TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1568
970751 1
Finite-Element Analysis of Portland
Cement Concrete Pavements with Cracks
JEFFERY R. ROESLER AND LEV KHAZANOVICH
It was verified that finite-element modeling could be successfully used
to analyze concrete pavements with partial-depth cracks. An existing
finite-element program, ILLI-SLAB, was modified (ILSL97) to allow
for partial-depth crack analysis. To model a partial-depth crack, a spe-
cial line spring element was added to the finite-element code. The line
spring elements mimic the behavior of a crack by acting as a rotational
hinge between two continuous slabs. By using available fracture
mechanics techniques, a relationship was derived between the amount
of moment load transfer across a crack and the crack depth. This ana-
lytical solution was then used to formulate the element stiffness matrix
for the line spring element. The deflections predicted by the new finite-
element program are correct, but the stresses in the vicinity of the crack
tip needed to be corrected to match the stress singularity zone in front
of cracks. Several example problems were used to verify the proposed
finite-element model, and an example of a typical highway loading con-
dition was analyzed.
Current mechanistic-empirical design procedures for JPCP estimate
the fatigue life of uncracked pavements (1,2) as a function of max-
imum bending stress to the modulus of rupture of the concrete. The
equations to describe the fatigue life of concrete slabs and labora-
tory beams are empirically derived from laboratory and field per-
formance data and do not give insight into the mechanisms of fa-
tigue failure. For many years engineers have tried to explain the
fatigue failure of concrete through damage mechanics, probability,
and most recently fracture mechanics. Experimental research has
also not been able to explain why or how concrete slabs or beams
fail in fatigue. However, recent experimental work at the University
of Illinois indicates that stable crack propagation occurs in fully sup-
ported beams subjected to cyclic loading. Therefore, analysis of
crack growth in fully supported slabs may be advantageous in solv-
ing the fatigue phenomena.
To solve the problem of a partially cracked slab, fracture mechan-
ics must be used. Fracture mechanics allows for the determination
of the stress and strain distribution in cracked structures. Fracture
mechanics not only determines the stress/strain distribution at the
crack tip but also allows for the determination of the zone of influ-
ence the crack has on adjacent areas in the structure.
In recent years, fracture mechanics has been used in pavement
design and analysis (37). In 1993, Ramsamooj (8) analyzed the
effect of propagation of full-depth cracks from a slabs edge to the
slabs interior. He developed analytical solutions for stress distri-
butions around the crack tip when the crack tip is located near the
slab edge or is sufficiently far from it. However, Ramsamooj solu-
tions have significant limitations: the applied load must be placed at
the crack tip, no temperature loading was considered, and the crack
J. R. Roesler, Civil Engineering Department, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 1611 Titan Drive, Rantoul, Ill. 61866. L. Khazanovich,
ERES Consultants, Inc., 505 W. University Ave., No. 2230C, Champaign,
Ill. 61821.
Paper No.
must be sufficiently short or sufficiently long (i.e., no intermediate
crack lengths).
In the fatigue analysis of JPCP pavements, vertical crack propa-
gation is more critical than horizontal crack propagation. Once the
crack appears at the slabs surface, it does not take many load cycles
for it to propagate horizontally across the slabs surface as seen at
the AASHO Road Test (9). Therefore, analysis of partial-depth
cracks is the thrust of this study.
Current finite-element programs most often used in pavement
analysis, such as ILLI-SLAB, J-SLAB, KENSLABS, FEACONS,
KOLA, and WESLIQID, allow for the analysis of jointed plain con-
crete pavements with or without dowels (1015). Joints with aggre-
gate interlock are considered full-depth cracks with varying degrees
of shear load transfer. With the introduction of fracture mechanics
to pavement design and analysis, there is a need to analyze partially
cracked slabs to test and verify the behavior and sensitivity of slabs
with varying degrees of vertical cracking. The finite-element
method was selected as an attractive universal analytical methodol-
ogy. The paper presents the incorporation of a crack model into a
new finite-element code, abbreviated ILSL97, representing an
extension of the finite-element program ILLI-SLAB (10) and its
recent modification, ILSL2 (16).
A distinguishing feature of the partial-depth crack is the presence
of infinite stresses near the crack tip induced by virtually any applied
load. This stress singularity at the crack tip complicates the finite-
element formulation. The new finite-element code, ILSL97, calcu-
lates stress and displacement distributions in the cracked slab under
traffic and environmental loading conditions. To improve the accu-
racy of the analysis, the finite-element solutions are analytically
extended using fracture mechanics techniques to account for the sin-
gularity in the stress field at the crack tip.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In an unrestrained, elastic, homogeneous, isotropic plate, there is no
preferential direction of bending. The equations that govern the
bending of the plate (Mx, My) are the following (17):
w 2w
2
M x = D 2 + 2
x y
w 2w
2
M y = D 2 + 2 (1)
y x
where is Poissons ratio and D is the flexural rigidity of the plate
defined as the following:
Eh 3
D =
12(1 2 )
2 Paper No. 970751 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1568

where E is the elastic modulus of the plate and h is the thickness of For simplicity, Equation 5 can be rearranged with the help of the
the plate. chain rule to allow for the addition of the ratio of crack depth to
When a surface crack is introduced in a plate, the stiffness of the thickness, = a/h:
plate perpendicular to the crack is less than the plate stiffness in the
direction of the crack. In cracked plates, Equation 1 is not valid near 1 P u M
G = + (6)
the crack tip. However, at a certain distance from the crack tip, 2 h h
Equation 1 is still valid. This problem was considered by Rice
(18,19), who developed a methodology for analyzing a surface The strain energy release rate of any linear elastic material can be
crack in a plate. His approach to analyzing cracked structures has related to the materials stress intensity factor, KI (26):
subsequently had many applications in other engineering fields
(2022). A similar approach has been implemented in the finite- 1 2 2
element code ABAQUS (23). In the following section, Rices G = KI ( 7)
E
derivations for partial-depth crack analysis are revised, closely fol-
lowing the steps taken in a similar paper by Linkov and Tutinas (24).
KI is a unique constant that describes the stress intensity field near a
crack tip and is the cracks driving force. According to LEFM, when
the applied KI is equal to the materials critical stress intensity fac-
PARTIAL-DEPTH CRACK MODEL DERIVATION
tor (KIC) then crack propagation begins.
The stress intensity factor for an edge cracked plate with unit
In Figure 1, a partially cracked plate with crack depth a and thick-
width, shown in Figure 1, has the following form (26):
ness h is subjected to a combined normal (P) and bending (M)
forces. A relationship between P, u and M, needs to be derived.
KI =
1 Pf () + M f () (8)
This relationship will be based on known fracture mechanics equa- t b

h h
tions. The force-displacement and moment-rotation relationship
will be derived from the equality of a bodys change in potential
energy to the bodys strain energy release rate as a result of crack where ft and fb are the geometric factors for normal and bending
propagation. Irwin (25) first defined the strain energy release rate, forces, respectively:
G, as the amount of potential energy, V, released when a unit width

crack is extended a distance a. 2 tan
2
ft ( ) =

G =
V cos
(2) 2
a
3

0.752 + 2.02() + 0.371 sin ( 9)
2
For constant load conditions: the total potential energy is equal to
the opposite of a bodys internal energy, U:

6 2 tan
V = U 4

0.923 + 0.199 1 sin
(3) 2
fb () = (10)

2
cos
For a plate with bending moments and in-plane forces the inter- 2
nal energy can be presented as
Equating the right-hand sides of Equations 6 and 7 and substituting
Equation 8 for KI results in
1
U = ( Pu + M) ( 4)
2
1 P u M
+
2 h h
where u is the horizontal displacement and is the rotational dis-
placement. Substituting Equation 4 into Equation 3 and then into
1 2 1 2 2 PM M2 2
Equation 2 yields = P f ( ) + f ( ) f ( ) + fb () (11)
E h
t t b
h h2
1 u
G = P +M (5) Equation 11 may be written in matrix form:
2 a a

1 u
M h 2(1 2 ) M ft 2 P
P ft fb
= P M (12)
h Eh h ft fb fb2
h

Equation 12 can be simplified further by writing it in symbolic

matrix form:

(U )
(F) = m( F )[c]( F )T (13)
FIGURE 1 Edge cracked plate in combined bending and tension.
Roesler and Khazanovich Paper No. 970751 3

where (U) is the nodal displacements, (F) is the nodal forces, and The following two integrals were solved numerically by Mathe-
[c] is the compliance matrix. Their definitions are as follows: matica and are shown in Figure 2, along with the preceding integral
for bending (C22).
(F) = P
M
h

C11 = f d
2
1 u t (20)
(U ) = h
0

C12 = C21 = ft d fb d
[ ]
(21)
= t
c11 c12 f 2
ft fb
[c ] =
fb2
0 0
c21 c22 ft fb
Finally, rearranging Equation 17 in terms of forces and using the
2(1 2 )
m = preceding integration results gives the following:
Eh
1 u
[ ]
P Eh 1 C22 C12
Equation 13 can be rewritten in the following form: h
M = C11
(22)
h 2 (1 2
) C C C C C21
(U )
11 22 12 21

( F ) m[c]( F )T = 0 (14)

Equation 22 now replaces Equation 1 for the relationship between
Since Equation 14 is valid for any arbitrary force vector, (F), the forces and displacements in a cracked plate.
following condition should be satisfied: Equation 22 shows how the normal forces and moments are cou-
pled in the analysis of a cracked structure. When cracks are present in
(U )
m[c]( F )T = 0 (15) a beam or slab, moment and normal forces cannot be superposed
directly. In cracked structures, applied normal forces lead to the devel-
Therefore opment of internal moments and applied moments lead to internal
normal forces. Thus, shrinkage and creep forces have to be considered
(U ) in analyzing cracked pavements, especially in early age concrete.
= m[c]( F )T (16)
For this analysis, the slab is assumed to be unrestrained from hor-
izontal movement. This simplifies the application of this theory to
Integration of Equation 16 with respect to leads to the following existing finite-element code, but in-plane forces can be added in the
relationship: future when needed. The equation needed to input into the finite-
(U ) = m[C ]( F )T (17) element code is the amount of moment load transfer across the crack
and its relationship to a/h. Since normal forces are assumed to be
The coefficient values of the matrix [C], C11, C12, C21, and C22, can zero, Equation 22 reduces to
now be found by integration:
M = [ LS ]() (23)
C11 = c11 = ft 2
0 0 Eh2
where LS = }} [C22]1.
2(1 2)
C12 = C21 = c12 =
0
f f
0
t b
In a cracked plate, the area near the crack tip behaves like a hinge.
When the load is applied, the plate rotates about the line of the crack
tip. The proposed technique uses line spring elements to replace the
C22 = c = f
2
22 b (18) partial-depth crack with equivalent distributed rotational springs
0 0 that match the analytical solution of the cracked plates compliance.
The following expression for C22 was integrated analytically by The rotational stiffness of the line spring element [C22] varies with
Mathematica (27): crack depth as demonstrated in Equation 19.
a a
3766.09 ln cos + sin
424.43 4h FINITE-ELEMENT IMPLEMENTATION
C22 = f d = + 4h
2

b
0
The improved finite-element model, ILSL97, allows for the analysis of
+ 5 a 2
2h 3
108.1 sec 5.39462 cos
a
h
slabs with partial-depth cracks. The partial-depth crack is treated like a
conventional aggregate interlocked joint with infinite shear load trans-
2 a 3a
0.480905 cos + 0.0126386 cos fer, but with the ability to change the moment load transfer at the crack.
h h When the moment load transfer of the joint is infinite, there is no crack,
4 a a
6.86882 10 5 cos 8.5199 sin and the slab is continuous. When the moment load transfer is zero, the
h 2h crack is full depth, and the problem is equivalent to a joint with an infi-
3a 5 a
3.10192 sin + 0.0830853 sin nite shear load transfer. Figure 3 shows how the moment load transfer,
2h 2h LS/kl, at a crack changes with the ratio of crack depth to thickness.
7a
46 /
To implement these equations into finite-element code, the force-
0.00131881 sin (19)
2h displacement relationship in the elements must be assembled. The
FIGURE 2 Compliance coefficients versus ratio of crack depth to thickness.

FIGURE 3 Moment interlock factor versus ratio of crack depth to thickness.

Roesler and Khazanovich
rotational spring element has one degree of freedom per node. The
displacement component at each node is a rotation about the Y-axis
(Y). The force-displacement relation for a rotational spring written
in matrix form is
MYk LS ( )
Myi = [ K ] Yi
Yk
(24)
where Myi and Myk are moments at the i and k nodes of the element
and the element stiffness [KLS] is related to the line spring stiffness
defined in Equation 23:
[ LS ]
LS
[ K LS ] = LS LS
(25)
The element stiffness matrix for each rotational spring is then
used in the assembly of the entire structural stiffness matrix and
allows for the solution of the nodal displacements first and then cal-
culation of the nodal stresses in the cracked plate.
The next step in finite-element implementation is to correct
the nodal stresses around the crack tip area. The finite-element
analysis correctly predicts the cracked structures displacements.
It also correctly predicts the stresses in the area outside a certain
radial distance from the crack tip. This radial distance is typically
equal to the crack depth, a. Stresses inside a certain radial distance
from the crack have not been correctly modeled by the finite-
element analysis. Stresses and strains near the crack tip are
governed by the following equation first developed by Wester-
gaard (28):
KI
ij = fij () (26)
2 r
where ij are the stress components in the concrete, r is the radial
distance from the crack tip, and f() is a dimensionless function of
, the angular direction from the crack tip.
These stresses can be calculated by using the known rotation of
the crack from the finite element output and solving for the stress
intensity factor, KI. First, the resulting moment in the plane of the
crack is calculated by multiplying the crack elements rotation ()
by its stiffness component as shown in Equation 23. Next, the stress
FIGURE 4 Partial-depth crack analysis for interior and edge loading
condition.
Paper No. 970751 5
intensity factor, KI, for the crack tip field is calculated from Equa-
tion 8. The final equation for KI is the following:
Eh 1
2
( )
1 2(1 2 ) C22 a
KI = h
fb (27)
h
h
Note that is obtained from the finite-element analysis for a given
a/h, loading configuration, and boundary condition. Since KI is now
known from Equation 27, the individual stress components can now
be calculated from Equation 26. According to LEFM, the crack will
begin to propagate when KI = KIC of the material.
FINITE-ELEMENT MODEL VERIFICATION
To verify the validity of the proposed finite-element model, a series
of runs was undertaken. In the first example, shown in Figure 4, a
finite-element model was constructed to behave like an infinite slab
with an interior loading condition. The pavement is 203 mm (8 in.)
thick with a subgrade k-value of 27.1 MPa/m (100 psi/in.), concrete
elastic modulus of 27 560 MPa (4 106 psi), and a Poissons ratio
of 0.15. The interior load is a square load with side lengths of 241
mm (9.5 in.) and an applied pressure of 689 kPa (100 psi). The crack
is located in the middle of the slab symmetrically placed under
the load. A series of runs was conducted for crack depth to thick-
ness ratios varying from 0 to 1.0. As Figure 5 shows, when a/h
approaches zero, the slabs maximum interior deflection is the same
as that of a continuous slab with an interior loading condition. When
a/h approaches 1, the slabs crack behaves as a joint with 100 per-
cent deflection load transfer efficiency. Between the two extremes
of a/h = 0 and a/h = 1.0, the maximum interior deflection curve is
continuous and monotonic. This indicates that the finite-element
model is correctly coded.
Another example was run to further verify the validity of the
finite-element code. An edge loading condition was constructed to
behave like an infinite slab (see Figure 4). The slab is 203 mm (8 in.)
thick with a subgrade k-value of 27.1 MPa/m (100 psi/in.), concrete
elastic modulus of 27 560 MPa (4 106 psi), and a Poissons ratio
of 0.15. The edge load is a square load with side lengths of 241 mm
FIGURE 5 Effect of crack depth on maximum deflection for interior loading condition.

FIGURE 6 Effect of crack depth on maximum deflection for edge loading condition.
Roesler and Khazanovich
FIGURE 7 Analysis of a highway edge loading problem.
(9.5 in.) and an applied pressure of 689 kPa (100 psi). The crack
was located at the middle of the slabs edge symmetrically placed
under the load. A series of runs was conducted for crack depth to
thickness ratios varying from 0 to 1.0. As Figure 6 shows, when a/h
approaches zero, the slabs maximum edge deflection is the same as
that of a continuous slab with an edge loading condition. When a/h
approaches 1, the slabs crack behaves as a joint with 100 percent
deflection load transfer efficiency across the joint. Between the two
extremes, the maximum edge deflection curve is continuous and
monotonic. Similar to the interior loading case, the edge loading
case validates the correctness of the finite-element code formulation.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE
Consider an unrestrained highway slab with dual wheel loading as
shown in Figure 7. The pavement is 3.7 m by 4.6 m (12 ft by 15 ft)
FIGURE 8 Effect of slab thickness and crack depth on maximum edge deflection.
Paper No. 970751 7
with a k-value of 27.1 MPa (100 psi/in.), concrete elastic modulus of
27 560 MPa (4 106 psi), and a Poissons ratio of 0.15. The loaded
area of a single tire is 413 cm2 (64 in.2) with a tire pressure of 620 kPa
(90 psi). Pavement thicknesses of 203, 254, and 305 mm (8, 10, and
12 in.) were analyzed. Figure 8 shows how the maximum edge
deflection under the wheel loads vary with crack depth and pavement
thickness. As expected, the maximum edge deflection increases with
crack depth and is greater for thinner pavement sections.
The stress intensity factor at the crack tip was calculated for all
three cases from Equation 27. Figure 9 shows that the crack depth
where the maximum stress intensity factor occurs is dependent on
the slab thickness. The 203-mm (8-in.) slab had the highest stress
intensity factor at a crack depth of 0.75 h. To propagate an exist-
ing crack, assuming LEFM, the applied KI must be greater than or
equal to the critical stress intensity factor (KIC) of the concrete. The
KIC of concrete is not constant, and it depends on factors such as
maximum aggregate size, volume of coarse aggregate, specimen
size, and the concretes strength. Mindess and Young (29) quote
typical ranges for concretes KIC as 440 to 1429 kPa m w (400 to
1,300 psi inw.w). For this range of KIC, it can be concluded that crack
propagation may occur in all the slabs if LEFM assumptions are
used. Crack propagation will most likely occur in the 203-mm (8-in.)
slab especially for crack depths between 0.5 h and 0.90 h. Once
the crack depth approaches the thickness of the slab (i.e., 0.95 h),
the mode of failure becomes shear, not bending. This is demon-
strated in the stress intensity curves for the bending mode, which
decrease after reaching a maximum value and then go to zero for
crack depths approaching the slab thickness.
In the calculation of stress intensity factor, this analysis did not
consider horizontal movements induced by the applied load. The
horizontal restraint in an ordinary cracked slab would induce com-
pressive forces in the cracked slab, causing a reduction in the
8 Paper No. 970751
FIGURE 9 Effect of slab thickness and crack depth on stress intensity factor.
applied stress intensity factor. Therefore, the curves in Figure 9 are
probably overestimated and will be shifted downward because of
the induced compressive forces.
There is a maximum a/h value where plate theory and fracture
mechanics do not work. This is a result of not being able to model the
stress field in front of the crack tip accurately when a/h > 0.90 h.
Problems also arise when a/h approaches 1.0, since plate theory
does not take into account the compression occurring in the remain-
ing uncracked ligament of the concrete.
SUMMARY
Finite-element modeling was successfully used to analyze concrete
pavements with partial-depth cracks. An existing finite-element pro-
gram, ILLI-SLAB, was modified (ILSL97) to allow for partial-
depth crack analysis. To model a partial-depth crack, a special line
spring element was added to the finite-element code. The line spring
elements mimic the behavior of a crack by acting as a rotational
hinge between two continuous slabs. By using available fracture
mechanics techniques, a relationship between the amount of mo-
ment load transfer across a crack and crack depth was derived.
The equations demonstrated how moments and normal forces are
coupled in the analysis of cracked plates. This analytical solution
was then used to formulate the element stiffness matrix for the line
spring element. The displacements outputted by the finite-element
model were correct, but the stresses in the vicinity of the crack tip
needed to be corrected to match the stress singularity zone present
in front of cracks.
The proposed model was verified by running a series of cases
where the crack depth was varied from zero to the slab thickness, h.
Both an edge and an interior loading condition were used to prove
that the finite-element model results were valid. The maximum edge
deflection when a/h approached zero was equal to the maximum
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1568
edge deflection of a continuous slab. Likewise, the maximum edge
deflection when a/h approached 1 was equal to the maximum
edge deflection of a jointed slab with 100 percent deflection load
transfer efficiency. The interior loading condition followed the same
trends as the edge loading condition.
A practical example of a typical highway pavement loaded at the
edge, with dual wheels, was analyzed for a range of crack depths and
pavement thicknesses. The results indicated that the maximum slab
deflection increased with crack depth and was greater for thinner
slabs. The stress intensity at the crack tip also increased with crack
depth to a maximum value, depending on slab thickness, before
decreasing to zero. Thinner slabs were found to have higher stress
intensity factors.
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Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Rigid Pavement
Design.