JOSC 5 (1) pp.

141155 Intellect Limited 2014

Journal of Screenwriting
Volume 5 Number 1
2014 Intellect Ltd Article. English language. doi: 10.1386/josc.5.1.141_1

Marja-Riitta Koivumki
Aalto University

Poetic dramaturgy in Andrey

Tarkovskys Nostalgia (1983):
A character without a goal?

Abstract Keywords
This article centres on the use of a character goal and a character arc as elements poetic dramaturgy
to express the theme and the meaning in Andrey Tarkovskys Nostalgia (1983). In passive character
classical dramaturgy, the goal of the character what does the character want and reactive character
what actions may he or she take in order to achieve this goal is considered to be of inner goal
the utmost importance. In Tarkovskys film, however, the character is passive and outer goal
there does not seem to be any obvious goal to achieve. Through dramaturgical anal- dramaturgical analysis
ysis my aim is to reveal the dramaturgical function of both the character goal and
the character arc in Nostalgia. My contention is that a passive character forms
part of an extensive dramaturgical system and that it carries more meaning than is
apparent on the surface. Usually it is the character goal, what the character desires,
that carries the spine of the narration and it is usually the starting point of the story
design. I argue that the character arc (inner goal) can also assume this function and,
accordingly, we can start the development of the screenplay from the perspective of
considering how the character changes or why he/she might change. I also suggest
that there is a need to reconsider the centrality of character goal, since the screen-
writing theories of the twentieth century emphasize the importance of the character
goal at the expense of the character arc. This article forms part of a larger study that
aims to define certain characteristics of so-called poetic dramaturgy. As Im inter-
ested in whether or not it is possible to define the features of poetic dramaturgy in a
similar way as in classical dramaturgy so that they too can be incorporated into the
writers craft, I also challenge the conventions of classical dramaturgy.

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Marja-Riitta Koivumki

1. Websites that discuss Introduction

Andrey Tarkovskys
works in English: The protagonist Andrei Gorchakov (Oleg Yankovsky) in Nostalgia (1983) by
Nostagia.com http:// the Russian film director Andrey Tarkovsky (19321986) has been defined as
people.ucalgary.
ca/~tstronds/ being passive and inactive. For instance, Christian Braad Thomsen describes
nostalghia.com/ him as passive and paralysed and states that it is not surprising that it is diffi-
TheNews.html,
accessed 30 January
cult to make a film about such a character (1989: 336). V. T. Johnson and G.
2011. See also links Petrie in their book entitled Andrey Tarkovsky, A Visual Fugue define Andrei
in http://people. as being difficult for the viewer to identify with because he is unwilling to
ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/
nostalghia.com/ overcome his understandable loneliness and homesickness and his dreams
TheLinks.html. and memories are self-enclosed, circular and repetitive, and seem to be used
Extravagant as an excuse for avoiding any commitment (1994: 160). These comments
Creation, http://
extravagantcreation. reveal that the viewing experience has been less than satisfactory because of
wordpress.com/ the difficulty in identifying with the character and because of the uncertainty
category/tarkovsky-
andrei/, accessed
in understanding what, if any, is the characters goal. This served as instiga-
30 January 2011. tion for me to study Nostalgia and the function of the character goal in it.
2. Websites on Andrey
Tarkovskys seven films are widely known and studied, and there seems to
Tarkovsky in Russian: be a constant output of new studies and books (Botz-Bornstein 2007; Bird 2008;
Andrey Tarkovsky, Dunne 2008; Volkova 2008; Redwood 2010; Martin 2011) concerning his works,
http://www.tarcovsky.
ru/books.html,Andrey as well as discussions on different websites (see, for instance, Nostalgia.com,
Tarkovsky, http://www. Extravagant Creation,1 and Tarkovsky2). I suggest that there is room for further
tarkovsky.net.ru/, study because even though the existing bodies of literature discuss Tarkovskys
accessed 30 January
2011 Andrey Tarkovsky, films, they do not specifically examine them from the writers point of view or
http://www.atarkovsky. study their dramaturgy or dramaturgical strategies in detail, but rather consider
ru/, accessed 30
January 2011.
them in more general terms within theoretical and philosophical contexts.
Andrey Tarkovsky, As I regard the screenplay as a plan for a cinematic presentation (Koivumki
http://tarkovsky.su/, 2010: 2829), it is vital for the screenwriter to study and analyse films in order
accessed 30 January
2012. to understand visual storytelling and to acquire new knowledge on narrative
and dramaturgical means so that they can be implemented in the writing,
thus enhancing the screenwriters writing skills for visual media. By analys-
ing Tarkovskys film, my aim is to find new understanding and possible new
tools and techniques that can be used to shape the writing of a screenplay.
Therefore I will use a dramaturgical approach in analysing the film and will
focus on the questions does the use of the character goal differ from that in
classical dramaturgy, and is it possible to define the features of poetic drama-
turgy, in a similar way to classical dramaturgy, so that they too can be incor-
porated into the writers craft?.
I start by defining the dramaturgical approach I use in my analysis, which is
based on my understanding of dramaturgy. I then introduce the notion of the
character goal, which in classical dramaturgy is divided in two an inner and
an outer goal and these notions form the foundation of the analysis. I first
focus on the outer goal and point out its fragmented nature. I then discuss the
inner goal and show its function in the narration as a unifying element. After
tracing the dynamics of the character goal, both inner and outer, I produce
from my findings a model of an inner search.
I argue that the character arc (inner goal) can also assume the function
of the narrative spine and, accordingly, the writer can use this information
for his or her own benefit in the development of the screenplay by taking
the character change (inner goal) as a starting point of story design. I also
suggest that there is a need to reconsider the notion of character goal, since
the screenwriting theories of the twentieth century emphasize the importance
of the outer goal at the expense of the character arc (inner goal).

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 Poetic dramaturgy in Andrey Tarkovskys Nostalgia (1983)

Before I begin my analysis, I will provide a short synopsis of 3. On Tarkovskys and

Guerras collaboration,
Nostalgia, Tarkovskys sixth feature film. He co-wrote it with an Italian screen- see, for instance, Riikka
writer Tonino Guerra,3 and it was shot in Italy as a Russian Italian co-production. Pelos article on a
The film is about a Russian writer Andrei Gorchakov, who is working on a method in the writer-
director relationship,
biography of a fellow countryman, the composer Pavel Sosnovsky, who lived Pelo (2010); Natasha
and travelled in Italy during the eighteenth century. Sosnovsky used to visit Synessios introduction
Bagno Vignoni and its famous baths and Andrei is following in his footsteps to the screenplay
Nostalgia (1999);
accompanied by an Italian interpreter, Eugenia (Domiziana Giordano). Andrei Tarkovskys diary (1994).
feels displaced and longs for his family. He has lost interest in the Italian sights;
however, he suddenly becomes interested in an eccentric old man, Domenico
(Erland Josephson), whom the people in the village call a lunatic because he
imprisoned his family for seven years in order to save them from the evils of the
world. Domenico asks Andrei for a favour. He wants Andrei to walk across a
mineral spring pool with a lit candle as a part of his world-saving ritual. Andrei
does not accede to the request immediately, but after a meeting with Eugenia
and on thinking about his family and home country, he finally performs the
ritual only to collapse of a heart attack once the mission is accomplished.

Dramaturgical approach
I approach Nostalgia from a dramaturgical point of view, from the film prac-
titioners perspective, an approach that also defines it as practice rather than
theoreticalphilosophical based. One of the goals of practice-based research
is to generate new knowledge for the practitioner, such as new methodological
knowledge about how a particular work of art or the method of its creation has
been or could be integrated into some theoretical concepts or into a certain
theoretical framework (Hannula et al. 2005; Barrett and Bolt 2006).
The dramaturgical approach is based on understanding a film as a drama-
turgical entity that aims at creating a cinematic presentation for the viewer to
experience. Every element that is chosen for a film should have a narrative
function in constructing the aesthetic experience. Therefore, the dramaturgi-
cal approach studies the dramaturgical decisions that the film-maker makes
or has made in order to construct this experience (Koivumki 2010: 3032,
2011: 3031). Thus, a dramaturgical approach covers all the artistic choices
and decisions that have been made, and not only, for instance, those decisions
that were designed to structure the story during the writing process. The
dramaturgical choices made by the director and the film crew actualize in the
film, as do the decisions made by the writer. Therefore, the decisions made
during the writing process can also be studied in the film.
Classical dramaturgy as proposed by Aristotle an examination of essential
elements such as problem (conflict), cause and effect, turning points and closed
ending provides a framework for my analysis. All the deviations from classi-
cal dramaturgy are of interest to me, and I will consider them as evidence of
poetic dramaturgy. A recently published study an analytical discussion on four
of Tarkovskys films by the Australian scholar, Thomas Redwood has some
convergence with my own work. His focus is on understanding the narrative
logic of each of Tarkovskys films and proposing a general critical explanation
of Tarkovskys poetics of narrative cinema (Redwood 2010: 12). At first glance,
Redwoods analysis seems to be similar to mine, since the main research ques-
tion deals with the films function as narrative. However, a difference emerges
from the way we understand narrative, which then defines the approach.
Where, for example, my analyses will emphasize the function of the character as

143
Marja-Riitta Koivumki

4. An excellent account the main narrative tool used by the writer in conveying the story and the theme
of these two goals can
be found in Patrick
to the viewer, Redwood considers the relevance of spatio-temporal relations
Cattrysses article (aural motifs and visual elements such as props, colour and set designs, light-
(2010). ing, character staging, camera movements) and style for the spectators narrative
5. Since there is no space comprehension. Redwoods approach is primarily motivated by formal (or neo-
to discuss these two formal) studies undertaken by David Bordwell (1985, 2008), Kristin Thompson
threads of narration
more deeply within the (1988), Nol Carroll (1996) and Edward Branigan (1992), among others.
limits of this article,
Craig Battys article
(2010) illustrates and Outer goal
explores the topic well.
In classical dramaturgy, the notion of a character goal is usually divided into two,
an outer and an inner goal. The outer goal is concrete and is revealed through
action; it represents success or failure for the protagonist and can be revealed
with the dramatic question will the protagonist achieve his or her goal?. There
is also an internal reality to the character in which character growth and change
take place and this is called the inner goal, which is usually considered as the
actual change at the end of the transformational arc. Thus, the inner goal is seen
as something the character learns about himself or herself or about the surround-
ing world (see, for instance, Frensham 1996: 85; Aronson 2010: 9798).
In practical screenwriting, these two goals are usually better known as
want and need, with want referring to the outer and need to the inner goal.
As Patrick Cattrysse mentions, this notion is attributed to the Czech-born
screenwriter and screenwriting tutor Frantisek (Frank) Daniel, later adopted
by others. To illuminate the difference between the two notions, Cattrysse
gives an example of the film Twins (1988) in which the protagonist wants
money, but needs the love of a family (2010: 8586)4.
To achieve a goal summons up a certain process, which is often called
a journey, not so much in concrete terms, which it can also be, but mainly
as a metaphoric one. Craig Batty, via Joseph Campbells The Hero with a
Thousand Faces ([1949] 1993), differentiates two types of journeys: physical
and emotional,5 and here journey is used to give a sense of progression and
development. The protagonist undergoes a journey of emotional develop-
ment alongside one of physical action, and it is this combination that leads to
an emotional transformation (Batty 2010: 29698). Thus, the physical journey
functions as a vehicle to bring about the emotional journey. I consider that the
attainment of a goal is the end result of the progression of a journey; there-
fore, there is a clear connection with an outer goal and a physical journey as
well as with an inner goal and an emotional journey.
Providing the main character with a compelling outer goal seems to be the
most important advice that the screenwriting literature gives to the writer in
sketching a character. Somebody wants something badly and is having diffi-
culty getting it, state David Howard and Edward Mabley (1993: 22, see also
Howard 2004: 3). Raymond G. Frensham is thinking along the same line when
he talks about designing a goal to motivate the character. What does your char-
acter desire, he asks (1996: 8588). The Swedish screenwriter Kjell Sundstedt
goes as far as defining a story with conflict and linear narration as a who-
wins story (2000: 8891), which implies that there are at least two characters
pursuing (the same) goal. Lajos Egri underlines the importance of the charac-
ter motivation but nevertheless states that you cannot expect a rising conflict
from a man who wants nothing or does not know what he wants (1960: 156).
In classical dramaturgy, the beginning of a film is regarded as a prepara-
tion for future events; therefore, it usually conveys the necessary information

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 Poetic dramaturgy in Andrey Tarkovskys Nostalgia (1983)

as quickly and as clearly as possible: who the characters are, what their goals
and motivations are, what their past is, what their present relationships are,
where the characters are located, what is the historic as well as the current
time during which the events take place (Lawson 1960: 23340; Field 1984:
10). In Nostalgia, however, we are given very little information on the charac-
ters and their background. We only know that Andrei is Russian and Eugenia
is Italian, but why they are in Bagno Vignoni, other than to have a look at
the painting of the Madonna del Parto, is not conveyed. The only time the
research on Sosnovsky is touched on is in the scene when Eugenia asks why
Sosnovsky returned to Russia if he knew he had be a slave again. However,
Andrei does not answer the question, instead he hands Eugenia Sosnovskys
letter (which will be read later), so no further information is imparted at this
point (17 min/120), not even the fact that Sosnovsky is the reason for Andreis
visit to Italy. Critiques of the film claim that the character is passive and inac-
tive feels very true. We see him in a hotel lobby sprawled in an armchair, half-
asleep. On entering his room, he wanders around aimlessly and finally throws
himself onto the bed and falls asleep.
The research on the Russian composer Sosnovsky potentially provides a
powerful outer goal for Andrei. If the film were composed according to the
classical conventions, we would see him searching local libraries, museums or
parish registers and, while doing so, encountering obstacles and antagonists.
Since we do not see any actions towards this goal, the research on Sosnovsky
is not a dramatic goal because it does not generate any dramatic action, but
merely functions as a motivation to locate Andrei in Italy. Finally, as late as
30 minutes (30:5031:40/120) into the film, the expositional information on
Andrei, on his background and on his work is conveyed. It is given during
one minute in a very straightforward way, just simply with questions directed
to Eugenia by the people in the pool: What does this Russian do? Whats he
writing? Why in Italy? Does your poet like Italy? We hear the discussion off-
screen, not seeing the faces of those involved and without any dramatization,
while we are visually introduced to Domenicos character, whose background
is explained with the same technique shortly afterwards (33:4547:00/120).
Classical dramaturgy is based on character motivation, without which it is
difficult for the viewer to identify with the protagonist and his or her pursuit
of the goal. Motivation usually explains the meaning of every event to the
viewer before the event takes place; thus the viewer understands what the
event means for the character. Because the viewer is interested in the charac-
ter, the information on his motivation, in relationship to the goal, is important
in creating the connection between the viewer and the narration.
In the beginning of Nostalgia, the viewer is given information on the char-
acter; however, the information is not about the motivation, goal or external
conditions, nor does it concern the dramatic situation as in classical drama-
turgy, but rather about the protagonists inner feelings. Once Andrei realizes
that the church and the painting are not what he wants, he seems to be left
in a state of confusion, as we see him dozing in the hotel lobby or walking
aimlessly around his room. At the same time, we are shown extracts of his
memories and dreams. Thus, the storytelling emphasizes the importance of
the characters inner life.
Since the viewer is not given much information on the dramatic situa-
tion or dramatic guidance on how to watch the film or, for instance, hints on
future events, the screen time is used to express this inner life visually through
Andreis passive actions and through cinematic, aural and visual motifs with

145
Marja-Riitta Koivumki

6. Thomas Redwoods
(2010) study gives
detailed analysis
on how the visual
narration uses
cinematic devices
to affect the viewer.
See especially the
chapter on Nostalgia,
pp.16199.

Figure 1: Andreis inner life is expressed visually through mise-en-scne which

creates an atmosphere and mood for the scene.

props, colour, set design, character staging, etc.6 (see Figure 1). These dramatur-
gical choices are directorial and, as Redwood considers, endow the film with a
perceptual design, an audio-visual pattern, that, once recognised, can provide
a cornerstone for the spectators narrative comprehension (2010: 176).
If we compare Andreis activity level in the beginning with that at the end
of the film, it is evident that there is a significant change: at the end, Andrei
is functioning in a clearly purposeful manner he is active and decisive, in
other words he has a goal. What is then the defining event in which Andrei
becomes active? As Andrei becomes acquainted with Domenico, he wants to
invite him to lunch (0:38/2:00). If we consider Andreis earlier passive behav-
iour, and now the sudden decisiveness and action, a powerful contrast is
generated, which emphasizes the character decision and the ensuing action.
Given that during the first 30 minutes of the film, the viewer is provided with
very little information on the reasons for the character behaviour, we are now
given several reasons within a relatively short time frame.
The faith Andrei believes Domenico has and Domenico being closer to
the truth are things that seem to draw Andrei towards Domenico. Also, the
question that he poses to Eugenia, Why do you think he locked up his family
for seven years? reveals his interest in him. The second reason is expressed
in Andreis belief that Russians and Italians, representatives of two separate
cultures, are not able to understand each other. However, he later declares
that he understands Domenicos decision and especially why he imprisoned his
family (40 min/120). At this point, the story is functioning according to clas-
sical dramaturgy: Andreis decision to invite Domenico to lunch generates an
explicitly stated character goal. However, something essential is missing. It is
still difficult for the viewer to understand Andreis actions in terms of what
their purpose is for him personally. What is at stake for him? Why are faith and
Domenico so important to Andrei? We are given reasons for Andreis actions
in the short term, but the true character motivation, the purpose behind these
actions, has not yet been conveyed; however, the character has been given a
goal to achieve, and the viewer has something concrete to hold on to.

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 Poetic dramaturgy in Andrey Tarkovskys Nostalgia (1983)

Surrogate outer goals

Thus far, we have to be content with a single clear-cut character goal, in spite
of the fact that we do not really understand its true purpose and motivation
for Andrei. Nevertheless, this goal is clearly stated and we see the concrete
steps Andrei takes in order to achieve it. Is Andrei able to invite Domenico to
lunch?, that is, is Andrei able to have contact with him, becomes the dramatic
question with which the viewer is compelled to anticipate the outcome of this
action. The writer while working on a screenplay is usually co-working with
a hypothetical viewer and the dramatic question based on the character goal
functions as a working tool, which the writer imagines he raises in the viewers
mind. The question creates tension by projecting the viewers mind forward,
and this is one of the means whereby the connection with the viewer is created.
As William Archer points out, the tension refers to the potential mental state
of the viewer, not so much to the qualities of the story (1912: 177).
Whilst in Domenicos house (0:441:00), the question, Is Andrei able
to make contact with Domenico?, is answered as Domenico explains that
the reason for imprisoning his family was because he wanted to save them.
Domenico suggests that Andrei should do something important too, and insists
that Andrei must cross the water holding a lighted candle. What this Italian
madman wants Andrei to do is a peculiar and strange task; nevertheless, the
possibility that Andrei might undertake it raises a new question in the viewers
mind: Will Andrei do it?. This is how the viewers attention is directed to a new
problem as Domenicos request functions as a major turning point in the story:
Andrei, now, has a new goal. However, this goal is provided by another charac-
ter believing in his dream to save the world, not by the protagonist himself.
There is also another character, namely Eugenia, who serves the same func-
tion. When Andrei returns to the hotel, Eugenia has not yet left for Rome, as she
had threatened, but is sitting on Andreis bed drying her hair. Andrei says that
he is pleased that she did not leave; however, this moment of harmony does
not last long. Andrei tells Eugenia about Domenico and the task he gave him,
which acts as a catalyst for Eugenia to release her frustration in a long mono-
logue, revealing that there is some tension with sexual connotations between
them. Eugenia accuses Andrei of being a mouse, a man full of complexes who
does not understand what freedom is and what to do with it. Also, the mise-
en-scne conveys that there are tensions between the two. Eugenia is sitting
on Andreis bed, fresh after a shower, sensuous and voluptuous. She is clearly
interested in him and Andrei could have her if he so wanted, but his interest in
Domenico functions as a conflicting force against Eugenias desire.
It is here that both minor characters, Domenico and Eugenia, provide a
goal, which I consider as surrogate goals as shown below.

Domenicos goal: Eugenias goal:

conflict
to get Andrei to walk across the to get Andrei to have an
pool with a candle in his hand affair with her
Andreis
Reaction
Note: The point of view belongs to Andrei.

Table 1: The two minor characters, Domenico and Eugenia, provide surrogate goals
for the story.

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Marja-Riitta Koivumki

Since Andreis own goal is weak and fragmented, the minor characters
compensate for the protagonists passivity. Using this technique, the story
gains narrative energy and, at the same time, it is possible to increase the focus
on the protagonists reaction, since the point of view still belongs to Andrei.
It seems that the outer goal is necessary to provide some energy to the story
and some guidance, which allows the viewer to anticipate the storys events;
however, the outer goal does not have to belong to the protagonist, since it is
the minor characters who can take on this function, and thus provide surrogate
character goals for the story. To tell a story by using character goals provided
by an outside force, another character, etc., fits well with classical dramaturgy.
For instance, the ghost of Hamlets father announces his murder and requires
some acts of revenge from Hamlet. Will Hamlet revenge his fathers murder?
is the question in the viewers mind as they follow his struggle to make a deci-
sion about the task forced upon him.

Inner goal
As has already been discussed, there is a clear change in Andreis activity level
from passive to active, which indicates the existence of an inner goal. Based on
Aristotle, the Russian dramatist, Michael Chekhov, points out that if a drama
is organically constructed, it will be subdivided under a power of polarity such
that as the drama unfolds the opening situation gradually becomes its oppo-
site (2003: 452). Thus, the transformational arc that is the emotional journey
is clearly an element in Nostalgia that functions according to classical drama-
turgy. In order to better understand the function of the transformational arc in
Nostalgia and its contribution to the meaning of the story, it is worth studying
it in detail in relationship to other story elements, and to try to find a unify-
ing theme or a motive that is repeated throughout. Therefore, I will study the
story elements in relationship to cause and effect. In Table 2 below, I have
written out the dramatic questions of each sequence, which I have formulated
on the basis of Andreis or other characters goals or actions.
Table 2 reveals that the decision to walk across the pool seems to be mainly
the result of the thought process Andrei goes through during the Russian
themes sequence (sequence no. 6, 1:091:30 min). The sequence starts with
Eugenia reading Sosnovskys letter, given to her earlier by Andrei with the
words: Yet I would die if I never returned to Russia, if I never again saw the
land of my birth, the birches, the air of my childhood. Andrei lies down on
a sofa closing his eyes, and these words function as a transition that takes us
back to Andreis memories: he calls his wife, Maria, she wakes up; his two
children and their grandmother are standing in front of a beautiful landscape
admiring the rising sun. In the next scene, Andrei is standing up to his ankles
in water in the ruins of an Italian church. Poems are recited to us, we are told
stories and jokes, opinions about Russia are conveyed, and we take part in
Andreis dreams as he identifies himself with Domenico or walks along the
Moscow streets and talks with God and St. Catherine.
This sequence is surprisingly descriptive, with very few dramatic elements.
There is no dramatization, no cause and effect functioning, no conflict in force,
no dramatic beats leading to a dramatic culmination. The narration is elliptical
and there is no particular scene or piece of dialogue in which we are explicitly
told Andreis motivations or reasons for his actions. Neither is there a char-
acter goal functioning other than Andrei remembers, thinks or dreams. In
general, it is a characteristic of the inner goal that it is elusive because it is not

148
 Poetic dramaturgy in Andrey Tarkovskys Nostalgia (1983)

1. Andrei feels confused and alienated

028 min

2. Andrei becomes interested in Domenico

2930 min Is Andrei able to have contact with Domenico?

3. Meeting with Domenico

3139 min Why did Domenico imprison his family for seven years?,
Andrei wants to know.

4. At Domenicos house
401.03 min Andrei is given an answer: Domenico wanted to save his
family. Domenico wants Andrei to walk across the pool.
Will Andrei want to walk across the pool?

5. Eugenia challenges Andrei to be a man

1.041.09 min Will Andrei have an affair with Eugenia?
No, because he is only thinking about Domenico and his
request.

6. Russian themes
1.101.30 min Andreis memories of his family and his thoughts and
dreams about Russia.

7. Eugenias call from Rome

1:311:40 min Eugenia reminds Andrei of Domenicos request.
Decision: Andrei wants to walk across the pool

8. Across the pool

1.412.00 min Andrei acts on his decision.
Is Andrei able to achieve his goal of walking across the pool?

Table 2: Sequence breakdown indicates that Andreis interest in Domenico

functions as a unifying element.

Figure 2: Russian Themes sequence.

149
Marja-Riitta Koivumki

concrete and explicit but rather abstract and hidden underneath, functioning
as a subtext, and therefore it can be manifested mainly by interpretation based
on the material provided by the story. What then are the elements that direct
our interpretation of the inner goal?
If we consider that all the events of the story culminate in Andreis deci-
sion to walk across the pool, then, on the basis of cause and effect, the
Russian themes sequence, as the major sequence before his decision to walk
across the pool, should sum up the reasons and purpose for doing it. As John
Lawson points out, a sequence must achieve a change of equilibrium, both in
relation to previous and subsequent sequences and in relation to the move-
ment within the sequence itself (1960: 172). Therefore, the final reason for
Andreis decision seems to be his memories and dreams about Russia.
As not only the family but also the entire world are important to Domenico,
Andrei too begins to understand the value of his family and Russia. Also, the fact
that Andrei strongly identifies with Domenico (as he looks in the mirror in his
dream he sees Domenicos, not his own, reflection) supports this interpretation.
Thus, the result of my interpretation of the inner goal is that Andrei comes to
understand the value to him of his family and home country as shown in Table 3.

Andrei realizes that Andrei realizes the Andreis realiza-

Italy does not give value of his family and tion is manifested in
him what he might homeland to himself his decision to walk
have expected, that across the pool
something is missing.
Andrei feels confused

Passive Change Active

Table 3: Andreis inner goal: he realizes the value of his family and homeland for
himself.

Andreis inner goal consists of the understanding that his family and
Russia are important to him and, therefore, the emotional journey consists
of the events that lead to this revelation. The realization is then manifested
in the ritualistic act, in his walk across the pool, as Andrei finally knows what
needs to be done and why.
Table 2 also reveals that there is an element Andreis interest in Domenico
that is repeated in every sequence. Still, it is difficult to define it as a character
goal, since we do not know its purpose for the character and because it gener-
ates action only in some parts of the story. It functions more like a theme or a
motive that varies in each sequence, thus generating unity in the story.

The inner goal provides the spine of the story

Yves Lavandier points out that there are usually two types of dramatic ques-
tions with which the writer works when co-working with the hypothetical
viewer. Will the protagonist achieve his/her goal? is the more common one.
Here, the connection with the viewer is created by directing his or her curios-
ity towards the outer goal, the end result of the action. There is also another
question accompanied by another form of curiosity of a more intellectual
nature that can be expressed with the question: How is something going to be
done?. This kind of question usually functions in stories in which the viewer
is aware of the result of the action, but does not know how it will be achieved.

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 Poetic dramaturgy in Andrey Tarkovskys Nostalgia (1983)

Thus, the focus of the viewers curiosity is on the manner in which the result
of the action is reached, not on the goal itself (Lavandier 2005: 103).
The dramatic questions Will Andrei want to walk across the pool? and
Will Andrei have an affair with Eugenia?, as in Table 2 earlier, emerge from
the stimulus provided by the minor characters outer goals. Here, the connec-
tion with the viewer is of an even more intellectual nature, since the viewers
attention is directed towards the characters mental process as he is pondering
over the possible choices he can make (similar to Hamlets problem).
I suggest that there is yet a fourth type of dramatic question functioning
in Nostalgia in which the connection with the viewer is achieved by focusing
his or her curiosity on the protagonists inner goal. Domenicos request for
Andrei to walk across the pool is so strange and peculiar that the probability
that Andrei will not accede to this request is very high. Therefore, the ques-
tion Why would Andrei do such a strange thing as to walk across the pool?
is completely valid here.
By this question the author is able to maintain interest and keep the viewer
connected. The most probable answer is given by the inner goal, and as it is
revealed to the character it is also revealed to the viewer. However, here we
have to keep in mind that the inner goal is not explicitly conveyed nor explained
to the viewer at any point, which means that it is the viewers task to interpret
it. My interpretation of Andreis inner goal of understanding the value of his
family, also functions as a motivation for his actions and it is revealed to us,
at least partly, retrospectively, thus explaining the purpose for his decisions
after they have taken place. For instance, the reason for the decision not to
have an affair with Eugenia is thus revealed to us after the event, not before,
as in classical dramaturgy. The dramatic question why also indicates that the
narrative spine of the story is carried by the inner goal in contrast to classical
dramaturgy in which the spine is usually carried by the outer goal.

Model of an inner search

Based on my analysis, I present a model of an inner search in Table 4 below.

1. The protagonist is aware that what he has is not enough/fulfill-

ing, but he does not know exactly what it is that he is lacking

2. The protagonist encounters a hint or a clue of what might fulfil

his desire. This gives him a new direction, but functions more
on an intuitive rather than on a conscious level

3. The protagonist is forced to test the new direction against his

inner thoughts and emotions, or, it may be tested by forcing
him to face events that either confirm or weaken the evolving
new direction

4. The protagonist finally recognizes the right thing for him; this
recognition is conscious, and he is convinced (or not) of what it
is that he is lacking

5. The protagonist acts upon his new conviction

He is fully conscious of the fact that this direction is the right
one for him

Table 4: Model of an inner search.

151
Marja-Riitta Koivumki

7. Patrick Cattrysse In the beginning of the story, the protagonist is somewhat conscious7 of
discovers that there is
significant variation,
his inner goal, since he understands that he is lacking something important.
starting from the fact He is aware that there is a certain quality missing in his life, but he does not
that the protagonist is know exactly what it is. This awareness does not necessarily generate any
not aware of his inner
goal in the beginning, motivation or outer goal, but only a certain reaction towards events around
but maybe becomes him. Once the possible options are presented to him, he does recognize,
(or not) aware of it mostly in a semiconscious and intuitive way, which is the right one to choose.
towards the end of the
journey, to the fact These reactions gradually reveal for him as well as for the viewer what it
that the character is is that he lacks. The model shows that it is the inner goal of the character, the
conscious of his inner
goal throughout the
emotional journey of the inner search, that generates the spine of the story
story (2010: 8990). and that there is a carefully orchestrated structure functioning in Nostalgia,
Thus, the protagonists even though for the viewer it may appear invisible, as if random, but it is
consciousness of
his inner goal varies anything but random.
according to the
content of the story
as well as to what the Conclusion
writer wants to convey
with it. I analysed the character goals, both inner and outer, in the film Nostalgia
from the perspective of classical dramaturgy. My aim was to find deviations
from classical dramaturgy as evidence of poetic dramaturgy. Usually in clas-
sical dramaturgy, inner and outer goals function in a symbiotic relationship
working with and defining each other as the drama progresses. In Nostalgia,
however, the outer goal is fragmented and is partly provided by minor char-
acters. These findings clearly indicate that the outer goal is needed in order to
provide a focal point for the viewer, to keep the viewers interest in the storys
events; however, and what is important from the writing point of view, the
outer goal does not have to belong solely to the protagonist. When minor
characters take on the outer goal, they compensate for the passivity of the
protagonist and thus help to provide a focus point for the viewer and to carry
the story forward. I am willing to classify this finding as being typical of poetic
dramaturgy, however, although not unusual for classical dramaturgy, as the
outer goal being provided by a minor character is also not unusual in classical
dramaturgy, as my example from Hamlet illustrated.
Emphasis on the expression of the protagonists internal life is not
that unusual in cinema, nor is it surprising, especially for those who know
Tarkovskys films well. However, the fact that it is the inner goal that forms
the overall spine of the narrative is clearly a deviation from classical drama-
turgy. Usually the main tension is built on the outer goal, on the question of
what the character wants. In Nostalgia, however, the overall tension is built on
the questions, why does the character behave in the way he does, what is the
purpose behind his actions and decisions?. This is also a reason for the fact
that the intellectual connection with the viewer is enhanced, and, accordingly,
the composition and orchestration of the material is such that the viewers
interpretation of the story is also enhanced.
What do these findings mean from the screenwriters point of view? Just
to ensure that I am understood correctly: Im not arguing against the outer
goal as a dramaturgical notion or as a practical writing tool; on the contrary,
I regard it as being one of the most important tools of any successful screen-
writer. However, I am arguing that the use of the inner goal as a starting point
of the development of the screenplay offers wider choices and possibilities
for a story design and therefore also for the expression of the story content.
How the story is shaped at the end and how the writer wants the viewer to
be connected with it, greatly depends on which goal is chosen as the starting

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 Poetic dramaturgy in Andrey Tarkovskys Nostalgia (1983)

point. It is also important to be aware of these differences when teaching

screenwriting. Since the findings are based on a dramaturgical analysis of a
film, there is a further need to test and try them within practical writing work
and, even more so, since the screenplay exists as an idea or a plan for a film,
also in a finished film.
Screenwriting is usually regarded as a direct offshoot of playwriting,
adapting many of the same tools and conventions of the theatre to a newer
technology (Howard and Mabley 1993: 11) and, as a general rule, it is usually
a given that, in a film, it is not possible to convey the characters intimate
and inner thoughts as is the norm in literature. However, Nostalgia proves
the opposite: it is exactly Andreis inner thoughts, dreams and emotions that
are conveyed to us. I argue that the type of narration that literature uses
internal, descriptive, stream of consciousness seems to be at least as influ-
ential as the dramatic, conflict-based tradition of theatre. Therefore, further
dramaturgical study is needed to clarify, first of all, the deviations from clas-
sical theatre-based dramaturgy as cinematic dramaturgical conventions and,
second, the influence of the narrative conventions of literature (especially
those of the modern novel) on cinematic narration.
I suggest that it is especially the twentieth century theorists who have influ-
enced the evolution of the notion of the outer goal at the expense of the inner
goal: Campbells mythological journey discussed in Hero with a Thousand Faces
([1949] 1993), as well as the structuralist theories by, for instance, Vladimir
Propp ([1927] 1968), Algirdas Greimas ([1966] 1983) and others may have
influenced the formation of the concept. Neither should we underestimate
Konstantin Stanislavskys notion of the super-objective and the influence of
his theory on-screenwriting literature in general, as David Chadderton has
pointed out (2007: 5051). Therefore, the function of the character goal, both
inner and outer, as well as the historical evolution of this concept through
dramatic and other theories require further study.

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Suggested citation
Koivumki, M.-R. (2014), Poetic dramaturgy in Andrey Tarkovskys Nostalgia
(1983): A character without a goal?, Journal of Screenwriting 5: 1, pp. 141155,
doi: 10.1386/jocs.5.1.141_1

Contributor details
Marja-Riitta Koivumki is a senior lecturer in Screenwriting at Aalto
University, School of Art, Design and Architecture, Department of Film, TV
and Scenography, Helsinki. She has studied at the Moscow film school VGIK
and has worked as a screenwriter, script editor and screenwriting tutor in
the United Kingdom and Denmark. In 20082012 she was a member of the
screenwriting research team, Aristotle in Change, funded by the Academy
of Finland.
Contact: Department of Film, TV and Scenography, School of Art, Design and
Architecture, Aalto University, Hmeentie 135 C, 00560 Helsinki, Finland.
E-mail: marja-riitta.koivumaki@aalto.fi

Marja-Riitta Koivumki has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work in the format
that was submitted to Intellect Ltd.

155
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