Professional Documents
Culture Documents
alUl Praetiee
Protective Bela"s
THEIR THEORY AND PRACTICE
VOLUME ONE
by
A. R. van C. WARRINGTON
A.C.G.I., B.Sc.(Lond.), Fellow I.E.E.E.,
C.Eng., Fellow I.E.E.
The English Electric Company Limited
Stafford
1968
CHAPMAN & HALL LTD
11 NEW FETTER LANE EC4
First published 1962
Second edition 1968
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-6461-0 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-6459-7
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4684-6459-7
by Fletcher & Son Ltd, Norwich
1962 and 1968 Albert Russell van Cortlandt Warrington
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1968
DEDICATION
To my wife, whose cheerful acceptance of eighteen months of
'grass-widowhood' enabled me to undertake this work.
Foremorll
Texceptional
HE rate of development in the field of protective relaying has been
in the last few years, but protection engineers and students
have been somewhat handicapped by the lack of comprehensive and up-to-
date literature. The authors of Volumes I and II of this work have set out to
rectify this situation. Mr. A. R. van C. Warrington, the author of Volume I,
is a colleague of mine and has devoted the greater part of his professional
career to protective relaying, both in the United States and in the United
Kingdom. He has contributed on a substantial scale to the subject, in
lectures and papers before professional institutions and it would be difficult
to find anyone with greater experience on this subject. For this reason I
have no hesitation in commending the present volume to the reader.
H. M. MATHEWS, C.I.E., M.I.E.E.,
Director of Engineering for the
English Electric Co. Ltd.
vii
Author's Prelaee
TbyHISthevolume is an attempt to pass on to others the knowledge gained
author in 33 years of experience in the protective relay field, in
the U.S.A. and Europe. It offers the student a new general theory of relay
operation and brings the user up to date on modem design technique.
It has been written primarily for protection engineers, but with an
endeavour to make it easily understandable to students to whom this subject
may be new.
The second volume deals with static (solid-state) relays and provides
additional information on c.t's., p.t's., fault incidence, transients and sources
of relay error.
A. R. van C. WARRINGTON.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I publish
WISH to thank the English Electric Company for their permission to
this book and for providing typing and drawing office facilities.
I am greatly indebted, for editorial and technical advice, to Dr. Adamson
and to my colleagues of the English Electric Company, and to those who
coped with the heavy task of reproducing the manuscript and drawings.
A. R. van C. W.
ix
Contents
1. PURPOSE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS AND RELAYING page 1
Causes of Faults. Definitions. Functions of Protective Relays. Application
to a Power System.
REFERENCES 473
INDEX 481
List of Slim bois
Aarea; amperes
Bsusceptance; magnetic flux density
C capacitance
D discrimination factor; diameter
E e.m.f. (usually at power source)
F force
G conductance
H magnetising force
I current
J angular moment of inertia
K a constant
L self inductance
M mutual inductance; numeric ratio or constant
N number of turns; numeric ratio or constant
o origin of a graph
P point on a graph; general constant
Q steady state amplitude of charge q; general constant
R resistance; ratio
S spacing or displacement
T temperature
V voltage
W power
X reactance
Y admittance
Z impedance
A and B are also used as unspecified quantities or ratios, real or complex.
I length
m mass; unspecified number
n an unspecified number
p in-phase component
q quadrature component or electric charge
r resistance per mile
s modulus of attenuation
t time
v velocity
x unknown quantity or reactance/mile
y admittance per mile
z impedance per mile
ex an angle
P an angle
')I attenuation factor (complex)
~ an increment
e base of Naperian logarithms
" efficiency
() characteristic angle
A. an angle
(L penneability or prefix micro
1t radians in 1800
p resistivity
[Jt reluctance
(1 conductivity
() characteristic angle; angle between system voltage vectors
q, magnetic flux
cjJ phase angle, generally the angle by which the current lags the voltage in
a protected circuit
'" an angle
OJ frequency in radians/sec; ohms
L summation
n ohms
ex is also used as the complex ratio of two currents and p their inverse ratio.
cjJ and G on circuit diagrams refer to phase and ground relays respectively.
List of Subscripts
A, B, C the terminals of a protected line
a, b, c the three phases
d difference, direct axis
e general suffix
J: F fault
xiv
List of Symbols
g,G ground
h, i,j general suffixes
I, L line
m magnetising
n neutral; nominal
o zero sequence; a basic value
p in phase component; primary; polarising
q quadrature; quadrature axis
r replica; restraint
R relay; relay (to distinguish in the case of a secondary quantity);
also suffixes denoting restraining signals; receiving end
s, S source; secondary; sending end
t suffix denoting quantity variable with time
res residual
max maximum
min minimum
1 positive sequence; suffix denoting a derived relaying quantity
2 negative sequence; suffix denoting a derived relaying quantity
[600 lagged 60
160 advanced 60
IVI scalar value of V
Abbreviations
B.S.S. British Standard Specification
C.E.G.B. Central Electricity Generating Board of Great Britain
1
Purpose of Proteetive Belays
alUl Belaying
Causes of Faults-Definitions-Functions of Protective Relays-
Application to a Power System
in the design of protective relays over the last 35 years can be found else-
where (1). In the present chapter it is proposed to outline briefly the nature,
function and mode of operation of relays.
1.3. DEFINITIONS
Throughout the two volumes some terms will be used which are peculiar
to protective relays; these will be explained as they are brought into use.
The following terms, however, are common to all relays and protective
schemes and will be defined before proceeding further.
The word 'normal' refers to the healthy or unfaulted condition of the
protected circuit but, when used in connection with relay contacts, it implies
that the relay is not energised. For instance, a 'normally open' contact is one
which is open when the relay is not energised; it is also referred to as a circuit-
closing contact, a make contact or an 'a' contact.
Only in the case of relays designed to operate on an excess condition, such
as overcurrent or overvoltage, would 'normal' position of the contact
correspond to normal operating conditions. For instance, in an under-
voltage relay, a normally open contact is one which is open when the relay
is not energised whereas, under normal conditions of full voltage, this
contact would be closed.
A 'normally closed' contact is one which is closed when the relay is not
energised. It is also known as a circuit-opening contact, a break contact or a
'b' contact.
Most relays have a resetting means such as a spring or gravity. Most
protective relays have a normally open contact which is closed when the
relay trips; the following definitions refer to such relays and exclude under-
voltage, undercurrent, etc., relays.
5
1.3 Protective Relays
All diagrams will show relays in the de-energised position and will be
drawn so that, when the relay operates, its contacts move upwards (as if
against gravity). Where it is inconvenient to draw the relay with its contacts
moving upwards they will be drawn moving to the left.
Relays are shown with their coils and contacts together where convenient.
In schematic diagrams of complicated circuits, the contacts may be separated
from the coils but they will be identified by a similar letter or number.
1.3.2. Vectors
An electrical vector (phasor) has magnitude and phase relation. Phase
relation means the time in a cycle relative to a reference moment. Current
vectors are standardised in meaning but there is some divergence in the inter-
pretation of potential vectors. In this book Va or Van will be taken as the
voltage of the phase a conductor relative to the neutral and Vab will be taken
as the voltage of the phase a conductor relative to the phase b conductor,
i.e. Vab = Van - Vbn . The arrowhead will be drawn at the end of the vector
corresponding to the conductor under consideration (fig. 1.3a). Voltage drop
(1Z) will be drawn with the arrowhead in the other direction.
7
1.3 Protective Relays
Actually it does not matter whether this or the reverse concept of potential
vectors is used because the same result is obtained as long as the method
chosen is used consistently.
E is used for e.m.f. and V for terminal voltage. In mathematical equations
Vmax and I max are peak values and V and I are r.m.s values. Moduli are shown
thus IVI. Currents are shown in vector diagrams with a white or hollow
arrowhead. Potentials are shown with black or solid arrowheads. Figure 1.3a
shows the relative potentials in a three-phase four-wire system.
v.
I.
t
Zero or
reference
>----~.
'I, Vo.
(a) NormClI pha.se-to-neutra.1 (b) La.gging loo.d (c) Pha.se-to -pha.se
potentia,is currents delta. potentia.ls
]- --[--
FIG. 1.3a-<:. Vectors representing balanced conditions in a four-wire system
~ II t
FIG.
- -
1.3d. Subtractive polarity in a c.t. or p.t.
c.t. and p.t. polarity will be assumed to be subtractive, i.e. with the
polarity marks at the same end of the primary and secondary windings, the
polarity will be such that the direction of the currents in the circuit will be
the same with the transformer removed (fig. 1.3b) and the circuit completed
by the dotted lines. Normal phase rotation of vectors is taken as anti-clock-
wise with positive sequence vectors coming up in the order a, b, c and negative
sequence a, c, b.
elT
.2n . V-
3 1120
a a -t+J-
2
.2" V-
-1-
a2 a2 e 3 -t-j-l- 11200
a3 eO 1 100
.2" V-
-
1
a2 e-IT - t . 3
-J-y 11200
a
." V-
l+a - a2 el3 t+j~
2
~
.n
e - I3 v-
1+ a2 -a t -J
. -3 J6ijO
2
.n v-
al -a2 el3 t+j~
2 ~
.n v-
e - 13 t
. 3 J6ijO
a- l -a -JT
.n v-
I- a V3 a- l v3e - 16 1t -J. 2 3 V3130
1- a2 V3 a l v3e l 6
."
It + j-f
v-
V3130
.n
a - a2 V3 at elz j V3 V3190
a2 - a V3 at e- ."Z
I - j V3 V3'190
a2 + a - 1 [;irr -1 1180
.n V3
a2 + 1 -a [; - 1:3 t-j-y 160
.n
. v:3
a+ 1 - a2 [;13 t+J-y 160
v-
-1 t +J. 2 3
Sn
a-I -V3 a- l v3 e l '6 V31150
.Sn V-
a2 - 1 -V3 at v3 -1'6 -1 t - J. -3 v31150
2
1 1 1 1 _
-at ."
a - a2 V3 V3 e - l 2' j V3 V3 19O
1
-1 - e irr -1 1180
a + a2
9
1.4 Protective Relays
factor measured by the relay may be as low during a power swing as during a
fault. Sometimes all of the above quantities may have to be used to obtain
selectivity; furthermore, in the case of an a.c. railway, several heavy trains
starting up together may present current, voltage and power factor so similar
to that of a fault that an additional function is necessary, the rate-of-rise of
current, which is instantaneous for a fault but incremental or slower for
normal service conditions.
Whereas the main requirement of -instrumentation is sustained accuracy,
the most important requisite of protective relays is reliability since they may
supervise a circuit for years before a fault occurs; if a fault then happens,
the relay must respond instantly and correctly. For this reason the designers
should always attempt to use simple constructions and simple connections of
relays. In spite of good intentions in this respect, there is a tendency to extend
the operation of relay schemes by adding additional features until complexity
11
1.5 Protective Relays
results .and then it becomes necessary to re-design. In other words, a graph
of the progress of relay engineering as regards complexity tends to follow
a sawtooth shape.
For example, a simple way to protect a circuit is to compare the current
entering the circuit with the current leaving it by means of a relay in which
torques corresponding to the two currents are opposed so that, if either
exceeds the other, it indicates diversion of the current through a short-
circuit and hence warrants relay operation. This simple principle soon be-
comes complicated because of transient magnetic conditions, such as the
inrush of exciting current to a power transformer, which appear on one side
of the circuit only and would cause relay operation if discriminatory blocking
features were not added. Such a blocking feature, called harmonic restraint,
sometimes has to be unblocked because harmonics may appear during fault
conditions which demand tripping. Where possible, a principle is chosen to
avoid such complications.
a ____~~------~s~~
~t~
io~
n ~b~
u .~.----------~
b --~-+----------------------~r-
Potential
tran,formus
>0."1" (P.T:.)
;;:
~I
d I
al'
~
O-+-----.J T
Current
trMsforme r
(C.T.)
S"conda.r~
potentIa l bus
the build-up of current so that a fast breaker is tripped before the current
reaches its steady value. For this reason, and because the duration of the
trip coil current is only a few cycles, the relay contacts need have a continuous
rating of only 5 amperes and yet operate a 30 ampere trip coil SO times with-
out needing maintenance.
After the breaker has tripped, its auxiliary switch (marked a in fig. l.Sb)
opens the highly inductive trip coil circuit and the relay can reset when de-
energised by the opening of the breaker. It is important however that the
relay contacts do not chatter while the trip current is flowing, otherwise they
will be badly burned. This is ensured either by non-bounce design or by the
use of a magnetic hold-in coil on the relay or by a separate relay, known as a
seal-in relay, which is discussed in section 1.10.2 of this chapter.
r--+i=
~ [SQJ1-~""-.'~-'
[~l ~
I - I =J
1
I
u,,'_
~--f t---+-++---'
I I II
I I
r-- I I I
G.nero.tor tro.nslormrr
..1------, r.lo.y
Bus zonr
rrlo.y
To To
line lin.
relo.y r.lo.y
Alterna.tor
1 unit
GenerMion
0 '1 unit pcr MW including
boilus etc. lYRica.l cost 01 500 MW sy',tom
Ca.ble ~g co.lol build Ing
3'3 KV
55 units lor genera.t ion
18 unIt. lor tra.nsmission
27 units for distribution
Hotel., houses etc. 100 unih tota.l
(1 unit. 100,000 in 1960)
protected unit, and, as previously stated, the zone of protection of each relay
must overlap the zones of the adjacent relays (fig. 1.6a) to ensure that there
are no dead spots. Fig. 1.6b shows how these results can be achieved by the
proper location of each C.t.
These relays are the main relays. In addition to this first line of defence
there must be a second line of defence provided by back-up relays, which
will clear the fault if the primary relays for some reason fail to operate
(fig. l.H). This subject wIll be dealt with in detaIl in Chapter 12, but a broad
explanation is helpful at this point.
Bus B BusC
Nci!lhbouring~:t-~~:--i
Circuit ,--
~----------~I~~~~~==~~~-------
I
I Fa.at locaJ protection a.t B
Rela.y A Rela.y I B
I x = Brea.ker
FIG. 1.8. Back-up relays
F ____ _
~
B
@H .
------
usually consists of a time-delay relay operated by the main relays and con-
nected to trip all the other breakers on the bus if the proper breaker has not
tripped within a half second after its trip coil was energised.
Remote back-up is provided by a relay at the next station in the direction
towards the source (fig. 1.6) which trips in a delayed time if the breaker in
the faulted section is not tripped. It usually consists of an inverse time-current
relay or by the second and third zones of a distance relay. This i~ the most
widely used form of back-up protection.
On high voltage lines where most faults are caused by lightning and where
contact with trees, etc., is unlikely, a single instantaneous reclosure is used.
Tests on high-voltage systems have shown that reclosure in 12 cycles is
practical, the period depending upon the time necessary to dissipate the
ionised air at the fault. Fast reclosing limits the phase separation of syn-
chronous machines while the breaker is open and hence reduces the power
oscillation which follows reclosure.
On low voltage systems the fault may be caused by physical objects, such
as tree branches and vines, which may require one or more reclosures to
burn them clear. The usual procedure has been to reclose three times at
intervals of between 15 to 120 seconds. If the breaker reopens after the third
reclosure, the relay equipment locks it open, and it becomes necessary to
reclose by hand. Four automatic tripouts of the breaker in succession must
certainly indicate permanent damage on the feeder, such as a broken wire, a
wire down on a tower or on the ground or other trouble which should be
cleared before again energising the circuit. This will not be considered in
detail because it is outside the subject of protection.
/ r- Remote a.la.rm
+0 ,!~-
Protective Auxil ia.ry Trip'
rela.y (P. R.) switch cOil
(a) MECHANICAL FLAG
Shunt or series sea.l-in rela.y required where trip coil current
excuds 5 a.mps (one for 3 pha.ses)
+o---~
+~)-~~llp-.R.--~------~JI-
Y.
T.C. y I
R
x
b
C.C.
the shield may be stationary and the flag may appear from behind it. The
release of the flag latch may be done mechanically by movement of the
armature of the relay or electrically by a solenoid when the relay contacts
close. It is restored manually by a station attendant after the relay operation
has been recorded, usually by a push rod in the relay case or cover.
There are a number of points in favour of an electrical operation indi-
cator. It assists standardisation because mechanical ones cannot be used
with delicate or high-speed relays nor with relays having two units both of
19
1.11 Protective Relays
which have to operate to cause tripping; the electrical operation indicator
simplifies relay application problems because it can be used with all types of
relays. It is also preferable to the mechanical operation indicator because it
indicates that the relay has caused the trip coil to be energised whereas the
mechanical operation indicator merely indicates movement of the relay
armature: finally, it is very difficult to release the mechanical operation indi-
cator at exactly the same moment that the contacts meet and thus there is a
risk of the one happening without the other.
The series electrical operation indicator is shown on the left side of the
relay in fig. 1.1. Fig. 1.10 shows typical connections of series and shunt seal-
in relays.
The electrical operation indicator is often combined with an auxiliary
contactor to provide extra contacts for other functions such as remote alarm.
One pair of its contacts is connected across the main relay contacts so as to
by-pass the trip current from them and thus minimises maintenance on the
contacts of the protective relay, which are sometimes critically adjusted for
precise performance. Maintenance on the seal-in relay contacts is easier
because it is a simple 'go' or 'no-go' device. The seal-in feature prevents the
protective relay contacts from interrupting the trip-coil current if the relay
resets before the breaker auxiliary switch interrupts it.
1.11. DUALITY IN THE ANALYSIS OF RELAY CHARACTERISTICS
In both volumes, frequent use is made of the concept of duality as an
economical and facile aid to analysis. The topic is mentioned at this stage
because it has been largely neglected hitherto in relay engineering. The
concept of duality is based upon geometry, vector algebra and tensor analysis,
but a knowledge of the latter is not necessary to understand duality in relays.
Examples of duality in relay circuits and power system analysis are:
20
Purpose of Protective Relays and Relaying 1.12
Not all of these dual relationships are obvious but they will be explained
in the ensuing chapters. A very common case of duality in relay engineering
is that the inverse of a circular characteristic passing through the origin of an
impedance diagram is a straight line not passing through the origin on an
admittance diagram.
of the c.t. must be to cope with the IZ voltage across the load. Hence in the
interest of economy of C.t. cost and space requirements the lead runs must be
short and the relays must be sensitive, i.e. the power they require to close
their contacts firmly under borderline conditions must be as little as possible.
The power required to operate the relay is called the relay burden. In
the U.K. it is expressed as the volt-amperes (VA) at pick-up and this is an
index to the sensitivity of the relay and is a constant value irrespective of
the rating.
In the U.S.A. the relay burden is usually given as VA at C.t. rated current
or impedance at rated current. The latter gives no idea of the relays sensitivity
but enables the total burden on the c.t. to be calculated more easily, especially
if the relay saturates below C.t. rating.
Nowadays in all countries there is a tendency to provide a curve of relay
current circuit impedance over a range of current and this enables the C.t.
performance to be calculated at short-circuit currents that are expected in the
protected circuit. In particular it enables the c.t. secondary voltage to be
calculated at maximum fault current so that a suitable C.t. can be chosen.
Where the relays are remote from the c.t's the burden due to the leads will
be high and, in order to have a C.t. of reasonable size, it is often desirable to
use a lower secondary current rating. In the U.S.A. 5 ampere c.t's are almost
standard and sometimes they are very large; in the U.K. 1 ampere or even
t ampere c.t.s are used which is bad for standardisation of c.t's and relays
but results in a more economical design.
It is important to design test-gear and switchboard components so that
there is no risk of open-circuiting the secondary of a c.t. because in this con-
dition it can produce an extremely high secondary voltage which may break
down the insulation and destroy the c.t. This is because, although the C.t.
iron may saturate at a sinusoidal secondary voltage of a few hundred, the rate
of change of flux near the zero points of the cycle can produce enormous
voltage peaks.
In later chapters and in volume II the subject of C.t. behaviour is consid-
ered in more detail.
23
2
Belay IJeSigD alUl (;oD8tructioD
Characteristics-Choice of Measuring Units-Construction of Measuring
Units-Construction of Timing Units-Details of Design-Cases-Panel
Mounting-Operation Indicative-Finishes
I teristics
N the design of a protective relay, the first stage is to select the charac-
which will give the clearest distinction between faults in the
protected section and all other conditions. Fig. 2.1, for example, shows an
R/X diagram on which the characteristic circle of a mho relay fits around a
FIG. 2.1. Characteristic of a mho relay enclosing the possible fault impedances
(shown shaded)
shaded area which includes the impedances (including arc resistance) for all
positions of fault within the protected zone; with such a characteristic the
relay will not trip during power swings, or on faults other than those in the
protected section and involving the phase with which the relay is associated
(47) (58),
The second stage is to choose a suitable relay construction; the third is
to design the movement for the utmost reliability so that it will operate
correctly even under the most adverse conditions. These three stages will be
considered first of all in the light of general requirements, and then in terms
of practical execution. The industrial trend is towards standardised designs
24
Relay Design and Construction 2.1
FIG. 2.2. Characteristic of any relay comparing two vector quantities A and B
2.1.2. Reliability
The most important consideration in the design of a relay is reliability,
which should be in the designer'S mind when making every decision. Sim-
plicity of construction and circuitry makes reliability of operation easier to
achieve. The most important constructional feature in this respect is contact
pressure, since the main purpose of a protective relay is to close its contacts
25
2.2 Protective Relays
effectively and correctly, even under adverse conditions and in the event of
inadequate maintenance having been carried out (l05).
It must be remembered that a relay spends at least 99999% of its life
stationary, during which time there is a tendency for contacts and bearings to
deteriorate so that, when a fault does occur, the relay may not be able to
respond properly unless it is designed with these conditions in mind.
80me of the general rules which are followed by most responsible
manufacturers are:
(a) The use of wire not less than 0002 in. diameter; the proper support
and wrapping of the beginning and end wires and their junctions to
the external leads (see Coil Design, section 2.6.9).
(b) Design for maximum torque/friction ratio in order to promote
accuracy and avoid 'sticking' after long periods of non-operation (see
Bearings and Backstops, sections 2.6.1 and 2.6.2) or failure to trip
due to contact corrosion.
(c) Design for minimum contact maintenance; for this the contacts should
be bounce-proof since otherwise arcing, with consequent pitting of the
silver, will ensue (see Bounce-proof Contacts, section 2.6.4).
conditions, when plotted on a diagram whose axes are I~I cos tP and
Moving the :, term to the right hand side and adding (~,) 2 to each side,
equation (2.2) becomes
and the centre being at 2~' from the origin at an angle () from the reference
axis, as in fig. 2.2. The axes of the steady state characteristic diagram have
been designated I~I p and j I~I q for I~I cos </> and j I~I sin </> respectively.
This will be discussed more fully in Chapter 3.
In the case of distance relays A will be current and B voltage; the co-
ordinates of the diagram will be WI cos </> and j WI sin </>, in other words
R andjX.
-a
00
~ 2 pol~ 4 po l ~
~ 8 pol e
m Sp lit cup
EM. P.'"
E.M P M.
THERMAL RELAYS
o 0
=
28
Relay Design and Construction 2.3
produced commercially. For convenience, the second category (b) will be
referred to as static relays.
Table 2.1 compares eight types of relay construction, four electro-
magnetic and four static. Fig. 2.3 shows diagrammatically the physical
arrangement of some electromagnetic types. Tables 5.9 and 5.10 (in Chapter 5)
show some static relay arrangements and a number of illustrations and dia-
grams of polarised and unpolarised slave relays are provided in the present
chapter.
The numbers in Table 2.1 represent order of merit rather than degree,
since the degree would depend very much upon the actual design. The highest
number, 8, represents the best performance. It should be noted that the total
2.1
TABLE
Evaluation of Comparator Units
Low Cost 5 7 4 8 1 2 3 6
Accuracy 2 3 5 1 8 7 6 4
Speed 5 2 4 1 8 7 6 3
Output Quality 1 4 3 2 7 6 8 5
Sensitivity 4 2 3 1 8 7 6 5
Stability 1 4 2 3 6 1 8 5
Robustness 5 4 6 3 1 7 2 8
Simplicity 8 6 5 7 2 1 4 3
Experience 6 8 7 5 2 1 4 3
Total 37 40 39 31 43 45 47 42
for anyone class does not necessarily represent the view of industry or its
acceptance by it; anyone class may be precluded by poor performance, or
attainment in anyone quality, or for reasons which are not entirely technical.
Reliability is not listed because it is covered under stability, simplicity,
robustness, etc. Stability includes overtravel and transient overreach.
Experience is confined to their use in protective relays. In the column
headed 'Quality' the fourth item 'output quality' refers to the steadiness of
the torque or force in the case of electromagnetic relays and to the smooth-
ness and range limitation of the output voltage or current in the case of
static relays.
No potcntla.1
windings
Oyereurrent hence no V' KI'-K" --
or Vlterm.
1>$ ~
coe Q!.sl
No current
wind ings -K~V~ -K"
UndtrYOlta.ge hcncc no I' v<jf{ -- 1
or VI terms -K' :::o--t--a
voe --::,us-$~ "0
'll
.J
~ .. 'o~~~ ". .J '"tJ
Oireetiona.J K-K'-O VlcO'(~-6)-K'" VI COl (~-6KN COO
/~ :r
.J
~~~~. j / /I
~' - ~9". ~.....
~.
~ /('1( 1i _0
- .
Rea.cta.nce K/2.V/COs~-/l) 1'sln ~<K :tJ
(ohm unit) 8-90 -Vlsin I.C. X<K xce =~ -= i It>
Qj
~
<II
[(I i ~
'll
.
Otrect,ona.J 1(-/(#-0 .J
Impcdcu>ec -VI CoS (~-750)_x'V2 Z < 1 ~~
(mho unit) 8-75 co.(~-8) /K' .!: vce I ~
I .J
I
~'k\? I
V
Va.nd I
wlndln~
Itnpcda.nc) sepa.ra. c K/ 2K'V'
(Ohm unit SO no VI
z<jf,
K'
term
."eo -GH ~
Genera.l rela.y qua.tion -KI" -K'V" + VIeos (~-6) ~K" (Where oJI K's a.re torque eonsta.nt)
All eha.ra.etcristics a.re loci of Vor I for zero torque
FIG. 2.4. Common forms of induction disc and cup units
Relay Design and Construction 2.3
shot to move in the axial magnet field with considerable force after a time
interval depending on the current magnitude, during which they align their
magnetic axes.
FlG. 2.Sa. Exploded view of induction disc relay unit with C-type magnet core
32
Relay Design and Construction 2.3
o
(a)
(b)
(c)
flO. 26.
33
2.3 Protective Relays
failed, other than for special purposes, on grounds of complexity and the
short life of vacuum tubes.
The basic arrangements of two electronic relays are shown in fig. 2.7.
--u-
Transactor =
+
Tro'p'
cool
Rect,f,er
(a)
y
00__----...,
Thyratron
1~ " 11
o~ 11
"
(b)
Input Input
A B
Collector
00
Emitter
R Trip
relay
i
A
~--------L- ________ ~~ ________________L---Q+
35
2.3 Protective Relays
~ A
21
Operate level
'1\ ~~ Reset level
Input I IV i '"
-~-~-~---~ ~ Z.OI~~
I . I .
I . I
i i i
Output -.IlLL
(d) Op ..... tion 01 Schmitt level detector
Output
...rLn..I1.. c
Input
36
Relay Design and Construction 2.3
substantial body of literature already exists on transistor and semi-conductor
protection (12) (13) (14) (27) (28) (29) (59). Two elementary arrangements of
relays based on transistor comparators are shown in figs. 2.8 (a) and (b). A
comparison of the relative sizes of a transistor and an electronic tube of com-
parable performance is shown in fig. 2.9.
2.3.9. Summary
Examination of Table 2.1 shows a relatively small range of merit which
indicates that the different constructions each have their own virtues and
useful properties and that there is no universal type. For instance, although
rectifier bridge relays have been given the highest merit score, it is doubtful
if the induction disc relay will be displaced for time-overcurrent protection
of feeders for many years to come.
The induction disc relay is in almost universal use throughout the world
as an overcurrent relay and as the basic element for a number of relays of more
complex characteristics. The induction cup unit is in widespread use through-
out the world, particularly for directional and distance relays, but its position
is being challenged by polarised d.c. relays supplied from rectifier bridge
comparators. Furthermore, these static elements are very competitive with
transistor relays in their present state of development, other than for carrier
relaying.
Static relays require lower burdens than electromagnetic relays but tend
to have less accurate characteristics because of feedback between the inputs.
This limitation can easily be overcome, however, by amplifying the output
of the comparator.
It is obvious that two types of relay units are necessary, one for high
speed and one where time delay is required. Both may be of induction type;
for example, figs. 1.1 and 2.5 show assembled and exploded views respectively
ofthe induction disc type which is suited for time delay, 'and figs. 1.2 and 2.6a
the corresponding views of the induction cup type which, with its higher
torque/inertia ratio, is suited for higher speeds of operation. Either type can
perform any a.c. relay function and both are simple and robust in design.
In the future it is ineVItable that static relays will supersede all electromagnetic
types except the attracted armature type. The latter will continue because it
can control many circuits for a low price and provide high insulation between
them.
For d.c. relays, small contactors, slave relays and instantaneous alter-
nating current or voltage applications, a small hinged armature unit is
commonly used, as shown in fig. 2.10. This unit can also be used as the move-
ment for auxiliary relays and for indicating flag or target relays.
to Flo and thus has a demagnetising effect. The disc, itself a shading element,
thus also has a demagnetising effect which must be considered in deriving
the steady-state torque equation of an induction relay (fig. 2.l3c).
The air-gap fluxes ~1 and ~2 and the eddy currents i1 and i2 they produce
in the induction disc or cup are shown vectorially in fig. 2.13b. Torque is
produced by the interaction of each flux with the disc current induced by the
other flux and is of the form 't' = ~li2-~2i1'
In the Appendix 2.11 it is shown that the torque works out to
(2.4)
where K is a design constant, 11 and 12 are the r.m.s. coil currents producing
the magnet air-gap fluxes, (J is the angle between 11 and 12 and A. is the phase
angle of the disc impedance.
In the shaded-pole magnet the fluxes are produced by the same coil
current so the torque is
't' = Kro12 sin (J cos A. (2.S)
42
Relay Design and Construction 2.4
Ii
Non- /'i,'
shad.d
pol.
(a)
Ii
I'
I
I
I ,
.
,4>E ,i
, ''
,, :, ,
,,
,,
"',1
.'
(b)
43
N
~
."
ta) <l>T
~....
:0;'
~ (1)
.----. ----~ ~
iii
------ ~
<PEt</>, .. - - - - - - - - - - - - -
---------
(b)
FIG.2.12. Inverse time-overcurrent relay with wattmetric type magnet
(a) Magnet shape. (b) Scale diagram of flux distribution throughout the relay core
F;--------------------- F
(a) (b)
~~~------------,_--------~~~2
(c)
(d)
FIG. 2.13. Principle of shading in an induction disc relay
(a) Simple shaded pole (b) Flux and m.mJ. vector diagrams of (a)
(c) Disc currents and gap fluxes (d) A typical shaded-pole electromagnet.
45
2.4 Protective Relays
I
1...
I,..
(b) Vector di<1gram of on. pole of mductlon cup unit
~ ~r~
I ' ,
I
I 'f. I.J
b' Ill'r
~ I I
/ ................. .{ I
/ ......
/..'~-----
S ..... - -~~ /
'..... ..........
.-/
/
..... ,
'1z
(c) Flux di<1gram of both pol.circUlh of Induction C,,!, unit
flO. 2.14. Vector relationship of current and fluxes in induction cup relay
F = 2n(NI) 2 (2.9)
A(Ro+~r
where N is the coil turns, I the coil current, A the pole face gap area, Ro is
the reluctance of the iron circuit, x the air gap at the pole centre. In the open
position Ro is small compared with i: so that the pull can be written
F = 21t(N~2A
(2.10)
x
A comprehensive study of the design of these relays has been made by
Wagar and Peck (146).
The hinged armature relay increases its attractive force as the armature
47
2.4 Protective Relays
approaches the pole-piece (20) (21); referring to fig. 2.15, this increase in
attractive force tends to give a snap action and a drop-out value at a low level
of energisation unless the pressure built up by the contact springs is approxi-
mately matched. Line S shows the build-up of pressure of the restraining
spring. Line C is the additional pressure due to the contact brushes, and CR
is the pressure between the contacts when closed; this should be at least 15 gm.
Curve R is the force on the armature; this force may tend to level off as the
relay core saturates in spite of the decreasing magnetic reluctance of the
armature gap as it closes.
The ratio of pick-up to drop-out current is OC/OR. To obtain a high value
of drop-out current, C must be close to R; it is not possible to make C lie
EFFECT
0,. SATVRATION
OC t: OROP OFF
c o R = PICK- YP.
S'c' : CONT-'CT PRESET.
CONTACT
PRESSURE.
-Wipe G.... P
o
-TRAVEL. .
DROP' OUT
100,%
(a)
(b)
Tonlon hca.d
Inntl~ diScs
Fixed conl"cl
Air -."po
(c)
lC<1d-in.
Cont4cts
Yoke
Plrma.nlnt
ma.gnlt
Moving call
{al
52
Relay Design and Construction 2.4
Flud conta.ct
Loca.ting tong
Pcrma.ncnt magnet
Coil winding
(c)
53
2.4 Protective Relays
damping current induced in the coil by its own movement. Where the relay
has separate operating and restraining windings, the metal former is necessary
for damping (22).
Recent improvements in permanent magnet materials have increased the
sensitivity of moving coil relays so that the rotary moving type can now be
made with 01 milliwatt sensitivity and yet be mechanically stable (50 g) and
employ wire of 0002 inch diameter or larger; units with such powerful
magnets must be sealed against the ingress of iron filings.
flO. 2.19. Sensitive polarised d.c. moving iron relay with plug-in transistor
amplifier
tion (30 g) but the coil will stand 5 watts continuou~ly. In fig. 2.19 the relay is
fitted with a plug-in transistor amplifier which increases its sensitivity to I
microwatt for pick-up.
Figs. 2.20a, b, c, d and e show five typical polarised moving iron relays
employing the flux shifting principle. The choice between them depends on the
characteristic considered most important, such as speed, sensitivity, robust-
ness, contact pressure, etc. Most relays of this type use leaf spring supported
armatures, but the one shown in fig. 2.20a uses jewel bearings.
The type shown in fig. 2.20b is highly resistant to mechanical shock because
normally it is held strongly in position by its permanent magnet; when the
armature flux is diverted through the small electromagnet E, the armature is
54
Relay Design and Construction 2.4
N s
4 RadiomctaJ o=--i+--tt"ir.
pote pteces """,:::.r--w.._ ,
- . ,.........d"\
Radiomda.l
bridge pieces
(a) (b)
A-B
N s
(d)
(c)
~~ N
B
Hingcd <1I"mClturc
(f)
released and it is moved to the operating position by the very strong spring.
This relay is capable of tripping in two milliseconds.
Fig. 2.2Oc shows an adaptation of the telephone type relay (20) (21);
when energised it diverts flux into the armature instead of away from it.
It is self-resetting. Fig. 2.20d shows an improved version of fig. 2.2Oc with a
balanced armature. It is a very practical combination of speed, sensitivity,
55
2.4 Protective Relays
low cost and resistance to shock; it has contacts of 5 ampere rating and will
stand a shock of 30 g when adjusted for a sensitivity of 1 milliwatt.
Fig. 2.20e is the well-known Carpenter type in which the polarity of the
lower poles is controlled by the direction of the current in the coil. It will
pick up on 02 milliwatt but it has a very short contact travel and is suitable
for only low voltage circuits.
Fig. 2.20f is a remanence type relay which is inexpensive to manufacture
and extremely sensitive (15). It operates when m.m.f. ofthe operating coil (A)
"vercomes that of the restraining coil (B), which is normally energised, and
kills the remanent flux. The relay operates quickly enough for the armature
to open under the influence of the spring before the surplus of operating
m.m.f. can build up the flux in the opposite direction and hold in the
armature.
TABLE 2.2
Performance of Polarised d.c. Relays
VOLTS
API'>UEO TO
~Ew\Y.
Or---,-.--,-----k~~-------
.(,o,A.t- i o i1' (!)~ 1i!E:r1"'1E'Ii!-BIlIClGE
Lo-lr C~I2ISTIC,
-~ --.
FIG. 2.21. Rectifier bridge amplitude comparator
Small values of ir will cause a current to flow in the relay, as in fig. 2.21b,
the voltage drop across the slave relay being - V volts; this voltage - V
serves as a bias in the forward direction of bridge 1. If ir is increased further
the voltage drop across the relay will rise to a value - V, the threshold of
bridge 1 and it will conduct, the current distribution being as shown in
fig. 2.21c; the current through the relay consists of fairly flat-topped half-
waves corresponding to the case of io < ir as in fig. 2.21d.
57
2.4 Protective Relays
The reverse is true if bridge 1 only is .energised; the voltage drop across
the relay will now be V, in the reverse direction from formerly, and this will
bias the restraint rectifier in its forward direction. When the voltage drop
across the relay attains a value V" corresponding to the threshold voltage of
two rectifiers in series, the surplus current from bridge 1 is spilled through
bridge 2. This corresponds to the case of io > i, in fig. 2.21d.
When both bridges are energised simultaneously, the complete relay
arrangement is acutely sensitive to small differences between io and i, without
a delicate setting for the slave relay or a high thermal rating for its coil.
The composite characteristic for the relay is shown ideally in fig. 2.21e.
The current in the relay is a function of the difference between io and i"
shown in fig. 2.21a. The current circulating between the bridges is the smaller
of the two input currents plus some of their difference which appears as reverse
current in the bridge with the larger current. The voltage V across the
comparator cannot exceed twice the forward drop (toe voltage) in one of the
rectifiers and is usually around 1 volt. The maximum current that can flow
in the relay is the saturating voltage of the rectifier Vs divided by the relay
coil resistance. With three inputs and three parallel rectifier bridges, elliptical
and hyperbolic characteristics can be obtained. This subject is discussed in
Vol. II, Chapter 12.
(b) Phase Comparator Rectifier Bridge. This bridge is shown in fig. 2.22a
and its operation can be followed from fig. 2.22c and 2.22f. It is a circulating
58
Relay Design and Construction 2.4
I,
1,-i2
2" 2',
(c) i,> i 2 ; both + (d)'2>I,jboth +
Output. 12(q+q)- '2 R2 Output- 2l,!J = '1R
tt Block
21,
Block
2~ 21,
(~)i2>i1; '1 is- (t)(,>i 2 ;i,io-
Output ~ -2;, -1- -',R Output = - i2(~+~) = -i 2R
2<, 2i,
(j) i 2 >i,i 12 "- (k)l, >;2 j i2 i.-
Output'" -2(,.q =-i , R Out.put:. -i2(~+~J= -' 2 R
59
2.4 Protective Relays
current bridge whose output current is equal to the smaller of the two currents
inputs. The path of the current through the bridge is established by the larger
of the two currents and depends upon their relative instantaneous polarity. If
11 > 12 the current will flow in the top and bottom rectifiers if 11 is positive
(fig. 2.22c) and in the diagonal rectifiers (fig. 2.22d) if 11 is negative. If 12 > 11
the current flows in rectifiers I and 3 if 12 is positive (fig. 2.22e) and rectifiers
2 and 4 if negative (fig. 2.22f). If 11 and 12 have the same polarity the current
in the pol~rised relay R flows in the tripping direction, if opposite polarity it
will be in the blocking direction.
The limiting action of this bridge is less pronounced than in the amplitude
bridge comparator and a non-linear resistor, such as thyrite, is usually con-
nected across the polarising input so that the sensitivity at minimum fault
conditions can be raised to a satisfactory level, by increasing the polarising
current i1 without exceeding the rating of the rectifiers at maximum fault
conditions. This bridge produces more circular characteristics than the
amplitude comparator bridges and hence is preferable for mho and direc-
tional relays. It is limited to two inputs.
(a)
Trip winding
Block winding
A B B
Opcr<lt~ Rt.stra.i n Pol<lri.~
(b)
RutroJnt
(c)
r--_t-.::f::=;-_~Trl p rola.y
D.C. output 1.
N.twork 1_J:~====~
(d)
(e)
Microswltch
Bi -motoJhc
strip
(a)
Adjusta.bltt
thttrma.1
insula.tor
(b)
FlO. 2.24. Thermal relays
(a) Three-phase bimetallic strip thermal relay
(b) Single-phase unimetallic strip thermal relay
62
Relay Design and Construction 2.4
is extremely shockproof consists of a brass strip bent into a hairpin of which
one leg is heated by current passing through it or through a heating coil
(fig. 2.24b); this type is also inherently temperature-compensated.
Thermal elements are sometimes heated by passing the current through
them but more usually by a heater situated immediately below them, the
whole unit may be encased in thermal insulation or left open, depending
upon the characteristics to be obtained. For instance, a bimetallic spiral
indirectly heated in an insulating cover would be used where precision and
a high resetting time is required. For the other extreme ofless precision and a
fast resetting time, the brass hairpin design would be used without a cover.
The bimetal strip has the limitation that its characteristic is affected by
the load current which may be flowing through it prior to its operation. The
hairpin unimetal design is very little affected by the previous load current
because this tends to heat up both legs and cause them to expand equally,
resulting in no movement of the contact. This effect can be controlled to suit
a given application introducing thermal insulation at the bend of the hairpin.
The equivalent torque of it bimetallic strip is proportional to the heat
supplied which is proportional to the [2R of the strip. The deflection of an
all'IC stnp
I nvar- Brass bImet . .IS 7.7(T26 -T
.. JOc hes, were
1 )[2. h /.IS t he 1ength and
10 .W
w is the thickness, both in inches.
2.4.12. Transistor.
Transistors have similar limitations. Items (c), (d) and (e) above apply
directly. Item (f) does not apply but, in some transistors now available, some
change in characteristics can be expected during their life. Transistors do not
impose a constant drain on the station battery but they do require a
separate low voltage d.c. supply. The present solutions to this problem
are either to provide a small nickel-cadmium storage battery with a trickle
charger and a relay to disconnect the battery from the transistor circuit
while charging or to rectify the output of a saturating auxiliary C.t. and
stabilise it with a limiting device.
The circuitry of transistors has some similarity to that of electronic tubes;
those at present available differ in having low input impedance and are
current-fed devices. A phase comparator can be made either by connecting
two transistors back-to-back (13) (14), as in fig. 2.8c, or by applying the input
signals in parallel through diodes (fig. 2.8b) so that the transistor acts as an
'and' device (12) causing the transistor to cut off if either of the input quanti-
ties is positive.
In either of the above circuits, current of constant magnitude will flow in
the collector circuit only when the input a.c. quantities are simultaneously
negative; a relay in the collector circuit will pick up when the overlap angle
exceeds a certain value, i.e. when the mean d.c. level in the collector circuit
exceed the relay pick-up level as a result of phase coincidence.
Inserting inductance in the collector circuit causes the collector current to
rise exponentially, instead of being constant, during the period of phase
coincidence; this enables a trigger circuit to be added, which operates on the
basis of current level. Alternatively, capacitance can be used and the voltage
level measured; either method has the following virtues:
(a) Permits a single tripping device to be used for all phases and zones.
(b) Makes the pick-up level independent of voltage.
(c) Permits instantaneous resetting using an integrating circuit.
64
Relay Design and Construction 2.4
A third method of phase comparison is by gating the current pulses with
a transistor whose base-emitter circuit is polarised by the other a.c. quantity;
this is after the fashion of the electronic relay systems proposed by Loving (27).
Transistors can also be used in series for phase comparison and they can
also be used as amplitude comparators.
Both electronic and transistor relays at present have the disadvantage of
insufficient capacity to trip a breaker and transistors are very vulnerable to
transient overvoltages but, within the next five years, these limitations will
probably be overcome. There is a clear case for the application of transistors
to relaying systems using a carrier channel (28) (29), and to automatic synchro-
nising (123).
1'--- - V - - --9
Trip ,ola.y
G.rmC1llium cryst<1i
--
(c) E SCQ.pt.m.~nl
t
(~) Mc.rcuty tube (t) ~"C Ut y dorllpot
t =CR V(R+r)
- - Iog ( 1 + --
r
(2.13)
R+r C v,.
where r is the resistance of the relay coil, and v is its pick-up voltage. The
70
Relay Design and Construction 2.5
(a l (h )
(e) (d)
(e)
I o.c.
+
~s\art con\QC\
I,
Two winding
(b) rela.y
(c)
r
O.C.volts
R
"'ux.r~lQ,y
-.-
,:e
I
L
I
.J..
c
Endstone
~-~-:-~I-- bedr i ng
2.6.2. Backstops
In cases where a relay has a strong resetting torque under nornial con-
ditions but has been given a very sensitive pick-up setting, there may be
trouble from sticking against the backstop. This may be due to the use of
normally non-magnetic materials which have become magnetic due to
74
Relay Design and Construction 2.6
fabrication, or it may be due to molecular 'sticktion', the tendency for the
contact arm and backstop to interlock their microscopically rough surfaces
under the influence of a.c. vibration.
The magnetic adherence can be overcome by making the backstop of non-
metallic material. The molecular adherence can be prevented by the use of
hard surfaces rounded to a large radius, the ideal combination being a
rounded metal contact arm and a smooth agate or nylon backstop.
2.6.3. Contacts
Contact performance is possibly the most important item affecting the
reliability of protective relays. Corrosion or a particle of grit can prevent a
relay from tripping. Consequently, the material and shape of contacts are of
considerable interest to the designer and user (20) (64) (146).
(a) Contact Design. It has been estimated that line contacts have about
half the resistance of square flat contacts of the same length and are commonly
used for stationary contacts such as plug contacts.
Cylindrical contacts at right angles provide the most reliable arrangement
for relay contacts because they provide the optimum high pressure of a point
contact without concentrating the current at an actual point which would
tend to burn and erode away.
Silver is the most widely used metal for relay contacts since it has the
lowest resistance and its oxides and sulphides, though readily formed in air,
are broken down more readily than those of other metals. Copper circuits
are not used in relays because the resistance of clean, new copper contacts is
eleven times that of silver ones and oxidation raises the resistance of copper
contacts several hundred thousand times.
When large currents are to be handled, such as in a.c. tripping, special
alloys of silver are available, such as silver cadmium oxide, which have a low
resistance like silver but do not weld or become sticky. For small currents and
very light contact pressures an alloy is used which consists of 67 % gold,
26 % silver and 7 %platinum.
In sensitive (low input) relays, where the contact pressure may be very
low, non-corroding metals such as gold, palladium or rhodium are used.
Since these metals do not corrode there is no need for high pressure to break
through tarnish; on the other hand, such relays are not recommended in
protective schemes because high contact pressure may still be needed to
squeeze out dust and lint from between the contacts in order to make
contact.
For maximum precision of electrical characteristics as well as maximum
contact pressure, the protective relay should have only one contact; if
additional contacts are required they should be provided on an auxiliary
relay. Bridging contacts make the contact pressure uncertain and introduce
inaccuracy if the two contacts do not make at precisely the same current; a
better arrangement is to use a flexible connection to a single moving contact.
Double contacts in parallel are almost ideal because, if there is one chance
75
2.6 Protective Relays
in 10,000 of failure with a single contact, there is only one chance in
100,000,000 with two contacts in parallel.
The maintenance of contacts can be minimised, if not eliminated, by high
contact pressure, hard smooth contact surfaces, bounce-proof contact design
and the use of dust-tight relay cases. The smooth contact surface created by
a burnishing tool will permit about ten times as many operations as a filed
surface, because the minute ridges caused by filing are melted by the arc,
causing roughness and hastening the need for reconditioning. Emery paper
should never be used because emery particles adhering to the silver may pre-
vent electrical contact.
The exclusion of dust is very important; most contact failures are caused
by lint or grit stuck to them by varnish from overheated coils and tarry
combustion products in the air. It is difficult to cure completely the phenolic
resin varnish commonly used on coils and a hot coil can cause volatile
components of the varnish to leave the coil and condense on electrical
contacts, with the risk of open-circuiting them. However, polyester and
epoxide varnishes are now available which cure completely and at a lower
temperature so that this difficulty is avoided, especially if the coil is encapsu-
lated in resin.
(b) Corrosion. The resistance of the contacts is partly that of the contacts
themselves (which depends upon their material and dimensions) and partly
that of the actual contacting surfaces. For clean, dry silver contacts R = C/P"
where R is in ohms and P is in grams. For silver n = 08 and C depends upon
the contact shape and dimensions. For cylindrical silver contacts n- in.
diameter C = 004.
The resistance of a clean contact has also (64) been expressed as ;;,
where p is the resistivity of the metal (1'7 microhm. em for silver) and a
3/Pr
contact area. a = 111 !tJ E as before (64). The actual contact area is very
small compared with the contact surface; it consists of the total area of the
tops of the irregularities in the contact surface. With round contacts the
contact area is theoretically a point and the actual area is finite only because
of plastic yield of the silver.
The voltage at which a corroded silver contact becomes conductive is of
K'(J)
the form: V =. - P where K' depends on the nature of the corrosion and
(J) is the thickness; this applies to oxide and sulphide coatings. P is the
pressure in grams. The breakdown voltage for silver sulphide is 08 to 15
volts per 100 A, or 106 volts/cm. The thickness of the coating is in,dicated by
the colour. Up to 50 A the bright silver appearance is retained; a brown
tarnish indicates roughly 250 A; a blue colour the 500 A region and violet
l,oooA.
It should be remembered that K ', although small, has a definite value so
that it is hazardous to employ silver contacts with less than O'S gm. steady
pressure for voltages down to SO volts or 2 gm. at 24 volts in clean atmo-
sphere; much higher values around 30 gm. apply in polluted atmospheres;
the alternative to this high pressure is sliding wipe which can scour off enough
tarnish to establish initial contact so that heat from the ensuing current will
quickly overcome the tarnish as already described above. In short, the higher
the contact pressure the better.
In reasonable atmospheres, contact pressures of the order of a gram are
satisfactory with cylindrical silver moving contacts of measuring relays in
circuits above 50 volts d.c., because the collision of the contacts momentarily
increases the pressure per square inch sufficiently to break down thin coatings
of silver oxides and sulphides so that current can flow. Below 50 volts 8 gm.
is recommended. However, stationary contacts, such as coil taps and draw-
out case contacts, should have at least a 500 gm. pressure because, in some
circuits, the voltage across them may be very small.
A thin coating of petrolatum has been found to reduce metal transfer and
corrosion of contacts without increasing their resistance. It is beneficial in
polluted atmospheres and for relays which have a very large number of
operations. A dust-tight relay case fitted with a filter breather is essential for
contacts operating below 100 volts d.c. because a minute particle of sand or
hard grit can prevent flashover contact at low voltages.
A special problem exists in relays with poor ventilation, especially in
77
2.6 Protective Relays
sealed relays. High resistance polymers can appear on the contacts due to
organic emanations from coil insulation, especially where traces of iron or
copper are rubbed into the surface during manufacture (75). Contacts con-
taining palladium are the most affected and gold plated contacts the least.
Phenolic resin varnish impregnation is the worst offender but all insulation
gives off organic vapour to a certain degree except PTFE (Teflon). Ventilated
relay cases with dust filters minimise the effect but the ideal solution is sepa-
rately encapsulated contacts, i.e. like reed relays.
(c) Making and Breaking Capacity. The short-time carrying capacity of
contacts depends upon their weight, thermal conductivity, electrical con-
ductivity and surface resistance. The last two items control the heat pro-
duced ([2R) and the first two control the heat absorbable.
The continuous carrying capacity of contacts depends upon their surface
area, the volume and thermal coefficients of the contacts and their support-
ing members, their electrical conductivity and their surface resistance.
For modern silver contact designs with cylindrical contacting surfaces,
the relationship between the short-time (tripping) and continuous capacity
is shown in Table 2.4. The contacts are mounted so that their cylinders or
ridges meet at right angles.
TABLE 2.4
Contact Capacity
~ o Ya"
B. Protective relay
:;j>
> 110
110 15
14 x;os
4
4
.04'~ c:::l :;j> 110 75 2
13/16 1
C. Sensitive relay > 110 15 X;04 2
Table 2.4 assumes that the contacts will be operated not more than 5,000
times before maintenance; there is an inverse relationship between the
contact duty and the number of operations that can be done before the relay
goes outside the performance specification pertaining to the relay. The num-
ber of operations is drastically reduced if the bouncing period of the contacts
exceeds the time constant of the circuit; it can be significantly increased if a
seal-in relay is used.
78
Relay Design and Construction 2.6
In Table 2.4 the current values given refer to linear inductive circuits such
as the trip coils of circuit breakers and the coils of auxiliary relays. In such
circuits the current starts from zero at the moment of contact closure and
builds up exponentially. In a resistance circuit the continuous rating would
be the same but the 200 mS values should be halved. In a circuit dominated
by a capacitance or a metal filament lamp the values would be much less
because the initial inrush current could be many times the steady value.
Protective relays (Class B in Table 2.4) are not normally expected to
interrupt any power because the circuits they set up are usually interrupted
by an auxiliary switch on the circuit breaker. In some cases, however, they
have to interrupt the coil circuit of an auxiliary relay or a timer. Modern
protective relays will interrupt 100 VA a.c. up to 120 volts or 10 watts d.c.
inductive. With a spark-quenching circuit they should interrupt 50 watts
d.c. up to 250 volts. The corresponding values for sensitive protective relays
are less, depending on the design.
Auxiliary relays (Class A in Table 2.4) will interrupt about 500 VA a.c. or
50 watts d.c. inductive. Such a relay is illustrated in fig. 2.l0a but, when
equipped with blow-out magnets (fig. 2.10b) it will interrupt 3 kW in a
highly inductive circuit (LjR = 005).
Further data is given in Vol. II, section 2.4.1.
In a.c. tripping (see Chapter 4, section 4.6) the current is transferred to
the trip coil by opening a contact which normally short-circuits it, so that the
contact does not actually interrupt any current. This transfer is done by an
auxiliary tripping relay (Class A in Table 2.4), and the transfer capacity of
these contacts expressed as the product of the current before opening times
the voltage across the trip coil after opening, is about 3,750 VA for silver
contacts, assuming a maximum of 3 seconds for the current to be flowing
through the contacts. This can be raised to 15,000 VA by using elkonite
contacts.
stopped suddenly (fig. 2.30a). A friction clutch between the armature shaft
and the moving contact gives as good results when properly designed (fig.
2.30d) and has the additional advantage of reducing the tendency of the
relay to operate undesirably under the influence of circuit transients.
I b)
(0)
~hln
~
flexible
"striP
Ie)
Stationary
contact
MOVing
contact (d )
Ie)
FIG.
(b)
=-
<>---------1-1
L R~
PR = protective relay
(a) Across contacts. (b) Across load
are in ohms and mfd respectively. In the case of a highly inductive load,
L
ReC = - where Land RL refer to the load. Values of C and R can be
RL
calculated by solving these two equations.
An alternative is to put a capacitor across the load, as shown in fig. 2.3lb;
in this case C = 03~.
RL
with silver contacts. Even with the highest contact pressures, silver contacts
would rapidly deteriorate if they had to handle currents above SA, especially
if they bounced at all. However, if a fast seal-in relay is used to protect the
contact, by paralleling them with its own contacts, these relays can handle
quite heavy currents, provided that the seal-in relay operates within 0010
second and has at least 25 gm. pressure on cylindrical contacts which do not
bounce. Fig. 2.35 shows the contacts of an induction disc relay with a
shaded pole electromagnet and a fast seal-in relay; the illustration indicates
negligible contact deterioration after 500 closures of a 40 amp, 250 volt
trip coil.
Seal-in relays or augmentation of the operating coil current, as is practised
in some foreign relays, is not a complete solution for this problem because
they do not work unless electrical contact is made in the first place. On the
other hand, such methods are valuable for making the contact action more
positive if the contacts are inclined to chatter or if they are of small capacity.
--
C.S. t rip
coil
+o----o~
I
I
I
,....
S
Fig. 2.32b shows a circuit which makes the action of a polarised d.c.
relay more positive. When the contacts close the capacitor discharges through
the transformer, producing a circuit-closing impulse in the operating coil of
the polarised d.c. relay; this causes firm closure and then decays exponentially
to cause no contact rebound. On opening, the charging of the capacitor pro-
duces an impulse in the reverse direction causing a clean break of the contacts.
In the case of ultra-sensitive relays, used with some static relays, the con-
tact pressure can be very small and, in order to ensure intial contact, non-
82
Relay Design and Construction 2.6
tarnishing (royal) metals can be used, such as gold or rhodium. Contacts of
67 % Au, 26 % Ag and 7 % Pt are reputed to work reliably down to 20
micrograms.
The foregoing applies to measuring relays, especially those operating on
very small power inputs. In the case of auxiliary relays the input can be made
as high as their thermal capacity will permit. In cases where very fast action is
required, still greater input may be necessary; fig. 2.33a shows a circuit which
.
-0. .t
c
u ., ~
t 0 0
+0--0
T
0
l!J :::0 .
c Tim e
''"0'
Go
i3 0
R
-0
(a) Circuit for a.ccc.lcro.ti ng p ci k.up
l"'
R 0 0
"O--O-f V\IWIIII\
c
',I
~
u
t
...
~
Time
-0
'0
U
:::o .
c
Go
(c) Circu it for Q.cctlc.ra.t lng both pick - up a.nd drop-out ij o
FIG. 2.33. Circuit arrangements for accelerating pick-up and reset of auxiliary
relays
(a) Fast pick-up. (b) Fast drop-out. (c) Fast pick-up and drop-out
temporarily increases the relay coil current while the capacitor is charging and
thus accelerates the pick-up.
Fig. 2.33b shows a means of accelerating drop-out of an auxiliary relay
by using the inductive inertia of a parallel inductor to reverse the coil current
and hence suppress the core flux rapidly. Fig. 2.33c shows both principles
used to obtain fast action on both pick-up and reset.
83
2.6 Protective Relays
30+---+ _~
J
_
Conta.ct prssure of typica.l
gea.rless induction rcla.ys with 3 V A -+-_~
burden a.t setting
20+----+---++
o+-~~~==~==t=~c==t===c===~
234567 e 9
_ - L_ _ LI_o~p~crLa.~tl~n~g~cu~r ~c~nt~a.~s~m~U~lt~iP~IC~O~fs~ct~ti~ng~I ~j
__
FIG. 2.34. Torque curve showing the development of contact pressure with
operating current for different types of induction relays
2.7. CASES
Modem relay cases have the same width and depth. Only the length
varies with the number of relay units in a case. This enables the width of the
switchboard panels to be standardised, makes it possible to use pressing
tools for blanking out the panel, facilitates the layout of relays on the panel
and gives an improved appearance. In the U.S.A. the tendency in recent
years has been towards the flush mounting of relays to improve the appear-
ance of the panel and minimise the effect of dust. This necessitated a relay
unit withdrawable from the front, so that the American manufacturers have
standardised on drawout relays. The main advantage of this construction,
however, is that it also permits the use of a test plug; this speeds up testing
time by a factor of about 5 and tends to eliminate the possibility of a wrong
87
2.7 Protective Relays
sealing and to provide means for either detecting or removing them if they
occur during service.
A limited amount of moisture can be absorbed by a silicagel unit (shown
just above the nameplate in fig. 2.38). The moisture changes the silicagel
crystals from blue to red; the unit also acts as a leak detector if the relay is
intially dry.
Most volatile organic materials can be minimised by an activated carbon
'getter' in a porous container. Proper baking of the whole relay before
sealing the case avoids the risk of overloading the getter.
90
Relay Design and Construction 2.8
91
2.8 Protective Relays
2.. ECONOMICS IN PANEL MOUNTING
In most countries protective relays are mounted on panels to the rear of
the instrument and control boards but some progress has been made in
mounting relays in racks instead of panels, i.e. a system of parallel horizontal
straps bolted to vertical posts of L section so that the straps can be moved
vertically to suit the length of the relay. Wiring is cabled and supported by
cleats on the horizontal straps. This system is considered to be cheaper than
cubicles and is generally attached to a wall behind the control board; it is
also more flexible since the relays can be rearranged or replaced simply by
moving the straps instead of re-drilling or blanking the panel.
Continental European practice (135) is to put complete protective
schemes such as 3-step distance relays in one large case (fig. 2.39), whereas in
Britain, Sweden and the U.S.A., individual relays are mounted in separate
cases, several of which may form a complete scheme. The single large case
facilitates factory testing and reduces the external wiring but separate relays
are easier to handle, giving greater flexibility of mounting and permitting
changes in connections; this last feature enables modifications of the basic
scheme to be made, which are necessary to meet the demands of different
applications and which would be more difficult with a large case in which the
wiring was already in cable form. Furthermore, separate relays with plug
testing facilities permit one unit to be tested while the remainder of the units
are still in service.
93
2.10 Protective Relays
Mechanical flags are the cheapest (fig. 2.40) but they may not be as
visible because they must be mounted on the relay armature. Two electrically
separate contacts are required on the protective relay if the remote alarm is on
a supply of different voltage from the trip circuit. The work done to trip the
flag, though small, affects the pick-up of a relay and prevents mechanical
flags from being used on very sensitive relays or those with short armature
travel. The absence of electrical connections on the flag simplifies stocking of
relays where the trip current does not exceed 5 A. The worst shortcoming
of mechanical flags is the difficulty of setting them so that they are released
exactly when the relay contacts make; if this is not assured a flag may fail to
operate, or may operate erroneously when an induction disc relay resets
before making contact.
Shunt electrical flags are easier to apply than series flags in a complex
control or trip scheme; tripping is delayed, however, by their operating time
and may be prevented if, for instance, the fine wire coil of the shunt coil is
open-circuited by corrosion. The shunt flag cannot be sealed in except by an
extra wire to an auxiliary switch on the circuit breaker and requires three
contacts on the protective relay. The most common arrangement is 'shunt
reinforcing' (fig. 1. lOb ) where the protective relay opens the flag coil circuit
when it resets after the fault is cleared.
Series flags are used in most countries and offer the most practical
solution. It introduces no delay in tripping and there is negligible risk of
failure to trip because of an open-circuited coil, because the coil wire is of
heavy gauge. Its only limitation is imposed by the very wide range of current
over which it has to operate; some trip coils take 30 A while some tripping
relays take only 01 A. This situation normally requires a choice of three
coils, each having a tap, but a sensitive polarised flag has recently been
developed in England which will pick up at 01 A and has a resistance of
only 1 ohm full coil and 01 ohm on its tap, so that it is applicable to trip
currents up to 30 A.
2.10. FINISHES
Since relays are liable to be kept in damp surroundings in transit or
storage, they must be constructed of materials resistant to rust and corrosion
or they must be plated or painted with a protective coating. When stainless
steel, titanium and magnetic nickel steels become cheaper there will be no
problem; at present the following protective finishes are the most commonly
used.
Steel Parts: Copper-nickel where the appearance is important, with, as an
alternative, tin zinc. Either aluminium or black paint for large parts such
as cases, with an undercoat of primer or phosphate.
Brass: Nickel for good appearance, otherwise bare.
Aluminium: Anodising or irriditing finish.
94
Relay Design and Construction 2.10
2.10.1. Tropicalisation
The protection of relay parts by special finishes is seldom completely
reliable; it is preferable to provide a few watts of heat in relays which are
not normally energised so that the temperature of the air inside the case may
be raised 10C to prevent condensation, especially during storage.
An anti-bacterial and fungicidal varnish is available which should be
painted on mouldings and around the inside of the case or cover every two
years.
Wrapping relays in strong waxed paper or sealed plastic bags for ship-
ment or storage in the tropics is effective provided that the relays were warm
and dry at the time of sealing the bags, and preferably equipped with a bag of
silica-gel.
2.10.2. Corrosion
Unless proper precautions are taken at the factory, fine wire coils are
liable to subsequent failure on open-circuit, usually near one of the leads but
sometimes at a kink or crossed turns, due to the fine wire having been eaten
through by corrosion.
The primary cause of this corrosion is the condensation of moisture on the
coil surface when its temperature is lower than that of the surrounding air.
The condensed moisture rapidly absorbs CO 2 , fatty acids from handling at
the factory and other acid-forming impurities, including bacteria, so that a
weak acid is formed which acts as an electrolyte; this results in electrolysis,
the acid radical combining with the copper to form an acid salt. In the case
of CO 2 , which is absorbed from the air, the salt is CuC0 3 , a green deliques-
cent powder of low resistance, which attracts more moisture and tends to
spread, accelerating the corrosion. Failures from this cause were much more
common when coils were connected to the positive end of the d.c. circuit,
because the coil became the electrode to which the acid ions were attracted.
There is statistical evidence that coils wound with 0006 in. wire are no
less liable to failure than those wound with 0002 in. wire, although they may
take somewhat longer to fail.
Experience has shown that corrosion does not. occur on coils that are
continuously energised since a rise in temperature, even as low as 10C above
ambient, prevents the deposit of moisture. For this reason trouble is very
seldom experienced with a.c. coils; on the other hand, d.c. auxiliary coils and
95
2.11 Protective Relays
trip coils which are not normally energised will corrode if not properly manu-
factured, unless they are connected to the negative pole of the battery and
are separated from the positive pole by the contacts of a relay or switch.
It has been found that condensed moisture or dew starts depositing at the
bottom of cracks in the coil rather than on the surface, whereas rain water
deposits on the surface and tends to bridge over the microscopic cracks.
The formation of the dew at the bottom of the cracks is, of course, the worst
place as regards corrosion, but it can be prevented by encapsulation or by
proper impregnation of the coil or the application of a hard wax over an
existing coil.
Corrosion of other parts of the relay can arise from the same causes and
is accelerated at stress points or where two components made of dissimilar
metals, or having dissimilar finishes, are in contact, promoting galvanic
action. This is especially common in tropical countries where excretions of
bacteria provide a source of acid which, in a damp atmosphere, forms the
electrolyte. Astonishingly large and brightly coloured growths of metal
salts sometimes form during the periods between maintenance, especially
in certain factories in-the tropics such as rubber refineries. For the relays to
operate reliably in such localities it is essential to house them in a sealed case.
APPENDIX
2.11. CALCULATION OF INDUCTION RELAY TORQUE
Consider a moving element made of thin conducting material and pre-
vented from rotating about its axis.
Let two alternating magnetic fluxes Cl>1 and Cl>2 be applied to the element
in such a way that their normal components <PI and <P2 within the element
96
Relay Design and Construction 2.11
are given by:
CPl = klIll s~n(wt+1X1)} (2.11.1)
CP2 = klI21 s1O(wt+ 1X2)
where 1111 and 1121 are the amplitudes of the respective input currents and k
is a constant, characteristic of the magnetic system producing the fluxes.
If the effective impedances presented by the element to currents induced
by the two fluxes are equal and given by Z j A, the total currents are given by:
-~l Z I
i l = ZjA = - wk l11 cos (Wt+lX l -A) )
(2.11.2)
-~2 I wk l
i2 = ZjA = - Z 12 coS(Wt+1X2- A)
and the currents i12 and i21 reacting with the resultant fluxes within the
element by:
.
112 Wkk11 11 I cOS(Wt+1X 1-A)
= kIll. = - -Z )
(2.11.3)
.
121 -Z I12IcoS(rot+1X2- A)
= kl12. = - rokkl
where kl is a constant assumed equal for both currents and defined by:
(2.11.4)
Neglecting the effect of the induced currents upon the applied fluxes, the
torque developed within the element is then given by:
(2.11.5)
where k2 is a constant.
Thus:
'T
. wkk ll 12 I . coS(Wt+1X2-,1.)-
= k2{k I11 I s1O(wt+lXl)-Z
:. 'T = rok2kl I I.
Z k21 11 12 s1O(al- a2) COSA (2.11.6)
97
2.11 Protective Relays
98
3
TIw Main Cha,.trete,.istics of
p,.otective Belays
Phase and Amplitude Comparators-Relay Characteristics-General
Equation for Characteristics-Inversion Chart-Resonance-Appendix
Restra.in Rutra.in
(a) (b)
FIG. 3.1a, b. Differential current protection (longitudinal) (a) normal (b) faulted
Restrdining coli
~_ i(l.. +sl.)
----JM~~ __~~~ _ L__ . __ . ~~~~
(a.)
Opcta.t.ing
coil
Opna.ting Opera.ling
co il coil
T
\ I
~-:}II \
\I
I
1\
II ........._ _ _ _.1...- _ _ ..../
I
I \
\
' - - _ _ _ _........._ _- - ' ' - '
(b)
FIG. 3.3. (a) Circulating current pilot wire protection showing alternative positions
of restraining coil (a and b). (b) Balanced voltage pilot wire protection
B
(a)
\
, ,, I
':v, , t,
'''',,
'l.
to/
, I
I
tfJ
B
(b) (c)
. FIG. 3.4. Vector diagrams of amplitude comparator used for phase comparison
(a) ; > 90 when > )A - B) )A B)
(b) ; = 90 when A - B = A + B
+
(c) ; < 90 when A - B < A + B
IA + BI > IA - BI it is now a phase comparator because A and B must have the
same sense or polarity for the relay to operate. This is illustrated in fig. 3.4.
Similarly, a directional relay whose torque is proportional to a vectorial
product of A and B is a phase comparator which operates when A and B
have the same direction. If, however, the input quantities are changed to
Clearly this same idea can be applied to other relays comparing the two
quantities vectorially. For instance, fig. 3.14b shows the characteristics of a
current differential relay with axes I~:I cos 4> and j I~I sin 4>; this diagram
tells a great deal more about the performance of the relay than some present
manufacturers' bulletins, which use the amplitude comparison diagram of'
fig. 3.14a.
It has already been shown, in Chapter 2, that the characteristics of all
relays comparing two quantities A and B are circles in a diagram whose co-
ordinates are the real and imaginary or quadrature components of (~), viz.
I~l, = l~l cos 4> and j l~t = j I~I sin 4> (3.1)
103
3.1 Protective Relays
\
\. Oi rection of I for mQJC. torque
(a)
.x
(b)
FIG. 3.7. Directional relay characteristic on
(a) current diagram
(b) impedance diagram
104
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.2
where A and B are the two quantities compared. As A and B can be either
currents or voltages, points in the diagram then indicate either current ratios,
impedance or admittance. The advantage of such a diagram is that the phase
and magnitude relations are clearly indicated, but it is not applicable to relays
with non-linear characteristics except as a series of graphs at different levels
of the quantities compared. Phase angles are considered positive when the
numerator quantity leads the denominator quantity, i.e. when A leads B
where ~ is plotted. For example, where; is plotted, j 1;/ = X is positive
/-T
or II -1212 > II-T
+1 [2 for an electromagnetic comparator. (3.2a)
ordinates I~I
~p
and j I~I,. whose radius is
~q 1-
(S~) ' and whose centre is at
1+(~y
c= ( 2 " The negative location of the cen're is due to the convention
1- ~)
of calling the difference current (II - 12 ), If the directions of II and 12 were
considered relative to the protected circuit 12 would be normally negative
relative to II and their difference would be written II + 12 which would make
c positive;
The mathematical steps for the calculation of rand c are given in Appen-
dix 3.7.1. The characteristic is illustrated in fig. 3.14b for S = 01, which is
referred to as a 10% slope (fig. 3.14a).
106
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.2
In the case of a circuit with more than two ends, such as a three-winding
transformer or a multi-circuit bus, the c.t's are polarised with respect to the
direction of power flow from the bus or transformer so that the operating
quantity is now the vector sum of the currents which, by Kirchhoff's Law,
should be zero under normal conditions (this method of polarisation makes
the expression for c positive). In the protection for such multi-ended circuits
the operating coil receives the vector sum of the currents and the restraining
coil or coils the scalar sum of the currents or the squares of the currents.
I
I 1- I z
S I
r-ll1111zl
coS'r
where l' is the angle between 11 and 12 , This arrangement permits S to be
(3.4)
non-linear and large at high currents so that there is a very high restraining
torque (high stability) for heavy external faults. It also gives very fast action
on internal faults because 1111 1121 cos T then becomes negative and hence
adds to operating torque.
K is a relay parameter which depends upon the ratio of the operating and
restraining coil turns and the impedance of the operating coil circuit. P.U.
is the pick-up current ofthe relay, which will be neglected because the critical
108
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.2
conditions of operation occur at high currents where P.U. is negligible. ')I is the
propagation constant and ~~ is a, a vectorial quantity of the form a+jb.
3.1
TABLE
Circulating Current Relay Characteristics
Centre
1 +K2
,'I-K2
! (1 + K2)
l' 1- K2
109
3.2 Protective Relays
To take an example, if l' = '655/-24 for a 20-mile pilot and K = 031.
The a-plane characteristic for the relay at A is a circle of.radius 0'448, centre
at 0'792/- 24; this is also the p-plane characteristic for the relay at terminal B.
The p-plane characteristic for the relay at end A is a circle of radius
1045 and centre at 1,85/24; this is also the characteristic for the a-plane
characteristic of the relay at end B. These characteristics are shown in
fig. 3.8a.
For a zero length pilot l' = 1/0 and the a- and p-plane characteristics
are the same for the relays at either end, viz. a circle of radius 0685 and
II~
(. )
-..L c , r-~
}I!.!I
CA - l-/I(Z , , - 1 _/1(2
C, =~ . 0 I r, = ~
I, '{
II~
~---+-4-4------1I+---+-- I~lp
centre at 1'21/. This is the middle circle of fig. 3.8a. This circle cuts the
. I-K I+K
real aXIs at op = - - and OP' = - ---.
I+K l-K
For the relay to be stable on load and external faults it must not trip when
IA. = IB' i.e. the point 1,0 must be well within the circle. To do this and allow
for modification of the circle due to 1', the relay constant K and the phase angle
110
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.2
of the operating coil circuit must be related to y. To permit the use of a con-
stant value of K, the impedance of the operating coil circuit can be made
equal to the characteristic impedance Zo of the pilot wires. This is explained
in Chapter 8, section 8.4.1 (a).
(ii) Restraining Coil on C.t. Side. For long lines and G.P.O. pilot schemes,
the restraining coil is usually connected in position (b). Here the relay at the
end A is at the threshold of operation when
1r,.-yIBI = KIIAI (3.9)
In Appendix 3.7.5 it will be shown that the operating characteristic in the
a-plane is a circle of radius ~IYI
l-K
and centre at y - 1
1 2'
-K
Zo in series with the operating coil in fig. 3.3a is adjusted so that the
operating coil currents in the relays at the two terminals, t(IA - sIB) and
t(IB- SIA)' are in phase with each other for single-end feed, i.e. with I B = O.
This compensates for the phase shift in the pilot so that y can be taken as
scalar and equal to s (fig. 3.8b).
The equation for balance then becomes
(3.10)
Ditto lIB - "IAI = KIIBI B (1 - K) I~I (1 + K) I~I 3.2.3 (a)(ii) 3.7.4 3.Sb
KI~I 11~1
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.2
due to the fact that the voltage limiting devices upset the voltage balance that
is required to prevent tripping on external faults.
(c) Criterion for Stability. Table 3.2 summarises the values for the radii
and centre locations for the various applications of differential current relays.
As previously explained, the point 1,0 must be well within the characteristic
to ensure stability. This will be the case if 1,0 is well between the points P
and P' where the circle cuts the real axis. Where the centre of the circle lies
in the real axis, as in the case of differential current relays, OP = c-r and
OP' = c+r, but, in the case of the pilot wire relays, the data apply only
where compensation is provided for 'Y so that the centre of the characteristic
circle lies on the real axis. In the Appendix, section 3.7, the cases are con-
sidered of relays not having this compensation and which are treated as
follows.
Referring to fig. 3.21c, if the centre of the circle is located at ao, bo, the
points P and P' where the circle cuts the real axis are given by
a1 = ao-(r2-b 2)t and a2 = ao+(r2-b 2)t, (3.11)
respectively.
3.2.4. Impedance Relays (58)
Where the length of the line makes pilot wire protection expensive and
where the importance of the line does not justify carrier protection, distance
relays are used. These relays compare the local current with the local potential
in a given phase or phase pair.
In relays of the electromagnetic type, such as the balanced beam, the
current magnet exerts a force K 1112 tending to close the contacts and is
opposed by the potential magnet whose force is K'1V12, where K and K'
are constants corresponding to those in equation (2.1) in the previous chap-
ter. Operation occurs when K 1112 > K' 1V12, i.e. when
so that J:, is made equal to the impedance of the protected zone. The
application of impedance relays is discussed more fully in Chapter 5.
The torque of the relay is IVIIII cos (4)-9) where 4> is the angle between
V and I and 9 is the value of 4> for which the relay has maximum torque.
This is the third term in equation 2.1 in the previous chapter.
x
,1
/I
II
:12K-zl
R
(a) (b)
-8
Ref V
-G--~7-r-.---~---G
Trip Trip
(c) (d)
FIG . 3.9. Ohm relay characteristic on different graphs (K is the impedance setting
ZI!. of the relay)
(a) Voltage. (b) Impedance. (c) Current. (d) Admittance
V~AD v'
I I
12V_1, x
Zt' :2Z-x'1I
~ "
I
I
I
X
I" I
,'v_l~
,
I
(a) (b)
-8
--~-r------~~ G
(c) (d)
FIG. 3.10. Mho relay characteristic on different graphs (K is the admittance setting
YI!!. of the relay)
(a) Voltage. (b) Impedance. (c) Current. (d) Admittance
x ....... - ...... x
, '" ... , , ,
, \.
\
I
I
I
I
I
I
R \ R
\ '"
'v'"
"
'-- -..-;
",/
(a) (b)
(c)
FIO. 3.11. (a) Offset mho characteristic on impedance diagram
(b) Offset impedance characteristic on impedance diagram
(c) Offset mho or impedance characteristic on admittance diagram
A
B
A
B
the equations for the amplitude comparator and for the phase comparator
are of the same form (equation 2.2) but with different values for K 1 , K 2 , K3
and K 4 On the other hand, if the same values of K are used for both compara-
tors their characteristic circles will be orthogonal.
= (KIK4-K2 K 3)2
K~-Ki
Consequently the equation now becomes
(A~)2 + 2(KIK2-K3K4)1!!lc
K~-Ki A os
(A._B) (KIK2- K 3K 4)2
+ K~-Ki Of'
Amplitude Pha.se
compara.tor com a.ra.tor
K1K -/(. J(. K1K~-K2K'}
r
K. -K 2)(, K
j~lq c K,K~-K(! K1K~+K2:K3
K K 21(.
In order to obtain the radius and centre of the circle plotted in the ex-plane
we have to return to equation (3.14) and divide it through by (Ki-K~) IBI2
instead of (K~-Kl) IAI2
and this gives
(~)2
B +
2 (KIK2-K3K4)A co (A._B) Ki-Kl = 0
Ki-K~ B s Of' + Ki-K~
This is a circle of radius
KIK4-K2 K 3
Ki-K~
whose centre is at
3.3 Protective Relays
3.3.2. Phase Comparator
The two quantities to be compared are of the same form as equations
(3.12) and (3.13) except that the constants are different, i.e.
KIIAI+KzIBI [cos (cp-O)+j sin (cp-O)] (3.17)
and K;IAI+K4IBI [cos (cp-O)+j sin (cp-O)] (3.18)
The relay operates when the product of (3.17) and (3.18) is positive.
Considering expressions (3.17) and (3.18), if ct is the phase angle of one
quantity and p that of the other, the threshold of operation is when
ct - p = 90, because the product is greatest when the two quantities are
in phase.
i.e. when tan (ct- P) = 00
tanct-tanp
i.e. when - - - - ' - = +00
1+tanct tanp -
i.e. when 1+tanct tanp = 0
-1
or tanct= - - (3.19)
I tanp
tanct = K21BI sin (cp-O)
From fig. 3.12
KlIAI+KzIBI cos (cp-O)
K41BI sin (cp-O)
and
tanp = K;IAI +K4IBI cos (cp-O)
Substituting for tan ct and tan p in equation (3.19) we get
K1K41BI2 sin2(cp-O) = - K1K;IAI2-K1K4IAIIBI cos (cp-O)-
-K1K;IAIIBI cos(cp-0)-K1K4IBI2 cos 2(cp-9)
i.e. K1K4IBI2+K;'K;IAI2+(K;'K4+K;K;)IAIIBI cos (cp-O) = 0
Dividing through by K5. K~ IAI2 gives the characteristic equation for the
p-plane
!!12 K1K4 +K1K;I!!1 (,1,.-0) KIK; = 0
1A + K:zK4, A cos,+, + K2K.~
The last term can be rearranged in the form of the circle equation (3.15)
to give th~ following:
!!/2 (KIK4+K1K3)/'!!leos(,I,._O) + (K 1K4+K1K 3)2
/A + K;K4 AI
'+' 2K1K4
= (K;'K4-K1K3)2
2K~K4
'
This IS . 1 f d' K;'K4-K1K;
a CITe eo ra lUS r = 2K;K4
1 ~12
B +
K;K~+K2K31:i1 ('/"-0) K2K~ = 0
K;K~ B cos + KI K 3
'I'
When this is rearranged in the form of the circle equation (2.3), the
K1K~-K2K;
equation represents a circle of radius whose centre is at
2K1X;
_ K1K~+K2K~ 10
2K1K; -
s;
The restraining winding is supplied with currents (II +12 ) and has
turns. The common term N can be included in the relay constants K t
Kl , K3 and K4 The operating quantity is therefore
(11 - /2) = Kd/ll +K2 1/2 I(cos I{> +j sin I{.
I,+h
-2-
(a)
-+-------t---:--t----I*l p
r=O1004
(b)
FIG. 3.14. Operating characteristic of differential current relay
(a) Scalar diagram. (b) Polar diagram
The restraining quantity is (/1 +/2) ~ = K31/11 +K41I21(cos I{>+j sin I{where
c/> is the angle between 11 and 12 () is the angle of 12 from a reference axis and
can be made zero and hence neglected.
2 2
122
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.4
c= -
K1K2- K 3 K 4
K2 K2
= 1+(~r = (1 +!2)
(S)2 S2
(3.25)
2- 4 1- 2 1- 4
This checks the results given in section 3.2.1 and Appendix 3.7.1. If the
slope Sis 10 %we can substitute S = 01 in the above equations, which gives
r = 01004 and c = 1004.
This is the characteristic shown in fig. 3.14b which has the general
equation
(3.26)
It is evident from equations (3.24) and (3.25) that, if S is small, C = 1 and
r = S. Therefore the approximate equation for the characteristic of a
differential current relay can be taken as
(b) Phase Comparator. In order to find the constants for 11 and]2 in the
quantities that must be supplied to a phase comparator to give the same
differential current characteristic, i.e. a circle of the same rand c, we must use
the same values as in equations (3.24) and (3.25).
and
c
= _ K~K~+K;K;
2K' K'
(1 + !2)
S2
=
2 4 1--
4
S2 S
1--
2K~K~ K~ 1+ 4 -S 2
c-r = - 2-K-;-K-~ =- K; = S2 = --S-
1- 4 1+2
S2 S
2K;K; K; 1+"4 +S 1+2
and c+r = - -2K-;-K-~ =- -K4 = S2 =--
1-- 1-~
4 2
S
Kl K~ 2- 1
-=-=--
K2 K; S
2+1
123
3.4 Protective Relays
which is fuI1iUed when
Kl =K:"=~-l
2
(3.28)
S
Ki=K3 = 2-+ 1
Therefore the quantities supplied to be compared in a phase comparator to
give the same characteristic as the amplitude comparator considered in
section 3.4.1 (a) are the vectorial sums
Percentage S S S
Amplitude III-hi i lh + hl 1 -I S 1+ (~r
differential 2 2
current 1- (~r
(Slope = S) Phase (1- ~)Il - (I + ~)h - (I + ~)h + (1 - ~)12 1- ~ I+~ - (I +~) I-~ 1- (~r
2 2
The chart has axes I~\p and j 1~lq' To convert a value of 1~lp + j I~t to
the corresponding form 1~lp + j 1~lq it is only necessary to refer to the values
of the semi-circles which intersect at the point 1~lp' j I~t on the graph.
If A is potential and B is current 1~lp is resistance (R), j 1~lq is reactance
eX), I!!!Ap is conductance (G), j I!!\Aq is susceptance (B), ~B is impedance (Z) and
~ is admittance (Y).
007
008
,,
0 ,09
,,
' ,0 ,,I
o U~~::lii~0~'~4~0~'=3~0;;:'2~5=0~';: 2::I0='18=l-:lO':-:'16~~-:--tJ::-~::--:0~'1-1% Ip
I
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 10
Va.lu~ of lA/al..,
21CVLC E"v'LC1- -
I. Natural J 1 R2
!i / R'C
4L 4L -1
J1 - R2C RJ1- 3R2C R" I _ 3R2C - 2)R2C
LC 4L2 4L 16L
16L
I EVLC E
2. Phase 21CVLC - ct:)
VLC R R
21CVLC EVLC
3 Amplitude ) - 1 - -R2
. LC 2L2 )1 _ R2C RJ1- R2C
E
R
- )4L _ 2
R2C
2L 4L
I
(a)
I v
~f-o
s C ~ C
V I
(b) (c)
FIG. 3.16. (a) Volt ampere relation of a capacitor and a saturating reactor
(b) Ampere/volt relation of a series resonant circuit
(c) Volt/ampere relation of a parallel resonant circuit
.!;.L
.~~L~
R C 00
V'" R (a)
~
I-
...~... Ls
mw o 0
~'"
'h'.U
Cf
I'"
J~: (b)
I
(or V)
parallel circuit of fig. 3.17b and the unbracketted ones for the series circuit
(fig. 3.17a). The arrows show the curves followed in increasing and decreasing
the voltage or current.
This phenomenon is useful in the design of a regulating device to make it
more sensitive over a small change in voltage or frequency. In a relay the
pick-up and drop-out can be closely controlled in the region x - y of fig. 3.18.
~ Ilnll"~ Dorltctoona.l
rcla.y
FIG. 3.19. Circuit for maintaining torque of directional relay at low voltages
The distance between x and y decreases with resistance. The associated analy-
sis is very complicated and is dealt with in references (6), (7) and (145).
This principle has also been used in the potential restraining coil of a
distance relay starting unit to obtain a high pick-up under normal con-
ditions and a low pick-up under fault conditions. It has also been used to
v.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
v
( a.) (b)
FIG. 3.20. Constant phase angle characteristic of relay in fig. 3.19
(a) Coil current versus line voltage
(b) Vector diagram of circuit voltages
maintain the torque of a directional relay at low voltages. Fig. 3.19 shows the
circuit of the polarising potential coil. The non-linear resistor N limits the
coil voltage and the coil current is maintained (fig. 3.20a) down to 10% of
normal voltage while the phase relation of the coil current relative to the
system potential is kept constant (fig. 3.20b) and hence the maximum torque
angle of the relay is constant.
3.7. APPENDIX 1
The threshold equations of relays can be transformed to represent
threshold characteristics in suitably chosen planes. This appendix deals with
a few typical cases.
130
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.7
3.7.1. Differential Current Relay
The relay is on the threshold of operation when
(b) (c)
r = {(1+K2)2
1-K2
_1}t = 2K
1-K
2' c = 1+K2
1-K2 (3.7-6) (3.7-7)
12
II
a=-==a+J'b (3.7-2)
:. a2+b2-2a(1+~)+1==0 (3.7-10)
where: K == S2 (3.7-11)
It can be shown that the threshold characteristic of the relay in the p-plane
is also represented by equation (3.7-10).
Thus in both the a-plane and the p-plane the threshold characteristic of
IY - r r
the relay is a circle of radius r and centre defined by vector c, where:
r = {( 1 + 1 = { K (1 + ~) (3.7-12)
K
c=I+- (3.7-13)
2
and K is defined by equation (3.7-11).
132
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.7
3.7.3. Circulating Current Pilot Scheme with the Restraining Coil on the Pilot
Side
The two relays situated at the two ends A and B of a pilot are on the
threshold of operation when:
IIA -yIBI = KIIA +yIBI (3.7-14)
and IIB-yIAI = KIIB+yIAI (3.7-15)
respectively, where IA and IB are the two currents fed into each relay and K
is a design parameter; y is the propagation constant of the pilot.
Consider the threshold characteristic of relay A in the a-plane.
IA
a=-=a+J'b (3.7-16)
18
y = m+jn (3.7-17)
Equation (3.7-14) can be expressed in terms of a and transformed as
follows:
IIB(a+Jb)-lim+jn)1 = KIIia+jb)+IB(m+jn)l,
(a-m)2+(b-n)2-K2{(a+m)2+(b+n)2} = 0
2 2 I+K2 I+K2 2 2
a +b -2ml_K2a-2nl_K2b+(m +n )=0 (3.7-18)
r= {(m2+n2)G~~:r - )Y
(m 2+n 2
2K
= lyll_K2 (3.7-21)
133
3.7 Protective Relays
I+K2 . I+K2
and C = m l-K2 + Jn l _ K2
I+K 2
= y I-X2 (3.7-22)
r =
{
(m 2+n 2)(I+K2)2 l}t
(m 2+ n2)2(1- K2)2 - m2 + n2
1 2K
(3.7-23)
= 1Yl (I-K2)
I+K2 . I+K2
and
C = m (m 2+n 2)(I-K2) - In (m 2+n2)(I_K2)
1 (I+K2)
(3.7-24)
= y(I-K2)
3.7.4. Circulating Current Pilot Scheme with the Restraining Coil on the c.t. Side
The threshold equations of the two relays situated at the two ends A
and B of a pilot are
I/A-IBI = KIIAI (3.7-25)
and IIB-IAI = KIIBI (3.7-26)
where, as before, IA and IB are the two currents fed into each relay, K is a
design parameter and y is the propagation constant of the pilot.
Consider the threshold characteristic of relay A in the DC-plane.
IA
DC=-=a+J'b (3.7-16)
IB
y = m+jn (3.7-17)
Equation (3.7-25) can be expressed in terms of DC and transformed as
follows:
IIaCa+jb)-(m+jn)IBI = KllaCa+jb)1
(a_m)2+(b_n)2_K 2a2_K 2b2 = 0
m n m 2+n 2
a 2+ b2 - 2 (1- K2) a - 2 (1- K2) b + 1- K2 = 0 (3.7-27)
P= I- B 'b
= a+j (3.7-20)
IA
Thus the threshold characteristics of relay A in the ex-plane and of relay
B in the p-plane are identical circles represented by equation (3.7-27) of
radius r and centre defined by vector c, where:
r = {m 2+n 2 _ (m 2 +n 2)(1_K 2)}t
(1- K2)2 (1- K2)2
K
= lyl 1 _ K2 (3.7-29)
1 . 1
and c = m 1 _ K2 + jn 1 _ K2
1
= Y 1-K2 (3.7-30)
3.B. APPENDIX 2
Resonance is of vital interest in the design of relay circuits. This appendix
deals with three typical cases of linear resonance in a series circuit.
1'R
di q
+ L --+-=e (3.8-1)
dt c
. dq
where: 1=- (3.8-2)
dt
Equations (3.8-1) and (3.8-2) can be restated using the Laplace trans-
formation
where e, i, and q are the transforms of e, i, and q respectively and i(o), q(o)
are the corresponding initial values.
Assuming initial quiescence
i(o) = 0 (3.8-5)
q(o) =0 (3.8-6)
and an alternating electromotive force
e = Esihrot (3.8-7)
equation (3.8-4) can be transformed to
Ero 1
q= (3.8-8)
L [(p+oc)z+pZ] [pz+ro Z]
R
where: oc=-
2L
Z 1 RZj
fJ = LC- 4Lz (3.8-9)
T = 21t (3.8-15)
co
Natural resonance occurs when the circuit is energised at its natural
angular frequency p, given by equation (3.8-9). The amplitude Q, period T
and phase shift cP, characteristic of the oscillation, are then obtained from
equations (3.8-14), (3.8-15) and (3.8-11) respectively:
co=P=J~-fu
J I_ R2C
4L
(3.8-16)
= (3.8-17)
RJl- 3R C2
16L
21t 21tJLC
T = - = ---;====:;:= (3.8-18)
P Jl- R 2 C
4L
Phase res.onance occurs when the frequency at which the circuit is ener-
gised is adjusted so that its power factor becomes unity:
1
coL-- =0
coC
1
(3.8-20)
co = -JLC
137
3.8 Protective Relays
2~ _1_
2L' JLC
)
(
(3.8-23)
Amplitude resonance occurs when the frequency at which the circuit is
energised is adjusted so that the steady state amplitude Q of charge q
becomes a maximum. Differentiating Q, equation (3.8-14), with respect to ro
and equating the derivative to zero
/
- = - -2L
dQ
dro
E {R2
L2 LC
-2ro+2 ( - 1 _ro 2 )( -2ro)} = 0
-ro 2 + ( - 1 _ro 2 )2}-3 2{R2
L2 LC
R J
=--;=====
R2C
1--
4L
(3.8-25)
T = 2n = 2nJLc
ro Jl- RC 2
2L
(3.8-26)
138
The Main Characteristics of Protective Relays 3.8
(3.8-27)
The period T and phase shift tPl are given by equations (3.8-22) and
(3.8-23) respectively.
Consider amplitude resonance. Differentiating 1, equation (3.8-29),
with respect to wand equating the derivative to zero
dI = Q+ w dQ = 0
dw dw
E{R2L2 W2+ (1LC - w2)2}-t - w 2LE{R2IJ w2+ (1LC - w2)2}-3/2
L
{~: 2w+ 2 (L1C - ( 2) ( - 2W)} = 0
leads to
1
(3.8-32)
w = .../LC
139
3.8 Protective Relays
which is the same as for phase resonance, equation (3.8-20). Thus
E
I = Ii (3.8-31)
and the period T and phase shift lPl are given by equations (3.8-22) and
(3.8-23) respectively.
140
4
Overcurrent Protection
Time-Current Characteristics-Application-Limits of Error-
Ratings-Directional Overcurrent Protection-A.C. Tripping-
Schemes for Radial Feeders-Construction-Application-Problem
~SUPPIY
'I~
Tra.nsformer
O.C.trip device
FIG. 4.1. Current grading through transformer impedance (Fault at X heavier than
fault at Y)
is a high impedance unit such as a transformer which makes the fault much
less for faults beyond the transformer.
In fig. 4.2 the fuses are current magnitude devices but, although they are
considered instantaneous, they have an inverse time-current characteristic,
i.e. the higher the fault current the faster they blow. In the diagram which
may represent the electrical circuit of a hotel or a factory, a fault on one of the
circuits at the right-hand end of the diagram may draw 50 amperes which
will be ten times the rating of the end fuses, five times that of the next group
141
4.1 Protective Relays
@
InIWta.ncOUI
--C1--1
FU5C5
FIG. 4.3. Lack of current selectivity where Z./Z. is high (Current similar for faults at
X and Y)
add time discrimination, as shown in fig. 4.3, with the time settings increased
towards the source.
Where there are many sections in series the tripping time for a fault near
the power source may be dangerously high (fig. 4.4). This is obviously un-
Time
2scc.
11scc.
lscc. I
I lsce.
~SUb.l
~
Sub. 2 Sub.3 Sub.4
flO. 4.4. Definite time grading on radial circuit
desirable because such faults involve large currents and are very destructive
if not removed quicldy. In fact, the fundamental weakness of time-graded
overcurrent relays is the fact that the heaviest faults are cleared slowest.
In the next paragraphs methods of dealing with this problem will be dis-
cussed.
:J
appreciable difference between the current for a fault at the far end of the
section (] = z.! z) and the current for a fault at the near end (] =
142
Overcurrent Protection 4.1
In such a case a relay whose time is inversely proportional to the current
(It = K) would trip faster for a fault at the end of the section nearer the
power source; the ratio for the tripping time at the near end to the time at
the far end is ~.
Z.+Z/
The resultant time-distance characteristics, compared with those of
definite time relays, are shown in fig. 4.5, and it will be seen that the inverse
,../ :
---- I
__ - - I ___ / II
t--_D::...:~""fin",-it:..::.~-----1- _ -:;...-_~~___________ ....J ____ - I
~
-
\!\~~rsr;
- ~_:::
_ ---
________ ...JI
I===_i-r---'-:~:::
QWl~_ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _~+I===
\.Y1lsub.l Sub.2 Sub.3 Sub.4
FIG. 4.5. Definite versus inverse time current relaying
time relay can provide faster clearing times than the definite time relay,
assuming the same selective intervals, S. The tripping time can be still further
reduced by using e. more inverse characteristic, such as Ilt = K.
On systems solidly grounded at each station Z. is small so that excellent
selectivity on ground faults can be obtained with inverse time current relays.
10
"-
~
1\ :-...:
1\ ~~ ~ 62
T....S.
~ gie-.
1\
I-
i'''~ 05
02
~ 0'
.,
0 ,
10 100
MU'ltlpru 01 r1lJ9 lIttlin.9 currc.n.l
travel) so that, if the times for a given current were divided by the time
multiplier setting (T.M.S.), all the curves should be coincident. Unfortu-
nately, the inertia of the disc makes this impossible at low current values
because it takes a little time for the disc to accelerate from standstill to its
steady speed.
This is taken care of by publishing a family of curves such as is shown in
fig. 4.6a. In the U.K. the curves are coincident within B.S. tolerances down
to 01 T.M.S. at ten times the tap value and the nameplate shows a single
144
Overcurrent Protection 4.1
curve (fig. 4.15) or logarithmic scale (fig. 4.6b) which gives the time at full
travel (10 T.M.S.). The actual time is given by multiplying the time given
on the scale by the T.M.S. At low currents the time is given by the curves of
fig. 4.15 which are part of the national specification B.S.S. 142.
LogT
Log!
be varied (118) to suit the application and the value of Z8/Z" Furthermore,
combinations of definite, true inverse and instantaneous units (fig. 4.1) are
much easier to apply than the present I.D.M.T. curves.
Z;-Zs> Z, (1 + ::).
An example of this is the short section 1-2 in fig. 4.8. In such cases fast
.
II
.:: _ ...... ......
----
...
---- .........
Power Sui>-stG.tion Sub-sta.tion Sub-sta.tion
source No.1 No.2 No.3
clearing of faults can be obtained by the use of one-step distance relay des-
cribed in Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, which cuts off at the same distance from the
relay regardless of the magnitude of the fault current.
Assuming, however, that conditions are suitable for the application of the
instantaneous unit, it should be set to pick up at a current value for a fault
near the end of the protected section under maximum generating conditions.
The percentage of the section that can thus be protected depends upon the
146
Overcurrent Protection 4.1
tendency of the relay to overreach on offset waves.
The current is proportional to oc _1_ so that, with 100% offset current
Zs+Z,
transient, pick-up would occur with half the symmetrical value of current,
i.e. double the value of Zs+Z" Since Zs is fixed Z, is correspondingly in-
creased, i.e. the overreach K can be obtained from Z.+KZ, = 2(Z,+Z,),
Zs
i.e. K = 2+- (4.1)
Z,
hence with 100% offset current wave a truly instantaneous overcurrent relay
would overreach to more than twice the length of the protected section.
Actually the overreach will be reduced by the operating time of the
relay because the d.c. component of the fault current will be decaying
exponentially, so that
R
- -t
. Emu. sin (wt+l/I-t/ Emax e L sin(l/I-t/
I. = ../R2+(Lw)2 + ../R 2+(Lw)2 (4.2)
I 1J~k
(a)
I71
(b)
FIO. 4.9. Instantaneous overcurrent relays with negligible overreach
(a) Tapped secondary
(b) Continuous adjustment
147
4.1 Protective Relays
use the arrangement of fig. 4.9 which not only eliminates the overreach but
also provides a drop-out to pick-up ratio of over 90 %.
In systems such as are described in section 4.7, where the instantaneous
unit is given a relatively low setting, it is important that the relay reset upon
the return of normal load conditions, i.e. the reset value of current should
be as close to the operating value as possible. The normal drop-out/pick-up
ratio of attracted armature relays is SO % or less because of the change in
reluctance as the armature gap closes but a ratio of 90 % can be achieved
by matching the pull to the mechanical load over the range of travel of the
armature. This can be done mechanically by auxiliary spring arrangements,
as explained in Chapter 2, section 2.4.4, fig. 2.1S, or by non-linear resonance,
as illustrated in fig. 4.9 of this chapter, or by an adjustable air-gap inside the
solenoid.
4.1.7. Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay (/2t = K)
For cases where the generation is practically constant and discrimination
with low tripping times is difficult to obtain, because of the low impedance
per line section, an extremely inverse relay can be very useful (i.e. one in
which the time is inversely proportional to the square of the current) since
only a small difference in current is necessary to obtain an adequate time
difference.
This relay is also very desirable for protection of apparatus against over-
heating, since [2t = K is also the current versus heating characteristic of most
apparatus. Typical applications are earthing transformers, power trans-
formers, expensive cables and railway trolley wires. Fig. 4.10 shows typical
heating curves for SO cis generators and transformers.
An application of particular importance is that of large generators which
may receive damage to their rotors by overheating if an unbalanced fault or
load is permitted to remain too long on the system. In this case a relay of
extremely inverse time-current characteristic is supplied through a negative
sequence filter and the constant K is set by the time multiplier scale according
to the type of machine. Such a relay must be well designed since it may have
to operate in a fraction of a second at heavy currents or several thousand
seconds at low currents. It also has to be very accurate in order to exactly
match the heating characteristics of the generator so that it will not be taken
off too soon or unnecessarily, which is important if it is a big machine. The
best relay of this type at present available uses a shrouded ball and jewel
bearing (see Chapter 2, section 2.6.1) and is shown in fig. 9.11.
Other useful applications of this relay are for accurate discrimination
with fuses (fig. 4.11), which is impossible with the LO.M.T. curve, and also
for reclosing distribution circuits after a long outage (see last paragraph of
section 4.2.6).
4.1.8. Special Characteristics
Owing to the American manufacturers having used a superlative in the
term 'Extremely Inverse' relay it is difficult to find descriptive names for the
148
10
1,000 rrr- II K.V. ~l-
\ 75 A fun
, SC52S0A
500 ~
\ \ 500 "Y.A. Tro.n.lormor
I
\\ I f---_I\--\--II--+-+-+-+-H-~j-.....:..:.1t:..::...
KY./440V 1 11
1\ \ 5"1- CB . T
200 \\ I II . I
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ <Currri
FIG. 4.13. Time-current curve required for mercury arc rectifiers, r1= K
8
100
50
PICk.t 1.0Ll' J
I
tiL, utting
40 /
4
"\ ,
30
..
."
~20
u
12"0
Time
Irron
.=
glO 7Lo
Time errol'll ~
'"
c
~
~ 5
~Lr.
o 4 l~ ~
3
~
2 ~
1
1 2 3 4 5 10 20
Mult iple. of plug tlttlng
1000 amperes will cause the I.D.M.T. relay R 2 , which operates in 28 seconds
and is set at 10 T.M.S., to have an error of 007 x 3 = 021 second; relay R3
operates in just over 2 seconds and has a permissible error of 014 second.
These errors can be and must therefore be added so that the total selective
interval required is 035 second for error plus 005 second for overshoot and
01 second fol' the breaker time, making a total of 05 second, assuming the
breaker never exceeds its clearing time of 01 second even for low current
faults.
For the Rl relay (38 seconds at 1000 amperes) a selective interval of 06
153
4.2 Protective Relays
second is required but for the lower time settings the selective interval can be
smaller because the errors are a percentage and therefore less.
Actually, it is common practice to use a fixed selective interval of 04
second but it would be much better to use an interval of 02+01t where t
is the operating time of the next relay away from the source at maximum
fault conditions, assuming five cycle breakers. The 02 second allows for
breaker time plus relay overshoot and the 01 t is the sum of the errors on
two neighbouring relays.
R,
50r-~~r--'--'-'-----'-----r--r-'-'-----'
10tlmcs 20tlmcs
0 ' 21 c. 015 c.
0 '13
"
~
~10 i----'''r---i-'\,.--lI.---+-+---- R, " 1' 0 TM. 150% plug .. !tin
5
R,=0' 85 TM. 12S% plug sctting
t-----+---!f--t-''k-----''o.,----'''''oR---d----k7 %T,mrror
I I
2 1-----+----1I--I-+-__......::::~~~~.,.3II-~\II"'oot
ev...hoot
I I
CircuIt brc<1k.r
110
~0~---
20
~0---L~~0----~----~---L~~~---J
50 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
F<lUlt current in <1mp.
those in the end zone which would be cleared in most cases in less than
! second. This is particularly important for the relays near the source because
(a) this is where the most severe faults can occur, (b) the time settings of these
relays must be less than those of the relays at the power source, (c) this
is generally the easiest place to apply them, because the difference in fault
currents at the two ends of the line section is greatest near the source.
155
4.2 Protective Relays
Unfortunately there are many cases where there is not sufficient impedance
in the line sections of the distribution system to provide a reasonable difference
in current at the two ends of each protected section. In such cases the in-
stantaneous overcurrent unit can be replaced by a single-step impedance
unit, or mho unit (directional impedance).
An impedance unit or a mho unit has the advantages that its reach is
unaffected by current magnitude and, if of proper design, it is not affected by
transient conditions, such as offset current waves, so that it can be set to
~
r---R1
0 -- -- R2
c --
Ie
J)
.....-- ~
JA
~
............
.....
10
Very Inverse cI1o.ra.<:terost.es
I- R~-;:-- RiA -p;:- f- . Stlll\da.rdB,7'cha.rjerIItIC
. . O.M.T .
~
..
u
5
~4M' H 2- I -R,
\ \
.,..e
.5 \
.[
\ \ \ \ 1\ \
\
! ~\ ~ i\~ '\~
1l f', \\
1'0
,,-
"- ."-
"- "'-
os "- "'-1\ 1\ r---.'. , "-
'\ .........
~
..
~ j " ~
r"I~]
.!! .!!
~ ~
0"
.2 ~ .2
100 200 soo 2,000 S,OOO 10,000
Fault current In amps
that with the stated relay settings a difference of 03 second in the tripping
times of adjacent circuit-breakers is obtained although all relays have the
same time multiplier setting of 015.
A comparison is given in the same figure to show the impossibility of
obtaining the same time settings using a standard LD.M.T. relay.
This very inverse relay not only reduces the tripping time between the
157
4.2 Protective Relays
breakers but invariably allows a lower time multiplier setting to be employed
and, as the errors are only 7 % of the minimum operating time, down to a
minimum value of 01 second (B.S.S.), the margin between the time grading
steps can be reduced.
Very inverse time-current relays are particularly effective with ground
faults because of their steep characteristic, coupled with the fact that the
zero sequence current varies with distance to the fault much more than with
phase faults (section 4.2.1). This permits lower time multiplier settings to be
used without losing discrimination between stations.
Currcnlla.ppings
c
'"
E
'"
01)
I':
'"t::
'p."
;g
]
i
....
'p."
-=
.~
:su
ell
'"
'0
p::
.ci
",'
0
N
.f
c
i;:
159
4.2 Protective Relays
seconds, this value being often below twice the generator's continuous current
rating, depending upon the value of excitation, and whether it has manual
or automatic control.
In the past, difficulties have arisen in the correct selection of suitable
relay settings when using the standard I.D.M.T. relay, as it is necessary to
select a setting which not only discriminates with other overcurrent relays
on the system and is inoperative on momentary overloads, but is operative
on the sustained short-circuit current of the generator, or at least operates
before it reaches the sustained value. The problem is further complicated by
the damping effect of offset currents on the relay itself.
An extremely inverse relay applied to a generator-transformer equipment
is shown in fig. 4.10. It will be apparent that the characteristics are such that
the relay gives adequate protection at the lower values of overload at a time
corresponding to the safe thermal rating of both the generator and the
20 \
~
10
~\ ,\'-,
50
4 ,0
\ \
\
"
" 3,0 - Inve.r.se tlmr.
(l.o.M.T.)~
'0
8::2-0 \ ,
..
.5
E
.;l
r\ ,,
,
S
0>
I-a 1\
2 \ ,,
8- - 'Wry i"vuu time
0-5
0-4
0-3 '\
a-I
0 '05,
10 20
Multiples of plug 'dUng
\\\\
!"t'\. \\\'l 50
I\W ~ 1t==t=+=l=J-H+H----t--rrttD
1\ \\' ~
I
'"
2 '" NI ~ ~ 20
~
'~
10
'0)
I\~ ~~~
)~~''''-
E", " ",m, ~_
..
"'0 r'\
.
"" o
...
)-5 ~~~~~-~-W~--~~II~
.80 \ ~
_,,1 i i ~"K~~ ~
.5 c;: c::
.. \ f\" ~~~f:::
e \ f"\ ~~ E ~
.... ;: z. :;,
\ 1\ '"c
~ .5
'" I\. ~ '"
~O12
~ ~ ~ t::::: '0 ~ 2 ~~~t-~ ~b~- -+-++-r- ."
-
'\ 0' ~ ' .'""- I""""' '"" ~=--- g:~
Q..
.. 5 a..
o r\
~~ o I"" I "-. r--.. i'!\ 0.6 ~
" ~~ j\,.
"--- I 0.: ~ t'- t---... R.
oI t\ ~ t:::: ~ 10 o
:;,
....... "
I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ --"":::::.
" O T"
it",k
........ V1t~K "", I ........... ' \ , J
0<>55 O
p, ; " 0 2 t'\.
'" \
r-- '\ ['.
- - - - - 0 1 \ i\. ~
'" 1'--..\ .......... \0.1
0-0 ! o, \
\ 1'\
00 I .- - 0. 1 IL--l-+-4JLlli~~-L-~I\~
2 10 5 10 20 50 ,00
00 ~
Mu lt iples 0' plug .etting currrnt W
Multiplu of plug setting current
FIG. 4.22. Method of defining error of very inverse relays FIG. 4.23. Method of defining error of extremely inverse relays
4.3 Protective Relays
error is equal to the class index and the permitted time error fractionally
above pick-up corresponds with nx the class index. If the time approaches
infinity at pick-up so does n, and hence the permissible percent time error
also approaches infinity.
To summarise, th,is is a very simple and most effective way of defining
errors because:
(a) The percent pick-up error is equal to the class index C.
(b) For n < 1 the percent current error is equal to the class index C.
(c) For n < 1 the percent time error is equal to the class index C.
(d) This method is applicable to all types of inverse time overcurrent
relays whatever shape the characteristic may be.
TABLE 4.1
B.S.S. 3 sec. Characteristic
I t
Max. permitted
Multiples of percent
(Sees.)
Tap Value time error
13 326 5-94 C
15 18-4 2-95 C
2 10 137 C
25 746 H2C
3 622 C
3-S 547 C
4 4-97 C
5 43 C
10 3 C.
20 22 C
TABLE 4.2
Extremely Inverse Characteristic
I Max. permitted
t
Multiples of percent
(Sees.)
Tap Value time error
13 166 1272 C
15 435 6125 C
2 145 2-82 C
3 5-13 2-33C
4 276 203 C
5 179 1-818 C
10 06 1307 C
14 0404 C
18 033 C
20 0308 C
In both tables above nC is the permitted percent time error for n > 1.
C is the class index.
164
Overcurrent Protection 4.3
Tables 4.1 and 4.2 show the percent time errors obtained with this
formula for the B.S.S. characteristic and the extremely inverse characteristic.
An alternative method considered in the U.S.A. is to measure the error
in a direction normal to the time-current curve, i.e. to express the permissible
error as 8 = C sin A. (4.4), where A. is the slope angle and is calculated in the
same manner as before, i.e. by taking two points on the tangent and calcu-
lating ~ 1 - ~2 which is the tangent of the slope angle i.e. A. = tan -1 dd~
'1 -12 1
A formula somewhat more suitable to test conditions is 8 = C cos hA. (4.5)
provided that no times are measured below twice the top value of current.
It will be seen that, with preferred taps, there is an almost constant ratio
between consecutive tap values so that settings can be made within the same
accuracy anywhere in the range. With the standard taps given in the previous
table there is an increment of 50 % between the lowest two taps and only
13 % between the highest two.
The decision must obviously depend upon the application in question but a
figure of 25 % is safe for general application with inverse time or LD.M.T.
relays.
Directional control is also required where the load current is flowing
towards the bus normally and a low pick-up current setting is required. This,
of course, does not apply to ground fault relays.
(a)
Directiona.l
unit
(b)
FIG. 4.25. Directional control of time-current relays
(a) Shaded pole type. (b) Wattmetric type
--~--------------~~--~R
factor it was necessary to use the adjacent delta voltage to polarise it, i.e. to
use Vca with la and this gave maximum torque at 30 lagging the unity p.f.
position on three-phase faults or 60 lagging on phase-to-phase faults.
The subject of the connections of single-phase directional units has been
discussed at length by various authors (33) (38).
(a) Voltage Restraint. On many systems the connected generating
capacity varies with load conditions to such an extent that the minimum
fault current at one timc may be less than maximum load current at another
time. This of course makes it dfficuIt to set overcurrent relays unless the
directional unit is provided with voltage restraint.
Under even the heaviest load or power swing conditions the potential
will be near normal, preventing the directional unit from operating but,
during a fault in the protected section, it will fall to a value permitting the
operation. The directional unit becomes, in effect, a mho type fault detector,
such as is described in Chapter 5, with an impedance pick-up between the
load and fault values, which fortunately are widely different.
The directional unit associated with the overcurrent relay in the a phase
also has a phase current fa; it is polarised by the quadrature potential Vbc
and restrained by the voltage Vab
170
Overcurrent Protection 4.5
No voltage restraint is required for ground relays because they work on
zero sequence currents which are normally zero under load conditions and
hence avoid any requirement for blocking their action.
(b) Two Relays versus Three. Overcurrent relays in two of the phases and
one in the C.t. residual circuit give complete protection for all faults on lines
or cables but, in the case of a A - Y transformer feeder, the current in one
phase may be twice that in the other two phases so that three phase relays
are required.
On an ungrounded system where there is no relay in the residual circuit,
there should be either relays in all three phases or, if only two are used, they
should be in the same two phases in all feeders; otherwise there is a risk of a
'cross-country' fault, (i.e. two simultaneous single phase ground faults on
different feeders) involving the two phases not having overcurrent relays so
that time selectivity may be upset.
Discrimination between relays can be upset on interphase faults with
relays in only two phases (a) if there is a wye-delta power transformer between
the relays, (b) if there is a light fault and a heavy load.
To summarise, two phase relays and one ground relay are sufficient on
grounded systems and three phase relays are desirable on systems grounded
through high impedance or ungrounded.
In the case of directional overcurrent relaying the same considerations
apply if the directional units are polarised by quadrature potential. If
polarised from any other potential, three phase relays and one ground relay
should be used.
(c) Single-Phase Directional Units. Single-phase directional units can
use wye or delta current and can be polarised by any of the wye or delta
potentials. Certain combinations, however, are preferable because their
maximum torque angle (M.T.A.) is more consistently close to the fault phase
angle for all types of faults. The M.T.A. is the angle () by which the potential
applied to the relay leads the current for maximum torque (or the angle by
which the current lags the potential).
The best known connections have names by which they are known in the
U.K. and the U.S.A.; the names are given in the left-hand column of the
following tables, 4.3 and 4.4. The connection chosen depends upon the type
of relay unit. Early directional relays were adaptations of watthour meters
and had maximum torque at unity power factor; the 30 connection was the
most suitable for such units because its M.T.A. was 30 lagging the unity
power factor position under three-phase conditions and up to 90 lagging
the faulted voltage for a phase-to-phase or double-ground fault. This gave
reliable directional torque for all interphase faults on lines of average (50)
phase angle, but it could operate incorrectly during leading load conditions
on a single-phase ground fault on the remote side of a wye-delta connected
power transformer.
The induction cup unit replaced the wattmetric induction disc unit because
of its superior speed and efficiency; it has maximum torque with current 30
171
4.5 Protective Relays
leading the voltage applied to its potential coils; hence the quadrature con-
nection was the most suitable for it. With this arrangement M.T.A. was 600
lagging for all faults. The constant M.T.A. makes this arrangement the most
reliable one because the relay is never near the threshold conditions due to
voltage phase-shifts caused by the fault and opposite current phase-shifts
due to an intervening power transformer or during leading load conditions
(33) (38).
The torque of a single-phase directional unit is proportional to 1111 Vi
cos (-O) where is the angle by which the potential leads the current for
a particular fault condition and 0 is the M.T.A.
Fig. 4.29 shows a condition which can cause wrong operation of a single-
c~--~--------~b
FIO. 4.27. Currents ani" potentials used in directional relays for phase faults
phase directional relay using wye current but not one using delta current
nor a polyphase unit. At both ends the wye currents in the three phases are
in phase and, since the potentials polarising the single phase directional
relays are 1200 apart, at least one of them will operate in the wrong direction
if wye currents are used.
Single-phase directional units are much more used at the present time than
polyphase directional units because, until now, there has been a tendency to
consider all protection phase to phase. However, polyphase relays offer
economy of equipment and panel space and immunity to certain fault con-
ditions associated with Y -!1 power transformers which can cause wrong
operation of single-phase directional relays (32) (104).
(d) Polyphase Directional Units. Tables 4.3 and 4.4 show the various
possible connections for single-phase directional units and the sum of the
torques of three such units, one of which is connected this way and the other
two with corresponding connections in the other two phases, to form a
polyphase unit.
The torque of a polyphase directional unit is of the form
P1ICt+O + P2 ICt +O+ Po~ (4.8)
where Ct is the phase angle of the chosen potential V relative to the current I
172
TABLE 4.3
Wattmetric Unit (() = 0)
(I)
Quadrature a be /90 PI/90 + P2/90 /30 PI/60 + P2/6O a
(")
...ill
".
UI
TABLE 4.4
Induction Cup Unit (9 = 30)
a----T--------------------------------
b----+-~-----------------------------
c----+--4---r-------------------------
C.Ts
Phc.se
relc.ys
The zero sequence current 10 can flow only from a grounded neutral to the
point where a ground fault occurs. Its value is 10 =
E Z where Z1>
Z1+ Z 2+ 0
Z2 and Zo are the total system impedances viewed from the fault. Zero
sequence current cannot pass through a wye-delta transformer because,
175
4.5 Protective Relays
even if the neutral of the wye side is grounded, the residual current can only
circulate around the delta.
Fig. 4.29 illustrates this point. Only positive and negative sequence
currents are supplied from the ungrounded power source at the left and only
zero sequence current from the grounding transformer at the right.
Zero sequence current can pass through a wye-delta-wye transformer
from one wye winding to the other if both are grounded.
Residual current relays (fig. 4.28) can operate erroneously due to spurious
zero sequence current caused by c.t. inequalities or by non-simultaneous
rm~-------------r~ [IE,
ttII t -
I' ,
,~~~:X,~
abc
jjj
10
1 f A---tl (a)
1
(b)
FIG. 4.30. (a) Distribution of 10 in multiple grounded system
(b) Distribution of zero sequence kW and kVar
directional current relays because of the fact that most of the zero sequence
current comes from the neutrals at the two ends of the protected section and
very little from the other sources.
An alternative to a directional overcurrent relay is a zero sequence time-
power or time-VA relay. Fig. 4.30b shows the distribution of zero sequence
kW and kVar in a multiple grounded system. This relay is more selective on a
single grounded system but it is more difficult to calculate its settings.
Currant
(a) (b)
FIG. 4.31. (a) Very inverse time-current characteristic lot = K
(b) Current-distance relation for lot = K relay
Time
I I
I I
J I
I /
I I
/ /
,I /
./ -'
Distance
A B o
FIG. 4.32. Time-distance characteristics of lot = K relay on a multiple grounded system
Tlm~
f !
(a)
)A
(b)
FIG. 4.34. Zero sequence quantities on system with neutral compensator
(a) Distribution of kVar. (b) Distribution of kW
178
Overcurrent Protection 4.5
zero sequence kW distribution on a system with a neutral compensator. An
alternative to the residual power relay on an ungrounded system is a residual
potential relay, but it is less selective.
(c) Po/arising Sources. Current polarisation is obtained from the grounded
neutral of a power transformer or from a delta tertiary, depending on the
______~------------~S~t~~t~io~n~~~$~------------------_r---a
----~-+--------------------------------_r_t---b
--~~-4--------------------------------,--r-t---c
P.T!,
C T.5 '1--+--+----i
R~Ia.y
i>O l~ri $ing
coil
(a)
ConnectlOl1s of otMr
wind ings I mm~t.rial
(b)
(a)
(b)
windings must be paralleled if load is taken from the tertiary. A c.t. in the
neutral can be used if Z ~t Z < VII where suffixes t, h, 1 and s refer to
t+ ,+ &. l'I
tertiary, high side, low side and source.
In a wye-delta-wye transformer with both wye neutrals grounded it is
important to parallel the two neutral c.t's. There will always be a resultant
current, even for a through fault, because the windings have different currents
inversely as the ratio of their voltages. In fact, the directional relay can use
current from the neutral in the protected line side instead of the residual
current, as shown in fig. 4.37b.
Polarising potential is usually provided by a grounded wye-broken delta
p.t., as shown in fig. 4.35, or by a p.t. connected across the neutral grounding
impedance, if available.
180
Overcurrent Protection 4.5
Potential polarisation is not possible with two open-delta high side p.t's
unless the neutral is located by deriving the third phase from the Lt. side and
compensating for the transformer drop. High side zero sequence potential
can be obtained, however, even if there is only one high side p.t., by sub-
tracting from the high side wye potential the corresponding low side delta
potential; allowing for the transformer ratio these should be the same except
for Vo. An alternative is to use a negative sequence power relay; this relay is
also effective where mutual coupling between power lines prevents the use of
a zero sequence power relay.
(d) Restricted Earth Protection. This is an English term which may be mis-
understood in other countries. It refers to the differential protection of
generators or transformers against ground faults. It is called 'restricted'
because the relays operate only for ground faults within the protected wind-
ings (fig. 4.38).
Kirchhoff's law can be applied to grounded neutral circuits in the same
way as it is applied to bus protection, i.e. the sum of the neutral currents and
residual currents should be zero at a given location.
Fig. 4.38 shows restricted earth protection of the grounded wye windings
of a generator or transformer. The neutral current In will normally be equal
I_
breaker 1 receives the current product 12 and the relay at 3 gets kI(J + kI).
If the relay 1 in the unfaulted line is not to trip the good line 12 unnecessarily,
it must be slower than relay 3, i.e.
12 < 12(k+k 2)
k2+k-l > 0
k > 064
In other words, to avoid wrong operation, Ib must not exceed 64 % of I"
if instantaneous overcurrent relays are used which will open breaker 4 at once
leaving a race between relays 1 and 3. This condition will not occur on
single lines and is less likely to happen where instantaneous high set over-
current units are not used.
182
Overcurrent Protection 4.6
4.5.4. Dual Polarisation (39)
In the U.S.A. it is becoming general practice to provide a double polarising
coil, one part being a potential coil energised with Vo and the other a current
coil energised with neutral current In. This arrangement not only prevents the
directional ground relay from failing to operate if the grounding transformer
is removed from service, but it also gives more consistent operation.
When the grounding transformer is in service In is large for a fault in the
protected section, especially if the fault is near the relay bus; Yo, on the
other hand, approaches zero as the fault location approaches the bus. When
the grounding transformer is out of service In is zero but Vo is as high as at the
fault location. For neutrals grounded through resistance, intermediate values
of Vo and In pertain and in this case dual polarisation is especially valuable.
~ H~I~y 'uuu u-
A-~I__~____________cO_'I_s~~~,-__~~=~~~~~~~~
C.T.'s ~~ -vvv 2OVA.
~
~p
(a)
Stenion bus.
Prol~ct ivc
r~IQy
Protected
lin&
(b)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.42c shows a hybrid construction used in Germany and the U.S.A.
which is reputed to be as efficient as the shaded-pole magnet and easier for
adjusting time-current curves (17) (18).
The efficiency of an induction disc relay with even the best electromagnet
design does not exceed 005 %, which is extremely poor. Figs. 4.43 and 4.44
show a printed disc dynamometer type which has 50 to 100 times the efficiency
and very much more accurate time-current characteristics.
The printed disc relay has inherently a pure inverse time-current charac-
teristic. Other characteristics are obtained by non-linear resistance networks
connected between the disc printed circuit and the rectified current input (141).
5MVA
15% rv
F.L.C.- 440A
8
S.C.C.= 2,900A
If f f
t
6' 6KV
*I *I
I
10 *
WOM"
(a,700A)
200/5
6'6KV r
7S MVA - --'-"""T1- -
3 I.D.M.ToIe
Volta.gt
o
4 FontrOlltd
(6,550 A) >:< I.D.M .T. o/e
x-WB
41SV 150/5
66KV/415V
10MVA
I,OOOKVA
(eeOA)
8
300.1. FU'2
The reactance of the 1000 kVA transformer may be taken as 7 %, and the
motor starting current as six times full load (assume full load of the motor
to be 150 amperes).
HRC Fuse. The time-current characteristic of the 300 ampere fuse is
shown in fig. 4.46.
Relay (1) Type 'Mn' Thermal Relay for protection of the motor at M;
current settings 105 %and 125 %of 5 amperes; there is no provision
for adjusting the operating time with this type of relay. Its time-
current characteristics are shown in fig. 4.47.
It has an instantaneous (high-set) overcurrent unit continuously
adjustable between 400% and 1600% of 5 amperes.
188
100
1,000 16
4
2
50 o
500 \ I" 8
7
.\ 6
\ 5
\.
20 4
200
\\
\. 3
\
10I
\ \ \
" ',"
" '-, 2
100
.
..... .....
1\ , ....... 0
;
..,c..
- _, A ~
II)
i 50
--....
.. 3 B
.
!l
:I
~
. ....... C
..... ..
E
:: \ -.... 'E ...c::
- -- - --
:;:; .S (j;
z .,., . \. ....... .0::
c t .~
" :.: r-- .. ....:;,
E
... 20 "- l= ."
~
r---
- a
....
) ~
8-,. '"
10
e ....
g'
o ; \
1 ;
1
\ - - - - Sta.rting (cold) cha.ra.tcrisllc
o t - - - Running (hot) cha.ra.lcrl5tic
t
I 1\
0'10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 I
Prlma.ry current In a.mps. (6 6 KV.) , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ~
Multiples of ra.ted currcnt Co
FIG. 4.46. Time-current characteristic of 300 amp HRC fuse
FIG. 4.47. Thermal time-overcurrent relay (12/ = K)
4.' Protective Relays
Relay (2) Type CDGll. I.D.M.T. Overcurrent Relay with current tap
settings 50%, 75%,100%,125%,150%, 175%,200%of5amperes.
Its time-current characteristics are shown in fig. 4.6a.
Its operating time is continuously adjustable between 10 and 08
seconds at two times the current setting.
Its instantaneous high-set overcurrent unit is continuously adjust-
able between 400 % and 1600 % of 5 amperes.
Relay (3) Same as relay (2) except no instantaneous unit.
Relay (4) Type CDV22 I.D.M.T. Overcurrent Relay, voltage controlled.
Current tap settings 50%, 75%,100%, 125%, 150%, 175%,200%
of5 amps.
Its operating time is continuously adjustable between 20 and 2
seconds at two times the current setting.
100
,
80
60
40
n
...c
820
:
1\
l~crIOC1d characteristic
Normal voltf
.s
~ ~
-="'" I.....
4
I"'t"
FaU~cn.tIC
~
f"""..
2
i'
1
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 6080100
Current,CllllpS
fiG. 4.48. Voltage controlled time-overcurrent relay for generator back-up protection
Ja.~ Fault
a.-------
vab{ : lb- ~
c
(b) (c)
FIG. S.l. Principle of impedance distance measurement
(a) Relay trips when V < IZI
(b) Interphase fault
(c) Phase-to-ground fault
Similarly, for phase to ground faults, the relay measures the impedance
of a similar kind of loop, this time along the faulted line conductor to the
fault and back via the ground return path to the neutral of the system.
Hence for a phase c-to-ground fault the relay measures Yc-.. = Zl but,
Ie-I..
since the current I" in the ground return path is inaccessible, the relay is
given the equivalent current which is a function of the C.t. residual current
and the phase c relay measures I -~I which is also Z1'
e res
The mathematical justification for this is given in the Appendix of this
chapter, section 5.10.1. Tables 5.12 and 5.13 summarise in the left-hand
column, the currents and voltages supplied to each phase and ground relay
and the measurements that result during different kinds of faults (58).
(a) Impedance. The earliest distance relays were designed to operate in a
time proportional to the impedance between the relay and the fault, and
hence to the distance to the fault, irrespective of fault current magnitude.
This was an improvement on the inverse time overcurrent relay whose
operating time was considerably affected by the generating conditions.
A typical induction type relay had contacts held open by a potential
magnet whose pull was roughly proportional to voltage. The current magnet
exerted on the induction disc a torque roughly proportional to current. The
disc torque was opposed to the potential magnet pull through a spiral spring
192
Distance Relays 5.1
(fig. 5.2a). The time taken by the current magnet to wind up the spring until
it dislodged the potential magnet causing tripping was thus roughly propor-
tional to potential and roughly inversely proportional to current. The
operating time was thus roughly proportional to ~ oc Z, see fig. 5.2b. These
I
relays were inaccurate for the simple reason that the torque of an induction
~.~~~_ Pctcnt.ia..t
holdil"l9
fIIaqnc.t
(al
01 l s-+U-b-1 ------Sur-b-2---Sut-b-3------0-
,.ta+-nce
(b)
FIG. 5.2. (a) Principle of time distance relay
(b) Application of time distance relay
wave by a filter and the voltage restraint was smoothed to give a circular
impedance characteristic by rectification or by phase-splitting (117).
Three such units, one tripping directly and two others tripping through
time-delay relays, produced the stepped time-distance characteristic of
e.ClIonc:c ",c lght
/ Stop aer e-
Voltag-c. COIl
(a)
fig. 5.3b, which gave faster clearing times than the time-distance relay of
fig. 5.2.
(b) Reactance. In 1928, the,author of this book designed an induction
disc type distance relay for an American company, which had a reactive
VA magnet instead of the usual potential restraining magnet. Slots in the
disc caused the relay to balance at a position on a graduated scale propor-
tional to VI sin cfJ1I 2 , i.e. to X. A three-step time-distance characteristic was
obtained by connecting stationary contacts on the reactance scale to a timing
unit, as shown in fig. 5.4a. The time-distance characteristic was stepped as
194
Distance Relays 5.1
in fig. 5.3b. The impedance (R - X) diagram for the three time zones is shown
in fig. 5.4b.
In 1934 the author designed the first high-speed reactance relay, using a
4-pole induction cup instead of an induction disc. Two opposite poles had
l~~~~ I }o,.lIlftlt~1-
I
I
I
I
(a)
X oI1m~s ___ ~
__--\-Zone3
Contact P -- - --\-----1--1--------+
-'~-:Zoncl
(b)
current windings and the other two had opposed current and potential wind-
ings; the torque was proportional to J(Kl- V sin tP) and the relay operated
when V s~n tP < K, i.e. when X < K, the ohmic setting of the relay.
Figs. 5.Sa, band c show the advantage of the reactance relay over the
impedance relay in its immunity to the effect of fault resistance. Fig. S.Sb
shows the ordinary directional unit characteristic DD' used with impedance
relays. Fig. 5.4b shows the closed directional characteristic required for
reactance relays to prevent them from tripping on load current. This feature
195
5.1 Protective Relays
was obtained by adding a voltage restraining magnet to an ordinary direc-
tional relay. At low voltage the characteristic still passes through the origin
on an impedance diagram but as the voltage increases the current required to
operate the unit 'increases which in turn increases the impedance value of
0 L-------------~1
x-----,+----T'----=.:~+---x ,
Rela.y
setting
----~~--------------R
(c)
pick-up so that the straight line VI characteristic is bent around into a circle
as shown for the starting unit in fig. 5.4b.
Another way of expressing this is to say that the unit balances when
KVI cos (<jJ-e) = V 2 or when Z = K cos (<jJ-e) where <jJ is the angle
between V and I and () is the value of <jJ for maximum operating torque.
This gives the maximum value of Z when <jJ = e.
(c) Admittance. The impedance relay was prevented from operating on
faults on other feeders on the same bus by a simple directional relay with a
straight line characteristic on an impedance diagram. The admittance relay
is a combined directional-impedance relay which was developed by the
author in 1932 for the protection of extremely long lines (45).
In this relay a 4-pole induction cup unit had potential windings on two
opposite poles and an opposed current and potential windings on the other
196
Distance Relays 5.1
two poles. The torque equation at balance was V{KI cos (cf>-9)- V} = 0
so that Z = K cos (cf>-9) which is the impedance characteristic shown in
fig. 5.6a.
The torque of this relay would theoretically be zero for a fault close
enough to the bus to make the voltage zero. This was overcome by using a
Arcing fa.u lt
10n&
,
I
I
I
I
I
(b)
FIO. 5.6. (a) Mho characteristic (*faults in other phases)
(b) Effect of power swing on impedance and mho relays
resonant circuit in the polarising potential winding so that the voltage across
this winding is maintained by 'memory action' long enough to ensure opera-
tion. This matter will be discussed further in section 5.1.3. (b).
On extremely long lines the impedance measured by the relay during
power swings can be as low as for a fault and may cause an impedance relay
to trip undesirably. Fig. 5.6b shows how the mho relay is relatively immune
to tripping on power swings,
Five per cent accuracy would mean I mile on a 20-mile line. For this reason
it is necessary to make the relay cut-off at a point 5 % to 25 % short of the
end of the section, depending on the accuracy of the relay. Faults in the end
zone must be cleared by a second distance measuring unit which will reach
beyond the next bus and will have enough time delay to prevent it from trip-
ping on a fault in the next section, which should normally be cleared by the
relay in that section. This delay is not serious (0'25 second) with modern
relays and breakers.
This second zone of protection also provides back-up for the relay in the
next section for faults close to the bus (fig. 5.3b). A third relay with still more
delay will give complete back-up for all faults at all locations. Consequently,
most modern relays are 3-step relays with three time-distance zones, as shown
in fig. 5.3b. Such a relay provides fast selective tripping for faults over most
of the protected section and close back-up protection for the next section.
In continental Europe, one or two additional time steps are provided,
making a total of five (63). The fourth step is controlled by the overcurrent
or impedance fault detectors through the directional unit, and the fifth step
by the fault detectors alone. In distance relays where the fault detectors are
directional, only the fourth step is provided.
where 1 is the length of the arc in feet in still air and] is the fault current.
I will initially be equal to the conductor spacing but it will increase in the
presence of a cross wind (which generally accompanies a lightning storm)
because the arc has no inertia. A 15 m.p.h. wind, for instance, will increase
I up to 11 ft. each side in t second (see figs. 5.7a and 5.7b). For this reason it is
198
Distance Relays 5.1
Wind
(a)
(b)
(c)
generally assumed that arc resistance will have little effect on the accuracy
of the Zone 1 unit of a high-speed impedance or mho relay (except on very
short lines) but a fault at the end of the section (Zone 2) may not clear if the
time setting is too long (see section 5.3.1 (b)).
Where time is involved the formula becomes
R arc = 8750(S+3ut)
1 1 '4
(5.2)
where S is the conductor spacing and u is the wind velocity in miles per hour
and t the duration in seconds.
199
5.1 Protective Relays
The formula allows for a certain amount of deionisation of the arc due to
the cooling effect of the wind, in addition to the lengthening of the arc
(fig. 5.7a).
This arc formula has been confirmed by tests in Russia, France and the
U.S.A. Lower values have been claimed on various occasions but each one
investigated has used improper methods of starting the arc or improper
electrodes. The electrodes should be smooth and the arc should be started by
a fuse consisting of the finest iron wire that will support its own weight.
Lead or copper fuses form a metallic vapour which gives an arc resistance
which is much lower than that of an arc started by lightning, a van de Graaff
generator or the fine iron wire (41).
The most effective way of preventing the fault resistance from making
the distance relay underreach is to design the measuring unit to measure the
reactance rather than the impedance of the faulted circuit. Reactance relays
are therefore used for short lines where the fault resistance may be com-
parable with that of the protected section and also for ground faults where
the ground resistance may be very high.
There is considerable confusion concerning the effect of double end fed
arcing faults (48). It has been erroneously stated by some manufacturers that
there can be considerable error in a reactance relay due to the fictitious
reactive component of the arc impedance during double end feeds of different
phase angle.
The reactance error is Yare sin a where IA is the current fed in from one
fA
end and a is the angle between that current and the total fault current (see
fig. 5.8b). The larger the current IB fed in from the other end, the more a
approaches the angle between the two currents and the greater the fictitious
reactance but, on the other hand, (a) a+ f3 is a small angle because it is the
angle between the bus voltages at the ends of the protected section, and (b)
the larger f B is the smaller the arc voltage is because it decreases as the 14
power with current magnitude.
For example, if Yare is 4500 volts on a 30 mile 132 kV line, IA = 600
Oh fi .. . 4500 sin 50 h Th
amperes an d a = 5 , t e ctItlOUS reactance IS 600 0290 m. e
reactance of the line is about 18 ohms and the error is therefore 16 %which
is negligible compared with the errors in impedance relays due to arc
resistance.
(b) Direction. Impedance type distance relays generally contain a direc-
tional unit which prevents them from operating on faults behind the bus
(characteristic DD' in fig. 5.5b). The reactance relay requires a directional
unit with a voltage restraint which gives the circular characteristic shown in
fig. 5.4b and prevents the reactance relay from tripping on overloads which
represent a vector near the R axis. Admittance (mho) type distance relays
are inherently directional because their RjX characteristic passes through
the origin (fig. 5.6).
200
Distance Relays 5.1
Since the operating torque of a directional or a mho relay is the vector
product VI cos (cP - 8) it must become small and unreliable at low voltages
which may occur for faults very close to the relay. The three possible solutions
are (a) ultra-sensitivity, (b) memory action, (c) polarisation with potential
from an unfaulted phase.
On overhead lines a flashover, even at the bus, will always provide at least
3 % of normal voltage because of the arc resistance which, at the minimum
value of 400 volts per ft. and a minimum spacing of 008 ft. per kV, gives 32
x
Error
(c)
A 8
I 1A=:t
+~
If
1=IB
I
(a)
L----------------------- R
FIG. S.S. Spurious reactance due to arc during double-end feed
(a) Fault location. (b) Impedance diagram. (c) Current phase relation
volts per kV or 3'2%. The spacing may, however, be momentarily less due to
a bird flying into the line so a directional sensitivity of I % of normal volts is
usually provided. Any lower value would be beyond the accuracy of the
p.ts.
On cables, due to the smaller spacing, the minimum fault voltage can be as
low as 01 % but these faults are invariably to the grounded sheath so that
the ground relay can be polarized by zero sequence potential or current or
alternatively part of the zero sequence potential (which has a negative value)
can be subtracted from the faulted phase potential.
Memory action has been successfully used but sometimes causes in-
accurate measurement in high-speed relays in faults that involve another
phase during operation. Polarisation with potential from another phase is
popular in Europe but it reduces the accuracy of the distance measurement.
Neither of these methods is effective when closing in on a line with a solid
three-phase fault caused by leaving ground clamps on after maintenance if
the p.ts. are on the line side of the circuit-breaker.
In such a case a high-set instaneous overcurrent relay can be used to
open the breaker. Alternatively, the mho relay can be given a slight current
201
5.1 Protective Relays
bias to do the same thing. In cases where the minimum fault current is
comparable with maximum load current the instantaneous overcurrent
relays can be monitored by an 'a' switch on the breaker and can clear the
fault through an auxiliary relay which has 4-cycle delay in pick-up. The circuit
is shown in fig. 5.9. When closing in on a fault, the trip circuit is closed for 4
cycles and thereafter is open-circuited to prevent tripping on overcurrent
during normal conditions.
The ideal scheme would appear to have the following features:
(a) Employ the fault voltage for directional polarisation as well as
restraint, but add to the polarising voltage 5 %of the voltage from one
of the sound phases, shifted in angle to be in phase with the fault
voltage during fault conditions.
-
O.C a.
-
O.C. b
-
O.C. e
-- Trip
~
~ po~ 4'" P;ck.up
+
FIO. 5.9. Circuit for clearing close-in faults
------~------ ~ ----~
'A.pllca. ""pedant'
PotcntiaJ coil
Currcfllt co jl
Rcla.y
the d.c. component. As more sensitive relays become available, WIth lower
burdens. the ordinary iron-cored c.t. will be. replaced by linear couplers which
minimise the d.c. component and hence eliminate this source of transient
error. Meanwhile, such a shunt is necessary with impedance relays supplied
from iron-cored c.t's.
Primary voltage transients can be blocked by a filter which permits only
the system frequency to reach the relay potential coils. Transient voltages
where cf> is the phase angle of the primary circuit (tan -1~). I/J is the time
after voltage zero at which the fault occurs and t is the time after inception
of the fault.
204
Distance Relays 5.1
From the second term it can be seen that (a) the duration of the offset
increases with L/R, (b) the maximum value of the offset occurs when
if! = ~ + cP (i.e. at current maximum), and (c) that it is zero when if! = cP
(i.e. at current zero); see fig. 5.12. Since flashovers occur when the voltage
approaches the maximum value, i.e. when rot = ~, the offset is usually small
~ cp ~
y
'" " ~ -.....
'"
I
V / \
I
/ /
~
\ '\
irf- cp HI \ r\
I
~'i',-:.. 1\
V \
V \
t=O \
\.
~'
1\
\
",iiV'"
~l\
VmQ- 1075
L ~, r---..,
'"
V
A 1 L
r--
~r- t- ~ ~,
1/ r- r-- r- ~ ~
c ~r.--I4> 1f1z-
I
r- B
FIO. 5.13. Likelihood of maximum offset also controlled by breaker speed, i.e. by
slope of A'B
the rate of change of voltage in the quarter cycle after voltage maximum
(tan A'BC), i.e. it must exceed
\1" ]'"
yL..1o_,c___.....
t
yIT..,.2_ _--'y IT3
I
Trip
Such schemes are not as effective or accurate as the reactance relay men-
tioned in section 5.1.3 (a) and they also have the disadvantage that the more
bias is given the more liable is the relay to trip on power swings (fig. 5.15).
value of 600 but the ohmic setting of the relay has to be multiplied by Z,J..
cos 'f'
so that the impedance cycle will still pass through the ohmic value Z/4>.
Chapter 3 explains how the mho characteristic can also be obtained by
)(
(c)
FIG. 5.16. Phase angle biassing of mho relay (IP - 8) to increase tolerance to fault
resistance
(a) 20. (b) 40. (c) 55
comparing the phase relations of { I cos (4) - 0) - VI and Vin a phase com-
parator or by comparing the moduli Vp IZp + I - v,. and IVp - I + Vrl in an
Zr Zp Zr
amplitude comparator where the suffix p refers to polarising and the suffix r
to restraining.
--- ----
power swing locus
Modified
rC<lc;ta.ncc Ra.rc
characteristic ___
--------+---------~~~---R
----
FIG. 5.18. Modified reactance characteristic
I;, -kII
circle than the mho circle, this can be done by introducing current bias into
the potential circuit so that the relay operates when < III where Zr is
the replica impedance in the potential circuit. Multiplying both sides by
~' the relay operates when IZ - kZ, I < IZ, Iwhich is a circle on the impedance
diagram with its centre offset by Zr from the origin.
212
Distance Relays 5.2
(a)
Rela.y
(c)
------.--------------r-----------o+
Timing
unit
RI.I.tor
Trip
FIG. 5.20. Out-of-step blocking circuit for mho relay
213
5.3 Protective Relays
5.3. LIMITATIONS OF OHM AND MHO UNITS
In addition to difficulties in measurement caused by fault resistance,
power swings and power infeeds there is severe limitation imposed by the
fact that the relay may have to operate over a 30 to 1 range of potential
which, in an electromagnetic relay, may result in a 900 to 1 variation in
torque with consequent design difficulties.
I =7V kV' 1
T mles (5.6)
where 1 is the minimum length of line, 063 ohm is the impedance per line
mile, 09 is the fraction of the protected section covered by Zone 1 and kV
is the system kilovolts (47).
Assuming V = 8 volts for mho and impedance relays and 3 volts for
reactance relays, both relays being of the induction cup type,
k;
(mho and impedance)
= 21 miles corresponding to Z./ZL = 37 (5.8)
(reactance)
On a 60-cycle line the ohms per mile are 12 times that of the 50-cycle line
so that proportionately shorter lines can be protected.
(b) Limitations Due to Arc Resistance and Economics. It so happens that
the limiting values of Z,/ZL = 14 for mho relays and 37 for reactance relays
due to relay performance tend to agree with limitations imposed by fault
resistance on overhead lines.
In ground faults the resistance of the fault path through the tower, the
tower footing resistance and the earth return are unpredictable (55) (142) so
that, in most countries, reactance relays are used automatically for ground
faults. Exceptions are cables, very long overhead lines and lines in localities
where there is a low ground resistance and excellent ground return arrange-
ments (copper ground wires, etc.).
In phase faults, where arc resistance only is involved (sectioI). 5.1.3 (a) ), or
ground faults where the resistance of the ground fault path is low, the fault
.
resistance . pred'lctable. I n still'"
IS arr It IS 8750
/1'4 0 h ms per " h I 'IS the
loot were
current in the arc.
(i) EFFECT OF ARC RFSISTANCE ON ZONE 1 FAULTS. Arc resistance shortens
. . JX 2 +(R+R arc)2
the reach of an lffipedance relay by the ratio 2 2 where X and
X +R
R are the reactance and the resistance of the line between the relay and the
fault, see fig. 5.2Ia. The effect on a mho relay is slightly greater because of its
smaller impedance circle but, by making the mho characteristic angle 0 less
lagging than cp, the line impedance angle (tan -1 ~), the effect can be reduced
to less than that on the impedance relay (see fig. 5.16) but, for the sake of
simplicity, they will be assumed equal.
215
5.3 Protective Relays
Fig. 5.21b shows the error due to arc resistance for various secondary
values of X and I, assuming 5 ampere c.t. secondaries. The values of X must
be multiplied by 5 and the values of I divided by 5 for 1 ampere c.t.S. The
(al
50
40
10
OL---~--~2~--=3----4~--=5--~6~--7~--~8~~9~--1~0
Secondary ohm rca.ctanc:c
FIG. S.21. Effect offault resistance on impedance relay reach
(a) Impedance vectors. (b) Relay error
values of X are those of the fault loop, i.e. twice the positive sequence or
phase to neutral values. The values of R are also secondary values.
The %error is
= 100 JX 2+(R+R arc)2 (5.9)
X2+R2
J
Il
26'4 46
If X = 2R, i.e. tan- 1 XIi = 63 lag, the %error is Il = 100 1 + (IX)2 + IX
216
Distance Relays 5.3
based on an assumed arc resistance of 500 volts per foot of arc length, i.e.
5 % of system voltage. The error can be much greater at lower currents
where the arc voltage exceeds 500 volts per foot or during a cross wind. This
applies obviously to overhead lines and not to cables.
Fig. 5.21b shows that fault conditions involving not more than 20% of
system voltage at the relay (Z./ZL > 5) should be checked for the effect of
arc resistance. In general, if the arc resistance exceeds one third of the im-
'------
(a)
r--.------'" Zone 3
outside
eire'"
(b)
FIG. 5.22. Effect of arc resistance on Zone 1
(a) Upon Zone 1 reach. (b) Upon Zone 2 reach
pedance of the protected section (see fig. 5.22a), the reach of a relay set to
cover 85 % of the section can shrink to 60 % of the section so that only faults
in the middle 20 % can be cleared instantaneously from both ends.
It is further supported by the facts that 132 kV overhead lines are seldom
less than 10 miles long and the minimum short-circuit power is seldom less
than 200 mVA, which gives Z,/ZL = 12. Similar minimum values for a 275 kV
system are 25 miles and 500 mVA which gives Z./ZL = 115.
217
5.3 Protective Relays
In the rare cases where Zs/ZL > 12, reactance relays are required in any
case to avoid the error due to arc resistance. Cables have lower impedance
than overhead lines so that ZL values are smaller but the Zs values are also
smaller for the same reason and because Z. tends to be smaller on lower
voltage systems.
Fault resistance adds to the impedance measured by a mho relay and
hence shortens its reach.
(ii) EFFECT OF ARC RESISTANCE ON ZONE 2. A small reduction of the
instantaneous zone due to fault resistance is acceptable, but the intermediate
zone always must reach beyond the next bus, that is, faults within the section
must be cleared in Zone 2 time or less and not in Zone 3 time, or selectivity
between stations will not be possible.
In fig. 5.22b RII is the arc resistance, ZL is the impedance of the protected
section, t/J is its phase angle (tan -1 X/ R) and K is the fraction of ZL which the
second mho unit Y2 reaches beyond the end of the section. It is assumed that
the mho unit characteristic is given the same angle t/J as the line.
The circle in fig. 5.22b is the characteristic of a mho unit for the second
distance step and is assumed to reach a short distance KZL beyond the end
of the protected section ZL'
It is to be noted that a2 + b2 = diameter 2 and hence
(R!+K 2Zi-2KZLR Il cos r!J) + (R!+zi+2Z LR Il cost/J) = Zi(1+K)2
:. 2R!-2KZi+2RaZL(1-K) cost/J = 0
which equals maximum arc resistance to permit Zone 2 time, or less, for all
faults within the section.
A similar formula covers the reduction in reach of Zone 1 from 80 % or
90 % to the point where insufficient faults are cleared instantaneously from
both ends.
If the adjacent line sections are approximately equal Y2 will be set for
50% beyond the next bus, i.e. K = 05. Assuming = 60, then, from the
formula (1), RII = 06Z or ZL = 168R.
If the adjacent line section is shorter the Zone 2 setting will be reduced to
perhaps 20% beyond the next bus, i.e. K = 02 which gives RII = 0'29ZL
or ZL = 345Ra.
Since we are considering Zone 2, the arc resistance can easily treble its
initial flashover value, given by the above formula, if there is much wind
(section 5.1.3 (a because of its stretching and deionising effect. Because of
this and because line sections are seldom equal, it is better to take the value
of K = 02 to be on the safe side so that Ra > 0'29ZL (maximum permissible
value).
Now Ra = 8750 I. l' '11'
~ lor an arc lD s11 air (5.1)
218
Distance Relays 5.3
where Is is the conductor spacing,
:.
z +Z +R
Actual R" = 1481. ( k~ "
)1.4 (5.12)
(see Table 5.1). In equation (5.15) the Ra term was omitted from inside the
brackets of equation (5.12) because, for maximum values of Z., Ra is negli-
gible especially as it is added almost at 90.
Permissible !Ra = K'ZL where K' is calculated from equation (5.10).
The application of mho relays for interphase faults is limited to the
Z./ZL value at which the actual arc resistance exceeds the resistance derived
from equation (5.12).
i.e. when 0.741
S
(ZS+ZL)1.4
kV
> K'Z
1
(5.16)
This can be found graphically by plotting the two expressions and noting
the value of Z./ZL for which the two curves intersect or it can be calculated
from
Z kV(KZ )0.7 (5.17)
Z::} ZL 1.48t
The minimum length of line that can be protected by a mho relay without
loss of selectivity due to arc resistance can be deduced roughly from the
preceding formulae.
Because this is the minimum length of line, the adjacent line sections
must be at least as long, consequently K can be taken as 05 and ZL = 168Ra
8750 kV kV
= 168 ]1-4 12.J3 = 715 ]1-4
for a 60 line assuming 12 kV per foot spacing.
Assuming the line impedance to be 07 ohm per mile, this gives the
minimum length as:
1010 :.~ miles for mho relays (5.18)
-- ...
~
"I
----r:-
~
...::
'<t
Without
Temp. Rise
With
Temp. Rise
Source Line 0
Actual (} - 75 (} = 60 (} =75 (} = 60
System MVA Zs Miles ZL Z./ZL tRa K'= 035 K'= 05 K'= 035 K'= 0'5
(} = 60 (} = 30 () = 60 (} = 30
K'= 029 K'= 0'56
750 1'45 15 1'27 1-14 012
500 2-18 15 127 171 019
250 436 15 127 3-42 037 037 071 025 0'5
100 109 15 1'27 855 11
33kV 50 218 1'5 127 17-1 269
'" = 60 750 145 3 255 057 024
L.=6' 500 2-18 3 2'55 085 029
250 436 3 255 172 0'5 074 143 0'50 1'01
100 109 3 255 427 125
50 218 3 2'55 855 291
() = 45 () = 30 () = 45 () = 30
K'= 023 K'= 040
750 016 0'5 042 0'38 002
500 024 05 042 057 004
250 048 0'5 042 114 005 010 0'17 0043 010
100 121 05 042 2-85 012
11 kV 50 2-42 05 042 5-69 027
'" =45 750 016 1 085 0'19 0'06
L, = 25' 500 024 1 085 028 007
250 048 1 0'85 0'57 010 019 034 007 020
100 121 1 085 142 016
50 2'42 1 085 2-84 034
221
5.3 Protective Relays
mho relays, although the permissible value of Z.lZL for a particular applica-
tion may be much less. Consequently, reactance relays should be used for
short lines, i.e. less than 12 miles at 66 kV, 35 miles at 132 kV and 50 miles
at 275 kV. Reactance relays should also be used for ground faults on any
5.2
TABLE
Maximum Z./ZLfor MHO Relay Permitted by Arc Resistance
TABLE 5.3
Permissible Zs/ZL Ratio Including Temperature Effect
222
Distance Relays 5.3
This increase in conductor resistance must be subtracted from the per-
missible value of -iRa in Table 5.1, which will reduce the permissible value of
Z./ZL
In Table 5.1 the resistance values of permissible -iRa w!11 have to be reduced
by 19'4% of ZL cos cp. For example, in the 10 mile 275 kV line at the top of
the Table, the permissible !Ra values will be reduced by
0194 x 53 cos 75 = 0266 ohm
so that they become 159 for K' = 035 and 239 for K' = 05. In Table 5.2
this reduces the permissible Z./ZL values for a 275 kV 10 mile line to 88 for
9 = 75 and 112 for 9 = 60. Table 5.3 is similar to Table 5.2 except with
the increase in conductor resistance/temperature taken into account.
than 90 apart and hence the power system would be unstable. Conversely it
can be argued that, within the limits of stability, no line section could be long
enough to require a Zone 1 mho relay setting capable of causing tripping on
overload or power swing conditions.
Reactance, conductance and impeddnce relays however have impedance
characteristics which can be crossed more easily during power swing con-
k;
ditions (42). It can be estimated that the longest line section to which a
reactance or conductance relay should be applied is 500 miles where
k;
I = minimum fault current. The corresponding figure for an impedance
relay can be estimated at about 1000 miles, with no upper limit for the
mho relay.
the starting unit to control the torque of the ohm unit (directional control)
but this adds time delay during tripping; a better method is to use very little
wipe on the contacts of the two units and to prevent contact bounce by other
means (discussed in Chapter 2), such as a contact back-stop of glyptal
succinate or vinyl-acetate chloride co-polymer.
If the ohm unit has too little travel, the contact race may be lost in the
other direction. When a fault occurs in the neighbouring section of line the
starting unit closes and the ohm unit does not at first close. If the fault is
promptly cleared by the relays in the faulted section, load will be restored
and the starting unit will reset while the ohm unit may close its contacts.
Unless the starting unit can open its contacts before the ohm unit contacts
close, wrong tripping will occur.
Normally, this race is always won by the starting unit and no undesirable
tripping occurs, but it is possible for a starting unit to have been wrongly
adjusted so that its contacts have too much wipe, while the ohm unit may
have too little travel. To avoid this, an auxiliary contact T can be provided
on the timing unit which opens the Zone 1 trip circuit four cycles after the
starting unit operates, by which time the ohm unit should have tripped if it
is a Zone 1 fault, and the circuit is now set up for faults in Zones 2 or 3 only
(fig. 5.29).
If a second fault should occur in Zone 1 of the protected section another
relay, S, will reclose the Zone 1 trip circuit a cycle after the ohm unit closes
its contacts, i.e. tripping will occur for a subsequent Zone I fault but not for
a load condition that may cause the starting unit and the ohm unit contacts
to be closed simultaneously for an instant while taking up their normal load
positions.
y
t:=:===::::::.---!--------+----Dista.ncc
Sub.l Sub.2 Sub.3
Crou pola.riaing
tra.nla.ctor ~
(a)
\VQb
Ie
r" lc
-r,'{
IQ
-If!.
Ib VeQ Ib
(b) (c)
FIG. 5.25. Errors in reach of quadrature polarised mho relay
(a) a.c. connections of distance relay for b-c phase pair
(b) Effect of charging current on c - a relay
(c) Effect of load and/or 10 on a - b relay
'I
Y, I OY31
I
5.1. To similar circuits
~in the other two
phases
O.C I T31
T
Trip
alarm L------o-
Trip
(a)
j~IF-ox---~~---F-o~~I,-F~ob~FO-'---O+
15.1.
Trip
(b)
FIG. 5.28. Basic d.c. circuit of 3-step mho relay
(a) With series flags. (b) With shunt flags
r-----------------~O+
5eaJ-in
1 1
5.1.1 5.11
~
Alarm
Timer
Trip
detector. Fig. 5.29 shows the basic d.c. connections for one phase of a three-
step reactance relay.
In modem 3-step reactance relays one pair of contacts of the starting unit
are in series with those of the reactance unit of the same phase and the other
controls a timing unit (fig. 5.28). The normal setting of the reactance unit
controls the first zone reach. If the fault is beyond the reach of the first zone
the timing unit changes the ohmic setting of the reactance unit after a time
delay so that it can reach past the next bus. If the fault is too far away for the
second step the timer again resets, the reactance unit providing a third time-
distance step.
In some reactance relays the third step is provided by the starting unit
through the timer because, although the distance measurement of the starting
unit varies with the type of fault, it is sufficiently accurate for the third step
because it varies in any case due to the effect of power infeeds. For instance,
in fig. 5.36 the distance relay at A measures too much impedance for a fault
at F because the voltage drop in section BF is increased by the current fed
in at D which does not appear in the relay A.
On the other hand, where fault resistance may be high, a third reactance
step is provided instead of relying on the starting unit which has less tolerance
to fault resistance. This latter arrangement is the most flexible and effective one.
230
Distance Relays 5.4
5.4.4. Extended First Zone
Where instantaneous automatic reciosing of the breaker is employed the
distance relay can be arranged to trip instantaneously all faults within the
protected line section. This is done by setting the instantaneous zone for
105 to 110% of the impedance of the section instead of 85% or 90%. The
105 % setting is used for relays having an abrupt cut-off to their Zone I
reach.
With sections of equal length this gives a 10% chance of tripping for a
fault in the next section but the likelihood of this occurring is reduced by any
power infeed at the intervening bus. Occasionally therefore (fig. 5.30) a fault
A B -=- F C
flO. 5.30. Extension of Zone 1 reach to end of section
in the next section Be, close to the bus B, would cause breakers at both A
and B to trip.
To preserve service continuity the tripping of breaker A operates a relay
which resets the Zone 1 ohm unit from 110% to 90% of section AB so that,
when reclosing occurs, if the fault is permanent, only breaker B operates the
second time.
In other words instantaneous clearing of all faults in the protected section
is obtained for the price of a very occasional extra trip and reclose of the
breaker and the momentary loss of voltage on one substation bus.
Fig. 5.31 shows how the main d.c. connections of a distance relay can be
modified to achieve this result merely by adding the auxiliary relay RX
which is controlled by an auxiliary switch 'b' on the circuit breaker which
opens when the breaker closes. The auxiliary relay RX has instantaneous
+ +
Va \
I yb IIr II T2 \IRX Ib
11o, 5
F2
T.C. T OX RX
A fault in a generator will be cleared immediately because its ohm unit will
measure reactance in the reversed direction. A fault on the bus will dis-
connect all the generators because it will be within the ohmic settings of their
ohm units (47).
Tripping is delayed 05 second in order to permit the line relays to clear
a fault in a feeder reactor.
The main difficulty of conventional differential bus protection is the
balancing of the current transformers in all the circuits around the bus to
ensure that there is no differential current to operate the relay during an
external fault. This difficulty does not appear with the ohm units because
they are connected only to the one set of current transformers in the generator
leads.
This form of protection has also been used for bus-tie reactors. Each
reactor is protected by two reactance ohm units (fig. 5.33) with their contacts
in series. The ohm units are polarised away from the reactor so that a fault in
the reactor is in the reverse direction for both of them and causes them to
trip and isolate the reactor. Both ohm units are set to operate up to half
way through the feeder reactors so that a fault on the bus causes both ohm
units to operate, one because it is within its ohmic setting and the other
because the fault appears to it in the reverse direction (47).
232
Distance Relays 5.4
Trip
r=:-+-----+------t------i--'~_coil
o---t----+
Rtla.ctance
rela.ys
FIG. 5.33. Bus-tie reactor protection
An alternative that has been used in the U.K. is two mho relays each set
to reach 75 %through the bus-tie reactor and connected so as either can trip
both breakers. This arrangement will clear faults in the reactor only, and is
applicable to stations without feeder reactors.
5.4.7. Blinders
One application of the ohm unit is-to extremely long lines where distance
relays other than mho relays are liable to tripping on power swings because
their impedance characteristic has to be large in order to cover the long line.
In such a case the straight line characteristic of the ohm unit may be arranged
in parallel with the line impedance vector so as to cut off one or both sides
of the tripping characteristic (figs. 5.17 and 5.35) and confine the tripping
zone to a strip wide enough to permit tripping on arc resistance.
This scheme was the first attack on the problem of relaying long or heavily
loaded lines (45) and is applicable to any form of relay including overcurrent
relays. In most applications only one blinder is necessary because the major
flow of power generally is in one direction. It is only on interconnections
where the maximum power flows are the same in either direction that two
blinders are necessary.
08 I
Trip
-R R
-x
FIG. 5.35. Out-of-step tripping characteristics
are rare. For cables between 11 kV and 33 kV, <p = 7 if all the current
returns via the sheath or 75 if it all returns via the earth.
The division of the -current depends upon the kind of terrain. In dry,
sandy soil <p = 10 or 15. In moist, acid soil <p is about 50. An average value
would be 30.
The usual angle 0 for the impedance circle of mho relays protecting cables
is 30, i.e. 0 = <p. There is nothing to be gained by making the mho characteris-
tic less lagging than the cable because arc resistance is negligible on account
of the small spacing. Because of the varying angle, impedance relays are the
~siest to apply.
If Z is not known it can be calculated from L, the length of the protected
section in miles and z, the ohms per mile, since Z = Lz, assuming a homo-
geneous line. If z is not known it can be obtained from tables and curves
available to power company engineers, which are based on the equivalent
spacing of the conductors. Approximate values are shown in fig. 5.43.
For lines Zl = Z,. = rl +jXl where rl and Xl are respectively the resis-
tance and reactance of the conductor in ohms per mile. r 1 can be obtained
from standard tables and Xl can be obtained from tables or from the graph
of fig. 5.43 or from the formula
G.M.D.
Xl = 000466flogloG.M.R. (5.19)
where f is the system frequency, G.M.D. is the geometric mean spacing
{I dllb.d"c.dca and G.M.R. is the geometric mean radius.
Another formula commonly used is
(a)
I
I
I
I
I
J
---------_/I>'
(b)
FIO. 5.36. (a) Effect of power infeed on back-up setting
(b) Current distribution with a multi-terminal line
FIO. 5.37. Elliptical characteristic for Zone 3, to prevent tripping on load current
time delays, one of non-directional overcurrent and then a final step con-
trolled by a pure directional unit.
next section in front of them. The same protection will be provided but
the ohmic setting of each third zone unit will be reduced by the impedance
of the protected section, e.g. the relay at A has to reach a distance Be which
is less by AB and may thereby eliminate the risk of operating on overload.
Ta.p
line
Fa.ult
o A B c
TQjJ
lin~
Furthermore, with back-up provided by the relay nearest the fault, tap lines
on the unfaulted section AB will remain in service whereas they would be
l~st without the conventional arrangement of back-up. On the other hand,
the reversed back-up relay has the same a.c. and d.c. supplies as the relays
it is backing up so that it may fail for the same cause.
241
5.5 TABLE
Effect of Grounded Neutral 11- Yor Y-11 Power Transformer Between Distance Relay and A.rcing Fault UI
i.II
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 :5
RELAY RELAY
LOCATION LOCATION
(PRIMAR.Y) (PRIMARV)
b b h b
a F )
"""- n. cl ....a"'tI
Ib
0
SECONDARY SECONDAR.Y
....
-.
~ FAULT FAULT Ib
I agrou~bcl ar.;ound I r.grOUnd I '"::0
Ib
iii
,T
~ --~--- I ~. - I ~
STANDARD ALTERNATIVE
--~- --
Fig.A COfm'CTION Fig. B Fig.C CONNECTION Fig.D
Figs. A and B are the standard power transfonner connections with the l.t. side or secondary 30 deg.lagging the h.t. side or primary. Figs. C and D
are the opposite connections which make the secondary 30 deg. leading the primary.
LEGEND: R = Fault resistance.
p, n, 0 subscripts denote positive, negative and zero sequence components.
C = Fraction of the positive and negative sequence fault currents that flows through the relay.
Z~ = Impedance of line and transfonner between the relay and the fault.
Rn is the total negative sequence resistance between the fault and the ends of the system in parallel. Ro is the corresponding zero sequence
resistance.
Note 1: The ground relay measures the same whether it has zero sequence current compensation or not.
Note 2: The reactance terms are always positive, but the resistance terms, due to the phase shift, can create negative reactance terms in some phases,
thus causing the relay to overreach. In such cases, however, the starting unit pick-up is raised so as to prevent operation.
Distance Relays 5.5
TABLE 5.5 (conI.)
Relay Excitation
Protec- Sec. Fig. A Fig. C Second- Zmeasured
tion Fault &B &D ary
~ VI2 Va
Phase be 00
I)-h h-12 la
VI2 V23 Vb
Phase a-Grd
h -12 lz-I) Ib
Z'p + 21CZo + ;[(2R.. + Ro + 3R,)
~ ~ V.. 1 Zo - Y3(2
Z'P+2C
Phase a-Grd 2C R.. +Ro+3R,)
12- I) I)-h I..
V31 VI2 Va
Phase a-Grd Z'p
I)-II h -/2 la
VI V2 V.. b V3 (R .. + R,)
z'p - C
Ground be
II lz la-lb
V2 V3 Vb. Z'p
Ground be
lz I) Ib-i.
Ground be
V3
I)
VI
II
V... Z'p + ~3 (R .. + R,)
I. -Ia
Ground a-Grd
VI V2 Va. Z'p + Zo + 2R.. + Ro + R,
II lz la -Ib 2C 2Y3C
V2 V3 Vb.
Ground a-Grd 00
12 I) h-l.
Ground a-Grd
V3 VI Veil Z'l' +-
Zo - 2R.. + Ro - R,
I) 11 le-Ia 2C 2Y3C
(b)
r-T---*+(-----L--+l-7~1
Error = (R( T +L)
(c)
IEC~~~-L---'7~'1
Error =ER(L +EcT)
Potential
Nine 10')10 taps T.n I%taps~
FlG. 5.42. Correction of mho relay setting with mho circle less lagging than line
impedance Zr = ZL!COS (r/> -8)
245
5.5 Protective Relays
To justify the compensator 82 must be less than 810
i.e. 8eT+8r{L+8eT) < 8,(L+T)
or 8eT+8,BeT < 8rT
or Be < Br{1-8 e)
Be
or 8r > -1- > Be{1 +8e) (5.21)
-Be
. 1 1-c 1
If the relay accuracy IS 5%, then Br = 20 and Be = 20 or 8e = 21 per
unit, i.e. 4'9% accuracy. This means that a transformer drop compensator
is a disadvantage unless its accuracy is at least equal to that of the relay. To
be of tangible benefit the compensator should be at least 5 times as accurate
as the relay, say 1 %. Alternatively, not more than 85% of the transformer
impedance should be compensated for (in order to avoid overreach) with a
compensator of the same accuracy as the relay.
V
v
08
/v
07
/ 1/
~ ./
! /
eO'6
.c
i/
V
o /
0'5 (j
M V
bO ,l'/
V.,-:;0")/
0'4
/
0'3
V/ V
V/
1/
G'i~-----
-- V
02 2'"
/./ V
V v ...
01
V
0'1 0'2 0'5 1'0 2 5 10 20 50
5/D= Ra.tio of (quival(nt II spacing in fnt to diam(ter of conductor
in inch(s
From the graph in fig. 5.43 the reactance is 086 ohm per
mile and the relay setting is 09 x 60 x 086 = 464 ohms.
The secondary relay ohms
300 115
= 464 x 5 x 154000 = 208 ohms phase to neutral.
Example 2: 154kV line of 12% reactance on 50000 kVA base. With
1000/5 c.t.s on 138 kV side of a Y-L\ power transformer
bank; 154000/115 p.t.s connected in open delta on the line
side.
10kV2.X%
X line = kVA base
lOx 1542 X 12
= = 57 ohms c/>-to-N (5.22)
50000
Assuming the first zone set to cover 90 % of the protected
section, the first zone setting will be:
c.t. ratio
Xrelay = 57 x 09 x . (overall)
p.t. ratIo
= 57xO.9 x 1000 x (13.8 XV3) x ~ x
5 154 154000
(!)2
=06 ohm.
247
5.5 Protective Relays
This would require a reactance relay because the setting
is too low for a mho relay. The (1) term is because the two
current coils of the relay are in series.
Example 3: 115 kV line of reactance 24 ohms phase-to-neutral, with
2000/5 c.t's on the 138 kV side of a 40000 kVA Y-A
power transformer of reactance 91 %. Three wye-connected
p.t's are connected A - Y on the low side of the bank with
665 volt secondaries. There is no line breaker so that the
transformer must be considered as part of the line.
T fi 10xkV2xX% 10x115 2 x9'1
rans ormer reactance = k VA = 40000
= 30 ohms phase-to-neutral
Total reactance = 30+24 = 54 ohms.
Assuming the first zone to cover 90 % of the section
Overall c.t. ratio x 09
X I = 2X x --::---:.,----::--
re ay pnmary Overall p.t. ratio
If wye current is used for the phase relays on the Lt. side
and the relay current coils are connected in series, the overall
. will be -
ratio - x -138 x -J3 = 41 '6/1
2000 . The p. t. ratiO
. IS
.
5 115 2
1000/1.
Assuming a 90% setting for Zone 1,
416
Zrelay = 54 x 09 x 1000 = 22 ohms.
TABLE 5.6
Values 0/ ZO/Zl 0/ Overhead Lines
Conductor Arrangement Min. Max. Average
JI
1
I 1
~ 70
.. .2
---- ...
!: 1 I x~
a. 1
a60
'0" .. 1
1
I
II 0--i .-~
.;I (a) Fo.ult o.t fo.r tnd
~ .~I
~/
I
50 &1
... .}: I
:;
....
d it
.~I
"1
I 0-1-- ~
.."
S40
c:
"'I
1
1
I
(b) Fault o.t nto.r end
".
d 1 I
1
r
1
1
20 I
1
I
! lint covtrs only 6B'Ya due to.
I mutua.l inductien frem current
1 In unfaulttd line
1
1
10 I
1
1
1
o 0L---2..l.0---4LO--6...J.0-~-B.J..0--l..J00
Fo.ult Icco.tien %ef line Itngth
FIG. 5.44. Effect of induction coupling from a parallel line
The same reactance relay may be used for either phase or ground protec-
tion but, as a ground relay, it requires an auxiliary relay to prevent it from
working on phase faults, since the current in the leading phase may be
almost in phase with the wye potential and hence measure zero reactance.
This is illustrated in fig. 5.45.
Fa.
-
sx~x
--
Fe
~l
Trip
Directional
II + :'1 1/ - ~I
Zr,
IZr V
Impedance III
IfI IZr - V IZr + V
Reactance
11 - :'1 IfI IZr - Vsin c/> IZr
Mho II/ /1 - ~I
Zr,
IZr - Vcos (c/> - ()) V
Serio r.cllfi.,
bridge {illl V
(VOlta.ge comparison)
S T 0
~M :l"Mt P 0
~M
Distance Relays 5.6
The ellipticity of the operating characteristic on an impedance diagram
is at right angles to the ellipticity of the reset characteristic so that the operate
and reset values are close at one phase angle and separated at 90 on each 0
......-- v --~
c,
Operating
Polarising
<tj v
(c)
I I'
(0)
V90 0
v= Line potential
I = Line current
rPv = Potential flux .pI :::..
;, = Current flux >9t
h = Current in dephasing coil of current. '0
pole :::..
l' = Component of I which corresponds
toh '0
1m = Magnetising component of I VI
:l
ZI = Potential coil impedance J ~
Izi = Current through coil ZI ...J
ICI = Current through CI
IRI = Current through Rl
VRC = Potential across Rand Cl
Z2 = Phase shifting coil v
2 = e.m.f. in Z2
IZ2 = Volts drop in Z2 (d)
'2 = Potential across Z2
FIG. 5.46. Operation of induction cup reactance unit
(a) Potential, current and flux vectors
(b) Potential circuit
(c) Current circuit
(d) Diagram showing only reactive component of V is effective
255
~
Polarising potentia.l wdgs.
~
Restraint potcntia.1 wdgs.
~currcnt
~wdg.
(a)
(b) I
I= Fault current
Vr= Faulted (restraint) potential
V, = Directional (polarising) potential
;r .,; Current in restraint coils
Rcstra.int
if. = Current in polarising coils
fI = Power factor angle
ex = Angl~tween I and i p
fJ = Angle betw.een i p and ir
120 + (180 - If) + IX + 8 = 0
:. = IX - 8 - 300
=P-8+6O I
Operating torque = ipI sin ex = ipI sin (fJ - /I + 60)
Restraining torque = i,Ir sin P = Xi!! Vr sin P
'k h Vr sin(p-fl+600) h
RI
eaYPlcsUpWenj< sinp oms (c)
FIG, 5.47. Vector diagrams of starting unit
(a) Potential and current circuits
(b) Currents and voltages during interphase fault
(c) Vector diagram of relay quantities
~::r--o
PolClrising circuit
~--------~c-----~v
.~
RCltra.int circuit
D
Current circuit
0
v= Line voltage
If. = Current in polarising potential coil
r = Current in restraining potential coil
I = Fault current at maxim.um torque angle
Ire = Current in parallel RC circuit
'I 10 = Current in operating coil
FIG. 5.48. Vector diagram of mho unit
(a) Potential and current circuits
(b) Vector diagram of relay quantities
256
Distance Relays 5.6
speed electromagnetic unit, especially in Switzerland, France, Sweden and
the U.S.A.
Phase comparators of the induction type differ from all other types of
phase comparator because they are sine product devices whereas the others
are cosine product (wattmetric) devices. For this reason the phase shift
necessary for the induction cup relays in the Table is 90 different from the
others. This property makes it suitable for polyphase application as discussed
in Chapter 6, section 6.8.
Fig. 5.46 shows the vector diagrams for a reactance relay of the induction
cup type. For simplicity only one current circuit is shown but in practice
there is another, inductively coupled to it and energised from the residual
current or another phase (see section 5.1.1).
Fig. 5.47 shows the vector diagram for the mho type fault detector with
quadrature potential polarisation. The relay in phase R would have current
JR , restraining potential the wye voltage VR and polarising potential the
delta voltage V yB ,
The mho measuring unit (fig. 5.48) diagram is similar to fig. 5.47 except
that the polarising potential is supplied from the same phases as the restrain-
ing potential.
Rectifier bfldge
I:)
CompClrCltor a.nd limilor (L) ':::JI~
(Phase comparison) ~., ~~
...., V
~~nIlJt Zr
~
::;,
C1I I Zr V Zr (")
co V Cb
::0
Levr~ Cb
,dt.tcctar V Lucl L.... I iii'"
td.. tector....
LJ L J
~
TrCln.i.tor pa.ra.llel
Compara.tor Unc:c.of"lomica'
~ ---hQ-
(Curnnt cOincidence) c.lrc. ..ut
PC PC PC
'"''';~ S . T T~PC
V '/ 1';1 V k
~
Relay
Ma.gnt.llC a.mplil,c,
(Amplitud~ comparison)
CT
~' tij)~ ~' o&[J
TranSductor
r;'l I V UI
c"
p ~ polarised relay. o = operating coil. B = bias restraint coil.
5.6 Protective Relays
5.'.'. Relay Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a distance relay measuring unit can be defined as the
minimum voltage Vm down to which it will measure accurately. It was shown
in section 5.3.1. that this could also be expressed as inversely ZsIZL'
Since the VA burden of the potential circuit oc V2 it follows that
Vm ex: ~ where VA is the burden of the potential circuit at normal voltage.
"VA
This is also affected by the sensitivity of the relay unit. In a rectifier bridge
circuit it requires mW milliwatts to operate the unit, so that Vm ex: ~.
"VA
In the case of the induction cup relay, the polarising circuit co-operates
with the potential circuit to produce torque and Vm ex: J 1 where
VA. (VA)p
(VA)p is the burden of the polarising circuit which may be energised by
current (reactance relay) or potential (mho relay).
The burden of the operating current winding or circuit is related to the
sensitivity in the same way but it is not a limiting factor because it is only on
during fault conditions, whereas the potential burden is a maximum during
normal conditions.
The most important aspect of the current burden is to make sure that the
c.t. is capable of handling it for the maximum fault current Imax for a fault
at the end of Zone 1. The knee point voltage VK of the c.t. secondary should
at least equal the total voltage drop across the burden,
i.e. V=
K Imax (R et . + Rleads + ;,~) Kt (5.26)
where VA is the relay burden at its rated current Ir and Kt is the d.c. offset
ratio which is a function of the time constant (LI R) of the primary circuit.
K= (1 + X)
t R 2!!...
te
(5 27)
where tr is the relay operating time and t. = ~; the factor 2 comes from the
fact that the time of energisation of the relay at a given level need not be
more than half the time taken to close the contacts.
=(~+co)~
Now :r. is small compared with co and can be neglected. Hence
co
K, = "2 tr = nf.lr (5.29)
260
Distance Relays 5.6
If f = 50 and tr = 0'04, K t = 628. Actually K can be taken as about 2
for most systems because almost all faults on overhead lines occur near the
point of Vrnax in the' cycle and the full offset conditions are rarely encountered.
The rare case of the worst conditions would only cause a short delay in
tripping.
(5.30)
'20
110
f//, '//. 'h '//. '//. f/I ,/1 '//1 W/, V/h V// h ;t//h Wh
100 WI'. rK71
f/I f/I !.lli. 1'1/1; illIh il///, I/h W f/I f/I 'I'.' '/I'///. 'Ih '//. '/h
90
80
Shc1dcd arc" dcnotCi a.cCUl'"G.Cy tol crC1nCC . 5"0)
40
30
20
,0
o
o 10 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100 110
Few It vo Ita.qc
ohms for a fault at the relay setting Zn (fig. 5.49). Operating time can be
shown best on a curve of time to the base of distance so that the slowi~g
up of the relay near the cut-off point can be clearly seen.
The complete performance of the relay can be shown on a contour
diagram (50), plottingZ//Zr against a base ofZ./Zr whereZ/ is the impedance
between the relay and the fault and Zr is the relay setting; this is equivalent to
plotting the accuracy along the Y axis against a base of the reciprocal of the
voltage along the Y axis (see fig. 5.50).
261
5.7 Protective Relays
x - Y curves are plotted for several relay operating times so that there is
a family of such curves and contours. This method is a good way of evaluating
the performance of one relay against another but it takes much longer to
make the necessary tests and is somewhat more difficult for the user who is
I
I
T - -
CUI"IIICI
I --,--
n :J.)rM
SlIa.dcd orca
on boundary
If, I
// ;t.,
100 ~. ~ ~ '~fo i - .. ( 8ClJ<1ncc) . ;,;;
~
-...:...
- r---
~ ........ r- ~ --I"- ........
.'"
'--
o .......... ....... ",,-
~
t
'r--. i'.
3~~.00lScc, r'\ 1\5001 Sc ""'6001 Sr< .
I
\
60
Q.
I
~\ 1\ I
\
20 I
o0,
02 0 '5 2 5 10 20 50 100
Source /llnr impedance rQtlO
more interested usually in the operating times for faults at different points
along a given section, i.e. for a given value of Z,/Z". To do this he plots a
vertical line and notes where it intersects the various contour curves.
'V1:bllEf
(.)
O
Sens!ti ve
polarosed
d .c relay
unlikely to operate the phase relays at Band C but it appears to the ground
distance relay at B as a phase b-to-ground fault and to the ground relay at C
as a c-to-ground fault. The ground relays tend to overreach because the
interphase current flowing from phase b to phase c through the earth is much
larger than the ordinary ground current. Another way of looking at it is that
their residual compensating current Klres is the sum of the c-phase current
from end R and the b-phase current from end P.
Under these circumstances the least that can happen is that the breakers
at A, B, C and D all trip and service is lost to station Q in fig. 5.53.
In Europe, where Petersen Coil grounding is common for systems below
100 kV, the isolation of station Q is avoided by the fact that switched im-
pedance or mho relays are use'd on these systems and they select wye potential
and current for all faults involving ground. In the fault shown in fig. 5.53,
all the relays would receive phase c current and voltage and only breakers
C and D would open, with D probably not tripping until C had tripped.
The reason is that the fault appears to the relays at A and D as a phase-to-
phase fanlt so that they underreach when given c-phase current and potential;
265
5.9 Protective Relays
the c-phase current is flowing in the reverse direction for the relay at B, so it
stays open also.
After C and D have tripped, the ground fault in section AB still remains
but is extinguished by the Petersen Coil. On solidly grounded systems it is
necessary to trip all four terminals because there is no Petersen Coil to
extinguish the remaining fault. With separate distance relays for phase -and
ground faults, breakers A and D would be tripped by their phase relays for
the fault in fig. 5.53, breakers Band C by their ground relays. In switched
distance relays providing delta current and voltage for double ground faults
only, breakers A and D would open.
5.9. AUTORECLOSING
The large majority of faults on overhead lines are transient, i.e. they
disappear when the line is de-energised by opening the circuit-breakers at
both ends of the line. This fact permits immediate resumption of service by
reclosing the breakers.
Obviously, this does not apply to a cable because the breakdown of in-
sulation is permanent whereas, in an overhead line, the insulating value of the
air is restored as soon as the fault current stops and the arc disappears.
Radial circuits are the most benefited by automatic reclosing because
there is only one source of power and the quicker it is restored the better.
Furthermore, there is no problem of synchronising on radial lines.
On tie lines or interconnections in a network there is more than one source
per bus, so that the loss of a line is not so serious and auto-reclosing is less
necessary. Furthermore, on tie lines there is sometimes a problem of connect-
ing the two sections of the system after the source and load ends have drifted
apart in phase relationship. On the other hand, where there is only one tie-
line which must be kept in at all costs, single-pole switching is necessary, i.e.
separate circuit-breakers and reclosing relays for each phase; with this
system transient single-phase-ground faults (which are the most common)
cause no real interruption because, while the reclosing is taking place, the
load current formerly in the interrupted phase makes its way back to the
neutral through the ground and grounding wires (64).
It should be pointed out that, although the overlap of the section by the
instantaneous zone in ohms impedance is 5 %, the overlap in actual distance is
generally only 1 % or 2 % because the relay only measures a fraction of the
total current fed into the fault through the intermediate bus. The likelihood
of a fault occurring in this small length of line is correspondingly remote.
On the other hand, it is obvious that this scheme is practical only with very
accurate relays, i.e. those with an error of less than ~ % over the possible
range of fault currents.
The effect again is to clear all faults instantaneously at both ends of the
protected section.
The subject of reclosing has not been discussed in detail because it is out-
side the scope of a book on protective relays.
potential in amplitude with the delta potential that is in quadrature with it;
for instance, a ground fault on phase a will be detected by the fact that
Va < 05 Vbc ' Where a.c. potential is not available the negative sequence
component of current is compared in each phase with the zero sequence
component; in the faulted phase the two components are substantially in
phase; in the unfaulted phases they are substantially 120 out of phase and
hence have a negative product.
The advantage claimed for single pole reclosing is that, on a system with
transformer neutrals grounded solidly at each substation or line terminal,
the interruption of one phase to clear a ground fault causes negligible inter-
ference with the load because the interrupted phase current now flows in the
ground between neutral points until the fault is cleared and the open phase
reclosed.
This technique has become popular in France and Sweden especially
where there are no parallel low impedance paths in the network through
which the load can flow while a faulted line is interrupted. Meanwhile, it has
lost favour in the U.S.A. and been replaced by three-phase reclosing for the
following reasons:
(a) phase selectors cannot always select only the faulted phase;
(b) the protection and control circuits are more expensive and compli-
cated with single-pole switching;
(c) most systems will maintain the load on two phases long enough to
permit instantaneous three-pole reclosing;
(d) the real problem is not to eliminate a brief dissymmetry of the load
current but to avoid system instability and this is associated with
multi-phase faults which require three-phase tripping and reclosing;
(e) owing to the more complex relay circuit and to the longer dead time
required,' single-pole reclosure cannot be as fast as three-pole re-
closure; this is not only undesirable in itself but can cause trouble
with telephone interference and with wrong tripping of the residual
relays on a sound line in parallel with the faulted line due to mutual
induction.
5.10. APPENDIX
5.10.1. Zero Sequence Current Compensation
During a phase fault to ground the wye potential Va at the relay consists
of the following drops in the sequence networks and fault resistance
v" = I 1Z 1+1 2Z 2+/oZo+ IFRF
where la is the current in the arc. Now Z1 = Z2 for lines; hence
v.. = (I1 +12+/o)Z1 +/O(ZO-Z1)+IFRF
= Z1 {Ia+/ o (ZO~Zl)} + IFRF
269
5.10 Protective Relays
Relay Three
Phase Phase 2-Phase 3 Phase I-Ground
Z'12
RF
C M v3Z"W + RFI60 0
) C~j(Znl900 + Zo~ + 3RF130 0
)
RF RF
Z'23 00
C 2C
Z'31
RF
C
MV3Znl90 + RFI600 ) C~3(Znl90 + Zol30 + 3RFI300)
RF 3
Z'l oo
C- 2CnRF
RF
Z'2
C c~j(Znl90 + RF[3O") ~~(ZnI90 + Zo~ + V3RF~0)
Z'3
RF
C
~-(Znl90
C 3 -
+ RFI300)
-
~~(Znl90 + Zo130 + V3RFI600)
S A..
-x
FIG. 5.54. Impedances seen by phase relays during 2-3 fault
R,
ife
...
. R ______~~~~~---------R
..
FIG. 5.55. Impedances seen by ground relays during 2-3 fault
-x
FIG. 5.56. Impedances seen by phase or ground relays during a power swing
locus ISOL is the angle of separation of the generator e.m.fs and the impe-
dance seen by a relay at any location A is AO.
If the relay characteristic be drawn on this diagram and it intersects the
power swing locus at 0' then ISO'L is the angle up to which the system can
swing apart without operating the relay.
A fuller treatment of this subject is given in Vol. II.
272
TABLE 5.11
Klo 0 0 Co .
- COjZ2 +R)f
KI. C 0 2C+ Co (C - C~ (Zzt )
Klb a2C (a2- a)C Co - C c[a2(Z2 + ) + (a2- a) (Zo + +3RG)]- Co (Z2 +)
KI, aC (a - a2)C Co- C c[a (Z2 +) +(a - a2) (Zo + +3RG)] - Co (Z2 +f)
KVI cZ' +RF Z2 + CZ'I + RF Z2 +Zo +CZ'I +3RF cz 'I(Zzt Rd Zo + 3RG)t (Zd T RF + 3RG ) +"Z
RF)(Zo +2" RF (Zd Zo +Rd 3RG)
KV. CZ'I +RF 2(Zd) 2CZ'1 + Col'o + 3RF (Z2 +f) [CZ'I - CoZ'o +3(Zo +~ +2RG)]
KVb a2(CZ'1 + RF) (al - a)CZ'1 +a2RF - Z2 (a2- a)Z2 - CZ'I +(a 2-1)Zo +Col'o +3a2RF CZ+2 (Z2 +) +(a2-a)(zo + + 3RG)]-Col'0(Z2 +) +3RG(a2RF-Zz)t(a2-a) zo+(a2-1)Z2+3a2 Rt
KV, a(CZ'J +RF) (a - a2)CZ,! +aRF - Z2 (a - a2)Z2 - CZ'I +(a - I)Zo +Col'o +3aRp ZdT +(a-a2)(Rp
CZI,[a(RF) RF RF RF2
RF) +3RG(aRF-Zz)t(a-a2)"ZZo+(a-I)TZ2+3aT
ZO+T+3RG )] -CoZo'(Zzt"Z
KV.c (1 - a2XCZ'1 +RF) (a - a2)CZ'J +3Z2+RF(I - a2) 3CZ'1 - (a2- a)Z2 - (a2- IXZo +3RF) CZ ,I[(1- a2) (RF)
Zzt 2" +(a - a2)(ZoR
+"ZF Rp 3
+3RG) 1+3ZOZ2 +(1-a2)RF(ZO +3RG)t(4-a')Z2"Zt9Z2RG+4(I-a2)Rpl
KVc, (a2- a)(CZ'! +RF) 2(a2- a) (CZ'I + ) (a2- a)(Zo +2Z2 +3RF) (a2- a) [CZ'I{(Z2 + ) +2(Zo + + 3RG)} + ~F (Z2 +2Z0 +~Rp +6RG)]
KV.. (a - IXCZ'I +RF) (a - a2)CZ'1 - 3Z2 +(a - I)RF - 3CZ'1 +(a - a2)Z2 +(a - 1)(Zo + 3RF) CZ
. ,[(a - I) (RF)
Zzt"Z +(a - a2)(ZoR
+TF+3RG
) ] - 3Zol2 - (I - a)RF(Zo +3RG) - (4 - a)Z2"Z 3(l-a)aRF2
Rp - 9Z2RG - 4
1 1 1 1[ R F
K (ZI HF) (ZI +Z2 HF) (ZI +Z2 +Zo +RF) E ZIZ2+Z2Z0+ZOZI 3RF2]
+ "Z (ZI +Z2 +Zo) + 3RG(ZI +Z2 +RF) +4
Uacl/W p. 272
TABLE
5.12
Currents and Potentials Supplied to Phase Distance Relays
K(I. -1.) C(a-I) C(a - al) -3C C[(a -I) (Zz +~) +(a - al) (Zo +~ +3RG)]
KV (1- a2)(CZ'I +RF) (a - a2)CZ'I +3Zz +(I - a2)RF 3CZ'I - (aZ - a)Zz - (aZ- I)(Zo +3RF) CZ'I[(1- al)(Zz + t') +(a- al) (zo +1' +3RG)] +(1- al) (Zl +~) i +[3Zz +(I -al)RFl (zo +1' +lRG)
KV (aZ- a)(CZ'1 + R,) 2(aZ- a) (CZ'I + t') (aZ - a)(Zo +2Z2l +3(al - a)RF (al - a) (CZ'I +~) {(ZZ + t') + 2(Zo +t + lRG)}
KV.. (a - I)(CZ'I + R,) (a - al)CZ'1 - 3Zz +(a - I)RF - JCZ'I +(a - a2)Zz +(a - I)(Zo +3RF) CZ,I[(a - 1) (RF)
Zz +"'2 +(a - al) (ZoR lRG] -
+ "2F+) (I - a) (RF) R, - [3Zz +(I - a)RFl (Zo + R,
Zl + "2 2" 2" +lRG )
1 1 1 1[ p
K E(ZI HF) E(ZItZ2+RF) (ZI +Zz +Zo +3RF) E ZIZ2R
+Z2Z0 +Zoll 1ZI ]
+ "2 (ZI +Zz +Zo) +lRG(ZI +Zz + RF) +4
c- C Zo Z'I + C[ R ) Z' R )
Z'I
Cl (Z2 + -f-) + (a -"aZ) (Zo -I- R
,; + 3RG ] - Co Z/~ (ZZ + 2F
[facing p. 272
6
S'fJitehed "lUI Polyphase lJistaDf!e
Bel"ys
Reduction of Measuring Units-Automatic Switching Schemes-
Polyphase Distance Relay-Phase and Amplitude Comparators-
Analysis of Polyphase Comparators
Time
FIG. 6.1. Faster overall time with stepped time distance characteristic
had the advantage of reducing the overall clearing time by the shaded areas
in fig. 6.1 and is now universally used.
The normal stepped time-distance scheme consists of fault detectors,
distance measuring units and logic units; the latter include timing units,
auxiliary relay units and flag indicators.
Theoretically, four fault detectors and 18 measuring units are required for
providing three time-distance steps for the ten varieties of phase-to-phase and
phase-to-ground faults. Because of the cost and panel space so many units
would require, their number is reduced in practice by using each measuring
unit for more than one purpose. In almost all modern distance relays the
K 273
6.1 Protective Relays
(a)
..
!I,o.\'OI\ but bOon
-"""'" d +-~
' ,",'
n1
p .TI
"'- .-., I V
"'''' Hf
~,
I V,
Hr
-"""""
]
i~ 0.- ~ ...
cl: 'I G
L.!&.
g... I
~ \MN '
"-
...!I.. I ...l&.
c .TI, e I
Ie I .!S..
HtJ
' W '"
t ~ -l-.L +
~ $" ,.,62e
""iF"
(b)
x---f.-
(1
b
c
-X
(1
--0 0 - ~
(c)
(b)
FIG. 6.3. One distance relay for all faults
(a) Basic switching circuit. (b) Typical European circuit
Pot~ntiClI
Au .C.T. lor
ohmic a.diu.tmtnt
(a)
(b)
To P.T's.
~
Q ben
To
C.Ts.
one NO and one NC contact per fault detector so that auxiliary switching
relays can be eliminated and the scheme is a very simple one from the point
of view of contacts. For this reason it is also applicable to static relays.
In fig. 6.5, compensation for the zero sequence voltage drop between the
relay and the fault is accomplished by adding a portion of the residual current
to the phase current.
It was proved in Appendix 5.10.1 of the previous chapter that the relay
would measure Zl if KIo were added to the phase current supplied to the
Z/O-Z/ I
relay, where K = where Z/ 1 and Z/ o were the positive and zero
I
Zl
sequence impedances of the protected section of line.
The alternative to current compensation is potential compensation. The
relay can be supplied only with 10 in the current circuit and the phase-to-
neutral potential can have the positive and negative sequence voltage com-
ponents removed. Since IIZ I = 12 Z 2 on transmission lines the compensa-
. Va- 2/ 1 Z I 10Zo
tlon can be 2/1Z I The relay then measures = - - = Zoo (6.1)
10 10
In order to measure Xo instead of Zo either a phase or an amplitude
279
6.5 Protective Relays
comparator can be employed. In a phase comparator, such as an induction
cup relay, the operating and polarising windings have 10 and the restraining
winding the compensated phase-to-neutral voltage which must be switched
to the faulted phase by a suitable fault detector (phase sc\ector), as shown in
fig. 6.5.
Fig. 6.6. shows an amplitude comparator used in the U.S.A. for this
purpose. It compares the compensated phase-to-neutral potential V - 2/1Z' 1
Op~ra.t&
with the vectorial difference of the compensated voltage and 2l0Xo where
X' 0 is the replica reactance for the protected section.
Balance then occurs when
IV l
-21 1 Z 1 -21 0 Xo = 1V-2ltZ~ (6.2)
i.e. when 11oZo- 2/ 0Xol = I/oZ.o1 from(6.1)
or R02+(Xo-2XO)2 = R~+X~
i.e. when Xo=Xo
Imp,danc.
unit
To
en.
DireetlonC1l
ReSistors unit
(a)
Q.
Induetlon cup
MHO rCIa.y
r-----Q.
b
To
b P.Ts.
n
(b)
flO. 6.7. One impedance relay for all faults (European)
(a) With current shunts. (b) With auxiliary C.ts.
operation. It will be seen that a phase fault to ground causes no relay opera-
tion; this is permissible on a Petersen coil grounded system because single-
phase ground faults are self-extinguishing but, on other systems, an additional
fault detector is necessary.
One advantage of the scheme in fig. 6.7a is the fact that the current and
potential switching can be similar but the use of the voltage drop across
TABLE 6.1
Operation of European Switching Scheme
Fault a-b b-c c-a a-g b-g c-g a-b-g b-c-g c-a-g 3</>
Current la-lb Ib-Ic la-Ie la-Klo -Ie+Klo la-Klo -Ie+Klo -le+Klo la-I.
Potential fab Vbc Vac Va -Ve Va -Ve -Vc Va.
281
6.5 Protective Relays
the resistors in the c.t. secondaries for supplying the current circuit necessitates
an extremely sensitive comparator circuit and relay unless the output of the
comparator bridge is amplified before it is fed to the output relay.
Where less sensitive relays are used, such as the induction cup, the C.t.
secondary current must be supplied directly or through an auxiliary C.t.
This means that the current switching circuit must be different from the
potential switching circuit because the main c.t. secondaries must be short-
circuited when not connected to the relay; this is illustrated in fig. 6.7b
which shows the connections of another German relay giving the same
switching of current and potential, except that on a c-a fault the ground
relay is connected to phase a instead of phase c.
A compromise between these two methods is to replace the resistors in the
current circuit by transactors and compare the transactor output voltages
with the line secondary potentials in a voltage comparator. This scheme
permits the use of an induction cup relay and yet allows the current and
potential circuits to be the same.
Fig. 6.8 shows the simplified circuitry of an English switched reactance
relay. In England, France and the U.S.A., reactance relays are preferred for
Phnst
o-----r-----<>n
b <>----+--r----o b
To
e...+":':::::"h~ITtll-oc P.T~,
To
C,TS.
L--...L...+-H-r-o n
ground faults because of the risk of high fault resistance which could prevent
a mho or impedance relay from operating; for this reason the use of a single
measuri.ng unit for phase and ground faults requires that it should be of the
reactance type.
The scheme shown in fig. 6.8 gives accurate measurement for all types of
faults since it provides the correct currents and potentials, as shown in
Table 5.7 of Chapter 5. The current circuit is very simple, having only one
282
Switched and Polyphase Distance Relays 6.6
transfer contact per phase. In spite of the extra switching needed for the
polarising potential circuit of the starting unit, the total number of contacts is
no more than for the simplest switched impedance scheme.
The directional polarising coil uses the same voltage as the restraining
coils, i.e. the faulted voltage. In order to ensure correct directional action for
an interphase fault very close to the bus, the directional polarising voltage is
augmented by 5 % of the voltage from the phase or phase pair leading the
faulted phase or phase pair. Memory action is ineffective in switched schemes
because it cannot be sustained for more than 2 cycles after the inception of
the fault.
TABLE 6.2
Comparison of Switched Distance Schemes
a.
d.
c~-----+------~b
/
/ /
/ I
/ Vpol.= 3Vo /1
/ Vc
/
/ I
I
IVc
~/
va (a.) (c)
A
<1
~ C" y ..t'
</l-</l
ebb
-
#-'
J..
...",
e
0 t
e b c b +
a.
0 c- b
A -, .. ~
<1 <1 Q_O
b
t c
</l - </l -G J.. '
b=c=O
~b ' y'"
+
a.
~
Qbc
c
.,r-.....
b
</l-G
A a.
c
- "'y"'" +
b
0.=0
c.,r-.....b
<1 <1
I
..I.
' ..
<1be
t
<1
t
c btl' e
e b ~ o.b c b~c=O
c:r.'f-__. , J
Sta.tion bus StQtion bus
R P.T.
P.T.
R~pljca. I
ImpedQnc.,Z.
Aux.c:rr a
IZ
ce W
n n
o 0
...,
]
."
~
v"
e=
v ..
e-=
Ole
~ __________________ ~
St_Q._lio
_ n
_b_u_s ____________ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ a.
~--~----------------------------------~~-------b
R~plica.
im p_dane.: P.TS<:._-=_...".....
.,
d
i"
...,~
"
b======:---------~-~--~]
(a)
(b) (c)
FIG. 6.11. (a) Polyphase mho relay (phase comparator) for phase faults
(b) Induction cup phase comparator
(c) Static (Hall effect) phase comparator
286
Switched and Polyphase Distance Relays 6.8
the replica impedance. Here again the connections are shown only for one
phase; the other is similar.
Fig. 6.11 shows schematically the three-phase connections of a potential
phase comparator for phase faults only. The torque of the relay is the sine
product
(6.4)
which is zero when the two quantities are in phase or when either quantity is
zero. Fig. 6.12 shows the effect of a b - c fault on the wye and delta potentials.
a.
/1 ~
/1 1\\
// f I \\ Fa.ulted a.nd compensa.ted
II'I~
\Y
/ I I \
/ I f \ \ Fa.ulted
/ ,I \ \
/
,I
I
II
I
I
, I
, I
I
\
\v
/Norma.1
Ie I / f I \ \
," , 1 \\
\ \
, ,,,
I
/
'/ ' HI \\ \\
\ \
/ \ \
\
\
\
Sine
product
rea.ch~
rz
A Rela.y B
F4 rJ..,-;
--1)>f-f----1~ 1~Ia.y I
'7
)1 ofof---:)(~I- -
FI
: loca.tion : : :
ia.ult Fa.ult within Fa.ult a.t Fa.ult beyond
The relay of fig. 6.11 does not operate on three-phase faults because the
three-phase fault affects both compensators equally and for an internal fault
two of the potentials are reversed so that the phase sequence is reversed by
one and corrected by the other, hence the phase sequence remains normal.
Consequently, balanced three-phase faults must either be taken as a calculated
improbability or must be covered by an additional single-phase distance
relay.
Fig. 6.14 shows the connections .of a current comparator for protection
against both phase and ground faults. It uses wye instead of delta potentials
and employs zero sequence current compensation to ensure correct operation
on phase-to-ground faults. Fig. 6.12 shows that, in a phase-to-phase fault,
compensated wye voltages are also in phase for a fault at the balance point
and hence the operation is equally reliable with wye or delta potentials. On
ground faults, however (fig. 6.15) the wye potentials are not in phase at the
fault location and the relay has zero torque for a single phase-to-ground
fault on two of the phases but not on the third. For example, in fig. 6.15, if
the relay is energised from phases a and b it will not trip for a fault between
phase c and ground.
An extra single-phase distance relay is shown in fig. 6.14 which takes
care of phase c-to-ground faults and balanced three-phase faults.
The foregoing phase comparators are based on 4-pole induction cup relays
because they are sine product devices. It would be impractical to use dynamo-
meter relays or any form of static relay now available because they are cosine
product devices, and the use of a phase-shifting circuit for one phase would
give a tendency to transient overreach.
It is impractical to use phase sequence components, either singly or in
groups, for phase comparison because the positive and negative sequence
components have opposite phase rotation and such a relay would operate
differently, depending upon which phases were involved.
288
Switched and Polyphase Distance Relays 6.8
____~--------~S~tn~t~lo~n~b~u.~bd~r~
. ----------------~ ~
---r1---------------------------~_r b
~~~--------------------------------~~~ c
P.Ts.
c:r.
ncb ~,
S.cond~y
-------
abc pountlar
bu.
Prouct."
line
FIG. 6.14. Phase comparator polyphase distance relay for all faults
a.
I \ I \
I
I
I
T-
lZ~\
IZr
\\
/
/
I
\
IZ~\
,,
,,
I Va \
/ ! \ / \
- \ /
/ _/' \
/ /'/'
/'
I/'/' \
ct.::::..- - - - - - - - - 1-
IC:.. ________ _ \
(a.)
FIG. 6.15. Operation of phase comparator distance relay on a single-phase
ground fault
(a) External fault. (b) Internal fault
289
6.9 Protective Relays
6.9. POLYPHASE AMPLITUDE COMPARATORS
Amplitude comparators are best adapted to static circuits. They can use
either wye or phase sequence quantities; but neither gives much economy
over single-phase relays and the use of phase sequence quantities introduces
some loss in accuracy due to the use of sequence filters.
Where wye quantities are used the operating quantities can be paralleled
on one side and opposed to the paralleled restraining quantities so that the
strongest operating quantity is matched against the weakest restraining
quantity. A preferable arrangement, however, is to parallel the outputs of
L
three single-phase comparators as listed below. The sign is used to denote
the summation of the outputs of the three phases in the following equations.
Tripping occurs when:
LI{l-K'/o)Z'1 > LIVI Impedance (6.5)
L12(1 - K' I o)X' - Vi > LIVI Reactance (6.6)
LI(I -K'/o)Z'1 > LIV -2(l-K'/o)Z'IAdmittance (6.7)
Fig. 6.16 shows the basic circuit for the polyphase admittance relay; the
others are self-evident. These circuits are advantageous with rectifier bridge
circuits but uneconomical to apply to electromechanical relays. With the
former, only three comparators are needed for phase and ground faults
instead of the normal six.
In the case of the polyphase reactance relay a polyphase admittance
starting relay is needed to prevent it from tripping on load. This was explained
with single phase reactance relays in Chapter 5.
Fig. 6.17 shows a circuit using phase sequence components. In these
circuits all the rectified potentials are added except the positive sequence
voltage V 1 , which is reversed for providing restraint. They are less accurate
than the circuits using wye quantities because (a) sequence filters introduce
an error which increases with the load on them and (b) when a number of
large quantities are combined, producing a small resultant near the balance
point, small errors in the large quantities produce large errors in the
output.
Fig. 6.16 is based on the fact that 1V11-1V21 = 0 at the fault location
for all faults except single-phase-to-ground faults where IV11-1 V21-1 Vo 1= O.
The fault values of potentials are obtained by compensating the phase poten-
tials at the relay before they are applied to the sequence filters. The under-
reach of the relay on single-phase ground faults is remedied by a monitoring
relay which cuts in the component IVo - 10Zo I on the operating side when
Vo > KV2 where K > 1 and depends upon the ratio of Zo to Z1' An alterna-
tive is to start with 1V1 - I1Z' 1-1V2 + 12Z' 1-lVo +10Zo I and either cut out
the 1V0 +/oZo I component or double the 1V2+12Z'1 component when a
double ground fault occurs. This alternative is less beneficial because it
involves a race to prevent overreaching, whereas the first method merely
involves a slight delay in tripping single-phase ground faults.
290
( I) --------------------1
34> Fa.ult V, ft~
Sta.llon bus
I't-V~=O
[J
Tra.nsa.clors
lZ R ( ii) I,Z,
V" ~ Vc N
4>- 4> Fa..ul t E E
Va
J.'I=~
C.T.
!'Zi
faZa ( III)
~-4K1 Fa.ult E
.
~
..,
~
u
~
e
Q.
!,~
( Iv)
4>-G Fa..u lt
E
V;'=V2+V~
(a) (b)
FIG. 6.16. (a) Amplitude comparator polyphase mho relay for all faults. (b) Phase sequence voltage distribution during faults
6.10 Protective Relays
, -________________~S~~~ij~~~b~u~s~b~~r~s_______________r----~
+-r-----------------------------------~~---b
SenSl!,ve differen!".1
POlo.rl:~ rela.y
. - -- t i c-/ - - ---,
Sequence
Rtttificr potentia.l t--+-t--l
bridgcs
filhr. t--+--f-+--!
Scconda.ry
potentia.!
Protected bus
lin'
Singlc-phcuc-ground
1a.ult detector
FIG. 6.17. Basic circuit of polyphase amplitude comparator distance relay
using sequence components
Y.lo---+-==::::::...J
Vao--+-./
FIG. 6.18. a.c. Connections of induction cup fault detector (mho type)
L{/(I - V sin cP)} but such a unit would cost about the same as three separate
units and could be used only for interphase faults because the operating
torque ex: I: + I~ + K/~, ex: I~ + I~ + K' I~ and the II component due to load
could cause serious inaccuracy during light single-phase ground faults
This expression was obtained by substituting the values for la, 10 and Va
given in the Table 5.7 at the end of Chapter 5. K = !(Z~ +Zz +Zo+R,)
where R, is the fault resistance and Zh Zz and Zo are total system im-
pedances. It will be seen that all the terms in (6.8) cancel out except -3R,/K,
i.e. the expression is zero for a solid fault at the reach setting of the relay.
For the same fault the expression for phase b is
(Ib + K'Io)Zi - Vi,
1 r.
= K{",3JZz-(a Z-1)Zo-3a Z}
R, (6.9)
=- 1 ~-3jZz+(a-1)Zo+3aR,}
K{ (6.10)
It is clear that the product of the phase a quantity with either of the others
293
6.11 Protective Relays
is zero at the balance point if R, = O. If R, is not zero there will be a small
error, as in all mho relays, depending on the magnitude of R,.
The product of the two phases not involved in the fault times the sine of
the angle between them is a negative quantity, which shows that the relay
will not trip for a fault in the third phase. Consequently, a single-phase mho
unit is required for clearing single-phase ground faults in the third phase as
well as three-phase faults. This still makes the scheme practical because two
induction cup units are a great deal more economical than the six required
for normal phase and ground protection using single-phase relays.
On phase-to-phase faults between phases band c we have, for phase a
Obviously, the sine product of any two of these quantities is zero at the
balance point, except for the error due to arc resistance which is present in
all mho and impedance relays; hence the relay works correctly for a phase
fault between any phase pair. It can be demonstrated that it works correctly
also on double-ground faults but it will not trip at all on balanced three-
phase faults because the compensation effects all phases equally and their
product is positive (restraining) whether the compensated voltages are
positive or negative.
For Phase c
1 /-
K 12(C o-C)Zi +2Co(Z~-ZJ.)-v 3jZ 2 + CZi-(a -1)Zo- CoZ~-3aRfl-
-kl-jZn-CZi-(a-l)Zo-CoZ~-3aRfl
1 r
= K I-CZ 1+CoZ~-v 3jZ 2 -(a-l)Zo-3aR f l-
The sum of the moduli in expressions (6.15), (6.16) and (6.17) is zero for a
fault at the balance point only if all the impedances are homogeneous in
phase angle and Rf = O. This can be demonstrated by drawing the vectors
(first changing the a operators to j operators with the help of Table 1.1,
column 4).
Similarly, for a fault between phases band c, the relay outputs are as
follows:
Phase a
1 1
KI2(2Z2+Rf )l- KI2(2Z2+Rf)1 = 0 (6.18)
Phase b
1 r /-
K I-v 3j2CZ1+v 3jCZ 1-a 2Rf +Z2 1- K1 /-.J3jCZ
-
1+a2~f-Z2/ (6.19)
Phase c
1 - - 1 -
K 1.J3j2CZ'l-.j3jCZ1-aRf +Z21- K 1.j3jCZ1+aRf -Z21 (6.20)
Here again the moduli of (6.18) (6.19) and (6.20) sum to zero for a fault
at the balance point with homogenous impedances.
For a three-phase fault the expressions are k
times the following:
Phase a
(6.21)
295
TABLE 6.4 Currents and Potentials During Fault Conditions
Fault Three-phase Phase b-Phase c Phase a-Ground Phases b-c-Ground
eft
CE CE C(Z2 +Zo)E :..
h C E ...
Zl Zl +Z2 Zl +Z2 +Zo ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
CE CE CZoE
lz 0
Zl +Z2 Zl +Z2 +Zo ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZi
CoE CoZ2E
10 0 0
Zl +Z2 +Zo ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
(2C + Co)E Z2(C - Co)E
Ia C E 0
Zl Zl +Z2 +Zo ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
a2C E (a2 - a)CE (Co - C)E C[a2Z2 + (a 2 - a)Z01 - CoZ2 E
h
Zl Zl +Z2 Zl +Z2 +Zo Z lZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZOZI
aCE (a - a2)CE (Co - C)E C[aZ2 + (a - a2)Zo1 - CoZ2 E
Ie
Zl Zl +Z2 Zl +Z2 +Zo Z lZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl "b
CZ'lE Z2 + CZ'l E Z2 +Zo + CZ't E CZ't(Z2 + Zo) + Z2Z 0 E 0
Vt ......
(1)
Zl Zl +Z2 Z1 +Z2 +Zo ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl 0
I':) Z2 - CZ'2 E (CZ'2 -Z2)E ZO(Z2 - CZ' 2) E
co V2 0 ........-.
(1)
0) Zt +Z2 Zl +Z2 +ZO Zt Z 2 + Z2Z 0 + ZOZt
~CoZ'O - Zo)E Z2(ZO - CoZ'O) E ::0
(1)
Vo 0 0
Z1 +Z2 +ZO Zt Z 2 + Z2Z 0 + ZoZ1 iii
-.;:
(I)
C Z '1 E 2EZ2 2CZ'1 + CoZ'O E Z2(3Z0 + CZ'1 - CoZ'O) E
Va
Z1 Z1 +Z2 Z1 +Z2 +ZO Z1Z 2 + Z2Z 0 + ZoZt
a2C Z '1 E (a 2 - a)CZ'1 - Z2 (a2 - a)Z2 - CZ'1 + (a2 - l)Zo + CoZ'O E CZ't[ a2Z2 + (a 2 - a)Zo1 - CoZ'oZ2 E
Vb E
Z1 Zl +Z2 Zl +Z2 +ZO ZtZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZOZI
aCZ'l E (a - a2)CZ't - Z2 E (a - a2 )Z2 - CZ't + (a - l)Zo + CoZ'o E CZ't[aZ 2 + (a - a2)Zo1 - CoZ'oZ2 E
Ve
Z1 Zl +Z2 Zl +Z2 +Zo Z,Z2 + Z2Z0 + ZOZI
Z'l 3Z2 + (a - a2)CZ'1 E 3CZ'1 - (a2 - a)Z2 - (a2 - l)Zo E CZ't[(l - a2)Z2 + (a - a2)Zo1 + 3Z2Z 0 E
Vab (1 - a2)C-E
Zt Zl +Z2 Zl +Z2 +Zo ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
Z't 2(a2 - a)CZ'1 E (a 2 - a)(Zo + 2Z2) E CZ'I(Z2 + 2Zo)(a2 - a) E
VbC (a2 - a)C-E
Zl Zt +Z2 Zl +Z2 +Zo Z lZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZl
Z' (a - a2)CZ'1 - 3Z2 E - 3CZ'1 + (a - a2)Z2 + (a - l)Zo E CZ'l[(a - I)Z2 + (a - a2)Zo1 - 3Z2Z0 E
Vea (a - I)C --.! E
Zt Zt +Z2 Zl + Z2 +Zo ZlZ2 + Z2Z0 + ZoZt
Table 6.4 is similar to Table 5.11 except that the fault resistance terms have been omitted, which makes the
symmetry of the expressions more apparent and facilitates the checking of polyphase measuring units.
Switched and Polyphase Distance Relays 6.11
Phase b
12a2CZ~ -a2CZ~ -a2Rfl-la2CZ~ +a 2Rfl (6.22)
Phase c
12aCZ~ -aCZ~ -aR f l-laCZ 1+aRfl (6.23)
The moduli of these expressions also all cancel out showing the scheme
measures correctly on three-phase faults under the same conditions.
297
7
Directional Pilot Belaying
Basic Principle-Pilot Wire Schemes-Carrier Channel Schemes-
Carrier Signal Checking-Future Trends
r-o __of-o
A B
--
Loo.d
(a)
---..
-<I....lI o 0--
(b)
~
~
_0-1-0
o 0--
i
Extirno.l
-
fo.ult
(c)
~
Internal
-; fau It
--
~
some cases the condition can be remedied only by providing the extra circuit-
breaker and length of line necessary to eliminate the line junction,
line section
1-----I5l-----o~ Pilot
(a)
'--_ _ _ _-0'0
Pilot
...I
I
:
......L....
F I
(b)
FIG. 7.2. Basic circuits of d.c. pilot schemes
(a) Series pilot scheme. (b) Shunt pilot scheme
(ii) In the shunt scheme, fig. 7.2b, the contacts of the directional relays
close for power flowing from the line to the bus-bar (opposite from
fig. 7.2a) and, if anyone of them closes, indicating an external fault,
all the blocking relays B are energised, thereby preventing tripping at
all terminals. None of the D relays will close for an internal fault
and the fault detector relays, F, will individually trip their breakers.
In the actual circuits shown in fig. 7.4 and 7.5 separate directional relays
are used for phase and ground faults because the requisite sensitivity on all
300
Directional Pilot Relaying 7.2
faults cannot be obtained with a single relay. The relays for protecting against
phase-faults are preferably polyphase (32) since single-phase relays cost more,
are less sensitive and involve more contacts and circuit complexity. Both
schemes use the basic principle of directional distinction between external
and internal faults but differ in the method of exchanging the information
between the directional relays.
The series pilot wire scheme is basically an interdependent tripping scheme
where open-circuit failure of the pilot wire prevents tripping, although an
alarm relay gives a warning if this should occur. The shunt pilot scheme is
basically a blocking scheme which permits incorrect tripping if the pilot wire
is open-circuited; in the shunt scheme the pilot wire can also be used for
transmitting other information. Both schemes are applicable to tapped lines
or feeders without any special engineering or any change in setting or
equipment.
'Ground preference', i.e. arranging for the ground fault tripping unit to
override the phase blocking unit in the event of a heavy incoming load pre-
venting tripping on a light internal ground fault, (82) is not necessary with
the schemes above. This may be seen from fig. 7.4, where the tripping units
have preference and from fig. 7.5 where voltage restraint can be used to
prevent the phase directional units from operating on any load conditions,
thereby preventing them from blocking tripping on a light, internal ground
fault. .
Ea.rth potentia.l I
_____________ ~_Z~ _____ _ I
I
I
I
I
I
I Externa.l
(a)
Tripping
end
T
- :UJJJ I
I
T
Blocking
end
I
I
I
t ~_r--------~I------------------~~
i+- Lea.ko.ge a.nd Fa.ult beyond
I co.po.cita.nce pa.th this termina.l
-----------_/
J
(b)
FIG.7.3. Wrong tripping through pilot capacitance
(a) Relay current path through pilot and ground
(b) Potential dropin ground due to fault current
pilot cable wire and may well cause 60 rnA a.c. to flow through its distributed
capacitance, as shown in fig. 7.3b. The remedy is obviously to use an un-
grounded battery for the pilot wire circuit.
The maximum pilot wire resistance that can be tolerated on d.c. pilot
schemes is 2000 ohms, which limits the length of line protected to 23 miles if
it is No. 19 AWG (20 lb/mile) pilot cable.
TC
Ar---~~----------~--+---------------~C
<po +
1T
A A
<pF, GF
(e) (c)
~----------,----------------~
used for blocking and tripping, the blocking relays must be at least as
sensitive as the tripping relays for all types offaults. This is achieved in fig. 7.4
by putting the fault detector contacts rpF and GF in series with the trip relay.
rpF 2 and GF2 can be separate overcurrent relays with higher settings than
those of rpF 1 and GF 1 but this is usually an unnecessary precaution on low
and medium voltage systems, since there is ample margin for effective relay
settings, generally between the maximum load current and the minimum fault
current. The advantage of high and low set fault detectors on a tapped line
must be weighed against the possibility of preventing tripping on an internal
fault on a two-ended line if the current at one terminal lies between the pick-
up values of rpFl and rpF2' or GF 1 and GF 2
303
7.3 Protective Relays
7.2.3. Shunt d.c. Pilot Scheme
Referring to fig. 7.5, in this case the fault detectors F and GF tend to
initiate tripping but the directional relays D and GD prevent tripping when
they close their contacts for power in an incoming direction, because the
pilot wire signal operates the blocking relay, B, at all stations; hence no
tripping occurs under load conditions or on an external fault. The auxiliary
relay F should be given a delay of 001 sec in order to ensure that the B
(A) (S) (C)
relays will operate before the T relays on an external three-phase fault close
to one terminal where the D relays may tend to operate slowly due to low
voltage.
When an internal fault ()ccurs, the directional relays remain open and the
B relay is not energised; however, the fault detectors F and GF close and
pick up the auxiliary relay FX which then energises the tripping relay T,
since the contacts B of the unenergised blocking relay remain closed.
In this scheme there is no necessity for two sets of fault detectors because
the directional relays do not initiate tripping and hence need no fault detector
to limit their sensitivity. On unbalanced faults, the directional units will
always pick up at a lower current value than the fault detectors because the
latter must be set above full load, whereas directional relays (with quadrature
connections) should pick up at less than 2 % of c.t. rating on unbalanced
faults.
Voltage restraint is recommended for the phase directional units in order
to prevent one of them from energising the blocking relays during a light
internal fault where the power flow in the unfaulted phase, due to load, is in
the opposite direction from the fault current. Voltage restraint is not
necessary on the fault detectors unless minimum faults require settings below
maximum load current.
1~-----------------+-----
Coa.a to
'l rG.,.." l\c.r
(oj
Series
tun, ng Cou pi i ng
I
.-----'UlICOiUll"~__-i ca.pa.tl t or ,
I
I
I
OCi""~'
Shunt
tunt-r
I
,
I
success claimed, for v.h.f. transmission, other than line-of-sight, using flat
reflecting surfaces mounted at convenient geographical points and without
auxiliary electric amplification.
the local carrier transmission and the receiver relays close their contacts,
thereby causing tripping at both ends.
The advantage of the holding coils on the receiver relays is similar to that
of voltage restraint on a directional relay; the receiver relay contacts are
:-----r., -+---;--.----~
I
I. I T. - - - -.....
_BA ~ o
(b)
FIG. 7.7. (a) Distance reach settings for carrier blocking scheme
(b) Mho characteristics for carrier blocking scheme
normally kept open so that there is no contact race when an external fault
occurs, and blocking must be applied before tripping can occur. Furthermore,
discrimination is assisted by the pick-up time of cpTX or GTX and the flux
decay time of the receiver relay.
308
Directional Pilot Relaying 7.3
At each station, e.g. station A in fig. 7.7, directional distance or directional
overcurrent relays (cfJT and GT) are set to trip for faults within the protected
system and a short distance beyond the end of it. Tripping for faults beyond
the end of the section is prevented by the receipt of a carrier signal initiated
by the cfJB or unit GB at terminal B, the one nearest the fault, where fault
current is incoming (fig. 7.8).
The blocking signal is usually initiated by disconnecting the control grid
of the oscillator tube from the d.c. negative supply terminal (fig. 7.8). This
Protected line
Line trap
r------+---------------r--~------r__o+
(a)
O--~l----~l------~----~l~o+
GT I Yl I I'OY3 (t/IB)
R IT3
Norma.l rca.ch of
rcla.y. a.t A
Extcnd.d rra.ch
of nldYs a.t A
(a)
Ib
o
TrIp
~
Receiver
(a)
(b)
FIG. 7.11. (a) Mho characteristics for carrier intertripping scheme
(b) Distance settings for carrier intertripping scheme
<tn,
II 'PT,I
1 GT, I
1
I
p.r
c>--------------J
a.
Tr ip
Tro.nsmlttcr
FIG. 7.12. Basic d.c. connections of intertripping carrier scheme
possibility that the sudden reduction of torque on this directional relay may
cause its contacts to rebound to the closed position, thereby causing incorrect
tripping if the carrier signal is still on. One solution is to cut off the carrier
signal after about 4 cycles, so that no tripping will occur if the directional
314
Directional Pilot Relaying 7.3
relay does not close in 4 cycles plus the operating time of the relays and the
carrier equipment at the other end.
Tbut,
HEORETICALLY, unit protection provides almost perfect selectivity
when applied to lines and cables, it is less effective because the pilot
channel or link between the terminals, together with the coupling equipment
in the case of h.f. carrier, introduces amplitude and phase angle errors in the
quantities compared (28) (140). This link may be pilot wires or high frequency
carrier channel superimposed on the overhead power lines.
The comparison is made between the c.t. secondary currents, making
use of the fact that they should be equal under normal conditions and for a
fault outside the protected section, in an ideal system. Pilot channels are very
expensive; hence it is customary to combine the currents at each terminal into
a single current either by means of a summation c.t. or by a phase sequence
network (83), so that only one pair of wires or carrier channel is necessary.
In the case of pilot wires, errors can be caused by currents induced in the
wires by magnetic induction or by the potential gradient in the ground during
an external fault (73). Furthermore, if the pilot wires are rented from a tele-
phone company (76), there is always the possibility of their being interfered
with in error, during maintenance of other telephone equipment at the
exchanges.
Carrier channels are affected by icing on the conductors and by high
frequency interference due to lightning and to arcing in faults and circuit
breakers.
Wired pilots are used for short lines but are uneconomical above 10 to
15 miles. The cost of carrier channels is not directly related to their length
but they are more expensive and their justification depends upon their joint
use for other purposes, such as telemetering and telecommunication (59)
(76).
Where the cost of carrier is not justifiable and available pilot wires are
not suitable for current comparison audio tone relaying is recommended (99).
The audio (voice frequency) signal is transmitted between line terminals and
used in exactly the same way as high frequency carrier is used on a power line.
317
8.1 Protective Relays
The frequencies used range between 500 and 2500 c.p.s and a different fre-
quency is used in each direction. The signal not only blocks tripping on
external faults but provides monitoring of the pilot wire circuit. Single tone
frequencies are used without risk of wrong operation due to interference
signals because tripping is controlled by fault detector relays (see section
8.11.1).
C.T. cr.
Prot~ct~d Ilno soctlon
Pilot wirrs
o ~Rp
L-------~~r-----~----~~Ar----~
0
RolClY R triPsl A Clnd B
,
I
I
I
I
v,,=o Clt
midpoint
~~ ______________ ________________
t~ ~
c Fa.ult current
+
FCluit seU Ing
Discrimina.tlng fo.ctor = ~g
fault and a heavy through load current may produce a value of ex or p which
is inside the circle and hence prevent tripping. Pilot wire attenuation or
transient C.t. saturation at one terminal (due to c.t. remanent flux or due to
the use of different types of c.ts at the two terminals) may move the external
fault value outside the circle, causing erroneous tripping.
The former is discussed in section 8.7.1 of this chapter and the latter in
section 8.4.1, and in Vol. II.
a.
b ........
c ~
Prouct
C.T'
V
S ~ (l dong
f-L'. 011
~ 0L4 C
p:
~
~~i4 v
D 1S C
transformer. The same pole carries a secondary winding across which appears
a voltage corresponding to a combination of the local currents. The voltage
is opposed to the voltage produced by a similar arrangement at the other end
of the protected line section, and the difference voltage is impressed on the
lower coil of the relay electromagnet.
Normally, because the two voltages are equal and opposed, no current
flows in the pilot wire or the lower coil and the relay has no torque. On the
other hand, when an internal fault occurs, the voltages assist each other and
current flows in the pilot wire and relay coils, thereby causing tripping.
The torque of the electrical signal is of the form J(KJ - Vp cos cf, where
cf> is the phase angle between the local current I and the voltage Vp across the
pilot wires. In effect the relay measure~ the apparent pilot wire resistance
V coscf>
Rp because the relay balances for K = p I = Rp' For this reason the
characteristic is generally plotted on an R- X diagram rather than one with
.
co-ordmates 'L p and J'IIBI
IIBI (. q'
This characteristic is shown in fig. 8.5. It is theoretically a straight line but
becomes curved through the action of a restraining torque provided by a
shading ring on the upper pole in order to prevent it from operating on
external faults. Maximum tripping torque occurs on an internal fault; on
321
8.3 Protective Relays
external faults the current in the pilot wire is small because the voltages from
the upper poles of the relays are opposed and the resultant voltage is shifted
almost 90 in phase because of the predominating effect of the pilot wire
capacitance.
The advantages of this relay are low cost, simplicity and relative immunity
to high pilot wire capacitance. Its limitations are slow speed and its inability
G
-t~====~~~------B
Interna.l
fa.ult
Externa.l
fa.ult
FIG. 8.5. Operating characteristic of phase comparator relay
to trip on single-end feed at the far end because the relay produces no torque
with the same current in the upper and lower poles. It will operate with pilot
loops up to 800 ohms.
Fig. 8.6 shows an American scheme (79) using a similar principle with an
induction cup relay which gives faster operation and greater sensitivity,
Pol. Rcstra.int
To II Pilot
sum~""~i-~io_n
_ _ _ _ _----", II =------'---'----'00000'---/ wrs
Tra.nsa.ctClr ~
FIG. 8.6. High-speed phase comparison pilot relay
I A B
4
Trip
,
/ Trip
/ ' Block
(a)
'j'AI
lie"
ExtHno.l
fault (1,0)
Block zone
Inter nul
fa.ults on
~d~ou~b~I.-~.-nd~~~----~------~----~------- ~
If Ip
A
Iud
Trip zone
(b)
FIG. 8.7. Operating characteristic of amplitude comparator
(a) Scalar diagram. (b) Polar diagram
loop (fig. 8.8) but, during an internal fault, the c.t. outputs are opposed so
that current now flows in the operating coils.
In the balanced voltage system the c.t's are opposed so that no current
should flow in the pilots normally but, when an internal fault occurs, current
323
8.4 Protective Relays
Protected Iine section
a-t~====~----------~~~~~----
b~-+~--~-------------------------------
c~-+-+&r~-------------------------------
Pilots
(a)
14-k.x
.[3 m
1IRES"RO
3
(b)
FIG. 8.8. Circulating current pilot relay scheme
(a) Basic diagram of a.c. circuit
(b) Vector diagram of filter output
circulates around the loop through the operating coils of the relay. The one
system is the dual of the other.
325
8.4 Protective Relays
TABLE 8.1
Intersection of Pilot Relay Characteristic on Real Axis
1 1 1 1 1 1
C.T. side
1 +K' S l_K' S 1 +K' S l-K'S
(a) Restraining Coil on c.t. Side. Since this connection is usually employed
on long lines and Post Office pilots which have appreciable resistance and
susceptance, it is necessary to compensate for "I to ensure discrimination.
As previously stated, the object of the compensation is to maintain a similar
ratio of restraining to operating coil currents in the relays at both ends' of the
pilot. It can be approached by inserting inductance in series with the pilot
wires (130) but it can be achieved by providing the correct amount of in-
ductance in series with each operating coil.
If the impedances of the operating coil circuit at each terminal (Zo, in
fig. 8.10b) are adjusted so as to make them in phase with current fed from one
end only, this will have the effect of replacing '1 by a scalar quantity s in the
expressions for the radius and centre location of their respective characteristic
circles; hence their circles will have their centres on the real axis of the
IX- or p-plane.
Furthermore, by adjusting the bias of the relay so that K = 1- S2, the
expressions for rand c will be identical. This can be seen by substituting for
K in the expressions for rand c in Table 3.1. of Chapter 3.
This method increases the length of the pilot for which discrimination is
possible and is achieved by adjusting an inductive impedance series with each
operating coil to provide an impedance.
IZo,1 = -IZol [cot n sin (t/>-{I)+coth m cos (t/>-{I)] (8.1)
where m is the attenuation constant in nepers per mile, n is the phase shift
constant in radians per mile, ZoN is the impedance of the pilot loops and
Zo,IO is the impedance of the operating coil circuit.
Inspection of the equation will show that if Zo, is made as inductive as
possible (e.g. (I = 83) its ohmic value is reduced and the sensitivity of the
relay will be increased at the end remote from the power source during single-
end feed; t/> is usually about 45 for long pilots. Zo, m and n can be found in
handbook tables (151) (152); sometimes n is given in terms ofsin n and cos n.
The derivation of equation (8.1) is given in the Appendix, section 8.12.
(b) Restraining Coil on Pilot Side. Since this arrangement is usually
associated with short lines close compensation for "I is not necessary and,
326
A.C. Pilot Relaying 8.4
owing to the relative positions of the operating and restraining coils, it is
possible to obtain the economic advantage of using fixed compensation for a
given type of pilot, irrespective of its length.
By connecting in series with the operating coil of each relay a capacitance
impedance Zo equal -to the impedance of an infinite length of the pilot, the
currents in the operating and restraining coils can be made equal in magnitude
during an external fault for any length of pilot and hence the operating
characteristics will be the same for the relays at the two ends of the pilot.
Zo can be obtained by measurement, because for any length of homo-
geneous cable (152) Zo = Zoc.Zsc where oc means with the pilot open-
circuited and sc means short-circuited at its remote end. Zo can be calculated
from the parameters of the pilot wires as follows:
- JR+jWL
Zo - G+jwC
= (R:+W:L:)*
G + CW
jarg.;;[tan-1 ~ _ tan-l~]
- wC wL
(8.2)
Summntion
C ,T,
~] Lc;,L-----o-:
~
-----/:~>(:.'----
Pilots
'0----
n
iwu;tl
i
Oper.
Rest. i
._.~I.~
(a)
..
c __---------------------8
t
*
::>
u
'0
u
""
c
o scrlminnting fador :
~..
a.
o
A
I,
~1~~I::==:==__n _+2~-n~-_-_-_-_-_-_~~
~I~
k------n--t-::2:----C> 14
(c)
c,,{ ~]
\ I
\ I
\ I
V
/\
I \
/ \
,'-----
/ \
Pilots
R
(a)
a.
b
~
Zp
(c)
FIG. 8.10. Compensation for pilot-wire capacitance
(a) A voltage balance scheme
(b) A circulating current scheme
(c) Automatic compensation for pilot length
IF = 1.( _ 1 = (X _ 1. This means that the fault current to operate the relay
h 1B
during load can be found by measuring PQ, which is ~;.
This value of (X-I is in terms of the summation transformer output
current. To obtain the corresponding value of c.t. secondary current requires
consideration of the relative phase angles of the summation c. t. for load and
fault currents. See section 8.7.1.
a __~A~~__________~pr~o~t.~ct~.d~I~
ln~.~'.~Cl~'O~"__________-=~~B~_
b--~R=~--------------------------------~~~~
(0 )
(0)
G\, ,
\ ./
(a)
FIG. 8.11. Half-wave comparison scheme
(a) Basic a.c. circuit diagram
(b) External fault-first half cycle
(c) External fault-second half cycle
(d) Internal fault-first half cycle
(e) Internal fault-second half cycle
(figs. 8.11b and 8.llc). The alternate short-circuiting of RA and RB causes the
relays alternately to have zero or negative voltage across them so that neither
relay operates. The fact that RA and RB are slightly greater than Rp , the pilot
wire resistance, makes the relays always have a slightly negative voltage.
During an internal fault, the c.t. currents are relatively reversed so that
positive voltage appears across both relays during one half cycle and zero
331
8.7 Protective Relays
voltage during the next half cycle. An additional half-wave rectifier is con-
nected across each relay coil to perpetuate the coil current during the dead
half cycle. Non-linear resistors protect the c.t's from overvoltage during the
dead half cycle when the two c.t's would oth;rwise be open-circuited
(fig. 8.11e).
This scheme is used in England for both private and telephone pilots.
The relay is simple and inexpensive. It can be used with pilot wires up to
1000 ohms with an ordinary telephone type relay. It is somewhat affected by
offset waves since its stability relies upon movement of the equi-potential
point from one relay to the other during alternate half cycles of an external
fault.
332
A.C. Pilot Relaying 8.7
It is possible to have a blind spot where load current is flowing in the
opposite direction from a single-phase ground fault. Also, no output will
occur when Ib = - 21a = - 21e which represents the current value on the
delta side of a Ll- Y power transformer with a phaso-to-phase fault on the
wye side. An a- c - G fault also cannot produce an output if the ground
current is phase-to-phase current divided by (n + 2).
The II +Klo filter network shown in fig. 8.8 originated in the U.S.A. (78).
.
The output of the filter IS Vp = J v"3 '
. h-Ic
Xm + laRl + loRo = K}/l + Ko/o
where Kl and Ko are adjustments in the filter. It is free from blind spots if K is
chosen to suit the parameters of the protected circuit. Unlike the summation
transformer, the pick-up current of the relay supplied by this filter network
does not depend upon which phases are involved but only upon the amount
of II and 10 in the fault, which can be calculated from the Table 5.11 in
Chapter 5.
The general problem, however, is to select a form of network which can,
with the minimum of adjustment, suit most system application conditions.
This has been studied recently (83) and it has been shown that a combination
of the form II - NIz where N > 3 is generally applicable.
I
8.7.1. The Effect of Summation Transformer on 2: Ratio
IL
In section 8.5 and fig. 8.12c it was shown that the value of IX = ~ or
IB
{3 = !!! to permit tripping of an internal fault, i.e. to be outside the circle
IA
was given by the vectorial addition I + IF = IX. The value of IIF however
IL L
depends upon which phases are involved because of their different treatment
in the summation c.t.
Fig. 8.9c shows that the output for a balanced three-phase load lags the
unity p.f. position for phase-a by 30. Consequently, for a ground fault on
phase-a, IF = KaIIFjnj3'<PF-rPL+300 where <PF is the phase angle of the
I L l L V 3 :....:...::-=-=----
fault current and <P L that of the load current. Similarly, for a fault between
phases a and b, IIF = Kab IIFI
T 1 .
r/<PF-<PL+60. 0
L ,I,v3
The values of Kdepend upon the angle of II: and can be calculated or
measured on fig. 8.12 by drawing lines at the appropriate angles of IF and
IL
measuring their length from the point 1,0 to their intersection with the
characteristic circle. Fig. 8.12 shows the circle on the reference axis but, as
333
8.7 Protective Relays
explained in section 8.4.1, the circle may be displaced from this axis by pilot
capacitance unless it is compensated for.
Having measured these values of K, a table can be made of their values
and the actual effect of the load upon the pick-up current calculated for
.0. L",=Argt /
c-G
a-c
(c)
FIG. 8.12. Effect of load on IX-plane characteristic with single-end feed
(a, b) Single phase
(c) With summation transformer
various faults during single-end feed. As previously stated, the effect of load
current is negligible during double-end feed.
The value of IF for tripping with an a-G fault is a/3 from fig. 8.12.
~ n+2
Consequently, with x% load, the pick-up is : : ; . 1~ as a percentage of c.t.
334
A.C. Pi/ot Relaying 8.7
rating. The values for other faults are given in Table 8.3. To these values must
be added the threshold value of pick-up given in Table 8.2.
TABLE 8.3
Effect of Load on Pick-up Settings
.
..~:r
!
0:
----i------------l-l----
I
I Common(through) component
I
I
t
Current
(b)
10,000
6,000
4,000
....
] 2,000
..
..-
u
c::
d
i 1,000
E
....c::
.. 600
d
Q.
Q.
400
200
100lL- -__
1 2
~
____
4
__~ ~~~
6 8 10
____ ~
20
____ ~ ~~.~.~.
40
__
60 80 100
Pilot length (mil )
TABLE 8.4
Effect of Open or Short-Circuiting the Pilot Wires
Pilot P,lot
rclo.ys 10,uF 10.u F rclo.ys
120 V
A C.
Pilot
rela.y Pilot wires
Dra.ina.ge
rea.ctor
Typica.l input
Squa.r~d
minimum
input
,
Thr~.hold
: I
I I
, I ,
I I t I
(a) (b)
FIG. 8.17. Effect of current amplitude on phase comparison
(a) Variable interval with sinusoidal wave. (b) Fixed interval with squared wave
n[\ [\ /\ /\ n n[\ !\ [\ /\ n
FIG. 8.18. Carrier modulation in half-cycle blocks
(a)
FIG. 8.19. Transmitted and received signals in phase comparison carrier
(a) Continuous signal during an external fault
(b) Intermittent signal during an internal fault
introduced between phases or between phase and ground and the basic
transmitter and receiver equipment is similar to that used for directional
comparison. The phase-to-ground method is cheaper but it requires an earth
wire and has somewhat higher attenuation, interference and coupling with
other phases. The transmitted power level is 10 to 15 watts and the receivers
are designed to permit about 30 dB attenuation.
340
A.C. Pilot Relaying 8.11
8.11.2. Equipment
Fig. 8.20 shows the basic functions of the equipment. The currents from
the three c.t. secondaries are combined into one current by a summation
network based on a preferred combination of phase-sequence quantities.
The resultant current is supplied to a modulator which is associated with a
carrier frequency oscillator. The half cycle blocks of carrier frequency are
injected into the transmission line via an amplifier and a capacitor coupler
I
I
1
IBO O
FIG. 8.20. Effect of stability angle upon operation of phase comparison carrier
Modu- Tr<1ns-
Oscill<1tor I <1tor mitter
Squ<1ring
circuit
't'
+
Reset Trip Circuit
and fed to the starting relays or circuits. Each transductor is biassed by the
current from another phase so that there is no output during balanced three-
phase load but at least one transductor gives an output during unbalanced
con,ditions. Operation on three-phase faults is arranged by delaying the bias
344
A.C. Pilot Relaying 8.12
by means of a large capacitor so that there will be a brief output during which
a sealing-in device will operate.
In order to prevent incorrect tripping on an external fault, during the
period that the fault current has ceased but the starting devices have not yet
reset, a carrier-continuing device is provided. This device is similar in action
to the relay used in directional comparison carrier for preventing incorrect
tripping due to interference signals which are generated by the arc in the nearer
breaker which is interrupting the fault in the next line section.
8.12. APPENDIX
The derivation of equation (8.1) in section 8.4.1 (a) is as follows. Referring
to fig. 8.24, Is is the current entering the pilot at the sending end and IR is
Pilots
the current leaving the pilot at the receiving end. Applying Thevenin's theorem
and considering one end at a time, the voltage across the C.t. at A, from
reference (152) is
(8.4)
Z
Now}' and ~ are complex ratios such that}' = m + jn and
Zop
Op
z I{cos(4)-9)+j sin (4)-O)}
zZo = IZo Op
where 4> is the argument of Zo and 9 is the argument of Zop' Equation (8.1)
can be written
lop = IR {COSh (m +jn) + I::J sinh (m+jn) [cos (4)-9)+j sin (4)-9)]}
sinhm sinn + /Zo ,; {sinh m cos n sin (tfo-8)+cosh m sin n-cos (tfo-8)}=O
Zop
COS n . cosh m }
IZopl = - IZol { -.-sm(-8) + ----;+--h cos (tfo-8)
smn sm ,m
= -IZol{cotn sin(-O)+cothmcos(--O)} (8.6)
346
9
Proteetio" 0' A.C. MfWmnes
Generator Protection-Stator Faults-Rotor Faults-Miscellaneous
Faults-Motor Protection-Faults-Unbalanced Conditions-Power
Station Auxiliaries-Current Differential Relaying
9.1. GENERATORS
The generators are the most expensive pieces of equipment in the a.c.
power system (see fig. 1.7) and are subject to more possible types of trouble
than any other equipment. The desire to protect against all these abnormal
conditions and yet to keep the protection simple and reliable has resulted in
considerable divergence of opinion on the choice of protection.
The choice must be carefully made since inadvertent operation of the
relays is almost as serious as failure to operate. This is because the un-
necessary disconnection of a large generator may overload the rest of the
system and cause power oscillations which may disrupt the system. On the
other hand, failure to clear a fault promptly may cause expensive damage
to the generator.
Another difficulty is the fact that, unlike other equipment, opening a
breaker to isolate the defective generator is not sufficient to prevent further
damage, since the generator will continue to supply power to a stator winding
fault until its field excitation has been suppressed; very few generators have
an additional three-phase circuit-breaker to disconnect the windings from
neutral to break up the fault path. It is therefore necessary to remove the
field, shut oft' the steam, water or fuel supply to the prime mover and, in
some cases, supply braking. Furthermore, carbon dioxide is pumped into
some large machines to extinguish any burning of insulation which has been
started by a fault arc and fanned by the rotor movement.
Finally, the relays must give reasonable protection and certainly not trip
undesirably during the running up of a generator. The pick-up of current-
operated relays is very little changed, whilst the pick-up of voltage-operated
relays is reduced at the low frequencies during the running up period because
their coil reactance is reduced; this latter is not important, however, since
overvoltage is not likely. On the other hand, all relays with phase-shifting
circuits or sequence networks will be affected and should be disconnected if
they cause undesirable tripping.
347
9.1 Protective Relays
Some of the abnormal conditions that must be dealt with are considered
in the following sections. The treatment is brief because this subject has been
dealt with in many previous books and articles and only the most modern
methods will be mentioned.
9.1.1. Stator Protection
The breakdown of conductor insulation may result in a fault between
conductors or between a conductor and the iron core. The breakdown may
be caused by overvoltage or by overheating which in turn can be caused by
unbalanced currents, ventilation troubles, etc.; it may also be caused by
damage to the insulation by conductor movement due to forces exerted by
short-circuits or out-of-step conditions.
Because of the destructive effects of a ground fault (conductor to core),
due to the high temperature of the arc, the fault current is usually limited by
impedance in the neutral of the generator which may be a resistance, a dis-
tribution transformer with resistance loading, a reactance, or a potential
transformer. With the neutral current limited to 250 amperes high-speed
relays and breakers will prevent serious core damage. With 5 amperes or less,
slow-acting relays are sufficient. The higher the neutral impedance, however,
the more the risk of creating another winding fault due to voltage resonance
with the capacitance to ground of the stator and the equipment connected
to it.
106
The neutral resistance should not exceed Rn = 6njC ohms where C is the
capacitance of the stator circuit to earth per phase in microfarads and f is
the system frequency.
Modern practice is to use a resistance-loaded distribution transformer and
its resistance should not exceed Rn = 61t~~N2 where N is the turn ratio of
the transformer. If C is variable or not known a safe value of impedance can
be used which will limit the current to between 20 and 200 amperes, usually
about 30 amperes.
(a) Phase and Ground Faults. Faults between conductors can sometimes
be repaired by re-taping or replacing the conductor, but faults between the
conductor and the iron laminations are a serious matter because the arc may
melt the laminations together, thereby forming a hot-spot which may necessi-
tate rebuilding the core. It is essential therefore to clear winding faults as
quickly as possible and this is done in machines over 1000 kW by a high-speed
differential relay which compares current in c.t's at the two ends of each phase
winding (longitudinal differential protection). If there are parallel windings in
each phase and they are brought out to separate terminals, another relay
compares their two currents (transverse differential protection); it thus
provides back-up protection and detects inter-tum faults.
The relays use the same principle in both cases. They measure the
difference between the two currents, which should theoretically be zero under
348
Protection of A.C. Machines 9.1
normal conditians. The connections of the differential relays are shown
schematically in figs. 9.1 and 9.2 for wye-connected generators. Other con-
nections are discussed in references (85) and (86). The relays shown have a
biassing (restraining) winding which provides the characteristic shown in
(a)
~
t
..
:>
u
u
.,. c
c ~
.~ -6 ~
.."' .
E
0
1='4
'3
2
1
o 4 10
Tlmn ra.tln9
fig. 9.lb; a mathematical analysis of the biassed differential type relay was
given in Chapter 3, section 3.2.1.
In machines below 10 MW time-overcurrent relays may replace the
differential relays, but they should be monitored by an instantaneous under-
voltage relay. The latter is connected to control the overcurrent relay making
it faster and more sensitive if the voltage drops below 50 % indicating a
fault in the machine.
349
9.1 Protective Relays
If the c.t's were ideal and the leads from the relay to the c.t's were equal,
very sensitive settings could be obtained and the bias or restraint windings,
shown in figs. 9.1 and 9.2, would be unnecessary. Unfortunately, neither is
the case and the spurious differential current increases with current through
the windings so that, on a heavy external fault, the sensitivity of the relay
Blo.S
c b a.
C.Ts
~(--_--G.ntr(1tor---_~
windings
0 ..
SIc.nk pol.
t 1-
R..lrc.in Opuc.t.
(a) (b)
~ Block==
Trip
Trtp
(e)
9.3. Differential relay with product restraint
FIG.
(a) Basic circuit
(b) Arrangement on an 8-pole indu<;:tion cup relay
(c) Operating characteristic
and partly to reject the harmonics, which form a large part of the initial
spurious differential current caused by remanence in the c.t's. A combination
of the restraining winding and the bias resistor will provide stability with
somewhat smaller c.t's.
The effects upon differential relays of C.t. transients are dealt with in more
detail in Chapter 11 and in references (30) and (94). One solution is to
employ very sensitive relays which can be used with ironless c.t's (linear
couplers) (113).
Generator differential relays are'usually set to pick up at 5 %of the C.t.
rating with full load flowing and the slope of the linear characteristic is
usually about 10%. In the case of the product restraint relay, the slope is
negligible at pick-up and increases in an exponential manner to infinity at
351
0. b c
In sl .-clJrrcnt
rClo.y '
(a)
Gl: ncrc.tor
windings
-
'.
So.turo.t ,n9
a.u lO
'.
CT
(b)
Sto.b,I,.lng
nSt5tor
-IA I.
.T. .T
a ia.s coils (If UUd)
Lnd. Lco.ch
Opera.llng Sta.bill s lng
coli resistor
C.T.
l .m.1.
f C~iTl.~.
C.T.
cC,{,. I c.m.f.
!~--I (c)
six or eight times c.t. rating on through faults, but is of course negative on
internal faults.
Because of the limited ground fault current where a machine is grounded
through impedance, the ground fault relays need to be more sensitive than
the phase relays. The modem practice of generator-transformer units solves
this problem because the generator stator winding terminates in the low tension
winding of the power transformer so that a sensitive zero sequence relay can
be used to protect against all ground faults (fig. 9.15). It is usual to design the
relay to be insensitive to third harmonic currents and to have a setting of
15 %of the neutral impedor rating. When an inverse time relay is used it is
set to pick up at 5 %of the neutral impedor rating and to trip in 05 second
at 10 times the impedor rating.
Ungrounded generators are rare but, where they exist, a stator fault to
ground must be detected by an electrostatic ground detector, since the fault
currents in this case are the low value capacitance currents fed through the
healthy phases.
353
9.1 Protective Relays
Ground faults near the neutral of the generator produce less current than
. Is. The lau
t h ose near the termma c: I . 10.p.kV where kV is the kV
t current IS
3Z..
rating of the machine, p is the location of the fault expressed as a percentage
of the winding from the neutral, and Z .. is the impedance in the neutral.
Let Q be the relay pick-up expressed as a percentage of the c.t. rating and
Prc be the neutral c.t. primary rating; the relay pick-up current is QPrc
100
(primary) amperes.
10. p. kV QPrc .
I = 100 gIves the relationship between p and Q
y3Z..
Q. Prc v3Z n
p= 1000 kV (9.1)
This means that 31 % of the winding from the neutral is not protected or
that l00-p = 69% of the winding from the terminals is protected.
(b) Stator Inter-Turn Faults. Longitudinal protection cannot be relied
upon to detect interturn faults except those between conductors of different
phases which are in the same slot. In lap-wound machines an interturn
fault affects only a single-pole pitch but in a wave-wound machine it
would affect the whole stator. Such faults involve very high local currents
which can cause severe damage to the core. With generators having parallel
windings separately brought out to terminals, transverse differential protection
will detect faults between turns of the same winding. The most sensitive arrange-
ment is shown in fig. 9.4b. For generators without access to parallel windings
it is necessary to rely on the zero sequence component of voltage caused by
the reduction of e.m.f. in the faulted phase. See fig. 9.6.
Another method of detecting turn-to-turn faults (84) is based on the fact
that any dissymmetry of the stator currents creates a negative sequence com-
ponent; this rotates at the same speed as the armature reaction field but in the
reverse direction and thus induces a double frequency current in the field
circuit. This can be detected by a suitably tuned a.c. relay in the field which
can be monitored by a negative sequence directional relay so that it will
detect all stator winding faults but will not operate on unbalanced faults
external to the generator. A special c.t. is connected in the field to supply the
relay; it has a tertiary winding energised from the exciter voltage to produce
ampere-turns which cancel out those produced by the field current and thus
avoid magnetic saturation.
354
Protection of A.C. Machines 9.1
Volta.ge tra.nsfotmers
Sine
product
rela.ys
RN
Genera.tor sta.tor
II' I
I
I
I
II
II!I IIiI
windings
Ii]
Trip :
~ ::...J..::. ~
(a)
(b)
St:rit:s bridgt:
resistor
:s...f----""d-- RCIa.y
opcroiing coil
Fixcd bridgc
resistors
Volta.gt: dropping
+o---_~/ rcsista.net:
. Ca.libra.tion Very
pott:ntiomt:tcr _.oN.J\N....."AIVI.JVv.
nnsitivc
rcla.y
Rcplica.
rcsista.ncc_
(b)
fiG. 9.7. Resistance temperature detector
(a) With induction relay
(b) With polarised d.c. relay
-,
:I 01
~--
I Sensitive
L ____ J:
0 rclo.y
winding to its core and thence through the bearings to ground; this current,
though small, will pit the bearings unless a special collector brush is fitted to
the rotor shaft.
(b) Open"circuit. Rotor open-circuits are very rare but, if one occurs, it
Bus bo.rs
(4) (b)
FIG. 9.9. Interlocked overcurrent protection
(a) Fault on breaker side. (b) Fault on line side
must be dealt with promptly because the ensuing arc may cause damage by
burning.
The relay to detect a rotor open-circuit is the same one as is used for
detecting loss-of-field and is described in section 9.1.3 (c).
(c) Unbalanced Stator Currents. The negative sequence component of
unbalanced stator currents induces double frequency currents in the rotor
during normal synchronous running. lfthe degree of unbalance is sufficiently
large, severe overheating can be caused in the structural parts of the rotor
which tends to soften and weaken slot wedges and retaining rings; these
358
Protection of A.C. Machines 9.1
components are normally already under great stress in large turbo-alter-
nators (120) (121).
The system conditions that would cause these harmful unbalanced con-
ditions are:
(a) the open-circuiting of cne phase of a line or the failure of one contact
of a circuit breaker;
(b) an unbalanced fault near the station which is not cleared promptly
by the normal relays;
(c) a fault in the stator winding.
The time for which the rotor can withstand this condition is inversely
as the square of the negative sequence current, i.e. I~t = K, where K is a
constant which varies from a value of 7 in a highly rated steam set (101)
with direct cooling to 60 for a salient pole-hydro set with air-cooled stator
1,000
500
\' \~
\
200
~tlrcmCIYinverse relo.y
Type COG 15
100 ./
~
\ \
\ \\ \
...
.. 50
\\ \
...
c
\\\ l\
o
u
.
.5
~~
!.20 Direct cooled o.lterno.tor
10
~ ~ K~ ftiydrogen cooled aJterno.tor
Wo.tcrwheel o.lterno.tor
,
\\
1\
,
~
5
~
2 ~
1
~"
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Negative sequence current in multiples of full load
(see fig. 9.10). The ability of large generators to stand negative sequence
current (and hence the value of K) is becoming progressively less because
their specific rating is still increasing although their size has almost reached
the limit of present material strengths.
It is important for the protective relay to have a time-current characteristic
I~t = K which matches that of the machine as closely as possible because,
while it is important to disconnect the generator if K is exceeded, it is also
very important not to take it off the system unnecessarily. Fig. 9.11 shows a
relay which maintains this characteristic very accurately over a time range of
02 to 2000 seconds. It has an induction disc movement with a special
electromagnet equipped with magnetic shunts, shown in fig. 9.12a. Another
way of doing this is to use non-linear resonance so that the operating coil
becomes tuned as it saturates; the latter method, however, is affected by
frequency (120).
The relay contains a negative sequence network which supplies an
instantaneous alarm unit as well as the time-current unit. The alarm unit also
starts the time unit and is adjustable from 8 to 40 %negative sequence current
360
Protection of A.C. Machines 9.1
because the ability of generators to stand 12 continuously over this range
depends on the type of cooling. The alarm is delayed by a timer to avoid
unnecessary alarms on unbalanced loads of short duration.
<">c.p bridged by
/ Mu-m.tc.1 shunt
Mu-m.tc.1 shunt
;;
W~~:~-;:~_Sha.din9
'" rongs
Opcrc.tlnq COil
(a)
V,
(b)
(c)
-x
field and not by any other condition, such as loss of synchronism which may
result from the loss of field.
(d) Loss of Synchronism. An out-of-step relay can be provided for detect~
ing loss of synchronism (see Chapter 5, sections 5.2.3 and 5.4.8), but is
seldom used on an individual generator because it is unlikely to run out of
synchronism with the system or the other generators unless it loses field
(which was dealt with in the previous section 9.1.3 (c or unless the governor
becomes defective (56). Automatic synchronising by an electronic relay is
common for large machines (123).
(e) Bearing Failure. The temperature of the white metal or the oil can be
monitored by an instrument with alarm contacts or a syphon device can be
located in the bearing oil chamber. Such a device would shut down the
generator only in an unattended station. Failure of the oil cooling equip-
363
9.1 Protective Relays
ment is detected on large machines by comparison of the inlet and outlet
temperatures of the oil.
(f) Auxiliary Failures. Other tripping functions associated with very
large units are loss of vacuum and loss of boiler pressure. It is usual on loss
of vacuum to reduce the load until the condition is checked; if, however, the
vacuum continues to fall until a dangerous value is reached, a vacuum relay
closes its contacts and the set is automatically shut down.
A fall in vacuum may be the outcome of station auxiliary failures, so to
some extent the loss-of-vacuum relay gives protection against loss of aux-
iliaries. As a further safeguard against a fall in boiler pressure, a steam pres-
sure device is arranged to remove the load from the turbine. It is also the
occasional practice to shut down automatically on the loss of the induced
draught fans.
(g) Voltage Regulator Failure. As the faulty operation of the voltage regu-
lator may cause inadvertent tripping of the unit, or damage to the rotor, it is
necessary to provide some form of protection to guard against its failure.
This is particularly important on large generators using direct cooling of the
stator and rotor, as explained under section 9.1.4, 'Back-up Protection'.
Due to the complexity of the modem quick response voltage regulator,
it is more vulnerable to the failure of components which may cause the regu-
lator to apply full field under normal load conditions, resulting in overheating
of the rotor. To guard against such failures a definite time d.c. overcurrent
relay is provided, which is energised from a shunt or a d.c. current trans-
former in the rotor circuit. As the rotor will be subject to overcurrent during
system faults, the time delay should be set to give the system protection
time to clear. If, however, the overcurrent condition persists beyond this
setting, the relay will operate and switch the excitation to a predetermined
value.
While it is usual to supply the regulator reference voltage from a separate
voltage transformer in order to minimise the risk of a short-circuit on the
secondary wiring causing a fuse failure, it is still felt desirable to provide some
form of protection to prevent maloperation of the regulator for voltage
failure, whatever the cause.
The relay provided for this purpose must respond to the failure of any
one fuse on either the h.v. or l.v. side of the voltage transformer; furthermore,
its setting must be so chosen that it would remain inoperative for a normal
voltage reduction during system faults.
An arrangement of undervoltage relays can be provided to detect such
failures but a more positive method to achieve a desirable setting is to use
either a current bias voltage relay whose setting increases with an increase in
stator current, or, alternatively, a voltage balance relay which compares the
voltage derived from the instrument transformer with the voltage derived
from the voltage regulator transformer. The operation of anyone of these
relays returns the field excitation to the follow-up value of the manual field
rheostat.
364
Protection of A.C. Machines 9.1
(h) Interlocked Overcurrent Protection. Where, for economic reasons, it is
necessary to locate the protective current transformers on one side of the
circuit-breaker only, a fault occurring between the breaker contacts and the
current transformer secondaries is detected by a special overcurrent relay
interlocked with the appropriate unit protection.
In fig. 9.9a a fault occurring at point A is immediately detected by the
bus-bar protection and, although the breaker opens, it will be seen that the
fault remains. Similarly, in fig. 9.9b, a fault at B is detected by the generator
differential protection but, as in the case of a fault at A, is not cleared by
resultant opening of the circuit-breaker.
In order to detect this type of fault without incurring any risk of indis-
criminate tripping, the shading winding of an induction pattern relay,
having a time setting sufficient to ensure the position of the fault, is connected
in series with a normally open contact on the appropriate tripping relay.
.." UI
~
,,~ E
c:
a "w
~
"~"
,...
d .c
:<
Hl
:l .;:
~
v -II> Z
TABLE 9.2
Rotor and Bearings
9.3
TABLE
Conditions Operating Alarms Only
Steam
Abnormal Condition Air-cooled Hydrogen- Hydro
cooled
Condenser low vacuum x x
Hydrogen pressure, temperature or density abnormal x
Bearing oil pressure low x x x
Seal oil pressure low x x
Unit transformer winding temperature high x x x
Bearing temperature high x
Governor oil pressure x
Cooling water failure x
Stator air temperature high x
Guide vane fails to open x
Main or unit transformer Buchholz gas x x x
Main or unit transformer oil temperature x x x
H.T. V.T. Buchholz gas x X x
Auto-voltage regulator failure x x x
Rotor earth fault x x x
Field failure x x x
Battery voltage low x x x
367
9.1 Protective Relays
Y 7.
- - t - . . , r - - - 132 KY.
switchg~ar
y
Brco.ker ~
60011
50011
Synchronising 500/1
~/
o -"""-t-~-tll.
600/-58
144 M.'l.A.
In.trument @ Mo.in trw"formtr
Volto.g~ tro.~or~ __ 132/138 K.V.
~/ 450/1
A.V.R.QQ)--/
6000120
Volto.9~ tro.n.lormcr
:"-_-ir---t'1100/1
Eo.rthlng
rulsto.nce
,
Ie ~
l 6.6KV
+-+--......7
~~~--.-----r-~----~4'
1----------------.. . '4 ~
negative sequence current and overheating due to an external fault open the
main and field breakers only.
(a) Abnormal Conditions Operating Alarms and Causing Shutdown. Tables
9.3 and 9.4 indicate the practice in the U.K., which is basically the same as in
other countries.
368
Protection of A.C. Machines 9.2
Hydrogen cooled generators may also have a number of additional
indicators connected with auxiliary equipment such as defoaming tanks,
water detectors, vapour extractors, oil conditioners, d.c. emergency
pumps, etc.
TABLE 9.4
Abnormal Conditions Causing Shutdown
Steam
Abnormal Condition Air-cooled Hydrogen- Hydro
cooled
All stator faults x x
All transformer short-circuits x X
External faults operating negative sequence or
back-up relays
Overspeed x x x
Overvoltage x
"
3
2
1,000
8
6
5
"3 \
..9. 2 \
~
.. 100
go 8
\\
I! 3
\
\
\
-"
"'" "-..
2
...........
~ r--
10
8
6
5
"'"
~
3 J""-....
Hot
t--
~
1.01
2 3 " 5 6 ..1.....-J 9 10X5Cttill9
Opcrutill9 current =II/r,+ 3[:
at a slightly higher value than the indicated value during starting, thus
providing the maximum possible protection against a stalled condition.
Overload relays also take care of faults not heavy enough to operate the
instantaneous overcurrent relays. Larger motors use temperature detectors
(see section 9.1.1 (c) ).
spirals, energised by currents from the three phases, whose contacts are
arranged so that, if either spiral moves differently from the others, due to
more than 12 % unbalance, their contacts meet and trip the supply breaker.
The same spirals also provide overload protection.
This is an important feature of motor protection. Due to the difference
between the positive and negative sequence reactance of a motor, a small
voltage unbalance causes a much higher current unbalance, which results in
overheating in one winding. A typical example would be a motor operating
at rated load with a 3 % voltage unbalance. This could result in approxi-
mately a 25 % increase of current in one line, giving 56 % overheating in one
winding. The worst case would be complete loss of one phase of the supply
due to a blown fuse or a bad contact.
9.2.4. Undervoltage and Underfrequency
Running on undervoltage will generally cause overcurrent which will
cause overload or temperature relays to trip; an exception to this is a fan
motor whose load drops sharply with speed preventing the current from
increasing. It is usual to provide undervoltage protection having an inverse
372
Protection of A.C. Machines 9.2
time characteristic which will override temporary voltage drops. Under-
frequency relays are sometimes used to indicate failure of the power supply
to the motor because its load will cause it to decelerate quickly.
9.2.5. Miscellaneous
Under this heading are rotor overheating, loss of excitation, loss of
synchronism. Very large motors have individual forms of protection for these
failures but the normal procedure is to rely on the protection described in
the previous sections.
In the U.K. all the protection for a motor, except undervoItage, is
assembled in one relay case (fig. 9.19). A static relay has also been developed
which gives similar protection but substitutes an If + KIf unit for the three
bimetallic spirals. This relay uses a thermistor bridge with thermal storage
effect.
Induction aG.mPing
disc ~===*F=== ma.gnct
(a)
c '------ob
Bc...----~y
(c)
y'+-------' B
(d)
FIG. 9.20. Open and reversed phase relay
- -
Protected
unit C.T.
C.T. I /
A
iR" IRa
Z"''' z"'.
~R" ~,R.
FIG. 9.21. Basic circuit of differential current relay
current and with impedances in series with the secondaries representing the
lead resistance and the C.t. leakage reactance and resistance. For further
simplification, giving a pessimistic error, all impedances are treated as resis-
tances and added arithmetically.
It will be seen from fig. 9.21 that, during an external fault, the through
current should circulate between the C.t. secondaries and the only current
that can flow in the relay is that due to any difference in the C.t. outputs for
the same primary current. Magnetic saturation will reduce the output of a
C.t. and the most extreme case of error will be if one C.t. is completely saturated
and the other unaffected. This condition can be approached in bus differential
375
9.4 Protective Relays
protection but it is unlikely in generator or transformer differential protection
because the fault current would be limited by the impedance of the protected
unit. However, it will be considered because the principles now discussed
A
.I-
iRA
--
I
iRII
Sa.tura.tIIi
C.T.
B
Fa.ult
ti
I
z", ~
I
iRA iRa
FIG. 9.23. Effect of complete saturation of one c.t.
(9.2)
i.e. the relay current is the difference between the magnetising currents
corrected for tum ratio.
As RR is increased, IR is reduced so that 1m.( and 1mB are forced towards
equality and the c.t. with the lower magnetising current will push equalising
current through the other c.t. secondary.
On the other hand, the high value of RR will not prevent the relay from
operating on an internal fault because, in that case, the c.t. secondary e.m.f.s
are additive and combine to force current through the relay. The voltage
across the relay will be its IR drop due to the current flowing through it. This
current will be shared by the c.t's after deducting the magnetising current
necessary to produce the voltage across the C.t. secondaries.
The distribution of resistance between the relay winding and its series
stabilising resistor depends upon the relay sensitivity and the pick-up setting
required on internal faults; in a very sensitive relay the pick-up can be con-
trolled by series resistance; in a less sensitive type the pick-up would be con-
trolled by taps on the relay coil. In determining the actual relay pick-up in
terms of primary fault current, the magnetising currents of all the c.t's
must be added to the relay current setting, i.e. the actual pick-up in (primary)
amperes is
(9.4)
where N is the c.t. ratio and L . 1m is the sum of the c.t. magnetising
currents at the relay voltage setting.
The c.t's must be chosen to produce a secondary voltage V equal to at
least twice the IR drop in the longest leads to the relay at maximum through
fault current (usually taken as the switchgear interrupting rating),
-
.
I.e. V = 2IRN (9.5)
Also, at ~ volts, the magnetising current must not exceed ~ e~ IR) where
n is the number of c.t's or circuits. This follows from equation (9.3).
same, but their secondary voltages EA and E B will not be equal unless they
have identical magnetising characteristics.
In fig. 9.21, below saturation of the c.t's, EA > EB and the voltage across
the relay
(9.6)
where X and R pertain to the primary circuit and <I>QC is the steady state a.c.
flux required to produce the secondary voltage necessary to drive the current
through the various impedances in the c.t. and relay circuit.
Since X/R can be as high as 30 in a modern generator, it is clear from
Equation (9.7) that very large c.t's would be necessary to prevent tripping
on external faults and obviously it is preferable to use the stabilising resistor
or the high impedance operating coil in the differential circuit or else to
employ linear coupler c.t's.
379
10
Power Transformer Proteetion
Types of Faults-Gas Relays-Differential Relays-Magnetising
Inrush-Methods of Reduction-Relay Solutions-Grounding Trans-
formers-Generator Transformer Units-Transformer Feeders
10.1. GENERAL
The power transformer is one of the most important links in a power
system yet, because of its relatively simple construction, it is a highly reliable
piece of equipment. This reliability, however, depends upon adequate
design, care in erection, proper maintenance and the provision of certain
protective equipment. Adequate design includes insulation of windings,
laminations, corebolts, etc., bracing the conductors against short-circuit
stresses and good electrical connections. Care in erection includes care to
avoid physical damage, leaving or dropping anything foreign inside the tank
(tools, nuts, etc.), making good connections and making sure the oil is clean
and dry. Proper maintenance includes checking oil and winding temperatures,
the cleanliness, dryness and insulation level of the oil and analysing any gas
that may have accumulated above the oil.
Protective equipment includes surge divertors, gas relays and electrical
relays. The gas relay is particularly important since it gives early warning
of a slowly developing fault, permitting shutdown and repair before serious
damage can occur. Of these various items of protective equipment, only the
relays are within the scope of this book. Detailed information on the others
will be found in the Bibliography (96) (103).
Group (a)
Electrical faults which cause immediate serious damage but are generally
detectable by unbalance of current or voltage such as:
(i) Phase-to-earth fault, or phase-to-phase fault on the h.v. and 1.v.
external terminals.
(ii) Phase-to-earth fault or phase-to-phase fault on h.v. and 1.v. windings.
(iii) Short-circuit between turns of h.v. and 1.v. windings.
(iv) Earth fault on a tertiary winding, or short-circuit between turns of a
tertiary winding.
Group (b)
So-called 'incipient' faults which are initially minor faults, causing slowly
developing damage. These are not detectable at the winding terminals by
unbalance; they include:
(i) A poor electrical connection of conductors or a core fault (due to
breakdown of the insulation of lamination, bolts or clamping rings)
which causes limited arcing under the oil.
(ii) Coolant failure, which will cause a rise of temperature even below
full load operation.
(iii) Related to (ii) is the possibility of low-oil content or clogged oil flow,
which can readily cause local hot-spots on windings.
(iv) Regulator faults and bad load-sharing between transformers in
parallel, which can cause over-heating due to circulating currents.
Generally, for group (a), it is important that the faulted equipment
should be isolated as quickly as possible after the fault has occurred, not
only to limit the damage to the equipment but also to minimise the length
of time that the system voltage is depressed. A prolonged period of low
381
10.3 Protective Relays
Insul C1.to r
bushing
Trip Tr=sformor
tC1.nk
(a)
v.... (S
;7 -
'l
~-- --
(b)
TABLE 10.1
Gas Volume to Operate Alarm
When a winding fault occurs in the oil, the arc generates gas so rapidly
(over 50 cm 3 jkW sec.) that it creates a surge in the oil which rapidly moves
the vane, V, and causes tripping through contacts attached to the vane. The
vane is set to operate for an oil velocity which is above that caused by the
starting and stopping of oil pumps, as shown in Table 10.2.
TABLE 10.2
Oil Velocity to Cause Operation
t...=::====;i - - - - - -
(a)
Upptr cho.mbtr
Oil vo.lve
Bronu bellows
fb)
'\.
..
U5
""
"" ~
~
~4
~"
""-
--
::J
oil
~ 3
a. ~
'0 ~$
~2
..
'0
\
"
~ 1
a:
S~conds
t 2 3 4 5 <S 789 10
Op~ra.ting time
FIG. 10.3. Operating time of sudden pressure relay
incorrect operation under conditions of mechanical shock, etc. This unit is
located at the bottom of the tank where it is convenient for maintenance.
Fig. 10.3 shows the operating time characteristic of this relay. The relay
is set to operate on a rate of pressure rise of 5 g/cm 2/sec. and a minimum
differential gas pressure of 20 g/cm 2
10.3.3. Limitations of Gas-actuated Relays
Too sensitive settings of mercury contacts makes them subject to false
operation on shock and vibration caused by such conditions as earthquakes.
mechanical shock to the pipe, tap changer operation and heavy external faults;
these conditions are in addition to normal mechanical vibration caused by
alternating magnetic fluxes. This has been counteracted to a certain extent
by improved designs of mercurcy contact tubes.
No specific shock tests have been agreed but the manufacturer of the
Buchholz relay shown in fig. 10.lb checks the relays to see that they do not
trip with a seismic shock up to 016 g. acceleration and 60 mm. amplitude
horizontally or vibrations vertically up to the following values:
TABLE 10.3
Maximum Vibration for Stability
Equivalent
Frequency Amplitude
Acceleration
25 c.p.s 009 in. (2-3 nun.) 3g.
100 c.p.s 0023 in. (0'6 nun.) 12g.
150 c.p.s 0'015 in. (04 nun.) 16g.
386
Power Transformer Protection 10.4
The minimum operating time of Buchholz relays is about 01 second and
an average time is 02 second, which is somewhat slow; sudden pressure relays
are faster only for very heavy faults. On the other hand, electrical relays
can be used for heavy faults where high speed is necessary; they can also be
used for bushing flashovers which are outside the oil and hence do not create
an oil surge, the Buchholz relay being retained for faults involving only a few
turns of the winding and for incipient faults.
.--_....;Pow~c~rt.;.,ro.nsformcr
c:rll
Restricted
ccut.h rclo..y
Residuo.l
overeurrent
rclo..y
FIG. 10.4. Earth fault protection of a power transformer
387
10;4 Protective Relays
but must be of the high impedance type if supplied with the residual current
of the paralleled c.t's in the three phases; this is to prevent wrong operation
on false residual current from the c.t's during a heavy external fault between
phases, due to transient differences in the c.t. outputs (94) (see Chapter 9,
section 4). An ordinary overcurrent relay is acceptable if it is supplied from
a core balance type of c.t. which encircles the three phase conductors, since
the magnetic conditions of the c.t. are the same for all three phases.
For a wye-connected winding with the neutral grounded, the restricted
earth-fault connection offig. 10.4 is used. This differential connection provides
relay current only for a winding fault to ground, but with instantaneous relays
it is stable only if the relay circuit is of high impedance.
During a heavy external phase fault there should be no current supplied
to the residual overcurrent and restricted earth relays, referred to in Chapter 4,
section 4.5.2 (d), if the c.t's maintain their ratio; there is, however, in addition
to the effects of magnetic unbalance and transient components, which were
discussed in the Appendix 9.4, the problem of third harmonics in the exciting
current. Since the third harmonic components from each of the three phases
are in phase they behave in the same fashion as zero sequence components
and add together directly instead of cancelling out as with the fundamental
components.
Fortunately, balanced three-phase faults are very rare, and the problem
does not occur with phase-to-phase faults because both of the affected c.t's
have similar conditions. The problem can be solved by tuning the relay to
fundamental frequency, or by using a third harmonic filter.
During an external ground fault (fig. 10.5) the sensitivity of a low impe-
dance relay is limited by the fact that the magnetising current of the neutral
ZR
FIG. 10.5. Equivalent circuit of restricted earth relay
c.t. is three times that of each of the three line c.t's, so that the voltage
produced by the neutral c.t. is three times that of the line c.t's if they are of
similar design and turns. If they are of the same design the relay will have
zero voltage across it only if the leads between the relay and the neutral C.t.
have three times the resistance of the leads between the relay and the line
388
Power Transformer Protection 10.4
c.t's. If this resistance balance does not exist, it can theoretically be remedied
by adding resistance on the neutral c.t. side, but this is not the practice
because the balance would not hold during transient conditions or if the
neutral C.t. was saturated. The proper solution is to use a stabilising resistance
in series with the relay, or to use a high impedance relay. The value of the total
resistance necessary in the relay circuit is calculated in Appendix 9.4.
The earth-fault current in a faulted winding in a resistance-grounded
transformer depends directly on the voltage between the neutral and the
fault point on the winding, and inversely on the neutral resistance, i.e.
/ y;'"
10kV.p hp'IS the percentage 0 f WIn
V"3 R n amperes, were . d'Ing InVO
. Ive,
d kV'IS
c
~ 6
0..
O~~--~20---r--~40------6~O--~~B~O--~~100
P.ercenta.ge of WInding trom neutral
the current is limited by the impedance of the winding which increases as the
square of the number of turns involved; furthermore, the voltage is not
proportional to the turns involved by faults near the neutral because of
increased magnetic leakage. Fig. 10.6 shows the current variation with fault
position for one type of transformer.
389
10.4 Protective Relays
For a fault in the delta winding the relation between the fault current and
fault position is still more complicated. The current magnitude varies less
because the voltage to ground can never be less than 50 %. The impedance
of the winding is maximum for a fault at the middle of the winding and may
be as high as six times the positive sequence impedance.
Rela.y
(a)
Power tra.nsformet
(b)
(c)
FlG.10.7. Differential protection of transformers
(a) Overall differential relay
(b) Percentage differential relay
(c) Three-winding transformer differential
generally flows in one side of the differentially connected relay only, which
will tend to operate if some form of restraint is not provided.
To make a differential relay stable because of difficulties (i) and (ii) above,
percentage differential relays have been developed and are now adopted as
the general practice in the protection of large power transformers. In the
case of difficulty (iii), early practice was to desensitise the relays for a short
391
10.4 Protective Relays
time until the magnetising inrush currents on each phase had decayed suffi-
ciently; modern practice, however, is to provide some form of restraint to the
relays which depends on the harmonic content of the magnetising inrush
current(s) (124) (125).
These questions are quite fundamental to successful transformer unit-
type protection. Item (i) is a special study in itself and is not unique to trans-
former protection; it has already been mentioned in this volume and will be
treated separately in Vol. II. Item (ii) in so far as it concerns the general
theory of the biased differential relay has been included in Chapter 3 on the
theory of relays. Item (iii) as a feature special to transformer protection has
not been mentioned before and will be treated in section 10.5.
(c) Percentage or Biased Differential Relays and the Effect of Through
Currents. The unbalance, or difference, of the derived currents from the c.t.
secondaries due to causes (i) and (ii) above (section 10.4.2 (b)), increase with
increase of through current. Thus a relay whose operating current is an
appropriate percentage of through current will allow a sensitive setting at low
current without danger of tripping on through current.
Such a relay is shown in fig. 1O.7b. The operating coil is provided with the
vector sum of the currents in the transformer windings and the restraining
coil with the through current. The spill current required to operate the relay
is usually expressed as a percentage of the through current in the restraining
coils and the ratio is generally termed the percent slope.
In the case of a transformer with more than two windings, the restraint
is based on the scalar sum of the currents in the various windings. In early
induction disc relays this was done by providing a restraining electromagnet
for each winding and adding their torques; on more recent relays it is done
by rectifying the currents and adding the outputs of the rectifiers to supply
the restraining winding with the scalar sum of the currents (fig. 10.7c).
In the case of a three-phase power transformer, the c.t's associated with
the wye-connected windings are usually connected in delta and those for the
delta windings in wye (91). This is to correct for the phase-shift of the line
currents due to the wye-delta transformation. It also eliminates the zero
sequence component of the currents on the wye side, which might otherwise
upset the stability due to the lack of a corresponding zero sequence compo-
nent on the delta side and prevent tripping on an external fault on the wye
side.
In the case of a transformer with its neutral grounded through resistance,
differential protection should be supplemented by restricted earth fault
protection, as shown in fig. 10.8, because only 41 %of the winding is protected
with a differential relay pick-up setting as low as 20 %of c.t. rating (24). This
is due primarily to the elimination of the zero sequence component from the
phase currents.
A method suggested by Matthews (147) to overcome this difficulty is
shown in fig. 10.10, in which the C.t. secondaries are connected in star on the
resistance-grounded side and in delta on the delta side of the power trans-
392
Power Transformer Protection 10.4
P OWfr
Mo.ln CT ' , tra ns former
Grou ndIn g
Im p.danet
.--
___ J
ot o.r th - fo.ul t
r.lo. y
Slo.blhSln 9
res lsta.ncr
------------,
Co rt-bo. l o.nC f
t r a.nsfor mer
IRt!. t rulnln q cOil s ,
/'
,
L.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...JI
Sto.b lloSlng
rrS lsi a.nC I
FIO. 10.8. Combined differential and earth fault protection for transformers
Jj
~A
In
;;
......
~
",- / ./
f 'f / U NIaoQ
J L. H "'on-
.. //
'IV'
"''' au: ..
./
./ 1+-
./
..
./ ~ INCAtr.Y. ouc. 'TO
--
V c.t ,~~
,;' \J ,r ... ,...,
./
./ /
'j
c!'
'-
"""
,----------,
I R<str<1inJng coil I
Perc<nt<1ge St<1bdisJn9
differenti<11 resista.nces
rel<1y
knee of the excitation curve; the voltage output to the relay thus decreases
for the same per-unit differential current (127) as before in the primary
windings. Thus, if the relay operating voltage is properly chosen, it can be
made stable at high values of through currents.
The discussion above relates only to through fault stability, and it is
important to consider relay stability on magnetising inrush currents. In the
early days of protection, when time-lag induction disc relays were in almost
universal use, magnetising inrush currents had little affect on relays. But, with
the use of improved steels in the manufacture of power transformers, and
with the growing "application of faster relays to protective gear practice,
magnetising inrush phenomena came into prominence.
FIG. 10.12. Wave-shape of voltage and flux in a transformer under normal conditions
FIG. 10.13. Wave-shape of voltage, transient flux and magnetising inrush current
in a transformer
phenomena in a transformer. Fig. 10.14 shows how the inrush current wave
can be derived from the excitation characteristic.
The inrush current gradually decays in successive cycles of the voltage
wave due to the resistance R in the primary, i.e. the energising circuit, and
the impressed voltage on the primary winding of the transform.er is modified
by a small amount equal to the voltage drop in the resistance R. The rate of
decay of the transient inrush phenomena will be greater during the first few
cycles because of the shorter time constant of the circuit for decreased air-
core inductance of the winding with higher saturation of the core. In the
determination of this time constant, eddy current loss has some effect during
396
Power Transformer Protection 10.5
the first few cycles when the rate of decay is highest, but the influence of
hysteresis loss is absent (148) for practical purposes.
(a)
1 _
Time in
cycle.
1 / 1
1 _
" 4/ "2
Time
_-, ,'" /~ Norma.l flux
In
cycl ..
.....
(c) 1_
Time In
cycle.
PIG. 10.lS. Transient fluxes and inrush currents in a 3-phase transformer, energised at
VII (max)
(a) a-phase conditions. (b) b-phase conditions. (c) c-phase conditions
in anyone cycle. For phase c, the relevant diagram is given in fig. 1O.15c.
It should be observed that the inrush currents in phases band c are of opposite
polarities and that they occur at different times in the cycle. These currents
have a return path to the supply through the ground-neutral connection.
...-
CL
,Ii
III
b
(. )
--.-------
,I,
III J
-
3 Ii
g
III
0.
b
-
tlj
III
,~
(b)
~Ii
,t
--
"5/1
c
!I,
as shown in fig. 1O.16b. It should be observed that the forced inrush current
through phase a, due to the other two phases experiencing inrushes in oppo-
site directions during different periods in the cycle, will be double-sided.
The magnitude of this current will be zero at the instant when the inrush
magnitudes in phases band c are equal; at this particular instant the delta
circulating current will also be zero. This does, however, assume that the
inrush currents in phases band c are equal.
10.5.3. Large Inrush Currents in Power Transformers with Low-Loss Steel Cores
There is a tendency in transformer design towards the use of cold-rolled
steels for cores, in which the hysteresis loss per cycle is much smaller than
with hot-rolled steels. Allowing the same core losses, the normal working
flux density in cold-rolled steels can be made higher than in the earlier types.
This is shown in fig. 10.17 where the hysteresis loops of a cold-rolled and a
26, ---------;~-------
_-- I
.... - I
>-
+' I" I
I ... - -
.0;; I I ...... -
.,
c ,
I
I'"
.... (
""" I I /"
;:;:" I /'
____;_---l
I
26, ~--
t I
I
/I
I I
I
I
I I I
I
I
I
Working
o----+--flux deoslty
- Ma.gnetising
force H
FIG. 10.17. Hysteresis loops of high-loss and low-loss transformer cores; loop (1)
for high-loss core, loop (2) for low-loss core
hot-rolled core material show the same loss per cycle; the normal working
flux densities are at different values. The attainment of these advantages
have been accompanied by an increase of the initial transient magnetising
current. It can be seen in fig. 10.17 that, if the maximum flux swings are
double the maximum value at normal working conditions in both cases, the
magnetising ampere-turns required in the case of cold-rolled steel are very
much greater than that in the other type.
400
Power Transformer Protection 10.5
Representative data (136) giving the average values of normal magnetising
currents and magnetising inrush currents for different steels used for trans-
former manufacture indicate the following figures:
TABLE 10.4
Average Values of Normal Magnetising Current in Transformers
TABLE 10.5
Average Values of Crest Magnetising Inrush Current in Transformers
TABLE 10.6
Amplitudes of Harmonics in a Typical Magnetising Inrush
Current Wave-shape
Component d.c. 2nd Harm. 3rd Harm. 4th Harm. 5th Harm. 6th Harm. 7th Harm.
Typical
value 55% 63% 268% H% 2'4%
(a)
(e)
FIG. 1O.1S. Typical wave-form of inrush current
(a) Theoretical
(b) Actual currents in wye-connected windings
(c) Actual currents in delta-connected windings
the transformer and the delta connected c.t's on the wye side. The d.c.
components and even harmonics can be cancelled out in the operating circuit
of a rectifier bridge relay and added in the restraint. This leaves only the
5th, 7th, etc., which can either be ignored because of their small amplitude
or blocked by a suitable filter. This has been done in a Russian relay (143).
(b) Harmonic Restraint (124) (125) (136). A popular method of making
differential relays insensitive to magnetic inrush current is to filter out the
harmonics from the differential current, rectify them and add them to the
percentage restraint, as shown in fig. 10.19. Harmonic restraint is obtained
Power
transformer
HQ.fmon lC
blooklng
,/Ia.y
,/
Tra.n!'QCLors
utilised in this relay (16); this feature gives a convenient way of obtaining
percentage bias on through faults by rectifying the through current and using
it to control linearly the output from the a.c. primary winding carrying the
differential current from the same phase. The output from this transductor
goes to the second conductor which controls a tripping relay. The d.c. com-
ponent of the magnetising inrush current has been used as 'auto-bias' to the
relay in the same transductor element. When the magnetising inrush current
is symmetrical and does not contain a d.c. component, the relay is made
stable by a 'cross-feed' bias from the d.c. component of the inrush current
in another phase. For this purpose another transductor element has been
incorporated, as shown in fig. 10.22.
This type of protection is simpler and cheaper than harmonic restraint
but has the possibility of undesirable tripping on inrush current which may
occur in a three-phase transformer if the breaker is closed at the moment of
voltage maximum on one phase. The resulting inrush current can have no
d.c. component to block the relay. This condition can be overcome at some
405
10.5 Protective Relays
PoWf::r
tra.nsformc.r
SenSItive
difle.ent'QJ
r.la.y
FIG. 10.22. Percentage biassed and d.c. component biassed transductor relay for
transformer protection
sacrifice of speed and sensitivity when its operation on offset internal fault
current is demanded. In another similar scheme the d.c. bias has been re-
placed by the second hannonic current for restraining the relay on magnetising
surges.
FIG. 10.23. Long time overcurrent relay showing extra damping magnet
R.la.y' prot.ctlng
C.T' . grounding
tra.nsfor"'.t
Grounding 1-_+-&*-_+-__
trcs.nsfor",.r
Exl.rna.1 fa.ult
ba.c~-up r.la.y
current, hence any positive or negative sequence currents can flow only
towards the grounding transformer and not from it.
For the above reasons, faults in the grounding transformer bank can be
detected very selectively by overcurrent relays fed by delta connected c.t's, as
shown in fig. 10.24.
407
10.7 Protective Relays
10.6. THERMAL IMAGE OVERHEATING PROTECTION
In large power transformers warning is given of overheating and overload
by temperature indicators in the oil and in each winding. The indicator is
either a thermostat or a bulb containing volatile liquid which operates a re-
mote pressure indicator through very thin tUbing.
The temperature indicator is put in an oil-filled pocket in the hot oil at
the top of the transformer tank. The pocket also contains a heating coil
energised from the c. t. secondary current in the associated winding. The
thermal time-constant of the heater matches that of the winding so that the
indicator measures the difference in temperature of the winding above that of
the oil and sounds an alarm when its temperature setting has been reached.
On smaller transformers, thermal image overcurrent relays with an
I 2 t = K time-current characteristic are used. The relay is usually of the
bimetallic strip type; it detects overload but does not detect failure of the
cooling system.
Differentia.l
..-_ _A""tux.C:r. rela.y
Restra.in
Restra.in
Differentia.l rela.y C.T.
't-----'
T
Sta.tion
scrVice
tra.nsformer
(a)
FIO. lO.2Sa. Overall differential protection
protect the two as one unit (fig. 10.2Sa). The relay is not normally provided
with harmonic restraint because the transformer is only connected to the
bus-bar at full voltage; however, it is possible for a small inrush to occur when
a fault near the bus-bar is cleared, suddenly restoring the voltage. The relay is
usually given a 20% pick-up setting and a 20% bias.
408
Power Transformer Protection 10.8
An English relay of this type is shown in fig. 10.25b. It has two shaded-
pole electromagnets acting upon an induction disc. The operating electro-
magnet is supplied with the difference current and its shading winding is
tuned so that the magnet produces maximum torque at system frequency
Pow.,
Circuit ira.nsform.r
C.T. brca.ker
Opera.t. Restrain
(b)
PlO. 10.2Sb. Overall differential protection using relay with harmonic rejection
----~~~r-------------~
----~~gr---------~
____~~m~--~----~/
Power
tra.nsfom.r
(b)
relay being located on the line side of the transformer. This however is no
solution for a ground fault on the other side of the transformer which,
owing to the neutral grounding resistance, creates only a very small current
in the feeder, as shown in fig. 10.27b; such a fault can be detected by a
sufficiently sensitive negative sequence relay.
~~--------------T-'~
Pilot
wIres
IR
~--~~~--------------~.--~~~--~
Trip
(a)
Relo.y
R L L L
FIG.
TTT
10.29. Typical surge-proof intertripping relay circuits
412
11
Bus.Zone Protection
General Principles-Current Differential Protection-Voltage
Differential-Frame Leakage Protection-Directional Compari-
son-Back-up-Supervision
&us R.la.y
Brea.ku$
C.T> .-----d:;-------r:I;---'
(busbar zone) must sum vectorially to zero unless there is a fault therein.
Fig. 11.1 shows the arrangement of the c.t's so that the switchgear, as well
as the bus itself, is protected. It will be seen that the sum of the currents will
not be zero if there is a bus fault, and the relay will be energised.
ponent of current it will be of the form l/Jd.c. = KIRr ~ where Rr is the total
resistance of the relay circuit. It will be seen that
l/Jd.c. Rr ro.L Rr X (11.2)
l/J.c. = Zr . R = Zr . R
where L, R and X pertain to the primary circuit. X/R will be of the order of
20 on a power station busbar. This means that the c.t. carrying the fault
current will saturate if the fault occurs at voltage zero and that balance
with the other c.t's will not be possible. This subject is discussed in more
detail in Vol. IT, Chapter 9.
In the past, attempts were made to overcome this difficulty with time
delay but nowadays power systems have become so large, and fault currents
so heavy, that high-speed relays are required.
The d.c. time constant for a fault circuit is L/R seconds. Typical time
constants for primary circuit components are as follows: Turbo-generators
01 second, Transformers 005 second, Lines 001 second.
In sections 11.2.2 and 11.2.3, protective systems are described which
now solve this problem directly, but the first step taken (in the 'thirties) was
to bias the differential relay which improved its stability considerably but
was not a complete solution.
Bus
"_summation QUlC.C.TS.....
....., L
~
I I I .r-
L...-, I
~
I 1 ~
I r--
~?
S
~
~ ..
:>
..",
.<>
~ CD
.~ A-
U ,.......,
.:...'-
i
r--'
l~
~
I--
1
Ii:
,,~ill'ing f1
1
Op .. a.u ..oi,tor
fl tt Rutrain
Rcla.y
Sensitive D,C.
polQris~d t~lay
(a) (b)
C.Ts Rtlo.y
(c)
Es
harmonics make it more stable on heavy through faults which may produce
spurious residual spill current due to unequal C.t. performance. The pro-
vision of harmonic restraint is impractical because of the risk of preventing
tripping on a heavy internal fault.
Excessive voltages on internal faults are prevented by the use of non-
linear resistance (thyrite) and a relay connected in series with thyrite provides
fast operation on heavy faults, its pick-up being high enough to prevent
operation on external faults.
418
Bus-Zone Protection 11.2
Fig. 11.4b shows a slightly different connection of this type of relay in
use in England. An a.c. relay is used which is prevented by a series capacitor
from operating on d.c. voltages in the presence of d.c. offset current com-
ponents on external faults above the relay setting. The pick-up setting is con-
trolled by series-connected thyrite units rather than an adjustable linear
resistance; this gives the relay a sharply defined voltage setting, enabling the
relay current to increase at a high rate when the voltage setting is exceeded,
thereby providing fast tripping for values above the setting. The series thyrite
units are chosen to provide settings in steps of 25 volts, from 25 to 175 volts.
The setting chosen is about half the saturating voltage of the c.t's.
Because of the high impedance of the relay circuit in fig. II.4b, another
thyrite unit is connected in parallel with it to limit the maximum voltage
during internal faults to about 900 for I amp c.t's, and thus prevent damage
to the insulation of the panel wiring.
The number of circuits on one bus which can effectively be protected by
high impedance differential protection depends upon the saturation voltage
of the c.t's together with the impedance and sensitivity of the relay. The
higher the impedance of the relay, the larger the proportion of the current
required for c.t. magnetising current and the smaller the margin between the
voltage on an internal fault and the voltage ceiling permitted for panel wiring.
Two objections to the high impedance differential relay are (a) the thyrite
units are bulky and expensive; (b) their resistance varies with temperature
and between units, making it difficult to obtain a precise pick-up setting.
Another English manufacturer uses the circuit shown in fig. 1l.5a. The
vector sum of the secondary currents from the bus c.t's is supplied to an a.c.
overcurrent relay through a small saturating c.t. which limits the maximum
relay current to a safe value. The relay circuit is tuned to exclude d.c. offset
components and transient harmonic currents; due to the high time constants
(~ ratio) of modem power systems, the d.c. offset component of current may
cause prolonged spurious differential residual current on heavy external phase
faults but, fortunately, the total transient has a relatively small fundamental
frequency content. A linear stabilising resistor in series with the auxiliary
c.t. in the relay enables it to be calibrated in voltage which can be more
accurately determIned because the resistor is of the linear type.
The circuit is simpler than the previous ones and the equipment is small
enough to put complete three-phase protection in a single unit relay case,
fig. 1l.5b. The tuned circuit adds about a cycle to the operating time of the
relay but the net efficiency of the relay is higher than that of the preceding
types. The net efficiency involves the sensitivity, speed and stability of the
relay. Stability is defined as the ratio of maximum through fault current
below which the relay will not operate, to the minimum internal fault current
for which it will operate.
With both high and medium impedance relays the best results are
obtained with c.t's having lower resistance and very low leakage reactance,
419
11.2 Protective Relays
e.g. those of toroidal construction. Auxiliary c.t's for ratio correction reduce
the sensitivity and electrical stability and should not be used. All the c.t's
should have the same ratio.
(b) Setting of Voltage Differential Relays. The pick-up voltage setting is
usually made just above the maximum relay voltage for an external fault;
this voltage would approach zero if the c.t. performance were linear but, if
the c.t. in the faulted circuit is completely saturated and the others are not
L
~/O-:___~
c
( a)
saturated, it can reach a value of the maximum fault current times the resis-
tance of the c.t. secondary plus that of the leads to the junction point with the
other c.t's. Hence the relay should be set to pick up at a voltage
Vr = 11 Imax(Rsec+ Rleads) (11.3)
V, and Imax are r.m.s. values; no account is taken of the d.c. offset component
of Imax because the relay is assumed to be designed not to respond to it;
furthermore, saturation of the c.t's due to the d.c. offset component would
reduce their output voltage.
In the relay shown in fig. 11.5a, the voltage setting is the product of the
current setting of the relay times the resistance of the stabilising resistor.
The relay has taps between 01 and 04 ampere so that, for a 50 volt setting,
the stabilising resistor would be 125 ohms on the 04 ampere tap less the relay
impedance. The corresponding resistance in the high impedance scheme
420
Bus-Zone Protection 11.2
would be 50/0008 = 6250 ohms, because the current pick-up of the relay is 8
rnA.
During an internal fault the c.t's are virtually open-circuited except for the
small current taken by the relay. The voltage assumes a value such that the
secondary spill current which would have flowed in the relay if their ratios
had been maintained is equal to the sum of their magnetising currents required
for this voltage. In other words, the primary currents are all used up as
magnetising current instead of producing proportional currents in their
secondaries and the c.t's not having power sources receive magnetising
current from those that do via their secondaries.
Hence the real operating current of the relay is 10 = I, + LIm, where I, is
the pick-up current of the relay and 1m is the magnetising current of each c.t.;
I, is very small compared with 1m. For values above pick-up an increasing
proportion of current goes through the shunt saturating circuits of the relay,
hence limiting the c.t. secondary circuit voltage and the relay current.
11.2.3. Ironless C.T's (113)
In c.t's containing iron, the number of circuits permissible on a bus is
limited by the fact that the relay receives the differential current minus the
sum of the exciting currents for all the c.t's on the bus. Furthermore, the
high time-constants possible in modern power systems prolong transients, so
that stability on heavy through faults may be difficult to obtain, especially in
the case of the ground differential relay.
With ironless toroidal c.t's (linear couplers), transient conditions are
eliminated and there is no magnetising current, "no magnetic saturation limit
and no lead resistance problem. These facts eliminate the difficulties requiring
special precautions in differential schemes using ordinary c.t's.
It should also be noted that ironless c.t's have great potentialities in
dealing with the transient problem in general. Two of the greatest difficulties
with relay transient problems are differential saturation and the transference
of d.c. through the iron-cored C.t. The problem of differential saturation
clearly disappears when the iron is removed altogether. This also results in
the c.t. becoming a purely differential device, the instantaneous output quan-
tity becoming a voltage.
dip
Vo=M' dt (11.4)
Bu&
Sensitive
relay
LineCLr
couplers
(a)
(b)
FIG. 11.6. Differential voltage protection using linear coupler c.t's
(a) Single line diagram
(b) Three-phase schematic diagram
The ratio of maximum external fault current for blocking to minimum internal
fault current for tripping is about 25 for a uniformly distributed multi-
layer winding.
The number of circuits on one bus that can be protected effectively is
of the order of 15 and depends only upon the sensitivity of the relay (113)
which should operate preferably on 5 mW or less. On systems grounded
through impedance, the ground relay should be more sensitive than the
phase relays (fig. 11.6b) but, in cases where the through current on an external
422
Bus-Zone Protection 11.3
fault may be very heavy, it may be necessary to block the sensitive ground
relay on multi-phase faults if this through current exceeds 25 times the relay
setting.
For maximum sensitivity the impedance Zr of the relay should be made
about the same as that of the sum of the impedance Ze of the linear couplers,
i.e. Zr = LZ(". It is not necessary to include the lead resistance because it is
usually small compared with that of the relay and the linear couplers. Ze is of
the order of 10 ohms for 132 kV linear couplers.
The current setting I, of the ground relay and its impedance Z, (from
fig. 11.5b) are related by the equation
LEe = I,(LZ e+ Z r+ 3Z,) (11.7)
where" Ee is the e.m.f. from each linear coupler and Zr is the impedance of
each phase relay. If the linear couplers give 5 volts output per 1000 amperes
primary current, their e.m.f.s can be calculated and added to give LEe.
neutral check feature, then an inverse time delay relay should be used for the
main scheme. This prevents inadvertent operation of the bus bar protection
due to current flowing from the auxiliary wiring to the switchgear frame, the
auxiliary circuit fuses clearing the fault before the inverse relay operates.
P.T.
(a)
P.T.
current may be close to that of a bus fault to ground. However, this problem
can in most cases be solved by the use of voltage restraint because a mho
characteristic can discriminate between these conditions, as can be seen
by reference to Chapter 5. Negative sequence directional relays will be
less affected because charging current has very little negative sequence
content.
Distance units have been used in the U.S.A. for bus protection where their
reach is limited by transformers or feeder reactors, as described in Chapter 5,
section 5.4.5. The relays were of the reactance type and were set to reach a
short way into the feeder reactors; reactance units operate for currents in the
reverse direction so that they detect faults either on the bus or in the generator.
Reactance relays have also been used for protecting a bus with two sections
separated by a reactor (also described in section 5.4.5).
425
11.6 Protective Relays
11.5. BUS BACKUP PROTECTION
This has two interpretations. It can mean no local protection at all and
dependence upon the second zone tripping of stepped distance relays at
neighbouring stations to clear local bus faults. It can also mean the clearing
of a fault on a feeder which: because the feeder breaker has failed to operate,
must be regarded as a bus fault. The latter fault can be cleared by a timer which
is controlled by the relays on the faulted feeder. This is described in more
detail in Chapter 12, section 12.4.2.
Fig. 11.10a shows a 41ine ring bus, where bus differential protection
would be complicated and expensive because of the many bus sections and
the secondary switching necessary when one section is out. However, from
the point of view of interruption to service, a bus fault is no more serious
than a line fault because the adjoining halves of any pair of bus sections, such
as between G and F, can be relayed as part ofthe line C by arranging the c.t's
for line protection as shown in fig. 11.lOb.
The advantage of this system is that any breaker can be taken out for
maintenance without interrupting any load and without providing a spare
breaker; but it is essential to provide automatic reclosing of the breakers and
a motoroperated disconnecting switch in each line in order to obtain its full
benefit. The disconnecting switch can also ground the line.
For a transient fault on a line or a bus section the appropriate two
426
Bus-Zone Protection 11.7
breakers open and reclose. For a permanent fault on a line the breakers open
and reclose a predetermined number of times and, after the last trip, the
motor-operated line switch opens and the breakers reclose, restoring the ring
-@-Rela.YinlineA
(b)
FIG. 11.10 (a) Four section ring bus. (b) Location of c.t's and p.t's on ring-bus
bus. If the permanent fault is on a bus section the breakers trip again and lock-
out leaving the other lines in' but the ring bus open.
11.7. SUPERVISION
In large stations, open-circuits in the c.t. circuits are detected by a very
sensitive overcurrent relay with an effective setting of 10% of the rating of
the smallest feeder on the bus and connected as shown in fig. 11.11. Owing to
c:r~
428
12
Btrek-up Protection
Basic Principles-Precautions for Reliability Remote Back-up-
Local Back-up-Relay Back-up-Breaker Back-up-a.c. Supplies
-d.c. Supply
Onlt pha.se
.."
al
shown
Lin.
FIG. 12.1. Normal connections of a relay protecting line section A-B
.e
t=
FlO. --
Dista.ncr
common equipment is used and hence the back-up cannot fail from the same
cause as the first line of defence.
Until recent years system connections were fairly simple so that back-up
protection was effectively provided by the relays at the next station towards
the source with enough time delay to permit the relay in the faulted circuit
to clear the first fault, if operable. The increase in the number of inter-
connections and power-infeed points in recent years has reduced the fault
current in the circuits, other than the faulted circuit, so that remote back-up
relaying is becoming increasingly difficult; at the same time loads are
becoming more important and hence demanding better service continuity.
Where the limitation of the back-up reach of distance relays is mostly
due to line length, an improvement in their operation can be obtained by
.e
i= zon.l(A)
(a)
G
D A B c
Ta.p lin.
Ta.p lin.
FlO. 12.3. Reversed third zone of distance relays
(a) The time zones. (b) Preservation of tap line
locating the Zone 3 unit at the other end of the line section and reversing its
direction. Referring to fig. 12.3a, the third step of the distance relay at A
normally provides remote back-up for faults in section BC if the breaker at
B fails to trip. This back-up can equally well be provided by reversing the
third zone unit at B so that it covers section BC.
431
12.4 Protective Relays
This arrangement not only reduces the impedance seen by the back-up
relay by the impedance of section AB but also maintains power supply to
tapped loads in section AB (fig. 12.3b) which would lose their power source
with the normal arrangement where section BC is backed-up by the relay at
A. It also prevents the back-up relay from reaching through a large trans-
former into a distribution circuit. The fact that the back-up impedance relay
is now located at the same station as the transformer means that a directional
relay in the transformer circuit can be used to block the impedance back-up
relay for faults fed through the transformer.
Where the limitation of back-up reach is due to power infeed at the inter-
vening bus the excessively high impedance setting of the back-up relay may
Line
Norma.l
rcla.y
.
::J
IQ
Line
The following were the most common reasons given for the failures under
the different items of the questionnaire:
(a) Relays
(i) Dirty contacts (low contact pressure).
(n) Open-circuit in fine wire coils (d.c.).
(iii) Wrong setting.
(iv) Incorrect adjustment.
I
jA B
I
I
. I I
E
;::
I I
L ___ -J ______ J
c
I
J I 0
B-" I C~ -+ 10 . .
FIG. 12.6. Local relay back-up by an offset mho relay (dotted characteristic)
!I________~IA i B
o
B~ O~
~e
fIG. 12.7. Local relay back-up by a definite time relay (dotted characteristic)
time-overcurrent relay varies with generating conditions and may cover more
than one line section it must be given a time setting of at least 10 second, i.e.
corresponding to the third zone time of a distance relay. Faster back-up times
can be achieved with a non-directional inverse time-overcurrent relay with
an instantaneous unit (fig. 12.8) supplied from separate current transformers,
if available. The overcurrent method is inexpensive and reliable; it relies
only upon the current transformer and there is no risk of failure due to fine
wire, such as is used in a.c. and d.c. potential circuits.
The time-overcurrent relay back-up (fig. 12.7) may be slower than the
previous alternative of a single-step mho back-up relay with Zone 2 time but
this does not interfere with the selectivity. Referring to fig. 12.7 a fault at
X is normally cleared by the distance relay at B if the relay at C fails to
operate. If the back-up relay at B cannot operate because of a heavy infeed
p* 435
12.4 Protective Relays
at C the time-overcurrent relay at C will do so, thus clearing a fault which
could not normally be cleared. The fact that the relay at B will operate before
the overcurrent relay at C for a fault near the C bus, causing the isolation
of station C, is no different from normal operation without the time-over-
current relay. In cases where this is unacceptable there is the earlier alterna-
tive of duplicating the normal relays.
With inteed
a.tC ,,/ C
,'" /
"..
I
,-- -- - -'F-------"t--,./
I I C Without inteed
~~t~n!9-~~~~ ~cJ
FIG. 12.8. Local relay back-up by an inverse time current relay with an
instantaneous unit
+
Protective
relays on four
feeders
II II II I! Fault
~ detector
relays
11 11 II I
t t t t ~Trip
To brea.l<er trip coils
relay
(b)
FIG. 12.11. (a) c.t's on bus side of circuit breaker
(b) c.t's on line side of circuit breaker
breaker but the fault will remain as a bus fault, and will not be detected by
the bus zone protection which is now limited to busbar protection. With
distance relays, the fault may be cleared by remote back-up.
If both sets of current transformers are on the line side of the breaker
a fault between the breaker and the nearest current transformer (fig. 12.l1b)
will operate the bus zone protection and clear the bus, which will cause un-
necessary interruption to service.
The inference is that it js better to have a set of current transformers on
each side of the circuit breaker.
12.4.4. Potential Transformers
Duplicate potential transformers are seldom used because they are
extremely reliable devices. Where each line has a set of p.t's and there is
another set on the bus, the latter could be used to supply the back-up relays.
The most common cause of loss of secondary potential is the blowing of a
potential fuse due to a temporary short-circuit during maintenance, such as
by a metal tool bridging two terminals in falling from a higher position or
due to a whisker of a stranded wire touching a grounded metal part. It has
been found that a relatively large fuse (60 amperes) for the relay circuits will
438
Back-up Protection 12.5
survive most of the transient short-circuits that are liable to occur in main-
tenance.
Loss of potential due to a blown fuse, an open-circuit in the wiring or to
trouble in the potential transformer can either prevent tripping or cause
undesirable tripping in distance relays. Loss of potential on the restraining
coil can cause wrong tripping but, in a mho relay which is polarised by a
potential winding, loss of potential supplying this winding will cause zero
torque, i.e. failure to trip.
In order to prevent undesirable tripping due to loss of potential each
distance relay can have a supervisory relay which may be a simple instan-
taneous overcurrent relay in series with the Zone 1 tripping circuit. In the
rare cases w h emaximum
re.
Zone 1 fault current
>
pick-up current f
0 the
maXImum load current drop-out current
instantaneous overcurrent relay, a rate-of-rise of current relay can be used
as the supervisory relay. In either case, the loss of relay potential must be
signalled by an alarm relay working on undervoltage and provided with a
time-delay so that the alarm will not sound during faults.
Where miniature circuit-breakers are used instead of fuses and have an
auxiliary contact to open the trip circuit, it must open before the protective
relay trips, i.e. with modem high-speed distance relays it should open in less
than one cycle. Where fuses are used, an undervoltage relay can be connected
with its coil across the fuses and its contacts in series with the trip circuit;
this relay will open very fast when a fuse blows because the relay coil receives
the full voltage (see fig. 5.51 and refer to Chapter 5, section 5.7.2).
12.4.5. Battery
The records indicate that this is the component least likely to fail. Never-
theless, it can be included in local back-up by providing an undervoltage
delayed alarm on the load side ofthe fuses. No supervision other than the alarm
is necessary because failure of the d.c. supply can only cause failure to trip.
12.5. SUMMARY
(a) The goal of protective relays is absolute assurance of tripping the
breaker when it is required.
(b) This assurance can be made extremely good by proper precautions in
design, such as high contact pressure.
(c) Remote back-up is desirable because it cannot fail for the same reason
as the first line of defence.
(d) Where remote back-up is not possible, local relay and breaker back-up
can ensure selective clearing of faults.
(e) The degree of duplication of components in local relay back-up
depends on the importance of the protected circuit.
(f) The a.c. potential supply should have a failure alarm and distance
relays should have supervisory relays working on overcurrent or rate-
of-rise of current, depending upon system conditions.
439
13
HainienalWe .IUI Testing of Belays
Commissioning-Periodic Maintenance-Transfer to Test Circuit
-Tools-Safety Measures-Mechanical Tests-Electrical Tests-
Manufacture Tests
Pment.
ROTECTIVE relays are intended to protect expensive electrical equip-
With proper care they will perform this duty, but when neglected
they may become inoperative and could become a hazard in themselves.
Since the reliability is the most important quality of protective relays it
follows that their maintenance must be first class.
In the ordinary course of events modern relays, which have been properly
adjusted and correctly set initially, should not require subsequent adjustment
and, if periodic inspection and check tests show them to be in good condi-
tion, they should not be physically touched.
It is generally accepted that protective relays and their trip circuits should
be periodically checked in order to ensure that they will always be ready to
operate with certainty. The recommended practice is to carry out three types
oftest:
(a) Acceptance tests at the installation or commissioning of the relays.
(b) Periodic tests to check the calibration and condition of the relay.
(c) More frequent tests of a simple nature to cause movement of the parts,
and to check the continuity of the trip circuit.
Before attempting any adjustment or tests, the test engineer should
carefully read the proper instructions. He should be entirely familiar with the
relay, its application, principle of operation, design features and charac-
teristics.
Prima.ry
circuit
230.A.C.
Relay
"------;---...-
5 Kva.
as a 240 volts, 30 amperes source, and tapped for various voltages (say 1 to
10 volts) necessary to give line currents up to 1000 A depending on the im-
pedance of the circuit; this current is sufficient to check the polarity of the
connections but not to simulate fault currents, the latter being done in the
secondary injection tests to check the relay characteristics (see fig. 13.1).
The secondary wiring can be further checked if necessary by a low reading
ohmmeter or by the ringing method using a bell and battery. A more detailed
account of the tests on each type of relay is given in section 10, 'Electrical
Tests'.
13.1.1. Primary Fault Tests
Primary tests with actual fault currents can be done, however, by applying
a fault through a portable circuit-breaker, in the case of cable circuits. In the
case of an overhead line the simplest method is to shoot an arrow over or
between the conductors, the arrow being attached to a length of very fine
iron wire, the other end of which is free, for phase faults, or earthed, for
ground faults. An alternative method is shown in fig. 13.3 wherein the iron
wire is pulled into position with insulating cords. The side view shows how
conductor burning is prevented.
441
13.1 Protective Relays
Iron wire is preferred for starting the fault arc because it breaks up into
small pieces which are expelled from the arc electromagnetically and has no
effect on the arc resistance; copper or fuse wire on the other hand forms
a cloud of metallic vapour which creates a very low resistance arc, which is
misleading for the application of impedance relays. Flashover arcs, or test
. h very t hi'
arcs started WIt . have a reSIstance
n Iron WIre, . 8750 h "'.
/1.4 0 ms per loot In
still air, which has a value of about 075 ohm at 800 amperes. Alternatively,
the arc has a drop of ~~~ volts per foot which is 450 at 800 amperes. It is
most important not to underestimate the arc resistance on short lines because
selectivity can be lost if, for instance, a distance relay gives third zone time
for a fault just inside the far end of the protected section (Chapter 5, section
5.1.1).
Few companies do such field tests, however, although the chance of
trouble is much smaller with a supervised test fault than with an actual fault
which is uncontrolled and going to oCCur anyway. In the U.S.A. these field
tests are carried out by power companies whenever they install some new
protective scheme which is of fairly recent design, or if they wish to find out
something about the behaviour of relays under particular system conditions.
These tests are usually carried out in conjunction with the manufacturer and
complete records are taken by high-speed portable oscillographs. The power
company engineers then have a much better idea of ~hat both the system
and the protection will do under fault conditions.
The superiority of thin iron wire for this purpose was originally dis-
covered by the author in 1928 during a power arc investigation, in collabora-
tion with Mr. E. E. George, on the 154 kV system of the Tennessee Electric
Power Company. During the tests it was found that similar results were
obtained with a wet rope with the added advantage that the arc was delayed
in striking and the effect on the relay was like that of an actual fault although
it was in fact initiated by closing a breaker near the source.
13.1.2. Primary Injection Tests
For checking the polarity and correctness of the primary and secondary
wiring it is necessary to inject current into the primary circuit. This is done
usually with a distribution type transformer of 5 to 10 kVA rating (as
described in section 13.1 and shown in fig. 13.1) with its low voltage winding
connected to the primary circuit and its high voltage winding connected to the
local supply (120 or 240 volts) through a controlling impedance such as that
of a secondary test set. The primary circuit is grounded for safety through the
conductors in the desired manner to ascertain that:
(a) the current-transformers in corresponding phases are correctly con-
nected to differential relays;
(b) their polarity is correct relative to each other (checked by zero
spurious residual current);
442
Maintenance and Testing of Relays 13.2
(c) the phase and polarity of each current-transformer is correct relative
to the polarising potential in the case of a directional relay;
(d) there are no. poor electrical connections (checked by a low-reading
ohmmeter);
(e) there is the proper ratio between primary and secondary currents at
the relay setting, i.e. to see that the burdens of the relay and current
wiring are not too great for the c. t. and that it is in fact the correct C.t.
tripping contacts are relieved by a seal-in relay. For example there should
be negligible effect on the contacts of an induction disc relay with a series
seal-in unit after 100 operations tripping a 40 ampere trip coil at 250 volts
(fig. 2.35).
Relays in dirty surroundings, or having contacts with lower pressure, or
a tendency to bounce, need more frequent checking. On the other hand,
auxiliary relays with high-pressure bounce-proof contacts can be hermetically
sealed and replaced every 6 to 10 years, depending on their contact duty.
443
13.2 Protective Relays
In all tests the relay case should be dusted clean before removing the
cover. Fig. 13.2 shows a plastic cover which can be used when testing has to
be done in dirty or dusty surroundings with the cover off. It is better practice,
however, to test with the relay cover on.
13.5. TOOLS
An important item in the maintenance of relays is the provision of proper
tools; without these tools it is difficult to avoid maladjustment and even
damage. For instance, the tension of the contact brushes of the telephone
type relays controls their pick-up and it is important to see that the tension
is correct.
A tool kit (fig. 13.6) is provided by many manufacturers. An English
manufacturer provides one which is compact enough to go into a waistcoat
13.5.1. Bearings
An ordinary needle is the best tool for exploring the surface of a jewel
bearing to detect a crack. It can also be used as a gauge to prevent over-
lubrication, the amount of oil applied to a meter or timing unit bearing being
the size of a drop which will stay on the point of a needle.
Most protective relay bearings are run dry and can be cleaned out with
petroleum spirits. In the field, a jewel bearing can be cleaned by inserting and
twisting a clean piece of pith or watchmaker's peg wood. The pivot can be
cleaned by pushing it into a piece of pith, or a hole drilled in watchmaker's
peg wood, and twisting it. It is exceptional, however, to find bearings dirty
enough to need cleaning unless the atmosphere is very polluted.
13.5.4. Contacts
Since many relays operate many more times in testing than they ever do
in service it is a good idea to use a neon lamp for checking contact closing
values. Metal filament lamps should be avoided because their initial current
can be 10 times their normal current, which may weld pure silver contacts.
Contact resistance should be determined with an ammeter and volt-
meter at about normal current and not with a resistance bridge at a few
milliamps, because contact resistance is inversely proportional to the current
magnitude.
13.6. IMPROVISATIONS
Sometimes equipment needed for a specific test is not available, but
suitable substitutes can be found. The following suggestions come from the
U.S.A.
taking two flat rolls of stranded wire of suitable size (such as 100 yds of 7/029)
and varying their position relative to each other to control their mutual
coupling and hence their impedance and so provide control for current
magnitude.
time on the middle tap setting, i.e. 100 % tap for phase relays and 50 % for
earth fault relays, with currents equal to twice, five and ten times the setting
current, repeating these tests with the time-multiplier set on unity and at 05.
This can be most conveniently done using the circuit of fig. 13.7 in which a
Cu"ut
control
t;j Rc. l a.y
~ooootao.
i:L~1 ~~:: , .... o
l
5top
23B:~_O_'1_0_(1m_P_ _...y,oo;l
FUlc.s Mc.tct'"ng 510.' t
tra.nsforMcr Vt.ry fast
conto.ctor Synct'lronou s
-0 timer
-.::::r
Push button (cycle COUr'ltI:r)
Rheosta.t
Fuses
o CD liZ
230 v.
A.C.
o flO 'II
o t CD
Pha.sc rt-:t::l--;:;;l--r.JUi~h
shIfter
the relay. The relay should then close its contacts if the load is outgoing, or
open them if it is incoming, if it is correctly connected. The test can, if desired,
be repeated for the other two phases.
(a)
X R"
2'
,,
I ''''p oda.ncc of
I 'ph,. b ...ck to 'mp<da.ncc of
I gc.ncra.t ing IOU ree. protc.cte.d li ne.
I r-~~~~~~~~
Stop
ratio ~~" The test should be repeated with arc resistance and in all cases the
switch should be closed at least five times to make sure that the relay does not
overreach due to transient conditions in the line or the relay circuit.
In the test set illustrated in fig. 13.12, ZL is calibrated in ohms for different
phase angles. In test sets with separate XL and RL it is important that Ra be
non-inductive and that Rx , the a.c. resistance of X, be known accurately.
Adjusta.blc ra.tlo
'-a.uxllia.ry C.T.
Diffcrcntla.1
...--
rela.y windings
The only tests important to ensuring correct operation are to see that the
pick-up of the relay agrees with the manufacturer's data and that the per-
centage slope of the characteristic at maximum fault current is sufficient
to be in excess of the current transformer errors at that current. The con-
nections of the current transformers supplying the differential relays should
first be checked by inserting an ammeter in series with the operating coils of
the differential relays and seeing that the spill current is negligible when
simulated load current is passing through the circuit. In the case of a balanced
current relay the polarity is unimportant because the windings supplied from
the two circuits compared are on separate magnets.
".,"
.'
.:"
Altcrna.tivc
AC. position for
sourc. short-circuit
'III Rela.y
FIG 13.14. a.c. polarity test for restricted earth fault relay
Power
tra.nsformcr
,-ANWI/',------
centre zero
instruments
FIG. 13.15. d.c. polarity test for restricted earth fault relay
d.c. pulses are passed through the line C.t. and the neutral c.t.; the direction of
the two instrument deflections should be noted. The meters should be so
connected that the deflections are in opposite directions, in which case the
terminals of the c.t's, to which the positive terminals of the instruments are
connected, should be joined together to give the correct relative polarities.
When these tests have been completed, be sure that all C.t. connections
are replaced.
458
Maintenance and Testing of Relays 13.11
t3.11. MANUFACTURERS' TESTS
These are of three kinds:
1. Electrical
2. Mechanical
3. Atmospheric.
Most manufacturers develop relays to predetermined specifications, based
on a knowledge of the requirements of the countries in which the market is
located. Prototypes are subjected to vigorous tests to be sure that specifica-
tions have been amply met.
coupling as shown in fig. 13.16. In the case oftapped coils the voltage can be
induced across the whole coil by applying a lower voltage between taps.
For coils with less than 2000 turns a lower frequency can be used or a
minimum of 2000 volts at 3000 cycles be maintained.
Relays have more extensive testing to check their calibrations over their
range of adjustment. Slow-speed relays have static tests. High-speed relays
have dynamic tests. Relay schemes have dynamic tests to check both their
calibration and their overall performance.
Static tests confirm the accuracy of the relay calibration. Dynamic tests
check this calibration during the transient changes in current and voltage that
occur when a fault is suddenly applied, as happens on an actual power
system. These transients may occur on the power system or in the relay or
in the c.t's and p. t's supplying it.
459
13.11 Protective Relays
Experience has shown that the relays most affected are differential current
relays, distance relays and instantaneous overcurrent relays.
(a) Heavy Current Tests. All forms of differential relays, including pilot
wire, are tested on very heavy currents to make sure (a) that they do not
operate on faults external to the protected circuit, (b) that they do not fail to
operate on heavy internal faults due to C.t. saturation.
The equipment is large and expensive (fig. 13.2Ia, b) beca,use, in order to
simulate actual fault conditions, the heavy current primary circuit must have
an X/R ratio similar to that of the actual system, which may be as high as
30, i.e. a d.c. time constant of about 01. The primary current is limited by
air-cored reactors and, although they can be built with X/ R > 30, it is
difficult to maintain the ratio in the whole circuit because of the resistance
of the cables and bolted connections.
(b) Artificial Transmission Line. Fig. 13.17a shows the arrangement of a
typical three-phase artificial transmission line and fig. 13.l7b shows the
Sta.tion Paralltlline Sta.tion
A B
r-------1 Line r---,---i Source
r----i impe- r---+r-I impeda.nce
r-------1 da.nce r-----+l~ Zs
r-------1 ZLT
Line
impe- } To loa.d
\--Circuit brea.ker-- da.nce a.nd A.Co
/ Protected line ZL 2 r-TlrTT,----, generator
M--flt:=~---i Line 100A
fuses
PoTS
m
'---y----' '-y---'
To rela.ys on test
(a)
flO. 13.17a. Artificial transmission line circuit
(a)
(b)
FIG. 13.18. Equivalent circuit of line C.t. referred to primary
This type of transmission line is used for type-testing of new distance
relay schemes and for individual (production) testing of distance schemes,
where special conditions prevail or the scheme is complicated.
461
13.11 Protective Relays
A= Auxllia.ry
t ra.ns former
R':(Ci::+CS)
1.r-R'2---1
~
~11:11L RA = Ra.tlo of a.uxilla.ry
tra.nsformer, A
---~ .....
(c) Test Benches. Fig. 13.23 shows a modern production test bench for
miscellaneous a.c. relays. Current is controlled by reactance in a circuit
similar to fig. 13.7. Potential is controlled in angle by a phase-shifter and in
magnitude by a tapped auto-transformer. Operating time is measured by a
synchronous timer for slow-speed relays and a Chronotron or a decatron
device for high-speed relays.
The equipment for each control circuit is mounted on a sub-panel so that
a test bench can be changed, for instance, from single-phase current and
potential to three-phase current by exchanging the sub-panel.
.
a.ltuna.tor
,
11 KV ~50 MVA -:::r=- '2 ~ '21
.w,tchgoa., -
.,
,!.,,!., - - __ L-_ _ _..J.
. r
~OCB
Intulock.d
~- isola.tor
t
Exc,t.r
Accommoda.tlon
for C.T'.
- 'I whon ttstitl!l Mo.ln 900 A
~ tra.nsform"~-r conta.ctor
g, ovoro.lI prot.
J
~l 1 11'Ma.ko' switch 900A
:;; ~ I 6,360 volts
~I 10.J", ) ~~ 3-14> 39MVA
~:; f T J~'::::::::::::"
~ y C.T's for oscillogra.phs . tc
I 4 4 KA termino.ls
~ N R
B
<a>
MtC1SUfI"g
tub.
1~i:3"
Orili tube.
(b)
FIG. 13.24. Test rig for Buchholz relays
(a) Photo. (b) Diagram
466
Maintenance and Testing of Relays 13.11
dust and provided with a dust filter through which cyclical expansion and
contraction of air takes place through a dust filter. Such an arrangement
permits use of protective relays in the most dusty locations, such as cement
mills, flour mills, steel mills and desert locations. Fig. 2.38 shows an airtight
draw-out relay case which is completely sealed against all ambient conditions.
These two cases are described in Chapter 2, sections 2.6.7, and 2.7.
Ana.log-
digita.l
tra.nsmitter
Controlled
a.nd
sta.tion digita.l-
a.na.log
rece.iver
472
Belereaces
CHAP. REP.
1 1 A.I.E.E. Relay Committee. 'Bibliography of Relay Literature', re-published
1927-39, 1940-43, 1944-46, 1947-49, 1950-52, 1953-54, 1955-56, 1957-58,
Transactions A.I.~.E., 60, 1941, pp. 1435-47; 63, 1944, pp. 705-709;
67, Part I, 1948, pp. 24-27; 70, Part I, 1951, pp. 247-250; 74, Part II,
1955, pp. 45-48; and 76, Part III, 1957, pp. 126-128; 78, Part III, 1959,
pp.78-81.
2 ADAMSON, C. 'Electronic Protection of Power Systems', Electrical Times,
London, Part I, June 20th, 1957; Part II, July 25th, 1957; Part III,
October 3rd, 1957; Part IV, November 7th, 1957; Part V, February 27th,
1958; Part VI, March 6th, 1958.
3 HOLM, J. G. 'Costs Study of 69-346 kV Overhead Power Transmission
Systems', Transactions A.I.E.E., 63,1944, pp. 406-422.
4 DAVIDSON, L. A and HINES, V. M. 'A Relay Designed to Meet Automatic
Reclosing Requirements of Ring Bus Station', Transactions A.I.E.E.
Paper, 60-1267.
2 5 NEHER, J. H. 'A Comprehensive Method for Determining the Performance
of Distance Relays', Electrical Engineering, 56, No.7, July, 1937, pp. 833-
844. Also Disc., ibid., No. 12, December, 1937, p. 1515.
3 6 SUITS, C. G. 'Non-linear Circuits for Relay Applicatiom', Electrical Engin-
eering, SO, December, 1931, pp. 763-765.
3 7 SUITS, C. G. 'Non-linear Circuits Applied to Relays', Electrical Engineering,
52, April, 1933, pp. 244-246.
7 8 CoRDRAY, R. E. and WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'The Mho Carrier Relaying
Scheme', Transactions A.I.E.E., 63,1944, pp. 228-235. Disc., p. 434.
9 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'A Condensation of the Theory of Relays',
G. E. Review, 4, No.9, September, 1940.
2,6 10 HOARD, B. V. 'An Improved Polyphase Directional Relay', Transactions
A.I.E.E., 60, May, 1941, pp. 24-28. Disc., p. 633.
2 11 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Electronic Protective Relays', C.I.G.R.E.
(Paris), 69, Paper No. 325, 1954.
2,5 12 BERGSETII, F. R. 'An Electronic Distance Relay Using a Phase-Comparison
Principle', Transactions A.I.E.E., 73, 1954, p. 1276. Also 'A Transistorised
Distance Relays', Convention Paper, AI.E.E. Summer Convention,
San Francisco, June, 1956 (limited circulation).
5 13 ADAMSON, C. and WEDEPOHL, L. M. 'Power System Protection with Parti-
cular Reference to the Application of Junction Transistors to Distance
Relays', Proceedings I.E.E., 103, Part A, 1956, p. 379.
2,5 14 ADAMSON, C. and WEDEPOHL, L. M. 'A Dual-comparator Mho-type Distance
Relay Utilising Transistors', ibid., p. 509.
2, 5 15 BRATEN, J. L. and HoilL, H. 'A New High-speed Distance Relay', C.I.G.R.E.
(Paris), 67, Paper No. 307, 1950.
2 16 EDGELEY, R. K. and HAMILTON, F. L. 'The Application of Transductors
as Relays in Protective Gear', Proceedings I.E.E., 99, Part 11,1952, p. 297.
2,4 17 ScINNEMANN, W. K. and GLASSBURN, W. E. 'Principles of Induction-type
Relay Design', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, 1953, pp. 23-27.
4 18 SoNNEMANN, W. K. 'A New Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay with Adjustable
Characteristics', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, 1953, p. 360.
9 19 LEWIS, U. S. 'Design Features of a Modern Induction Pattern Overcurrent
Relay', G.E.C. Journal, 18, No.2, April, 1951.
2 20 KELLER, A C., WAGER, H. N., PEEK, R. L. and LooAN, M. A 'Design of
Relays', Bell Telephone Systems Technical Publications Monograph
No. 2180, 1954.
473
Protective Relays
CHAP. REF.
4,9 21 GROSS, E. T. B. 'Sensitive Ground Relaying of a.c. Generators', Transactions
A.I.E.E., 71, 1952, paper No. 51-371.
2 22 RYDER, C., RUSHTON, J. and PEARCE, F. M. 'A Moving-coil Relay Applied
to Modern High-speed Protective Systems', Proceedings I.E.E., 100,
Part II, 1953, p. 261.
2 23 LAMN, U. 'The Transductor and its Applications', A.S.E.A. Journal, 16,
No.5,1939.
2, 10 24 LEYBURN, H. and LACKEY, C. H. W. 'Protection of Electrical Power Systems;
a Critical Review of Present Practice and Recent Progress', Proceedings
I.E.E., 98, Part 2, Feb. 1951, p. 47-66.
9 25 BIRD, D. E. and GOLD, L. B. S. 'Induction Motor Protection; a New Type
of Relay', Electrical Review (London), 137, July, 1945, pp. 60-67.
2A 26 MACPHERSON, R. H., WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. and MCCoNNELL, A. J.
'Electronic Protective Relays', Transactions A.I.E.E., 67, Part III, 1948,
p.1702.
2A 27 LoVING (JR.), J. D. 'Electronic Relay Developments', ibid., 68, Part I, 1949,
p.233.
8 28 ADAMSON, C. and TALKHAN, E. A. 'The Application of Transistors to Phase-
comparison Carrier Protection', Proceedings I.E.E., 106, Part A, No. 25,
February, 1959.
8 29 FEASTER, W. C. and SCHENEMAN, E. E. 'Applications of Transistors in
Power-line Carrier Relaying', Transactions A.I.E.E., 73, 1954, pp. 976-979.
8,9, 30 HODGKISS, J. W. 'The Behaviour of Current Transformers Subjected to
10,11 Transient Asymmetric Currents and their Effects on Protective Relays',
C.I.G.R.E. (Paris, 1960),72, Paper No. 329.
2 31 SOROTKA, V. T. 'Protective Relays Based on the Hall Effect', Elektrichestro,
1958, No. 11, pp. 68-71.
2,4,6 32 MCCoNNELL, A. J. 'A Single Element Polyphase Directional Relay', Trans-
actions A.I.E.E., 56, No.1, 1937, pp. 77-80 and 113; No.8, pp. 1025-1028.
4 33 SONNEMAN, W. K. 'A Study of Directional Element Connections for Phase
Relays', Transactions A.I.E.E., 69, Part II, 1950. Also Disc., ibid., pp.
1450-1451.
4 34 BARNES, H. C. and MCCoNNELL, A. J. 'Some Utility Ground Relay Problems',
Transactions A.I.E.E., June, 1955.
4 35 Wn.soN, R. M. and CANNON, C. E. 'Fundamentals of Co-ordinating Fuses
and Relays', Electrical West., 87, July, 1941, pp. 30-31.
4 36 STEEB, G. 'Relay Inverse Time Characteristic Doubled', Electrical World,
118, October, 1942, p. 1484.
4 37 HUNT, L. F. 'Sensitive Ground Relay Protection for Complex Distribution
Circuits', Transactions A.I.E.E., 65, November, 1956, pp. 765-768;
disc., Supplement, 1946, pp. 1180-1181.
4 38 GRAYBEAL, T. D. 'Factors which Influence the Behaviour of Directional
Relays', Transactions A.I.E.E., 61, 1942, pp. 942-952.
4 39 MORRIS, W. C. 'Dual-polarised Directional Ground Relays', Distribution,
April, 1952, pp. 8-9.
4 40 PRATT, M. G., AUDLIN, L. J. and MCCoNNELL, A. J. 'New Relay Assures
Feeder Resumption After Outage', Electrical World, Part I, September
10th, 1949, pp. 99-103; Part II, September 24th, 1949, pp. 95-98.
5 41 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Reactance Relays Negligibly Affected by
Arc Impedance', Electrical World, 98, No. 12, September 19th, 1931,
pp. 502-505.
5 42 ZYDANOWICZ, J. 'Applications of the Idea of Steady State Impedance and
Admittance to the Construction of Diagrams intended for the Analysis
of the Operation of Distance and Directional Relays', C.J.G.R.E. Con-
ference, 1960, Paper No. 323.
5 43 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'A New High Speed Reactance Relay', A.I.E.E.
Paper presented Summer Convention, June 20th, 1932. Abstract, Electrical
Engineering, 51, No.6, June, 1932, p. 410. Disc., Electrical Engineering,
52, No.4, April, 1933, pp. 248-252.
474
References
CHAP. REF.
5 44 GOLDBOROUGH, A. L. and SMITH, R. M. 'A New Ground Distance Relay',
Electrical Engineering (Trallsactiolls A.I.E.E.), 55, No.6, June, 1936,
pp. 697-703. Disc., ibid., 55, No. 11, November, 1936, pp. 1255-1256.
5 45 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Protective Relaying for Long Transmission
Lines', Transac/iolls A.I.E.E., 62, June, 1943, pp. 261-268. Disc., June
Supplement, 1943, p. 427.
5 46 SONNEMANN, W. K., et al. 'Compensator Distancc Relaying', Trallsactions
A.I.E.E., June, 1958, 77, Part 3, pp. 372-388.
5 47 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Application of the Ohm and Mho Principles
to Protective Relays" Transactions A.I.E.E., 65, June, 1946, pp. 378-386.
Disc., June Supplement, 1946, pp. 490-491.
5 48 GUTMANN, H. 'Behaviour of Reactance Relays with Short-Circuits Fed from
Both Ends', E.T.Z., 1940, p. 514.
4 49 RAMSAUR, O. 'A New Approach to Cold Load Restoration', Eler-trical
World, October, 1952, pp. 101-103.
5 50 HAMILTON and ELLIS. 'The Performance of Distance Relays', Reyrolle Review,
1956, No. 166.
5 51 HUTCHINSON, R. M. 'The Mho Distance Relay', Trallsactions A.I.E.E., 65,
1945, pp. 353-360. .
6 52 DODDS, G. B. and MARTER, W. E. 'Rl:actance Relays Discriminate between
Load-Transfer Current and Fault Currents on 2,300-volt Station Service
Generator Bus', Transactiolls A.I.E.E., 71, Part III, 1952, pp. 1124--1128.
Disc., p. 1128.
5 53 SONNEMANN, W. K. 'A New Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault Detecting
Relay', Transactions A.I.E.E., 61, 1942, pp. 677-680. Disc., pp. 995-
996.
5 54 STROM, A. P. 'Long 60 Cycle Arcs in Air', Transactions A.I.E.E., 65, 1946,
pp. 113-117. Disc., pp. 504--507.
5 55 GILKESON, C. L., JEANNE, P. A. and VAAGE, E. F. 'Power System Faults
to Ground'. Part II, 'Fault Resistance', Transactions A.I.E.E., 56, 1937,
pp. 428-433, 474.
5,9 56 MORRIS, W. C. 'One Slip Cycle Out-of-Step Relay Equipment', Transactions
A.I.E.E., 68, Part II, 1949, pp. 1246-1248.
5 57 LEWIS, W. A. and TIPPETT, L. S. 'Fundamental Basis for Distance Relaying
on Three-phase Systems', Transactions A.I.E.E., 66, 1947, pp. 694--709.
5 58 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Graphical Method for Estimating the Per-
formance of Distance Relaying during Faults and Power Swings', A.l.E.E.
Paper No. 49-154.
8 59 NOWICKI, J. R. 'Phase-operated Relay Using Transistors for Power System
Protection', Mullard Tech. Commun., 4, July, 1958, pp. 7-13.
2 60 WIDEROE, R. 'Thyratron Tubes in Relay Practice', Transactions A.I.E.E., 53,
June 16th, 1934, p. 872.
5 61 GOLDSBOROUGH, S. L. and LEWIS, W. A. 'A New High-speed Distance
Relay', A.I.E.E. Electrical Engineering, 51, March, 1932, pp. 157-160.
2 62 NEUGEBAUER, H. 'The Use of Rotating Coil Relays and Rectifiers in Pro-
tection', Elektrotechnische Zeitschri/t, August; 1950.
5 63 BIERMANNS, O. 'Schnelldistanzrelais flir Mittelspannungnetze', A.E.G. Mille-
lungen.
5 64 GOLDSBOROUGH, S. L. and HILL, A. V. 'Relays and Breakers for High Speed
Single Pole Tripping and Reclosing', Transactions A.I.E.E., 61, 1942,
pp. 77-81. Disc., p. 429.
5 65 , The Effect of Coupling Capacitor Potential Devices on Protective Relay
Operation', Trallsactions A.I.E.E., 70, pp. 2089-2096.
6 66 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Control of Distance Relay Potential Con-
nections', A.I.E.E., Electrical Engineering, 53, 1934, pp. 206-213. Disc.,
pp. 465-466 and 617.
6 67 AUDLIN, L. J. and WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Distance Relay Protection
for Subtransmission Lines made Economical', A.I.E.E. Paper No. 43-92,
May, 194.1.
475
Protective Relays
CHAP. REP.
13 68 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Survey of Methods of Mounting Protective
Relays and Arrangements for their Testing and Maintenance', C.I.G.R.E.,
1955, Paper No. 334.
6 69 FEIST, P. K. 'An Analysis of Compensated Polyphase Relays Using the
Circle Diagram', Electrichestvo, 1957, No.9, pp. 31-35.
5 70 SALZMANN, A. 'Relaying for Rural Distribution Feeders', Electrical Times,
April 2nd, 1959, p. 529, and April 9th, 1959, p. 572.
4 71 SALZMANN, A. 'Co-ordination of Phase Fault Protection " Electrical Energy,
December, 1958, pp. 480-487.
11 72 JENKINS, B. D. 'Current Transformers for Protection Circuits', Electrical
Times, October 24th, 1957, and November 14th, 1957.
8 73 A.I.E.E. Relay Committee. 'Pilot-wire Circuits for Protective Relaying-
Experience and Practice, 1942-50', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part Ill,
1953, pp. 331-336. Also Disc., p. 336.
7 74 TRAVER, O. C., AUCHINCLOSS, J. and BANCKER, E. H. 'Pilot Protection by
Power Directional Relays Using Carrier Current', G.E. Review, 35,
No. 11, November, 1932, pp. 566-570.
7 75 CHAIKIN, SAUL W. 'Mechanics of Electrical Contact Failure caused by
Surface Contamination', Electro-Technology, August, 1961.
8 76 NEHER, J. H. 'The Use of Communication Facilities in Transmission Line
Relaying', Transactions A.I.E.E., 52,1933, pp. 595-602.
8 77 CASSON, W. and LAST, F. H. 'Ultra High-speed Relays in the Fields of
Protection and Measurement', Proceedings I.E.E., 96, Part II, 1949,
pp. 50-56. .
8 78 HARDER, E. L. and BoSTWICK, M. A. 'A Single Element Differential Pilot-
wire Relay System', Electrical Journal, November, 1938, pp. 443-448.
8 79 NEHER, J. H. and MCCoNNELL, A. J. 'An Improved A-C Pilot Wire Relay',
Transactions A.I.E.E., 60, January, 1941, pp. 12-17.
8 80 FENWICK, W. and MARAIS, C. P. 'The Application of Pilot-wire Protection
to long 88 kV Transmission Lines, including intertripping', Transactions
South African I.E.E., 36, 1945, p. 60.
8 81 WARD, R. I. and GILMAN, D. W. 'Pilot-wire Relaying Utilizing the product
Differential Relay', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, October, 1953,
p. 911, and Electrical Engineering, 73, February, 1954, pp. 137-142.
7 82 LEYLAND, S. C. and GOLDSBOROUGH, S. L. 'The Functions of Ground
Preference in Carrier Current Relay Schemes', A.I.E.E. Journal, March,
1944, p. 97.
8 83 ADAMSON, C. and TALKHAN, E. A. 'Selection of Relaying Quantities for
Differential Feeder Protection', Proceedings I.E.E., 107, Part A, No. 31,
February, 1960, pp. 37-47.
9 84 KINrrsKY, V. A. 'Relay Scheme Protects Generators', Electrical World,
October 3rd, 1960, pp. 44-45.
9 85 SONNEMANN, W. K. 'A High Speed Differential Relay for Generator Protec-
tion', Transactions A.I.E.E., 59, November, 1940, pp. 608-612. Disc.,
pp. 1250-1252.
9 86 MCCONNELL, A. J. 'A Generator Differential Relay', Transactions A.I.E.E.,
62, January, 1943, pp. 11-13. Disc., pp. 381-383.
9 87 A.I.E.E. Relay Sub-Committee. 'Protection of Power House AuxiIiaries',
Transactions A.I.E.E., 65, November, 1946, pp. 746-751. Disc., pp.
1115-1116.
9 88 FOUNTAIN, L. L. 'Motoring Protection for A.C. Generators', Westinghouse
Engineer, 6, November, 1946, pp. 190-191.
10 89 STERNER, V. 'The Protection of Large Transformers', C.I.G.R.E., 1958,
Paper No. 348, and C.I.G.R.E., 1960, Paper No. 334.
10 90 BEAN, R. L. and CoLE, H. L. 'A Sudden Gas Pressure Relay for Trans-
former Protection', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, 1953, pp. 480-
483.
10 91 A.I.E.E. Relay Sub-Committee. 'Relay Protection of Power Transformers',
Transactions A.I.E.E., 66, 1947, pp. 911-916.
476
References
CHAP. REF.
10 92 KUNGSHIRN, E. A., MOORE, H. R. and WENTZ, E. C. 'Detection of Faults
in Power Transformers', Transactions A.I.E.E., April 1957, 76, Part 3.
10 93 MADILL, J. T. 'Typical Transformer Faults and Gas Detector Relay Pro-
tection', Transactions A.I.E.E., 66, 1947, pp. 1052-1060.
8,9, 94 SEELEY, H. T. 'Effect of Residual Magnetism on Differential Current Relays',
10,11 Transactions A.I.E.E., 2, 1943, pp. 164-169.
7 95 NEHER, J. H. 'D.C. Pilot Loop Protects 66 kV Cable Circuits', Electrical
World, 101, March 25th, 1933, pp. 384-387.
10 96 DIETSCH, c., HENRIET P. and LARRUE, C. 'Simplified Devices for the
Protection of Extra High-voltage Transformers and Results of their
Application', C.I.G.R.E., 1950, Paper No. 342.
10 97 JEAN-RICHARD, CHARLES. 'Thermal Protection of Transformers', C.I.G.R.E.,
1950, Paper No. 309.
8 98 PATRICKSON, J. B. 'Solkor-R Pilot Wire Protection', Reyrolles Pamphlet
No. 1296.
10 99 BROWN, J. E. and EVISON, J. N. 'A Transistorised V.F. lntertripping System
for Power Line Protection', Electrical Journal, October, 1960.
10 100 BERTULA, G. 'Enhanced Transformer Protection through Inrush-proof
Ratio Differential Relays', Brown Boveri Review, 32, 1945, p. 129.
9 101 NEWCOMBE, R. W. 'Electrical Protection of Large Generator Units', The
Electrical Journal, 22 May, 1959.
10 102 SPIESS, H. 'Ein Neues, Einschaltsicheres Differentialstrornrelais filr Trans-
formatoren', Bulletin Oerlikon, No. 306, 1954, p. 84.
10 103 GRUND MARK, B. 'The Lightning Arresters Protecting the Harspranget Plant,
Sweden', A.S.E.A. Journal, 1953, Nos. 7-8.
6 104 BALDWIN, C. J. and GOFFARD, B. N. 'An Analysis of Polyphase Directional
Relay Torques', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, 1953, pp. 752-
759.
13 105 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Reduction of Maintenance Time for Protective
Relays by Simplification of Design and Test Methods', C.I.G.R.E., Paris,
May 12th-22nd, 1954, Report No. 330.
12 106 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Back-up Protection', C.I.G.R.E., Paris, 1960,
Report No. 334, Section III.
12 107 KENNEDY, L. F. and MCCONNELL, A. J. 'An Appraisal of Remote and Local
Back-up Relaying', Conferences Paper A.I.E.E., Paper No. 57-560.
6 108 LoSEV, S. B. and CHERMAN, A. B. 'Study of 3-phase Directional Impedance
Relays under Short Circuit Conditions'.
2 109 FABRIKANT, V. L. 'Relays Based on Semiconductors', Elektrichestvo, No.7,
1958, pp. 41-45.
11 110 NEWCOMBE, R. W. 'The Development of Bus Bar Protection', The English
Electric Journal, 14, No.6, June, 1956.
11 III REID, I. A. 'Busbar Protection', Electrical Review, June 7th, 1957, pp.
1041-1047.
11 li2 RUSHTON, J. 'Bus Bar Protection', Electrical Review, December 27th, 1957,
pp. 1156--1159.
11 113 HARDER, E. L., WENTZ, E. C., SONNEMANN, W. K. and KLEMMER, E. H.
'Linear Couplers for Bus Protection', Transactions A.I.E.E., 61, May,
1942, pp. 241-248. Disc., June Supplement, 1942, p. 463.
9 114 MASON, C. R. 'A New Loss of Excitation Relay for Synchronous Genera-
tors', Tra1lsactio1ls A.I.E.E., 68, 1949, pp. 1240-1245. .
8 115 MCCONNELL, A. J., CRAMER, T. A. and SEELEY, H. T. 'Phase Comparison
Carrier Current Protection', Transactions A.I.E.E., 64, 1945, pp. 225-233.
Disc., Supplement, 1945.
13 116 ADAMS, A. W. 'Some Aspects of Testing Related to Meters, Relays and
Instruments', The English Electric Journal, Vol. 15, No.6, June 1958.
5 117 GUTMANN, H. 'The SD-14 High-speed Impedance Relay with Associated
Current Transformers', E.T.Z.
4 118 KREEKON, N. and POWCHROSKI, D. W. 'A New Static Overcurrent Relay'
Allis-Chalmers Review, April, 1960.
477
Protective Relays
CHAP. REF.
8 119 HALMAN et al. 'A New Carrier Relaying System', Transactions A.I.E.E.,
63, 1944, pp. 568-572.
9 120 MORRIS, W. C. and GOFF, L. E. 'A Negative Sequence Overcurrent Relay
for Generator Protective', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, 1953,
pp. 615-621.
9 121 BARKLE, J. E. and GLASSBURN, W. E. 'Protection of Generators Against
Unbalanced Currents', ibid., pp. 282-286.
9 122 GROSS, E. T. B. and LE VISCONTE, L. B. 'Back-up Protection for Generators',
ibid., pp. 585-592.
9 123 SEELEY, H. T. 'A Compensated Automatic Synchroniser', Transactions
A.I.E.E., 53, 1934, pp. 960-968.
10 124 KENNEDY, L. F. and HAYWARD, C. D. 'Harmonic Restrained Relays for
Differential Protection', Transactions A.I.E.E., 57, 1938, pp. 262-271.
10 125 HAYWARD, C. D. 'Prolonged Inrush Currents with Parallel Transformers
affect Differential Relaying', Transactions A.I.E.E., 60, 1941, pp. 1096-
1101. Disc., pp. 1305-1312.
11 126 ONYEMELUKERE, C. 'Differential Protection: Notes on Theory and Practice'
Electrical Times, December 24th, 1959.
11 127 SEELEY, H. T. and VON ROESCHLAUB, F. 'Instantaneous Bus Protection
Using Bushing Current Transformers', Transactions A.I.E.E., 67, 1948,
pp.1709-1719.
13 128 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C. 'Portable Equipment Speeds Relay Test',
Elec. World, 107, February, 1937, p. 764.
2,5,14 129 ADAMS, A. W. and BERGSETH, F. R. 'A Simplified Unit for Distance
Relaying', Transactions A.I.E.E., 72, Part III, 1953, fJp. 996-998.
8 130 NEHER, J. H. 'A New Approach to the Pilot Wire Protection of Transmission
Lines, using Leased Pilot Wires having relatively Long Electrical Charac-
teristics', A.I.E.E. Paper No. 60-155, Power Apparatus and Systems,
June, 1960, pp. 245-252.
2,5,7 131 SEELEY, H. T. and KIss, M. A. 'All Electronic One Cycle Carrier Relaying
System', Power Apparatus and Systems, A.I.E.E., April, 1954, pp. 161-195,
together with three other papers on the same subject by Messrs. Barnes,
H. C. and Kennedy, L. F., Hodges, M. E. and Macpherson, R. H.,
Price, W. S. and Cordray, R. E.
2,5 132 BARLOW, H. E. M. 'An Experimental Impedance Relay using the Hall
Effect in a Semi-conductor', I.E.E. Paper No. 3136M, February,
1960.
6 133 SALZMANN, A. 'Cross Country Faults seen by Protective Relays in Resonant
Neutral Earthed Transmission Systems', Electrical Energy, 1, No. 16,
December, 1957, pp. 494-500.
5 134 GOLDSBOROUGH, S. L. 'A Distance Relay with Adjustable Phase-angle
Discrimination', Transactions A.I.E.E., 63, 1944, pp. 835-838.
2, 5 135 MULLER, M., et al. 'Protection of E.H.V. Systems, Tl\king into Account
Single-phase Automatic Reclosure on Very Long Lines', Brown-Boveri
Review, 45, No.6, June, 1958, p. 243.
10 136 A.I.E.E. Committee. 'Report on Transformer Magnetising Inrush Currents
and its Effect on Relaying and Air Switch Operation', Transactions
A.I.E.E., 70, Part II, 1951, p. 1730.
10 137 ROCKEFELLER, G. P., et af. 'Magnetising Inrush Phenomena in Transformer
Banks', Transactions A.I.E.E., 77, 'Power Apparatus and Systems', October,
1958, p. 884.
10 138 BLUME, L. F. and CAMILLI et al. 'Transformer Magnetising Inrush Currents
and its Influence on System Operation', Transactions A.I.E.E., 63, 1944,
p.366.
10 139 WELLINGS, J. G. and MATHEWS, P. 'Instantaneous Magnetic Balance Pro-
tection for Power Transformers', B.T.H. Activities, 191, 1946, p. 30.
g 140 RUSHTON, J. 'The Fundamental Characteristics of Pilot-Wire Differential
Protection Systems', Proceedings 1.E.E., 108, Part A, No. 41, October,
1961.
478
References
CHAP. REF.
8 141 MORETON, P. L. and NELLIST, B. D., 'Printed Disc Inverse Time Overcurrent
Relay', I.E.E. Proc. May, 1965 p. 1000.
142 WAGNER, C. F. and EVANS, R. D. Symmetrical Components, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1933.
143 MASON, C. R. The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, John Wiley Inc.,
1956.
144 ATABEKOV, G. I. The Relay Protection of H. V. Networks, Pergamon Press,
1960.
145 PIPES, L. A. Applied Mathematics for Engineers and Physicists, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1946.
2 146 PECK, R. L. and WAGAR, H. N. Switching Relay Design, van Nostrand,
New York.
147 MATHEWS, P. Protective Current Transformers and Circuits, Chapman &
Hall Ltd., 1955.
10 148 BLUME, L. F., et al. Transformer Engineering, John Wiley Inc., 1938.
9 149 CoNCORDIA, C. Synchronous Machines, John Wiley Inc.
150 HENRlET, P. Foncionnement et Protection des Reseaux de Transport d'Elec-
trieite, Gauthier-Villars et Cie, Paris, 1958.
151 Federal.Telephone Radio Corp., New York, N.Y. Reference Data for Radio
Engineers.
152 The Royal Signals Manual of Military Publications. Handbook of Line
Communication.
153 Johnson and Phillips Ltd. The J. & P. Switchgear Book, 5th edition.
154 KAUFMANN, M. The Protective Gear Handbook, Pitman & Co. Ltd.
155 KIMBARK, E. W. 'Power System Stability' Vols. 1 and 2, John Wiley & Sons
Inc. New York.
479
Intlex
Pages Sections
318 A.C. pilot relaying 8.1
183 A.C. tripping ... 4.6
114, 196, 209 Admittance relays 3.2.6, 5.1.1(c), 5.2.2
102, 118, 121 Amplitude comparators 3.1.2, 3.3.1, 3.4.1
210 Angle impedance relays 5.2.3
226 Application of distance 5.4
151 Application of time current 4.2
441 Arc initiation .. . 13.1.1
198 Arc resistance .. . 5.1.3
109 Attenuation constant; compensation 3.2.3(a)
29, 47 Attracted armature relays 2.3.1, 2.4.4
17, 266 Auto reclosing ... 1.9,5.9
74 Back-stops 2.6.2
15,426,431 Back-up relaying 1.8, 11.5, 12.3
49 Balanced beam unit 2.4.5
107 Balanced current relays 3.2.2
111, 328 Balanced voltage pilot scheme 3.2.3(c),8.4.3
363 Bearing failure ... 9.1.3(e)
74 Bearings 2.6.1
106, 377, 390 Biassed differential relay 3.2,9.4.2,10.4.2
234 Blinders ... 5.4.7
307 Blocking pilot ... 7.3.2
79 Bounce-proof contacts 2.6.4
436 Breaker back-up 12.4.2
382 Buchholz relay ... 10.3.1
23 Burdens on c.t's p.t's ... 1.13.1, 1.13.2
232,413 Bus protection ... 5.4.5,11.1
109, 327 Capacitance of pilot wires 3.2,8.4.1
311 Carrier acceleration ... 7.3.3
304, 338 Carrier relaying 7.3,8.11
316 Carrier signal checking 7.4
87 Cases ... 2.7
26, 103 Characteristics of relays 2.2,3.1.3
18 Circuit breaker control 1.10.1
108, 133, 324 Circulating current pilot 1:2.3,3.7.3,8.4.1
21 Oassification of relay schemes 1.12
85 Coil design 2.6.9
248, 440 Commissioning 5.5.8,13.1
99, 117 Comparators ... 3.1,3.3
243,285 Compensators (voltage) 5.5.5,6.8
209 Conductance relays ... 5.2.2
86 Connections (electrical) 2.6.10
25 Construction factors ... 2.1.2
27, 38 Construction of measuring units 2.3,2.4
66 Construction of timing units ... 2.5
75 Contacts 2.6.3
448 Contact cleaners 13.5
225, 226 Contact co-ordination 5.3.4
81 Contact pressure augmentation 2.6.6
95 Corrosion 2.10.2
265 Cross-country faults ... 5.8
107 Current balance relays 3.2.1
106 Current differential relays 3.2.1
375 Current transformers ... 9.4
437 C.T. back-up ... 12.4.3
421 C.Ts. without iron 11.2.3
405 D.C. biased differential 10.5.S(e)
147, 204 D.C. offset current 4.1.6, 5.1.4
299 D.C. pilot relaying 7.1
481
Index
Pages Sections
66, 142 Definite time relay 2.5,4.1.1
5 Definitions 1.3
74 Design details ... 2.6
304 Directional comparison carrier 7.3
168 Direction control 4.5.1
113, 167 Directional relays 3.2.5,4.5
191 Distance measurement 5.1.1
20,102 Duality ... 1.11,3.1.2
183 Dual polarisation 4.5.4
84 Dust-proofing ... 2.6.7
175, 387 Earth fault relay 4.5.2, 10.4.1
15,91 Economics of relaying 1.7,2.8
451 Electrical tests ... 13.10
31,63 Electronic relays 2.3.5, 2.4.11
72 Electronic time delay ... 2.5.6
161, 244 Error limits 4.3,5.5.5
148 Extremely inverse current relays 4.1.6
2 Faults: Causes of 1.1
441 Initiation of test 13.1.1
198 Resistance of ... 5.1.3
94 Finishes ... 2.10
18,93 Flag indicators ... 1.10.2,2.9
423 Frame leakage protection 11.3
263,371 Fuse blowing ... 5.7.2, 9.2.3
148, 158 Fuse co-ordination 4.1.7, 4.2.6
448 Gap cleaners ... 13.5.2
448 Gap gauges 13.5.3
382 Gas actuated relays 10.3
348 Generator faults 9.1.1
249 Ground distance relays 5.5.9
175 Ground faults ... 4.5.2
311 Ground preference 7.3.2.4
65 Hall Effect 2.4.13
403 Harmonic restraint 10.5.5(b)
356,408 Heating (over) ... 9.1.1(c), 10.6
192, 210, 227 Impedance relays 5.1.1(a), 5.2.3, 5.4.3
68 Inertia method of delay 2.5.1(c)
31,41, 255 Induction cup .. . 2.3.3, 2.4.2, 5.6.2
31,40,321 Induction dij;c .. . 2.3.2,2.4.1,8.3
42, 96 Induction torque theory 2.4.3,2.11
146, 158 Instantaneous O.C. relay 4.1.6,4.2.4
444 Insulation tests 13.2.1
365 Interlocked A.C. protection ... 9.1.3(b)
311,410 Intertripping ... 7.3.3, 10.8.1
354 Interturn faults 9.1.1(b)
142, 156 Inverse time relays 4.1.2,4.2.5
126 Inversion chart for complex quantities 3.5
421 Ironless c.t's. . .. 11.2.3
74 Jewel bearing ... 2.6.1
414 Kirchoff's Law 11.1
285 K-Dar ... 6.8
378 Lead resistance to c.t's 9.4.3
204 Likelihood of transients 5.1.4(b)
214 Limitations of distance relays 5.3
108, 323, 336 Limitations of pilot wire relays 3.2.3, 8.4, 8.8
421 Linear couplers 11.2.3
243, 285 Line drop compensators 5.5.5,6.8
304 Line traps 7.3
432 Local back-up ... 12.4
106 Longitudinal differential 3.2.1
362 Loss of field 9.1.3(c)
207, 263, 438 Loss of potential 5.1.4(c), 572, 12.4.4
482
Index
Pages Sections
363 Loss of synchronism ... 9.1.3(d)
243, 262 Low tension current and potential 5.5.5,5.7.1
37,60 Magnetic amplifier relays 2.3.8, 2.4.9
68 Magnetic damping 2.5.1.4
246, 395 Magnetising inrush 5.5.6,10.5
459 Manufacturers' tests ... 13.11
27,252 Measuring units 2.3,5.6
67 Mechanical damping ... 2.5.1
84 Mechanical stability 2.6.8
450 Mechanical tests 13.9
69 Mercury timers 2.5.2
96 Metal whiskers 2.10.3
208 Modified impedance 5.2.1
115, 196 Mho relay 3.2.7, 5.1.1(c)
369 Motor faults ... 9.2
362 Motoring 9.1.3(b)
70 Motor operated timer ... 2.5.4
51 Moving coil unit 2.4.6
54 Moving iron unit 2.4.7
250 Mutual induction (overhead lines) 5.5.9
358, 371 Negative sequence relays 9.1.2(c), 9.2.3
338 Neutralising transformers 8.10
128 Non-linear resonance ... 3.6.1
116, 211 Offset mho relays 3.2.8, 5.2.4
371 Open-phase 9.2.3
18,93 Operation indicators 1.10.2,2.9
233 Out-of-step blocking 5.4.6
234 Out-of-step tripping 5.4.8
141 Overcurrent relays 4.1
147,204 Overreach 4.1.6, 5.1.4(b)
362 Overspeed 9.1.3(a)
451 Overtravel 13.10.1
357 Overvoltage 9. 1.1(d)
261 Performance curves (distance relay) 5.6.7
265 Petersen coil ... 5.8
338 Phase comparison carrier 8.11
283 Phase selector ... 6.6
108, 299, 319 Pilot wire relays 3.2.3,7.2,8.2
337 Pilot supervision 8.9
67 Pneumatic damping 2.5.1(b)
168, 176 Polarisation 4.5.1, 4.5.2
172 Polyphase directional relay 4.5.1(d)
284 Polyphase distance relay 6.7
243 Potential drop compensators ... 5.5.5
207, 363,438 Potential, loss of supply 5.1.4(c), 5.7.2, 12.4.4
262 Potential supply 5.7.1
148 Power rectifier protection 4.1.7
375 Power station auxiliaries 9.3
198 Power swings 5.1.3
442 Primary injection test ... 13.1.2
106,132 Product restraint 3.2.1,3.7.2
184 Radial line protection ... 4.7
214 Ratings: distance relays 5.3
166 overcurrent relays 4.4
114, 194 Reactance relays 3.2.6, 5.1.1(b)
310 Receiver relay ... 7.3.1(b)
17,266 Reclosing 1.9,5.9
37,56 Rectifier bridge comparator ... 2.3.7,2.4.8
148 Rectifier protection 4.1.7
434 Relay back-up ... 12.4.1
25,430 Reliability 2.1.3,12.2
430 Remote back-up 12.3
311,409 Remote tripping 7.3.3,10.8
483
Index
Pages Sections
177 Residual tripping relays 4.5.2
127 Resonance 3.6
72 Resonance time delay ... 2.5.5(d)
181 Restricted earth protection 4.5.2
239,431 Reversed third zone 5.5.3,12.3
357 Rotor faults 9.1.2
104 R-X diagram ... 3.1.3
450 Safety measures 13.7
18 Seal-in relays ... 1.10.2
13, 141 Selectivity 1.6,4.1
51,53 Sensitive relays 2.4.6,2.4.7
258 Sensitive tripping devices 5.6.5
42 Shaded-pole principle ... 2.4.3
84 Shock-proof relays 2.6.8
226 Single-step distance relay 5.4.1
268 Single pole reC\osing ... 5.9.4
265 Simultaneous ground faults 5.8
80 Spark-quenching circuits 2.6.5
426 Split bus protection 11.6
376 Stabilising resistance 9.4:1
343 Starting network 8.11.2(h)
224,283 Starting units ... 5.3.4,6.6
348 Stator faults 9.1.1
154 Stranded Coil ... 4.2.3
385 Sudden pressure relays 10.3.2
332 Summation C.t. (pilot) 8.7
341 Summation network ... 8. 11.2(a)
337, 427 Supervision circuits 8.9,11.7
276 Switched distance relays 6.2
202 System stability 5.1.3(c)
161 Tap error 4.3
18 Targets ... 1.10.2
69 Thermal delay ... 2.5.3
31, 62,408 Thermal relays ... 2.3.4, 2.4.10, 10.6
227 Three-step distance relays 5.4.3
66 Time delay methods 2.5
197 Time steps 5.1.2
26,117 Torque equations 2.2,3.3
447 Tools 13.5
311,409 Transferred tripping 7.3.3,10.8
390 Transformer differential protection ... 10.4.2
203 Transients 5.1.4
34,64 Transistor relays 2.3.6, 2.4.12
73 Transistor timer 2.5.7.2
106 Transverse differential 3.2.1
428 Tripping check ... 11.8
95 Tropicalisation ... 2.10.1
371 Unbalanced currents ... 9.2.3
372 Under-frequency 9.2.4
372 Undervoltage ... 9.2.4
117 Universal torque equations 3.3
7 Vector conventions 1.3.2
417 Voltage differential relays 11.2.2
364 Voltage regulator 9.1.3(g)
198 Warrington's law for power arcs 5.1.3(a)
96 Whiskers (metal) 2.10.3
104 X-R diagram ... 3.1.3
242 Y-f':,. transformation 5.5.4
269,270 Zero sequence compensation ... 5.10.1, 5.10.2
182 Zero sequence power relays '" 4.5.3
484