TECTONICS, VOL. 31, TC4002, doi:10.

1029/2011TC003068, 2012

Kinematics of Tertiary to Quaternary intracontinental

deformation of upper crust in the Eastern Cordillera,
southern Central Andes, NW Argentina
Tasca Santimano1,2 and Ulrich Riller1
Received 20 November 2011; revised 16 April 2012; accepted 22 May 2012; published 4 July 2012.
[1] To elucidate factors controlling the geometry of, and kinematics associated with,
prominent upper-crustal structures in the Eastern Cordillera of NW Argentina, structural
analyses of key areas were complemented by fault slip analysis, remote sensing and 3D
representation of prominent faults. The analyses revealed that deformation during Tertiary
to Quaternary times was accomplished mostly by prominent orogen-parallel reverse faults,
the geometry of which was significantly influenced by Paleozoic and Cretaceous planar
structures. Locally, this deformation was preceded by kilometer-scale doming of
upper-crustal rocks. Analysis of 767 brittle faults at 67 stations in the studied areas
indicates that local upper-crustal doming and orogen-parallel reverse faults formed chiefly
under NW-SE and E-W shortening. Shortening directions inferred from fault slip data
portray the kinematics of first-order faults and folds. More specifically, shortening
directions are mostly uniform with respect to first-order structures. Age and kinematics of
deformation inferred from brittle fault analysis in the study areas is consistent with
equivalent data compiled from other parts of the Eastern Cordillera, Puna and Pampean
Ranges. Collectively, the data is at variance with hypotheses relating late Tertiary to
Quaternary deformation in the Eastern Cordillera to plate (boundary) kinematics.
The kinematics of intracontinental deformation in the southern Central Andes points to
deformation partitioning of upper crust as a consequence of bulk E-W shortening.
We, therefore, caution the usage of brittle fault-kinematics in continental interiors as
an indication for plate-kinematic changes.
Citation: Santimano, T., and U. Riller (2012), Kinematics of Tertiary to Quaternary intracontinental deformation of upper crust
in the Eastern Cordillera, southern Central Andes, NW Argentina, Tectonics, 31, TC4002, doi:10.1029/2011TC003068.

1. Introduction has been attributed chiefly to subduction zone mechanical

[2] The Puna Plateau in the southern Central Andes
(Figure 1a) is the second highest continental plateau on Earth
and formed by E-W lithospheric shortening since Eocene-
Oligocene times [Isacks, 1988; Allmendinger et al., 1997;
Barnes and Ehlers, 2009]. The structural evolution of this
plateau in a non-collisional tectonic setting, i.e., eastward
subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American
Plate, is not well understood. Notably, the geometry and
kinematic history of first-order dip-slip faults in the eastern
Puna and the adjacent Eastern Cordillera (Figure 1a), located
hundreds of kilometers east of the plate boundary, are still
uncertain. Deformation in both morphotectonic regions
1
School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University,
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
2
Now at Helmholtz-Zentrum Potsdam, Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum
Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany.
Corresponding author: U. Riller, School of Geography and Earth
Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main St. W., Hamilton,
ON L8S 4K1, Canada. (rilleru@mcmaster.ca)
2012. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.
0278-7407/12/2011TC003068
properties including changes in plate motion and plate con-
vergence [Jordan et al., 1983; Marrett et al., 1994; Marrett
and Strecker, 2000; Oncken et al., 2006], crustal thickness
variation [Allmendinger, 1986; Allmendinger et al., 1989],
delamination of lithospheric mantle [Schoenbohm and
Strecker, 2009; Montero Lopez et al., 2010] and inherited
structural anisotropy [Grier et al., 1991; Carrera et al., 2006;
Hongn et al., 2007]. It is not resolved to what extent spatial
and temporal variations in the kinematics of upper-crustal
deformation in the Central Andes relate to plate (boundary)
kinematics.
[3] The Eastern Cordillera is characterized by kilometer-
scale, basement-involved folds, thrusts and reverse faults
[Grier et al., 1991; Kley, 1996; Kley et al., 1996; Cristallini
et al., 1997]. Understanding the controlling factors for the
geometry of prominent structures and associated kinematics
is important for unravelling the mechanics of continental
plateau formation and intracontinental deformational response
to plate (boundary) kinematics. However, the geometry of
first-order Tertiary and younger fault zones and associated
kinematics of deformation in these morphotectonic regions is
still not well known. By contrast, the kinematics of small-scale
brittle shear faults has been the subject of many structural

TC4002 1 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Figure 1. Tectonic setting of the Central Andes. (a) Major morphotectonic units superimposed on digital
elevation model. AP: Altiplano, EC: Eastern Cordillera, P: Puna, PC: Precordillera, PR: Pampean Ranges,
SB: Santa Barbara fold belt. (b) First-order reverse faults and location of study areas, La Poma, Cachi and
Luracatao Valley, superimposed on digital elevation model of the eastern Puna Plateau and the Eastern Cor-
dillera, Province of Salta. Red stippled line delineates the boundary between the Puna Plateau and the East-
ern Cordillera based on the 3000 m elevation contour [Gephart, 1994]. COT: Calama-Olacapato-El Toro
Fault, QT: Quebrada del Toro.

studies in the southern Central Andes [Allmendinger, 1986;
Allmendinger et al., 1989; de Urreiztieta et al., 1996; Gapais
et al., 2000; Cladouhos et al., 1994; Marrett et al., 1994;
Marrett and Strecker, 2000; Coutand et al., 2001; Maffione
et al., 2009]. Nonetheless, only few studies, such as the one
by Marrett and Strecker [2000] for the Quebrada del Toro
(Figure 1b), systematically explored the orientation of short-
ening directions along individual prominent fault zones. It,
thus, remains to be elucidated to what extent shortening
directions vary on a given fault zone and whether shortening
directions portray plate kinematic changes or local kinematics
of lower-order faults.
[4] To better understand the factors controlling the
geometry and kinematics of prominent upper-crustal dip-slip
faults as well as the variation in shortening directions on the
kilometer-scale in the Eastern Cordillera, we conducted
comprehensive structural analyses in the La Poma, Lur-
acatao Valley and Cachi areas (Figure 1b). These areas are
characterized by excellent exposure, known stratigraphy of
Cretaceous to Neogene rocks (Figure 2) and, most impor-
tantly, are structurally representative of the deformation
style in the Eastern Cordillera. The configuration of first-
order dip-slip faults is identified through field mapping,
remote sensing and 3D representation. This is com-
plemented by detailed kinematic analyses of small-scale,
brittle shear faults (767 faults at 67 stations) to elucidate
principal strain axes and, by inference, the kinematics of
first-order structures.
2. Geological Setting
[5] The Eastern Cordillera is located between the Puna
Plateau to the west and the Santa Barbara foreland fold-and-
thrust belt to the east (Figure 1a). These morphotectonic
regions formed as a consequence of intracontinental short-
ening of the western South American Plate margin, imparted
by convergence between the Nazca Plate and the South
American Plate [Isacks, 1988]. Deformation in the regions
commenced in Eocene times and propagated mostly east-
ward [Mon and Salfity, 1995; DeCelles and Horton, 2003;
Deeken et al., 2006; Hongn et al., 2007]. Shortening was
accomplished by distributed deformation in the Puna,
whereas localized basement-involved folding and thrusting
is more typical for the Eastern Cordillera in NW-Argentina
[Grier et al., 1991; Cristallini et al., 1997]. Horizontal
shortening in both regions led to formation of N-S trending
compressional basins [Jordan and Alonso, 1987; Kraemer
et al., 1999; Hongn et al., 2007] and morphological ranges
(Figure 1b). Uplift of the ranges bordering the basins was
accomplished on N-S striking, mostly sinistral, oblique
reverse faults and NE-striking dextral oblique reverse faults
[Riller and Oncken, 2003; Maffione et al., 2009]. Shortening
also affected the basins, the strata of which were folded
during Pliocene times [Marrett et al., 1994].
[6] Orogen-parallel extension of upper crust on the
Puna Plateau occurred at an advanced stage of bulk E-W
shortening, i.e., at about 10 Ma [Riller et al., 2001]. Promi-
nent NW-striking fault zones associated with Neogene
magmatic centers [Viramonte et al., 1984] are vestiges of
this deformation regime. The fault zones, notably the
Calama-Olacapato-El Toro Fault (Figure 1b), formed by
sinistral transtension [Riller et al., 2001; Petrinovic et al.,
2005, 2006; Ramelow et al., 2006; Acocella et al., 2011].
In the southern Puna, late Miocene horizontal extension of
the upper crust has been attributed to local gravitational
instability of the plateau [Schoenbohm and Strecker, 2009;
Montero Lopez et al., 2010] possibly caused by delamination

2 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES
Figure 2. Simplified stratigraphy of the Calchaqu and
Luracatao Valleys modified after Bosio et al. [2009].
of the lithospheric mantle [Kay et al., 1994; Risse et al.,
2008; Kay and Coira, 2009].
[7] Fault-kinematic studies conducted in the eastern Puna
and Eastern Cordillera indicate that bulk E-W shortening
was accomplished by local WNW-ESE to NW-SE shorten-
ing on orogen-parallel thrust faults in Miocene to Pliocene
times and WSW-ENE shortening on NE-striking Quaternary
strike-slip faults [Allmendinger, 1986; Allmendinger et al.,
1989; Marrett et al., 1994; Cladouhos et al., 1994;
Coutand et al., 2001]. Based on fault kinematics, a possible
change in shortening directions during the Pliocene and
Pleistocene has been attributed to a change in plate conver-
gence rate between the South American Plate and the Nazca
Plate [Marrett and Strecker, 2000]. However, it has not been
systematically investigated to what extent shortening direc-
tions are controlled by the kinematics of first-order faults
and the presence of pre-existing structural anisotropies,
notably reactivated Cretaceous normal faults [Grier et al.,
1991; Hongn and Seggiaro, 2001; Carrera et al., 2006].
3 of 15
TC4002
Horizontal extension has been documented mainly from the
southern Puna and the Eastern Cordillera [Allmendinger,
1986; Allmendinger et al., 1989; Mercier et al., 1992;
Cladouhos et al., 1994] and attributed to spreading of
topography that lead to a decrease in crustal thickness
[Allmendinger et al., 1989; Marrett et al., 1994].
[8] Basement rocks in the Eastern Cordillera consist of the
low-grade metamorphic, late Neoproterozoic to early Cam-
brian Puncoviscana Formation [Turner, 1960; Mon and
Salfity, 1995], metagranitoid rocks of the Oire Complex
[Blasco et al., 1995] and syntectonic Ordovician granitoid
plutons [Hongn and Riller, 2007]. Collectively, these rocks
are overlain unconformably by Cretaceous to Eocene sedi-
mentary rocks of the Salta Group (Figure 2), which is made
up of the Pirgua, Balbuena and the Santa Barbara Subgroups
[Moreno, 1970; Salfity and Marquillas, 1994]. The Salta
Group formed during a phase of continental rifting prior to
bulk E-W shortening [Marquillas et al., 2005]. The Pirgua
Formation consists of coarse-grained syn-rift deposit at the
base to well-sorted conglomerate and sandstone toward the
top. The Balbuena Group marks the post-rift phase and
includes conglomerate and coarse-grained sandstone of the
Lecho Formation and overlying dolomite of the Yacoraite
Formation [Blasco et al., 1995]. The Santa Barbara Sub-
group is made up of sandstone and conglomerate of the
Mealla, Maiz-Gordo and Lumbrera Formations and is
overlain unconformably by the Quebrada de los Colorados
Formation [Daz et al., 1987] of the Eocene to Miocene
Payogastilla Subgroup [Hongn et al., 2007]. Fluvial and
alluvial deposits of Quaternary age overlie in turn uncon-
formably deformed Cretaceous and Tertiary strata [Hongn
and Seggiaro, 2001]. These strata are mostly preserved in
the valleys, whereas Paleozoic basement rocks that are
emplaced over these strata make up the ranges. As a con-
sequence, Quaternary pediments in the Calchaqu and Lur-
acatao Valleys that are part of the Oran Group [Russo and
Serraiotto, 1979; Carrera et al., 2006] consist mainly of
clasts derived from the Puncoviscana Formation and Ordo-
vician granitoid rocks.
3. Methods
[9] Orientations of faults, foliation surfaces and aplitic dike
margins were measured in Paleozoic granitoid rocks. In
Quaternary and Tertiary conglomerate, oblate clasts are
aligned concordant to compositional layering. Collectively,
these characteristics revealed the orientation of bedding
planes, which were used to construct fold-axial planes and,
thus, directions of local shortening. In inaccessible areas, the
first-order dip-slip faults were traced on air photos, Google
Earth images, Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection scenes and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
data, from which digital elevation models with a resolution of
90 m were obtained. Fault orientations were also obtained by
applying the three-point method using the software GeoTrig
(Rockware). The geometry of prominent dip-slip faults was
modeled and extrapolated to a depth of 3 km using the soft-
ware Geomodeller v.1.3.1 (Intrepid Geophysics).
[10] Acquisition of fault slip data consisted of recording
the orientations of fault planes, striations (slicken-lines), slip
senses and quality of kinematic information for each fault. A
total of 767 faults at 67 stations were measured (Table 1).
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Table 1. Paleo-Stress and Strain Parameters Inferred From Different Techniques of Fault Slip Analyses From the Calchaqu Valley and
the Luracatao Valleya
PBT NDA Inverse
Strain Stress Method
Station n P B T l1 l2 l3 Ratio NEV s1 s2 s3 Ratio NEV Used
Calchaqu Fault
1 8 184/03 272/44 088/50 313/26 214/18 093/58 0.89 1 191/03 037/86 281/02 0.59 2 NDA
2 11 322/25 197/53 076/34 314/33 204/28 083/44 0.77 2 353/31 183/59 085/05 0.59 3 NDA
3 11 261/24 228/39 158/08 259/41 073/48 166/03 0.48 1 134/62 300/27 033/06 0.59 4 NDA
4 12 179/47 024/49 300/01 193/50 028/39 292/08 0.43 2 181/28 031/59 278/13 0.38 4 NDA
5 4 124/81 344/08 258/12 095/79 354/02 264/11 0.69 0 244/29 114/48 350/26 0.55 2 NDA
6 18 323/41 082/07 156/64 295/24 034/19 157/58 0.34 6 241/82 086/07 356/03 0.89 9 NDA
7 12 273/04 176/07 029/83 121/11 031/01 293/79 0.48 4 153/52 003/34 263/15 0.94 4 PBT
8 5 147/05 242/43 042/43 144/07 242/44 047/45 0.49 0 318/00 228/04 052/86 0.20 0 NDA
9 4 296/30 165/35 048/36 306/19 198/43 053/41 0.42 2 262/12 167/21 021/66 0.29 2 NDA

Toro Muerto Fault

10 14 256/34 151/27 065/40 257/37 163/07 064/52 0.40 5 254/22 155/23 023/58 0.05 7 NDA
11 8 067/27 183/38 323/33 066/25 203/57 327/20 0.60 1 091/22 182/04 280/67 0.23 3 NDA
12 10 284/06 180/42 002/57 110/06 205/38 012/51 0.65 7 183/30 032/57 281/13 0.97 1 NDA

Cerro Bajo Dome

13 48 089/11 178/01 273/78 089/12 179/01 273/78 0.56 5 079/17 170/03 268/73 0.57 4 Inverse
14 23 106/09 015/01 276/81 107/08 017/01 280/82 0.52 0 207/00 297/33 117/57 0.76 2 NDA
15 22 111/16 020/00 288/74 112/13 022/02 283/77 0.51 4 028/01 118/00 226/89 0.84 4 NDA
16 17 116/13 026/03 284/77 115/13 025/02 288/77 0.50 0 116/02 206/01 321/88 0.22 0 NDA
17 17 078/49 340/03 249/57 061/37 158/10 260/52 0.66 4 357/11 262/23 111/64 0.50 9 NDA
18 16 085/02 174/11 032/82 105/02 195/04 345/85 0.70 4 069/03 160/04 309/85 0.59 5 NDA
19 14 105/10 015/04 265/80 105/10 015/03 266/79 0.50 0 201/02 294/49 109/41 0.99 5 NDA
20 20 238/01 329/04 063/83 Cannot be calculated 071/01 341/02 181/88 0.94 0 PBT
21 6 328/08 149/18 291/75 059/06 150/09 295/79 0.81 2 171/10 262/07 026/78 0.23 1 NDA
22 5 080/32 183/17 300/42 071/44 199/32 309/28 0.83 0 055/33 256/55 152/10 0.26 1 PBT
23 5 108/01 018/03 213/88 108/01 018/02 215/87 0.50 0 294/03 204/03 074/86 0.23 0 NDA
24 4 266/02 175/04 021/85 267/02 177/06 018/84 0.48 0 079/29 178/15 292/57 0.33 2 NDA

Refugio Fault
25 22 289/39 127/40 249/69 294/26 120/64 025/03 0.18 9 077/28 175/15 290/58 0.94 7 NDA
26 6 085/66 169/03 250/35 144/29 010/51 248/24 0.88 3 356/14 226/69 090/15 0.65 1 NDA
27 9 059/09 151/13 279/78 065/09 155/04 271/80 0.41 1 283/01 192/46 014/44 0.38 3 NDA
28 5 170/43 297/15 043/34 159/21 267/40 048/43 0.39 2 307/11 045/36 203/52 0.85 2 NDA
29 5 016/27 296/28 110/47 358/31 245/33 120/41 0.57 1 153/29 277/46 044/30 0.87 2 NDA
30 13 064/06 298/31 221/03 286/16 019/10 139/71 0.82 3 031/02 300/10 132/80 0.77 4 Inverse
31 5 327/07 220/55 060/32 332/03 238/52 065/38 0.37 2 324/08 216/64 058/24 0.02 2 NDA
32 8 130/10 185/41 280/60 141/10 232/11 014/75 0.08 2 161/63 039/15 302/22 0.81 3 NDA
33 14 256/02 334/37 164/52 261/08 354/21 151/67 0.19 1 084/08 348/37 184/52 0.17 5 PBT
34 8 222/43 146/22 033/39 208/62 319/11 054/26 0.34 3 027/76 166/10 257/09 0.82 3 NDA
35 8 319/34 220/16 103/41 206/59 347/25 086/17 0.93 1 160/04 252/21 058/69 0.80 3 PBT
36 6 186/12 136/41 268/25 019/22 139/51 275/31 0.86 2 067/84 178/02 269/06 0.68 2 NDA
36b 9 289/01 195/20 032/70 292/02 201/18 028/71 0.41 0 098/02 188/16 359/74 0.21 0 NDA
37 7 083/72 314/46 201/19 333/53 163/37 069/05 0.47 2 206/13 301/19 084/67 0.86 3 NDA
38 11 007/23 238/04 151/74 014/19 122/41 265/43 0.35 2 184/15 276/08 033/73 0.54 4 NDA
39 5 313/23 213/34 075/57 312/20 214/20 083/62 0.67 1 347/14 083/23 228/63 0.18 2 NDA
40 5 046/05 125/02 191/83 260/00 350/08 166/82 0.72 1 187/28 296/31 063/46 0.45 2 PBT
41 6 090/16 218/70 003/29 106/19 216/45 359/38 0.42 2 079/10 331/61 174/27 0.24 3 NDA
42 7 060/15 331/31 153/67 054/14 312/18 191/71 0.52 1 208/13 300/09 063/74 0.38 1 NDA
43 14 026/24 267/22 153/35 035/23 290/30 156/50 0.40 6 233/01 142/22 325/68 0.68 4 PBT
44 18 316/02 176/49 032/30 133/07 233/56 039/33 0.27 3 343/05 251/22 086/68 0.56 6 NDA
45 6 186/47 314/37 069/17 213/75 001/13 092/08 0.71 1 184/53 347/36 083/08 0.15 1 NDA
46 5 283/06 179/66 016/24 283/05 181/62 016/26 0.52 0 196/63 335/19 070/14 0.94 1 NDA
46b 7 019/02 340/46 108/10 019/14 115/22 259/63 0.35 0 032/08 294/45 129/44 0.43 2 NDA
47 12 224/22 294/05 351/82 262/05 170/24 003/65 0.52 2 178/12 081/28 288/59 0.12 4 NDA
48 15 319/22 042/28 171/46 108/04 016/28 206/62 0.63 4 334/07 065/10 209/78 0.46 6 NDA
49 6 084/13 342/49 186/39 083/14 337/50 184/37 0.41 0 227/17 325/25 106/59 0.46 2 PBT
50 7 154/09 292/67 197/24 329/04 062/45 235/45 0.47 3 078/35 279/53 175/10 0.80 2 NDA
51 8 057/05 327/29 166/80 054/06 145/05 277/82 0.75 1 105/00 195/71 014/19 0.68 3 NDA
52 6 280/15 187/21 063/61 269/21 177/07 069/68 0.53 0 285/23 038/43 176/38 0.43 0 NDA

Cachi Fault
53 7 200/61 160/06 342/66 200/40 090/22 338/42 0.65 1 053/11 322/03 218/78 0.90 0 Inverse
54 23 242/34 040/37 134/35 214/14 323/52 114/34 0.63 9 193/09 097/33 297/56 0.51 5 NDA
55 16 256/22 157/23 125/75 286/38 020/04 115/52 0.66 7 033/73 267/10 174/14 0.96 8 NDA
56 15 263/31 165/16 052/54 251/32 156/08 054/56 0.68 3 075/09 167/13 312/74 0.75 4 NDA
57 19 258/26 000/19 129/60 261/29 002/19 121/54 0.79 4 009/16 100/03 201/74 0.39 5 NDA

4 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Table 1. (continued)
PBT NDA Inverse
Strain Stress Method
Station n P B T l1 l2 l3 Ratio NEV s1 s2 s3 Ratio NEV Used
58 12 281/02 142/48 011/43 109/08 200/05 324/81 0.53 2 181/03 271/02 039/86 0.25 2 NDA
59 7 330/18 116/71 232/10 335/65 137/24 230/07 0.80 1 342/41 208/39 096/25 0.35 2 NDA
60 14 267/06 357/32 167/60 272/07 005/24 167/65 0.48 2 003/14 270/08 152/73 0.38 2 NDA
61 13 241/43 081/54 340/01 293/50 068/31 173/23 0.33 6 351/08 087/39 252/50 0.94 5 NDA
62 25 113/01 007/52 211/33 304/04 038/43 210/47 0.33 10 095/01 002/64 185/26 0.20 9 PBT
63 4 293/32 209/01 119/55 288/27 019/01 111/63 0.44 1 285/44 167/26 058/34 0.08 2 NDA
64 6 302/09 107/34 234/55 343/12 077/19 222/67 0.63 1 091/06 269/84 001/00 0.73 3 NDA
65 11 250/38 071/65 356/07 256/47 097/41 357/10 0.38 3 190/31 035/56 288/11 0.56 4 NDA

Luracatao Fault
66 13 110/19 360/10 283/52 102/23 199/15 319/62 0.58 3 008/00 277/18 099/72 0.73 5 NDA
67 5 006/08 189/56 081/01 003/05 270/31 102/59 0.26 1 233/02 140/54 325/36 0.79 2 NDA
a
The P-T method (PBT), numerical dynamic analysis (NDA) and direct inversion method (Inverse) were applied for all faults (n) at a given station. The
choice of method used (Method Used) and individual parameters are explained in the text.

Fault slip data was processed using the software package
Tectonics FP v. 1.6 [Ortner et al., 2002]. The quality of the
fault data was tested using the CHECK algorithm of this
software package. This algorithm ensures that for each fault
plane, the respective lineation lies on the fault plane. Fault
planes with lineations deviating more than 10 from the
respective fault plane were disregarded for further analysis.
Only corrected fault sets were used to calculate the orienta-
tion of principal axes using methods that are based on the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion for brittle fracturing.
[11] For each fault population per station, principal axis
orientations were calculated using the P-T method [Turner,
1953], the direct inversion method [Angelier and Goguel,
1979] and the numerical dynamic analysis [Spang, 1972].
The P-T method calculates the P-axis (shortening axis), B-axis
(intermediate principal strain axis) and T-axis (extension
axis) for each fault plane and produces respective mean axes
for a given fault set. The direct inversion method computes
the rudimentary paleostress tensor (s1 s2 s3) and stress
ratio Rstress = (s2 s3)/(s1 s3). The numerical dynamic
analysis provides the reciprocal strain tensor (l1 l2 l3)
and strain ratio, Rstrain = (l2 l3)/(l1 l3). For all analyses,
the angle (q) between the maximum principal axis and a
given fault plane was assumed to be 30 , which is a reason-
able value for the angle of internal friction of newly formed
faults [Byerlee, 1968] and average angle for fault sets con-
sisting of pre-existing faults [Sperner and Zweigel, 2010].
We confirmed the validity of this angle for our data sets by
comparing the pattern and kinematics of representative fault
sets with solutions of principal axes orientations arising from
different angles of internal friction. The direct inversion
method and numerical dynamic analysis provide the number
of fault planes, the measured slip senses of which are oppo-
site to the ones predicted by a particular solution indicated as
negative expected value NEV (Table 1). The method cho-
sen for a given fault population was based on the NEV and
the best fit of principal axes orientations with respect to fault
orientation and slip sense (see Figure S1 in the auxiliary
material).1 Our results suggest that principal axes of most
brittle fault populations are best represented by the numeric
1 is spatially associated with the Pleistocene basaltic to
Auxiliary materials are available in the HTML. doi:10.1029/
2011TC003068.
dynamic analysis, whereby the P-T method resulted in simi-
lar solutions of principal axes orientations for some fault
populations (Table 1). We, therefore, interpret the axes in
terms of (infinitesimal) strain.
4. Structure of the La Poma Area
[12] The Calchaqu Valley is bound by the N-S striking
Toro Muerto and Calchaqu Faults [Marrett et al., 1994].
These faults juxtapose rocks of the Puncoviscana Formation
over Cretaceous-Tertiary strata of the Salta Group (Figures 2
and 3). In the La Poma area, Cretaceous and Tertiary strata
form a kilometer-scale, slightly asymmetric structural dome,
known as the Cerro Bayo Dome [Hongn et al., 2007] that is
cored by Puncoviscana Formation (Figure 3b). The spatial
extent of the Cerro Bayo Dome is well defined by the con-
centric strike of inclined strata of the Lecho, Yacoraite, Mealla
and Quebrada de Los Colorados Formations (Figure 3a). The
Dome is asymmetric in map view (Figure 3a) and profile plane
(Figure 3b). Specifically, it is elongate in the N-S direction and
characterized by a curved hinge zone [Hongn et al., 2007].
Sedimentary strata of the east limb of the Dome dip moder-
ately eastward and display decameter-scale, asymmetric folds
with east-dipping fold-axial planes. The strata shallow with
distance from the hinge zone of the Dome and are locally
overturned in the footwall of the Calchaqu Fault. The western
and eastern flanks of the Dome, the lateral extents of which
can be estimated by extrapolating the concentric trend of
bedding plane trajectories, are obscured by rocks of the Pun-
coviscana Formation that were displaced on the Toro Muerto
Fault and Calchaqu Fault, on the west and east respectively
(Figure 3a).
[13] The southwestern portion of the Cerro Bayo Dome is
cut by the Cerro Bayo Fault, a steeply east-dipping reverse
fault that juxtaposes the Yacoraite and underlying Lecho
Formations in the hanging wall against locally steeply west-
dipping strata of the Quebrada de los Colorados Formation
in the footwall (Figures 2 and 3a). The Cerro Bayo Fault is
regarded as a splay of the Calchaqu Fault [Hongn et al.,
2007] and is cut by the Toro Muerto Fault (Figure 3a). The
Calchaqu Fault branches into two fault splays, one of which
andesitic Los Gemelos Volcanoes east of the central Cerro

5 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Figure 3. Structure of the La Poma area. (a) Geological units and structure of the La Poma area draped
over an airphoto. Stippled gray semi-circles delineate portion of the Cerro Bayo Dome overridden by the
Puncoviscana Formation on the Toro Muerto Fault, white arrows pointing at each other indicate shorten-
ing directions inferred from brittle fault kinematics. Line A-A indicates trace of cross section in Figure 3b.
(b) Cross-section across the Cerro Bayo Dome along line A-A in Figure 3a.

Bayo Dome [Guzmn et al., 2006]. The spatial affinity of the Cerro Bayo Dome are displaced by a higher-order reverse
splay with the volcanoes may indicate that the Calchaqu fault near the Calchaqu River, herein called the Barbaro
Fault was active in the Quaternary. Similarly, alluvial and Fault (Figures 3a and 4a). Therefore, shortening of the Dome
lacustrine Quaternary deposits covering the east limb of the

6 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Figure 4. Quaternary structures of the La Poma area and the Luracatao Valley. So delineates bedding
planes. (a) Tertiary and Quaternary strata cut by Barbaro Thrust Fault. (b) Cachi Fault juxtaposing Creta-
ceous strata of the Pirgua Subgroup against gently folded Quaternary conglomerate. (c) Angular unconfor-
mity between Quaternary Unit 1 and Unit 2 conglomerates from the Cachi area. (d) Folded and faulted
Unit 1 conglomerate.

and activity of the Calchaqu Fault likely continued both into
the Quaternary.
[14] In order to assess the fault type of, and displacement
magnitudes on, the Toro Muerto and the Calchaqu Faults,
the orientation of these faults was constrained in 3D
(Figure 5a). The Toro Muerto Fault dips at 10 to 15 to the
west and, thus, constitutes a bona-fide thrust fault. By con-
trast, the Calchaqu Fault dips at 25 to 35 to the east. Thus,
the splay of the Calchaqu Fault west of the Gemelos Vol-
canoes is shallower than the main segment of this reverse
fault and is somewhat curved in map view (Figure 5a).
Judging by the portions of the Cerro Bayo Dome that are
obscured by the Puncoviscana Formation on the Toro
Muerto Thrust Fault and the Calchaqu Reverse Fault, hori-
zontal displacements, i.e., shortening magnitudes, are esti-
mated at 2.5 km and 3 km, respectively (Figure 3a). These
estimates are based on the map view distances between
the fault plane traces and the outermost (extrapolated) tra-
jectories of inclined bedding planes delineating the circum-
ference of the dome.
[15] In summary, two deformation episodes are evident
from the La Poma area. The first episode is characterized by
the formation of the Cerro Bayo Dome. This increment must
have occurred after the Eocene as it affected the Quebrada de
los Colorados Formation. Displacement of the Puncoviscana
Formation over the western Cerro Bayo Dome and trunca-
tion of the Cerro Bayo Fault by the Toro Muerto Fault
characterizes the second deformation increment. Thrusting
on the Toro Muerto Fault and reverse faulting on the
Calchaqu Fault are key elements of this deformation incre-
ment. Deformation of both episodes differs in style, i.e.,
non-cylindrical deformation in the first and cylindrical
deformation in the second episode that likely continued into
Quaternary times.
5. Structure of the Southern Luracatao Valley
[16] Granitoid rocks of the Paleozoic Oire Complex are
displaced over folded strata of the Eocene Quebrada de los
Colorados Formation [Bosio et al., 2009] along the Refugio
Fault and the Luracatao Fault along the western flank of the
Luracatao Valley (Figure 6). The Refugio Fault cuts the
Luracatao Fault [Hongn and Seggiaro, 2001]. Both faults
dip approximately 40 to the west, with the Luracatao Fault
shallowing toward the intersection with the Refugio Fault
(Figure 5). Interestingly, the Refugio Fault is concordant to
the metamorphic foliation in the metagranite and felsic dikes
in the hanging walls of the faults (see equal-area projection
in Figure 6). Thus, the orientation of the Refugio Fault and
numerous higher-order cataclasite zones associated with this
fault appear to be controlled by the Paleozoic structural
anisotropy [Hongn and Seggiaro, 2001].
[17] At the eastern valley flank, conglomerate of the
Pirgua Subgroup is in contact with the Quebrada de los
Colorados Formation at the Cachi Fault (Figure 6). Here,
conglomerate of the Pirgua Subgroup is juxtaposed against
slightly folded Quaternary strata, which are unconformably
overlying folded strata of the Quebrada de los Colorados
Formation (Figure 4b). The Cachi Fault has an average dip
of 60 . The hanging wall of this fault is characterized by
thick conglomerate deposits of the syn-rift facies of the
Pirgua Subgroup, which grade into conglomeratic sandstone

7 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Figure 5. Three-dimensional representations of first-order dip-slip faults of the La Poma and Luracatao
areas. Note that W-dipping faults in both areas are dipping shallower than E-dipping faults. (a) A 3D rep-
resentation of the Toro Muerto Thrust Fault and the Calchaqu Fault in the La Poma area. (b) A 3D rep-
resentation of the Refugio Fault, the Luracatao Fault and the Cachi Fault in the southern Luracatao Valley.

with distance to the fault. Therefore, the steep dip of this
fault can be explained best by its formation as a normal
growth fault [Hongn and Seggiaro, 2001; Carrera et al.,
2006] during deposition of the Pirgua Subgroup. Thus, the
orientation of first-order faults in the Luracatao Valley was
mostly controlled by pre-Andean planar structures.
6. Structure of the Cachi Area
[18] In the Cachi area (Figures 1b and 7a) coarse Quater-
nary conglomerate of the Oran Group [Carrera et al., 2006]
cover Tertiary sandstone and can be subdivided into two
units, Unit 1 and Unit 2 (Figure 7b). Unit 2 covers uncon-
formably tilted strata of, and is thus younger than, Unit 1
(Figure 4c). Unit 1 has a yellowish matrix enveloping poorly
sorted clasts of cordierite schist, biotite gneiss and meta-
granitoid rock. Collectively, these lithologies are typical
for the Cachi Range west of the study area [Turner, 1960].
Unit 2 consists chiefly of clasts set in a red matrix that are
derived from the Puncoviscana Formation of the eastern
valley flank.
[19] The synorgenic Quaternary strata [Carrera et al.,
2006] form a kilometer-scale, shallowly northward
plunging anticline cored by Tertiary strata (Figure 7b).
Quaternary strata dip shallower than the Tertiary strata.
Thus, folding occurred after deposition of the Quaternary
strata, but may well have started prior to Quaternary times.
The anticline is characterized by a moderately SE-dipping
fold-axial plane (see equal-area projection in Figure 7b)
indicating NW-SE shortening. Bedding planes of Unit 2
steepen toward a SE-dipping reverse fault that dissects the
west limb of the anticline. Here, the geometry of meter-scale
folds in Unit 2 along with the overall variation in bedding
planes suggests top-to-NW displacement (Figure 4d). Unit 1
forms the hanging wall of the reverse fault near overturned
strata of Unit 2 (Figure 7b). Collectively, the structural
observations point to the presence of a kilometer-scale
cylindrical fault-propagation fold in the Cachi area.
7. Fault Slip Analysis
[20] To better understand the kinematics of first-order
structures and the variability of fault kinematics on the
kilometer-scale, higher-order brittle faults genetically related
to the formation of first-order structures were examined in
the Calchaqu Valley and the Luracatao Valley. Inversion of

8 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES
Figure 6. Geological units and structure of the Luracatao
Valley. Arrows pointing toward each other indicate shorten-
ing directions inferred from brittle fault kinematics. Lower-
hemisphere, equal-area projection shows concordance of
the Luracatao and Refugio Faults with foliation surfaces
and aplitic dike margins of the meta-granitoid Oire Com-
plex. Fold axes in the valley center are adopted from Bosio
et al. [2009].
higher-order shear faults provided directions of principal
strain axes, l1 l2 l3, which respectively correspond to
the directions of extension, intermediate elongation and
shortening. In the La Poma area, principal strain axes were
inferred from fault slip data acquired in fault rock of the
Toro Muerto Fault and the Calchaqu Fault as well as in
Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of the Cerro Bayo Dome
(Figure 3a). In the Luracatao Valley, fault slip data were
recorded in the Pirgua Subgroup at the Cachi Fault and in
granitoid rocks of the Ordovician Oire Complex that were
affected by the Refugio Fault and the Luracatao Fault
(Figure 6). Results of the fault slip analysis are given in
Table 1 and the geometry of individual fault sets is shown in
Figure S1.
[21] At the Calchaqu Fault, brittle faults are highly vari-
able in orientation, but striations plunge dominantly toward
the NW and SE. Reverse faults dominate the fault popula-
tions and indicate NW-SE shortening (Figure 3a) and sub-
vertical extension. The obliquity between the inferred
9 of 15
TC4002
shortening directions and the strike of the Calchaqu Fault
points to a component of sinistral displacement in addition to
reverse sense-of-slip on this fault. Similar to the orientation
of the Toro Muerto Fault, brittle faults associated with this
fault dip shallowly to the WSW and are characterized by
reverse sense-of-slip. Striations plunge almost uniformly
toward the W. This indicates E-W shortening (Figure 3a)
and vertical extension and is consistent with E-directed
thrusting on the Toro Muerto Fault. Brittle faults of the
Cerro Bayo Dome display conjugate sets of NNE-striking
reverse faults that are mostly concordant to bedding planes
of the Yacoraite Formation and the Mealla Formation. This
suggests that the Cerro Bayo Dome formed by flexural slip
on bedding planes. Striations on fault planes plunge mostly
toward the E and W indicating E-W shortening (Figure 3a)
and subvertical extension, which is consistent with doming.
[22] Brittle faults related to the activity of the Cachi Fault
in the Luracatao Valley display variable orientations.
Nonetheless, the majority of faults forms clusters of E-W
striking dextral to dextral-oblique reverse faults and N-S
striking sinistral to sinistral-oblique reverse faults resulting
in mainly E-W to NW-SE shortening (Figure 6). Similarly,
brittle faults associated with the Refugio Fault are highly
variable in orientation and are characterized by reverse
sense-of-shear and strike slip. For the majority of the fault
sets, minimum principal strain axes are remarkably horizon-
tal and trend either WNW-ESE or NNE-SSW (Figure 6),
whereas extension is respectively horizontal and mostly
subvertical (Table 1). It is uncertain, whether the two kine-
matic regimes adhere to temporally distinct kinematic events
or formed as a consequence of locally variable, pre-existing
rock anisotropy during a single deformation event. In sum-
mary, prominent structures in the Calchaqu Valley and the
Luracatao Valley formed under overall E-W shortening.
However, in detail shortening directions vary with position
and affinity to a given first-order structure. Except for the
Refugio Fault, which may record two distinct kinematic
regimes, shortening directions are uniform at a given first-
order structure (Figure 8).
8. Implication of Structural Data for Causes
of Intracontinental Deformation
[23] Knowledge of the (1) age and kinematics of defor-
mation, (2) inherited structural anisotropy and mechanical
configuration of upper crust as well as (3) plate kinematic
parameters is critical to assess causes for intracontinental
deformation. With regard to (1) and (2), our structural study
advances our understanding of intracontinental deformation
in the southern Central Andes. Comparison of our data from
the Eastern Cordillera with equivalent data sets from other
parts of the Eastern Cordillera, the Puna and the Pampean
Ranges (Figure 9 and Table 2) promises to unravel the extent
to which intracontinental deformation in the southern Cen-
tral Andes is controlled by (3) plate (boundary) kinematics.
[24] Deformation in the Eastern Cordillera started in late
Eocene to Early Oligocene times [Deeken et al., 2006] with
the local formation of an upper-crustal, basement-cored
dome at La Poma. Interestingly, this area is devoid of syn-
rift sedimentary rocks of the Pirgua Subgroup, which else-
where in the Eastern Cordillera can be many thousands of
meters thick [Salfity and Marquillas, 1994; Marquillas
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Figure 7. Structure of the Cachi area. (a) First-order Quaternary structures east of Cachi. (b) Outcrop
pattern of Quaternary fault-propagation fold in the hanging wall of SE-dipping thrust fault. Lower-
hemisphere, equal-area projection shows shortening direction inferred from the orientation of Quaternary
and Tertiary strata of the fold-propagation fold. Great circles represent the limbs of the fold.

et al., 2005]. Thus, at the onset of E-W shortening, the
interface between Paleozoic basement rocks and Cenozoic
sedimentary cover rocks was at significantly shallower
crustal level at La Poma than in areas replete with Pirgua
Subgroup strata. It is, therefore, conceivable that the reduced
structural anisotropy and horizontal layering of the upper
crust preconditioned the La Poma area for the formation of
a kilometer-scale dome.
[25] Doming in the La Poma area was followed by reverse
and thrust faulting evident in the Calchaqu Valley and the
Luracatao Valley. In both valleys, the E-dipping reverse
faults, the Calchaqu and Cachi Faults, are steeper than the
W-dipping faults, the Toro Muerto and Refugio Faults. The
spatial association of syn-rift deposits with the Cachi Fault
suggests that the steep dip of this fault is likely a conse-
quence of its initiation as a normal fault during rifting in the
Cretaceous [Hongn and Seggiaro, 2001; Carrera et al., 2006].
This may also apply for the Calchaqu Fault. By contrast,
W-dipping faults are not associated with syn-rift deposits
and, thus, did most probably not form from normal faults.
The thrust geometry of these faults suggests that they ini-
tiated as new faults during Andean shortening, in agreement
with Mohr-Coulomb theory for the formation of new shear
faults at upper crustal level. However, the moderately dip-
ping Refugio Fault is concordant to foliation surfaces and
margins of aplitic dikes in Paleozoic metagranitoid rocks at
the fault (Figure 6). Thus, orientations of most first-order
faults in the study areas seem to be effectively controlled by
pre-Neogene planar structures, recognized also from other
parts of the Eastern Cordillera [Grier et al., 1991; Hongn
and Seggiaro, 2001; Carrera et al., 2006].
[26] E- and W-dipping faults differ in terms of shorten-
ing directions inferred from fault slip analysis and inferred
age of activity. Notably, the Cachi Fault displaces Qua-
ternary deposits (Figure 4b) and is characterized by overall
WNW-ESE shortening (Figures 3a, 6, and 8). This short-
ening direction is also evident from the Quaternary fault-
propagation fold in the Cachi area (Figures 7 and 8). By
contrast, W-dipping faults do not deform Quaternary
deposits and formed under E-W shortening (Toro Muerto
Thrust) or WNW-ESE and NNE-SSW shortening (Refugio
Fault). Our data shows that overall NW-SE shortening con-
tinued to be active into the Quaternary, whereas NNE-SSW
shortening associated with the Refugio Fault seems to have
ceased prior to this time. This agrees with fault-kinematic
data from the Puna, which is characterized chiefly by NW-
SE shortening lasting in places from Miocene to Pleistocene
times (Figure 9 and Table 2). Evidence for NW-SE short-
ening in the Pleistocene is at variance with the notion that
shortening directions in the Eastern Cordillera and adjacent
Puna changed from NW-SE to NE-SW some time during the
Pliocene [Marrett et al., 1994]. Based on a detailed, but
spatially rather limited, fault slip analysis in the Eastern
Cordillera (i.e., Quebrada del Toro), this temporal change in
shortening direction was attributed to a directional change in
absolute motion of the South American Plate [Marrett and
Strecker, 2000]. Judging by the occurrence of NW-SE
shortening in Pleistocene time in the Puna and the Eastern
Cordillera (Figure 9 and Table 2), the hypothesis that intra-
continental shortening directions portray plate motion
directions requires reconsideration.

10 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES
Figure 8. Synoptic diagrams showing the variation of min-
imum principal strain axes (filled symbols) and maximum
principal strain axes (open symbols) inferred from brittle
fault analysis for each station in the La Poma area, Luracatao
Valley and Cachi area. Strain axes inferred from fault sets
containing more than ten faults are represented by circles
and are more reliable in terms of indicating overall shortening
directions (arrows) than strain axes inferred from fault sets
with less than ten faults, which are represented by squares.
Great circles indicate orientations of prominent faults.
[27] In our fault-kinematic data set, sub-vertical shortening
is apparent in 4 out of 67 stations (Table 1). Therefore,
gravitational collapse does not seem to account for the
observed fault kinematics. Our data are dominated by hori-
zontal NW-SE and E-W shortening and subvertical exten-
sion, particularly at first-order faults that were active in
Quaternary times. NW-SE shortening in Pliocene rocks has
also been documented elsewhere from the Eastern Cordillera,
11 of 15
TC4002
southern and northern Puna [e.g., Maffione et al., 2009;
Tibaldi et al., 2009] and Pampean Ranges [Gapais et al.,
2000]. This suggests that Pleistocene shortening directions
in the southern Central Andes (Figure 9 and Table 2) are
unrelated to the post-3.2 Ma N75 E direction of Nazca-South
America plate convergence [DeMets et al., 1994; Norabuena
et al. 1998].
[28] Except for the Refugio Fault, shortening directions
inferred from fault slip data in the La Poma area and the
Luracatao Valley are uniform at, but can vary with orienta-
tion and type of, a given first-order structure (Figure 8). This
has also been observed in other parts of the southern Central
Andes. Specifically, E-W to subvertical shortening and N-S
Figure 9. Spatial distribution of shortening directions
inferred from analyses of brittle shear faults compiled from
Allmendinger et al. [1989], Marrett et al. [1994], Cladouhos
et al. [1994], de Urreiztieta et al. [1996], Schoenbohm and
Strecker [2009], Maffione et al. [2009], Tibaldi et al. [2009],
Montero Lopez et al. [2010], and this study. Note NW-SE
shortening directions persisting to Pleistocene times. See
Table 2 for details of the analyses. For location of the area
displayed in the figure, see Figure 1a.
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Table 2. Compilation of Kinematic Data From the Southern Central Andes

Location Coordinates ( S/ W) Na Shortening Extension Age of Deformationb Sourcec
Loma Blanca 23.0/66.5 20 246/09 155/10 Quaternary* 1
Chorrillos 24.2/66.5 27 079/42 345/04 Quaternary 1
17 103/08 012/06 Tertiary 1
Negra Muerta 24.4/66.2 7 251/48 346/04 Tertiary 1
Pastos Grandes 24.5/66.8 19 115/00 208/87 ? 1
16 039/43 138/09 Quaternary 1
40 015/84 162/05 Post10.6 Ma 1
Cerro Pircas 24.7/67.0 26 232/18 126/40 Quaternary * 1
Sierra de Bequeville 25.0/67.0 23 118/07 256/81 Tertiary 1
14 064/27 334/00 Quaternary * 1
7 065/08 331/28 Quaternary * 1
Salar de Hombre Muerto 25.3/67.1 9 176/69 297/11 Post2 Ma * 1
Salar de Antofalla 25.5/67.5 16 052/50 142/00 Quaternary * 1
Quebrada de Humahuaca 23.2/65.3 11 060/18 161/30 Post1.5 Ma 1
10 279/25 101/65 Pleistocene 1
8 228/62 330/06 MiocenePliocene 1
Quebrada Del Toro 24.5/66.0 128 311/11 091/75 Pre0.98 1
80 061/03 307/82 Post0.98 * 1
14 237/00 329/87 Quaternary 1
La Poma 24.6/66.2 58 299/08 067/77 Tertiary 1
55 060/06 302/78 Quaternary * 1
Pucara 25.7/66.2 12 308/01 207/86 >13.412.11 Ma 1
27 062/09 181/72 Post12.11 Ma 1
Choromoro 26.4/65.4 9 287/02 172/85 Pliocene 1
Tiomayo 22.5/66.5 34 E-W N-S Post6.75 Ma 2
Rinconada 22.3/66.1 18 111 vertical Pre & post 12 Ma 2
47 vertical E-W Quaternary 2
Abra Moreta 22.4/66.0 58 101 vertical Post14.26 Ma 2
132 vertical E-W Quaternary 2
Pan de Azucar 22.6/65.8 22 150 vertical ? 2
Abra Pampa 22.6/65.8 36 93 vertical ? 2
Pumahuasi 22.2/65.8 54 NE-SW NW-SE Quaternary 2
Yavi 22.0/65.4 37 NW-SE vertical Quaternary 2
Quebrada Honda 21.8/65.2 36 vertical N32 E Miocene-younger 2
Abra Tuc Tuca 22.4/65.4 14 137 vertical Post9.57 2
Sierra Aconquija 27.0/66.0 70 WNW vertical Post2.96 Ma 3
Sierra Alto Huasi 27.0/66.6 28 NW-SE vertical Pre2.35 3
65 284/05 193/11 Post2.35 3
Rio Bolson 27.0/66.6 28 WNW vertical Post3.35 Ma 3
La Hoyada 27.0/66.6 45 WNW ENE Post3.35 Ma 3
Pasto Ventura 26.6/67.2 27 E-W N-S Quaternary 3
El Penon 26.6/67.2 19 vertical N-S Quaternary 3
Fiambala BasinNormal Fault 27.0/67.7 20 vertical NW-SE Post 3.7 Ma 4
14 vertical NW-SE Post 3.7 Ma 4
15 vertical NW-SE Post 3.7 Ma 4
Fiambala BasinEastern Fault 27.0/67.7 8 NW-SE ? NeogenePleistocene 4
27.0/67.7 6 NNE-SSW ? NeogenePleistocene 4
26.9/67.7 6 NW-SE ? NeogenePleistocene 4
Fiambala BasinWestern Fault 27.0/67.8 10 WNW-ESE ? MiocenePleistocene 4
Fiambala BasinCentral Fault 27.0/67.7 19 NW-SE ? Pleistocene 4
Honda Fault 26.7/66.8 6 WSW-ENE ? ? 4
Sierra de Cochinoca 22.5/65.8 7 NW-SE N-S OligoceneMiocene 5
Abra Pampa 22.7/65.6 5 WSW-ENE NNE-SSW OligoceneMiocene 5
Tres Cruces 22.8/65.6 6 NNW-SSE WSW-ENE MidLate Miocene 5
Pasto Ventura 26.6/67.2 8 NW-SE NE-SW Quaternary 6
La Hoyada 27.0/66.6 6 E-W NW-SE 72.5 Ma 6
11 NW-SE NE-SW 72.5 Ma 6
11 E-W NNW-SSE 72.5 Ma 6
7 WNW-ESE NE-SW 72.5 Ma 6
12 NNE-SSW NW-SE 72.5 Ma 6
Las Papas Valley 27.0/67.7 9 WNW-ESE ? Post 3.7 Ma 6
Salar de Uyuni 20.0/68.1 6 NW-SE vertical Pliocene 7
20.0/68.1 7 NW-SE NE-SW Pliocene 7
20.0/68.1 13 E-W N-S Miocene 7
Salar de UyuniOllague Area 21.3/68.2 9 vertical E-W ? 7
Salar de UyuniCosca Area 21.0/68.4 9 NW-SE vertical Pliocene 7
21.0/68.4 10 vertical NE-SW PlioceneQuaternary 7
Salar de UyuniIgnimbrites 21.3/68.2 6 NW-SE vertical Pliocene 7
21.3/68.2 6 vertical NW-SE ? 7
Salar de UyuniEast of Ollague 21.3/68.3 9 NW-SE vertical Pliocene 7

12 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES TC4002

Table 2. (continued)
Location Coordinates ( S/ W) Na Shortening Extension Age of Deformationb Sourcec
North of Pipanaco 27.0/66.7 79 NW-SE vertical ? 8
27.0/66.2 47 NW-SE vertical Quaternary * 8
27.0/66.5 58 NE-SW vertical Quaternary * 8
26.7/66.0 10 052/12 156/46 Quaternary * 8
27.0/66.4 13 NW-SE NE-SW Quaternary * 8
Tinogasta 28.0/67.6 44 WNW-ESE vertical Quaternary * 8
West of Pipanaco 28.1/67.6 27 E-W vertical Quaternary * 8
South of Pipanaco 28.7/66.3 41 NE-SW vertical Quaternary * 8
28.7/66.3 12 331/63 069/04 ? 8
East of Pipanaco 28.3/65.9 84 NE-SW vertical Quaternary * 8
28.0/65.5 18 295/13 118/77 Quaternary * 8
28.1/65.8 30 068/11 328/44 Quaternary * 8
27.5/66.0 41 285/13 183/42 Quaternary * 8
Sierra Alto Huasi 27.0/66.6 30 NW-SE Vertical MiocenePliocene 9
Cerro Negro 27.0/66.6 23 NW-SE NE-SW MiocenePliocene 9
Sierra Chango 27.0/66.6 12 NW-SE vertical MiocenePliocene 9
Sierra Hombre Muerto 27.0/66.6 23 NW-SE NE-SW MiocenePliocene 9
Rio El Bolson 27.0/66.6 30 E-W N-S Quaternary 9
Rio Totoral 27.0/66.6 19 E-W N-S Quarernary 9
Sierra de Quilmes 27.0/66.6 32 WNW-ESE NNE-SSW Quaternary 9
Quebrada del ToroSan Bernado Fault 24.5/66.0 29 NW-SE NE-SW Miocene0.98 Ma 10
6 vertical NW-SE Miocene0.98 Ma 10
6 90.4/0.7 180.6/20.9 4.17 Ma- present 10
Quebrada del ToroSol Fault 24.5/66.0 9 NW-SE NNW-SSE Miocene0.98 Ma 10
39 NE-SW vertical 4.17 Mapresent 10
11 NE-SW NW-SE 4.17 Mapresent 10
Quebrada del ToroGlgota fault 24.5/65.0 22 NW-SE NNE-SSW Miocene0.98 Ma 10
30 NE-SW vertical 4.17 Mapresent 10
Quebrada Carachi 24.5/66.0 65 NW-SE NE-SW Miocene0.98 Ma 10
17 NE-SW vertical 4.17 Mapresent 10
Toro Muerto Fault 24.7/66.2 32 E-W ? Tertiary 11
Calchaqui Fault 24.7/66.2 85 NW-SE NE-SW Quaternary 11
Cerro Bayo Dome 24.7/66.2 197 E-W vertical Tertiary-Quaternary 11
Refugio Fault 25.3/66.5 137 NNE-SSW vertical Tertiary 11
Refugio Fault 25.3/66.5 126 WNW-ESE NE-SW Tertiary 11
Luracatao Fault 25.3/66.5 13 WNW-ESE NW-SE Tertiary 11
Cachi Fault 25.3/66.4 85 WNW-ESE NE-SW Quaternary 11
a
Number of faults per population.
b
The asterisk refers to age inferred from similarity of shortening direction with that in adjacent younger rocks.
c
References: (1) Marrett et al. [1994], (2) Cladouhos et al. [1994], (3) Allmendinger et al. [1989], (4) Schoenbohm and Strecker [2009], (5) Maffione
et al. [2009], (6) Montero Lopez et al. [2010], (7) Tibaldi et al. [2009], (8) de Urreiztieta et al. [1996], (9) Allmendinger [1986], (10) Marrett and
Strecker [2000], (11) this study.

extension characterizes NW-SE striking sinistral fault zones,
notably the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro Fault Zone [Riller
et al., 2001, Petrinovic et al., 2006; Acocella et al., 2011].
NW-SE shortening and subvertical extension is mostly
associated with orogen-parallel sinistral reverse faults in the
Eastern Cordillera, the Puna [Coutand et al., 2001; Riller and
Oncken, 2003; Maffione et al., 2009] and Pampean Ranges
[de Urreiztieta et al., 1996; Gapais et al., 2000]. ENE-WSW
shortening and subvertical extension has been recorded at
NE-SW striking dextral reverse fault zones in the Puna
[Marrett et al., 1994] and Pampean Ranges [de Urreiztieta
et al., 1996; Gapais et al., 2000]. Collectively, this suggests
that small-scale brittle faults are kinematically related to
prominent (first-order) faults in the southern Central Andes.
[29] First-order faults, N-S striking sinistral reverse and
NE-SW striking dextral reverse faults in particular, form a
rhombic pattern in the southern Central Andes [Gapais
et al., 2000; Riller and Oncken, 2003]. This pattern has
been explained in terms of deformation partitioning of
the upper-crust under bulk E-W shortening [Gapais et al.,
2000; Riller and Oncken, 2003; Riller et al., 2012]. E-W
shortening in the plateau area and adjacent morphotectonic
regions arises likely from far-field paleostresses, notably
normal stresses, generated by (oblique) plate convergence at
the plate boundary. In our opinion, the fault kinematics
observed in the continental interior of the Central Andes is
more likely controlled by deformation partitioning of upper
crust rather than by directions of plate motion or plate con-
vergence. The importance of deformation partitioning in con-
trolling the orientations in principal shortening (compression)
axes that deviate significantly from plate convergence vectors
is also known from other well-studied regions of intraconti-
nental deformation, such as the Alpine-Himalayan collision
zone in Iran [Lacombe et al., 2006; Navabpour et al., 2007;
Shabanian et al., 2010; Kargaranbafghi et al., 2011].
9. Conclusions
[30] Detailed structural analyses conducted in the Calchaqu
Valley and the Luracatao Valley revealed that late Tertiary to
Quaternary intracontinental deformation was chiefly accom-
plished by prominent orogen-parallel reverse faults and folds.
Locally, i.e., at La Poma in the Calchaqu Valley, deformation
started with doming of upper crust, which may be attributed to
the thickness variation of Cretaceous to Eocene rift sediments.
The geometry of the reverse faults was significantly influenced

13 of 15
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES
by Paleozoic dikes and foliation surfaces as well as Cretaceous
normal faults.
[31] Analysis of fault slip data indicates that upper-crustal
doming in the La Poma area occurred under E-W shortening,
whereas orogen-parallel reverse faults in the three study areas
formed mostly under NW-SE shortening. Shortening direc-
tions are kinematically related to, and rather uniform with
respect to first-order faults, evident also elsewhere in the
southern Central Andes. Specifically, fault-kinematic regimes
vary with position and structural precondition of upper crust
but do not appear to change systematically with time on the
regional scale. Shortening directions inferred from fault slip
analyses compiled from other parts of the Eastern Cordillera,
Puna and Pampean Ranges corroborate this notion. Moreover,
age and kinematics of regional deformation are at variance
with hypotheses attributing intracontinental shortening direc-
tions in the southern Central Andes to gravitational collapse or
changes in plate (boundary) kinematics. The kinematics of
intracontinental deformation in the southern Central Andes
appears to be rather influenced by pre-existing structural
anisotropy and local kinematic regime as a consequence of
deformation partitioning of upper-crust under bulk E-W
shortening. We, therefore, caution the usage of brittle fault-
kinematics in continental interiors as proxy for tracking plate-
kinematic changes.
[32] Acknowledgments. This study was funded by the National
Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We thank S. Guzmn,
F. Hongn, and I. Petrinovic for many enlightening discussions and logistical
support and W. A. Morris for the use of Geomodeller. Constructive reviews
by L. Schoenbohm, G. Axen, J. Kley, and an anonymous person improved
the content of this work significantly.
References
Acocella, V., A. Gioncada, R. Omarini, U. Riller, R. Mazzuoli, and L. Vezzoli
(2011), Tectono-magmatic characteristics of the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro
Fault Zone (Puna and Eastern Cordillera), Central Andes, Tectonics, 30,
TC3005, doi:10.1029/2010TC002854.
Allmendinger, R. W. (1986), Tectonic development, southeastern border of
the Puna Plateau, northwestern Argentine Andes, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 97,
10701082, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1986)97<1070:TDSBOT>2.0.CO;2.
Allmendinger, R. W., M. Strecker, J. E. Eremchuk, and P. Francis (1989),
Neotectonic deformation of the southern Puna Plateau, northwestern
Argentina, J. South Am. Earth Sci., 2, 111130, doi:10.1016/0895-9811(89)
90040-0.
Allmendinger, R. W., T. E. Jordan, S. M. Kay, and B. Isacks (1997), The
evolution of the Altiplano-Puna Plateau of the central Andes, Annu. Rev.
Earth Planet. Sci., 25, 139174, doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.25.1.139.
Angelier, J., and J. Goguel (1979), Sur une methode simple de determina-
tion des axes princepaux des contraintes pour une polulation de failles,
C. R. Seances Acad. Sci. Ser. D, 288(3), 307310.
Barnes, J. B., and T. A. Ehlers (2009), End member models for Andean Plateau
uplift, Earth Sci. Rev., 97, 105132, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.08.003.
Blasco, G., E. Zapettini, and F. Hongn (1995), Hoja Geolgica San Antonio
de los Cobres, map, scale 1:250,000, Secr. de Min. de la Nacion, Dir.
Nac. del Serv. Geol., Buenos Aires.
Bosio, P. P., J. Powell, C. Del Papa, and F. Hongn (2009), Middle Eocene
deformation-sedimentation in the Luracatao Valley: Tracking the begin-
ning of the foreland basin of northwestern Argentina, J. South Am. Earth
Sci., 28, 142154, doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2009.06.002.
Byerlee, J. D. (1968), Brittle-ductile transition in rocks, J. Geophys. Res.,
73(14), 47414750, doi:10.1029/JB073i014p04741.
Carrera, N., J. A. Muoz, F. Sbat, R. Mon, and E. Roca (2006), The role
of inversion tectonics in the structure of the Cordillera Oriental (NW
Argentinean Andes), J. Struct. Geol., 28, 19211932, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.
2006.07.006.
Cladouhos, T. T., R. W. Allmendinger, B. Coira, and E. Farrar (1994), Late
Cenozoic deformation in the central Andes: Fault kinematics from the
northern Puna, northwestern Argentina and southwestern Bolivia,
J. South Am. Earth Sci., 7, 209228, doi:10.1016/0895-9811(94)90008-6.
14 of 15
TC4002
Coutand, I., P. R. Cobbold, M. de Urreiztieta, P. Gautier, A. Chauvin,
D. Gapais, E. A. Rossello, and O. Lopz-Gamund (2001), Style and
history of Andean deformation, Puna Plateau, northwestern Argentina,
Tectonics, 20, 210234, doi:10.1029/2000TC900031.
Cristallini, E., A. H. Cominguez, and V. A. Ramos (1997), Deep structure
of the Metn-Guachipas Region: Tectonic inversion in Northwestern
Argentina, J. South Am. Earth Sci., 10, 403421, doi:10.1016/S0895-
9811(97)00026-6.
DeCelles, P., and B. K. Horton (2003), Early to middle Tertiary foreland
basin development and the history of Andean crustal shortening in Boli-
via, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 115, 5877, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2003)
115<0058:ETMTFB>2.0.CO;2.
Deeken, A., E. R. Sobel, I. Coutand, M. Haschke, U. Riller, and M. R.
Strecker (2006), Development of the southern Eastern Cordillera,
NWArgentina, constrained by apatite fission track thermochronology: From
early Cretaceous extension to middle Miocene shortening, Tectonics, 25,
TC6003, doi:10.1029/2005TC001894.
DeMets, C., R. G. Gordon, D. F. Aargus, and S. Stein (1994), Effect of
recent revisions to the geomagnetic reversal time scale on estimates of
current plate motion, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 21912194, doi:10.1029/
94GL02118.
de Urreiztieta, M., D. Gapais, C. Le Corre, P. R. Cobbold, and E. Rossello
(1996), Cenozoic dextral transpression and basin development at the
southern edge of the Puna plateau, northwestern Argentina, Tectonophy-
sics, 254, 1739, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(95)00071-2.
Daz, J., D. Malizzia, and G. Bossi (1987), Anlisis estratigrfico del Grupo
Payogastilla (Terciario Sup.), in Actas del X Congreso Geolgico Argen-
tino, Tucumn, vol. 2, pp. 113117, Asoc. Geol. Argent., Buenos Aires.
Gapais, D., P. Cobbold, O. Bourgeois, D. Roubya, and M. de Urreiztieta
(2000), Tectonic significance of fault-slip data, J. Struct. Geol., 22,
881888, doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(00)00015-8.
Gephart, J. (1994), Topography and subduction geometry in the central
Andes: Clues to the mechanics of a non-collisional orogen, J. Geophys.
Res., 99, 12,27912,288, doi:10.1029/94JB00129.
Grier, M. E., J. A. Salfity, and R. W. Allmendinger (1991), Andean reacti-
vation of the Cretaceous Salta rift, northwestern Argentina, J. South Am.
Earth Sci., 4, 351372, doi:10.1016/0895-9811(91)90007-8.
Guzmn, S. R., I. A. Petrinovic, and J. A. Brod (2006), Pleistocene mafic vol-
canoes in the Puna-Cordillera Oriental boundary, NW-Argentina, J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 158, 5169, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.04.014.
Hongn, F., and U. Riller (2007), Tectonic evolution of the western margin
of Gondwana inferred from syntectonic emplacement of Paleozoic granit-
oid plutons in N.W. Argentina, J. Geol., 115(2), 163180, doi:10.1086/
510644.
Hongn, F., and R. E. Seggiaro (2001), Hoja Geolgica 2566-III, Cachi, Bol.
248, scale 1:250,000, Serv. Geol. Min. Argent., Buenos Aires.
Hongn, F., C. del Papa, J. Powell, I. Petrinovic, R. Mon, and V. Deraco
(2007), Middle Eocene deformation and sedimentation in the Puna-Eastern
Cordillera transition (23 26 S): Control by pre-existing heterogeneities on
the pattern of initial Andean shortening, Geology, 35(3), 271274,
doi:10.1130/G23189A.1.
Isacks, B. (1988), Uplift of the central Andean plateau and bending of the
Bolivian orocline, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 32113231, doi:10.1029/
JB093iB04p03211.
Jordan, T. E., and R. N. Alonso (1987), Cenozoic stratigraphy and basin
tectonics of the Andes mountains, 20 28 South Latitude, AAPG Bull.,
71, 4964.
Jordan, T. E., B. L. Isacks, R. W. Allmendinger, J. A. Brewer, V. A. Ramos,
and C. J. Ando (1983), Andean tectonics related to geometry of sub-
ducted Nazca plate, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 94, 341361, doi:10.1130/
0016-7606(1983)94<341:ATRTGO>2.0.CO;2.
Kargaranbafghi, F., F. Neubauer, and J. Genser (2011), Cenozoic kinematic
evolution of southwestern Central Iran: Strain partitioning and accommo-
dation of ArabiaEurasia convergence, Tectonophysics, 502, 221243,
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2010.02.004.
Kay, S. M., and B. L. Coira (2009), Shallowing and steepening subduction
zones, continental lithospheric loss, magmatism and crustal flow under
the central Andean Altiplano-Puna plateau, in Backbone of the Americas:
Shallow Subduction, Plateau Uplift and Ridge and Terrane Collision,
edited by S. M. Kay et al., Geol. Soc. Am. Mem., 204, 229259,
doi:10.1130/2009.1204(11).
Kay, S. M., B. Coira, and J. G. Viramonte (1994), Young mafic backarc
volcanic rocks as indicators of continental lithospheric delamination
beneath the Argentine Puna Plateau, Central Andes, J. Geophys. Res.,
99, 24,32324,339, doi:10.1029/94JB00896.
Kley, J. (1996), Transition from basement-involved to thin-skinned thrusting
in the Cordillera Oriental of southern Bolivia, Tectonics, 15, 763775,
doi:10.1029/95TC03868.
TC4002 SANTIMANO AND RILLER: INTRACONTINENTAL DEFORMATION ANDES
Kley, J., A. H. Gangui, and D. Krger (1996), Basement-involved blind
thrusting in the eastern Cordillera Oriental, southern Bolivia: Evidence
from cross-sectional balancing, gravimetric and magnetotelluric data,
Tectonophysics, 259, 171184, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(95)00067-4.
Kraemer, B., D. Adelmann, M. Alten, W. Schnurr, K. Erpenstein, E. Kiefer,
P. van den Bogaard, and K. Grler (1999), Incorporation of the Paleogene
foreland into the Neogene Puna Plateau: The Salar de Antofalla area, NW
Argentina, J. South Am. Earth Sci., 12, 157182, doi:10.1016/S0895-
9811(99)00012-7.
Lacombe, O., F. Mouthereau, S. Kargar, and B. Meyer (2006), Late Cenozoic
and modern stress fields in the western Fars (Iran): Implications for the tec-
tonic and kinematic evolution of central Zagros, Tectonics, 25, TC1003,
doi:10.1029/2005TC001831.
Maffione, M., F. Speranza, and C. Faccenna (2009), Bending of the Bolivian
orocline and growth of the central Andean plateau: Paleomagnetic and
structural constraints from the Eastern Cordillera (22 24 S, NW Argentina),
Tectonics, 28, TC4006, doi:10.1029/2008TC002402.
Marquillas, R. A., C. del Papa, and I. F. Sabino (2005), Sedimentary aspects
and paleoenvironmental evolution of a rift basin: Salta Group (Cretaceous-
Paleogene), northwestern Argentina, Int. J. Earth Sci., 94, 94113,
doi:10.1007/s00531-004-0443-2.
Marrett, R., and M. R. Strecker (2000), Response of intracontinental defor-
mation in the central Andes to late Cenozoic reorganization of South
American plate motions, Tectonics, 19, 452467, doi:10.1029/
1999TC001102.
Marrett, R. A., R. W. Allmendinger, R. N. Alonso, and R. E. Drake (1994),
Late Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Puna Plateau and adjacent foreland,
northwestern Argentine Andes, J. South Am. Earth Sci., 7, 179207,
doi:10.1016/0895-9811(94)90007-8.
Mercier, J. L., M. Sbrier, A. Lavenu, J. Cabrera, O. Bellier, J.-F. Dumont,
and J. Machare (1992), Changes in the tectonic regime above a subduction
zone of Andean type: The Andes of Peru and Bolivia during the Pliocene-
Pleistocene, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 11,94511,982, doi:10.1029/90JB02473.
Mon, R., and J. A. Salfity (1995), Tectonic evolution of the Andes of northern
Argentina, in Petroleum Basins of South America, edited by A. J. Tankard
et al., AAPG Mem., 62, 269283.
Montero Lopez, M. C., F. D. Hongn, M. R. Strecker, R. Marrett, R. Seggiaro,
and M. Sudo (2010), Late Mioceneearly Pliocene onset of N-S extension
along the southern margin of the Central Andean Puna Plateau: Evidence
from magmatic, geochronological and structural observations, Tectono-
physics, 494, 4863, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2010.08.010.
Moreno, J. A. (1970), Estratigrafa y Paleogeografa del Cretcico superior
en la cuenca del Noroeste Argentine, con especial mencin de los subgru-
pos Balbuena y Santa Brbara, Asoc. Geol. Argent. Rev., 24, 944.
Navabpour, P., J. Angelier, and E. Barrier (2007), Cenozoic post-collisional
brittle tectonic history and stress reorientation in the High Zagros
Belt (Iran, Fars Province), Tectonophysics, 432, 101131, doi:10.1016/
j.tecto.2006.12.007.
Norabuena, E., L. Leffler-Griffin, A. Mao, T. Dixon, S. Stein, I. S. Sacks,
L. Ocala, and M. Ellis (1998), Space geodetic observations of Nazca
South America convergence along the central Andes, Science, 279,
358362, doi:10.1126/science.279.5349.358.
Oncken, O., D. Hindle, J. Kley, K. Elger, P. Victor, and K. Schemmann
(2006), Deformation of the Central Andean upper plate systemfacts, fiction
and constraints for plateau models, in The Andes: Active Subduction Orog-
eny, edited by O. Oncken et al., pp. 327, Springer, Berlin, doi:10.1007/
978-3-540-48684-8_1.
Ortner, H., F. Reiter, and P. Acs (2002), Easy handling of tectonic data:
The programs Tectonics FP for Mac and Tectonics FP for Windows,
Comput. Geosci., 28, 11931200, doi:10.1016/S0098-3004(02)00038-9.
15 of 15
TC4002
Petrinovic, I. A., U. Riller, and A. Brod (2005), The Negra Muerta Complex,
southern Central Andes: Geochemical characteristics and magmatic evolu-
tion of an episodically active volcanic center, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.,
140, 295320, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.09.002.
Petrinovic, I. A., U. Riller, J. Brod, G. Alvarado, and M. Arnosio (2006),
Bimodal volcanism in a tectonic transfer zone: Evidence for tectonically
controlled magmatism in the southern Central Andes, NW Argentina,
J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 152, 240252, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.
2005.10.008.
Ramelow, J., U. Riller, R. L. Romer, and O. Oncken (2006), Kinematic link
between episodic caldera collapse of the Negra Muerta Collapse Caldera
and motion on the OlacapatoEl Toro Fault Zone, NW-Argentina, Int. J.
Earth Sci., 95, 529541, doi:10.1007/s00531-005-0042-x.
Riller, U., and O. Oncken (2003), Growth of the Central Andean plateau by
tectonic segmentation is controlled by the gradient in crustal shortening,
J. Geol., 111, 367384, doi:10.1086/373974.
Riller, U., I. Petrinovic, J. Ramelow, M. Strecker, and O. Oncken (2001),
Late Cenozoic tectonism, collapse caldera and plateau formation in the
central Andes, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 188, 299311, doi:10.1016/
S0012-821X(01)00333-8.
Riller, U., A. R. Cruden, D. Boutelier, and C. Schrank (2012), The causes of
sinuous crustal-scale deformation patterns in hot orogens: Evidence from
scaled analogue experiments and the southern Central Andes, J. Struct.
Geol., 37, 6574, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2012.02.002.
Risse, A., R. B. Trumbull, B. Coira, S. M. Kay, and P. van den Boggard
(2008), 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of mafic volcanism in the back-arc
region of the southern Puna Plateau, Argentina, J. South Am. Earth Sci.,
26, 115, doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2008.03.002.
Russo, A., and A. Serraiotto (1979), Contribucin al conocimiento de la
estratigrafa terciaria en el moroeste Argentino, in Actas del VII Congreso
Geolgico Argentino. Neuqun, vol. 1, pp. 715 730, Asoc. Geol. Argent.,
Buenos Aires.
Salfity, J. A., and R. A. Marquillas (1994), Tectonic and sedimentary
evolution of the Cretaceous Eocene Salta Group basin, Argentina, in
Cretaceous Tectonics of the Andes, edited by J. A. Salfity, pp. 266315,
Vieweg, Wiesbaden, Germany.
Schoenbohm, L. M., and M. R. Strecker (2009), Normal faulting along the
southern margin of the Puna Plateau, northwest Argentina, Tectonics, 28,
TC5008, doi:10.1029/2008TC002341.
Shabanian, E., O. Bellier, M. R. Abbassi, L. Siame, and Y. Farbod (2010),
Plio-Quaternary stress states in NE Iran: Kopeh Dagh and Allah Dagh-
Binalud mountain ranges, Tectonophysics, 480, 280304, doi:10.1016/
j.tecto.2009.10.022.
Spang, J. H. (1972), Numerical method for dynamic analysis of calcite twin
lamellae, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 83(2), 467471, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1972)
83[467:NMFDAO]2.0.CO;2.
Sperner, B., and P. Zweigel (2010), A plea for more caution in faultslip
analysis, Tectonophysics, 482, 2941, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.07.019.
Tibaldi, A., C. Corazzato, and A. Rovida (2009), MioceneQuaternary
structural evolution of the UyuniAtacama region, Andes of Chile and
Bolivia, Tectonophysics, 471, 114135, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2008.09.011.
Turner, F. J. (1953), Nature and dynamic interpretation of deformation
lamellae in calcite of three marbles, Am. J. Sci., 251, 276298,
doi:10.2475/ajs.251.4.276.
Turner, J. C. M. (1960), Estratigrafa de Nevado de Cachi y sector al oeste
(Salta), Acta Geol. Lilloana, 3, 191226.
Viramonte, J. G., R. H. Omarini, V. Araa Saavedra, and A. Aparicio,
L. Garcia Cacho, and P. Parica (1984), Edad, genesis y mecanismos de
erupcion de las riolitas granatiferas de San Antonio de los Cobres, Provin-
cia de Salta, in Actas del IX Congreso Geolgico Argentino, Bariloche,
vol. 3, pp. 216233, Asoc. Geol. Argent., Buenos Aires.