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the big bang. This theory was born of the observation that other galaxies are moving away from our own at great
speed, in all directions, as if they had all been propelled by an ancient explosive force.
Before the big bang, scientists believe, the entire vastness of the observable universe, including all of its matter
and radiation, was compressed into a hot, dense mass just a few millimeters across. This nearly
incomprehensible state is theorized to have existed for just a fraction of the first second of time.
Big bang proponents suggest that some 10 billion to 20 billion years ago, a massive blast allowed all the
universe's known matter and energyeven space and time themselvesto spring from some ancient and
unknown type of energy.
The theory maintains that, in the instanta trillion-trillionth of a secondafter the big bang, the universe
expanded with incomprehensible speed from its pebble-size origin to astronomical scope. Expansion has
apparently continued, but much more slowly, over the ensuing billions of years.
Scientists can't be sure exactly how the universe evolved after the big bang. Many believe that as time passed
and matter cooled, more diverse kinds of atoms began to form, and they eventually condensed into the stars and
galaxies of our present universe.
A Belgian priest named Georges Lematre first suggested the big bang theory in the 1920s when he theorized
that the universe began from a single primordial atom. The idea subsequently received major boosts by Edwin
Hubble's observations that galaxies are speeding away from us in all directions, and from the discovery
of cosmic microwave radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.
The glow of cosmic microwave background radiation, which is found throughout the universe, is thought to be a
tangible remnant of leftover light from the big bang. The radiation is akin to that used to transmit TV signals via
antennas. But it is the oldest radiation known and may hold many secrets about the universe's earliest moments.
The big bang theory leaves several major questions unanswered. One is the original cause of the big bang itself.
Several answers have been proposed to address this fundamental question, but none has been provenand
even adequately testing them has proven to be a formidable challenge.
After its initial appearance, it apparently inflated (the "Big Bang"), expanded and
cooled, going from very, very small and very, very hot, to the size and
temperature of our current universe. It continues to expand and cool to this day
and we are inside of it: incredible creatures living on a unique planet, circling a
beautiful star clustered together with several hundred billion other stars in a
galaxy soaring through the cosmos, all of which is inside of an expanding
universe that began as an infinitesimal singularity which appeared out of
nowhere for reasons unknown. This is the Big Bang theory.
First of all, we are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning.
Second, galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to
their distance. This is called "Hubble's Law," named after Edwin Hubble (1889-
1953) who discovered this phenomenon in 1929. This observation supports the
expansion of the universe and suggests that the universe was once compacted.
Third, if the universe was initially very, very hot as the Big Bang suggests, we
should be able to find some remnant of this heat. In 1965, Radioastronomers
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 2.725 degree Kelvin (-454.765
degree Fahrenheit, -270.425 degree Celsius) Cosmic Microwave Background
radiation (CMB) which pervades the observable universe. This is thought to be
the remnant which scientists were looking for. Penzias and Wilson shared in the
1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery.
Finally, the abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen and Helium found in the
observable universe are thought to support the Big Bang model of origins.
Big Bang Theory - The Only Plausible Theory?
Is the standard Big Bang theory the only model consistent with these evidences?
No, it's just the most popular one. Internationally renown Astrophysicist George F.
R. Ellis explains: "People need to be aware that there is a range of models that
could explain the observations.For instance, I can construct you a spherically
symmetrical universe with Earth at its center, and you cannot disprove it based
on observations.You can only exclude it on philosophical grounds. In my view
there is absolutely nothing wrong in that. What I want to bring into the open is
the fact that we are using philosophical criteria in choosing our models. A lot of
cosmology tries to hide that."4
Gamow, Alpher and Herman proposed the hot Big Bang as a means to produce
all of the elements. However, the lack of stable nuclei with atomic weights of 5 or
8 limited the Big Bang to producing hydrogen and helium. Burbidge, Burbidge,
Fowler and Hoyle worked out the nucleosynthesis processes that go on in stars,
where the much greater density and longer time scales allow the triple-alpha
process (He+He+He -> C) to proceed and make the elements heavier than
helium. But BBFH could not produce enough helium. Now we know that both
processes occur: most helium is produced in the Big Bang but carbon and
everything heavier is produced in stars. Most lithium and beryllium is produced
by cosmic ray collisions breaking up some of the carbon produced in stars.
The following stages occur during the first few minutes of the Universe:
Less than 1 second after the Big Bang, the reactions shown at right maintain the
neutron:proton ratio in thermal equilibrium. About 1 second after the Big Bang,
the temperature is slightly less than the neutron-proton mass difference, these
weak reactions become slower than the expansion rate of the Universe, and the
neutron:proton ratio freezes out at about 1:6.
After 1 second, the only reaction that appreciably changes the number of
neutrons is neutron decay, shown at right. The half-life of the neutron is 615
seconds. Without further reactions to preserve neutrons within stable nuclei, the
Universe would be pure hydrogen.
The reaction that preserves the neutrons is deuteron formation. The deuteron is
the nucleus of deuterium, which is the heavy form of hydrogen (H2). This
reaction is exothermic with an energy difference of 2.2 MeV, but since photons
are a billion times more numerous than protons, the reaction does not proceed
until the temperature of the Universe falls to 1 billion K or kT = 0.1 MeV, about
100 seconds after the Big Bang. At this time, the neutron:proton ratio is about
1:7.
Once deuteron formation has occurred, further reactions proceed to make helium
nuclei. Both light helium (He3) and normal helium (He4) are made, along with
the radioactive form of hydrogen (H3). These reactions can be photoreactions as
shown here. Because the helium nucleus is 28 MeV more bound than the
deuterons, and the temperature has already fallen so far that kT = 0.1 MeV,
these reactions only go one way.
The reactions at right also produce helium and usually go faster since they do
not involve the relatively slow process of photon emission.
The net effect is shown at right. Eventually the temperature gets so low that the
electrostatic repulsion of the deuterons causes the reaction to stop. The
deuteron:proton ratio when the reactions stop is quite small, and essentially
inversely proportional to the total density in protons and neutrons. Almost all the
neutrons in the Universe end up in normal helium nuclei. For a neutron:proton
ratio of 1:7 at the time of deuteron formation, 25% of the mass ends up in
helium.
The mass fraction in various isotopes vs time is shown at right. Deuterium peaks
around 100 seconds after the Big Bang, and is then rapidly swept up into helium
nuclei. A very few helium nuclei combine into heavier nuclei giving a small
abundance of Li7 coming from the Big Bang. This graph is a corrected version of
one from this LBL page. Note that H3 decays into He3 with a 12 year half-life so
no H3 survives to the present, and Be7 decays into Li7 with a 53 day half-life and
also does not survive.
The graph above shows the time evolution of the abundances of the light
elements for a slightly higher baryon density. This figure is based on data from
Burles, Nollett & Turner (1999). The asymptotic D/H ratio [by number] for this
calculation is 1.78*10-5 which corresponds to OmegaBh2 = 0.029. The best
current estimate is OmegaBh2 = 0.0214 +/- 0.002 from the D/H ratio measured
in quasar absorption line systems, and OmegaBh2 = 0.0224 +/- 0.001 from the
amplitudes of the acoustic peaks in the angular power spectrum of the CMB
anisotropy.
The deuterium, He3, He4 and Li7 abundances depend on the single parameter of
the current density of ordinary matter made out of protons and neutrons:
baryonic matter. The graph above shows the predicted abundance vs. baryon
density for these light isotopes as curves, the observed abundances as horizontal
stripes, and the derived baryon density as the vertical
stripe. A single value of the baryon density fits 4 Topic Index:
abundances simultaneously. The fit is good but not
- Introduction
perfect. There has been a dispute about the actual
primordial helium abundance in the Universe: either
- The Expanding
23.4 or 24.4 percent by mass, with both broups
Universe and Hubbles
claiming 0.2 percent accuracy so this is 5 sigma Law
discrepancy between the different observational camps.
And a new measurement of the free neutron lifetime is - Cosmic
6 sigma smaller that the previous world average, giving Background Radiation
a new prediction of the helium abundance of 24.6
percent. The observed lithium abundance in stars is less - Dark Matter
than the predicted lithium abundance, by a factor of
about 2. But stars destroy lithium so it is hard to assess - Cosmic Inflation
the significance of this difference.
- Timeline of the
Big Bang
- Superstrings
From our current understanding of how the Big
and Quantum Gravity
Bang might have progressed, taking into account theories
about inflation, Grand Unification, etc, we can put together - Conclusion
an approximate timeline as follows:
Planck Epoch (or Planck Era), from zero to approximately 10 -43seconds
(1 Planck Time):
This is the closest that current physics can get to the absolute beginning of
time, and very little can be known about this period. General
relativity proposes a gravitational singularitybefore this time (although even
that may break down due toquantum effects), and it is hypothesized that the
fourfundamental forces (electromagnetism, weak nuclear force,strong nuclear
force and gravity) all have the same strength, and are possibly
even unified into one fundamental force, held together by a perfect symmetry
which some have likened to a sharpened pencil standing on its point (i.e. too
symmetrical to last). At this point, the universespans a region of only 10-
35
metres (1 Planck Length), and has a temperature of over 1032C (the Planck
Temperature).
As the strong nuclear force separates from Timeline and major events since
the Big Bang
the other two, particle interactions create (Source: U. of Arizona
large numbers of exotic particles, including W Lectures:http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatS
ci102/
and Z bosons and Higgs bosons (the Higgs lectures/eraplanck.htm - originally from "The
Essential Cosmic Perspective", by Bennett et
field slows particles down and al.)
confers masson them, allowing
a universe made entirely out of radiation to support things that have mass).
Dark Age (or Dark Era), from 300,000 to 150 million years:
The period after the formation of ther first atoms and before the first stars is
sometimes referred to as the Dark Age. Although photons exist,
the universe at this time is literally dark, with no stars having formed to give
off light. With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe has
tailed off dramatically, with very low energy levels and very large time scales.
Little of note happens during this period, and the universe is dominated by
mysterious dark matter.
In the 1950's and 60's the predominant theory regarding the formation of the
chemical elements in the Universe was due to the work of G.Burbidge,
M.Burbidge, Fowler, and Hoyle. The BBFH theory, as it came to be known,
postulated that all the elements were produced either in stellar interiors or
during supernova explosions. While this theory achieved relative success, it was
discovered to be lacking in some important respects. To begin with, it was
estimated that only a small amount of matter found in the Universe should
consist of helium if stellar nuclear reactions were its only source of production. In
fact, it is observed that upwards of 25% the Universe's total matter consists of
helium---much greater than predicted by theory! A similar enigma exists for the
deuterium. According to stellar theory, deuterium cannot be produced in stellar
interiors; actually, deuterium is destroyed inside of stars. Hence, the BBFH
hypothesis could not by itself adequately explain the observed abundances of
helium and deuterium in the Universe.
Thanks to the pioneering efforts of George Gamow and his collaborators, there
now exists a satisfactory theory as to the production of light elements in the
early Universe. In the very early Universe the temperature was so great that all
matter was fully ionized and dissociated. Roughly three minutes after the Big
Bang itself, the temperature of the Universe rapidly cooled from its phenomenal
10^32 Kelvin to approximately 10^9 Kelvin. At this temperature,
nucleosynthesis, or the production of light elements, could take place. In a short
time interval, protons and neutrons collided to produce deuterium (one proton
bound to one neutron). Most of the deuterium then collided with other protons
and neutrons to produce helium and a small amount of tritium (one proton and
two neutrons). Lithium 7 could also arise form the coalescence of one tritium and
two deuterium nuclei.
The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis theory predicts that roughly 25% the mass of the
Universe consists of Helium. It also predicts about 0.01% deuterium, and even
smaller quantities of lithium. The important point is that the prediction depends
critically on the density of baryons (ie neutrons and protons) at the time of
nucleosynthesis. Furthermore, one value of this baryon density can explain all
the abundances at once. In terms of the present day critical density of matter,
the required density of baryons is a few percent (the exact value depends on the
assumed value of the Hubble constant). This relatively low value means that not
all of the dark matter can be baryonic, ie we are forced to consider more exotic
particle candidates.
The fact that helium is nowhere seen to have an abundance below 23% mass is
very strong evidence that the Universe went through an early hot phase. This is
one of the corner-stones of the Hot Big Bang model. Further support comes from
the consistency of the other light element abundances for one particular baryon
density and an independent measurement of the baryon density from the
anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background radiation. It seems like we
really understand the physical processes which went on in the first few minutes
of the evolution of the Universe!
Thanks to the pioneering efforts of George Gamow and his collaborators, there
now exists a satisfactory theory as to the production of light elements in the early
Universe. In the very early Universe the temperature was so great that all matter
was fully ionized and dissociated. Roughly three minutes after the Big Bang itself,
the temperature of the Universe rapidly cooled from its phenomenal 10^32 Kelvin
to approximately 10^9 Kelvin. At this temperature, nucleosynthesis, or the
production of light elements, could take place. In a short time interval, protons and
neutrons collided to produce deuterium (one proton bound to one neutron). Most of
the deuterium then collided with other protons and neutrons to produce helium and
a small amount of tritium (one proton and two neutrons). Lithium 7 could also
arise form the coalescence of one tritium and two deuterium nuclei.
The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis theory predicts that roughly 25% the mass of the
Universe consists of Helium. It also predicts about 0.01% deuterium, and even
smaller quantities of lithium. The important point is that the prediction depends
critically on the density of baryons (ie neutrons and protons) at the time of
nucleosynthesis. Furthermore, one value of this baryon density can explain all the
abundances at once. In terms of the present day critical density of matter, the
required density of baryons is a few percent (the exact value depends on the
assumed value of the Hubble constant). This relatively low value means that not all
of the dark matter can be baryonic, ie we are forced to consider more exotic
particle candidates.
The fact that helium is nowhere seen to have an abundance below 23% mass is
very strong evidence that the Universe went through an early hot phase. This is one
of the corner-stones of the Hot Big Bang model. Further support comes from the
consistency of the other light element abundances for one particular baryon density
and an independent measurement of the baryon density from the anisotropies in
thecosmic microwave background radiation. It seems like we really understand the
physical processes which went on in the first few minutes of the evolution of the
Universe!
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Without these individuals, our universe would (literally) look quite different. However, there are
two scientists in the field of cosmology who stand out among all the rest: Edwin Hubble and
Georges Lematre. By 1930, other cosmologists had concluded that the static (non-
This discovery is largely due to the efforts of Edwin Hubble. Using the worlds largest telescope,
which is located at Mt. Wilson in California, he showed that the distant galaxies all appeared to
be receding from us. Whats more, these far flung galaxies were traveling away from us at speeds
proportional to their distances Enter Lematre Lematre used these findings to draw
attention to his earlier paper, in which he explained the relationship between the distance of a
galaxy and the recession velocity of that same galaxy. By putting together Hubbles
observations with Lematres paper, a majority of astronomers became convinced that the
Why was this find so notable? Shortly after this discovery, Lematre reasoned that traveling back
in time should lead to an epoch in which all the matter in the universe was packed together in an
extremely dense state a primeval atom. And this was the birth of Big Bang cosmology.
So, let us take a moment to delve into the Big Banginto the timeline of everything that has ever
existed
bang (if anything). If these seem rather presumptuous, its because they are.
means that matter, energy, space, and time began abruptly. Another theory is that of Quantum
emergence. According to this view, space and time developed out of a primeval state describe by a
quantum theory of gravity. Next we have the landscape multiverse of string theory, which deals
with differences of quantum tunneling and quantum fluctuations between different energy states.
And finally we have the cyclic universe. In this theory, the big bang is just the latest big bang in
an endless stream of big bandsin the continual expansion, collapse and renewed expansion of
But as I said, there is no ultimate contender, so lets leave that for a moment and take a look at
meaningful time.
10 ^-35 seconds into the birth of our universe cosmic inflation creates what is known
as quarkgluon plasma. Protons and neutrons cannot exist yet, only leptons and quarks (with
their force carriers, gluons, W and Z bosons and photons). We know the quark soup exists
because we have created similar conditionsinside particle accelerators. It appears that it is this
early quark soup that gave rise to dark matter. Additionally, The quark soup is likely the phase in
which matter gained superiority over antimatter (lucky us). Ultimately, cosmologists speculate
that the universe had equal amounts of each, but at some point it developed one extra quark for
every billion antiquarks. This imbalance ensured that enough matter survived annihilation as the
universe expanded and cooled. (at 10 ^ -11 seconds this battle is starting to give favor to the rise
At 10 ^-5 seconds protons and neutrons are formed from quarks. Within the first 300 seconds
of the existence of the universe, the elements helium, lithium, and heavy hydrogen (deuterium
and Helium 3) form from the protons and neutrons by a process called nucleosynthesis.
Nucleosynthesis is the theory that accurately predicts the abundances of elements and isotopes
measured in the primeval samples of the universe (i.e., in the oldest stars and high-red shifted
gas clouds). The abundance of deuterium plays a special role in this process: Its measured value
implies that ordinary matter amounts to 4.9% of the total energy density in the universe (the
remainder is dark energy and matter). This agrees with the data collected by Planck from the
CMBR. This is an amazing triumph as two completely different measurements, one built on
nuclear physics when the universe was a second old and the other based on atomic physics when
the universe was 380 000 years old) agree with one another. This verification is a strong
So lets take a look at our universe from this era. Youve probably heard the old adage, a picture
is worth a thousand words. Well, in this case, the pictures is worth roughly 900 million dollars.
I am talking about ESOs Planck Satellite and its baby snapshot of the universe i.e., the cosmic
microwave background radiation (CMB). This image reveals the age, density, geometry, and
overall composition of the entire early universe. On top of this, the image provides evidence
supporting inflationary cosmology via the information that we can extract from it. In essence,
quantum fluctuations causing temperature differences in this inflation field (on the subatomic
scale) get exponentially blown up to astrophysical sizes. The most remarkable thing about this is
that observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation (from WMAP and ESOs Planck
observatory) agree with the prediction of inflation, providing the strongest evidence for this
theory yet.
380, 000 years when the nearly uniform soup cooled to about 3000 Kelvin, atoms formed
nuclei and electrons. Photons ceased to scatter and streamed through space unhindered, turning
380,000 years to about 1 million years we enter a period called the Dark ages; existing
between it is known as the final frontier of cosmology. We know little about this period except
that the first stars and galaxies should have formed at about 100 million years. The limit of
current observations, that is, the highest red-shifted objects detectable (the oldest objects that we
can see) are at a time of when the universe was 600 million years old. Two future projects that
have already begun construction, theJames Webb Space Telescope and the Square Kilometer
Array, are specifically designed to shed some light on this era and (hopefully) bring the dark ages
to an end.
10 billion years is when dark energy, a mysterious force that cosmologists have yet to wholly
pin down, starts to accelerate. At 20 billion years the Milky Way will collide with the Andromeda
galaxy (our solar system, or at least the inner planets, will be gone by that time, due to the suns
rapid expansion that will come once it exhausts its supply of fuel for nuclear fusion.)
about the same pace, this will result in all the last stars burning out in about 100 trillion
years (so weve got some time left, anyways). If this is true, at 30 billion yearsall other galaxies
are pulled from our view and all evidence of the big bang is lost forever (it may be possible that
future astronomers could deduce its existence using a few methodsbut hopefully we keep good
records).
Dark energy could also intensify, resulting in a Big Rip scenario. From superclusters to atoms,
dark energy effectively tears everything apart. This would happen at approximately 50 billion
years.
Alternatively dark energy could slow down. This deceleration would give gravity the upper hand
and lead to a collapse. And at 30 billion years, we could have what is known as a Big crunch.
This could result in a new big bang from the cyclic universe scenario.
The nature of universe is anything but simple, but cosmology has made leaps and bounds in such
a short period of time because of technology and the rigors of the scientific method. If we can
take anything from this invaluable knowledge, is that the march of scientific must continue
because the universe sure isnt going to slow down and wait for us to catch up.
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See this lovely image to the right? Any guesses as to what you are looking at? (Hint: Its not the
Hubble Ultra Deep Field or any similar image) What may look like nothing, for all intents and
purposes, is actually a full blown galaxy with a twist. This galaxy is almost lacking in stars
entirely.
You see.. There are ghosts all around us, that is, assuming your definition of a ghost extends to
extremely faint galaxies with very few stars; and by very few, I do mean very few. You could
probably count the number of stars in these galaxies within minutes, as these galaxies contain
hundreds, or maybe a couple thousands, of stars. Thats right, we are talking about numbers 3 or
4 digits long numbers that probably resemble your bank account. (In contrast, our galaxy the
Milky Way contains an estimated 400 billion stars) These so-called ghost galaxies have
LEO IV:
Credit: NASA, ESA, and T. Brown (STScI)
The galaxy pictured here is one of the most famous examples a ghost galaxy called Leo IV.
(Another well known one is NGC 2915)The galaxy itself can actually be classified as our celestial
neighbor, being that it can be found approximately 500,000 light-years from Earth.
Astronomers estimate that Leo Iv contains merely 1,000 stars all in various stages of stellar
evolution. Most are very dim and vague, which make it all the more difficult for astronomers to
discern where the boundaries of the galaxy lie. It also poses a problem when trying to determine
the galaxys size. As far as astronomers can tell, the galaxy measures in at 1100 light-years wide.
The small white box provides a basic outline of the galaxys shape and size.
One of the reasons the galaxies are so interesting is because they are nearly perfectly preserved
fossils of the early universe having formed an estimated one-billion years after the big bang.
Then, suddenly, the ghost galaxies stopped producing new stars. Because of this, they are tiny,
However, that isnt the weirdest thing about them, these galaxies have extremely high
concentrations of dark matter the elusive type of matter that makes up a substantial portion of
the overall mass of the universe. How much dark matter, you may ask? Well, by some
estimates, they contain about 100 times more dark matter than ordinary matter. In contrast, the
normal galaxies contain about 10 times more dark matter than ordinary matter.
A simulation showing the concentration of dark matter in typical galaxies compared to ghost
Just like the hydra from the Herculean legend, it seems when scientists answer one question
about these strange galaxies, two more questions spring up in its place. Either way, unwrapping
the enigma of ghost galaxies will give us valuable insight into the transitional period between
ghost galaxies and galaxies teeming with the light of billions of baby stars. Furthermore, they may
help clue us in on the origin of the dark matter that pervades spacetime.
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ESO Captures First-Ever Clear Image of An Exoplanet Candidate, And Its 11
Quadrillion km Away
The Day With No Tomorrow: What Happens When The Sun Becomes A Red Giant?
Written By
fqtqJanuary 7, 2014
Author unknown
We all love a good doomsday theory, but never has one been so conceivably real. Based on
current variables and conditions, scientists have produced some profound calculations which
The metamorphosis of our Sun from a main sequence star to a red giant is a process that all low-
It has long been a supported theory that our Sun loses mass due to cool non-dusty solar winds
stripping off matter. Indeed, scientists believe that our sun will lose so much mass over the
next 5.42 billion years (which is the time needed for the depletion of core hydrogen to occur, at
which point the and the red giant stage will begin) that the suns gravitational effect on the Earth
will have diminished to the point where Earths orbit becomes far larger than it is currently. So
large that scientists assert it will be approximately 1.2-3.0 astronomical units farther out than
where it is now.
Such a change would allow Earth to drift harmlessly out into the solar system and avoid being
consumed by our huge red giant sun. But it seems that theory may be incorrect.
A pair of astrophysicists detailed how the previous theories have neglected to consider the
Firstly, a brief reminder about the habitable zone: Having water in a liquid form is thought to be
essential for life as we know it, and also a key element for the formation of stable atmospheres.
Based on our knowledge of water, we have found that (depending on the specific variables) it can
exist in liquid form between 273K 373K ( -0.15C to 99.85C). The region of space that supports
Of course, there will be slight variations in the range of a stars habitable zone, based upon a
planets ability to reflect and absorb solar radiation which must be taken into account on a
planet-by-planet basis. The academic paper puts forward some alarming figures on the theorized
relocation of the habitable at the various stages of the suns period of change. These are :
Once the Sun begins the Red Giant phase, the HZ will be 1.29AU 1.86AU
At peak Red Giant size, the habitable zone will be a staggering 49.4AU 71.4AU
As you can see, if the Earth remained at 1AU from the Red Giant phase commencing, it would fall
And the scientists assert that the effects of the cool non-dusty solar winds on the solar mass have
been greatly overestimated. They argue that the mass of the sun, and therefore its gravity, will
only suffer a tiny variation. This is believed to be somewhere in the region of 0.5%-1% of 1AU.
Virtually negligible for this event. This calculation shows that, while the habitable zone will move
farther out into our Solar System during the suns transition into a red giant, our planet will
The effects of this are pretty straight-forward: Devistation. Earth will be bombarded by solar
radiation of such great intensity that the liquid water of the oceans and seas will be boiled away.
Not only this, the atmosphere of the entire planet will be burnt from the planet, leaving the
During even the earliest stages of the red giant phase, the scientists assert that life would be
As the Red Giant continues its expansion, it will devour Mercury and Venus they cannot move
away from the encroaching Red Giant and are trapped by the Suns tidal forces, sapping the
It is theorized that, not long after this (several million years), the tidal force of the suns
Chromosphere will conflict with the Earths gravitational and tidal hold on the moon, to the point
where the moon will be torn apart. It is believed that these fragments of Moon will mostly stay in
orbit as an accretion disk; however, some of the larger pieces will fall into a re-entry with Earth
In the final stage of the Red Giant expansion, the Earth will be pulled into a 200-year decreasing
spiral orbit, which will destroy the planet as it descended through the layers of the red giant sun.
On a slightly more cheery note, it was calculated that an 8% increase in angular momentum upon
Earths orbit would allow it to survive all the cataclysmic occurrence. We just need to plan how to
deliver that incredible amount of energy to the planet, if we are still here then
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