Biology of evolution

What is a species?
Biological concept of species

Reproductive isolation among populations due

to failed production of fertile and viable hybrids.

1. Pre-zygotic barriers (habitat, behavioral,

temporal, mechanical, gametic isolation)

2. Post-zygotic barriers (reduced hybrid

viability and fertility, hybrid breakdown)
 Alternative concepts of species
Ecological species : unique adaptations as a result of interactions
with other species in the use of common resources in a common
habitat
Pluralistic (=cohesion concept) species: no universal factor
influences the cohesiveness of individuals of a species

Morphological species: emphasis on measurable anatomical

differences between species

Genealogical species: emphasis on genetic relatedness between

and among species
Patterns of speciation

Anagenesis: evolution within a

lineage.

Cladogenesis: evolution due to

splitting of a lineage
promotes biological diversity
Modes of speciation: allopatry, adaptive radiation
Modes of speciation: sympatry
 Rate of speciation
Gradualism (=phyletic) Punctuated equilibrium
Rate of speciation: punctuated equilibrium

Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002)

The great majority of species

originates in geological moments
(punctuations) and persists in
stasis The Structure of
Evolutionary Theory (2001)
 Evolution: descent with modification
Natural theology, creationist essentialist
 History of evolution: ancient and pre-Scientific Revolution

Plato (400 BC)

perfect world versus imperfect world

Aristotle (300 BC)

scale of increasing complexity
(Scala Naturae)

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)

binomial classification of non-evolving
creations of God
 History of evolution: ancient and pre-Scientific Revolution
George Cuvier (1769-1832)
dissimilarity of fossil record with increasing
depth of sedimentary rocks (catastrophism)

James Hutton (1726-1797)

slow, continuous processes shaping the
Earths geology (gradualism)

Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

all geological processes operating in the
same manner and intensity
(uniformitarianism)
the present is the key to the past
 History of evolution: ancient and pre-Scientific Revolution
Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

fossil record as evidence of the continuing evolution of organisms towards

greater complexity and perfection in response to organisms sentiments
interieur (felt needs)

Lamarcks mechanism of evolution: Use and disuse; Inheritance of acquired traits

 History of evolution: Darwinian thought
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) John Henslow (1796-1861) Robert Fitzroy (1805-1865)
 Evolution: uniformitarianism, population growth

Charles Darwin

Charles Lyell Thomas Robert Malthus

(1766-1834)
Evolution: The Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection (1859)

Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

Darwins Origin of Species: descent with modification by natural selection
Examples of natural selection at work
 Evidence of macro-evolution: fossil record

Archaeopteryx
Evidence of macro-evolution: biogeography, patterns of evolution

Convergent evolution
Evidence of macro-evolution: homologous structures
Evidence of macro-evolution: comparative embryology

von Baer law: vertebrates appear similar during certain stages

of early development Karl von Baer (1792-1876)

Biogenetic law: ontogeny repeats phylogeny -- Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919)

Evidence of macro-evolution: biochemical evidence
 Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the
hereditary traits (genes) of a population

Hardy-Weinberg principle explains the genetic basis of a

non-evolving population of organisms.

The gene pool of a population of organisms remains

constant over many generations unless acted upon by
some factors.

The genetic structure of a non-evolving population of

organisms remains the same or in equilibrium over many
generations.
 Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the
hereditary traits (genes) of a population: a quick review
of basic genetics

Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the = chromatid pair

hereditary traits (genes) of a population
 Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the
hereditary traits (genes) of a population: a quick review
of basic genetics

Phenotype = physical expression(s) of genotype

Genotype = gene or genetic composition of an organism
Allele = variations of a gene
Paired alleles may be homozygous (DD, dd) or heterozygous (Dd)

D = dominant allele (e.g., tall)

d = recessive allele (e.g., short)

Betty and Fred are both tall, but

Bob is short.
Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the
hereditary traits (genes) of a population

The Hardy-Weinberg principle explains the

genetic basis of a non-evolving population of
organisms

The Hardy-Weinberg principle assumes:

Large population size
No migration or gene flow with other
populations
No net mutations
Occurrence of random matings
No natural selection
 Micro-evolution: a deviation from the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium: genetic drift

Founder effect
 Micro-evolution: a deviation from the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium: gene flow, mutations, non-random
matings

Gene flow, mutations, non-random matings result in the gradual

accumulation of genetic variations
 Micro-evolution: a deviation from the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium: natural selection

resulting in an increase in brown gene frequency among beetle population

Evolution of sex (gender)
 Evolution of sex (gender)

Sexual dimorphism ( )
as a product of sexual
selection

intra-sexual selection
inter-sexual selection
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens
 Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens

lemur tarsier

monkeys, apes

humans
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens

Primates
Prosimians (pre- Anthropoids
monkeys)
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: evolutionary
divergence of primates
 Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: evolutionary
divergence of anthropoids
Hominids

5-7 million years ago

DNA and fossil evidence indicate a closer affinity between humans

and chimpanzees (hominids) than to the other apes.
Evolutionary divergence occurred 5-7 mya.
 Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: some
misconceptions

1. Chimpanzees and gorillas are the direct ancestors of humans

2. Human evolution followed a ladder-like pattern, evolving

from hominoids and climaxing to Homo sapiens
3. Human traits (upright posture, bi-pedalism, large skull)
evolved in one burst
 Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: major features
increased brain size
reduction of jaw and modification of dentition
bipedal posture
reduced body size difference between sexes
complex social family structure
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: evolutionary
divergence of primates
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: out of Africa
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: two models
Human evolution: cultural evolution
Human evolution: cultural evolution