English Literature and Folklore

-Pr Dorothy Bray-

Reading List :

The Tain, Oxford UP, 1969 : selected tales and chapters

The Mabinogio, Oxford UP, 2007 (e-book), the Four Branches, How
Culhwch Won Olwen
Beowulf, 2nd ed. Broadview, 2013
Sir Orfeo (link on course page)
Lanval by Marie de France (MyCourses)
Geoffrey Chaucer, The Wife Baths Tale (MyCourses) not the prologue,
only the tale
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (MyCourses)
The Wooing of Etain (MyCourses)
King Horn (url link)
A Gest of Robyn Hode (url link)
Macbeth (url link)

Evaluation :

Essay 1 28 January 10%

Essay 2 18 February 20%
Essay 3 24 March 25%
Final take-home exam 35%
Attendance and participation 10%
- Essay topics will be posted on MyCourses

I. Introduction
Folklore has to do with tradition (oral or written one sometimes informs the
other). The tale or theme has usually a previous existence in oral tradition, but
we cant really tell for sure for some stories. Much recent studies focus on oral
tradition, and not so much on literary studies. Study of folklore in literature is not
really focused on.
Anything thats preserved in words, material objects also, are part of folklore
(tapestries, Christmas trees,). Traditional beliefs too (superstitions). Folk
medicine also : not exclusively natural medicines and cures, but practices and
ideas regarding health and illness (transmitted orally) -> chicken soup for cold.
Then also proverbs (folk wisdom : ideas about nature and the world).
Folklore : Recent word, coined by a British collector. Used that term for popular
antiquities. Its been associated with the lower, peasant classes (non-literate)
but in fact, it crosses all classes. In some cultures, folklore is undistinguishable
from literature (and literature often borrows from folklore -> poets that imitate
the ballads). Fake lore = imitation of folklore, sometimes hard to distinguish.
Stories of Bunyan for example : theres been a dispute over it.
A great deal of early literature contains folk tradition, often in elevated poetic
language (Homer, The Iliad and certainly The Odyssey = based on stories that
circulated at the time). We dont know very much of the oral tradition in the
Middle Ages but we can distinguish patterns and motifs. Much of it is preserved in

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manuscripts. Authors such as Chaucer, Marie de France, Shakespeare, drew a
lot on folk narratives for their works.
A myth is a storytelling : its a narrative that has to do with elements of the
sacred. Folk tales dont usually deal with cosmic events. Mythology has to do with
the divine order, creation, The way the cosmos goes (not just the world).
Sometimes its symbolic narrative. Folk tales and mythology are often
intertwined. Both of them have sometimes a reputation of untruth, lies. Theyre
often considered to be beliefs of unsophisticated people.
None of the texts well be reading were aimed at children ! Theres deceit,
adultery, incest, And theyre literary texts first and foremost, even though they
use the folk tradition. Medieval authors didnt use folklore, they recreate an
aspect of their culture : written tradition does not exclude oral tradition. Books
were often read aloud in the MA so the literary community was oral. There was no
distinction between high and low art.

II. Overview of history of folklore studies

Dates at the beginning of 19th century (rise of romanticism in Europe). Fostered
nationalism because went back to tradition. Primarily philologists started
collecting folk tales in studying Germanic languages. Folk tales were the remains
of myths, they believed. [Max Muller ?] Andrew Lang, collector of fairy tales,
thought that all societies passed through the same stages of development. []
In 1890, James Razor published The Golden Bowl, world-survey of mythic themes
using an anthropological approach. It was very influential. In the early 20 th
century, . and proposed that heroes were actual persons. Young : idea of
collective unconscious. Beginning of 20th century, Russia, Vladimir Propp (The
Morphology of the Folktale) : deals with Russian fairytales and examines the
internal structures and formal elements. Proposed a morphology of folktales (an
underlying structure) : the hero, the villain, Propp doesnt relate these tales to
Russian culture or history -> limitations.
Major figure in folktale studies : Stith Thompson. Compiled classifications of
motives in folktales and defined the idea of folk motive on the premise of
universality. The Finnish school developed a study of folktales on a geographical
basis, the diffusion and variations. Tries to identify probable archetypal forms.
Partil Darne published the Types of the folktales (updated by Jorg Uther in 2004).
Origins of folk narratives : question not resolved. Single origin and spread by
diffusion ? Multiple origins ? We can study the variations and the connections
between the texts.
Folklore = tradition, highly conventional in its themes and stylistic devices.
Folktales are not concerned with originality, experimentation, Its not disguised,
its apparent. Its one of the reasons why many studies carry the elements of
structuralism and formalism, because the genre of folk literature tends to be very
structural.
Today, studies concentrate on oral tradition, on the living folklore. Associations
with anthropology and even linguistics. A lot of approaches are still in
development today.

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 III. The forms of folktale
The telling of tales is universal and ancient. Thomson gives a list of a few forms
of the folktales. But he admits exact terms are not possible, or even very useful.
Folktales are often associated with fairy tales (Fr : contes de fes, Ger : Mrchen).
Mrchen = a tale of some length, involving succession of motifs or episodes ; it
moves in an unreal world without a definite locality or definite characters and is
filled with the marvellous.
Novella : a (not widely used) literary form well known (used by Boccacio -
Decameron) ; the action occurs in the real world with a definite time, although
marvels occur. The closest modern analogy is realism.
Hero tale : a story which recounts the adventures of the same hero ; it may occur
in the fantastic realm of the Mrchen or the pseudo-realistic world of the novella.
Sage : not to be confused with saga ! This is also known as local tradition,
local legend, and migratory legend, tradition populaire. It is a tale of
extraordinary happenings which are believed to have actually occurred (the
legends of Robin Hood). It may be attached to a locality and may tell of an
historical character in a fantastic or absurd situation. It is usually simple in
structure, with single narrative motif. A wonder tale.
Saga : this is usually reserved for a literary story of a heroic age, or a literary hero
tale cycle. It is usually confined to Scandinavia (Norse sagas the Volsunga Saga)
and Ireland (The Tin).
Explanatory or aetiological tale : this type of tale provides an explanation for the
existence of some landscape feature, or the origin and characteristics of animals,
plants, human, cosmic features, social institutions.
Myth : literally, a story. It is most often used to refer to stories about gods or
events of cosmic import (like the creation of the world) ; it is often connected with
religious beliefs and practices.
Animal tales : in these tales, animals are often ascribed with human
characteristics. Animals also appear in myths, but animal tales are non-
mythological they usually show up cleverness of one animal and stupidity of
another (e.g story of the tortoise and the hare). If story has a moral point, it is a
fable.
Humorous tales, jests, merry tales : these often carry the themes of the absurd
acts of foolish persons, deceptions, and obscene situations ; they are frequently
both old and widespread.
Legend : in the specific sense, this comprises the stores in the life of a saint,
often the miraculous occurences (in English, saints legend is used in this sense) ;
the account of a legend may occur in different places with equal conviction. The
term may also be used of local legend and explanatory tales.
Storytelling in its oral form demands knowledge, memory, recitation abilities and
the ability to carry the narrative without changing the essential. Storytelling is a
cultural event. The entertainment factor is very important. Why are we
entertained ? Its a question thats part of folktale studies.
Chaucer borrower extensively from folk literature, Boccaccio also. The wife of
Baths tale is a riddle story drawn from Arthurian tradition. Retellings of old tales

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sometimes take on a life of their own and become part of the tradition -> Le
Morte dArthur or Robin Hood.
Oral formulaic composition theory : the oral tales were composed according to
certain formulas.
[]
Folklore seeks to identify folk motives in tales. The concept of folk motifs : the
smallest element in a tale having a power to persist in tradition. In order to have
this power it must have something unusual and striking about it (Thompson). 3
main types of motifs :

Characters : actors in a tale (gods, animals, including marvellous animals

like dragons), marvellous creatures (witches, ogres, fairies), human
characters of conventional sort (favoured youngest child, wicked
stepmother)
Items in the background of the action : magic objects, unusual customs or
beliefs which might inform the action
Single incidents : some may be tale-types in themselves

A type is a traditional tale that has an independent existence -> the Cinderella
story is a tale-type.
Propps concept of functions :

Functions of characters serve as stable, constant elements in a tale,

independent of how and by whom they are fulfilled. They constitute the
fundamental components of a tale
The number of functions known to the fairy tale is limited
The sequence of functions is always identical (they always follow the
same pattern)
All fairy tale are of one type in regard to their structure

-> Keep in mind that its based on Russian fairytales.

Jack Zipes (1991) : Spells of Enchantment : By functions, Propp meant the
fundamental and constant components of the tale that are the acts of the
character, necessary for driving the action forward

The protagonist is confronted with an interdiction or prohibition, which he

or her violates in some way
Departing or banished, the protagonist has either been given or assumes a
task related to the interdiction or prohibition. The task is assigned, and it is
a sign. That is, the protagonists character will be marked by the task that
is his or her sign.
There is an encounter with : (a) villains, (b) a mysterious individual or
creature, who gives the protagonist gifts, (c) three different animals or
creatures, who are helped by the protagonist and promise to repay him or
her, or (d) three animals or creatures who offer gifts to help the
protagonist, who is in trouble. The gifts are often magical agents, which
bring about miraculous change
The endower protagonist is tested and moves on to battle and conquer the
villain or inimical forces

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 There is a peripety or sudden fall in the protagonists fortunes, which is
generally only a temporary setback. A wonder or miracle is needed to
reverse the wheel of fortune.
The protagonist makes use of endowed gifts (and this includes the magical
agents and cunning) to achieve his or her goal. The result is : (a) three
battles with the villain, (b) three impossible tasks that are nevertheless
made possible, or (c) the breaking of a magic spell
The villain is punished or inimical forces are vanquished
The success of the protagonist usually leads to marriage / the acquisition
of money / survival and wisdom / any combination of the first three ->
Rarely do wonder tales end unhappily
Sir Orfeo : exile of the hero, unwanted lover, fairy lover,...

Epic laws of folk narrative, Axel Olrik

These laws are helpful in assessing whats going on in the tale and reveal some
of the conventional and conservative aspects of folk narratives.

Law of opening and closing

The tale does not begin with the most important part of the action and does not
end abruptly ; the introduction is leisurely ; the story proceeds beyond the climax
to a rest. Epics always begin in medias res. But folk tales have beginning, middle,
end. The saga begins in excitement and moves to calm.

Law of repetition

There is repetition to give suspense and to fill out the story ; repetition is mostly
in terms of 3, but in some instances can be 4. Olrik states that 3 is the maximum
number of men and objects in a traditional narrative. Events are often repeated,
almost the same way, with slight variation. Twice can be coincidence, three times
is a pattern. Repetition is used to give the story more body, build suspense,

Law of 2 to a scene

2 = maximum number of characters who appear at one time. Even if there are
more people, only 2 are active.

Law of contrast

This very basic opposition is a major rule of epic composition : young and old,
large and small, man and monster, good and evil. Doesnt hold true for all
narratives, but for many. In Beowulf for example, contrast between Beowulf
young warrior / the old king,

Law of twins

Whenever 2 people appear in the same role, both are depicted as being small
and weak. The word twins must be taken here in the broad sense. It can mean
real twins -or a sibling pair- or simply 2 people who appear together in the same
role. If they become powerful, they may become antagonists. -> Romulus and
Remus (Romulus subordinates Remus). The hero may have a counterpart, his
helper, but hes not as powerful as him. Even the person who contrasts with the
hero may be a twin.

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 The importance of initial and final position

Whenever a series of persons or things occur, then the principal one will come
first. Coming last, though will be the person for whom the particular narrative
arouses sympathy. Lets say we have a story of 3 brothers. The first initiates the
adventure (the eldest), he fails, the second tries and fails too, and the youngest
one (considered the weakest or stupidest) then comes on top.
Folk narrative requires this kind of symmetry (repetition, contrast,) and
simplicity. In literary stories, its not that simple even if those principles can be
inserted.

Characterization is simple

Each attribute of a person and thing must be expressed in actions. There is no

attempt at describing any psychological depth, no hint that characters in the tale
have a life outside it. In some of these narrative, we come across a character who
exists for the single function of being the villain. Theres no backstory, nothing
else.

Law of the single strand

Folk narrative is always single-stranded (one plot). It does not go back in order to
fill in missing details. If such previous background information is necessary, then
it will be given in dialogue. The backstory in Beowulf is given through dialogue.
Sub-plots = more literary art.

Law of patterning

How strictly the patterning is followed must be astonishing to a person who is not
familiar with folk narrative. Two people and situations of the same sort are not as
different as possible, but as similar as possible.
The Sage has its logic. This logic of the Sage is not always commensurable with
that of the natural world It is important to realize that above all else, plausibility
is always based upon the force of the internal validity of the plot. Plausibility is
very rarely measured in terms of external reality.
In Lanval, Lanvals fairy mistress tells him he shouldnt tell anybody about her
and theres no reason for that. Its just part of the logic of the tale.

Use of tableaux scenes

Likened to paintings or sculptures, this is a major scene, which is memorable in

visual quality. E.g The scene of the Green Knight holding up his head in Sir
Gawain. It gives opportunity to the narrator to give some descriptions, give the
audience something to visualize.

Unity of plot

If two or more subplots are carried simultaneously, then the folk narrative has
moved into sophisticated literature.

Concentration on leading character

That is, the formal protagonist. Olrik states that when a man and a woman
appear together, the man is likely the most important character, but the interest
may lie in the woman. Its not always the case though.

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-> These are principles, they dont always occur. But they reveal the
conventionality of folk narratives. And Olriks ideas dont hold true for all cultures.

Brigit and the story of Plea how St Brigit acquired the Rule of Plea for Kildare ;
an explanatory tale of sorts
(summary on slides) Seven is a traditional significant number. One year is also a
significant time frame. Main components of the tale : slide. The underwater
monastery is kind of particular to Irish tradition. Question : why didnt they write
they down ? But then were bringing external reality to the story Here we have
an oral element to the tale. Memorization was important in education.

Patterns in folk tradition

Epics and romance have certain conventions, but tale-types are certain kinds of
tales that are repeated in variations and follow some patterns.
Propps sequence of functions offers a model but it doesnt give a meaning to the
text, the same goes for Olrik.
[different scholars studies, didnt understand, find notes]
Theres a certain pattern that has been observed by different scholars. K says
that we tend to view the human hero >< the myth hero, and to see the hero
tradition as a pre-destined hero (endowed with extraordinary abilities since birth).
Not all heroes are possessed of divine ancestry or extraordinary abilities. D
shows that heroic life has sometimes links with historical facts but the facts of
history become transmuted in this heroic biography pattern.
A particular important concept is liminality = the point between 2 states of being
which are often opposite : eg. Inside/outside, heaven/earth (or heaven/hell),
human/divine. Liminality is a sacred force, a point of power and knowledge.
Liminality stands between sacred otherness and profane reality. Sacredness is
only outbursts of the transcendent inside the cosmos. It is chaotic because it is a
threat to the known order and to the understanding of reality.
The pattern of a Heros life :

1. The begetting of the hero

a. Mother is a virgin (often royal) overpowered by god or has extra-marital
relations with heros father (often a foreigner)
b. Father is a god
c. Father is an animal often the disguise of a god
d. Child is conceived in incest

2. The birth of the hero

a. Takes place in unnatural or unusual way
b. The unborn hero the child born of caesarean section (not of woman
born)

3. The youth of the hero is threatened

a. Child is exposed, either by his father who has been warned that the
child will be a danger to him, or by his mother to hide her shame
b. Child fed by animals

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 c. Child found by shepherds, fishermen, poor couple,
d. Child raised by mythical figure or taught by sacred figure

4. The way in which the hero is brought up

a. Hero reveals strength, courage or other features at early age
b. Hero thought to be unpromising in youth ; he is slow to develop or
pretends to be mentally deficient

5. Heroes often acquire invulnerability

-> In a new interpretation, this can be also in the form of marvellous
armour which cannot be pierced or a marvellous weapon which guarantees
the victory. Variation : heros death can only come about under special
conditions, special circumstances or with a special weapon (like the heros
own sword)

6. One of most common heroic deeds is fight with a dragon or another

monster

7. Hero wins a maiden, often after overcoming great dangers

-> the maiden is often the key to a kingdom, she allows the hero to move
into the role of rulership

8. Hero makes an expedition to the underworld

-> The underworld may take various forms, not necessarily world of the
dead (fairy kingdom), and otherworldly place (mysterious castles in
forests), monsters lairs.

9. When the hero is banished in his youth, he returns later and is victorious
over his enemies
-> Sometimes he must leave the realm against which he has won with
such difficulty ; Or the hero may seek service in foreign land (and win a
foreign kingdom : thus he becomes an insider/outsider in another sense in
a community he protects and upholds)

10. Death of the hero

-> Heroes often die young. In many cases, their deaths are miraculous. In
some cases, the hero leaves no heir to succeed him, or his line ends with
his son

Sir Orfeo
The relationship between mythology and folklore : very difficult to differentiate
them. Both include traditional stories. Mythology usually refers to sacred
narratives, that have to do with societys religious belief. Mythological tales tend
to deal with origins, there can also be myths about the actions of humans (kings,
). A myth can sometimes reinforce a belief, or a ritual, or even explain it.
Although its really impossible to say if the myth came before the ritual.
Myth has a modern function in Jungian analysis of the unconscious (archetypes).
Campbell has found correspondences in all mythologies -> quest for universality.
Folklore is more concerned with narrative archetypes, rather than mythic,
psychological ones.

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Sir Orfeo is based on the Greek myth. Orpheus in the myth goes mad with grief.
The power of Orfeos music is a parallel, the underworld also. Sir Orfeo dates
from the 14th c. But the genre of romance developed in France in the 12 th c and
depicts a world very highly developed manners and civility. The hero of romance
is frequently on a quest to win the love of a lady : its not so much strength of
arms that matters, but qualities of characters (courage, fortitude, fidelity). The
characters conduct themselves according to this set of manners. When Orfeo and
his wife speak to one another, their language is almost formal. Within this set of
manners, there is the ideal of honor. Orfeos loss of his queen threatens his honor.
Often, the main conflict is not good >< evil but conflicts of honour, and justice. In
Romance (especially chivalric romance), courtesy is important as well, especially
to women and opponents. The fairy king is the villain because he shows no
courtesy.
As the Romance genre develops, the element of love becomes increasingly
emphasized. Emotions tend to be very extreme, and love is not gentle, its
passionate. The matter of honour often rests upon keeping a promise made
publicly, its important in Orfeo. The harp is used as a recognition token (->
king in disguise motif). Noblemen are expected to have physical strength more
than noblewomen and noblewomen show strength of mind and spirit.
The romance genre takes place in an undefined time and place (-> Thompson). In
Romances, unlike myths, gods dont really play a great role. Other magical beings
may take on the roles that the gods could have played. Such supernatural figures
dont have a cosmic significance. The narrative patterns often follow more closely
the folktale patterns than the myths.
The introduction in the poem tells you what the genre is : the lai (basically a
Romance), usually linked to Arthurian legends (Winchester, allusion to the
legendary history of Great Britain, founded by the descendants of Troy). The
genre of the lai was named by Marie de France : we dont know exactly who she
was but she says that she bases her lais on Arthurian lais. Her main theme is the
goodness of love. No actual lai survives in the Breton language (possibly none
were ever written but the genre was known).
The Romance of Sir Orfeo here represents very literary adaptations of a classical
myth : adapting folktale conventions in an inventive fashion. The tragedy of the
myth is reversed because Romances have non-tragic endings. The sources for the
myth of Orfeo came from Virgil, Ovid and Boethius. Theres more folkloric
elements in this tale than mythical. The fairy king is not the king of the
underworld. Orfeos renowned as a harper, his extraordinary abilities lead his
success. It allows for the Bargain with Otherworld motif and the rash promise
(somebody makes a promise but doesnt really think about it). Usually the rash
promise is made by a human figure.
There is also Abduction by Otherworld and Fairy lover-Unwanted lover.
Liminal space : the orchard, at a particular time of the day. Also, the forest (when
Orfeo has a glimpse of the underworld). Tale components : reversal of fortune,
king in exile (exile and return), The hero must undergo trials to win back the
heroin.
The disguise is combined with the reversal of fortune. The disguise is one of a
minstrel : very common tale motif, but its here integral to the story. The mortal
person doesnt use magic, they use cunning, intellect, Theres also the test of
the faithful friend.

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-> Personal note : HARP : the steward recognizes the harps, but not the harping
skills !! Can he be put into question ? >< Contrast with Ulysses
In the opening, the narrator draws the attention of the audience : typical folktale
opening. Winchester is one of the capitals of King Arthur. The poem begins at a
time of the year which is significant for romance, the beginning of May. There
may be a further significance : it was thought to be the month of Venus, so the
month of love. Its also the month dedicated to Mary, symbolic of salvation.
Reason of abduction ? We dont really know but emphasis on the queens beauty.
Sir Orfeo is a bit different from most romances : its a reversal of the marriage (it
begins with a happy marriage). Plot device/motif = prophetic dream ; dream
visions are often used in romances to give information or prophesize about things
to come. The land of the fairy king is much like the real world but more beautiful
and rich. The fairy king tells Heuridice that she has to come, she has no choice :
fairies are like humans, but behave in a very different way. It combines the
familiar and the strange. Fairies are neither good nor evil, neither moral nor
immoral (even though theyre courteous in some way). Orfeos reactions show
intense emotions. Its not about winning her (like in most romances), but grieving
her.
After this introduction, theres Orfeos loss in fortune. The poet makes very clear
the contrast between his current and previous states. In his grief, Orfeo decides
that he has to go in exile : to him, its the only way to deal with it. It seems rather
extreme, but it underlines the importance of the queen to the king (her absence
interrupts his righteous rule). Lengthy passage about the kings poor situation
(but he takes the harp, which is part of his identity). Orfeo changes completely in
his appearance, he doesnt look like a king anymore : not only in clothes, but also
in appearance. His harp seduces the wild beasts around. We could read it as
Orfeo having to undergo trials before being able to win his lady back. The forest
is a special place, a bit magical. Orfeo acquires another kind of ability : hes able
to see the fairies.
-> Personal note : beauty of the harp (enhanced by sorrow) // beauty of the
fairies ? Enables him to see the fairies ?
The fairies otherworld is different but familiar enough for Orfeo to know how to
behave there. The fairies are rather conventional in their appearance even
though theyre very beautiful and have white clothing that gives them a ghostly
aspect -> allusion to death, and the afterlife ? Very ambiguous : its not the world
of the death, not a Paradise. People seem dead and yet are not. This world seems
too good to be true -> unreal, unnatural. Mortals who deal with the underworld
cannot count on natural skills, Orfeo relies on his unnatural skills in music. He
wins by playing on the kings sense of honour and justice.
Then the story carries on with the themes set up by the poet. The return to the
court is very reminiscent of Ulysses return. Its almost as if Orfeos exile is an act
of penance (in the Christian sense). He redeems himself and his kingdom by his
test of loyalty. His steward becomes Orfeos heir, who carries on his virtue (no
mention of kids etc). Theres a possibility that the fairy king is not hunting the
Queen but rather Sir Orfeo (contrast between the fairy king and Orfeo during the
whole poem).
Theme of vision : dream, invisible fairies (until Orfeo goes to the forest and
undergoes transformations in his appearance and character). The motif of
transformation is usually associated with magic. Orfeo acquires the sight needed
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to see the fairies (emblematic of a certain lack of wisdom ? He thought he could
rely on his mortal knights). He succeeds thanks to his love for Heuridice and his
own cunning (// Ulysses is clever and shrewd).
Perhaps it is Orfeo that the fairy king is after. Its possible that it was all a test for
Orfeo as a king. Orfeo does change in the course of his trials in the forest. He
learns about patience. He proves he can rule the kingdom, rely on his own virtues
and not his military skills. His return allows him to perceive whats truly
important. Abandoning the kingdom was a weakness but he proves that he did a
good thing by choosing a good man. The otherworldly foe tends to be victorious
when playing on human weaknesses ; against magic, humans have to discover
something within themselves.

Lanval
Very different situation. The otherworldly encounter is not inimical. Marie de
France wrote lais in the 12th century (one of the earliest), and fables. She seems
to be aristocratic and knowledgeable about the Breton tradition. She composed in
Anglo-Norman French. At the time, the king was Henri II (Plantagenet). The
legend that Arthur would return was not in the interest of a Norman king so the
Plantagenet didnt debunk this legend but use it to legitimize their rule, and link
the Normans to the ancient Britons, to make it appear as if they were the normal
successors. Geoffrey of Monmouth : earliest and best author of historical fiction.
Draws upon many legends, and rewrites them a history. Maries lais circulated
amongst the aristocracy. Arthurian tales were very popular. She doesnt exactly
depict Arthurs court in a good light. Lanval is badly treated, ignored by Arthur,
From the very beginning, Lanval is being set up as a particular kind of
protagonist. Hes subject to envy from other knights (envy is a sing) and hes a
foreigner, although high-born. Hes treated as an outsider, despite his loyal
service to the king. This sets Lanval as a liminal figure.
Even when he is accepted, hes vulnerable. He has no support in the court. The
outsider is a theme undercurrent through this lay. It could be a critique of her
society : contrast between Lanval as a knight epitomizing courage, generosity,
treating other people like Arthur should treat him, and Arthur and his knights.
Lanval has the material means of being more accepted at the court -> money will
make you friends Not your qualities as a knight. Lanval makes the ultimate
decision to become a complete outsider, riding off with his lover.
One of the main motifs here is the Fairy Mistress/Fairy lover (+ Love at first sight).
Its one of the most prevalent motifs in tales, especially when it comes to
encounters with an otherworld. It involves a promise (prohibition, taboo) and a
rash boast (when the promise is broken). Theres no reason for the fairys
prohibition, its never explained. The figure of the unnamed lady : shes never
given a name but theres many descriptions of her. The Fairy Mistress is uncannily
beautiful, theres an element of mystery. She also offers the fulfilment of desire
(sex and money). The Octave description adds a learned element but also
richness to the description. The Hermine that the fairy wears is a symbol of status
(some social classes were allowed to wear some furs, and Hermine was the
highest).
When she enters Arthurs court, her beauty appears and the description is again
highly erotic. The catalogue of her beauty is a very learned description (slender,
grey-eyed, golden hair,) and erotically charged. The falcon and the greyhound
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are important signs. Theyre hunting animals. Its part of the trope of otherworldly
figures that theyre depicted as hunters. The ladys offer to Lanval has a
condition : the prohibition. It propels the action of the plot. Because of this
condition, the gifts are not without danger.
Why must Lanval not say a thing about her ? It could be a test.
Love is not so much a folk motif as a romance element in Lanval (very
heightened emotions). Lanval is the focus, but much interest lies on the lady.
Repetition (when hes waiting for her to appear). The cataloguing of her parts
that are beautiful is very much conventional, its called the blason.
Olriks element of contrast is set up : the fairy (offers her love freely, a love not
only based on lust has heard of Lanvalls accomplishments) / the queen (love
based on lust, forbidden). The lady is truthful, shes more natural. The queen
evens accuses Lanval of homosexuality, which is an attack upon his honour and
character.
Theme of Honour : the lady doesnt only offer sex and money, shes also
important to his honour. Honour, associated with justice. Another contrast :
Lanval / King Arthur. The attack on the queen goes back to the kings honour.
Lanval epitomizes all the knightly virtues (courtesy, courage, generosity,) and
despite the breaking of his promise, he still continues to love his lady, he
continues to be faithful to her. And she does not abandon him. The legend of
Arthur going to Avalon at his death was already current at this time.
Marie plays on the theme that love can make someone better, in opposition to
lust.
[Avalon ?] The journey to the otherworld is the conclusion to the heros
adventures.

The Wife of Baths Tale

Motif of the Riddle Test (Impossible Question) and Transformation -> is there
magic involved ? + Quest for Knowledge. Chaucer adapts this very familiar tale to
moral and philosophical purposes. Its a tale told by John Gower, one of his
contemporaries.
Folktale pattern :

1. Interdiction a violation, fall in for time (tune ?)

2. Protagonist given a task (riddle test)
3. He must leave home
4. He has an encounter with a magical creature
5. He faces his foe(s)
6. But must fulfil further task (Bargain with otherworld)
7. Protagonist is tested
8. Leading to breaking of magic spell
9. Resulting in marriage survival, wisdom

The wife of Bath is Chaucers comic relief character. This is a tale she tells, and its
main philosophy is that women should have sovereignty over their husbands. Its
put out of real time, its in a legendary time, so the wife of Bath can say whatever
she wants. The figure of the knight is possibly based on Gawain.

12
First action of this knight in Arthurs court = rape. Comment on Arthurian
romances, where such things often happen + comment on social conditions of
the 14th c. Rape was a serious crime even though the rape of a peasant girl by an
aristocrat was rarely punished.
The action becomes the excuse for the court of women : thats where the theme
of the tale really begins. The queen gains mastery over the king by having him
bent to her will. As a part of his punishment, the knight has to be submitted to
the queen instead of the king. This theme is borrowed from French romance
tradition but major variation (set in Arthurian court + challenge not from the
outside, the fault lies within).
The romance convention is followed (the knight must go on a quest). The quest
here in its beginning is under the threat of death. When the knight comes back
with the answer, his honour is now threatened (marriage with the old woman).
The wife offers all the possible answers to the test (some said this, etc) and the
answer is already there but in other words. The story of Midas is embedded but
the end refers to Ovid (learned element) -> proof of women not able to keep a
secret. Is it a digression or integral to the tale ? Its another traditional narrative
but the ending is not told. The wife of Bath conforms to certain misogynistic
types (lustful, cant keep a secret, the wife herself is looking for a new husband).
Encounter in the forest (world without the trappings of class and wealth). The old
woman addressed the knight almost as an equal.
Rash bargain : the old hag knows what his quest is (it is suggested). Otherworldly
women encountering mortals, seeking mortal lovers = trope. She plays on the
knights desperate situation. True nobility is a matter of inner virtue, not birth,
she says on their wedding knight. Which is kind of a radical notion in the 14 th c.
Ancient philosophers back up her speech. Also, reflexions on poverty (Jesus was
poor) and old age/ugliness (she says it protects a womans chastity). Then she
gives him the choice. Beauty does not guarantees fidelity -> Guineveres
infidelity (Arthurs wife).
Theres a chance of redemption, in his inner transformation. His transformation is
very subtle though, were never really sure what happens. She may have
persuaded him that shes not really old and ugly through her speeches, maybe
she just changed his perception. Chaucer points out that physical beauty is not a
sign of nobility.
Arthurian tradition : in the 14th c. people being to question the romances ideas
and the Arthurian tradition. In the 15th c., the last great Arthurian work is
produced by Sir Thomas Mallory (Le Morte dArthur). Arthurian tradition has a life
of its own, its continuing (like Robin Hood).
Who is Arthur ? In the earliest mentions of him hes the leader of a select band of
warriors, associated with the British resistance against the Saxon invaders. Then
hes associated with marvellous events and becomes the king of the Britons. Hes
a redeemer hero, who returns to restore the glory of the country (//
Charlemagne). He becomes this ideal king with the ideal court, holding the values
of chivalry, leading the knights of the Round Table. Interesting tradition bc we can
see the development of Arthur as a folk hero through literature (more legendary
than real). The real Arthur has a lack of evidence. Collectively, the Arthurian tales
form the Matter of Britain (>< The Matter of France, with Charlemagne). Behind
the story of Sir Gawain theres this massive Arthurian tradition which the poem
makes use of (and the legendary history of Britain).
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Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
Contains many mythic elements, but also folklore elements. Example of Arthurian
romance in 14th century. Modelled on French Arthurian romances but has an
English ambiances; Exists in only one manuscript. Originally in a dialect, with
alliterative style. Also uses archaisms. It beings and ends with the legendary
founding of Britain. In the opening lines, Camelot is situated in that legendary
history as one of the great ancient cities. The legend of Arthur is descended from
Trojan heroes.
Troy was important to many writers of this time : it represented the height of
civilization. Before Lancelot became a big deal, Gawain was Arthurs great
champion. Hes very much an English figure. The way the poet sets up the story
could have a political dimension. The poem is highly visual. The poet also deals
with the moral aspects of chivalry : what a good knight should be. Theres an
expansion to moral philosophy of chivalry, and a kind of critique, like in Lanval, of
the court of Arthur. Scholars have interpreted it as a commentary on
contemporary events.
The influence of courtly love is clear. Theres very elaborate set of rules in love.
But courtly romances also often deal with implied adulterous affair between a
knight and a married lady (Lancelot and Guinevere) : that was part of Marie de
Frances critique.
Shows signs that it was hastily written : decorated, but quite plain. Contains 3
other works, quite religious. Uses repetition, symmetry of events, The poet uses
very careful symmetry : in the number of lines of the poem (can be divided by 9),
the number of parts is 4, and each mirrors the other, the number of stanza, The
2 beheading scenes mirror one another, 3 temptations / 3 hunts, 3 swings of the
axe, Circular aspect of the poem, mirrored in the circular belt the lady tempts
Gawain with. The symbol of pentangle also. Gawain returns to Camelot with some
increased knowledge of himself, symbolized by the belt (also a reminder of his
tests).
Gawain was once considered Arthurs best knight (symbolized on the pentangle,
which meaning is clearly explained in the poem). The Virgin Mary picture on his
shield was previously attributed to Arthur. As the best of knights, hes also has
the reputation of being courteous with women. The symbol of pentangle does not
come from the folk tradition, it comes from a learned tradition. It has a magical
quality based on the number 5, considered to be a perfect number. The way its
used in the poem isnt found in any other romance, it seems to be original to the
poem. He attributes it to the King Salomon (unity, perfection). In the MA,
numbers were powerful symbols and were the basis of all medieval art.
1 = unity (male)
2 = duality (female)
3 = completion (beginning, middle, end) child of 1 and 2
4 = the physical world and the cosmos (4 corners of the world north, south,
east, west, 4 elements)
5 = the inhabitants of the earth and their bodies OR perfection, integrity a
circular number, all squares and cubes end in 5

14
Main motifs in the narrative :

The Beheading game, the Reckless Wager

The Quest, proof of heroism
The Exchange of Winnings
Temptation and the Chaste Friend
Journey to the otherworld and confrontation with Otherworld figure
The Fairy Mistress The Green Knights Lady
The Love token the green belt, which is also a magical aid against
wounding
The Severed Head - which remains alive
Transformation

The poem works structurally on the basis of liminal times and places. The journey
to the Green Chapel is very significant, it takes him into the wilderness, he ends
up in a forest.
I the belt really magical ? He wears it because he believes it is.

Liminal Times and Otherworldly Places :

A seasonal cycle from one Beheading Game to the next, from New Years
Day to New Years Day (the time of the changing of the year)
The mysterious castle and mysterious chapel both places are not entirely
in the mortal world ?
Both must be reached through a forest wilderness (a conventional liminal
space)
The poet sets up clues to the audience as the type of character that the Green
Knight is. When Gawain arrives at the Castle, you can guess the Green Knight is
the man he meets there. The holly branch he carries has a symbolic value : its
been incorporated in Christian symbolism, but it was a sacred tree even in pre-
Christianity symbolism. Its a symbol of peace, and life, while the axe is a symbol
of war. So theres a balance at stake here. Gawain is in a sense reborn, so the axe
takes on different significances at the end.
What about the colour Green ? Its a connexion to the mysterious castle, but
there are different interpretations.
Arthur and his court are all very young, theyre not mature yet.
The castle is treated with conventional aspects of the otherworld (too beautiful to
be true,). A theme has to do with perception ; often in folktales, fairy creatures
can cause illusion.
The poet uses come of the conventions weve seen already depicting the castle
etc. Correlation between pentangle and girdle. The colour green also relates the
green girdle to the green knight.
Minor character : Morgan Le Fay (is behind everything). Old, ugly, sits in the
highest seat (high status). The Lady : young, beautiful, sits below old lady,
Gawain next to her. This contrasts shows theyre connected. The old lady is in the
highest seat (not the lord of the castle), the beautiful lady below here, and
Gawain next to her. So the old lady is more than what she seems. Shes not quite
15
in the motif of the beautiful enchantress. The old and young lady are not the
same being, but theyre closely connected.
When the Green Knight reveals who the old lady is, we shouldnt take goddess
literally, shes an enchantress (female counterpart of Merlin) and the young lady
assumes the seductive part of her role. Despite her minor role, shes revealed as
the prime mover of the action. She test the virtues of Gawain and by extension
the chivalric ideas of Arthurs court.
3 hunts : deer, boar then fox. First seduction scene : the lady surprises Gawain in
bed (hes trapped underneath his covers since hes probably naked),
sophisticated talk, Gawain has to use his skills in words. The boar hunt is fiercer,
more dangerous -> second seductions scene = also fiercer. Fox : easy to interpret
in terms of symbolism (not noble, cunning) -> Gawain accepts the green belt and
does not tell the lord. Before the Green Chapel, one last test : tries to persuade
Gawain to turn back.
Happy ending ? Open question.

How Culhwch Won Olwen

Survives in 2 manuscripts. Tale that comes closest to folk tradition than any text
weve been reading. Honour is very important, like in Gawain.
1. The hero wants to marry the daughter of a king or ogre
2. He must perform tasks set by the father or be put to death
3. He gathers, as companions, wonderful men with magic skills
4. They help the hero perform his tasks, defeat the father, and marry the girl
Wicked stepmother, curse, magic transformation, fights with monsters, giant,
witches, The magic helpers usually include someone whos a great runner or
walker, a skilful marksman, a great eater, a great drinker, a man with very sharp
hearing, Drem means sight. The catalogue of names is linked with techniques
of epic poetry (even though its prose here), its an epic convention. Its a way of
showing off the narrators knowledge. Guillerm, king of France, is actually William
the Conqueror. Gwal Kmai is considered by some to be at the origin of the
character Gawain. Names also indicate the characters function (part of folktale
tradition).
Cai is the most developed character in the story. Its a society where reputation
is very important, so the joke you were lucky you were not killed is a serious
injury to Cais honor.
Arthurs court is not the typical Anglo-Norman court, but filled with semi-divine
creatures, almost another world. Arthur appears as an otherworldly king.
Title given by modern editors. Not a lot about Olwen, the most outstanding thing
about her is her appearance : her description is one of the most famous passages
in Welsh literature.
(pig = not negative connotation) Fairytale undertone with the mothers death
etc : trope that will enter into later western fairytale (wifes death and husband
not marrying until a certain sign). The story contains many passages of high
rhetorical descriptions. Important to the telling of the tale.

16
Culhwch threatens the court with a curse -> words have certain power. Promises
must be kept, etc. Arthur tells him he can have anything except his weapons or
his wife (emblems of his rulership and status as a warrior).
Noble hospitality. Many tales are about shame and honour : honour means (in this
hierarchical and patriarchal society) completing tasks. Many of the plot elements
or sacrificed to show off the narrators skills. The speeches of the characters
often tell us more than their description : to whom in what form,
Boar hunt is persistent in Arthurian tradition, its one of the tasks. Most
dangerous of all hunts.
Motif of the Oldest Animals
Falling in Love in Absence
The Curse power of words

The wooing of Etain

Generally, wooing tales focus on the hero winning the bride. Courtly romances
like Lanval sometimes reverse roles (woman seeking the man) but the man is still
the main protagonist and the woman is a very specific type (fairy). The winning of
a bride often comes with the winning of a kingdom -> importance of the queen to
the king.
The hero is doomed to be a perpetual youth in the court if he doesnt marry. In
this tale, Arthur acts as a father (helping to choose a wife) as well as a king. The
themes of honour and shame are prominent in How Cwulch , but love and
desire are much more prominent in this tale. Fairy mistresses seeking a mortal
lover are considered tales of seduction but should they be ? In the wooing,
seduction is also involved. The wooing takes place in two realms, two universes
(mortal/fairy) and Etain (modern Irish name = Aideen) is the focus. Her human
husband is Echu.
Etain is the focal point -> the title is a traditional title, and shes acting as a
bridge between 2 worlds. She suffers a kind of death in a way, and then is reborn
in the human world. Motif of rebirth/reincarnation but that leads to tragedy in the
human world. The pursuit of Etains lover, Midir, leads to a clash of mortal and
otherworldly values and perspectives.
-> Fairy lover, transformation, bargain with the otherworld, rash promise, jealous
wife, love sickness (given to Aillil) reflective of Midirs own desire, Also, lots of
trickery and deceit.
3 main parts : story of Angus and the first marriage of Etain, Etains
transformations, Midirs repossession. Midir is the one who carries through each
part, so we could argue hes the protagonist + hes the one whos seeking Etain
and embodies the eroticism of the otherworld. Etain doesnt come across as
much of a character. Midirs desire for her incites the jealousy of his first wife.
Polygamy was practiced in pre-Christian Ireland and the 1 st part has a very strong
mythological background. Echu ends up very unhappy, is treated badly.
The birth of Angus is comparable to Greek myth (a god sleeps with anothers man
wife + time distortion, similar to Hercules). Angus acts in a familial role towards
Midir (young children were sent to other foster families). Midir is deceitful, when

17
Midir wishes to win Etain, he asks for a chance to put his arms around Etain and
kiss her -> this would signify that Echu is giving away his wife. The 1 st part
echoes the 3rd part : impossible task set by the father, the hero must prove
worthy of the bride and what she represents. The tasks that Echu sets for Midir
parallel those tasks. The repetition of tasks show the folklore structure at work.
The transformation of Etain represents a kind of cycle of death and rebirth, a
transitioning from the otherworldly to the human bride. It may partly explain her
attitude as a human woman : she acts according to human values. Her relation to
her brother-in-law is puzzling : when he confesses that hes mortally ill because of
his love for her, it could be a suggestion that her attachment to her human
husband isnt really that strong. But it could mean that she understands the
importance of family bonds. Does Midirs wooing sway her on the human level ?
Does he actually do any courtship in her mortal form ?
ESSAY : fairies set a good or bad example, but theyre always related to the
mortal world, its almost their purpose to test them etc. They exist to be the
mirrors of the mortal world, so we might wonder what higher purpose or power
they serve (Morgana etc). Even their speech requires a human answer, linked to
courtly values (keeping ones promise) ?
The playing of the board game (seems similar to chess) has higher and higher
stakes until it leads to the soul of the mortal. Echu makes a reckless bargain. The
multiplication of Etain is suggestive of otherworldly forces of illusion at work : do
you really know your wife ? Midir is again using trickery. Tragedy of Echu : he
loses his wife twice by trickery and is made to commit incest unknowingly
Morality of the human world / amorality of the underworld. The cure of love
sickness is always the union with the beloved. Xs marriage to Etain is for the
fulfilment of erotic desire and not the human rule of having children.
Importance of the queen in the human world -> whats Etain importance to
Midir ? The king needs to have a queen to validate his rule. He must show
rightness, have good judgement, and the queen helps him give right judgements.
Its necessary for the well-being of the land (-> Loss of Orfeos queen, rule
compromised). Part of a womans honour is sexual fidelity (she struggles with it in
her human form).
What does the otherworld represent ? The unknown, unknowable ? It seems
entirely inimical but the motivations of the otherworldly figures must be
questioned.

King Horn
She is a rather late introduction into the English language (around 14 th c.). Horn
is wooed by the woman. Even though she does a lot of crying and fainting, shes
determined to get her man. Very typical pattern of exile and return. Not a courtly
romance, even though ideas of courtly love. Theres repetition but the structure is
more tightly composed than other romances. One of the nice things about the
language is that theres little variation, the same words keep coming up :
conventional descriptions and repetitive forms. The simplicity of the meter and
the plot marks this romance. Very noted for its fairytale quality. Not a lot of magic
or supernatural elements. Focus on main character : the forces he must
overcome are grounded in the real world (jealousy, treachery, armed force).

18
Nothing extraordinary in terms of his strength of military prowess. The most
extraordinary thing about Horn is his beauty.
General structure the Exile-and-Return pattern :
1. Horn loses his kingdom and must regain it
2. Horn finds a bride, loses her, and must regain her
3. Horn is betrayed by one of his followers, he loses his bride again and gets
her back again
4. Horn recovers his kingdom, rescues his mother, avenges his father, kills his
enemies, marries his intended bride
Lots of repetition and doubling : symmetry.
Repetition and doubles :

Horns 2 exiles : one in childhood (as a prince), one in adulthood (as a

knight)
2 foreign kings, 2 princesses (Aylmer, king of Westnesse, and his daughter
Rymenhild; Thurston, king of Ireland and his daughter, Reynild)
Horns adventures in Ireland parallel his adventures in Westnesse; he gains
the kings confidence both times, but does not lose the friendship of the
king of Ireland
Horns 2 disguises (beggar and harper) needed for 2 rescues of Rymenhild
who has 2 false marriage before she finally marries Horn (3 rd time lucky !)
2 friends of Horn : Athulf plays the role of the Faithful Friend; Fykenhild is
the Faithless Friend (or False Friend); Fykenhild betrays Horn twice; Athulf
twice helps him to get Rymenhild
2 faithful stewards of kingdoms : Athelbrus for Westernesse, Athulfs
father Arnoldin for Suddene (Athelbrus gets the kingdom of King Modi;
Rymenhilds fist husband; Arnoldin gets Westernese, which Fykenhild, her
second husband, tried to usurp)
2 rings : Rymenhild gives Horn a special ring, as a love token which is to
remind him of her and which also becomes a Recognition Token ; she also
gives one to Athulf, who impersonated Horn to her, although this ring has
no special power or significance
2 prophetic dreams : first, Rymenhild dreams allegorical dream about a
forced separation from Horn. This dream provides for riddling speech by
which Horn reveals himself first time in disguise
The second dream is Horns, who dreams that Fykenhild tries to drown
Rymenhild, this spurs him to rescue her
Propps Morphology :
1. The initial situation
2. The composition of the family ; King Murry, his queen Godhild and their
son
10. The future hero name and sex: Horn, a son
15. Qualities of the hero : the fairest of them all
16. Future false hero name and sex (Fikenhild male)
17. Degree of kinship to hero his companion
18. Negative qualities the worst one of all

2. Preparatory Section
44. Preliminary misfortune : the king is slain by pagans, the queen must go
into hiding, Horn is set adrift on the sea

19
 45. Reaction of hero (vow of revenge)

3. Complication
46. Villainy by the pagans
47. Form of villainy slaughter and exile
67. dispatch of hero from house
68. goal of hero : to return home and rescue kingdom

4. Donors
70. Journey from home to the donor
71. Donor : manner of inclusion, name Aylmar, king of Westernesse who
gives shelter to exiles
76. dialogue with hero
77. hospitality shown to hero King Ayhnar takes him in and has him
educated

5. From entry of the Helper to the End of First Move

82. the helper non-magical in this case-Athelbrus the steward, later Athulf
92. details of setting of object sought for the dwelling of the princess
98. appearance of princess
101. dialogue Rymenhild declares her love to Horn; he says he must
prove his worth
102-105 struggle with villain false accusation from fale friend : Fykenhild
accuses Horn of trying to usurp Aylmar and take his daughter without his
permission

6. Second Move repeats first : Horn must go into exile ; he arrives by shop
in Ireland, where the princes and the king welcome him; he fights and
defeats the same pagans who had killed his father; the king offers him his
daughter in marriage (a reversal of the situation with King Aylmar)

7. Continuation of Second Move

128. unrecognized arrival
129-131 : unfounded claims of false hero both Mody and Fykenhild lay
claim to Rymenhild, at different times
131. preparation for marriage
132-136 : the difficult task entering castle, getting access to Rymenhild
-> Each time, Horn is able to infiltrate the castles by means of a disguise
137-140. resolution of task Horn disrupts the wedding to Mody and to
Fykenhild
141. recognition
141. means of summoning true hero first by messenger, second through
a prophetic dream
142. form of heros appearance on scene first disguise as beggar
(palmer); second as a harper
143. form of recognition speech and ring, music and song
144-146. Exposure false hero exposed
149-150. Punishment false hero punished by death; Fykenhild is torn
apart
. The true hero claims the true bride
Marriage could represent an assimilation into society : a foreign is always a bit on
the outside.
Always a dialogue between 2 people. Contrast between characters :
Christians/pagans, between the 2 kings,

20
Motif of the Chaste Friend.
The actions of people are not based on reason on rationality, a lot of it depends
on the feelings and desires of the characters.
Many scholars have called this romance unsophisticated but theres very subtle
characterization that goes on, its not fully-rounded characters but still. Theres a
very balanced pattern : every step brings Horn closer to becoming a king. In the
characterization of Horn, his beauty marks him : this emphasis on male beauty is
important throughout the story -> issue of beauty and its use : people are drawn
to Horn, he inspires love. Its not a mark of virtuousness but the effect of his
beauty inspired kindness and decency.
Emotions in romances tend to be very straightforward : so the Rymenhilds
outbursts of feelings is not linked to her being a woman. Love in romance causes
emotional turbulence that lead to sickness (Rymenhild exemplifies this : she loves
Horn so much she almost goes crazy). Shes seating higher than Horn at the table
so it would not be proper for her to speak to him (great social difference) so shes
in great sorrow : she can see him but not talk to him (thats why she brings him
to her chamber). This need to see Horn follows this motif of love sickness that we
saw with Etain. Rymenhild speaks her mind, and she chooses her lover regardless
of what her father thinks -> not uncommon in medieval romances but gives more
personality to her character. His rejection of her (because hes too low-born)
makes her faint. When shes promised to another, she threatens murder and
suicide -> passionate speech : fainting, tears etc are partly the convention of
romances but also say something about the nature of this kind of love. Within the
romance, there are certain degrees of characterization given (other characters
just act as functions, Rymenhild has her passion) even though for the reader,
theres no real psychological depth. Horn also has a little more depth in showing
his progress from a young man who has suffered and who becomes a leader.
We have a story that follows a good deal of traditional narrative elements :
reversal of fortune, restoration of the king, hero who conceals his true birth,
princess who falls in love with a handsome stranger, lovers vows and love token,
exile, prophetic dreams, disguise,... The tale also contains very early chivalric
ideas : Horn is aware of social differences, question of honour (must be a knight
to marry her), he needs to prove his worth as a knight, and refuses to deal with
her. The courtship of Rymenhild is intertwined with his main goal of winning his
kingdom back. The trials of Horn emphasize his qualities as a king rather than a
good fighter. The winning back of the kingdom is the return of order and stability.
-> What is a hero ? (the protagonist of a tale might not be a hero).
Nature of heroes : Orfeo was a good ruler, Lanval was a faithful lover, Gawain is
the perfect knight, Most of people think of the warrior hero. But theres also the
saint hero for example.

Beowulf

21
Beowulf is a certain heroic type. Both a warrior and a king. But he was not born
for it, as Horn. Hes also not fully integrated in society (warrior type is usually a
bit outside of society, in opposition to the king hero), he stands out because of
his strength (// Hercules). He does extraordinary things by fighting monsters.
These monsters define the kind of heroism thats being valued. The text deals
with a legendary mythological history, it establishes the idea of a heroic age, a
legendary past outside of historical time in which events like heroes battling
monsters can take place. Nostalgic look at the past : the individual hero rises
from the general population and is celebrated. The main business is warfare. The
heroes of heroic age are usually then heroes and have certain qualities
considered heroics. Its a time when honour and glory are paramount. Beowulf is
more concerned about honour than his life. Heroic societies are mostly
aristocratic in literature (King Arthur and the round table). The monster is a threat
to this heroic society, he causes it to disintegrate : he violates martial codes and
prevents heroes from dying with honour. Hes also a liminal figure. He has no
status, but is ultimately of human origin. His cannibalism consumes society. His
origins are somewhat supernatural. These battles man >< monster have often
been interpreted as good >< evil but there are moral issues embedded in these
conflicts. Randals death has this sense of the end of an era. Beowulf is described
in very similar terms to Randal. The poet may be questioning that heroic ethos
that surrounds Beowulfs motivations to fight Randal. There may be this thin line
between the man and the monster.
The poem is a translation from the earliest form known of English, it exists in one
manuscript. Bound with other texts. The date of composition is unknown, its a
constant debate : probably the 9th c. The manuscripts itself is from the 1000s.
Composed in Old English but tells the story of a hero from Sweden.
Motifs :

Monstrous beings : ogres, trolls dragons

Magic world
Faithful friend (Wiglif)
Unusual strength of hero
Journey to an underworld

In passing, theres also the motif of the severed head. The trophy aspect of the
head is hinted in the hunt in Sir Gawain. Within the structures of the poem, lots of
repetitions (3 monsters,). Third battle = dragon-slaying tale. The narrative ends
with the aftermath of Beowulfs death, not his death. So it respects to a certain
extent Ulriks folktale pattern. The poet uses the elements of folktale to define
the kind of heroism that Beowulf exemplifies, and define him as a hero in both
Anglo-saxon and Christian terms : strength and courage (the monstrous creatures
are on the side of cosmic evil). He also uses these elements to make a comment
on the very idea of heroism, of pursuing fame and glory. Sometimes we
encounter some kind of wisdom saying about fate etc. Also embedded in the
poem : speeches that make commentary on kingship (praise of good rulers,
examples of bad rulers). The exchange of treasures symbolises the ties of loyalty.
Pagan and Christian elements are strongly intertwined, especially in the concept
of fate, destiny (wyrd) -> Macbeth, the wyrd sisters = the witches. Many critics
say that its man/monsters on the material level and good/evil on the cosmic
level, but monsters sometimes have aspects of human flaws.
There are embedded stories, sometimes foreshadowing tragic events to come.

22
The poet uses mythological history and setting. Lots of genealogies of Anglo-
saxon kings to show the position of the royal family. Reference to Sigmund,
dragon-slaying hero.
Two-troll tale : the Bears Son Tale
A tale-type in 19th c. oral tradition
Outline of the tale :
1. The hero is of supernatural origin and strength, son of a bear who has
stolen the mother; or son of she-bear and a man, or other variants on the
theme. He grow supernaturally strong and unruly

2. The Descent : with 2 companions,

3. Stolen Maidens : 3 princesses have been stolen by the monster, the hero
goes to rescue them

4. Rescue : the hero finds a sword in the lower world which he uses to slay
the monsters and rescue the maidens ; the maidens are pulled up by the
heros companions who then steal them

5. Betrayal of the hero : the hero is left in the lower world by his treacherous
(faithless) companions, but eventually reaches upper world (is pulled up)

6. Recognition : the hero is recognized by the princesses when he arrives on

their wedding day
The pattern does not correspond exactly with the Beowulf story, but certain
elements of the Beowulf tale have closer Scandinavian parallels :

The building of a royal hall (or rich house)

Nightly attacks by a giant demon or troll
A watch against the monster
A hero who is though slow in youth, but shows extraordinary strengths at
an early age
First fight : the enemy loses a limb. Second Fight : against the trolls mother, this
fight occurs in a cave under water, a magic sword is required, his companions
desert the hero or thin he is dead and leave (in Beowulfs case, his men remain
behind). This tradition of two troll fights may explain why there is a second
monster (Randalls mother -> theres no mention of her before).
The fight scene underlines the correspondences between Beowulf and Randall. In
the original language, the same words are used. Similarities between man and
monster are displayed, and are disturbing, especially at the end of the fighting.
Randall, like most heroes, is unusual in his origins, invulnerable, of great strength,
makes a journey to an underworld, In a way, hes exiled from his kingdom (lives
as an exile).
Heroic Biographical Pattern of Beowulf :

His mother is a princess, his father a well-known warrior, but there is no

unusual conception
No unusual birth or threatened youth

23
 Beowulf was thought to be unpromising in his youth (we are told later). He
leaves for foreign parts to perform heroic deeds (no expulsion motif
however)
Acquisition of invulnerability : possible, in that he wears armour made by
the legendary smith
Fights with monsters and a dragon
Does not win a maiden, but does acquire a throne eventually
Makes an expedition to an underworld, Grendels mothers lair ; he passes
through a liminal space (symbolized by water) and undergoes a test of
strength and skill
Is not forced to leave but does return triumphant to homeland
Death by dragon in an old age : his death is unusual, but this hero does no
die young : however, like many heroes, he leaves no son to succeed him
Heros battle fury : Beowulfs anger is very similar to Randalls and is indicative of
Beowulfs liminal aspect (monstrous aspect)-> pseudo-historical basis on the
image of warrior going into battle with no armour or clothes ; Legend of the
Berserkers (bear skin) in Scandinavian tradition : elite class of warriors who
work themselves up in a frenzy in battle, trained outside of society. In each
progressive fight with Randall, Beowulf uses his battle fury against him. He fought
Randall and he must pledge his life a second time, in another battle (Randalls
mother) which reinforces his heroic stature but also offers the opportunity to
Hrothgar to give him advice about pride.
Gravemound Battle Tradition : The hero enters a cave or burial place where
treasures lie and he has to battle monsters. Could be applied to Randalls mother
and the dragon fight, where Beowulf must go to the dragons lair. This motif of
gravemound battle combined with otherworldly journey has echoes in Sir
Gawain : offers a chance for delaying combat (building up tension). This journey
to an underworld represents a stage in the heros life and is usually about the
acquisition of something (wisdom, item,). The journey is also part of the test
(survival).
Judeo-Christian Tradition : the story of origins of monsters embedded in the
poems (all descend from Cain = first murderer -> implies that they have the
shape of humans). Monsters derive from humans gone wrong. Randalls war on
the Danes // Satans war on humanity. Final encounter with Randalls mother ->
magic weapon : in the tradition of a certain kind of magic, only the weapon made
by a person can actually kill it (very common motif). The poet interjects into the
poem statements that carry Christian themes (God, instability of this world).
The Dragon : symbol of both non-Christian and Christian tradition. Dragons are
evil in the Western tradition. Beowulf needs a special shield because all weapons
fail. The Dragon is also associated with chaos and destruction, that destructive
aspect in particular is emphasized : hes a threat to the kingdom (destroys the
hall = symbol of the kingdom). Its a fire-breathing dragon, which is not always
the case in tradition. The defeat of the dragon calls for Beowulfs sacrifice ->
possible Christian point : sacrificing ones self for others. Hrothgar has a
responsibility towards his people, he doesnt face the dragon himself. On a
cosmic level, the defeat of the dragon can represent the victory of order over
chaos, or some kind of overwhelming force threating people (military,). The
dragon in Beowulf is keeping his treasure from circulating in society (society in
which gift exchange is institutionalized) -> dragon = antisocial. Beowulfs

24
companions dont desert him even when hes thought dead but when hes facing
the dragon, they run away -> Antisocial destructive force of the dragon.
Fate or Wyrd : Beowulfs people is destined to become a lost race. The poem ends
almost as it began : with the funeral of a hero. The dramatic idea of fate is not
something that you can escape -> Christian idea of Providence. Beowulf is free to
make choices (free will) but he knows that he has a destiny to follow. Wyrd is
unchangeable, but the heros actions determine how he will be remembered in
this life.

The Tain
In Early Irish Literature the naming of places, like the naming of people, is very
important. Its almost like a shaping of the landscape. The Beowulf poet, in
referring to Randall and his mother as belonging to the race of Cain, places them
in a Christo-centric cosmos ; he engages in concepts of good and evil -> the lines
between good and evil may be permeable but they are visible. The monsters
already embodied the concept of forces of evil. The Christian heroic code rests on
notions of proper and improper behaviour, sacrificing oneself, but not recklessly.
The fight with Randalls mother is motivated by code of vengeance.
The Tain : similar kind of heroic age type of world, with notions of shame and
honour, but its much more emphasized. The line between natural and
supernatural is not one of cosmic good vs evil. The text was written during the
Christian period in Ireland but very little within the text refers to Christianity. The
concept of fate differs also : people can see into the future, not as a controlling
force, and the prophecies are used in a way to direct the action to their fulfilment.
Hearing the prophecy leads people to fulfil them. The central hero, C-chulainn, is
the central character in this collection of tales called the Ulster Cycle. Tin Bo =
cattle raid. C-chulainn is overtly semi-divine (Beowulf is actualized as human),
hes not set apart by his size (rather small) but his birth, upbringing, boyhood
deeds, exhibit elements of the heroic biographical pattern. In early Irish tales,
many of the mythic figures and events are retold in a way that brings them down
to a human level. CC, like Beowulf (and Randall), is outside the bounds of society.
Many of the rules dont seem to apply to him.
The hero of tradition, the warrior hero, is often outside the social boundaries and
the boundaries of the divine. Beowulf is somewhat outside society (doesnt old
any position at his uncles court) ; only when he returns victorious, with treasure
(very important socializing sign), hes rewarded with ands which establishes him
as being part of the inner court circle. CC and Beowulf are often described as her
of their tribes : defending their society even being outside its boundaries. CC
often engages in single combat at boundary points (river = natural territorial
boundary at the time, like mountains). Only one not affected by the curse. CC
also performs his greatest deeds while still an adolescent : at the time of the Tain,
hes also seventeen. Upon reaching mature adulthood, he dies (30-33). One of
the most striking characteristics about CC is his spasm = battle fury -> a bit
of his divine nature bursts into the human world and can be chaotic. Like
Beowulf, hes a potential danger to society if hes not controlled. All the efforts of
the court to bring him up, find him a wife etc are to control CC.
CC is also very sexually attractive. The cooling of the frenzy, taken literally,
means he must be cooled literally, be kept in check. But it also shows that hes
not yet fully grown. Certain deeds are considered shameful in this kind of
25
society : the nudity of the women transcend social barriers but one who
transgresses he social barriers, CC, must be kept in check by another
transgression. The women baring up their breast may serve to remind him that
hes also part of human society, or that hes still a child. The Tain is also very
visual : descriptions of what people wear etc, of CC himself. Hes described in
ways that dont make him quite human (grotesque aspects ; yet hes very
handsome). In Beowulf, the focus was on the armour. And here the clothes are
emblematic of the purpose of people in society.
Only one manuscript has an almost complete version of The Tain : the translator
shaped the story and the structure of the tale (strong modern editorial choices).
The translation is fairly accurate though. Theres only really 2 good translations of
it. Its written mostly in prose. The scribe at the end of the text blesses whoever
would recite this story in this exact form and adds in latin (language of the
church) that the events must not be believed, theyre only tales.
Not uncommon folkloristic theme : the land being laid waste. The birth of the
hero restores the land. Trope of mortals being lured to the other world.
C-chulainn is a warrior hero, like Beowulf : he has strength, and he protects the
community. But CC is not entirely part of the community, and hes a more-than-
human figure (he changes is whole body in his battle frenzy).
The first conception of CC has a sense of the divine (story of waste land,
supernatural elements). 3 conceptions : folktale pattern of repetition. CC has dual
paternity : earthly father and divine father (both outsiders). The battle frenzy is
the manifestation of that liminality.
The fairies (Sidhe or Tuatha De Danaan) live underground, its literally an
underworld.
Congenital animals : motif, manifestation of the link between this world and the
underworld. Animal born at the same time as the hero (and dies with the hero).
CC and Beowulf are both sons of the kings sister. The relationship of the sisters
son is important in European society. Gawain is also a sisters son. The uncle
becomes the protector of the nephew : the relationship can be amicable or
hostile ; the sisters son stands in the line of succession. The ties between foster
brothers are sometimes stronger than between blood brothers. Climax of The
Tain : combat of foster brothers. Kinslay was one of the most serious crimes and
killing a foster brother is as serious as killing a real brother.
Power of prophecy : very important in Irish stories. Fame is bestowed by the poet
(the counterpoint is ignominy through satire). Whenever someone speaks a
prophecy, the audience knows whats coming up. CC transgresses the borders of
society, certain rules. CCs relationships with women, and his wooing show his
maturation. The finding of a wife for CC is important to keep him within the rules
of society. CC grows up surrounded by men, but when he enters the court, hes
surrounded by women. Aife is kind of the female counterpart of CC. She has a
power of speech, which is equivalent to CCs strength. Women rely greatly on
speech.
Scathach = the shadowy one, Uathac = the spectre. The female warrior
figure is common (Eneid etc), here Scathach. Aife is CCs partner, kind of equal,
not under his power.
Macha (fairy bride), Deirdriu, Medb.

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Often in romances and epics, theres more emphasis on heros masculinity, the
women remain on the margin, unseen, unheard. In the Irish tales, women start to
come forward. Sometimes it challenges womens role in society. Especially with
Deirdriu. Her story is considered to be one of the great tragedies in the Ulster
cycle. In Machas story, theres the stake of shame and honour, not only for
Machass husband but also for her. Her husband needs to respect her wish in
order to honour her. Its her being dishonoured that brings the curse. -> what is
honour and honourable ? doing an honourable thing might not be doing the good
think. Brings up all theses questions. Lanvals lady, who has the same condition
as Machas, is shown respect from her lover. Macha demands that same respect.
Deirdriu is not an otherworldly figure, but presents a dilemma between shame
and honour, issues of honour -> a series of transgressions run through the story,
leading to Ds death. Theme of the woman who chooses her own husband :
Conchobar is the promised husband, kind of a father figure, old king. Hes
displaced by a younger man, Noisiu (in some versions, hes directly related to
him). + theme of woman who disrupts society : she may even lead to its
breakdown. Conchobar, by using D, creates feuds. geis is often translated as
taboo : it means both something that is obliged but also forbidden (it is
forbidden to not do it) -> Fergus can never refuse an invitation to an ale feast.
Many Irish stories have this dilemma between breaking ones geis and following
on the road to destruction.
Its not clear who lays this taboo upon people. But every Irish hero has a geiss :
CC has several gessi (he cant eat dogs because hes named after a dog). If you
break the geiss, it could lead to your death.
This story is not the most heroic one, its even antiheroic : not all stories glorify
combat, theres some questioning about peoples behaviour. In Beowulf, the poet
also makes remarks about Gods will, fate, Sometimes theres a questioning of
the heroic values in Hrothgars court (when H warns Beowulf against falling into
pride for example).
Femalecentric story : Deirdre is the central character. Starts with ominous sign :
prophecy that she will cause destruction. Conchobor says hell raise her in
isolation and keep her for himself -> fairytale quality to it (promised bride being
raised in isolation + pleasure of the king). D departs from whats excepted from
her and chooses her own husband, Noisiu. She thus fulfils her prophecy. So
Conchobor spared her from being killed at birth, but keeping her in isolation was
a factor in her choosing another husband. She can freely come and go because of
her skill, she has power in her words (could ruin a kings reputation) -> the power
of womens speech. D says I could desire a man who had those 3 colors : idea
of male beauty. If there is such a man, D wants to see him.
Motif almost peculiar to Irish tale = falling in love in absence. Somebody hears
about someone and falls in love with them. When they meet, D is the one who
lays a geis on Noisiu. It shows the power of her speech over the power of the
warriors strength. N is also known for his voice, beside his beauty. Ns words and
voice are in contention with Ds : they contradict one another. He knows shes
been promised to another, but shes not going to accept this rejection. D proves
the more powerful in her speech (persuasive ? at least more powerful). In these
stories, womens speech outweigh the mens. Cs actions in isolation D put her
outside of normal society, so also outside the bonds of society : she doesnt have
to act according to what is expected of her. It shows the flaw in Cs reign : he

27
considers D as his exclusive possession, the fact hat N took her is a dishonour to
him.
Its very easy to blame the woman in all the feuds that arise. Comment on the
idea of honour and the place of women, how they must navigate that system of
shame and honour, and find ways to protect their honour if the men are not going
to protect theirs. For D, the shame is being a possession. Not being able to follow
her own heart, and being passed from one man to another. She takes the only
way out available for her at that time -> gruesome suicide (destroys her beauty).
When N and his people escape from Ireland with D, they also have to keep her in
isolation (men who see her will desire her and take her away). When C possesses
D for a year, he doesnt enjoy it, she still doesnt like him. Consequences : Fergus,
betrayed by C (in being made to follow his geis), is forced to transgress his
pledge (not the same thing as geis). C has dishonoured Fergus. Pledge is most
important to a mans reputation. The only way out of it, apart from killing C, is
taking soldiers from Ulster with him. Fergus is CCs foster brother.
Deirdres story is a comment on heroic ethos, this idea of the warriors honor and
pledge. + The place of women in that society. She may be the one to blame, but
considered her situation, she uses what resources she has (her speech -> she
doesnt use her beauty actually) to make her own choices. Even if that choice is
ending her life. Shes the tragic figure.
The other one is Medb, even if not sure if we should describe her as a tragic
figure. Shes a very strong character, she brings out the most antifeminist
statements in the Tain. Shes often criticized in the story for being the one who
set all this war in motion. p.237 : for the sake of a whores. Its kind of unfair
on Medb but shes not depicted in a very sympathetic way. She takes authority
and power for herself : her husband is a weaker figure. Shes a woman of great
sexual appetite (called a whore for that). In Pillow Talk, we see that she seeks
wealth and equality. Part of the reason of the big battle is her need for equality,
even superiority over her husband. She has an affair with Fergus for political
purposes. The story is almost farcical. Mebd, a bit like D, is a disruptor of
warriors society. Shes the one who causes the dispersal of certain tribes. CC is
the epitome of the warrior, and his wife the virtuous female : so Medb epitomizes
the vicious female But shes much more complex than that. She has the same
name as a mythological figure, who acts as a symbol of the land. In Ireland,
women did not rule but the concept of sovereignty was seen as female, and the
land too. The king would symbolically marry the land. So shes associated with
this goddess of sovereignty by many critics : this goddess appears often as an old
hag until the rightful king comes to her. -> puella senilis motif. The goddess is
associated with cattle, because the ownership of cattle was a measure of wealth
(indicator of fertility). Her name is associated also with mead (honey drink) : the
goddess usually confers kinship by giving a drink, mead. So Medb = drunken
woman ? Or she who intoxicates, so confers sovereignty ? Meds plays on
warriors honour to get what she wants, D wants to get out of this society (Medb
wants to control it).
Medb does not uphold the ethos of honour in the way CC does. CC does not allow
any woman to govern him. Medb manipulates warriors by offering them wealth,
herself etc. Her daughter has the worst of it : shes used to be bargained, which
causes her death in the end (dies of shame). Medb transgresses male authority,
but on their terms. She knows how men think, that if she attacks their pride and
reputation shell get them. She is blamed for the slaughter in The Tain but other
elements are to be taken into account.
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Morriga is a goddess, kind of a symbol of rule.
All the female heroines in the Tain are potential destroyers of the heroic society,
anti-heroic, but they also underline the heros sexuality. Derdriu when she speaks
her desire for men is expressing her womanhood, which places her against
Conchobars desire for her -> Antagonist. Medbs sexuality is depicted as
negative. -> Female sexuality has tragic results. Same warrior society as in
Beowulf etc, even though some differences.
Almost a classical epic -> more emphasis on warfare, less character
development. But also tragedy, and critique of the warrior society. We have a
text, but in separate manuscripts, that have to be brought together, so what
about its status as literature ?
One of the core apex in The Tain is CCs combat with Ferdia (foster brother,
manipulated by Medb) : emotional climax, tragic consequences of all the
combats, begin to question the reason for them. CC and Ferdia are trapped by
their honor code. CC beings to see the implications of all his actions.
Who has power in these stories ? And what kind ? magical, political ? How is it
used ? Warrior ethos leaves no room for individual conscience or standards of
right and wrong. Aifers protest shows how the warrior ethos could be destructive
to society. There is some character development with Medb and Derdriu.
Themes of power and power of speech (-> female characters). Issues of personal
choices over public choices. Also, Honour vs Shame (womens honour and
agency). Theme of transformation and rightness of rule. Truth, wisdom and
prophecy.

The four branches of the Mabinogion

Collection of tales, the first translation used the word Mabinogion and it stuck.
Middle Welsh, mostly in prose but include poetry (// Irish). Mabinogi : meaning
= obscure. Each story is named branches. Tales linked with plots and
characters, but each is a separate tale. Tales placed in the order of the
manuscript in our translation (other editions separated according to the genre).
Examples of courtly Welsh literature. Different tone, less savage than Irish.
Contemporary with romances like Sir Gawain.
Intended for a courtly audience. Include folk motifs, but like Sir Gawain, intended
for well-educated and wealthy audience. We dont know if its the work of one
author, or multiple authors. Christian references (even if minimal). Tales set in
timeless past (// heroic age). Honor, dishonour, vengeance -> heroic age ethos
but not really warrior ethos like in the Tain. Different set of ideas regarding what
is right and wrong. Tales deal with issues of proper and improper behaviour.
Otherworld and magic. Otherworldly figures = more like in Orfeo, Lanval,
Narrative devices that create opportunities to explore the issues of right and
wrong etc.

The First Branch : Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed -> themes of friendship, love,
marriage formation of bonds happy ending
The Second Branch : Branwen, daughter of Llye -> the breaking of bonds
and tragedy which ensues broken marriage, broken pledges, tragic
ending

29
 The Third Branch : Manawydan, son of Llyr -> theme of friendship and
loyalty, revenge, happy ending
The Fourth Branch : Math, son of Mathonwy -> a series of transgressions,
the breaking of social and familial bonds, tragedy ensues, but also
changing of old order to new, as in series of transformations and rebirth
of Llen
The themes of friendship, order versus disorder, insult and compensation,
dishonour and vengeance connect the tales, as do some of the characters and
events. No exaggeration or impulsive aspect of warrior ethos.
Heroism is not only skill and warfare : deeds in battle are on the same level as
wisdom, proper speech, knowing whats right or wrong,
First Branch : a tripartite division of the tale.

Pwylls adventures in Otherworld

The winning of Rhiannon a bride winning tale
The birth of Pyderi birth of the hero ?

Motifs :
1. The trespassing of a mortal on a immortals territory ; mortal aid to an
Otherworldly figure, the exchange of identities, the Chaste Friend
2. The fairy mistress, the Rash Promise ; the hero must perform tasks to win
the bride (he tricks
3. Gwawl by his own means)
4. The Calumniated Wife (falsy accused of a crime); the congenital animals;
the youth of the hero (Pryderi) is threatened
Tale type : the Hand and Child: an ogre reaches down chimney or through door
with a large, clawed arm; he seized a newborn child; the hero waits for it, cuts off
the arm, and rescues the infant;
A lot of themes revolve around what is valued in a king and the importance of
alliances, + the importance of the queen. Each episode is almost like in tale in
itsef, but Pwyll links them all. The first adventure is almost like a testing of Pwyll.
Pwyll violates the courtesy of the hunt by sending his hounds on somebody elses
prey. The person of higher rank is the one who must speak first. Pwyll shows a
transgression of courtesy but is offered a means of making up for it. So does he
do this out of his own free will or is he being manipulated ? Motif of the seasonal
cycle of a year and a day. Romance time works in cycles, not in historical time.
Calumniated wife usually involves a woman of a different country or different
status.
Second Branch = most tragic. Involves insult and honour, dysfunctional family.
Nature of insult = the way that vengeance is taken -> honour that leads to
tragedy. Follows Ulriks law of closure: ends abruptly. Etiological tale = about the
origins (of Irelands provinces). Ulrikes Law of contrast too : good twin
(Nysion)/bad twin (Efnysien). Contrasts between kings also (Pwylls story was
about kinship) -> Matholwch = not so good king.
3-parts structure. Motif of the Forbidden Door. Tale that has the most affinities
with Irish storytelling. Motif of the Iron House.

30
Branwen is contrasted and compared with Rhiannon. Theyre both foreigners and
suffer at the hands of their husbands people (initially, theyre very welcome).
Their husband do not turn against them at first, its their people. Matholwch gives
in to his peoples complaints (while Rs husband stands up more). Branwen loses
her status and suffers further insult with the blow every day. Shes not accepted
back into the court as Rhiannon (Pwyll had not expelled her).
Branwen doesnt accept her humiliation, she shows perseverance. Part of her
tragedy is how shes used in this system of honour, and what it does to her in the
end. Death by heartbreak. Weakness of Ms character >< Pwyll.
When Bs brother complains that she was taken without his consent, hes kind of
right : Branwen is under his protection by law during her fathers absence. Es
opposition to N becomes not so straightforward as the story progresses : he could
be described as some kind of trickster figure. The mutilation of the horses is also
a folk motif, even though its not seen very often. Its an action that makes the
brides price worthless. E kills his sisters son and thus endangers the link
between the two islands. The union of 2 countries is destroyed -> battle = epic
scale, very few survivors. M becomes more and more the villain throughout the
story. Thieves hiding // Ali baba and the 40 thieves. E dies in a death that has
some kind of agony -> compensation (redemption ?).
// Cinderella: at first, shes privileged but shes persecuted by her step-family.
Branwen is the only one mourning the destruction on both sides.
Exam : 2 parts ; 1 = specific questions to the works well be reading
after the 3rd essay (3rd-4th Maginobi, Robin Hood,) 2 = general
questions about the general themes, broader than essay questions.
Branwen dies of heartbreak. Whats similar to Rhiannon and Branwen, and many
female characters, is that they step outside their traditional role and make their
own choices. Branwen taking the blame is part of her tragedy. Ending : arrival of
the 7 survivors (balance the 7 who were left behind). Motif of the Severed Head:
the head has certain properties (Beowulf = sign of death, Gawain = evidence of
magic). The head returns to Britain as a talisman against future invasions.
Branwen being part of the chief 3 maidens = old tradition of the Triads. On a
historical level, enemys heads were a battle trophy, but here theres a sacred
aspect. The head remains undecayed as long as the 7 survivors dont open the
forbidden door. The feast of the head = recovering time, almost takes place in
the otherworld where time doesnt seem to pass. Almost like paradise after
death.
When the spell is broken and the doors open, its like a return from the
otherworld into the human world -> Facing the changes that have come about.
Result of all this warfare = kind of a renewal of both Ireland the Island of Britain.
Both undergo a regeneration. Marks the end of one legendary era and the
beginning of another. Severed Head links the Second Branch to the Third. 5
women -> 5 sons -> 5 provinces of Ireland. Theres a traditional folktale format :
starts slowly, tragedy brought to its peak, then winds down. Literariness : tales
embedded into the tale. Themes : honour, insult, compensation, importance of
family ties, outsider/insider, whose people are whose, good king/faulty king,
insult and vengeance + consequences of taking revenge. Lots of legalistic
language, especially in the 3rd branch.

31
3rd branch deals with the character of M. Its not just a continuation of the Second
Branch, it also speaks to the first -> interconnection. deri is presented as the
young king : explores issues of rulership. Attracts very little attention but lots of
folktale narrative elements in it : linear plot, begins leisurely, few characters, very
little characterisation, climax, long ending, repetition of events. One of the major
themes = destruction and renewal. Wasting of a land, loss of a kingdom :
protagonists forced into exile. + Fall from social status. Restauration of kingdom
but also freedom and social status. M voluntarily lowers himself to rise again.
Magic plays a larger role, hostile intrusion. M and R have been previously set up
as otherworldly figures and here, theyre in the human world.
Repetition of events : 1st enchantment / 2nd enchantment (same pattern). Second
wasting of the land : the land is emptied, then the wheat fields are devastated.
Olriks law of patterning -> M and P undertake 3 different crafts with the same
result. The capture of the mouse // the capture of in the sack. Consequences of
Pwylls actions. Its the second time something otherworldly has captured him
(the guy in the 1st branch). Rhiannons capture // return to her otherworldly home
for her marriage feast.
Theme of enchantment and disenchantment predominate. Many motifs
associated with magic : transformation, magic castle in the woods.
Motifs

Enchantment land laid waste, magic paralysis

Disenchantment
Animal as lure to otherworld (white), magic castle, magic objet
Punishment in Otherworld
Chaste Friend
Bargain with otherworld

Both R and M are originally otherworldly figures. R seems to understand that

magic is at work : almost a repetition of her rebuking M. Revealing of her
character : character development in this tale. The punishment in the otherworld
recreates Rs punishment in the 1st branch. This magic paralysis also seems to
reflect the curse laid on the land -> Paralysis of normal living. The separation of
Bryderi and Rhiannon // Cigfa and Manowydan. Cigfa doesnt really have
character development except the concern of honour.
M uses hit own wit and wisdom, not magic, to break the spell. Signal that he has
chosen the human world. The confrontation between him and (Ch.. ?) takes place
in that liminal mount. M shows himself capable of dealing with magic : he knows
he doesnt have the magical force to fight against but he knows theres
something about the mouse. The action works in 3 : M refuses many propositions,
then he reveals what he really wants. That revealing point makes you question
Ms previous attitude : was he pretending ? Was he really that stubborn or was he
using tactics ? The restoration of the land comes with the restoration of (Ch ?)s
pregnant wife. Ms threat of hanging the mouse is also a threat to Chs possible
son. Chs revenge is actually unjustified legally. M also proves his skills in speech
in his bargain with the otherworld. He uses very careful terms to avoid further
attempts at revenge. In many ways, M shows himself to be the leader : he has a
kingly behaviour even if hes not a king.
The tales far removed from any mythological origin. An old couple balances a
young people, otherworld balances human, Magic in the tales provides tension
and a sense of danger but its overcome in human ways. M doesnt travel to the
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otherworld (>< Sir Orfeo) but stands on a liminal point. -> is he the protagonist
of the tale ? hes not presented as a king. What kind of hero is he, if he is one ?
Like the 1st branch, the 4th follows a tripartite structure : 1st sets on of the major
themes = Maths punishment of Gwydion and Gilfeathwhy , 2 nd is about the birth
and upbringing of Lleu, 3rd = death and restoration of Lleu. The parts are linked
by Gwydion, the narrator (?). In folklore terms, hes a magician, sorcerer. The land
in which he lives is not an otherworld, but still. Hes also some kind of trickster
figure. He has other moral values, kind of amoral, acting for his own ends. Central
to the tale = relationships : Gwydion is the nephew of Gilfaethwhy + brother-
sister relationship between Gwydion and Aranrhod. Theres a hint of incest motif
between the two of them. But the incest motif is made explicit in Maths
punishment of Gwydion and Gil (gender reversal). This kind of punishment is
unique in literature.
Transgressions : rape, deceit, murder, adultery, trust and loyalty
Transformations : to deceive, to punish-animal transformations (Blodeuedd : from
human to animal owl- / Lleu : from ? to human to animal eagle- then restoration
to human form)
FINAL EXAM : April 22 (noon). 1st question : 2-3 pages, 2nd question : 4-4
. Hand it in physically, before if you want.
Very dark tale, that negates positive aspects of life. Deals with the nature of
insult and honour. Although the story has been given the name of ..., hes not
the main character, the main character is Gwydion (perpetrator of the
transgressions). No ones ever entirely good or bad. Gwydion initiates the action,
plotting with his brother. G... seeks compensation to avoid the destruction of 2
kingdoms, his last heroic act is having a single combat (and hes defeated by
Gwydions magic). Gwydion brings dishonour upon himself. G... can be
compensated by being queen but itll never restore her honour. Death and
dishonour cannot be reversed. In the opening of the story, theres the motif of
love sickness. Gwydion starts a war to distract his uncle so that his brother can
rape his uncles ward. The only cure to love sickness is the union with the loved
object. Its here a catalyst for the action. Embedded in the story is this origin tale
of how pigs came to Wales. G uses magic tricks, to create an illusion of wealth
and transform things + uses it in his single combat with P -> duplicity : hes not
above using deceit, which sets him up as a villain, but he becomes a more
complex character (heroic act).
Gwydion is very much a trickster figure. Comment on warfare : both sides suffer.
Importance of pigs in the way that they rename the landscape (// Tain : landscape
renamed and reshaped). Behind the story, theres tales of origins (pigs, owls) ->
cosmic themes. Transgressions against natural order ?
G uses transformation to deceive. The punishment of G and ... is unique in
tradition. Transformation from human to animal and vice-versa are common, even
from male to female (in Greek myths for example), but the 2 together is unique.
It creates a very appropriate but grotesque (startling, striking, unusual, a bit
unnatural) punishment. Theyre condemned for 3 years, and they must take on
the nature of their animals in addition to the appearance. Each of them also must
take on a female form. This transformation as punishment also condemns them
to bear tangible evidence of their crime. Even though M says after 3 years
theyve suffered enough and takes them back to the court, their children remain

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as the tangible evidence of their crime. Another theme of the tale = importance
of children, and bearing them.
Blodeuedds last transformation is also punitive (adultery). The 1 st and 3rd part of
the stories seem to employ this theme of punishment and transformation for
certain deeds that go against the social order, or even nature. First one =
violation to a woman, 2nd = violation by a woman. The story doesnt explain why
M must have the virgin. But in terms of Welsh law, it reflects on the importance of
a womans virginity before marriage and the fact that the king is the guardian of
virgin, unmarried women. So the story makes a comment about children but also
virginity.
2nd part of the tale deals with the conflict between G and his sister, Aranrhod.
Issue of female fertility and virginity, G manipulates her into revealing her
fertility, and the fact that shes not a virgin (Chastity Test : used also in Arthurian
tale, Morgan le Fay often tries to prove Gweneveres adultery). Her choice of
words when asked are you a virgin is ambiguous, she answers that is my
belief -> example of the equivoque speech of otherworldly characters ? The
incident in the court shames her publicly. A womans chastity is a social matter,
its part of the social order. So the shame for her is bearing children. Therefore
when G presents her with her son (Lleu), its again a public shaming. He brings
her the tangible evidence of her transgression. The 3 curses that she lays upon
Lleu reveal her power of speech. Its made clear that shes the one who can give
him an identity, prevent him from becoming a man (forbidden for him to bear
arms), and having children (he shall never have a wife). It prevents him from
entering into adulthood also. In these curses, shes denying him an existence.
Why G forces Lleu on her is not very clear, he doesnt really have a reason to. In
so doing, hes continuing to humiliate her. He uses the same tricks as before
(illusion) : hes a master of illusions.
G in a sense has usurped her role as mother. But through As cursing, shes
attempting to recover her honour by asserting her autonomy. G reminds her that
shell never be called a maiden again. It says something about the idea of
virginity not just as a state, but a kind of power. B power is to keep M safe as a
virgin. -> Does she go against the natural order ? Is she an unnatural mother ?
The story raises these issues but doesnt answer them. Lleu is skilful, and very
precautious (// Predary and Cuchulainn) : unusual birth, princess as a mother,...
Beginning of the heroic biography. He also has unusual aspects to him -> liminal
state of the hero. The conditions in which he can be killed are all related to liminal
space (neither inside, nor outside,...). Christian element (Sunday mass) is an
indication that the story was recorded during Christian times. Motif of the
particular, sacred time, with Christian touch.
These liminal conditions are a common folklore motif : it creates a paradox (the
sacred / divine / cosmic paradox). Therell be very important paradoxes in
Macbeth. Even Tolkien used it in the story of Eowyn who disguises as a man (Im
not a man). Lleu undergoes a non-punitive transformative: it reveals something
of his liminal state and otherworldly aspect. He passes from human to animal,
then restored to human form. Its a kind of rebirth. Some think that Gs
punishment was to remake him into a better person. It is significant that G finds
Lleu in his eagle form. Lleus twin, is the weaker character and disappears from
the story at some point. There may be a lost tale about him. He meets his end in
an unnatural manner, being killed by his uncle.

34
In the 3rd part, love triangle set up between Lleu, Blodeuedd and Gronw. Young
hero the promised wife- the lover. // Arthur-Lancelot-Gwenevere. Unusual
element in the tale : B is an artificial woman, shes created out of flowers, by
magic (by M and Gwydion). Shes also created for a single purpose : to belong to
Lleu. She has no choice. Shes his possession in a way. Her actual creation : does
it go against the natural order ? Do M and G really have the power to create this
kind of woman ? Its possible that her actions relate to the fact that shes not a
natural woman. It could mean that shes not bound by the norms of social
behaviour, because of her origins. She chooses her own lover, Gronw. She tries to
act as a lady of the court should, but she doesnt succeed. She could be rebelling
against the authority laid upon her. Gronw blames her in the end, but hes equally
guilty. Blodeuedd may be trying to break free from her creator and owner, and
make her own choices. The punishment shows a balance : G doesnt destroy his
creature, but transforms it, makes something new, which balances out the other
animal transformations. Its significant that none of ...s followers offer to stand in
for him. His crime is too shameful. So at the end of the story, lots of questions
come up. Whos the hero ? the villain ? whats natural ? whats acceptable or
not ? whats parenthood and is it desirable ?

Robin Hood
Robins merry men : Little John, Scarlet, Much (the millers son). His chief enemy
= the sheriff of Notthingham. Hes a popular figure, not aristocratic. Hes some
kind of a trickster figure. Hes very much an English hero, and in tradition he
remains linked to Britain. He also stands in another tradition : the noble outlaw.
Hes also a figure whos capable of crossing boundaries : political, or social. He
lives in a marginal state, on the borders of normal society (forest). The action also
starts in a liminal place : the road. Knights are not on the top of society, theyre
kind of squires. Not the lowest, but not the highest on the social ladder.
Obscure origins of the tale : did Robin actually exist ? There is a Robin Hood
society that is trying to prove it. We dont have any real proof. Theres no major
literary work about Hood, its tradition begun with plays and ballads. Its always
popular work (ballads, stories for children). In the later middle ages, the Robin
Hood character became part of a mayday celebration : people would dress up as
characters from the tale. Almost carnivalesque. Archery was a very popular sport,
both men and women could participate in. It was a weapon that lower classes
could afford too. When the king would raise an army, there would be knights, but
also archers. The English longbow is associated with RH : longer range and
power. It would pierce plate armour, and was used in the battle of Agincourt. So
very English weapon. In the novel by Walter Scott, hes a Saxon fighting against
the Normans. The era in which it takes place in the novel moves further into the
past (13th c.). Most recent adaptations of RH place him in the reign of King John.
But the events seem to take place more in the 14 th c.
First literary mention of RH in the 14th c. in Piers Plowman by Langland (1370),
allegorical poem. Contemporary of Chaucer. Poem that highlights the corruption
of society. Associated with frivolity, entertaining. Suggests an oral tradition,
because theres no manuscript ballad of this period (theyre all from the later
periods). Begins the trope of the noble yeoman. 14 th c. = breakdown of the feudal
system, the middle class (merchants, tradesmen,...) rises. Peasants were tied to a
land in the feudal system, and they could not leave this land without permission.
But in the 14th c., the plague caused labor shortage. Free laborers would move
35
from place to place. 1381 : peasants revolts, asking higher wages and better
working conditions (not being tied to a land anymore). So when RH forbids Little
John and his men to harm laborers and farmers, it speaks to that period.
Outlawry was a serious business : they had not protection from the law, they lost
social status. So many would go the woods to survive. Forest laws protected the
deer in the country, so that they were for the king only to hunt. The wealthy often
hired bands of mercenaries for protection -> lawlessness and corruption of the
country.
There was kind of an institutionalized outlawry in Ireland. But thats not present
in English society. RHs character develops as a champion of the poor, someone
who crosses the boundaries from the lower to the higher classes : both classes
loved his tale. The outlaw as a hero is an ambiguous figure : generosity and
altruism. Society turned upside down, carnivalesque ambiance : a yeoman
helping a knight.
Heroic figure of the outlaw:

He robs from the rich to give to the poor (image of generosity coupled with
altruism)
He becomes an outlaw through no fault of his own (its not part of the
earliest versions of RH)
He lives in a place that is marginal or liminal in nature
If he is indeed heroic, he behaves in a courteous manner, especially
towards women and the poor : the gest opens to the appeal to gentleman
that be of freeborn blood, gentile men, of higher class, refined audience
(or that should think itself refined) ; courteousness towards women and
the poor could be a critique of the social manners of higher classes that
were not courteous
If he or his followers perform acts of violence, they are justified because
they are either acts of revenge or self-defence : is it really the case in the
gest ? The gest highlights a certain sense of justice (folktales are not really
good >< evil but justice >< injustice), even though RH often acts violently
The outlaws is usually a master of disguise (RH takes part in a archery
contest, hes only identified by his archery skills), is extremely intelligent
and cunning (// Disney : RH = fox) he uses his skills and quick wit to
outsmart his opponents (classic trickster figure)
The outlaws death is usually gallant, or brought about by the betrayal of a
trusted friend and accomplice (Robin is betrayed by a corrupt nun)
-> Graham Seal, The Outlaw Legend : A Cultural tradition in Britain, America,
Australia (Cambridge, 1996).
A gest of RH is a compilation of 3 main RH stories :
1. Robin Hood and the poor knight, Sir Richard at the Lea (fitts I, II, and IV)
2. RH and the Sheriff of Nottingham (III, V, VI), with the subsidiary adventure
of Little John
3. RH and the king (VII, VIII)
The rhymes and rhythm are not always perfect : some say thats a sign of oral
tradition (or the writer was simply not that good). The ballad form itself is very
well suited to a long narrative, nobody knows if it was sung or recited. Although
its simple in form, its very effective in sophisticated characterization. The 3
main stories are intertwined, theyre not separate. So there is a kind of unity. Fitts
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I and IV have conscious parallels : (I) a poor knight who reacts in a courteous
manner / (IV) A monk reacts in an uncourteous manner. Very simple language,
limited vocabulary, giving it the appearance of a lower class literature, but the
structure is much more sophisticated. Fairly good characterization of Little John,
equal to RH in his cunning (outwits the Sheriff) and hes of greater strength than
RH.
The king in the gest is called Edward (our comely king), but we dont know
which one (I, II or III) but some scholars believe its Edward II (late 13 th c- 14thc.),
while some say its Edward III (early 14th c.). Robin believes he can get pardon
from the king and bypass the sheriff, his devotion really is to the Virgin Mary, but
also to the right king. The king comes in disguise (motif of King in Disguise),
lowering himself. The inversion theme of the gest comes into the forehand. RH
greets the disguised king as if he were indeed a king. He entertains the king
(feast, games,...) -> Inversion king/yeoman. The king in disguise has crossed the
boundary, he infiltrates another world where RH is the authority. This gest
contains the core of the most familiar traditions in the RH legend : the outlaw
who shoots the kings deer and lives in the forest, the evil sheriff of Nottingham,
Little John and Scarlet, and the noble king who pardons the outlaw.
The gest establishes the figure of RH as a devotee to Virgin Mary and as an
enemy to corrupt churchmen. Hes an outlaw whos courteous in the medieval
sense. The image that gest sets off is that of an outlaw who doesnt just resist
authority, he resist corrupt authority, and the actions are set up to redress the
imbalance in injustice. Hes not totally anarchistic, he upholds true law and
authority embodied by the king. Paradox : he inverts the normal order to restore
order.
Another interpretation : speaks to the tradition of chanson de geste (long
narrative poem dealing with the adventures of a knightly figure -> Chanson de
Roland). Kind of chivalric parody, hes like a knight yet hes not. R asks how the
poor knight become a good knight, if he was forced, and how he lost his goods.
Richard (the knight) says hes a knight by ancestry, and lost his goods in helping
his son (-> son : dangers of jousting). We dont know how RH has become an
outlaw, but hes a freeman : did he choose that path or was it by compulsion ?
Questions that the gest leaves open. There is a tendency to romanticize outlaw
figures, attribute them some kind of nobility (Billy the Kid,...). Chivalric parody :
certain elements applying to RH also apply to King Arthur (wont go to his dinner
until hes met an exceptional guest). -> Is RH the inversion of a king ? What does
the green wood symbolize ? As a king, hes a chief of a war band thats loyal to
him. He has a champion in Little John + chivalric devotion to Mary.
Like a chivalric king, or a great lord (Bertilak), he shows hospitality. He always
invites his victims to dinner, and is being very generous to them. The gest gives
the details of the feast (parody of great medieval feasts : every kind of bird,...).
He also gives gifts. He even has his own livery. So RH lives like a nobleman. The
band of merrymen totals 140 (divisible by 7) : number of knights that a lord
would have. It could be a parody of Arthurian chivalric tradition. To some, he
represents the innate nobility of the common man (// Wife of Baths tale : the
lesson about gentillesse that the wife gives). His treatment of Nottingham,
though, is violent and merciless. Questions the idea of Robin as a hero. // C-
chulainn is very violent, a danger for both his enemies and his people.
Townspeople fear Robin and his men. They dont really support them, theyre
afraid of them.

37
RH as a liminal figure : his liminality is more metaphorical than metaphysical.
Hes not presented as an otherworldly figure but he can cross social boundaries.
He doesnt associate that much with the lower classes though, hes more with the
upper classes. Hes very fluid, moving from one world to another. The king is also
one who can cross boundaries. This kind of inversion (the king in disguise) leads
to some kind of integration too -> If the outlaw is indeed a hero, can he be
redeemed ? Is he forever on the outskirts ?
When RH goes to court, is taken out of his habitat, he spends all his money and
leaves. He never really fits in. He continues to be this outsider figure. He cant be
integrated into normal society. Normally, the knight is poor and has to recover his
identity then is fully integrated unto the kings court. It happens to Richard, but
not Robin. Life at court proves to be a failure for him. He doesnt gain anything
from it. He realizes hes no longer the best archer, hes not what it used to be, so
he has to remove himself. The way he does it is in keeping with his trickster
identity. He uses the kind of equivocal speech thats common to otherworldly
figures. He tells the truth, but not the whole truth. In the end, he returns to the
green wood, and everything comes back to him. He shoots a deer, blows a horn,
and all his followers are back. Hes restored.
It ends with a kind of reaffirmation of RH as the altruistic outlaw. He shows
courage and courtesy, a fighting ability (but not as a knight, as a yeoman
archer-), he has leadership qualities, and hes loyal to his followers as well. He
upholds many of the values of society like piety, an idea of justice and right rule.
This idea of right rule is important. So, is he a protector of society ? A champion
of the people ? But he uses violence, causes chaos and disorder...
Justice >< Injustice, Right behaviour >< Corrupt bad actions (but no binary idea
of good/evil, more on a mundane level), Inversion theme, focus on material
wealth (and question of how it has been acquired). RH only suffers fallen fortune
when hes at court (inversion of the usual trope). Question : he did poor men
much good, but was he good ? Is a hero supposed to be good, or even likeable ?
What happens when these expectations fail ?

Macbeth
Moving out of the middle ages, entering the early modern period. Were going to
focus on witchcraft and Prophecy. Weve encountered the medieval ideas of
magic, which often changed. Early modern period = different idea of magic.
Magic is linked with prophecy, and speech. + The idea of kinship was also
changed at this time. In medieval literature, there arent many works that deal
with witches. Its not really a thing. Early modern period : the idea of witchcraft is
given more literary treatment. The devil plays a great role in it. A folklore is
attached to the play : its always been associated with bad luck (bad luck to
pronounce the name of the play, called The Scottish Play instead).
The idea of magic in the MA is intertwined with science and religion and folklore.
People believed in magic. In the early modern period too. Its almost a certainty
that some beliefs were rooted in pre-Christian cultures (belief in the spirits of the
natural world + healing though herbs etc -> natural magic). In The Tain for
example, C... makes prophecies. Druids were possessors of this archaic
knowledge. But in fact we know very little about druids. Recipes and healing
potions often included the incantation of a charm : that was part of medieval
medical practices. So the focus on healing and health in magic in the MA is
38
important. Mid-wives would perform rituals or use amulets to assist in childbirth
for example. Also, magic would be used to tell the future. The knowledge of the
world through the senses developed into magic and science, they overlapped.
Theres natural sciences like astronomy existing side by side with an occult
science like astrology. So magic is used to various purposes : sometimes its
good, sometimes its bad (black/white). Ability to control peoples affections, or
create delusions, or harm, even kill, people.
The magic that weve seen in Sir Orfeo, Lanval, etc... was understood as fictional.
Those were fantasy stories, and it was understood that the magic wasnt real.
And often, magic was wielded by supernatural beings. Its often associated with
creating illusions, transforming shapes, travelling fast and far,... Manipulating the
natural world and the senses. The romances focus on magical objects (magic
wands, magic cauldron,...). In the heroic tales of The Tain, the focus is more on
speech. The idea of the fairy otherworld could allow for a fictional exploration of
magic. Is there magic, or not ? -> // Chaucer, Wife of Baths tale. Then people did
believe in magic. Within Christianity, if you held a belief besides God, it was
considered heretical, so magic is also associated with heresy and the demonic.
The fairy folk of the romances are not demons, theyre just other. Its a Christian
belief that magic was taught and made possible by demons. St Augustin already
makes this statement. In the Arthurian legend, Merlin was thought to be the son
of a demon. And Morgan Le Fay, when shes called the goddess, gives a
demonic feeling.
Throughout the MA, the idea of witchcraft is often associated with accusations of
heresy. There werent that many trials of witches throughout the MA though.
There were not major witch hunts, the concern was more with treason, crime,...
15th c : what emerged was a more systematic view of witchcraft. It focused on
people who would venerate the devil and practice rituals that were counter to
Christianity. Witches had make a pact with the devil, could fly through the air,
cause harm to livestock or humans,... They were thought to affect daily life, the
crops or livestock for example. Witchcraft trials became much more common.
16th-17thc = major wave of witch trials and hunts (witch hunt of Salem in
Massachussets). -> Partly due to changes in the church : major reformation in the
16thc, split between Catholic and Protestants. There were hunts on both sides to
persecute heretics.
One of the most important texts of this period: 1486, Malleus Maleficarum. Very
popular and influential throughout Europe. Kind of a handbook for the use of
Inquisitors in prosecuting charges for witchcraft and sorcery. Started a very
complex debate between believers and more sceptical people. Stereotypes of
witches began to emerge. Fly through the air, dance in circle (//fairy ladies
dancing in circle), cat, toad, old women,...
In the context of Macbeth, James VI of Scotland (James Ist of England) was known
to be opposed to witchcraft, he even wrote a treaty against it called Demonology.
He even suspected that a cabal of witches plotted against him. Vulnerable
women in society were targeted : practitioners of folk magic, mid-wives,... The
witch trials are fairly well documented. Witches were often portrayed as old
crones, who flew on broomsticks, made potions in cooking pots, had companions
given by the evil,... Shakespeare was certainly acquainted with these popular
beliefs. He also probably knew of James concern with witchcraft. Banquo is
presented as James ancestor. James believed that 9 times out of 10, witches
were women who had unnatural masculine features such as facial hair. All of this
turns out in the play. The audience probably believed in witches, and ghosts.
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Shakespeare uses folk tradition in many of his plays. Here, it focuses on witches
as fortune-tellers. Hecate was associated with the goddess Diana, and became
the goddess of magic. Shes also linked to the underworld and Selena, the
goddess of the moon. Three-fold figure (often, 3 bodies or 3 heads). Apart that,
shes also the goddess of crossroads (liminal point). Criminals were often hanged
at crossroads. The three sisters embody her three-fold aspect. She doesnt
appear that often, but the sisters are devotees the her. The witches prophetic
powers are important, they also relate to classical figures -> The three Fates. Or
the Norns ? in Nordic mythology. Theyre portrayed like stereotypical witches
but they recall earlier ideas of prophecy -> wyrd. The wyrd sisters. Fate was
considered a natural force in the cosmos, it moved the world and caused changes
like death but also regeneration. So the wyrd sisters affect Macbeth himself.
One of Shakespeares sources was Holinsheds Chronicle : he tells the story of the
3 women who crossed Macbeth. Published in the late 16 thc. In the play, theres
not the idea that these women are fairies. James Ist in his Demonology
considered women more susceptible to the devil (-> Eve). He condemned
prophecies, especially those that predicted death. Prophecies were then linked to
magic, Necromancy (black magic). In the First Folio edition, weird is spelled
weyard : suggests the word wayward, which means marginal. Theres a
possible pun, it could be the Scottish pronunciation of weird. But it underlines
the marginality of these women. They stand between society and the wilderness.
They also stand between nature and culture, this world/the kingdom and the
mysteries of the supernatural. They conform to James idea of witches (masculine
features), somewhat sexually ambiguous. Within the plays context, also
somewhat unnatural. Macbeth believes in the supernatural and prophecies
(Banquo is more sceptical). Only Macbeth can see the witches. So the focus is on
Macbeth as far as the witches are concerned.
Part of the play deals with the issue of what is natural and what is unnatural.
Lady Macbeth : this unnatural aspect is also played out in her character. She
fears her husband isnt man enough to kill Duncan. She believes the prophecy as
well and decides to act to make it happen -> Ambiguous speech of the
otherworld : if a prophecy had not been made, would Lady Macbeth have acted ?
Is it because of the prophecy that she acts ? //Branwen (or Deirdre ? the one who
was kept by the king). Lady Macbeth actively calls upon the spirits of darkness,
almost as if she was making a pact with the devil, becoming a witch. She wants
to be denatured (unsex me here). Outcome = shes having hallucinations,
visions. Is this a reflection of her conscience ? Shes tried to deny her conscience
previously in her speech, but then she falls pray to it. The doctors opinion of this
is that unnatural deeds breed unnatural troubles.
By the 17th c. the idea of kinship had changed. James believed that kings were
Gods representatives on earth. They embodied good and virtue, had a power to
heal and restore cosmic harmony. There was a belief arising out of folk tradition
that the touch of a king could heal certain diseases. The play mentions Edward
the Confesser as performing this action (very opposite of Macbeth). Cosmic good
is centred on the king. The king was merely the upholder of order in society in the
MA. The death of Duncan puts the cosmos out of order. Disruptions in nature are
reporter on the night of his death (storms etc). The murder of a king was
tantamount to blasphemy, an unnatural act. Throughout the play, the devil and
hell are often mentioned.
The play moves between the natural and unnatural. Does Macbeth perform his
actions because of his beliefs in these prophecies or not ? From a structural and
40
linguistic level, theres another folklore tradition that has to do with the number
3. 3 witches who give 3 initial readings to Macbeth, 3 murderers, 3 prophecies,...
Emphasis on 3 in the spells. Theres also doubling in words and appearance :
Malcolm tests the integrity of McDuff by lying on his character. +Fair is foul and
foul is fair. These kind of binaries create an inversion trope. Everything is upside
down in this world. What was natural is unnatural, and vice-versa.
In the second prophecy, the play makes use of the motif of the Sacred/Divine
Paradox. Its much more ambiguous than the first prophecy, that is just a
warning. The seemingly impossible is made possible. Macbeth cannot interpret
the prophecies correctly -> dealing with the supernatural and its ambiguous
speech. He takes the 2nd and 3rd prophecies literally, like the first one. In these
prophecies, truth is spoken but not explained. In folk traditions, prophecies are
never straightforward. They must be correctly interpreted. -> Fair is foul, foul is
fair. Macbeth is fair and foul at the same time. The weird sisters are ambiguous,
they predict what will happen but not how.
What do we make of Macbeth as a king ? Is his last act heroic ? When the proper
king is restored, the natural order is restored.

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