vol 29(5), pp. 557-584.
Mechanics of Composite Materials. Selected Works of Nicholas J Pagano. Reddy JN,

Editor. Solid Mechanics and its Applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
1994.
Talreja R. Damage development in composites: Mechanisms and modeling. Journal of

Strain Analysis for Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 215-222.
Damage Mechanics of Composite Materials, Composite Materials Series, 9. Ed. R. Talreja,
Elsevier New York, 1994.
Beaumont PWR. The failure of fibre composites: An overview. Journal of Strain Analysis
for Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 189-205.
Herakovich CT. Edge effects and delamination failures. Journal of Strain Analysis for
Engineering Design, 1989; 24(4), pp. 245-252.
Lecture 21
References:
Rankine WJM. On the stability of loose earth. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, 1857; 147(I), pp. 9-27.
Tresca H. Mmoire sur l'coulement des corps solides soumis de fortes pressions. C.R.
Acad. Sci. Paris, 1864; 59, pp. 754-758.
von Mises R. Mechanik der festen Krper im plastisch deformablen Zustand. Gttin.
Nachr. Math. Phys., 1913; 1, pp. 582592.
Hill R. The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford U.P., Oxford, 1950.
Tsai SW. Strength Theories of Filamentary Structures, in Schwartz RT and Schwartz HS,
Eds., Fundamental Aspects of Fibre Reinforced Plastic Composites, Chapter 1,
Interscience, New York, 1968.
Azzi VD, Tsai SW. Anisotropic strength of composites, Experimental Mechanics, 1965;
5(9), pp. 283-288.
Tsai SW. A survey of macroscopic failure criteria for composite materials. Technical
Report, AFWAL-TR-84-4025.
Tsai SW. Strength characteristics of composite materials. NACA CR-224, 1965.

Lecture 22
References:
Hoffman O. The brittle strength of orthotropic materials. Journal of Composite Materials,

1967; 1, pp. 200-206.
Tsai SW, Wu EM. A general theory of strength for anisotropic materials. Journal of
Composite Materials. 1971; 5(1), pp. 58-80.
Goldenbat II, Kopnov VA. Strength of glass-reinforced plastics in complex stress state.
Mekhanika Polimerov , 1965; 1, pp. 70; English translation: Polymer Mechanics, 1966; 1,
pp. 54, Faraday Press.
Reddy JN, Pandey AK. A first-ply failure analysis of composite laminates. Computers And
Structures, 1987; 25(3), pp. 371-393.


Technology. 1998; 58, pp. 1011-1022.
Lecture 23
References:
Hashin Z. Failure criteria for unidirectional fibre composites, ASME Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 1980; 47(2), pp. 329-334..
Reddy JN, Pandey AK. A first-ply failure analysis of composite laminates. Computers And
Structures, 1987; 25(3), pp. 371-393.


Technology. 1998; 58, pp. 1011-1022.
Module 7
Lecture 24
References:
R Hill. Elastic properties of reinforced solids: some theoretical principles. J. Mech. Phys.
Solids, 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.

PA, 1980.

Comprehensive Composite Materials. Vol. 1: Fiber Reinforcements and General Theory of
Composites, Eds. Kelly A, Zweben C. Elsevier 2000.
1998.
Lecture 25
References:

Composites, Eds. A Kelly, C Zweben. Elsevier, 2000.
RA Schepery. Thermal expansion coefficients of composite materials based on energy

principles. Journal of Composite Materials, 1972, Vol. 2, pp. 380-404.
BW Rosen. A simple procedure for experimental determination of the longitudinal shear

modulus of unidirectional composites. Journal of Composite Materials, 1972, Vol. 21, pp.
552-554.

PA, 1980.

Lecture 26
References:
1998.
RM Christensen. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Krieger Publishing Company, Florida,

1991.

analyses. Computational Mechanics. 1992, Vol. 10, pp. 73-95.
Solids. 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.

Lecture 27
References:
1998.

1991.
Solids. 1963, Vol. 11, pp. 357-372.

W Voigt. ber die Beziehung zwischen den beiden Elastizitskonstanten isotroper Krper.
Wied. Ann. 1889, Vol. 38, pp. 573587.
A Reuss. Berechnung der Fliegrenze von Mischkristallen auf Grund der

Plastizittsbedingung fr Einkristalle. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics.
1929, Vol. 9, pp. 4958.

Lecture 28
References:
P Suquet. Elements of homogenization theory for inelastic solid mechanics. In: E Sanchez-
Palencia, A Zaoui. (eds): Homogenization techniques for composite media, pp. 194-278.
Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer, New York, 1987.

analyses for periodic porous composites. Computational Mechanics. 1992, Vol. 10, pp. 73-
95.
NS Bakhvalov, G Panasenko. Homogenisation: Averaging Processes In Periodic Media:

Mathematical Problems In The Mechanics Of Composite Materials, Springer, 1989.
Lecture 29
References:
Z Hashin, BW Rosen. The elastic moduli of fibre-reinforced materials. J. Appl. Mech. 1964,
Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.
Z Hashin. Analysis of properties of fiber composites with anisotropic constituents. J. Appl.

Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

1991.
Z. Hashin: On elastic behaviour of fibre reinforced materials of arbitrary transverse phase

geometry. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1965, Vol. 13, pp. 119-134.
Z. Hashin: Analysis of composite materials-a survey. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1983, Vol. 50,
pp. 481-505.
1998.

JC Halpin Affdl, JL Kardos. The Halpin-Tsai equations: A review. 1976, Vol. 16(5), pp. 344-
352.
Lecture 30
References:
Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

1991.

pp. 481-505.

1998.


Lecture 31
References:
Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

1991.

pp. 481-505.

1998.


Lecture 32
References
Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.

1991.

pp. 481-505.

1998.


Lecture 33
References
Vol. 31, pp. 223-232.

Mech. 1979, Vol. 46, pp. 543-550.
1991.

pp. 481-505.

1998.

RM Christensen, KH Lo. Solutions for effective shear properties in three phase sphere and
cylinder models. J. Appl. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1979, Vol. 27(4), pp. 315-330.
GN Savin. Stress Concentration Around Holes, Pergamon Press, New York, 1961.

Lecture 34
References
JD Eshelby. The determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion, and related
problems. Proc. R. Soc. London. 1957, Vol. A241, pp.376-396.
R Hill. A self consistent mechanics of composite materials. J. Appl. Phys. Solids. 1965,
Vol. 13(4), pp. 213-212.
B Budiansky. On the elastic moduli of some heterogeneous materials. J Mech. Phys.

Solids. Vol. 13, pp. 223-227.
T Mori, K Tanaka. Average stress in matrix and average elastic energy of materials with
misfitting inclusions. Acta Metall. 1973, Vol. 21, pp. 571-574.
Y Benveniste. A new approach to the application of Mori-Tanaka theory in composite

materials. Mech. Mater. Vol. 6(2), pp. 147-157.
GJ Dvorak, MSM Rao, JQ Tarn. Yielding in unidirectional composites under external loads
and temperature changes. J Compos Mater, Vol. 7, pp. 194-216.
GJ Dvorak. Plasticity theories for fibrous composite materials, in Metal Matrix Composites:
Mechanisms and Properties, Vol. 2, RK Everett and RJ Arsenault eds., A Volume on the
Treatise on Materials Science and Technology, Academic Press, Boston, pp. 1-77.
T Chen, GJ Dvorak, Y Benveniste. Mori-Tanaka estimates of the overall elastic moduli of

certain composite materials. J Appl. Mech. 1992, Vol. 59(3), pp. 539-546.
1998.
JC Halpin, JL Kardos. The Halpin-Tsai equations: A review. Polymer Engg. Sci., 1976, Vol.
16(5), pp. 344-352.
JC Halpin. Effects of environmental factors on composite materials. Air Force Materials

Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, USA, AFML-TR-67-423, 1969.
Module 8
Lecture 39
References
http://www.astm.org/ABOUT/overview.html
P T Curtis (Eds.), CRAG Test Methods for the Measurement of the Engineering Properties
of Fibre Reinforced Plastics, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Technical Report 88012,
February 1988.
http://www.cmh17.org/
M E Tuttle and H F Brinson, Resistance Foil Gauge Technology as Applied to Composite
Materials, Report No. VPI-E-83-19, Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA, June
1983.
Mechanical Testing of Advanced Fibre Composites. JM Hodgkinson (Eds). CRC Press,

Woodhouse Publishing Limited, Cambridge, 2000.ASTM D4762-08, Standard Guide for
Testing Polymer Matrix Composite Materials. http://www.astm.org/Standards/D4762.htm.
ASTM D3039/D3039M-08, Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix
ASTM D695, Standard Test Method for Compressive Properties of Rigid

Plastics.http://www.astm.org/Standards/D695.htm.
ASTM D3410/D3410M, Test Method for Compressive Properties of Polymer Matrix

Composite Materials with Unsupported Gage Section by Shear
Loading.http://www.astm.org/Standards/D3410.htm.
ASTM D3518/D3518M, Test Method for In-Plane Shear Response of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials by Tensile Test of a 45
Laminate.http://www.astm.org/Standards/D3518.htm.
ASTM D4255/D4255M, Test Method for In-Plane Shear Properties of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials by the Rail Shear Method.http://www.astm.org/Standards/D4255.htm.
ASTM D7078/D7078M, Test Method for Shear Properties of Composite Materials by V-

Notched Rail Shear Method. http://www.astm.org/Standards/D7078.htm.
ASTM D3479/D3479M, Test Method for Tension-Tension Fatigue of Polymer Matrix

I De Baere, W Van Paepegem, J Degrieck, Design of a modified three-rail shear test for
shear fatigue of composites, Polymer Testing, Vol. 27(3), 2008, pp 346-359.
Space Simulation, Aerospace and Aircraft, Composite Materials, ASTM Vol. 15.03.
JM Hodgkinson, Mechanical Testing of Advanced Fibre Composites, Woodhead

Publishing Limited, Cambridge, England, 2000.
DF Adams, Test methods for mechanical properties in Comprehensive Composite

Materials, Vol. 5: Test Methods, Nondestructive Evaluation and Smart Composites,
Pergamon, 2000.
GH Staab, Laminar Composites, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, 1999.

NE Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Engineering Methods for Deformation,
Fracture and Fatigue, Third Edition.
BW Rosen, A simple procedure for experimental determination of the longitudinal shear

modulus of unidirectional composites, Jl. Composite Materials, Vol. 6(4), 1972, pp 552-554.
N Iosipescu, New accurate procedure for single shear testing of metals, Journal of
Materials, Vol. 2(3), 1967, pp 53766.
HW Jr. Bergner, JG Jr. Davis, CT Herakovich, Analysis and shear test method for
composite laminates, VPI-E77-14, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, 1977.
Module 9
Lecture 40
References
RB Pipes, NJ Pagano, Interlaminar stresses in composite laminates under uniform axial

extension. Jl. Composite Materials, Vol. 4, 1970, pp 538548.
C Mittelstedt, W Becker. Interlaminar stress concentrations in layered structures: Part I A

selective literature survey on the free-edge effect since 1967. Jl. Composite Materials, Vol.
38(12), 2004, pp 1037-1062.
C Mittelstedt, W Becker. Free edge effects in composite laminates. Appl. Mechanics

Review, Vol. 60, 2007, pp 217-245.
AH Puppo, AH Evensen, Interlaminar shear in laminated composites under generalized

plane stress. Jl. Composite Materials, Vol. 4, 1970, pp 204-220.
T Hayashi, Analytical study of interlaminar shear stresses in a laminated composite plate,

Transactions of Japan Society of Aeronautical and Space Science, Vol. 10(17), 1967, pp 43-
48.
S Tang, A boundary layer theory: Part I Laminated composites in plane stress, Jl.
Composite Materials, Vol. 9, 1975, pp 33-41.
SS Wang, I Choi, Boundary layer effects in composite laminates: Part I Free edge stress
singularities, Jl. Applied Mechanics, Vol. 49, 1982, pp 541-548.

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Course Name Composite Materials

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/main.html[8/18/2014 11:16:52 AM]

Module 1: Introduction to Composites

Lecture 1: Definition and Introduction

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/1_1.htm[8/18/2014 11:16:53 AM]

Module 1: Introduction to Composites

Definition of a Composite Material

A composite material is defined as a material which is composed of two or more materials at a

Thus, a composite material is heterogeneous at a microscopic scale but statistically homogeneous at

Why we need these materials?

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/1_2.htm[8/18/2014 11:16:53 AM]

6. High chemical resistance

Figure 1.1 Types of reinforcement in a composite

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Module 1: Introduction to Composites

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/1_3.htm[8/18/2014 11:16:53 AM]

What are the types of reinforcements?

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/1_3.htm[8/18/2014 11:16:53 AM]

Module 1: Introduction to Composites

Figure 1.2: Classification of composites based on reinforcement type

Figure 1.3: Classification of fibre composite materials

Figure 1.4: Classification of particulate composites

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Module 1: Introduction to Composites

Figure 1.5: Qualitative variation of fibre tensile strength with

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/1_5.htm[8/18/2014 11:16:54 AM]

Module 1: Introduction to Composites

The new surface area between fibre and matrix is

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture1/1_6.htm[8/18/2014 11:16:54 AM]

Module 1: Introduction to Composites

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Module 1: Introduction to Composites

Lecture 2: Reinforcement: Materials and Forms

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture2/2_1.htm[8/18/2014 11:50:16 AM]

Module 1: Introduction to Composites

1. These are the main load carrying constituents.

3. It transfers the strength and stiffness to the matrix material.

What are the functions of a matrix material?

1. The matrix material holds the fibres together.

5. It provides protection to fibers from environmental effects.

6. It provides better finish to the final product.

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture2/2_2.htm[8/18/2014 11:50:16 AM]

Module 1: Introduction to Composites

B. Natural fibresAdvanced fibers:

1. Carbon and/or Graphite

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Module 1: Introduction to Composites

Figure 1.6: Periodic Table showing the materials used in advanced

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture2/2_4.htm[8/18/2014 11:50:16 AM]

Module 1: Introduction to Composites

The CVD method for boron fibres is shown in Figure 1.7.

The key features of this fibre are listed below:

These are ceramic monofilament fiber.

file:///D|/Web%20Course%20(Ganesh%20Rana)/Dr.%20Mohite/CompositeMaterials/lecture2/2_5.htm[8/18/2014 11:50:16 AM]

Exhibits linear axial stress-strain relationship up to 650 .

Figure 1.8: Boron fibre structure and its composite

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Module 1: Introduction to Composites

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Module 1: Introduction to Composites

E glass - high strength and high resistivity.

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Module 1: Introduction to Composites