The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering

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Recent structural design considerations related to

floating production systems

Bernt J. Leira

To cite this article: Bernt J. Leira (2010) Recent structural design considerations related to floating
production systems, The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering, 3:1, 50-64, DOI:
10.1080/19373260903208907

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Published online: 27 Jan 2010.

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The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2010, 5064

TECHNICAL PAPER
Recent structural design considerations related to oating production systems
Bernt J. Leira*
Department of Marine Technology, NTNU, Otto Nilsens vei 10, N-7491, Trondheim, Norway
(Received 2 June 2009; nal version received 27 July 2009)

Recent studies related to structural design of oating production systems are reviewed. The following topics are
considered: (i) Hurricane eects and other extreme environmental events, (ii) Design for arctic conditions, (iii)
Application of models tests for design purposes and (iv) Design considerations for particular oating production
systems such as spars, tension leg platforms, FPSOs and semisubmersible platforms.
Keywords: structural design; oating production systems; spars (US Patent 5875728); tension leg platforms; FPSO;
semisubmersible

1. Introduction industry stakeholders responded with several interim

There is a continuous development and extension of
concepts for systems for oating production of oil and
gas resources. Presently, much attention is paid to
environmental load eects due to hurricanes. Load
eects created by arctic conditions are also focused upon
in relation to future developments. Furthermore, appli-
cation of model tests for verication and calibration of
design tools becomes more and more essential as new
concepts are proposed. These topics are addressed in the
present article in the light of recent developments.
2. Hurricanes and other extreme environmental events
The successive severe hurricanes such as Ivan, Katrina
and Rita gave rise to a strong motivation to update the
criteria and procedures of designing oating platforms
in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). The harsher environ-
mental criteria based on hindcast of the hurricanes are
also implemented by API, especially for the central
region of GoM.
The impact of these hurricanes was considered by
Versowski et al. (2006), Ward and Gebara (2007),
Wisch (2006), Berek et al. (2007), Forristal (2007) and
Wisch and Ward (2007a,b). Prior to the 2004 hurricane
season, oshore practices and standards continued to
evolve by incorporating new technology and experi-
ence. The disruption of the industry caused by
damaged facilities and infrastructure was unprece-
dented. A critical review was undertaken to identify
where standards may need to be adjusted to increase
robustness in the future, where gaps may exist and
what elements are outside traditional scope. The
guidelines coupled to multi-year programmes of
investigation and update of standards.
The topsides performance of the oating systems was
dominated by the movement of drilling derricks and the
damage done by derricks that toppled. Most notable of
the oating system damage was the Mars tension leg
platform (TLP) derrick incident in hurricane Katrina
which not only damaged the drilling packages but also
did signicant damage to the production system as the
derrick package moved. Press reports indicated that
Mars repair work exceeded 1,000,000 man hours over a
9-month period shutting in a pre-storm production rate
of *175,000 barrels a day. Other signicant rig move-
ment incidents included the Medusa and Devils Tower
Spars and the Ram Powell TLP during hurricane Ivan.
The industry responded with a technical bulletin, API
Bulletin 2TD (2006b), prior to the 2006 hurricane season
providing a high level guidance for the tiedown of
drilling packages and other topsides equipment. Work
has been initiated to revise documents associated with
topsides equipment design and tiedowns.
Reports indicated that the hurricane forces caused
mooring lines to break, anchors to drag and other
component failures. Following the performance of the
Mobile Drilling Unit (MODU) eet in hurricane Ivan,
some vessels were outtted with global position
systems prior to the 2005 hurricane season and were
then required for all rigs prior to the 2006 season. A
primary objective was to more rapidly locate any rig
that broke loose in a storm as well as reduce the aerial
overights to assess any environmental consequences.
Fortunately, none of the oating drilling rigs was

*Email: bernt.leira@ntnu.no

ISSN 1937-3260 print/ISSN 1937-3279 online

2010 The Institution of Engineers, Singapore
DOI: 10.1080/19373260903208907
http://www.informaworld.com
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
destroyed. The jackup eet however did have some
vessels that were destroyed due to the storms. Usually
these failures result from leg failures due to waves
impacting the hull or foundation failures, and cause
the vessel to sink nearby or become grounded in
shallow water. Industry started responding to loss of
station issues related to the MODUs with the issuance
of interim guidelines API RP 95F (2006a) and API RP
95J (2006c) prior to the beginning of the 2006
hurricane season. Work is continuing to further
enhance the MODU station keeping.
The hurricanes of 2004 and 2005 impacted much of
the GoM oil and gas infrastructure including some
elements that had not been seriously impacted in
previous hurricanes. The API Series 2 documents
address key aspects such as oshore xed and oating
structures, oating vessel mooring and riser designs.
Though not covered in much detail historically, the
API RP 2TD for rig and topsides equipment tiedowns
is being updated and the development of additional
content to address hardening and/or protection of
production system elements is also underway.
An important path to reviewing technology is
through failure investigations. When extreme environ-
mental conditions occur in which most units respond
well or at least satisfactorily, the assessment of
exception cases can be taken as a good starting point
for such failure investigations. Hence, especially on
account of hurricanes Rita and Katrina (during the
2005 hurricane season), which had a notable impact on
oshore industry at GoM region, this can be taken as a
promising scenario to assess the losses and bring out
cases to be more carefully appraised.
The case of the TLP Typhoon is shown in Figure 1.
This TLP was found upside down after the passage of
Rita. Being the only unit located at a signicant water
depth which followed recent project standards, the case
naturally came to the fore. The paper by Timerman
et al. (2008) addresses an investigative analysis held out
in order to establish and analyse the possible causes
that resulted in the capsizing of the referred unit. The
investigation focuses on two major paths which were
selected as being the most probable and also had
Figure 1. Artists impression of Typhoon TLP on the left
and the unit upside down after Rita.
51
feasibility to be carried out one that analyses a
possible lack of displacement due to the passage of a
hurricane wave and the consequent loss of stability of
the TLP and the other, concentrated on a dynamic
analysis of the unit under the impact of the hurricane
metocean conditions. This second analysis focuses on
obtaining the tension on the tethers stating if either
they suered excessive loads causing them to break or
lack of it, causing compression and possible buckling.
Even though results need to be enhanced by more
realistic models, the investigative analysis has ap-
pointed actual possible aws that might have occurred
and could have led to the capsizing of the Typhoon
TLP.
Full-scale measurements were also obtained from
other platforms during the hurricanes, such as the
Marco Polo TLP, see Mitchell et al. (2006), Van Dijk
and Van den Boom (2007), and the Horn Mountain
Spar, see Xu et al. (2007) for hurricane Ivan, and
Halkyard et al. (2004), Tahar et al. (2005, 2006) for
hurricane Isodore.
The monitoring system installed on the Marco Polo
TLP (see Figure 2) was in operation during the passage
of hurricanes Ivan, Katrina and Rita. Although Marco
Polo was extremely close to the centre of these severe
hurricanes, no signicant damage was inicted to the
platform, even though wind speeds in excess of
138 mph and maximum wave heights over 28 m were
Figure 2. Marco Polo instrumentation.
52 B.J. Leira
measured. However, very valuable data were collected
on the wave, wind, current, as well as on the response
of the TLP during the hurricane conditions.
As part of a Joint Industry Project, measurements
on board of the Marco Polo TLP have been ongoing
for nearly 3 years without interruptions. Although the
motions of the platform have some eects on the
measured wave elevation, in general these eects are
small. For detailed analysis of extreme waves these
factors can be taken into account. The three major
hurricanes all passed Marco Polo at close distance. The
signicant wave heights in these three hurricanes as
observed on board Marco Polo ranged from typical
10-year return conditions to 100-year return conditions
(i.e. Hs from 8.5 to 12 m, Tp in the range of 1215 s).
However, the measured extreme wave heights exceeded
the expected extreme values. In hurricane Rita, a
maximum wave height of 26.9 m was observed
(including the correction for platform motions) with
an associated crest height of 17.4 m. In some of the
extreme waves that were observed on Marco Polo,
high-frequency vibrations were observed on the top-
sides, which indicate impact loads of these extreme
waves on the columns, although no structural damage
was observed.
The Horn Mountain Spar is shown in Figure 3.
This Spar experienced the full strength of hurricane
Ivan, a virtually 2500-year wave and 600-year wind in
the GoM in 2004. The measured and hindcast sea state
reached a 53-ft signicant wave height and 88-knot
wind speed (1-h average at 10 m elevation), which is
signicantly higher than the spars maximum design
criteria of 41.7 ft wave height and 78.2 knot wind
speed. Both the environment and spar responses in
the hurricane were measured. However, 6 h prior to
Figure 3. Horn Mountain Spar.
the peak of the storm, the generator which powered
the instrumentation stopped, preventing further
measurements.
In order to estimate the spars actual responses at
the peak of the storm and to evaluate the accuracy of
the existing spar motion analysis tools, a blind analysis
test was performed using the measured and hindcast
environmental conditions as input. The analysis results
were then compared with the last available measure-
ments of the spar responses in the hurricane. As the
analysis from the design phase was known to be
conservative, a fully coupled spar motion analysis
model was used in this blind analysis test in order to
achieve a higher level of accuracy. The environmental
condition was also modelled to a higher level of detail
than in the design phase, including wave spreading and
dual-peak wave spectrum. Some minor adjustments to
the fully coupled model were necessary to achieve the
desired accuracy. From the blind test and the
subsequent motion analysis for the peak of the storm,
the following conclusions can be drawn: (1) The result
from the fully coupled analysis model generally agrees
very well with the measured spar motion responses
early in the storm (when measurements were still
available) and (2) The spars pitch, roll and heave
responses were estimated to be within the design limit
even though the environment measured at a nearby
platform signicantly exceeded the maximum design
condition at the peak of the storm. There was no
drilling rig on the spar at the time of the storm.
The calculated Line-6 tension was found to be
signicantly higher than the design criteria (new chain
break strength 4246 kips), even for the reduced
current velocity. The tensions at the wire rope top and
anchor were also signicantly higher than the design
allowable. An underwater inspection of all mooring
lines was performed in October 2004 and an under-
water survey of all mooring line catenaries was
performed in September 2006. Neither the inspection
nor the survey revealed any damage to Line-6. The
ndings seem to conrm both the robustness of
the current spar design practice and the accuracy of
the spar analysis tools.
Halkyard et al. (2004) and Tahar et al. (2005) have
compared measured spar responses such as motion and
mooring line tensions with numerical predictions. In
Halkyard et al. (2006), the work was extended based
on comparison of the full scale data during hurricane
Isidore. Results of time domain and frequency domain
simulations were compared with eld measurements.
Particular attention was placed on the importance of
the phase relationship between motion and excitation
force. The time domain analysis has better agreement
with the eld data compared with the frequency
domain. Overall, however, the frequency domain
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
method is still promising for a quick and approximate
estimation of relevant statistics. With advantages in
terms of CPU time, the frequency domain method can
be recommended as a tool in pre-front end engineering
design or in a phase where an iterative nature of design
of an oshore structure takes place.
Examples of application of the updated design
criteria to new structural concepts are given by Murray
et al. (2008) and Yang et al. (2008). In the former
paper, two semisubmersible designs are presented that
assume a common topside and riser payload. The two
designs are sized and analysed for the new GoM
metocean criteria. The comparison is based on hull
dimensions, including heave plate and structural
support construction. Performance focused on riser
response, specically stroke and tension. In both cases,
the designs meet the criterion of keeping the riser
stroke under 30 ft. However, damaged conditions, such
as broken mooring lines and a ooded hull compart-
ment, are listed as topics for further investigation. The
latter paper deals with a numerical study of the
transient eect of tendon disconnection on global
performance of a so-called extended TLP for harsh
environmental conditions in the GoM. Twelve tendons
support the platform with 12 production top tension
risers (TTRs) and one drilling riser attached by hydro-
pneumatic tensioner. A sudden disconnection of one or
more tendons causes the unbalance of force and
moment of the total system, only to cause the transient
motion and tension as well as the mean oset. The
transient responses and the mean osets are compared
and discussed in the viewpoint of the safety of the
system. The post-Katrina API 10-, 100- and 1000-year
hurricane conditions are applied (API 2007ad).
The survivability of a TLP under severe environ-
mental conditions was investigated by Mansour et al.
(2006). Survival conditions related to tendon damages
were considered. Tendon damage conditions include
tendon slacking condition, unpredicted increase in
wave/wind condition after one tendon is removed and
sudden tendon breakage. The eect of column spacing
on the TLP survivability is also investigated. Numer-
ical results are presented for the tendon tension time
histories including any tendon downstroke or unlatch-
ing events. On the basis of the analysis results,
recommendations are made to improve the surviva-
bility of the TLP under extreme environmental
conditions.
Other extreme environmental conditions than those
caused by hurricanes are considered by Guedes Soares
et al. (2003), Guedes Soares and Cherneva (2005),
Dankert and Rosenthal (2004), Krogstad and Barstow
(2004), Holliday et al. (2006) and Lehner and
Rosenthal (2006). In the latter paper, results obtained
from the European Project MAXWAVE are described.
53
The project dealt with both theoretical aspects of
extreme waves as well as new techniques to observe
these waves using dierent remote sensing techniques.
The nal goal was to improve the understanding of the
physical processes responsible for the generation of
extreme waves and to identify geophysical conditions
in which such waves are most likely to occur.
In the papers by Fonseca et al. (2005, 2006a,b,
2007) and Guedes Soares et al. (2006a,b), load eects
due to abnormal waves were considered. In these
papers, a method to calculate the responses of a
Floating Production and Ooading System (FPSO) in
deterministic wave traces with abnormal waves has
been applied. The motions and global structural loads
induced by a large set of such waves that were
measured at various locations were computed. Fonseca
et al. (2007) focused on the probability distributions of
the motions and global structural loads which were
induced by the sea states that included such abnormal
waves.
The paper presents an analysis of the vertical
bending moments on a FPSO which were induced by
sea states where abnormal waves were measured. The
simulations with a time domain seakeeping code were
carried out for storm durations of 3 h. It was
concluded that the abnormal waves do not induce
abnormal vertical bending moments, meaning that
while the probability of occurrence of the abnormal
waves is very low, the magnitude of the moments
induced by these waves are not extreme to the same
extent. The 3-h simulations in the storms in which the
abnormal waves were detected, result in several wave
sequences that induce moments larger than those due
to the abnormal wave events. These wave sequences
are characterised by groups of 3 or 4 nearly regular
waves with a period that maximises the vertical
bending moment response.
Squalls have been present in the environmental
specications for oating units in West Africa for the
last couple of years. It appears that such phenomena
tend to be the designing factor for mooring systems of
deepwater FPSOs (in spread or turret conguration)
and ooading buoys, as highlighted by Legerstee et al.
(2006). At the design stage, due to the lack of proper
modelling/characterisation, squalls tend to be repre-
sented for design purposes by on-site recorded time
series of varying wind velocity and associated relative
headings applied from any direction. This leads to
rapid changes in osets and loads in the mooring lines
induced by the transient response of the vessel to
sudden load increase which is generated by such a
representation of the squall. Through diverse simpli-
ed example calculations, Legerstee et al. (2006)
illustrate the inuence of the consideration of squalls
in the design process. Present shortcomings in the
54 B.J. Leira
modelling process, either in terms of extreme condi-
tions, or in terms of operating conditions are
addressed, knowing that such events are dicult to
forecast.
3. Design for arctic conditions
Design of oating production systems for arctic
conditions is rapidly being focused upon due to the
anticipated future developments in the extreme North.
A summary of some papers addressing this issue is
given here.
The response of plates subjected to patch loads
with length/height less than the dimensions of the plate
eld is of importance for the design of all types of hulls
strengthened for operation in ice-covered waters and
other comparable types of loading. Nyseth and Holst-
mark (2006) derived an analytical plastic capacity
formulation for plates subjected to patch loading of
any rectangular geometry conguration. The analyti-
cally derived formulations for the load capacity are
based on plastic bending and yield line theory.
Expressions for single and multiple patch loads are
included, where the derivation is based on the
assumption that the response for a single patch load
is equal to the response from a sequence of identical
patch loads located within the same plate eld, and
spaced a certain minimum distance apart. The expres-
sions may serve as basis for rule requirements for
plates subject to ice loads and other types of patch
loads. For the considered longitudinally and transver-
sely stiened plate cases, nonlinear FE calculations
show that the proposed plate bending based load
capacity formulations generally give rise to permanent
deformations in the plate upto 0.40% of the frame
spacing. This requires that the analysed plate model
also is extended to include adjacent plate elds.
Comparison of the analytically derived plate
formula with Det Norske Veritas (DNV) Arctic Rules
and FinnishSwedish Ice Class Rules (FSICR) indi-
cates that the plate formula of the DNV/FSICR gives
similar results for the same load levels. The analytically
derived formula, however, was seen to provide a more
consistent utilisation of the plate bending based
capacity that is valid for a wider range of patch load
geometries. Comparison of the International Associa-
tion of Classication Societies (IACS) Polar Class (PC)
Rules formulation indicates that the IACS plate
formulation is increasingly non-conservative for small
patch lengths, and that the application should be
restricted to cover larger patch lengths only.
Chou et al. (2007) presented a concept of an
innovative oating platform using a conical structure
which is intended for operation in arctic regions. It is
referred to as MonoCone Arctic Drilling (MCAD)
platform. The conical structure is used to reduce ice-
loading as it facilitates ice to break in exure while
riding the slope of the conical surface. For supporting
the weight of the platform, equipment, and ballast, a
base structure with sucient buoyancy is added at the
base of the conical structure. The conceptual platform
conguration has been analysed for a large payload of
more than 25,000 ST operating in *125 ft of water
depth. In the winter season, the platform is subjected
to more than 12,000 ST of ice load. For warmer
season, the platform has been designed to survive a 45-
ft signicant wave height with 80-knot wind, and a
very strong current of 6 knots. A mooring system using
32 lines was designed. For lower ice loads in a milder
environment, the number of mooring lines can be
reduced considerably.
4. Application of model tests in relation to design
verication
Spar production systems are subject to vortex-induced
motions (VIM) which may impact mooring and riser
design. Helical strakes are employed to mitigate such
motions. Model tests are typically required to validate
the performance of the strakes. Halkyard et al. (2005,
2006), and Atluri et al. (2006) gave results from
benchmarking studies that have been conducted over
the past few years to compare model tests with
computational uid dynamics (CFD), see Figure 4
for an example of an applied mesh. They also
presented best practices for the use of CFD for these
classes of problems and issues related to turbulence
modelling and meshing of problems at large Reynolds
numbers.
The aforementioned studies as well as other studies
indicate that CFD may be used to successfully predict
the occurrence of VIM. In particular, the hot spots
for a particular spar conguration are identied and
Figure 4. Mesh A.
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
the amplitudes are conservatively estimated. The
evidence is that the amplitudes may be more accurately
predicted by rening the mesh, particularly in the area
of the boundary layer. Furthermore, it may not be
necessary to use a large number of nodes if the solver is
capable of handling distorted element shapes. Run
times are practical for engineering purposes. At the
moment CFD seems practical for looking into
sensitivities in the early design phases. For example,
CFD may be used to consider the relative aect of
strake height and pitch and the impact of
appurtenances.
Similar to SPAR platforms, it was also assumed
that monocolumn oaters (Figure 5) can exhibit VIM
behaviour. Hence, an experimental investigation was
started which focused on VIM responses of small-scale
monocolumn oaters in a towing tank. Cueva et al.
(2006) considered environmental conditions for the
Campos Basin and GoM and presented a set of
preliminary results. In accordance with other VIM
studies, the strong inuence of the heading in VIM was
noted, increasing the maximum cross ow amplitude
from 0.8 to 1.2D. The need of experiments in a wider
range of headings is accordingly illustrated. An
assessment is also given concerning VIM of mono-
column oaters and its impact on the mooring line
design and riser specication.
Application of model test data in global design of
TLPs was addressed by Phadke et al. (2006). Rapid
advances in computer technology have made it
possible to employ sophisticated time-domain techni-
ques as primary tools for the global performance
Figure 5. Monocolumn oater.
55
analysis of TLP systems. However, response charac-
teristics such as higher-order tendon response, wave
runup and air gap cannot still be accurately predicted
using the available numerical tools. Wave basin model
tests, therefore, are indispensable to designers for
estimating responses that cannot be reliably predicted.
At the same time, using model tests alone as an
analysis tool is not practical due to large number of
design cases typically dened in global performance
analysis. It is necessary to verify and calibrate
numerical tools using model test data prior to their
application in global performance analysis. The paper
(i.e. Phadke et al. (2006)) describes a methodology for
calibrating and correlating predicted response from
time-domain software tools against wave basin model
tests. The application of correlation data in conjunc-
tion with predicted response to obtain various design
quantities of interest was investigated. A simple
technique for incorporating model test measured
VIM response in time-domain analysis tools was also
described. These methodologies have been used in the
design of deepwater TLP systems in GoM and
elsewhere.
Stansberg et al. (2002), Fylling and Stansberg
(2005) and Baarholm et al. (2006) addressed model
tests for global design verication of oating produc-
tion systems in depths beyond 10001500 m, which
cannot be made directly at reasonable scales. Trunca-
tion of mooring line and riser models, software
calibration, as well as extrapolation and transforma-
tion to full depth and full scale are required. They
discussed the important matters to be taken into
account. The choice of proper procedures for the set-
up and the interpretation, and consistent and well-
documented methods, are essential. A case study with
a deepwater semisubmersible was presented. In gen-
eral, good agreement between results obtained from
model tests and numerical calculations based on time-
domain coupled analysis of the oater system re-
sponses was found.
5. Design considerations for particular oating
production systems
5.1. Spars
A sequence of truss spars has been successfully
installed in deepwater elds since late 2001. Compared
with other oating systems, truss spars may oer
signicant advantages in motions, stability and project
schedule. One of the unique aspects of a truss spar is
that it exhibits both high-frequency and low-frequency
motion responses. The high-frequency motions, or
wave frequency motions, are peaked around the wave
spectral energy, whereas the low-frequency motions
correspond to the natural periods of the spars
56 B.J. Leira
rigid-body motions. Accurate structural design should
include loads due to both wave and low-frequency
motions. Resource-demanding time domain analyses
were previously employed for design of the truss and a
combination of time and frequency domain analyses
was applied to design the other structural components.
The procedure proved to be time consuming and
inecient, requiring extensive engineering hours. An
enhanced hull design procedure is presented by Wang
et al. (2002) and Luo et al. (2007), see Figure 6.
The procedure is based on developing an integrated
structural analysis methodology. Key features of the
analysis methodology for both strength and fatigue
analysis of the truss spar are discussed. Structural
loads determined from the integrated methodology are
compared with those from a complete time-domain
analysis of the truss spar.
The collision mechanisms of spar platforms have
not been paid so much attention as that for ships in the
past, and this type of collision accident has not been
reported. However, this does not guarantee that such
events will not occur in the future. Investigation of
both the external mechanism and the internal
mechanism for a ship colliding with a spar platform
was made by Hu et al. (2007). A model test was desig-
ned to study the external mechanism. The collision
scenario corresponds to a ship striking a spar platform
which is moored in 1500 m water depth. Modelling the
internal mechanism of the ship colliding with the spar
platform is achieved by numerical simulation based on
a nonlinear nite element analysis. A truss-spar is
considered with a double hull structural design for the
part of the hard tank which is located near the water
surface. The crashworthiness of the double hull design
is veried for the particular striking ship considered by
means of the simulation results. The maximal tension
forces of the mooring lines are also less than their
breaking strength.
5.2. FPSOs
A comprehensive list of classication rules, standards
and guidelines relevant for design of FPSOs are given
by Cocodia (2008). There seems to be two main design
Figure 6. Global FE model for dry tow analysis.
issues which are extensively addressed by present
research activities. These are: (1) Ecient and accurate
methods and procedures related to the ultimate limit
state (ULS). This includes ensuring residual strength
associated with damage, e.g. due to collision and (2)
Fatigue capacity. In addition, the eect of corrosion on
the hull strength is also addressed in a number of
studies.
Full-scale measurements obtained from the Triton
FPSO (a turret moored FPSO in the central North Sea,
see Figure 7) were reported by Lawford et al. (2008). It
was considered that a full characterisation of the
individual components of a sea-state is key to enabling
the response of an oshore structure to be accurately
calculated. The partitioning of a time series of
directional wave spectra into wind-sea and swell
components with distinct frequency and direction
characteristics was addressed. The result of the
partitioning and tting analyses was a time series of
wave parameters dening the wave spectrum for each
component of the sea state. A 10-year site specic time
series of directional wave spectra was partitioned in
this way and used in the analysis of the specic FPSO.
The representation of the directionality and magnitude
of each environmental force acting simultaneously on
the vessel, allowed the mooring and hydrodynamic
analyses to be performed based on accurate input data.
Huang and Moan (2005, 2006) presented new
probabilistic models for still-water loads and the
combined still-water and wave load eects of FPSOs.
A procedure for determining load combination
factors, which is suitable for semi-probabilistic and
probabilistic design of FPSOs, was established. The
most relevant load combination factors in harsh and
benign conditions were derived. In general, combina-
tion factors depend on the parent distribution, time
variation and relative magnitude of individual loads.
It was shown that the extreme values of still-water and
combined loads can be greatly overestimated if
Figure 7. Triton FPSO.
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
operational control is not accounted for. On the other
hand, the control is unlikely to be perfect. Hence, a
partially truncated model is recommended to account
for control of the still-water bending moments.
Comparison of dierent methods for ultimate hull
girder strength assessment was made by Sun and Wang
et al. (2008). FPSOs have their own unique character-
istics, including various operational requirements. In
addition to that, the expectation of safety and
economic aspects of FPSOs require an optimised
structure to be designed. This calls for reliable
structural assessment methodologies. One of the most
important aspects of FPSO structural design and
assessment is the hull girder ultimate strength.
Numerical calculations of hull girder ultimate strength
were presented based on six dierent FPSO designs by
various methods. The results were analysed in terms of
their dierences, and conclusions were made based
upon reliable methodologies for hull girder ultimate
strength assessment of FPSOs. The methods applied
were the incremental-iterative approach by Sun and
Wang (2005), an in-house code HULLST based on
Smiths method, and the application of idealised
structural unit method (ISUM). All three methods
show good agreement in terms of hull girder ultimate
strength calculation for the selected FPSOs. In general,
the predicted hull girder ultimate strength from
HULLST and ISUM are almost identical for most of
the cases, whereas Sun and Wangs method gives
slightly conservative results in some cases. It is
concluded that all three methods can be applied for
hull girder ultimate strength calculation of FPSOs.
Risk assessment of shipFPSO collision was
considered by Pedersen (2002), Wang and Pedersen
(2007) and Wang et al. (2003). In the latter paper, the
research achievements in relation to ships collision
and grounding since the 1990s were summarised.
Issues specic to shipFPSO collisions that deserve
further development were addressed. The paper also
lists the conclusions and recommendations of 2006
V.1 Specialist Committee V.1 on collision and ground-
ing that are relevant to shipFPSO collision risk
assessment.
The recommendations apply to ve dierent areas.
In relation to structural crashworthiness, the committee
recommends renement of analysis approaches. For
assessment of probability of collisions, it is recom-
mended that future research should focus on develop-
ing risk-based software. The calculated cost of risk
reducing measures can then be compared with savings
from calculated reductions in expenses. Regarding risk
assessment, the committee recommends focusing on
integrating predictive calculation tools, including the
development of streamlined software/programs. In
connection with rule and regulation development, it is
57
found that future rules and regulations need to address
design incident/accident scenarios, responses (of ships,
oshore installations, bridges, etc.) to an incident/
accident, consequences and acceptance criteria. When
it comes to predictive calculation approaches, it is
recommended that topics that will further rene these
methods include rupture strain and post-accident loads
(both still-water and dynamic loads).
Reliability assessment of an FPSO considering the
eects of both corrosion and collision was performed
by Zhang et al. (2006). As FPSOs have long intervals
of docking for thorough inspection and maintenance,
and are exposed to collision risk at sea, the time-
variant reliability of FPSO becomes very important.
The corrosion defect was represented as an exponential
function of time. The idealised structural unit method
was proposed to predict ultimate strength of the hull
girder. Reliability of the intact hull during service was
calculated to serve as a reference for that of the
damaged and corroded hulls. The focus was on
damage due to collision, and the damage was modelled
according to American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
guidelines. According to these guidelines, the section
with highest bending moment should be considered.
The reliability of damaged hulls throughout the service
life was obtained, which could be applied as a reference
for further inspection and maintenance plans. It was
found that the intact hull would have sucient
reliability during 25 years in operation. For the
damaged hull, the permitted time in operation was
reduced to around 8 years for the sagging condition
and around 14 years for the hogging condition. On the
basis of the obtained reliability estimates, decision
related to inspection and maintenance can be made to
update the reliability when a target level is dened.
Turning next to the topic of methods for fatigue
assessment of FPSOs, an extensive number of papers
have been published during recent years. Some of them
are briey summarised in the following.
Schmidt et al. (2008) evaluated the eect of random
wave slamming for a stiened panel which was located
in the fairlead support structure of an FPSO (see
Figure 8). A methodology for time-domain slamming
prediction was developed. The structural analysis was
then performed, considering all the shell plating, main
stieners as well as other main supporting structures,
by using a nite element structural analysis. The
fatigue lifespan was estimated in a complete stochastic
analysis, considering all possible sea states during the
lifetime of the oshore structure as well as each
associated probability of occurrence. For the particu-
lar case studied, the peak pressure for each discrete
slam was assumed to generate one stress cycle and for
each stress cycle the damage was estimated through the
use of the SN fatigue approach.
58
Figure 8. Fairlead support structure with applied loads.
A summary of statistical models related to various
parameters associated with calculation of fatigue
damage was given by Wastberg (2007), which was
based on the previous report from the ISSC Committee
on Fatigue and Fracture.
Lotsberg (2006) reported on fatigue data related to
llet welds. The objective of the work is to develop a
suitable methodology for the fatigue assessment of
llet welds relevant to FPSO details from the view
point of the weld throat. The status on current design
recommendations concerning the fatigue capacity of
llet welds was presented by Maddox (2006), based on
a literature survey. In order to examine the validity of
the recommendations and to supplement the fatigue
test database, a test matrix with 33 specimens was
developed. This included eight simple llet welded
cruciform joints that were subjected to axial loading
and 25 llet welded tubular specimens that were
subjected to axial load and/or torsion for simulation
of a combined stress condition in the weld. The test
data were presented and also compared with design
guidance from other relevant documents.
Lotsberg (2008) addressed the calculation of
fatigue damage at weld toes based on SN data when
the principal stress direction is dierent from that of
the normal direction to the weld toe. Such stress
conditions are found at details in dierent types of
plated structures. Some dierent fatigue criteria for
these stress conditions are presented in design stan-
dards on fatigue design. Criteria used by the Interna-
tional Institute of Welding (IIW), Eurocode, British
B.J. Leira
Standard and in the DNV standards were assessed
against some relevant fatigue test data presented in the
literature. An alternative equation for the calculation
of an equivalent or eective stress range based on
stress normal to the weld toe and shear stress at the
weld toe was proposed. The methodology can be based
on application of nominal SN curves and it can be
used together with a hot spot stress SN curve with
stresses read out from nite element analysis. The
dierent design criteria were presented together with
recommendations on analysis procedure.
Fatigue of llet welds based on structural stresses
(SSs) was addressed by Fricke (2006) and Fricke and
Doerk (2006). The papers address practical approaches
for typical problems encountered. These approaches
have been developed in the recent past in dierent
research projects. They are based on an SS or a local
nominal stress in the weld. Their application was
demonstrated by several examples taken from ship and
oshore structures using relatively coarse nite ele-
ment meshes for the stress analyses.
The SS approach oers a practical alternative to
the very simple nominal stress approach and the
rened notch stress and crack propagation approaches.
It is particularly well-suited for special structural
congurations, such as llet-welded attachment ends
and one-sided welds. The computation of the structur-
al weld stresses is possible with rather coarse nite
element meshes, which are also typically applied for
the computation of the structural hot-spot stresses at
weld toes.
Maddox (2006) presented a critical review of
current design methods, including their background
and relevant experimental data, for assessing the
fatigue performance of steel llet welds with respect
to failure in the weld throat. The main focus is on llet
or partial penetration welds in cruciform, T or lap
joints under transverse loading failing by fatigue crack
growth across the weld throat under normal stresses.
The review covers the inuence of residual stress,
applied mean stress, joint t-up and alignment, weld
quality, the use of coated steel, the need for a plate
thickness correction and calculation of the optimum
weld size. Also considered are cases of llet welds
failing in shear or combined normal and shear stresses.
Bergan et al. (2002), Bergan and Lotsberg (2004)
and Lotsberg (2005, 2006) presented the new DNV
recommended practice for fatigue analysis of oshore
ships. This DNV-RP-C206 document is intended for
fatigue design of oating production, storage and
ooading units. The methodology can also be applied
to other types of oshore ships. The experience with
fatigue analysis of oshore ships and classication of
such structures has demonstrated the need for im-
proved guidance on this subject to designers, ship
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
yards as well as personnel involved in classication.
This is in order to get a common understanding of
what is required to achieve reliable structures with
respect to fatigue.
Rodriguez-Sanchez et al. (2005, 2007) addressed
the application of controlled weld toe proles as an
option to extend the fatigue life of welded connections
when existing tankers are converted in dry docks to
serve like oshore ships (FPSOs and FSOs). It will be
dicult to implement such fatigue improvement when
these vessels are in service, because a converted ship is
designed to be inspected, maintained and repaired in
situ and not in dry dock. Codes recognise fatigue life
extension by means of a controlled weld toe prole.
Application of a controlled weld toe prole during
conversion in selected areas previously identied by
stress analysis of the hull structure can lead to extend
the converted vessel fatigue life to comply with an
expected eld life. Rodriguez-Sanchez et al. (2005,
2007) applied a fracture mechanics approach for the
assessment of controlled weld toe proles for fatigue
life extension purposes. A comparison of Stress
Concentration Factors (SCFs) for a typical ship hull
plate connection with and without weld toe prole
control determined by FEA was presented. Then,
results obtained from the FEA connection such as
through plate stress distribution were used in a fracture
mechanics analysis to compare the fatigue crack
growth curve in as-welded conditions to that with the
controlled weld toe prole.
A comparison between spectral fatigue analysis
(SFA) using both the surface extrapolation and
Battelle structural stress methodologies, (is being
implemented in Bureau Variants guidance documents),
has been performed by Healy (2004) and Brian and
Healy (2007). A side shell connection detail typical of a
representative FPSO was considered. Fatigue damage
at the toe along a number of weld lines is computed for
a variety of surface extrapolation strategies and
Battelle method options.
The following conclusions were drawn from the
study: (1) Implementation of the Battelle structural
stress method (BSSM) in SFA for a representative
FPSO is straightforward and no more involved or
computationally intensive than for surface extrapola-
tion methods. (2) When fatigue damage using the
BSSM is computed at the weld end details examined, it
is necessary to include the multi-axial in-plane shear
contribution to avoid under-prediction. (3) When
compared with the fatigue damage produced by the
BSSM, the fatigue damage at the weld end details
examined tends to be over-predicted by surface
extrapolation methods. This is particularly true when
extrapolating from h0.5t, 1.5ti. The best agreement at
the weld end details comes from the surface stresses
59
extracted at 0.5 t. (4) At the corner of the overlap weld,
where the in-plane shear is not signicant, there is
good agreement between the fatigue damage produced
by the BSSM and that produced by extrapolation from
h0.4t, ti and extraction at 0.5 t.
Application of the SS method developed by Battelle
is further assessed by Kim et al. (2007) based on small-
or mid-size scale specimens. Fatigue lives derived by
class society rules and the SS method were compared.
The simplied fatigue analysis methods by ABS and
DNV were adopted to check the validity of the SS
method. Before applying a complete set of loads based
on the class society rules, a static loading case was
applied as the class methods have their own correlation
factor for wave loading. Simplied fatigue analysis was
subsequently performed for more complete loading
cases. From the computed results, it was concluded
that the SS gives reasonable fatigue lives with respect
to those based on hot spot stress or notch stress.
Several structural details were subsequently consid-
ered, see Figure 9. Comparison was made with results
from the simplied fatigue analysis procedures. From
the computed fatigue lives, it is hard to conclude that
the SS approach matches results from conventional
fatigue life calculations well. It was hence recom-
mended that additional structural details should be
considered, and also that consideration of actual
damage is made.
Fatigue assessment was performed for the Agbami
FPSO oshore Nigeria by Hwang et al. (2007). The
FPSO is positioned with spread moorings at a water
depth of about 1500 m for a service life of 20 years. As
per the design requirement, the hull of the FPSO shall
be designed to meet ABSs SFA notation and the
seagoing condition. The seagoing condition is an
additional requirement assuming that FPSO is a
typical tanker navigating in the North Atlantic.
From the results of the analyses it was found that
the seagoing condition led consequentially to more
critical fatigue damage for most of the hull compo-
nents than the onsite condition which corresponded to
Figure 9. Ship details of target hot spot.
60 B.J. Leira

more moderate sea states. It was concluded from the has now been in operation for 10 years. A tailor-made
analyses that the Agbami FPSO satised the fatigue methodology in order to ascertain the structural
design requirements for both the onsite and the integrity of oating units was developed in 2004. The
seagoing conditions. approach is based on continuous monitoring and
Huang and Moan (2007) addressed the eect of analysis of the condition of the units. For the
mean stress on the fatigue life of welded joints in NKOSSA FPU, the methodology makes use of a fully
FPSOs. Such mean stresses are composed of residual nonlinear Finite Element Model of the concrete hull.
stresses and stresses induced by external service After 10 years in operation without signicant main-
loading conditions. These stresses aect the fatigue tenance, the concrete FPU was found to remain in
life of structural details. The initial condition of good shape.
welding residual stress and its re-distribution by static
preload and cyclic load in small scale specimens were
evaluated by means of FE analyses and analytical 5.3. Semisubmersibles and tension leg platforms
equations. These were compared with test results Estefen and Estefen (2006) and Estefen et al. (2007)
obtained from measurements based on the sectioning focused on the design of a new generation of
method. Dierent fatigue analysis procedures to semisubmersible platforms for oil and gas production
account for the mean stress eect were used to oshore that is based on columns with square cross-
compare the fatigue test data of dierent specimens sectional area as shown in Figure 11. The platform
representing dierent typical welded connections in
ship-shaped units. A new procedure which explicitly
considers the eect of mean stress was also proposed.
The eect of shake-down of residual stress is further
investigated by Li et al. (2007). Structural members of
FPSO hulls often undergo fairly large static loading
before they enter service or variable amplitude cyclic
loading when they are in service. The combined eect of
both the applied stress and high initial residual stress is
expected to cause shakedown of the residual stresses.
They investigated some typical welded connections in
ship-shaped structures by carrying out three-dimen-
sional (3D) elastic-plastic nite element analyses. The
eects of residual stress relaxation, initial residual stress
and application of the load after variable amplitude
cyclic loading were examined. A formula for predicting
the residual stress at a hot spot quantitatively was
proposed. On the basis of the formula, a new fatigue
procedure was proposed. The procedure was subse- Figure 10. NKOSSA concrete FPU.
quently validated against experimental results.
There seems to be renewed interest in the applica-
tion of concrete for hull construction driven in part by
steel construction prices, the sizeable order books of
shipyards worldwide, the growing dimensions of newly
built FPSOs and in particular Liquied Natural Gas
(LNG) FPSO concepts. The use of concrete materials
for hull construction is not novel. In 1975, the Ardjuna
FPSO was installed oshore Indonesia, based on a
concrete barge. In addition to materials, new oater
shapes are explored. In the Far East a series of
cylindrically shaped FPS hulls are being built, with an
oil storage capacity of 300,000 bbls. Application is
envisaged in Brazil and in the UK sector of the North
Sea. Lanquetin (2006) and Lanquetin et al. (2007)
addressed the integrity management for the NKOSSA
FPU, see Figure 10. This facility is the largest Figure 11. Hull structure of new generation of oating
prestressed concrete FPU that has been installed, and platforms.
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
column is based on an arrangement of stiened at
panels having their ultimate strength characterised by
buckling under in-plane compressive loading. Distor-
tions induced by fabrication have considerable inu-
ence on the buckling behaviour and are discussed in
order to provide design recommendations. They
considered a segment of the column structural
arrangement between robust transverse frames in
order to analyse the failure behaviour of the stiened
panels. Numerical and experimental simulations were
carried out for small scale isolated panels in order to
perform a correlation study to adjust the numerical
model for further use in more complex numerical
simulations.
The inuence of dierent geometric imperfection
distributions on the buckling behaviour of a column
segment is also investigated. The magnitude of the
initial geometric imperfections conrmed the in-
uence of this parameter on the axial buckling load.
However, the greatest inuence on the ultimate
strength and on the failure sequence of the plates is
due to the initial imperfection mode. An initial
distortion mode which coincides with the natural
buckling mode of a particular plate generates a lower
bound buckling load. On the other hand, some
imperfection modes can counteract the buckling
failure, hence generating upper bound values for the
respective buckling loads. The rounded corners were
the last regions to collapse in all analysed models,
except for the model with the geometric imperfection
mode coincident with the natural buckling mode. For
this model the curved plates were the rst to collapse,
which had a signicant inuence on the failure
sequence for the column.
The same structural concept was also considered in
relation to collision with supply vessels and the
associated residual strength by Estefen and Estefen
(2006) and Amante et al. (2008). Normally, damage
from such events is in the form of local dents. They
evaluated the ultimate buckling residual strength of a
typical column after initiation of such a damage. The
buckling analysis was validated using a nite element
model considering geometric and material nonlinea-
rities. Residual strength for the damaged column is
compared with the ultimate strength of an equivalent
intact column to estimate the safety margin after
collision with a supply vessel.
The uncertainty of the frequency and magnitude
of the accidental loads associated with the possibility
of column buckling demonstrate that analysis of
accidental load eects needs to be thoroughly
performed during the design stage. The results can
be used as an indicator of the severity of oshore
collision and provide insight to quantify lower bound
safety factors to deal with such accidents, which are
61
rather common. The possibility of optimised arrange-
ments for the column members close to the splash
zone could also be investigated further in order to
prevent serious eects of collision in relation to the
structural integrity.
The structural redundancy of semisubmersible
drilling vessels was considered by Chakrabarti and
Maiti (2007) in order to withstand the loss of a slender
bracing member without overall collapse of the
structure, similar to requirements for xed structures.
Unlike static pushover type analysis which is applied
to relatively dynamically insensitive xed jacket
structures, semisubmersibles require nonlinear dy-
namic redundancy analysis in the time domain to
determine the safety against collapse due to environ-
mental loading. A simple time domain nonlinear
analysis procedure was suggested to capture the
realistic behaviour of the structure under wave loading.
In nonlinear structural analysis, rst static loads are
applied. Then wave load time history is applied for a
few wave cycles in small increments. Results show that
nonlinear analysis for one or two cycles usually can
predict the safety against collapse. If the structure
tolerates these cycles, it passes the redundancy test. If it
does not, the structure has a deciency that needs to be
addressed.
Rinehart and Buitrago (2006) addressed future
TLP designs and the maximum depth in which
tendons can be installed while still maintaining
adequate and consistent reliability. The new strength
guidance in API RP 2T recommends the axial
tensionhydrostatic collapse interaction equation
currently used by API RP 2A load and resistance
factor design (LRFD), coupled with a working stress
design format with explicit tension and collapse
safety factors. The latter factor controls the water
depth applicability. To establish a basis for a
hydrostatic collapse safety factor, an independent
reliability study was performed in order to arrive at
a safety factor consistent with the accuracy of the
new interaction equation and current fabrication and
design tendon practices.
Cicilia (2004) and Cicilia et al. (2006) applied a
LRFD criterion for the design of TLP tendons in
their intact condition. The design criterion considers
the ULS of any tendon section along its whole
length. The partial safety factors are calibrated
through a long-term reliability-based methodology
for the storm environmental conditions, like hurri-
canes and winter storms, in deepwaters of the
Campeche Bay, Mexico. When tendons are designed
according to the developed LRFD criterion, a less
scattered variation of reliability indexes is obtained
for dierent tendon sections. (A target reliability
index of 3.75 was applied, and a scatter of 52% was
62 B.J. Leira
achieved). However, it was emphasised that the
derived partial coecients need to be adjusted taking
into account a greater number of TLP models with
variations in geometric and material characteristics,
hull size, etc. Besides, updated environmental data
and their joint probabilistic description need to be
considered.
Jayalekshmi et al. (2007) considered the hull-tether
coupled dynamics that occur for TLPs in very deep-
water. This eect cannot always be accurately studied
through model tests due to depth limitations of the
existing model testing facilities and possible scale
eects (in the case of ultra-small scale models). An
experimental methodology was presented for physi-
cally simulating such coupled behaviour for a single
column TLP in a wave basin having dimensions
30 m 6 30 m 6 3 m. A combination of model tests
and numerical analyses were carried out. The experi-
mental results were presented for hull motions, tether
displacements and dynamic tether tension. Results
revealed that signicant dynamic amplication could
occur as a result of hull-tether coupling, thus high-
lighting the importance of coupled dynamics for
deepwater compliant platforms.
6. Concluding remarks
Recent challenges related to design of oating produc-
tion systems have been reviewed. Environmental load
eects due to hurricanes and also load eects created
by arctic conditions were focused upon. The role of
model tests in relation to verication and calibration of
design tools was also discussed. Particular design issues
related to the dierent types of production systems
were addressed.
It is emphasised that a review of the present type is
very likely to be obsolete within a relatively short time-
frame. This is due to the rapid developments which are
observed in relation to new types of systems and
structural concepts. Still, it is hoped that the present
review article may serve to give a glimpse of relevant
challenges to be considered for design of oating
production systems at least in the near future.
Acknowledgements
ASME is greatly acknowledged for permission to publish the
gures in the present article.
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