ARTICLE IN PRESS

Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957

Estuarineuvial oodplain formation in the Holocene Lower Tagus

valley (Central Portugal) and implications for
Quaternary uvial system evolution
Tim van der Schrieka,, David G. Passmorea, Jose Rolaob, Anthony C. Stevensona
a
School of Geography, Politics and Sociology, Daysh Building, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
b
Department of Archaeology, Universidade Autonoma de Lisboa, Palacio dos Condos de Redondo, Rua Santa Marta 47, 1169-023 Lisbon, Portugal

Received 6 May 2005; accepted 2 July 2007

Abstract

We present a brief synthesis of the Quaternary uvial record in the Lower Tagus Basin (central Portugal), concentrating on factors
controlling inll and incision. The Holocene part of the record forms the focus of this paper and guides the questioning of the basic
assumptions of the established Quaternary uvial evolution model, in particular the link between sea-level change and uvial incision-
deposition. We suggest that several incision-aggradation phases may have occurred during glacial periods. Major aggradation events
may overlap with cold episodes, while incision appears to concentrate on the warming limb of climate transitions. The complex
stratigraphy of the Quaternary record in the Lower Tagus valley is inuenced by repeated base-level and climate changes.
This paper submits the rst chronostratigraphic framework for valley ll deposits in the Lower Tagus area. Sea-level rise forced
aggradation and controlled deposition of the ne-grained sedimentary wedge underlying the low-gradient Lower Tagus oodplain.
Investigations have focused on the lower Muge tributary, where rapidly aggrading estuarine and uvial environments were abruptly
established (8150 cal BP) as sea level rose. Base level at the valley mouth controlled the upstream extent of the ne-grained backll.
Tidal environments disappeared abruptly (5800 cal BP) when the open estuary at the Muge conuence was inlled by the Tagus River.
The decrease and nal still stand of sea-level rise led to oodplain stabilisation with peat (64005200 cal BP) and soil formation
(52002200 cal BP). Localised renewed sedimentation (2200200 cal BP) is linked to human activity.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Breuil and Zbyszewski (1942) and Zbyszewski (1946).

The Lower Tagus River has great signicance to
Portuguese Quaternary geology since its sedimentary
record has been used to provide a framework for the latest
part of the geological record in Portugal. The Tertiary
Lower Tagus Basin contains an inset uvial terrace
staircase of presumably Quaternary age, which testies to
several depositionincision cycles of the Lower Tagus
River. However, investigations of the Quaternary uvial
terrace record are rare, and factors controlling long- and
short-term uvial development are not well understood.
The only existing model explaining Quaternary uvial
evolution in the Lower Tagus Basin is based on the work of
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 191 222 6757.
E-mail address: tim.van-der-schriek@ncl.ac.uk (T. van der Schriek).
These studies distinguish four terrace levels which are
supposed to be underlain by identical, climate-induced,
lithostratigraphic successions. Terrace formation is linked
to sea-level-induced uvial incision during glacial maxima,
followed by continuous aggradation between incision
phases. This model correlates the terrace sequence directly
to the four-stage glacialinterglacial model of Penck and
Bruckner (1909), through the supposed link between
incision and glacio-eustatic sea-level uctuations. Evidence
from the oceans has since revealed the far greater
complexity of Quaternary climate variation (e.g. Shackleton
et al., 1990), but there has been no exploration of the
consequences of these climate changes on terrace formation
and deposition in the Lower Tagus Basin. It remains
generally accepted that uvial incision and sedimentation
events in the Lower Tagus valley are inuenced by

0277-3791/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.07.020
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2938 T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
Quaternary sea-level changes, although recent studies have
stressed the role of tectonics in terrace formation and
questioned the presumed continuity of deposition between
uvial incision episodes (e.g. Daveau, 1993; Martins, 1996;
Barbosa and Barra, 2000; Cunha et al., 2005). The
youngest part of the uvial archive in the Lower Tagus
Basin has also rarely been studied. There are no
Fig. 1. Main rivers in the Iberian peninsula and location of the Lower
Tagus area (M: Madrid, R: Rodao, L: Lisbon).
Fig. 2. Schematic tectonic setting of the Lower Tagus valley, including
uplift since 3 Ma (based on Barbosa and Reis, 1989; Cabral and Ribeiro,
1989; Barbosa, 1995; Cabral, 1995; Rasmussen et al., 1998).
stratigraphic frameworks for the valley ll deposits under-
lying the present oodplain, and the development of the
oodplain over the latest Pleistocene and Holocene periods
remains unknown. The present oodplain is assumed to be
underlain by mixed estuarineuvial deposits that ag-
graded under inuence of sea-level, climate and anthro-
pogenic controls following sea-level-induced incision of the
valley oor during the last glacial maximum (e.g. Dias
et al., 2000).
We present the rst detailed chronostratigraphic frame-
work for a Holocene negrained valley ll record in the
Lower Tagus Basin (Figs. 1 and 2). The investigated
sedimentary record underlies the lower Muge valley oor,
60 km N of Lisbon at the conuence of the Muge and
Lower Tagus Rivers (Fig. 2). The primary aim of this study
is to determine the main controls on uvialestuarine
oodplain development during the Holocene period in the
Lower Tagus valley. Holocene valley oor evolution is
placed in the wider context of long-term uvial develop-
ment, in order to examine some of the basic assumptions
concerning Quaternary uvial system evolution of the
Lower Tagus River, in particular the link between sea-level
change and uvial incisiondeposition.
1.1. Pleistocene terrace formation
Alluvial river systems respond primarily to changes in
sediment and water supply, which are controlled by a
number of key factors. Major extrinsic controls on river
behaviour in a given geological setting are tectonics, land-
use and climate change. In lowland settings, sea level may
also inuence river behaviour. Additionally, river systems
can respond dynamically to change within the system itself
(intrinsic controls), for example to sediment supply increases
resulting from river capture (e.g. Mather et al., 2002; Stokes
et al., 2002). A change in uvial behaviour follows when the
internal thresholds of the system are crossed (Schumm,
1979). The formation of terrace sequences requires uplift
and cyclic climate uctuation, which provides the trigger for
uvial aggradation and incision events that lead to terrace
formation (Bridgland and Allen, 1996; Maddy, 1997, 2002).
Model simulations of terrace formation have implied a clear
relationship between uplift rate and terrace preservation: in
settings with slow uplift rates terraces are formed but
subsequently largely eroded, while rapid uplift prevents the
formation of terraces (Veldkamp and Van Dijke, 2000). The
forcing of river terrace formation by sea-level change is
considered to be of minor importance; inuential only close
to the coasts and most effective where the continental shelf is
narrow (e.g. Bridgland et al., 2004). Estuarine sediments
may be locally preserved within coastal terrace deposits
(Bridgland, 1994). However, highstand coastal prisms are
particularly sensitive to erosion by sea-level falls and have a
low preservation potential (Tornqvist et al., 2000). Near
river mouths terraces may be buried by Holocene alluvium,
related to forced aggradation under the inuence of sea-level
rise (e.g. Berendsen and Stouthamer, 2000). Modelling in
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T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
southern Britain suggests that incision has often taken place
at the warming limb of the climatic cycle (e.g. Bridgland,
2000), when eustatic sea level would have been rising.
Fluvial archives around the Mediterranean Basin sensi-
tively record land-use, climate and tectonic changes
(e.g. Macklin et al., 1995), while most uvial systems have
not been affected directly by Quaternary glaciations
(e.g. Woodward et al., 2004). Terrace sequences have been
documented throughout the Mediterranean region, while
uvial research has mostly focused on upland and
piedmont environments (e.g. Harvey et al., 1995; Macklin
and Passmore, 1995; Pena-Monne et al., 1996; Mather,
1999; Bridgland et al., 2003; Schoorl and Veldkamp, 2003;
Maddy et al., 2005). There has been a recent increase in the
available dates for long-term uvial sequences in the
Mediterranean (e.g. Fuller et al., 1998; Rose and Meng,
1999; Kelly et al., 2000). The trigger for terrace formation
in the Mediterranean is again presumed to be cyclic
climatic variability, superimposed on regional uplift, but
variations in humidity are considered to be of greater
importance than temperature (e.g. Macklin et al., 1995).
Major phases of uvial aggradation in the last 200 ka are
thought to have taken place at the transition to cooler
(stadial or glacial) episodes, while incision is considered to
have occurred at the transition to interglacial or inter-
stadial periods (Macklin and Passmore, 1995; Fuller et al.,
1998). Macklin et al. (2002) suggest synchrony, related to
climate change, in major river aggradation events across
the Mediterranean over the last 200 ka and place these
events during cooler episodes. Maddy et al. (2005) argue
that cyclic climate change was also the main trigger for
terrace formation during the Early Pleistocene in western
Turkey.
Large areas in the Mediterranean region experience
intensive tectonic activity (e.g. Lewin, 1995). Terrace
formation and uvial system behaviour in these areas
may be complex due to repeated tectonic base-level
changes. Local fault activity and uplift may cause
signicant reorganisation of drainage networks through
river capture, resulting in sediment routing changes,
incision upstream of the point of capture and a loss of
stream power for the beheaded river (e.g. Harvey et al.,
1995; Mather et al., 2002; Stokes et al., 2002). Fluvial
aggradation and incision episodes may also be triggered by
fault activity (e.g. Mather et al., 1995; Schumm et al.,
2000). Such tectonically induced base-level changes may be
superimposed on, and occasionally override, the uplift-
climate signal recorded in terrace sequences. The timing of
uvial aggradation and incision events resulting from
tectonic changes, and therefore terrace formation, is
temporarily independent from climate change.
1.2. Holocene fluvial activity in the Mediterranean
During the Holocene period, human activity became an
important agent of geomorphic change. Anthropogenic
land-use changes increase, in particular, ood frequency,
2939
peak ood magnitude and uvial sediment input (Knox,
1972). Holocene uvial research in the Mediterranean has
been strongly inuenced by geoarchaeological investiga-
tions and has often concentrated on distinguishing between
human and climatic controls on uvial aggradation and
incision (Bintliff, 2002). Vita-Finzi (1969) suggested syn-
chrony in major uvial incision and aggradation events
throughout the Mediterranean during the late Quaternary
period and linked these episodes mainly to climate change.
However, subsequent studies in the Mediterranean Basin
showed the diachronic nature of uvial incision and
aggradation episodes throughout the region (e.g. Pope
and van Andel, 1984; Van Andel et al., 1986). Fluvial
activity during the early Holocene period often involved
limited reworking and incision of Late Pleistocene valley
oors (e.g. Woodward et al., 1995; Macklin et al., 1997).
The mid-late Holocene period reveals a marked increase in
alluviation and incisiondeposition cycles, while sediments
often indicate rapid deposition (e.g. Van Andel and
Zangger, 1990). The start of this documented increase in
uvial activity varies over the Mediterranean Basin and is
thought to reect the timing of the introduction and
subsequent intensication of agriculture in specic regions
(e.g. Butzer et al., 1985). There exists currently the idea of
long phases of uvial stability, with incision/deposition
episodes triggered by extreme events on a landscape made
sensitive to erosion by agriculture (Bintliff, 2002). How-
ever, intrinsic and extrinsic factors on uvial development
in the Mediterranean, other than climate and human
activity, have received relatively little attention in studies
focussing on the Holocene.
There has been rapid aggradation of lowland ood-
plains, inll of estuaries and delta growth in historic times
throughout the Mediterranean, which has been related to a
major increase in erosion rates caused by human activity
(e.g. Macklin et al., 1995). However, it has been argued
that natural factors such as the still-stand in eustatic sea-
level rise also play a major part in the late Holocene
aggradation of lowland Mediterranean river systems
(e.g. Bintliff, 2002). Late Quaternary estuarine records in
SW Iberia have been studied in some detail, but these
studies pay limited attention to uvial development and
often use sequence stratigraphy to investigate estuarine
evolution (e.g. Zazo et al., 1996; Pendon et al., 1998;
Somoza et al., 1998; Dabrio et al., 1999, 2000; Lobo et al.,
2001; Boski et al., 2002; Hernandez-Molina et al., 2002;
Freitas et al., 2003). Sequence stratigraphy divides sedi-
ments into large-scale depositional sequences, which are
related to Quaternary sea-level changes (Posamentier and
Vail, 1988). However, the basic assumption of sea-level-
induced incision of uvial systems during glacial sea-level
lowstands has been questioned (e.g. Wallinga, 2001). These
models also fail to explain estuarinealluvial valley ll
stratigraphy and, in particular, the extensive presence of
organic sediments in these sequences, due to their disregard
of uvial processes and sediment input (Long et al., 2000;
Long, 2001, 2003).
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2940 T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957

2. Environmental and geological background to the Lower
Tagus area
The 1100 km long River Tagus (Fig. 1) originates in
central Spain at an altitude of 1839 m and drains a
catchment of 81,947 km2 (Benito et al., 1998). The river
is characterised by extreme seasonal and annual ow
variability: monthly averages range from 30 to 2050 m3/s
and inter-annual discharges range from 96 to 680 m3/s
(Benito et al., 2003). The Muge River (Fig. 2), an east-bank
tributary of the Lower Tagus River 60 km N of Lisbon,
has a length of 55 km and drains a catchment of
616 km2. The conuence of the Muge River with the
Lower Tagus River is about 28 km upstream of the present
tidal limit. The shallow Tagus inner estuary (mean depth
5 m) has a surface area of 320 km2 and semi-diurnal
tides, with tidal range varying from 1 to 4 m between neap
and spring tides (Brotas and Plante-Cuny, 1998; Cabrita et
al., 1999). A fault-controlled, bedrock-conned outlet near
Lisbon (30 m deep, 2 km wide and 12 km long) connects the
inner estuary with the outer estuary and the Atlantic Ocean
(Fortunato et al., 1997). Regional sea level was 120 to
140 m below its present level during the last glacial
maximum (Dias et al., 2000), suggesting that the con-
temporary coastline was located 40 km downstream
of the present river mouth based on bathymetric data
(Cotte-Krief et al., 2000).
2.1. Tectonic setting
the switch from stacked deposition to uvial incision and
terrace formation in the Late Pliocene, although the precise
mechanisms of uplift are not well understood. Cabral and
Ribeiro (1989) and Cabral (1995) have suggested that there
has been up to 200 m of uplift in parts of the Lower Tagus
Basin since the Late Pliocene, while the area below the
present inner Tagus estuary experienced no uplift or
subsidence (Fig. 2). However, the relative contribution of
regional uplift and active faulting to the total vertical
crustal motion in the region is unknown over the
Quaternary period. The terrace sequence and its prefer-
ential preservation along the east bank of the Lower Tagus
River suggest that Late Cenozoic uplift is associated with
tilting, leading to preferential west-bank erosion. The EW
drainage pattern in the Lower Tagus Basin supports this
suggestion. Furthermore, offsets of stratigraphic marker
horizons in Pliocene sediments indicate tectonic activity
along the antithetic fault system to the east of the valley of
up to 20 m along individual faults (Barbosa, 1995).
2.2. Pre-Quaternary geology of the Lower Tagus Basin
The inll sequence of the Lower Tagus Basin consists of
marginal siliciclastic sediments from alluvial fans and
rivers, followed by marls, clays, evaporates and limestone
towards the central domain (Barbosa, 1995; Rasmussen
et al., 1998; Pimentel, 2002). According to survey data,
Tertiary sediments reach their maximum thickness of

The Tagus River takes a westerly course from its source

area up to Entroncamento and ows mainly over Paleozoic
basement in this reach, except for the Madrid Tertiary
Basin. As the river leaves the bedrock-conned reach near
Entroncamento and enters the Tertiary Lower Tagus
Basin, its course changes abruptly to a NNESSW
direction (Figs. 1 and 2). This trend is controlled by the
Lower Tagus fault belt, forming a graben structure, and
the river ows for 100 km along the at central valley
oor before entering the Atlantic Ocean near Lisbon. The
Lower Tagus graben is delineated by a set of major faults
to the west of the valley oor, while a series of minor faults
to the east of the valley represent an antithetic fault system
(Fig. 2) (Barbosa, 1995; Cabral, 1995). The course of the
lower reach of the Muge River is probably determined by
one of these minor faults (Barbosa, 1995). The Lower
Tagus fault belt probably developed since the Late
Miocene in the Tertiary Lower Tagus Basin, which covers
an area of 12,000 km2 in central Portugal (Fig. 1)
(Barbosa and Reis, 1989; Barbosa, 1995). The tectonic
Lower Tagus Basin was created around 54 Ma (de
Galdeano, 1996; Rasmussen et al., 1998; Pimentel, 2002).
Basin subsidence gradually came to a halt during the Late
Miocene and the eastern part of the basin experienced
progressive uplift, while deposition outside the present Fig. 3. Simplied geological map of the Lower Tagus valley (based upon
graben structure ended during the Pliocene (Ribeiro, 1994; Barbosa and Reis, 1989; Barbosa, 1995). Black box indicates location of
Barbosa, 1995; Ribeiro et al., 1996). Regional uplift caused the study area.
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T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957 2941

2000 m in the Coruche area (Fig. 3) and decrease
progressively in thickness towards the margins of the
basin, except for the abrupt fault-determined western
margin with Mesozoic limestones (Rasmussen et al.,
1998). The last stages of basin ll took place during the
Pliocene when uvial gravels were deposited, with imbrica-
tion data indicating a south-easterly ow direction
(Barbosa and Reis, 1989; Barbosa, 1995). There followed
a rearrangement of the regional drainage pattern under the
inuence of regional uplift and the development of the
Lower Tagus graben. Relatively high uplift rates in the
eastern part of the basin and low uplift rates/subsidence in
the graben structure along the western basin margin forced
the Lower Tagus River to occupy approximately its present
course during the Late Pliocene or Early Quaternary
(Barbosa, 1995). Cunha et al. (2005) suggest that the Late
Tertiary changes in the Lower Tagus Basin coincided with
the progressive acquisition of a much larger catchment for
the Tagus River as a result of capture of the Tertiary basin
of Madrid (Fig. 1).
2.2.1. Late Tertiary deposits
The exposed, upper part of the Tertiary Lower Tagus
Basin ll is dominated by a thick (440 m) sequence of
grey/yellow lacustrine silts and clays of the Argilas de
Tomar Formation of Upper Miocene age (Barbosa, 1995).
These sediments are capped by an 40 m thick sequence of
red uvial sandstones (Arenitos de Ulme Formation) and
conglomerates (Conglomerados de Serra de Almeirim
Formation) of Pliocene age (Barbosa and Reis, 1989;
Barbosa, 1995). Gravels within these formations are well-
rounded and imbrication data suggest a SE palaeo-ow
direction (Barbosa, 1995). The Argilas de Tomar Forma-
tion is interpreted as the lacustrine inll in the central part
of the Lower Tagus Basin, whereas the Arenitos de Ulme
and Conglomerados de Serra de Almeirim Formations
represent the nal uvial inll phase by a palaeo-Tagus
River system. Subsequent regional uplift and differential
fault movement has resulted in basin inversion and the
progressive dissection of these sequences.
To the east of the eld area, the sandstones and
conglomerates of the Arenitos de Ulme and Conglomerados
de Serra de Almeirim Formations form extensive high-level
dissected landscapes (Figs. 3 and 4). West of the
Tagus valley oor, the silts and clays of the Argilas de
Tomar Formation are exposed to form widespread low-
level dissected landscapes. Along the east bank of the
Tagus River, a series of terrace levels with associated
uvial deposits is inset in the ne-grained sediments of
the Argilas de Tomar Formation and, perhaps, in the
coarse-grained sediments of the Arenitos deUlme and
Conglomerados de Serra de Almeirim Formations. These
terrace levels were formed by a SW-owing palaeo-Tagus
River system.

Fig. 4. Geomorphology of the Muge area and location of exposures, cores, and transects. Labelled cores are discussed in the text. Altitude is given in
meters above Maregrafo de Cascais (MdC, Portuguese datum level). See Tables 1 and 2 for summary of observed exposures and relation between
geomorphic units and geological map units (Scale 1: 50,000, sheet 31-C, Coruche).
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2942 T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
2.3. Pleistocene deposits and landforms
Portugal occupies a sensitive location with respect to
major Quaternary changes, on the border of the Atlantic
and Mediterranean (e.g. Fuller et al., 1998). However,
uvial investigations into the Portuguese sequence are rare,
despite the existence of an extensive Quaternary uvial
archive, in particular associated with the Tagus River.
Work in the upstream reaches of the Tagus River, where
tectonic basins contain complex landformsediment se-
quences, has generally been carried out in isolation from
the downstream record (e.g. Cunha et al., 2005). Tracing
uvial deposits and landforms through the constriction of
several bedrock narrows between the basins of the Tagus
River is exceedingly difcult due to the presence of
nickpoints and limited terrace preservation in these
settings, while there are no stratigraphic markers identied
in the various terrace deposits.
Palaeo-Tagus sediments form a well-preserved, up to
12 km wide, terrace staircase along the east bank of the
Lower Tagus oodplain. The only classication scheme for
the terrace levels, their associated deposits and the valley
ll of the Lower Tagus River is based on a morphostrati-
graphic framework (Zbyszewski, 1946). Shortcomings of
this system are widely recognised in the Portuguese
literature (e.g. Daveau, 1993), but there have been no
studies to provide an alternative system. Chronological
attributes proposed on the basis of the terrace geomor-
phological record have not been tested independently as
there is, to date, no published lithostratigraphy, biostrati-
graphy or geochronology for deposits underlying the
terrace sequence in the Tagus valley. The few sedimento-
logical, oral, faunal and dating studies of the terrace
deposits have only been performed on an incidental basis,
usually due to palaeontological or archaeological chance
nds in the sequence (e.g. Mozzi et al., 2000; Cunha et al.,
2005 and literature cited within). An additional problem of
many local studies is their lack of hard data, for example
on methods and in detailing results (e.g. Zbyszewski and
Veiga Ferreira, 1968). Published studies provide a few
(multiple) single absolute dates and isolated oral, faunal
and archaeological observations throughout the sequence,
which are of little use for large-scale correlation or a
systematic subdivision of Pleistocene time.
2.3.1. Classification of terraces
The present classication used in the study of Quatern-
ary sediments and landforms in the Lower Tagus Basin is
founded on the work of Breuil and Zbyszewski (1942) and
Zbyszewski (1946). These studies involved the denition of
morphostratigraphic units based on geomorphologic map-
ping of the series of terrace surfaces near Alpiarc- a, where
the type area of the Lower Tagus terrace sequence is
located (Fig. 3). Terrace surfaces were classied Q1Q4
from high to low and dened according to their altitude
above the Portuguese datum level (Maregrafo de Cascais,
hereafter called MdC), while no independently dened
lithostratigraphic classication scheme was developed for
deposits associated with these surfaces. The morphostrati-
graphic classication scheme was applied by the Portu-
guese Geological Survey to Quaternary uvial deposits
throughout Portugal. Classication into High (Q1, Q2),
Middle (Q3) and Low (Q4) terraces was rigidly applied
throughout the Lower Tagus valley and dominated over
local topographic evidence, often grouping several terrace
levels together (Daveau, 1993). Two additional terrace
levels, dened on altitudinal criteria, have been added since
to those in the original scheme. Currently, the following
terrace levels are recognised (in meters above MdC): Q1
(9080 m), Q2a (7060 m), Q2b (5045 m), Q3 (4030 m),
Q4a (2015 m) and Q4b (105 m) (Barbosa and Barra,
2000).
Recent studies of the Tagus terrace sequence near Rodao
and Entroncamento (Figs. 1 and 2) have mapped
individual terrace levels and classied these in what
appears to be a relative scheme, numbered T1T5 from
high to low (Martins, 2001; Cunha et al., 2005). However,
this relative classication system remains in essence based
on the established scheme and correlates directly with it. At
present, these various systems of classication have led to a
confusion of terms for terrace levels, based on absolute
heights, relative elevation and numerical schemes.
2.3.2. Chronology and stratigraphy of the terrace deposits
There is no lithostratigraphic classication scheme for
the terrace deposits of the Tagus River. Although some
studies have suggested the presence of strath terraces in the
Tertiary Lower Tagus Basin (e.g. Martins, 1996), it has
been demonstrated that the lower (Q3, Q4) terrace levels
are underlain by substantial uvial deposits (e.g. Mozzi
et al., 2000). Even the high (Q1, Q2) terrace levels are, at
least locally, underlain by several meters of uvial deposits
(Martins, 2001; Cunha et al., 2005). Of the Lower Tagus
terrace deposits, only the sediments underlying a 40 m
(Q3) terrace level near Alpiarc- a have been described and
published in some detail by Mozzi et al. (2000) and
Zbyszewski (1946). Terrace sediments at the Alpiarc- a
location are divided into a 1520 m thick Lower Gravels
Unit consisting of tabular gravel bodies with a sandy
matrix, and a 20 m thick Upper Sand Unit comprising
tabular sandy channel deposits and overbank nes towards
its top. The erosive lower boundary of the Lower Gravels
Unit directly overlies the clays and marls of the Argilas de
Tomar Formation; the upper bounding surface of this unit
is also considered to be erosive. Palaeolithic artefacts
collected in the Lower Gravels Unit have been attributed to
the Clactonian-Abbevillian (Zbyszewski, 1946). Artefacts
found throughout the basal 15 m of the Upper Sand Unit
have been attributed to the Middle to Late Acheulian
(Mozzi et al., 2000). Sandysilty layers from site VF8 in the
Upper Sand Unit (23.5 m MdC; 4.5 m above the upper
bounding surface of the Lower Gravels Unit) were sampled
for dating by OSL techniques. The samples yielded some
provisional dates, reported as (no laboratory numbers
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T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
given): 127 ka +N/ 26 ka (sample VF01), 119 ka +N/
32 ka (sample VF02), 117 ka +N/ 26 ka (sample VF05)
and 4127 ka (sample VF06) (Mozzi et al., 2000).
The only other absolute age estimates for the deposits
underlying the Lower Tagus terrace sequence are reported
by Cunha et al. (2005). They state that sediments under-
lying the Q3/T3 terrace level have been dated by TL at
Porto Alto (location unknown), where sample LTA1
(grey clay in upper ne sand and clay, 0.7 m above lower
gravels) yielded a date of 4136 ka, and at Muge (Fig. 4),
where samples LTA3 (coarse sand with silt) and LTA4
(8 cm thick layer of grey-brown coarse sand with silt in
red-brown coarse sand; 4.5 m above sample LTA3)
yielded respective dates of 4143 and 4115 ka. However,
they provide no further details.
2.3.3. Correlation of terrace surfaces and deposits
The present morphostratigraphic framework is unsuita-
ble for the correlation of Quaternary terrace surfaces and
their associated deposits in the Lower Tagus Basin. Major
problems for correlating surfaces are (i) the inconsistency
in the altitudinal denition and the actual mapped altitude
of terrace levels, (ii) the mapping of different heights for
the same terrace level within and between maps, and
(iii) structural contradictions. These problems are caused
by ridged application of the original four-level terrace
classication system (Zbyszewski, 1946) on geological
maps throughout the lower Tagus Basin. Correlation of
terrace surfaces is furthermore complicated by tectonic
block activity in the Tagus valley (Barbosa, 1995) and by
the fact that not all terrace and oodplain surfaces appear
to be sub-parallel: low terrace surfaces converge and
disappear below the Lower Tagus oodplain upstream of
Santarem (Cunha et al., 2005). There are no independent
litho-, bio- or chronostratigraphic frameworks to correlate
terrace deposits. Therefore, it is not possible to construct
reliable longitudinal proles of terrace surfaces in the
Lower Tagus valley based on the present geomorphic
framework, as the resulting longitudinal terrace proles are
highly irregular and meaningless (Daveau, 1993; Martins,
1996).
2.4. Holocene record
Sediments underlying the present oodplain of the
Lower Tagus River and its tributaries are classied as
alluvium on geological maps. Valley ll sediments are
considered to span the entire period from the last glacial
maximum to the present, based on the Quaternary uvial
evolution model of Zbyszewski (1946). There is at present
no chronology or stratigraphic framework available for
these valley ll deposits, and only a few published
sedimentary records in the Lower Tagus area are con-
strained by radiocarbon age estimates which date from the
mid-late Holocene (e.g. van Leeuwaarden and Janssen,
1985; Freitas et al., 1999). The Lower Tagus oodplain
3 km downstream of the Muge tributary conuence is
2943
underlain by a 40 m thick ne-grained sedimentary
succession, attributed to the Holocene period, which is
underlain by at least 20 m of coarse sand and gravel deposits
of presumed Pleistocene age (Zbyszewski and Veiga
Ferreira, 1968). However, there are no absolute dates for
this record. Estuarine conditions in the Lower Tagus valley
during the early-mid Holocene are thought to have extended
upstream to Santarem, although evidence supporting this
interpretation is not provided (e.g. Bicho, 1994; Dias et al.,
2000). Holocene uvial system development in the Lower
Tagus Basin is unknown, except for a recent historiccarto-
graphic study of the behaviour of the Lower Tagus River
over the last 400 yr near Entroncamento. Over this period,
the river changed from a braided system to a low sinuous
system under the inuence of intensive human embanking
and canalisation of the river (Azevedo, 2001).
3. Methods
Geomorphological mapping of the lower Muge area was
achieved using aerial photographs, geological and topogra-
phical maps and eld survey. Sediments inlling the lower
Muge valley oor were studied and sampled in over 90 bank
exposures, machine-excavated trenches and sediment cores
(Fig. 4). Selected samples were analysed for molluscs, pollen,
foraminifera, loss-on-ignition and grain size using standard
techniques. Dating control is provided by 14 14C dates on in-
situ organic materials from representative sediment se-
quences. Throughout this paper, analysed dates are
expressed as calibrated calendar ages (cal BP) with age
spans in the 2s range. Three dates have been rejected on
the basis of stratigraphic inconsistencies (see Appendix A,
Table S1). For a detailed methodological and chronological
discussion, see van der Schriek et al. (in press).
The ne-grained lower Muge valley ll has been
described using lithofacies and biofacies codes (see
Appendix A, Tables S2, S3 and S4), the latter based on
foraminifera and mollusc assemblages. Few sedimentary
structures have been identied due to the reliance on core
data for the analysis of the valley ll sediments. Sequence
stratigraphy and lithofacies assemblages were found
unsuitable to subdivide the homogenous valley ll into
separate units. This paper presents an allostratigraphic
model (cf. NACSN, 1983) which creates a meaningful
subdivision of the sedimentary record (see Appendix A,
Fig. S1). This descriptive framework integrates litho- and
biostratigraphical data to dene units which are represen-
tative for the different processes that created them, thereby
facilitating the reconstruction of depositional environments
and processes.
4. Geomorphological setting of the Muge area
Existing geological maps of the study area lack detail
and are inconsistent in depicting the uvial terrace
deposits. Therefore a schematic geomorphological map
has been produced, showing the landforms in the
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2944 T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957

immediate vicinity of the lower Muge valley (Fig. 4). The level reveal that the terrace is locally underlain by a thick
extensive dissected landscapes in the eastern part of the (410 m), stacked series of cross-bedded sand sheets, locally
eld area have formed within the sandstones and con- comprising meter-thick tabular gravel bodies and (organic-
glomerates of the Arenitos de Ulme and Conglomerados de rich) ne-grained sediment successions (Table 2). Probably
Serra de Almeirim Formations, and in the underlying ne- the sediments underlying this terrace level have been dated
grained deposits of the Argilas de Tomar Formation near Muge by Cunha et al. (2005) (Fig. 4; Section 2.3.2).
(Dissected Upland unit, Fig. 4; Section 2.2.1). At least Morpho- and lithostratigraphic correlation of the T4
seven major uvial terrace levels are present in the study terrace level deposits with the Alpiarc- a sequence, described
area (Table 1). Large terrace fragments of levels T1T5 are by Mozzi et al. (2000), suggests that these sediments may
aligned parallel to the Tagus River, while local fragments be equivalent to the Upper Sand Unit (Section 2.3.2;
of T3b, T4 and T5 are also found inset along the tributary Zbyszewski and Veiga Ferreira, 1968). Exposures in local
Muge valley oor. This implies that the tributary occupied
approximately its present location prior to the formation of
Table 2
the T3b level. The lowest terrace level (T6) is solely found Sedimentological observations
along the lower Muge tributary. This level has approxi-
mately the same altitude as the present Tagus oodplain Site Description Unit Lithofacies Elements
and may be buried, eroded or not deposited in the Lower MQ1 Terrace slope T3 Fsc, Sr, St, Gt, Gp FF, GB, CH
Tagus valley oor. Inactive coalescent fan systems are MQ2 Quarry T3 Gm, Gp, Gt, Sp, St GB, CH
present along the eastern reach of the lower Muge valley MQ3 Quarry T4 Sr, Fl, Fsc FF
oor (Fig. 4), and grade to a local T5 terrace level. Their MQ4 Quarry T4 St, Sp, Fl DA, SB, FF
fan toes are currently incised and support steep (up to 6 m MQ5 Terrace slope T4 Gt, Gp, Gm, St, Sr CH
MQ6 Quarry T4 Sp, St, Sr DA, SB
high) bluffs that border the Muge oodplain. The fan MQ7 Gully channel T4 Fl, Sr FF
surface is dissected by gullies that sustain active fans at the MQ8 Quarry T4 Sp, St, Sr, Fl, Fsc SB, FF
valley margin. MQ9 Quarry T4 St, Sp DA, LA
Some provisional observations on the lithology of the MQ10 Quarry T4 St, Sr, Fl, Fsc SB, FF
deposits underlying the local terrace sequence are sum- MQ11 Quarry T4 Fl, Fsc, St, Sr FF, SB
MQ12 Quarry T4 S
marised in Table 2. The highest two terrace levels (T1 and MQ13 Quarry T5 Fl, Sp, Fsc, St LA, FF
T2) in the area lack exposures and are inset below the MQ14 Terrace slope T5 Sb
Pliocene Conglomerados de Serra de Almeirim Formation MQ15 Quarry T5 Sb
(Section 2.2.1). Zbyszewski and Veiga Ferreira (1968) MQ16 Terrace slope T5 Sp, Fl
describe a sequence of gravel, sand, clayey silt and clay MQ17 Quarry T5 Sr, Fl, Fsc, Sp FF, SB
MQ18 Quarry T5 Gp, Sp
below these levels. Terrace T3 is locally underlain by a MQ19 Quarry T6 Sb
stacked series of tabular gravel and sand sheets (Table 2). MQ20 Quarry T6 Sb
The basal part of this sequence, consisting of reddish
coarse sands and gravels, reveals an erosive lower contact Summary of sediment observations in the Lower Muge area (see Fig. 4 for
locations). Units are dened in Table 1. Lithofacies and architectural
into massive yellow/grey ne-sandy silt (exposure MQ1,
elements are based on Miall (1978, 1996). Abbreviations for architectural
Table 2). The latter sediments have been assigned to the elementsCH, channel; GB, gravel bars and bedforms; SB, sandy
Miocene Argilas de Tomar Formation (Zbyszewski and bedforms; DA, downstream-accretion macroform; LA, lateral-accretion
Veiga Ferreira, 1968). Sediment exposures below the T4 macroform; FF, pverbank nes.

Table 1
Ages and altitudes of geomorphological units

Unit H Age estimate and source Symbol

DU: Dissected Upland 101 PlioceneMiocene (Barbosa, 1995) MP, P3

T1: Terrace level 8895 Late PlioceneEarly Pleistocene (inferred) Q1
T2: Terrace level 6468 Pleistocene (inferred) Q2
T3a: Terrace level 4755 Pleistocene (inferred) Q3
T3b: Terrace level 3742 Pleistocene (inferred) Q3
T4: Terrace level 2030 15970 ka (Mozzi et al., 2000; Cunha et al., 2005) As, Q3
T5: Terrace level 1215 Late Pleistocene (inferred) Q4
T6: Terrace level 79 Late Pleistocene (inferred) Q4
CAF: Coalescent alluvial fan 730 Late Pleistocene (inferred) Q4
AF: Alluvial Fan 210 Holocene Q4/A
VF: Valley Floor 27 Holocene A

Unit denotes the name of the geomorphological unit, as dened in the present study. H is the altitude (in m relative to MdC) of the upper surface of the
unit. Symbol denotes the notation used on the local geological map (sheet 31-C, Coruche; Zbyszewski and Veiga Ferreira, 1968) to identify the deposits
that are now grouped as the unit.
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T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
T5 terrace fragments along the Muge River reveal
sedimentary sequences that are dominated either by
bedded sandy silt and clay, or by cross-bedded sand bodies
(Table 2). Finally, exposures in the local T6 terrace level
show bedded coarse sand and some gravel (Table 2).
5. Holocene inll of the lower Muge valley
The Tagus River near the Muge conuence is intensively
embanked and displays a low sinuosity meandering
channel with extensive sand bars. This section will
summarise information regarding the Holocene inll of
this valley; full details, including location information not
otherwise given, will be provided in the online supplement.
The 10 km long lower reach of the tributary Muge
valley oor has an irregular altitude (35 m MdC) below, or
at, the elevation of the present Tagus oodplain of
58 m MdC. The low-relief tributary valley oor is
canalised and cultivated, while most of the alluvial ood-
plain morphology has been destroyed by levelling of the
surface. The lower valley oor displays a low sinuous
pattern, varying in width from 500 to 1400 m, and narrows
abruptly to a width of 150 m about 10 km upstream from
its conuence with the Tagus River. Upstream of this
locality, oodplain elevation increases abruptly to above
9 m MdC and displays a gradient of 2.56 m/km towards the
Tagus River. Several active alluvial fan systems border the
lower Muge valley oor and an extensive low-gradient fan
system at the upstream limit of the lower reach has been
incised at its toe, with a 2 m high bluff separating it from
the oodplain (Fig. 4). The lower Muge valley oor is
locally underlain by at least 11 m of ne-grained Holocene
deposits. Ten allostratigraphic units have been recognised
in the lower Muge valley ll, each representing a distinct
depositional environment. Allostratigraphic units are
dened on the basis of laterally traceable bounding
surfaces, based on lithological and microfossil character-
istics, and may contain one or several textures. Boundaries
do not represent time lines. Unit codes consist of a number,
identifying the lithofacies assemblage, sometimes followed
by a second symbol (respectively a, b and c) that subdivides
the lithofacies on the basis of biofacies content or geometry
of the deposits. Denitions of all the units are provided in
the online supplement.
5.1. Unit 1: Basal coarse sand and gravel
This basal unit consists of bedded coarse sand and
gravel. The lower boundary of unit 1 has not been found;
only the upper part of this unit, to a maximum depth of
30 cm, has been cored. There is little organic material
present, while no (micro-)fossils have been found. The
coarse texture and the well-sorted character of unit 1
deposits are indicative of a relatively high depositional
energy; its lithology is similar to the low T5 and T6 uvial
terrace levels anking the lower valley oor (Table 2). The
texture and sorting of this unit suggests deposition near, or
2945
in, a channel system. The upper contact of this unit is
graded towards the conuence with the Tagus, and
contains three major buried nickpoints. The morphology
of the upper bounding surface suggests the presence of an
entrenched channel at the base of the ne-grained valley ll
in the central reach. These characteristics suggest this
coarse-grained basal contact to represent a uvial incision
prole.
5.2. Unit 1c: coarse sand and gravel bodies
Unit 1c is found throughout the Muge valley ll and the
well-sorted bedded coarse sand and gravel deposits point to
a relatively high depositional energy. The lower boundary
of unit 1 has not been found; the upper part of this unit has
been cored and machine excavated to a maximum depth of
0.5 m. No organic material or fossils have been found in
these deposits. Unit 1c is dened on the basis of its
geometry as narrow, tabular sand and gravel bodies in a
matrix of ne-grained sediment. The geometry and sort-
ing of unit 1c suggests that its sediments were deposited
in, or near, narrow channels in a negrained oodplain.
This interpretation is supported by sedimentary analyses
of bank exposures in the upstream reach of the lower
Muge valley, which reveal the presence of sand and
gravel bodies (interpreted as palaeochannel lls) separated
by erosive boundaries from the adjacent ne-grained
deposits.
5.3. Unit 2: laminated sandy silt to bedded silty sand
Unit 2 forms a discontinuous layer at the base of the
ne-grained valley ll in the central and upstream reaches,
and attains its maximum thickness of 2.5 m in the basal
channel structure of the central reach. The unit consists of
laminated sandy silts to bedded silty sands with frequent
organic material and wood fragments. Its conformable
lower boundary with the coarse sand and gravel of unit 1 is
gradual. This boundary has been dated to 64607170
and 69557205 cal BP, respectively, in cores 51 and 64.
The boundary in downstream core 51 is younger,
despite its greater absolute depth, while both basal
dates are younger than equivalent levels in core 20.
Coarse sand and gravel deposits at the base of core 51
stand 0.51 m above the basal contact in adjacent cores
and may represent channel lag deposits, while core 64 is
located in the entrenched basal channel of the central
reach. These dates are assumed to indicate the start of local
channel abandonment and inll. Lamination and centi-
meter-scale bedding of the sediments, in combination with
a textural range between silt and sand, indicate a
depositional environment with uctuating, medium- to
low-energy ow conditions. Sediments of unit 2 are
interpreted as a suite of channel marginal deposits
accumulated in a uvial context (van der Schriek et al.,
in press).
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2946 T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
5.4. Unit 2a: laminated to bedded silty sand with estuarine
shells
Unit 2a is found near the conuence with the Tagus
River and has a maximum thickness of 0.7 m. Its
lithology is identical to unit 2; however, sediments of unit
2a contain estuarine shells. The lower boundary with unit 1
is gradual and conformable. The upper part of unit 2a,
near the boundary with overlying unit 3a, has been dated
to 78607120 cal BP in core 11.
The lithology and sedimentology of the deposits indicate
a depositional environment with uctuating, medium- to
low-energy ow conditions. Combined with the estuarine
shell presence, these characteristics represent deposition in
a (lower) tidal at environment, probably located next to a
tidal river (van der Schriek et al., in press).
5.5. Unit 3: silty clay
Unit 3 forms the most extensive sedimentary assemblage
in the Muge valley ll. Two sub-units (3a and 3b) are
distinguished on the basis of estuarine shell and foramini-
fera presence, respectively. Units 3, 3a and 3b form a thick
ne-grained depositional wedge in the lower Muge valley
ll, pinching out near the Lamarosa tributary. The
maximum thickness of the combined units, near the
conuence with the Tagus River, is 8 m.
The plastic silty clay of unit 3 contains infrequent sandy
laminations and frequent organic material. The lower
boundaries with units 2 and 3b are gradual and conform-
able. The disappearance of tidal conditions in the lower
Muge valley (van der Schriek et al., in press) has been dated
in core 20 to 57457155 cal BP, in the upper part of unit 3.
The poorly laminated organic-rich silty clay deposits
indicate a low-energy depositional environment. The
absence of foraminifera as well as the available pollen
evidence shows that unit 3 was deposited under fresh-water
conditions, with standing water in the valley oor (van der
Schriek et al., in press). The unit is interpreted as
representing freshwater uvial overbank nes and back-
swamp deposits.
5.6. Unit 3a: silty clay with estuarine shells
Unit 3a is found in discontinuous beds, ranging in
thickness from 0.5 to 3 m, close to the base of the valley ll
near the Tagus conuence. The lithology of this unit is
similar to unit 3, the main difference being the presence of
estuarine shells in unit 3a. Its lower boundary with units 2a,
2 and 3b is gradual and conformable, whereas the contact
with unit 1 is abrupt and conformable. The lithology and
sedimentology of the deposits indicate a low-energy
depositional environment, while the estuarine shells reveal
saltwater presence and diurnal tidal ooding. Combined,
these characteristics indicate deposition in a (lower) tidal
at environment, probably located next to a tidal river (van
der Schriek et al., in press).
5.7. Unit 3b: silty clay with estuarine foraminifera
Unit 3b is found at the base of the valley ll near the
Tagus conuence and pinches out upstream of core 40. Its
lithology is similar to unit 3, from which it is differentiated
on the basis of foraminifera presence. The lower boundary
of unit 3b with unit 1 is abrupt and conformable, and has
been dated to 8100790 cal BP in core 20; the lower contact
with unit 3a is gradual and conformable, and has been
dated to 80707100 cal BP in core 11. Maximum tidal
inuence (van der Schriek et al., in press) has been dated in
core 20 to 7505775 cal BP, in the central part of unit 3b.
The lithology and sedimentology of unit 3b indicate a
low-energy depositional environment, while the estuarine
foraminifera reveal regular tidal ooding by saltwater.
These conditions are characteristic for an inner estuarine
saltmarsh environment.
5.8. Unit 4: peat
Unit 4 is mainly found in the central and upstream
reaches of the lower valley ll; in the downstream reach
there are isolated occurrences in sheltered settings. The
discontinuous unit consists of peat, silty peat and peaty silt
beds which reach a maximum thickness (1.5 m) in the
buried basal channel structure. The habitat preferences of
the main species (Scirpus cf. lacustris and Hypericum
tetrapterum) found within the peat bed (core 51) depict a
freshwater marshy habitat with a silty substrate. Organic
material was degraded prior to burial and there are
frequently large wood fragments present. The conformable
lower boundary with units 2 and 3 is gradual to abrupt.
The lower boundary with unit 2 has been dated to
6365785 cal BP in core 64, while a sample near the
upper boundary of this unit has been dated to 51507
170 cal BP.
Freshwater peat formation indicates a low-energy
depositional environment, a high contemporary ground-
water table and a low clastic sediment input due to a low
suspended sediment load and/or ooding frequency.
Alluvial peat formation is characteristic for alluvial back-
swamp settings and abandoned channels. The varying
inclusion of silt and silt beds in unit 4 is probably related to
distance from the contemporary channel, with pure peat
forming in distal parts of the oodplain. The partial
degradation of organic material suggests surface exposure
prior to waterlogging and burial.
5.9. Unit 5: black peaty clayey silt
Unit 5 forms a distinct black bed in the upper part of the
valley ll sequence which dips towards the conuence
with the Tagus River. The unit forms a near-continuous
layer in the downstream and central reaches, while
discontinuous beds are present in the upstream reach.
From the Tagus conuence upstream to the Lamarosa
tributary, maximum bed thickness increases from 20 to
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T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
70 cm. The unit is up to 60 cm thick in the central reach,
while its thickness in the upstream reach varies irregularly
from 10 to 80 cm.
The oxidised peaty clayey silt of this unit contains
lamination and centimeter-scale beds of grey inorganic silt
clay. There are occasional white lenses of freshwater
diatomite present (van der Schriek et al., in press). The
sediments have a blocky structure and contain calcite
concretions and abundant degraded organic material. The
conformable lower boundary is abrupt (units 2 and 3) to
gradual (unit 4). Dark vertical stripes extend downprole
into units 2 and 3, probably representing root penetration.
Samples near the upper boundary of this unit have
been dated to 21807180 cal BP in core 20, and to
1507150 cal BP in core 64.
Abundantly preserved organic matter implies a high
groundwater table and low clastic sediment input. Silt
layers may indicate ood episodes, while the strongly
degraded nature of the organic material suggests exposure
at the oodplain surface prior to burial. Local diatomite
lenses represent shallow, standing freshwater conditions,
while preservation of bedding and lamination implies
limited bioturbation, probably related to the high ground-
water table. These characteristics, combined with the
blocky structure, concretions and roots at the lower
boundary, are typical for an alluvial oodplain soil
(USDA, 1975).
5.10. Unit 6: upper clayey silt
Unit 6 caps the ne-grained lower Muge valley ll.
The unit reaches its maximum thickness of 7 m in the
Tagus oodplain, outside the embankments across the
Muge valley mouth, and thins rapidly upstream to
coring site 20. It forms a bed of varying thickness
(0.31.0 m) between site 20 and the Lamarosa tributary.
Further upstream, to the limit of the lower valley oor,
unit thickness remains constant between 1.0 and 1.3 m,
while the oodplain surface displays a downstream
gradient.
The unit consists of reddish mottled clayey silt to sandy
silt with occasional lamination and centimeter-scale sand
beds, and contains frequent degraded organic material.
Lamination and sandy bedding in this unit are especially
found in the levees of the Tagus River, near the valley
margins and near tributary (palaeo)channels. The lower
boundary with unit 5 is conformable and gradual. Where
the unit overlies units 2 and 3, it is not possible to dene a
lower boundary surface due to the homogenous nature of
the sediments.
The texture and sedimentology indicate a low-energy
depositional environment, while mottling indicates a
uctuating groundwater table. Sedimentation occurred in
a freshwater oodplain (van der Schriek et al., in press).
The sediments have been interpreted as a suite of uvial
overbank deposits, with localised lamination and bedding
representing a channel-proximal setting.
2947
6. Holocene valley oor development
Prior to 8100 cal BP, uvial systems in the lower Muge
tributary occupied an incised valley oor characterised by
entrenched channels and nickpoints. The oodplain surface
was formed in the sand and gravel deposits of unit 1,
suggesting that uvial systems experienced limited bank
stability and were, perhaps, characterised by laterally
mobile river beds. The well-preserved erosional morphol-
ogy of the basal contact argues against extensive coarse-
grained uvial aggradation up to the time of local burial by
ne-grained deposits.
Estuarine and lowland alluvial valley ll sequences in
south-western Iberia indicate a period of non-deposition
following uvial incision around the PleistoceneHolocene
transition period (e.g. Dabrio et al., 2000; Boski et al.,
2002; Freitas et al., 2003; Goy et al., 2003). Conditions in
south-western Iberia were more humid than at present,
between 12,000 cal BP and 5200 cal BP (Harrison and
Digerfeldt, 1993; van der Knaap and van Leeuwen, 1997;
Reed et al., 2001; Carrion, 2002). Flood clusters of the
Tagus River have been identied in central Spain,
dating to 10,50010,050 cal BP, 95009000 cal BP and
7000 cal BP (Benito et al., 1998, 2003). Iberian pollen
data show that the landscape supported, from the early
Holocene onwards, a sub-humid forest, dominated by
conifers or by broad-leaved deciduous trees (e.g. van der
Knaap and van Leeuwen, 1995; Allen et al., 1996; Carrion
and Van Geel, 1999; Franco Mugica et al., 2001; Roberts
et al., 2001; Carrion, 2002). Fluvial systems had probably
obtained equilibrium conditions under the prevailing
sediment input and discharge regime associated with early
Holocene climate and vegetation cover. Fluvial aggrada-
tion in coastal river valleys started again under the
inuence of relative sea-level (RSL) rise, the timing of
which depended on the inherited incision depth of the
valley oor.
6.1. Estuarine environments
Portuguese RSL studies suggest a rapid rate of RSL rise
until 8800 cal BP, followed by a progressively decrease in
the rate of RSL rise until 4500 cal BP when stable sea
levels are assumed (Dias et al., 2000). However, Spanish
RSL investigations propose a rapid rate of RSL rise up to
8300 cal BP, followed by stable sea levels around Atlantic
Iberia (Zazo et al., 1994, 1996). In any case, the rapid rate
of early Holocene RSL rise outstripped the rate of
sediment accumulation in estuaries across Atlantic Iberia,
leading to marine intrusion into coastal river valleys (e.g.
Rodr guez-Ram rez et al., 1996; Morales, 1997; Borrego
et al., 1999; Lobo et al., 2001).
Fine-grained sedimentation (units 2a, 3a and 3b) started
abruptly (8100 cal BP) in the deepest parts of the lower
Muge valley following saltwater intrusion. Deposition took
place in the upper part of the tidal framework. The
upstream limit of alluviation in the lower Muge valley was
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
2948 T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
controlled by the Tagus base level and the inherited valley
oor topography. The reach experiencing ne-grained
backll overlapped initially with the tidally inuenced
section of the lower valley oor, the upstream limit being
formed by the rst basal nickpoint. Stratigraphic cross-
correlation with core 20 suggests that the base level had
risen sufciently by 7800 cal BP to cause rapid backll up
to 7.5 km inland, inducing mixed estuarineuvial ne-
grained sedimentation over this reach. During the period of
maximum tidal inuence (78007500 cal BP), saltwater
environments penetrated the lower Muge oodplain 4 km
upstream from the Tagus conuence (van der Schriek et al.,
in press). From this time onwards, the upstream limit of
estuarine oodplain environments became controlled by
the balance between the rate of sea-level rise, creating
accommodation space, and the rate of sediment supply,
attempting to inll the accommodation space (van der
Schriek et al., in press). The presence of estuarine
depositional environments from 8100 to 5750 cal BP
and their continued occupation of approximately the same
position in the tidal framework suggest that the rate of
sediment accumulation kept pace with the rate of sea-level
rise. Core 20 shows a high estuarine sediment accumulation
rate of 7 mm/yr from 8100 to 7500 cal BP, while the
accumulation rate slows down to 1.5 mm/yr from 7500 to
Fig. 5. Sediment accumulation rates of cores 20 and 64 in the Lower
Muge valley oor (including basal dates of cores 11 and 51), based on
accepted radiocarbon dates. See Table 2 for details on dated radiocarbon
samples.
5750 cal BP, encompassing the estuarine to uvial transi-
tion at this locality (Fig. 5).
6.2. Fluvial transition
The range of uvial and estuarine environments that was
present 81005750 cal BP in the lower Muge valley is
characteristic for the uvial dominated reach of an inner
estuary (cf. Dalrymple et al., 1992). Unit 2 was deposited
from 7800 to 7500 cal BP onwards near the upstream
limit of the contemporary alluvial oodplain, where the
abrupt change in uvial gradient led to deposition of
coarser sediments. Fine-grained unit 3 was deposited in the
lowland freshwater oodplain further downstream, while
estuarine deposition (units 2a, 3a and 3b) continued near
the Tagus conuence. Local phases of channel abandon-
ment in the central reach, dated to 6500 cal BP (core 51)
and 7000 cal BP (core 64), may represent avulsion events
caused by the rapid rate of base-level rise (Stouthamer and
Berendsen, 2001).
From 7500 to 5750 cal BP, uvial environments ex-
panded progressively downvalley as the creation rate of
vertical accommodation space (under the inuence of
decreasing rates of sea-level rise) was no longer sufcient
to store the sediment input. Saline conditions in the lower
Muge valley oor were abruptly lost at 5750 cal BP.
Simultaneously, the sudden appearance of freshwater
indicators (Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Typha and Nym-
phaea) reveals the presence of still, shallow, open water in
the valley oor. This suggests that drainage conditions in
the oodplain deteriorated at the estuarine to uvial
transition (van der Schriek et al., in press). The sudden
loss of tidal conditions and contemporary drowning of the
valley oor is unlikely to be related to tributary oodplain
aggradation to above Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT)
levels. Such aggradation would raise oodplain levels
progressively further downstream and cause a gradual
uvial conversion of the valley oor, which would not
trigger deteriorating drainage conditions. Instead, the data
have been interpreted as evidence for aggradation of the
Tagus valley oor to above HAT levels in front of the
Muge valley mouth. Such alluviation of the Tagus ood-
plain would block tidal inuence in the tributary abruptly
and cause the sudden loss of estuarine environments.
Because this blocking would take place prior to aggrada-
tion of the lower tributary valley to above HAT, it would
cause deteriorating drainage conditions in the lower Muge
oodplain (Fig. 6).
6.3. Valley floor stabilisation
Depth cross-correlation between core 64 and the basal
incision prole indicates that the entire lower Muge valley,
up to 10 km inland, experienced base-level induced
sedimentation at 6370 cal BP. This suggests that the focus
of the clastic sediment input into the lower valley oor
shifted 3.5 km upstream around this time. Local peat
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T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
Fig. 6. Cartoon illustrating blocking of the mouth of the tidal Muge
tributary by the uvial oodplain of the Tagus River. (A) When the lower
Muge tributary is tidally inuenced, estuarine environments in the
adjacent Lower Tagus valley are at a similar or lower altitudinal level in
the tidal framework. (B) The local Tagus valley oor has aggraded to
above Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT) level and no longer experiences
tidal inuence. Tidal currents cannot penetrate the lower Muge valley
oor, although the tributary oodplain has not yet aggraded to above
HAT levels. The abrupt uvial conversion of the lower Muge oodplain
coincides therefore with deteriorating drainage conditions: there is no
positive oodplain gradient towards the Tagus valley.
development (unit 4), starting 6370 cal BP in the central
reach of the lower Muge oodplain, was initially
conned to oodplain depressions (e.g. palaeochannels),
before reaching its greatest extent prior to 5150 cal BP in
backswamp environments. Peat formation was probably
stimulated by low rates of base-level rise and a decrease
in clastic sediment input; the latter was most likely
inuenced by the upstream shifting focus of clastic input
and, perhaps, by decreasing ooding frequencies. The
downstream expansion of uvial environments in the
lower Muge valley decreased tidal inuence in the central
reach and therefore, probably, ooding related to tidal
blocking of the uvial discharge. Finally, low rates of
base-level rise enabled long-term preservation of peat
through burial. The accumulation rate for unit 4
(core 64) is 0.87 mm/yr (Fig. 5). However, this rate is
probably an underestimation since the deposits may
have been affected by post-depositional oxidation and
compression.
Peat formation in the central reach ended 5150 cal BP
and was followed by development of an organic-rich
alluvial soil. There is a virtual standstill of sediment
accumulation during soil formation in core 64 from 5150
to 150 cal BP, with an average deposition rate of 0.1 mm/yr.
Alluvial soil formation reects oodplain stabilisation and
suggests a stable groundwater table, and therefore a stable
local base level, as well as low ooding frequencies and/or a
2949
decreasing suspended sediment load. The latter is unlikely;
there is major local catchment disturbance at least since
5200 cal BP, implying, if anything, an increase in the
suspended sediment load (van der Schriek et al., in press).
Soils expanded downstream, following the progressive inll
of the accommodation space. A oodplain soil developed
at the locality of core 20 between 5200 and 3600 cal BP.
These different age estimates derive from linear extrapola-
tion of accumulation rates between 75005750 cal BP and
57502150 cal BP, respectively, to the base of the soil in
core 20 (Fig. 5). The average sediment accumulation rate in
core 20 is 0.26 mm/yr for the period between 5750 and
2155 cal BP (Fig. 5). However, the actual accumulation rate
for soil formation is probably lower as its exact boundaries
have not been reliably dated. The observed gradient of the
buried soil may partially reect compression, but also
mirrors the original oodplain gradient towards the
Tagus conuence. Maximum compression in clayey silt
has been estimated at 10% of the bed thickness near the
centre of uniform sedimentary successions (Paul and
Barras, 1998; Crooks and Pye, 2000); using this value,
there may be up to 0.5 m of compression near the soil level
in the deepest sequences (e.g. core 11), and less in upstream
sequences.
6.4. Renewed local sedimentation
The alluvial soil in the lower Muge oodplain, in the
reach 3.5 km upstream of the Tagus conuence, was
buried by 2150 cal BP by unit 6. Over this reach, the soil
is located up to 2 m below the present base level of the
Tagus River (Fig. 5). From 2150 cal BP, the average
accumulation rate of unit 6 was 0.43 mm/yr (core 20)
based on a sample near the upper soil boundary; the
sample position may cause an underestimation of the
actual deposition rate. There is no evidence for contem-
porary ne-grained deposition further upstream in the
Muge oodplain, where the soil is located above the
present Tagus base level. This suggests that sedimentation
in the conuence zone was induced by backll from the
Tagus River. RSLs in south-western Iberia were stable
during the late Holocene (Zazo et al., 1996; Dias et al.,
2000). Therefore, oodplain aggradation in the Tagus
valley is most likely related to internal mechanisms, such as
progressive uvial inll of the former estuary under the
inuence of stable sea levels, or to external factors such as
an upstream human- and/or climate-controlled increase in
the sediment supply.
Alluviation in the central-upstream reaches of the lower
Muge valley oor buried the local soil 150 cal BP (core
64). This nal phase of rapid deposition displayed a
sediment accumulation rate of 5 mm/yr (Fig. 5). The
central-upstream bed of unit 6 reaches its greatest thickness
of 1 m near the upstream limit of the lower valley oor,
indicating a sediment source from the Muge catchment.
Recent uvial activity is also indicated by fan-toe incision
at the upstream limit of the lower reach. The ne-grained
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2950 T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
inll of the incised fan toe does not contain the soil level,
suggesting recent incision and inll. Human disturbance of
the Muge catchment vegetation started after 5800 cal BC,
while intensive human impact on the vegetation is
registered from 2150 cal BP (van der Schriek et al., in
press). Historical records suggests that the Muge area was
an important cereal-producing area prior to the 13th
century, although the upstream parts of the lower valley
oor were only cultivated after 1850 (Batata and Gaspar,
1993; Vilar, 1993). The phase of increased alluviation
and incision in the upstream reach of the lower Muge
valley is most likely related to this documented phase of
clearance and agricultural intensication at the end of the
19th century. These land-use changes may have increased
ne-grained sediment supply, run-off and ooding fre-
quency.
7. Controls on Holocene uvialestuarine behaviour
Extensive ne-grained sedimentation in the Lower Tagus
valley started under the inuence of sea- and associated
base-level rise, while the inherited valley oor topography
determined to upstream limit of aggradation. The Lower
Tagus oodplain 3 km downstream of the Muge con-
uence is underlain by at least 40 m of negrained
sediments (Zbyszewski and Veiga Ferreira, 1968). If these
deposits are Holocene, accepted agedepth relationships
suggest the local presence of tidal environments at
11,000 cal BP (e.g. Dabrio et al., 2000; Boski et al.,
2002; Freitas et al., 2003; Goy et al., 2003). Tidal and
saltwater inuence of the Lower Tagus oodplain is
thought to have extended to Santarem, 15 km upstream
of Muge (Dias et al., 2000; Fig. 3). Maximum tidal
inuence in the Muge tributary (78007500 cal BP),
reecting the balance between the rate of sea-level rise
and local sediment input, may give a rough indication for
the timing of maximum saltwater inuence in the Lower
Tagus oodplain. This age estimate agrees well with the
Holocene Iberian estuarine record. Extensive inlling of
southern Iberian estuaries started after 7900 cal BP, when
the rate of sediment supply began to balance the decreasing
rates of sea-level rise (Dabrio et al., 1999, 2000; Boski et al.,
2002). Iberian estuaries experienced a maximum transgres-
sive surface between 7700 and 6100 cal BP, followed by
increasing vertical accretion and lateral progradation of
uvial systems (Mateus, 1985; Goy et al., 1996; Rodr guez-
Ram rez et al., 1996; Zazo et al., 1996; Morales, 1997;
Borja et al., 1999; Psuty and Moreira, 2000; Cearreta et al.,
2003; Freitas et al., 2003; Santos and Sanchez Goni, 2003).
Preliminary data tentatively suggest that uvial environ-
ments expanded in the Tagus oodplain from Santarem to
the Muge conuence (16 km) between 7500 and
5750 cal BP. The present tidal limit is located 28 km
downstream of Muge. Sea- and base-level controls may
have inuenced sedimentation up to Entroncamento,
34 km upstream from Santarem, where the lowland
oodplain ends.
7.1. Climatic controls on fluvial sedimentation
Pollen and lake-level data reveal several minor climate
oscillations in south-western Iberia during the early-mid
Holocene (van der Knaap and van Leeuwen, 1997; Jalut
et al., 2000; Reed et al., 2001; Carrion, 2002). However,
these uctuations left the vegetation cover in place,
suggesting limited inuence on sediment input into uvial
systems. A regional drying trend between 7600 and
6000 cal BP is observed in several pollen sequences in
southern Iberia, including in the Muge area (Mateus, 1985;
Van Leeuwaarden and Janssen, 1985; Carrion and Dupre,
1996; Carrion and Van Geel, 1999; Yll et al., 1999; Mateus
and Queiroz, 2000; Carrion et al., 2001; Santos and
Sanchez Goni, 2003; van der Schriek et al., in press). The
drying trend has also been recorded by a fall in lake levels
and increased aeolian activity after 5000 cal BP (Harrison
and Digerfeldt, 1993; Taylor et al., 1998; Borja et al., 1999;
Carrion and Van Geel, 1999; Zazo et al., 1999; Carrion
et al., 2001; Reed et al., 2001; Carrion, 2002). The drying
trend did not lead to an open landscape in south-western
Iberia, suggesting that it had little impact on uvial
sediment supply. However, regional drying may have led
to decreasing peak discharges. This hypothesis is consistent
with the absence of ood clusters of the Tagus River
between 7000 and 1200 cal BP in central Spain (Benito
et al., 2003). The lower Muge valley ll record does not
register an obvious climatic control, although any climatic
signal may be obscured by the strong base-level control on
sedimentation.
7.2. Lowland alluvial base-level stabilisation
Tidal inuence decreases in coastal settings in central
south Portugal from 6400 cal BP onwards (Mateus and
Queiroz, 2000; Santos and Sanchez Goni, 2003). Regional
data suggest that mean sea level had stabilised around
present levels by 4500 cal BP (Dias et al., 2000). Estuaries
along the Atlantic coast of Southern Iberia register a
predominantly uvial inll between 4500 and 2500 cal BP
(Rodr guez-Ram rez et al., 1996; Mateus and Queiroz,
2000; Dabrio et al., 2000)Dabrio et al., 2001 has been
changed to Dabrio et al., 2000. Please conrm ok.4. To
date, published evidence of peat beds in these sequences is
rare. However, peat beds are common in north-western
European estuarine sequences and associated with the mid-
Holocene slowdown in sea-level rise, starting between
8000 and 6000 cal BP (Long et al., 2000). The beginning
of peat formation in the inner-estuarine setting of the lower
Muge valley oor (6400 cal BP) ts well with these data,
suggesting that peat formation may be more common in
inner-estuarine sequences around Iberia.
Late Holocene soil formation is evident in several
estuarine and coastal sequences along the Atlantic coast
of Iberia. Granja and De Groot (1996) dated a soil to
3500 cal BP in a coastal sequence in North Portugal. The
oldest peaty soils in coastal sequences in Spanish Galicia
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
and the gulf of Cadiz have been dated to 3400 and
4000 cal BP, respectively (Devoy et al., 1996; Goy et al.,
1996). These records are in close proximity to the coast
than the lower Muge valley ll, which may explain the
older date for the beginning of soil formation
(5150 cal BP) in the latter inner estuarine setting. Soil
formation was probably a regional event, triggered by
stable sea levels, and extended progressively downstream
from inner-estuarine to more coastal settings.
7.3. Anthropogenic influence on lowland fluvial aggradation
Deforestation in Iberia increased progressively from the
Bronze Age, leading to large-scale deforestation around the
Roman period which climaxed during medieval times when
forests virtually disappeared (e.g. van der Knaap and van
Leeuwen, 1995; Allen et al., 1996; Carrion et al., 2001;
Franco Mugica et al., 2001; Carrion, 2002). Human
catchment disturbance plays an important role in the
sediment input into estuaries during the late Holocene
(Freitas et al., 1999, 2003; Morhange et al., 1999; Dabrio
et al., 2000; Dias et al., 2000; Boski et al., 2002). However,
the relative contribution of marine-uvial sediment sources
and the inuence of human activity on uvial sediment
input into estuaries remains a source of contention (Beets
and van der Spek, 2000; Bintliff, 2002). Local deforestation
started at different times in different parts of the Tagus
catchment, while any increase in sediment supply caused by
such deforestation may have been kept for a considerable
period of time in colluvial and alluvial sediment storage
before reaching the lowland oodplain of the river system
(e.g. Macklin and Lewin, 1988; Provansal, 1995).
The progressive deforestation of the Iberian landscape
probably led to a gradual increase in sediment supply and
peak discharges. Renewed ood activity clusters
(1165745, 475, 280 cal BP) in the Spanish reach of
the Tagus River may have been partially caused by
deforestation (Benito et al., 1998, 2003). Renewed uvial
aggradation in the Lower Tagus valley near Muge started
prior to 2150 cal BP. This aggradation phase was most
likely caused by an increased sediment load and ooding
frequency resulting from the progressive degradation of the
Iberian landscape since the Late Bronze Age. The lower
Muge tributary, which is representative for uvial systems
draining the Tertiary Lower Tagus Basin, shows no
evidence of increased alluviation prior to the 19th century.
The subsequent clearance-related increase in sediment
input only led to aggradation in the upper reach of the
lower Muge valley oor, suggesting local storage and
limited net transport of sediment to the Tagus oodplain.
8. Implications for Pleistocene uvial system behaviour
Fluvial incision in the lower Tagus valley is commonly
accepted to be controlled by sea-level change and to take
place during glacial maxima (Zbyszewski, 1946; Mozzi
et al., 2000; Cunha et al., 2005). However, we present in
2951
this section some arguments suggesting that climate change
may have controlled terrace formation during glacial
periods, with sea-level change only of importance during
interglacials and, perhaps, in eroding the coastal high-
stand prism at the beginning of interglacial periods.
Mediterranean terrace records suggest that there were
multiple aggradation-incision events in Iberian river
systems during the last glacial period; major aggradation
episodes centred around cold phases, while signicant
incision most likely occurred on warming limbs of climate
transitions (e.g. Macklin and Passmore, 1995; Fuller et al.,
1998; Macklin et al., 2002). Fluvial records in SW Iberian
coastal settings suggest similar behaviour, with aggrada-
tion during cold periods with low sea levels and incision
sometimes taking place when sea levels rose. Buried uvial
terrace levels at the base of an estuarine valley ll in the
Gulf of Cadiz have been dated at the upper unconformity
to 17,00030,000 BP (Dabrio et al., 2000; Boski et al.,
2002; Goy et al., 2003), while buried uvial deposits in the
Sado estuary date from 14,200 to 10,000 BP (Freitas
et al., 2003). Cano et al. (1999) have dated uvial terrace
sediments in NW Spanish coastal valleys to 33,000
39,000 BP (10 m above sea level) and 13,800 BP (3.5 m
above sea level), respectively. Tagus terrace sediments in the
Rodao sub-basin (Fig. 1) have also yielded some dates. The
upper part of T3 terrace deposits were dated by TL on a silt
layer to 51 ka (+13 ka; 12 ka) and 68 ka (+35 ka; 26 ka),
while the base of a silt-sand succession underlying a local T4
fragment yielded Palaeolithic artefacts (attributed to the
Mousterian) and mammal, bird and sh remains; Th/U age
estimates of 32,93871055, 34,0887800 and 34,0937920 BP
on three teeth from this level are reported (Cunha et al., 2005).
These age estimates suggest that a major aggradation
phase took place around 33,000 BP, perhaps lasting
until 17,000 BP, followed by uvial incision prior to
14,20013,800 BP. This timing places uvial aggradation
during the late glacial maximum, when pollen evidence
reveals the widespread presence of arid Artemisia steppe
and climates were probably characterised by cold winters,
winter precipitation and summer drought (Prentice et al.,
1992; Harrison and Digerfeldt, 1993; Beaulieu et al., 1994;
Peyron et al., 1998; Carrion and Van Geel, 1999). These
conditions would have caused intense winterspring runoff,
probably with high peak discharges and a high sediment
input. It appears that uvial incision took place on the
warming limb of the subsequent climate transition and may
relate to decreased sediment input as a result of deciduous
and conifer forest expansion 18,00016,000 BP (Harrison
and Digerfeldt, 1993; Beaulieu et al., 1994; Carrion and
Van Geel, 1999).
Localised uvial aggradation (14,20010,000 BP) in
coastal river systems may be associated with the Younger
Dryas period when peak discharges and sediment input
probably increased due to an increase in winter precipita-
tion and summer drought, while vegetation became more
open in upland areas (Beaulieu et al., 1994; Allen et al.,
1996; Penalba et al., 1997; van der Knaap and van
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
2952 T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
Leeuwen, 1997; Carrion and Van Geel, 1999). However, in
Portuguese coastal valleys a Pinus forest with Oak was
present throughout the Younger Dryas, attesting to
relatively mild climatic conditions (Mateus and Queiroz,
2000; Santos and Sanchez Goni, 2003). Subsequent uvial
incision took probably place around the Pleistocene
Holocene transition (Garc a Mart nez et al., 1991) and
was most likely related to the increase in vegetation cover
(Mateus, 1985; Harrison and Digerfeldt, 1993; van der
Knaap and van Leeuwen, 1994, 1995, 1997; Penalba et al.,
1997), which may have decreased sediment input.
8.1. Fluvial incision in the Lower Tagus valley: possible
controls
From the T6 terrace surface to the base of the ne-
grained Muge valley ll near the Tagus conuence, there
was 416 m of incision. The amount of incision decreases to
5 m in the central lower valley, while there is no uvial
incision of the T6 level beyond the upstream limit of the
lower Muge valley. The width of the tributary Muge valley
declines progressively upstream from its broad mouth to
the nal connement by alluvial fans (Fig. 4). This
geometry of incision suggests that a fall in base level of
the Lower Tagus River induced uvial incision of the
tributary valley mouth. The T6 level is probably buried in
the Lower Tagus valley near Muge and may correlate to
the lowest Tagus terrace level of Cunha et al. (2005), which
dives below the present valley ll 18 km downstream of
Entroncamento (Fig. 3). There is 40 m of vertical
separation from the tributary T6 terrace surface to the
base of the ne-grained Lower Tagus valley ll near Muge
(Zbyszewski and Veiga Ferreira, 1968). At the base of this
ne-grained sequence, there is up to 20 m of coarse sand
and gravel overlying ne-grained sediments that are
attributed to the Miocene (Zbyszewski and Veiga Ferreira,
1968). These coarse basal sediments were probably
deposited after incision of the T6 level. It appears unlikely
that these coarse sediments form the basis of either the T5
or T6 terrace deposits: this would imply that 6070 m of
sediments underlie these (minor) terrace levels, whereas
even the extensive T4 level is underlain by a maximum of
45 m of deposits (Section 2.3.2). There have been at least
three incision events counting from the top of the T4 level,
creating the T5 and T6 terrace levels, and the present valley
oor, respectively. These events took place most likely
during the last cycle, given the age estimates from the
sediments underlying the T4 level. Finally, the specic
tectonic setting of the Lower Tagus valley renders it
unlikely that extensive sea-level induced incision of the
valley oor occurred around the last glacial maximum. The
present-day outlet of the Tagus inner estuary near Lisbon
is conned by a fault-bounded, narrow bedrock gorge
which is 30 m deep, 2 km wide and 12 km long. The ridge
containing the gorge has experienced 4100 m of uplift over
the past 3 Ma, while the area of the inner estuary
experienced subsidence (Fig. 2). A fall in sea level up to
the bedrock sill depth in the gorge would probably lead to
uvial incision in the coastal high-stand deposits of the
Lower Tagus valley.
However, once sea level falls below the depth of the bedrock
sill, upstream base level is no longer controlled by sea level.
Instead, changes in upstream base level become a function of
fault movement and bedrock resistivity to erosion. To date, the
exact depth of the bedrock sill and specic movement along the
fault remain unknown. These data suggest that once sea level
falls below the bedrock sill during glacial periods, upstream
uvial behaviour in the Lower Tagus valley is mainly
determined by climate and base-level change determined by
tectonic movements and erosion of the bedrock outlet.
8.2. Terrace formation in the Lower Tagus valley
The study of the Q3 terrace deposits near Alpiarc- a
(Mozzi et al., 2000), which have been tentatively linked to
the T4 level in the Muge area (Section 4), allow for a
preliminary analysis of factors affecting long-term terrace
formation. The erosive upper boundary of the Lower
Gravel Unit is found at 1419 m MdC in Alpiarc- a and at
35 m MdC in the Muge valley (19 km downstream);
this gives a minimum and maximum gradient for this
surface of, respectively, 0.470.84 m/km. The erosive base
of the unit with the ne-grained Miocene Argilas de Tomar
Formation is located at 05 m MdC in Alpiarc- a (Mozzi et
al., 2000). Using a maximum thickness of 20 m for this unit
based on the Alpiarc- a study, it is likely that the lower
boundary of this unit in Muge is located around 15 to
20 m MdC. These estimates give a minimum and max-
imum gradient for this surface of, respectively,
0.791.32 m/km. Both the erosive top and base of the
Lower Gravel Unit in the Muge valley are located below
the level of the present oodplain, while their altitude
during formation was probably even lower if the (un-
known) amount of uplift since deposition is taken into
account. These height data suggest that the aggradation
and incision events represented by this unit took place
during periods with lower sea level than at present,
probably during cold stages. The overlying Upper Sands
Unit contains mainly tabular stacked sand bodies and silty-
clay beds, and is ning upward. The T4/Q3 terrace surface
in the Upper Sand Unit is located, respectively, at
2535 m MdC in Alpiarc- a and at 2030 m MdC in
Muge, giving a minimum and maximum terrace gradient
of, respectively, 0.790.26 m/km. The present Lower Tagus
valley oor gradient changes from a maximum of 0.36
m/km near Entroncamento to 0.094 m/km downstream of
Santarem (Fig. 3).
The different gradients of the bounding surface in the T4
deposits are associated with major sedimentological
changes. The high basal gradient of the Lower Gravel
Unit is associated with a gravel-bed river system, while the
intermediate gradient of its upper bounding surface is
associated with a uvial system carrying a predominantly
sandy load. Finally, the nes towards the top of the Upper
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T. van der Schriek et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (2007) 29372957
Sand Unit are linked to the low terrace surface gradient.
Comparison of the T4 surface gradient with the present
oodplain gradient may suggest base-level inuence on
deposition of the ne-grained upper part of the Upper
Sand Unit; however, estuarine deposits have so far not
been reported. The different gradients of terrace surfaces
and sediment bodies suggest that the longitudinal prole of
the river adjusted repeatedly to changes in the water-
sediment input balance over time. Recurring climate and
base-level changes (the latter inuenced by sea-level and
the fault-controlled bedrock sill) probably led to complex
stratigraphic relationships and considerable periods of
disequilibrium in prole adjustment.
9. Conclusions
It is likely that several incision-aggradation events took
place in the Lower Tagus valley during the last glacial
period. Major aggradation episodes are probably related to
cold phases, while there appears to be uvial incision
during climate transitions. These observations contradict
the accepted idea of extensive sea-level induced incision of
the Lower Tagus valley oor during glacial maxima. This
study suggests that climate and tectonic changes exert a
major control on terrace formation, while the sea-level
signal may not be well preserved in the terrace record.
However, the stratigraphic and geomorphological classi-
cation of the Lower Tagus terrace record needs to be re-
thought urgently in the light of the massive uncertainties in
the present data before any attempt at understanding this
system can be made successfully. This study presents the
rst securely dated stratigraphic framework for Holocene
valley ll deposits in the Lower Tagus Basin. Holocene
oodplain development is strongly inuenced by sea-level
rise (creating accommodation space), the inherited Pleisto-
cene valley oor topography and sediment input by tidal
and uvial processes. Only during the late Holocene does
human impact on catchment vegetation become an
important factor inuencing uvial sediment input and
peak discharges. The dominant sea-level signal registered in
the valley ll record probably obscures any clear climatic
signature due to its much greater amplitude of change.
Sea level exerted the main control on deposition of the
ne-grained sedimentary wedge which underlies the low-
gradient Lower Tagus oodplain. Rapid early Holocene
sea-level rise outstripped the rate of sediment accumulation
and drowned the lower reaches of the Lower Tagus valley,
where estuarine environments became established perhaps
as early as 11,000 cal BP. Forced inll and backll of the
lower Muge valley started at 8150 cal BP, when saltwater
intruded the tributary mouth, and was controlled by base
level in the Tagus valley. Following the period of maximum
tidal inuence (78007500 cal BP), the accommodation
space of the Lower Tagus and Muge valleys lled in
progressively as the rate of sediment supply overtook the
decreasing rate of sea-level rise. Lowland alluvial ood-
plains expanded in the valley oors and by 5750 cal BP
2953
the estuarine accommodation space in the Tagus valley
oor near the Muge conuence was inlled. This led to the
abrupt disappearance of estuarine environments in the
Muge tributary as the Tagus oodplain blocked tidal
inuence into its mouth. The lower Muge tributary
experienced progressive uvial inll of the accommodation
space from 5750 to 5200 cal BP. Peat formation
(64005200 cal BP) in the central lower Muge valley
reects low rates of base-level rise during this period.
Stable sea levels (4500 cal BP) led to regional valley oor
stabilisation and widespread soil formation, starting
5200 cal BP in lowland uvial settings. Renewed localised
sedimentation, starting between 2200 and 200 cal BP in the
Lower Tagus and Muge valley oors, is associated with
progressive human impact on the catchment vegetation.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Camara Municipal de
Salvaterra de Magos and Dona Teresa (Casa Cadaval) for
much appreciated logistical support. This research was
undertaken while in receipt of a studentship of the
Department of Geography, University of Newcastle upon
Tyne. The authors wish to acknowledge the support of
NERC (radiocarbon dating allocation no. 923.0501), and
would like to thank referees Anne Mather and Andy
Howard for their helpful and constructive comments. This
paper is a contribution to both IGCP 449 and 518 and to
the FLAG Focus 1 database.
Appendix A. Supplementary materials
Supplementary data associated with this article can be
found in the online version at doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.
2007.07.020.
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