Fish or Bird Perspectives On OD PDF

Fish or Bird?
Perspectives on Organisational
Development (OD)
V Garrow, S Varney, C Lloyd
REPORT 463
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v
Acknowledgements
WearegratefultotheODpractitioners,chiefexecutivesandseniormanagerswho
havecontributedtothisreportboththroughformalinterviewsandmoreinformal
discussions.
vi
Contents
ExecutiveSummary ix
Introduction 1
AbouttheAuthors 3
1 ARetrospective 5
1.1 ClassicalOD 5
1.2 ODintransition 8
1.3 ODtoday 12
2 PractitionerPerspectives 19
2.1 WhatisOD? 19
2.2 WhatODpeopledo 25
2.3 TheimpactofOD 27
2.4 HRandODconnectionsandcontrasts 29
2.5 Whowespoketo 31
3 PersonalPerspectives:ChristineLloyd 33
3.1 Sittingonthefence 34
3.2 Theimportanceofbeingearnest 37
3.3 Keyinsights 38
3.4 Patternsforthefuture 40
4 CustomerPerspectives 41
4.1 ShapingtheODagenda 41
4.2 CustomerfocusforODwork 43
4.3 Customerrequirementsofpractitioners 49
5 CareerPerspectives 52
5.1 Theselfasaninstrument 52
5.2 MycareerjourneydevelopinganODmindset 53
5.3 ODcanitbeencapsulatedinasetofcompetencies? 56
vii
6 FuturePerspectives 57
6.1 ODintoughtimes 57
6.2 OD:intothefuture 60
6.3 OD:fishorbird? 62
6.4 Somefinalthoughts 63
7 Bibliography 65
Appendix1:ODDefinitions 68
Appendix2:ODGlossary 69
viii
Executive Summary
Overview
Thisreportoffersacontemporarylookatorganisationaldevelopment(OD)
practiceintheUKfrommultipleperspectives.IthighlightstheevolutionofOD
andpointstofuturedirections.Itraisessomeofthekeydebatesandtensionsin
thefield.Withthecontinuingquestfororganisationaleffectiveness,itconcludes
thatthereisanongoingneedforOD.
Who this report is for

ThereportwillbeofinteresttoHRpractitionersseekingtounderstandmore
aboutODpracticeaswellasmanagerswhohaveabroaderinterestin
organisationaleffectivenessrelatingtopeople,processesandstructures.
Key findings
ODisnotafunctionaldiscipline,itisafieldofpractice.
ODpracticeiscontextual.Itissensitivetospecificorganisations,industriesand
environmentalconditions.Itisdevelopedthroughrelationships.ThereforeOD
practicemaylookdifferentindifferentcontexts.
ODhasarichheritageandhasbeenundergoingitsowntransitioninrecent
years.WhiletherehavebeenwarningsofthedemiseofODcomingfromthe
US,ODhasbeenintheascendanceintheUKoverrecentyears.
Thereareanumberofconceptswhichpractitionerstellusareattheheartof
OD:
Changeandthepursuitoforganisationaleffectiveness.
Anorganisationwidescopeandasystemicapproach.
ix
Workinginpartnership.
Takingbothahumanisticandabusinessfocusedapproach.
Beingfacilitativeandchallenging.
ItssystemicnatureandorganisationwideremitmeanthatODrarelysitsneatly
intheorganisationalhierarchy.ODpractitionersoftenworkatandacross
traditionalboundaries.
AnODmindsetissometimesseenasadistributedcapabilityinan
organisation.
ODpractitionersseeconnectionswithstrategicHRandpotentialdisconnects
withoperationalHR.
ODisnotformulaicandcannotbeengineered.
KeytoworkinginODistoacceptwhereyouareinthepresentmoment,work
withtheissuesthatarepresentingthemselvestodayandacceptthattodays
challengesandresponsesaretheresultofarichtapestryofpastexperience,
currentcircumstanceandintuition.
Groundingyourselfinabeliefandvaluesystemisseenbysomepractitioners
asessential.
Intuitionandreflexivity(understandingyourownassumptionsand
approaches)arecentraltoODpractice.
ODpractitionersintodaysworldneedtobeskilledinworkingwith
contradictionandparadox.
CustomerexpectationsofODaretypicallywideranging,fromtopicalissuesof
efficiencyandengagement,tocentralthemesofembeddingstrategyand
buildingcapability.
AdvertisedODjobsdemandabroadrangeofskillsandexperience,withmany
requiringpostgraduatequalifications.
ThereismorethanonewaytodevelopanODcareer,butadoptinganOD
mindsetandareflexiveapproachareessential.ThereissomethingaboutOD
thatyoucannotputintoacompetencyframework.
PractitionerspointtothebenefitsofODandaregenerallybullishaboutits
contributionintoughtimes.
Amongpractitioners,thereislittlefocusonmeasuringODsimpact.Somesay
thatitssystemicnaturemakesODhardtomeasureandotherssaythatitis
inappropriatetoeventry.
x
Futuretrendsmightinclude:
ODscontinuedenlargement,withtheassociatedriskoffragmentationifno
professionalhomeisfoundforODintheUK
somelevelofintegrationwithHR,withtheassociatedriskofanuneasy
alliancebetweenprofessionalswithverydifferentmindsets
theevolutionoforganisationdesignthroughtheinfluenceoftechnologyand
socialsoftwareintoamorphousnetworks
linkingODmorecloselytostrategicreframingratherthanlimitingittothe
HRorpeopleaspectsoftheorganisation
strongerlinkswithcommunicationsandengagement,shapedbythe
emergenceofagenerationwheretechnologyistheirkeyformof
communication
theincreasingemphasisonriskasaframeworkfororganisationdesignand
decisionmaking
linkstootherframeworkssuchasgovernanceandassurance
thecurrentdownturnmovingorganisationstowardsOE(Organisational
Effectiveness)ratherthanOD.
ODisinherentlyparadoxical.Itisneitherafish,norabird.Itacceptsthe
paradoxofbeingbothafishandabird.
xi

xii
Introduction 1
Introduction
Organisationaldevelopment(OD)hasalwaysbeensomethingofamysteryto
peopleinotherareasofbusinessandeventoHRprofessionalswhoareprobably
itsclosestrelations.
MyambitionforthisresearchwastodefinecurrentUKODpracticeandprovide
someclarityaroundwhatODprofessionalsdoandtheirimpacton
organisations,withsomeinsightsintohowtodevelopacareerinOD.In
particular,inviewofthecurrenteconomicclimate,itseemedagoodopportunity
totestthevalueofODscontributionintoughtimes.
IhavebeenfortunatetoworkonthiswithtwoexperiencedODpractitioners:
SharonVarney,currentlyworkingasanindependentconsultantwhilestudying
foraDoctorateatHenleyBusinessSchoolandChristineLloyd,currentlyDirector,
PeopleandOrganisationDevelopment,CancerResearchUKandformerGlobal
VicePresidentODatNokia.Wecametogetherseveraltimesoverthecourseof
theprojecttolearnfromeachotherandshareourdifferentperspectives,bringing
bothinternalandexternalODpracticeaswellasacademictheory.Inaddition,we
havecarriedoutsemistructuredinterviewswithODpractitioners,senior
managersandchiefexecutivesascustomersofOD,andHRprofessionals.
WehavetriedtoshedlightonODfrommultipleperspectivesbutasingle
definitionremainselusive,henceourratherenigmatictitle.Perhapsitwouldhave
beendisappointinghadthatnotbeenthecase,asorganisationsandtheir
environmentsarecomplexasisthebehaviourofindividualswithinthem,anda
simpleonesizefitsallapproachwouldhavebeenunconvincing.
Ihope,however,thatyouwillfindsomeclaritythroughthesevarious
perspectivesandenjoyexploringtheworldofODwithus.Wehaveprovided
someusefultermsintheGlossary(Appendix1)andsomeofthemanydefinitions
ofODinAppendix2.InChapter1weexaminethehistoricalperspectiveandthe
rootsofOD.Chapter2exploresthepractitionerperspectivethroughindepth
interviews.Chapter3isapersonalperspectivefromChristineLloydwhois
2 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD
widelyrecognisedasoneoftheUKsleadingODpractitioners.Chapter4provides
acustomerperspectivethroughtheeyesofchiefexecutives,seniormanagers,HR
professionalsandrecruiters.Chapter5examineshowODcareersdevelop,
illustratedbySharonVarneysowncareerjourney.Chapter6considersthefuture
perspective,thetoughtimeswefacecurrentlyandtheopportunitiesandrisks.It
suggestshowODmightneedtoadapttoremainrelevantinorganisationsofthe
futuretoavoidthecrisisthathasbefallenODintheUS.
ValerieGarrow
AssociateDirector,InstituteofEmploymentStudies(IES)
About the Authors 3
About the Authors
Valerie Garrow
isAssociateDirectoratIES.Shehasworkedinthefieldof
mergers,acquisitionsandpartnershipsfor12years,exploring
integrationofculturesaswellascrossboundaryworking.Her
PhDexaminedtheimpactofmergersandacquisitionsonthepsychological
contract.
InherformerroleatRoffeyParkInstituteshesupportedresearchontheMScfor
OrganisationalandIndividualDevelopment.Sheiscurrentlyafacultymemberof
theAcademyforLargeScaleChangefortheNHSInstituteforImprovementand
Innovationandworksextensivelyintheevaluationofleadershipdevelopment.
Sharon Varney
isaconsultantandresearcherwithseveralyearssenior
managementexperienceinorganisationaldevelopmentand
learninginlarge,globalorganisations.Herexpertisehasbeen
gainedatthesharpendacrossanumberofindustrysectors:oil
andgas;bankingandfinance;manufacturingandtravel.
Sharonhasrecentlysetupherownorganisationalconsultingpractice,Spacefor
Learning,helpingbusinessleadersgrowtheircorporatecapabilityanddevelop
organisationalpotentialthroughtheirpeople.Sheisalsoundertakingadoctorate
atHenleyBusinessSchool,pursuingakeeninterestinthepoweroflearningasa
vehicleforchangeincomplexorganisations.
Christine Lloyd
hasworkedacrossarangeofsectors,includingfinancial
services,energy,pharmaceuticalandtechnology.Herwork
focusesonlargescaleorganisationalchangeandtransformation,
integratingstrategy,peopleandprocesses.Shehasworked
internationallyandfrom20002005sheheldtheroleofGlobalVicePresident,
OrganisationDevelopmentforNokiabasedinHelsinki.
In2005shemadeamoveintothenotforprofitsectorandcurrentlyholdstherole
ofExecutiveDirector,PeopleandOrganisationDevelopmentforCancerResearch
UK.SheisalsoaNonExecutiveDirectoroftheBathConsultancyGroupwhich
focusesonwholesystemschangeandtransformation.
A Retrospective 5
1 A Retrospective
Whatweknowfrompastexperienceisanasset,butwhatleadstosuccessful
transformationisourcapacitytolearninrealtime.Whileknowledgeisuseful,
learningisessential.
RobertEQuinn
Thefirstresponsetoaquestionabouttheroleoforganisationaldevelopment(OD)
inanyorganisationisnormally,ItdependswhatyoumeanbyOD.Inmostcases
thereissomeactivitythatpeoplecangroupunderthegeneralbannerof
organisationaldevelopmentbutitisnotalwaysdonethroughanODpractitioner
andwheretherearerecognisedODpeople,theirinterventionsandfocuscanbeso
variedthatitishardtolinkthemasaprofessionorseeimmediateconnections
withtheirforerunners.
TheeclecticnatureofODandtheabundanceofconflictingdefinitionscombined
withitsseeminghomelessnessasaprofession,bothinacorporateandacademic
sense,inevitablymeanitisnotwellunderstoodbyoutsiders.Waclawskiand
Church(2002,p.4),forexample,suggestthatthefielditselfhasyettocometo
agreementonitsbasicboundariesorparameters...thusforsome,ODrepresentsanything
andeverythingthatmightbeoffered.Itsdiversityiscitedasbothastrengthanda
weaknessbutleavesmanythoroughlybemused.Inaddition,thelackof
evaluationovertheyearshasfailedtoenhanceitsreputationandcredibility.
1.1 Classical OD
MostbooksonODbeginwitharangeofdefinitionsmainlyfromtheUS,where
muchoftheacademicworkhastakenplace.Beforerevisitingacoupleofthese
(othersareincludedinAppendix2)itishelpfultotracethelegacyofsomeofthe
rootsofclassicalOD.
ODisgenerallyconsideredasapostwarresponsetothedehumanisingeffectsof
scientificmanagementpractices(Taylor,1911;Gantt,1929;Fayol,1949)where
workersweresmallcogsinthewelloiledmachineryoforganisational
bureaucracies.Workwasfragmentedintosmalltasks,designedandmonitored
scientificallybythemanagementoftenthroughtimeandmotionstudies
(Gilbreth,1911).Workersthemselveshadnoautonomyandwereeasilydismissed.
ThehumanisticapproachofODbegantoreplacethemachinemetaphorof
organisationswithnaturalimagesofbodyandhealthanddrewonthe
behaviouralsciencestosuggesthowpeople,systemsandtechnologycouldbe
organisedinamoreeffectiveandhumaneway.Thekeystrandsofworkthatform
thecoreofclassicalODrelatetonewhumanisticvalues,trainingand
development,employeefeedback,systemsthinkingandactionresearch.
1.1.1 Root 1: The human relations movement

ThefirstimportantlegacythatstilldistinguishesODfromgeneralchange
managementconsultancyisitsunderpinninghumanisticvalues:respectfor
humandignity;integrity;freedom;justiceandresponsibility.Psychologistsand
socialscientistsconcernedwiththealienationofworkersbroughtastrongly
valuesdrivenapproachtothestudyofleadership,managementandmotivation.
ODrecognisedthepotentialofmotivatedpeopleinorganisations,atrendthathas
becomeincreasinglyimportantintheknowledgeeconomywhereindividuals
representtalentandhumanandintellectualcapital.Risingpostwarsocial
aspirationsprovidedfertilegroundforthesenewvaluesaswellasODssecond
importantlegacy.
1.1.2 Root 2: Training and development

EarlyODfromUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles(WestCoastOD)focusedon
personaldevelopmentandgrowthandastrongbeliefthateffectiveindividuals
wouldinevitablyleadtoeffectiveorganisations.Attentiongraduallyshiftedto
relationships,teamsandintergroupdynamics.In1945KurtLewinfoundedthe
ResearchCentreforGroupDynamicsatMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology
andtwoyearslatertheNationalTrainingLaboratorieswereestablishedwhere
individualswereencouragedtoexploretheirowneffectivenessandimpacton
othersthroughtheTgroup(seeGlossary).Thisabilitytobuildeffective
relationshipsremainsakeycompetencyinmanyorganisationstoday.
1.1.3 Root 3: Employee feedback

RensisLikertsintroductionoftheemployeesurveyattheDetroitEdison
Companyin1947pavedthewayforemployeestohaveavoiceintheworkplace
andasayinhowtheyweremanaged.Employeeinvolvementandparticipation
hasbeenanongoingODlegacybecomingparticularlyimportantthroughoutthe
A Retrospective 7
empowermentanddelayeringofthe90s.Meanwhile,thestaffsurveyis
currentlyenjoyingpopularityasameasureofemployeeengagementaswellas
providinganopportunitytobenchmarkagainstotherorganisations.
1.1.4 Root 4: Action research and change

ODtodaytendstobeassociatedprimarilywithchange.Atitsheartliesaction
research,cyclesofdatagathering,analysis,actionorchange,reflectionand
evaluation.TheODcycle(KolbandFrohman,1970)ofcontractandentry,data
collectionandanalysis,datafeedbackandnegotiationofinterventions,actionand
evaluation,builtontheseprinciples.Earlyactionresearchandactionlearning,
however,wererootedfirmlyinthepositivistexperimentaltraditionandclassical
ODchangewasrationalandorderly:topdown,planned,linear,holisticanddata
driven.Lewinsunfreezechangerefreezeformulaisagoodexampleoflinear,
logicalchangethatmightoccurinaclosedsystem.
1.1.5 Root 5: Systems thinking

Muchmanagementandeconomicthinkinghasbeeninformedbythe19thcentury
theoryofclosedequilibriumsystems,borrowedfromphysicalandmathematical
sciences.Theperceptionoforganisationsasclosedentitieswithimpermeable
boundariesgaveanillusionofrationalityandpredictabilitytomanagementand
strategyformulation.Opensystemstheoryrecognisedorganisationsasliving
systemswithapermeableboundarytotheenvironment.
IntheUK,TristandtheTavistockInstituteapproachedorganisationsasboth
humanandtechnicalsystems(sociotechnicalsystems).Severalexperimentswith
selfdirectedteams,forexample,mirroredworkersownsocialnetworksinthe
community.
ThesefiverootsareincorporatedintwoearlydefinitionsofODas:
Aplannedeffort,organisationwide,managedfromthetop,toincrease
organisationeffectivenessandhealth,throughplannedinterventionsinthe
organisationsprocessesusingbehaviouralscienceknowledge.
Beckhard(1969)
Aresponsetochange,acomplexeducationalstrategyintendedtochangethe
beliefs,attitudes,valuesandstructureoforganisationssothattheycanbetteradapt
tonewtechnologies,marketsandchallengesandthedizzyingrateofchangeitself.
Bennis(1969)
WhileODstilldrawsonthisheritage,manyattributeitslongevitytoanabilityto
evolveandadaptandtoincorporatenewparadigmsinordertoincrease
understandingoforganisationsandtheirenvironmentsaswellasthechanging
natureoftheworkforceanditssocialexpectations.Wenowexaminethetransition
periodofnewideasandinfluences.
1.2 OD in transition
SincetheearlydaysofOD,anewworldviewhasemergedtoquestionthe
existenceofobjectivereality.Duringthisperiodtherehasbeenaseriouschallenge
tothemodernistsbeliefinrational,scientificprogressanduniversaltruth.Post
modernismdenotestheendofthegrandnarrativeinfavourofcomplexity,
multipleperspectivesandstakeholderswithdifferingpowerbases.Therational
andpredictableworldofthepositivistsisreplacedbyapotentiallychaoticand
uncertainlandscapewherecauseandeffectareunclearandreasonandlogicdo
notalwayswintheday.
Socialconstructionismrejectsthepossibilityofoneobjectivetruthinfavourofa
realitywhichissociallyconstructed.Contextandculturebothinfluenceandare
influencedbytheactorsinthesceneandtheworldviewisconstantlyreformed
andnegotiatedbycoalitionsandpowerfulplayers.
Organisationsaresuddenlyfarfromtherational,planned,stableentitiestheyonce
appearedtobe.Realityisshapedbytheconversationsanddialoguesthattake
placebetweenpeoplewithinthemandisconstantlyshifting.
EarlyODhavingbeenfirmlyrootedinthepositivisttraditionhas,however,
successfullyembracedthisnewparadigm.Someofthekeyenablersonthis
journeyhavebeen:aholisticapproachtoorganisationdesign;anextensionof
systemsthinkingtoassessingcultureasanimportantvehicleforchange;achange
inemphasisfromindividualtrainingtoorganisationallearning;adevelopmentof
theearlyworkonmotivationtotapintopositivepsychology;arecognitionthat
changeismessyandunpredictableratherthanlinearandorderly;thesearchfor
newstylesofleadership;anddrawingonnewsciencesandmetaphorstosupport
understandingoflivingsystemsandchange.
1.2.1 Organisation design

IntheODsense,organisationaldesignisasystemwideapproachthatgoes
beyondreorganisationorrestructuring.Stamford(2007)describesitastheoutcome
ofshapingandaligningallthecomponentsofanenterprisetowardstheachievementofan
agreedmission.TheMcKinsey7SmodelandBurkeLitwinscausalmodelof
organisationalperformanceandchangehavebeenparticularlyinfluentialin
visuallymappingthealignmentofthehardandsoftelementsofan
organisationalsystem.SomeofthekeyODmessagesarounddesignaretoensure
thereissufficientflexibilityandadaptabilitytorespondtoandanticipatethe
externalenvironmentandtoensureinternalconnectivitytoenableknowledgeand
A Retrospective 9
learningtospreadfreely.Matrixstructures,forexample,breachedverticalsilos
anddelayeringinthe90spushedresponsibilitydowntothecustomerinterface
sothatstaffcouldrespondmorequicklytocustomerneeds.FromanOD
perspective,however,anewdesignrequiresachangeinbehaviourwhichoften
necessitatesaculturechange.
1.2.2 Organisational culture

Theinterestinorganisationalcultureinthe80swasinpartaresponsetothe
successofJapaneseorganisationsinfosteringqualityandexcellence.Petersand
Waterman(1982)inspiredaquestforculturesofexcellenceandthebeliefthat
corporateculturescouldhaveanimpactoneconomicperformanceprovidedakey
roleforODdrawingonbothsociologyandanthropology.Culturebecame
particularlyimportantforunderstandingpostmergerintegrationproblemsand
cultureclash(Buono,BowditchandLewis,1985)wasapopularculpritforfailure.
InfluentialworksbyHofstede(1980)andTrompenaars(1994)alsohighlightedthe
impactofnationalculturesatatimeofincreasingglobalisation.
ItbecamecommonpracticetoapproachorganisationalchangethroughwhatJack
Welchcalledthehardwareofanorganisation,ieitsstructureandprocesses,as
wellasitssoftware,ieitsnormsandculture.Thesearchfortheoriginsof
organisationalculturesledtofurtherinterestintheunderpinningcorporate
values,beliefsandassumptions,aswellastechniquestosurfacethesethroughart,
stories,myths,dramaandmetaphorinordertounderstandhowtheymightbe
changed.
1.2.3 Learning organisations

Ashbys(1956)lawofrequisitevarietystatesthatforasystemtopreserveits
integrityandsurvive,itsrateoflearningmustatleastmatchtherateofchangein
itsenvironment.Theriseoftheknowledgeeconomywithitsfocusonmanaging
knowledge,intellectualandhumancapitalhasplacedastrongemphasison
learningandparticularlylearningatanorganisationallevel.
PeterSengesbookTheFifthDiscipline(1990)popularisedtheconceptofthe
learningorganisationwherepeoplecontinuallyexpandtheircapacitytocreatethe
resultstheytrulydesire,wherenewandexpansivepatternsofthinkingarenurtured,
wherecollectiveaspirationissetfreeandwherepeoplearecontinuallylearningtoseethe
wholetogether.
Whilesomecomplexitytheoristsnowdisputethatorganisationsareabletolearn,
theconceptofflexible,agileandadaptableorganisationremainscentraltoOD.
French,BellandZawacki(2000)describeoneofthedistinguishingfactorsofOD
asbeingreflexiveandselfexaminingtofacilitateconstantorganisationalrenewal.
Varney(2007)findsODpractitionerscreatingspace(physicalandpsychological)for
learningandbeingacatalystforlearning.CloselyalliedtothisistheroleoftheOD
practitionerinremovingbarrierstolearningaswellasusingframeworks,toolsand
techniquessuchasstorytellingandmetaphorstohelppeoplebreakoutoftheir
normalpatternsandshifttheirperspective.
1.2.4 Positive psychology

Animportantnewdevelopmentinorganisationalresearchandconsultinginthe
ODtraditionhascomethroughvariousmethodologieswhichcomeunderthe
bannerofpositivepsychology.Positivepsychologyhasitsrootsinsocial
constructionismadvocatingthatpeoplecreateanewrealitybyreleasingand
workingwiththeirenergyandabilitiesratherthanstrugglingwiththeirfaults.
StrengthsbaseddevelopmentandAppreciativeInquiry(AI)evolvingfromthe
actionresearchtraditionbothmoveawayfromthetendencytowanttofixwhatis
wrongwithorganisationsandpeople.Byidentifyingwhatworksbestand
transferringthoseingredientsintoothersituations,AIbuildsenergyforpositive
changeandhasareputationforsuccessinorganisationsthathavebeensubjectto
negativepublicperception,wherethereisahistoryofconflictandwherepeople
feeldemotivatedorhavelowselfesteem.Similarly,strengthsdevelopmentlooks
forwhatindividualsaregoodatandaimstobuildexcellenceratherthanfocuson
developmentforweaknesseswhich,atbest,mightbecomeaveragequalitiesor
skills.
1.2.5 Transformational, discontinuous and non-linear change

ClassicalODtypicallyenabledincrementaldevelopmentandevolutionary
progression,sometimeshavingtosurprisethesysteminordertoshift
behavioursandcreatemomentumforchange.However,astechnology,the
internet,deregulation,privatisation,globalisationandotherexternalforceshave
requiredmoreradicalsurvivaltechniques,ODhasincreasinglymovedintothe
areaoftransformationalandlargescalechange.Transformationalchangeis
describedbyLevyandMerry(1986,p.5)asmultidimensional,multilevel,
qualitativediscontinuous,radicalorganizationalchangeinvolvingaparadigmaticshift.
IthasnecessitatednewODmethodologiessuchasOpenSpaceTechnology
(Owen,1997),RealTimeStrategicChange(Jacobs,1994)andFutureSearch
(WeisbordandJanoff,1995)inordertobuildacriticalmassofcommitmentforthe
requiredchangebybringinglargegroupsorwholesystemstogether.
A Retrospective 11
1.2.6 New leadership styles

Withthisshiftfromtopdown,planned,linearchangerequiringhierarchical
commandandcontrol,therehasbeenanongoingquestforapostmodern
leadershipstylethatisabletoengagemultipleinternalandexternalstakeholders,
cocreatevisionandvalues,buildsocialcapitalandstillleadorganisations
throughchangeanduncertainty.Fromherotoservant,centralisedtodistributed,
charismatictoengaging,therehasbeenarealshiftinemphasistoemotional
intelligence,authenticityandsustainabilityaswellasanewfocuson
followership.Thegrowthofstrategicalliancesandcrosssectorpartnershipshas
demandedthatleadersbeabletoworkcollaborativelyacrossboundariesand
cultures,facilitatemultiplestakeholdergroupsanddrawonthisdiversityto
enablenewwaysofworking.
1.2.7 Drawing on the new sciences

Finally,therehavebeenmilestonesinODthinkingthroughlearningfromthenew
sciences.Wheatley,inherbookLeadershipandtheNewScience(2006),suggeststhat
itistimetorealisethatwewillnevercopewiththisnewworldusingouroldmaps.OD
hasalwaysdrawnonabroadrangeofdisciplines:psychology,sociology,cultural
anthropologyandpoliticalscience,butithasalsoabsorbedmetaphorsandtheory
fromquantumphysics,biologicalandevolutionarysciences,designscience,social
movementtheory,chaostheoryandcomplexityscience.
Muchofourcurrentmanagementandstrategicthinkingstillremainsanchoredin
therational,predictable,semiscientific19thcenturytheoryofclosedequilibrium
systems.Manyeconomists,however,arenowincorporatingcomplexitytheory
intotheirunderstandingofmarketsandorganisationsasopen,dynamicsystems
whichexistinastateofconstantmotionordynamicdisequilibrium.Beinhocker
(1997)identifiesthecharacteristicsoftheneweconomicsas:
wisdom:basedonarealisticmodelofcognitivebehaviour,iepeopledonot
alwaysbehaverationallyormakeoptimaldecisions
webs:peopleinteractinadynamicwebofrelationships
waves:theseinteractionsproduceevolutionarychangesandinnovation
wouldbeworlds:inagentbasedmodelsdifferentfuturesunfold.
Therecognitionthatpeopledonotalwaysbehaverationallyhasbeenan
importanttransitionfromthemachinemetaphoroforganisationswhere
behaviourisuniform,unemotionalandapolitical.
Relationshipsbetweenpeoplecocreatethefuturebutareseenasunpredictable,
oftendrivenbypower,vestedinterestandcoalitions.Someimportantlessons
havebeendrawnfromobservingcomplexadaptivesystems.
Plsek(2003)describescertainkeypropertiesofcomplexadaptivesystems:
Relationshipsarecentraltounderstandingthesystemandthevalueand
innovationcomesfromtheinteractionbetweenagents.
Theycanbedescribedbystructures,processesandculturalpatternswhichare
closelyintertwined.
Actionsarebasedoninternalisedsimplerulesetsandmentalmodelswhichset
uppatternsofbeliefsandbehaviours.
Attractorpatternsencouragesomebehavioursoverothers.
TheimplicationsforODarenumerous.Firstly,complexadaptivesystemsare
extremelyresilient.Chapman(2002)citestheNHSasanexample,AstheNHShas
shown,complexsystemsalsohaveremarkableresilienceinthefaceofeffortstochange
them.
Secondly,smallchangesincomplexadaptivesystemscanproducelargeeffects
(knownasthebutterflyeffect)throughexponentialchange,whereeffectsare
multipliedthroughoutinterconnectednetworks.Theinitialstimulusforchange
doesnothavetobelargeoncethesimplerulesareidentified.
Thirdly,thereareimplicationsforleadership.Demossuggeststhattheuseof
commandandcontrolinevitablyfailswithincomplexsystemsandalienatespeopleby
treatingtheminstrumentally(Chapman,2002).Complexadaptivesystemsnaturally
demonstrateselforganisationandemergenceratherthanrespondtotopdown
planning.
Finally,thenewscienceshavebroadenedthestudyofmotivation,finding
attractorpatternsandlookingtopullratherthanpush.Ithasledtoaninterest
inhowsocialmovementsgainmomentum.Gladwell(2000)exploreshowpopular
ideasandbehavioursspreadtoreachtippingpointswherethemomentumfor
changebecomesunstoppable.Tappingintodiscretionaryefforthasbecome
somethingofaquestandundoubtedlyexplainsmuchoftheinterestinemployee
engagement.
1.3 OD today
WherethendoesthatleaveODtoday?TheworldofclassicalODfeltmore
predictable,boundariesbetweenorganisationsandsectorswereclearandlargely
impermeableaswastheboundarybetweenthecustomerandsupplier,thelinks
A Retrospective 13
betweencauseandeffectweremoretransparentandleadersbelievedintriedand
testedformulasforbusinesssuccess.Globalisation,crossculturalandcrosssector
alliancesandpartnerships,thedigitalandnetworkedage,deregulation,
opensourcing,outsourcing,supplychaining,customerinvolvementhaveledtoa
complexnetworkofinterconnectionsandcrossboundaryrelationshipsthathave
challengedthewayorganisationsoperateandinsomecasestheircorepurpose.
Customersnowgetinvolvedinthecocreationandcodesignofproductsaswell
asviralmarketing,whileourservicedominatedeconomyisincreasingly
becomingmorepatient,citizenandcustomercentred.
Wehaveseenariseinthepowerofindividualsandinterestgroupswhopublish
theirownbookswithoutapublishinghouse,reachaglobalaudiencethrough
blogs,expandtheirsocialandbusinessnetworkswithoutleavinghome,lendand
borrowmoneyfrompeopletheydonotknowwithoutabank,launchamusic
careeronYouTubeandevenlive,workandtradeinavirtualworld.Public
marketplacessuchaseBayprovideaspacetoallowindividualstotradereal
productsdirectlywitheachother.Meanwhile,virtualworldssuchasSecondLife
haveopenedupawholenewmarketplaceofvirtualgoods,propertyand
currency.
Survivorsofthedot.combubble,however,illustratetheneedforsometangible
valuebeneaththeillusion.Lastminute.comforexampleciteasolidnetworkof
strategicalliancesunderpinningtheirbusinessmodel.Othergoodconnectors
suchasAmazonhaveastrongdistributionnetwork.
Theartoforganisationdesignhasoccasionallypushedtheboundarieswith,for
example,Hockschaordic(betweenchaosandorder)designforVISAin1970.
Hocks(1995)realisationthatitwasbeyondthepowerofreasontodesignan
organisationtodealwithsuchcomplexityledtowhathedescribesasaninsideout
holdingcompanywherethe23,000financialinstitutionsthatcreateitsproductsareat
oneandthesametime,itsowners,itsmembers,itscustomer,itssubjectsandits
superiors.
Therearemorerecentextraordinaryexamplesofthepoweroftechnologyenabled
selforganisingnetworks.ThecaseoftheLinuxoperatingsystem(Kuwabara,
2000)isastrikingstudyofthepoweroftheselforganisingpropertiesof
thousandsofvolunteerprogrammersorhackerswhohavecreatedaproductto
rivalthoseoftheworldsmostpowerfulorganisations.Wikipediahasbeena
similarselforganisingphenomenon.
Allthisleadstoquestionsaboutwhatorganisationsofthefuturemightlooklike,
howtheywilladdvalueandhowtheycancombinepeople,structuresand
processesinordertobeeffectiveinachievingtheirgoals.Thesearechallengesthat
ODpractitionersshouldbewellplacedtoaddressfromtheirrichheritageof
organisationalanalysisandtheirabilitytoabsorbnewideasfrommultiple
disciplines.
IntheUS,however,ODhasexperiencedwhatsomehavedescribedasacrisis
(Burke,2004),whiletheUKisseeingsomethingofanODrevival,withaplethora
ofnewpostsparticularlyinthepublicsectorandhealth.
LetusfirsttakealookatsomeofthecriticismsthathavedamagedODintheUS:
1.3.1 OD in decline
VariousacademicshavesuggestedwhyODmayhavehaditsday:
TherehasbeenaseparationoftheoryfrompracticeandasuggestionthatOD
hasmovedawayfromitstheorybasedrootstobecomemoretoolandtechnique
oriented(Bunker,AlbanandLewicki,2004).
ODhastriedtoimposeitsownhumanisticvaluesinsteadofworkingwith
organisationsownvalues(PorrasandBradford,2004).
ODriskspanderingtofadsasorganisationalcustomerslookfornewfixesand
solutionstofacilitatechange(Bunker,AlbanandLewicki,2004).
InternalODpractitionersareburiedwithintheHRfunctionandlackcontact
withseniorexecutives(Burke,2004).
Littleofnoteisemerginginthefieldofsocialtechnology(Burke,2004).
Inaddition,thefollowingcriticismswereidentifiedbyODpractitioners
themselvesthroughaglobalsurveyof6,000membersofvariousODnetworks
(Wirtenberg,AbramsandOtt,2004).
ThereisalackofdefinitionanddistinctivenessinwhatODdoes.
ODpractitionersneedgreaterqualitycontrol/effectivenessandbusiness
acumen.
ThereisalackofclarityaroundreturnoninvestmentandthevalueofOD
work.
AsthededicatedremnantsofODpractitionersbecomesomewhatmarginalisedin
theUSwithmanydefectingtomainstreamconsulting,whyistheresomuch
interestintheUK?
1.3.2 OD in the ascendance

Onepossiblereasonisthatthesamefertilegroundthatnourishedtheearlyroots
ofODisdoingthesametoday.TheUKpublicsectorhasembracedOD
A Retrospective 15
wholeheartedly,notonlytoachievechangeintheservicestheyprovidebutalsoto
combatmoderndayworkeralienation.ParkerandParker(2007,p.15)reflecting
onthestateofthepublicsectorsuggestthemetaphorofthemachinetheideaof
predictable,rational,causeandeffectanalysismayhavebroughtaboutsomesignificant
improvements,butithasalsofailedtotackledeeperquestionsofmotivationand
legitimacy.Publicsectorstaffaredisengagedandfrustrated.Theauthorsgoonto
describethequestforanewnarrativewithneworganisingframeworksandsources
ofdisruption.
Afurthersymptomofmalaiseinthepublicsectoristheinabilitytolearn.
Chapman(2002),forexample,describestheobstaclestolearningingovernment
andpolicymakingasanaversiontofailure;usingfailurestoscorepointsrather
thanlearnlessons;pressureforuniformity;commandandcontrolauthority;lack
oftimeotherthantocopewithevents;secrecyusedtostiflefeedbackand
learning;turfwars;efficiencydrivesandvestedinterest.
Thebehaviouralsciencesarenowonceagainmuchindemandinthequestfor
employeeengagementinbothpublicandprivatesectorswherethereisfairly
widespreadconsensusthatODisconcernedwithorganisationaleffectiveness.
Thereisalsosomeagreementthatitrelatestosustainabilitybothforthe
organisationand,inabroadersenseofsocialresponsibility,tocommunitiesand
theuseofglobalresources.
Rowland(2007)identifiesanumberofthemesaroundODtoday:
ODhappensindifferentguises,althoughitmaynotbebadgedassuch.
AllkindsofpeopledoOD,notjustdesignatedpractitioners.
DevelopmentexpertsmaynothavethetitlebutmayuseODinterventions.
ThisbringsusbacktoourinitialdilemmathatitdependswhatyoumeanbyOD.
Thereisclearlyaquestfororganisationaleffectiveness,butthemeanstoachieveit
reliesheavilyonthecompetenceoftheODpractitioners,whethertheyare
designatedorsimplyhaveanintuitiveunderstandingofhowtoengageand
harnessthecreativeenergyofpeople.
1.3.3 Where next?

Ourretrospectivehastakenatourofsomeofthekeyrootsandmilestonesthat
haveinfluencedtheevolutionofOD.Wehavecapturedsomeoftherichnessofits
owndevelopmentinFigures1.1and1.2.Figure1.1givesaflavourofthehistorical
context,developmentofideasandkeythinkers,whileFigure1.2showssomeof
thelevelsatwhichODmightoperate.Thenextchapterinvestigatesthe
practitionersperspectiveoftheirwork.
Figure 1.1: History of OD

History of OD

Social and political backdrop Economic backdrop Key influences
1940s 1940s 1940s
WWII Group dynamics

Shortage economy
New Britain workshop (1946) Change theory
Gestalt/humanistic
Planned change/change agent
1950s First employee survey
1950s
Mass production &

UKs first shopping centres consumption 1950s
Churchill Prime Minister
Queen Elizabeth II crowned
Structural analysis
1960s Socio-technical systems
1960s Participative management
Instructional systems design
Corporatism
Abolition of the censorship of plays
Reduction in church attendance
1960s
1970s
1970s Open systems theory

Rise of Japan Contingency theory
UK joins common market Functionalist sociology
Voting age reduced from 21 to 18 Human relations movement
Bloody Sunday Leadership theory Y/X
Miner strikes & Winter of Discontent 1980s Formula for Change
Conservative Government Symbolic interactionism
Margaret Thatcher Prime Minister
First test-tube baby Deregulation
Rise of service economy
Black Monday 1970s
1980s
1990s Theory of practice

Collapse of communism/Berlin Wall Phenomenology
Bombing of Harrods Consciousness revolution
Bombing of Conservative Party Conference Recession
Live Aid Downsizing
Lockerbie disaster Merger cycle peak
Knowledge economy 1980s
1990s
2000s Culture
In search of excellence
Psychological contract
World Wide Web (1995)
Boom to bust Neo-human relations
Thatcher resigns/John Major new PM
E-commerce Learning organisation
1st Gulf War
Barings Bank goes into receivership Globalisation
Dunblane massacre Virtual economy
Tony Blair and Labour elected Credit crunch
Hong Kong returned to Chinese 1990s
Scottish Parliament opens
Values
Complexity/chaos theory
2000s Knowledge management
Embodied metaphor
Anti-capitalism riots in London

War on Terror 2000s
Foot and mouth disease
Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan
SARS a worldwide health threat Emotional intelligence
Boxing day tsunami High performance organisations
Gordon Brown takes over leadership Employee engagement
Benazir Bhutto assassinated Corporate social responsibility
Global warming

A Retrospective 17

Key thinkers Methodologies Activities and interventions
1940s 1940s 1940s
Lewin (1890-1947) T groups

National Testing Laboratories (1947) Action research Sensitivity training
Tavistock (1947) Force field analysis
Lickert Unfreeze/change/refreeze
Rogers (early 40s) 1950s Self-directed teams
1950s Survey research methods

Feedback 1950s
Trist & Bamforth (1951)

Lippitt, Watson & Westley (1958)
Task analysis
Maslow (1954) 1960s
1960s Questionnaires for 1960s

organisational diagnosis
Lawrence & Lorsch (1967) Process consultation (1969)

Beckhard (1969) 1970s
Gleicher
Bennis, Benne, Chin (1969)
McGregor (1960) Interpretive sociology 1970s
Berger & Luckmann (1966) Self-managed learning
Mead Cooperative inquiry
Blumer (1969) Self-directed learning
Team building
7-phase consulting model
1970s 1980s
Participatory research 1980s

Harrison Soft systems methodology (SSM)
French & Bell (1973)
Kolb & Frohman (1970) Visioning
Nadler (1977) Process consultancy
1990s
Weber Total Quality Management (TQM)
Cunningham Preferred future
Heron (1971) Collaborative inquiry Future search
Discourse analysis Open space technology
Business process reengineering
1980s
2000s
1990s
Peteters & Waterman
Schein Appreciative inquiry
Morgan Storytelling Large scale change
Burke (1982) Real time strategic change
Checkland (1981) World caf
Senge
Schindler-Rainman & Lippitt (1980)
Owen (1985)
2000s
1990s
Talent management
Argyris
Burke
French & Bell
Weisbord
Dannemiller
Jacobs
2000s
Stacey
Shaw
Cheung-Judge
Goleman (1995)
Source: IES
Figure 1.2: Different levels of OD

Psychodynamics
Leadership
Sociology Self-managed learning
Coaching/mentoring
Large group interventions
Large groups Individual Personality testing
Stakeholder/multiple voices
Psychological contract
Empowerment
Second-order Job design
Transformational change
First-order
Organisational
Gamma Development
Incremental change
Alpha
Gestalt
Systems theory
T Groups
Socio technical systems
Interpersonal relationships
Employee engagement Organisations Small groups
Self-directed teams
Learning organisations
Team building
Values/culture
Organisation design
Organisational analysis Source: IES

Practitioner Perspectives 19
2 Practitioner Perspectives
Therearenorecipesorformulas,nochecklistsorexpertadvicethatdescribe
reality.Wemustengagewitheachother,experimenttofindwhatworksfor
us.
MargaretWheatley(2006)
ThischapteroutlinesthefindingsfromaseriesofinterviewswithOD
practitionersrepresentinganumberofindustrysectors.Manyhadheldthetop
ODjobintheirorganisation.SomehadalsoheadeduptheHRfunction.However,
allidentifiedthemselveswithODfirstandforemost.
Inthischapter,weaddressthefollowing:
WhatisOD?
WhatODpeopledo.
TheimpactofOD.
ConnectionsandcontrastswithHR.
Whowespoketo.
2.1 What is OD?

ODoftenseemstobeshroudedwithmystiquesimplybecauseitishardtopin
down.Thoseseekingcleardefinitionscanfeelfrustratedbytheseeminginability
orunwillingnessoftheODprofessiontopreciselystatewhatitisandwhatitdoes.
Ourresearchattemptedtomovebeyondthepopulartextbookdefinitionsfromthe
1950s,wherethefocusonplannedchangemayseemoutofstepwithourmore
turbulentworkingworld,tofindoutwhatODmeanstopractitionerstoday.What
wefoundwasaclusterofconceptswhichseemtobeattheheartofODpractice,
somefuzzyboundariesandmixedviewsabouttheusefulnessofthetermOD.
2.1.1 Core OD concepts

TheeightODconceptsraisedbypractitionerscoveranumberofrelatedareas.
EachconsidersadifferentaspectofthenatureofODandtogethertheyofferarich
pictureofODinorganisationstoday.
Figure 2.1: Core OD concepts

Source: IES
Change, change, change
ODpractitionerstalkedatlengthaboutchangebeingattheheartoftheirwork.
Onepersonexplained,ODandchangearentsynonymous,butthereisabigoverlap.I
thinkthatIwoulddescribemostofwhatIdoinODaschange.Sometalkedabout
organisationaltransformationandoneintervieweecommented,theconceptof
transformingbusinessiswhereitsat.
TherewasastrongsenseofODworkbeingaboutintentionalchange,butnoone
usedthetermplannedchange.Instead,thefocuswasaboutworkingwith
emergent(somecallitimprovisational)change.Plannedchangeandintentional
changearebothproactiveapproachestochange;theyarenotreactiveandtheyare
notaccidental.However,therearesubtle,butimportant,distinctionsbetweenthe
two.Plannedchangesuggestsacleargoalandapredeterminedprocesstoget
there.Intentionalchange,asdescribedbyparticipantsinourresearch,ismore
aboutestablishingadirectionforchangeandworkinginawaywhichis
responsivetofluctuationsandnewlearningalongtheway.
Enhancing organisational effectiveness
ManypractitionersexplainedthatODisoftenemployedinpursuitofgreater
organisationaleffectiveness.Theytalkedaboutincreasingorganisationalcapacity,
capabilityandperformance.
IdontthinkyoucantalkaboutODwithoutchangebecauseIthinkthatchange
isattheheartofit.IdontthinkyoucantalkaboutODandchangewithoutsome
referencetoorganisationeffectiveness.Idontthinkyoucantalkaboutitwithout
referencetodevelopingcapabilityandcapacity.
HeadofODforacompanyintheoilandgasindustry
Achievingenhancedeffectivenessmayrequireawholerangeofinterventions.
Whilesomeofthesewillundoubtedlyincludeworkwithindividualsandteams
(whichmaybeseenastraditionallearninganddevelopmentterritory),these
peopledevelopmentinterventionsoftenformpartofabiggerpicture.
Importantly,itisthatlargerintentthatearmarksthemasOD,notthe
interventionsthemselves.
CoachingisnotOD.YoumightdocoachingaspartofODbut,ofitself,itsnot
OD.Itsnotaboutthewholeorganisation.
ODconsultantandformerHRdirector
OD is a partnership
Goodpartnershipswiththoseatthetopoftheorganisationalhierarchyarecentral
toODsuccess.Onepersondescribedtheirroleas,HowtomakemyCEOlookbloody
good.Anotherdescribedgoodrelationshipswithtwoverydifferentmanaging
directorsandhoweachinfluencedthewaythatODwasapproachedintheirown
organisation.Inone,itwasheavilyinfluencedbyAndrewsdream.1Intheother,it
requiredacompletelydifferentapproachbecausetheresnowaythatwasgoingto
workforCatherine.1
Inverylargeorganisations,findingchainsofinfluencecanbeequallyimportant.
OneconsultanttalkedaboutthesuccessofODinaleadingtechnologycompany
andexplainedhowtheirheadofODwaswellconnectedacrossthebusiness,
commenting,ShewasaveryclosepartnertoherbosswhowaseffectivelytheNo.2.
Anotherdescribedhavingafewseniorfriendswhoweregoodinfluencersoftheir
peergroup.Theywerepassionateaboutpeopleissues,shesaid,andsawitasvitalto
1 Nameshavebeenchanged.
havingahealthyorganisation.Anexternalconsultanttalkedaboutfindingasparkle
somewhereinthecompanyandworkingwithmanagerswhothinkalittledifferently,
whohavebudgetandcontrolandwhotendtobebetteratthepeopleaspects.
Interestingly,whileODpractitionersthemselvesarekeentofocusonthebusiness,
manyfoundthatthemostseniorsupportersoftheirworkwerethosemanagers
whorecognisedthevalueofthehumanelementinorganisations.
An organisation-wide scope and a systemic approach
Asdiscussedabove,oneofthefeaturesofODisaboutconnectingindividual
interventionstoawiderstrategicintentatanorganisationallevel.
ODisthethinkingbehindthecultureyouhaveinyourorganisationandthe
structureandstrategyoftheorganisation.
HeadofHRandODforacompanyinthepharmaceuticalssector
ODisalltheactivities,thoughtprocessesandinterventionsthathelpallthepeople
intheextendedorganisationtohelpthatcommunitytomeetitssubjectivegoal.
ODconsultantforaleadingtechnologycompany
However,thisnotionofconnectivityinODwentmuchfurtherforanumberof
ODpractitionerswhoalsotalkedagreatdealaboutthesystemic,holistic(whole
systems)natureofOD.Inadditiontotakinganorganisationwideperspective,
thosewhotakeasystemicapproacharealsorecognisingmultipleinter
relationshipsandthemanycompetinginfluencesatplayinorganisationsandthe
environment.
A humanistic approach
ODisseenbypractitionersastakingaholisticapproachinmorewaysthanone.In
additiontowholesystems,theholisticnatureofODalsomeansconsideringwhole
people.ThehumanisticrootsofODhavenotbeenlostonmanyoftodays
practitioners,buttheyhavebeentranslatedintocurrentbusinesslanguage.They
talkaboutthingslikesupportingengagement,drawingpeoplebackin,making
humanconnections,givingpeopleavoice,optimisingthepotentialofpeople.
A business-focused activity
OnethingthatcameoutloudandclearwhentalkingwithODpractitionersisthat
theyseetheirworkasabusinessfocusedactivity.Theytalkedabouttheexternal
businessenvironmentanditsparticularimpactsontheirindustryand
organisation.Theytalkedstrategyandmargins.Theytalkedaboutthespecific
businessproblemsthattheirclientswereseekingtosolveandtheODrolewithin
that.TheytalkedaboutdataandhowitdrivesODactivity.
Interestingly,themajorityofourresearchparticipantshadheldcommercialroles
(suchasmarketing,purchasingandsales)orbusinessrolesinprojectsor
operationsbeforemovingintoOD.
A facilitative role
AkeyfeatureofODworkisitsfacilitativenature.
Myroleistoadvisetheorganisation,nottotellthemwhattodo.Itslikecoaching
forawholeorganisation.
HeadofODforaninstitutionalfundmanagementbusiness
ODsaimmaybetoenhanceorganisationaleffectiveness,butitdoessoby
enablingthepeoplewithintheorganisationtodothingsforthemselves,rather
thanbringinginraftsofODconsultantstodoitforthem.Manyofthe
practitionerstalkedaboutparticipativeprocessestoenhancedecisionmakingand
increaseinvolvementinthechangeprocess.
Paid to challenge
OnepersondescribedODasbeingaboutdippingintobiggerissuesandtalked
aboutdoublelooplearning,whereODmightbeaboutchangingthewhole
context,ratherthanfocusingontheactivitieswithinit.
ODdoesfarmorethanjustchallengethestatusquo.Itcanreallyuprootthe
wholelot.
FormerheadofODandHRinalargehousingassociation
ThechallengeoftencomesintheformofsearchingquestionsfromODpractitioners,
suchasWhatisthepurposeofthisbusiness?OnepractitionerexplainedthatODis
notalwaysaninterventionthatisparticularlywelcomeandgaveanexampleof
interveningwithabusinessleaderwhowasstruggling,butdidnotwanttoadmitit.
2.1.2 Fuzzy boundaries

OurresearchsuggeststhereisagooddegreeofclarityandagreementamongOD
practitionersaroundthecoreODconcepts,consideredabove.However,theyare
keentopointoutthattheboundariesofODarefuzzy.Itssensitivitytospecific
organisations,industriesandenvironmentalconditions,meansthatODisnotone
thinganditcan,therefore,bepractisedverydifferentlyindifferentcontexts.Its
systemicnatureandorganisationwideremitnecessarilymeanthatithasabroad
focuswhichrarelysitsneatlyintheorganisationalhierarchy.
ODisalmostlikethethreadoflifethatgoesthroughtheorganisationand
everythinggoesoffit.
OD in a nutshell
What is the purpose of OD?
OD practitioners see their work as being about facilitating intentional change in order to
enhance organisational effectiveness.
What is its scope?
While some OD activities are conducted with individuals and teams, OD tends to take a whole
systems view and its scope is the whole organisation.
Where does it sit in the organisation?
Successful OD is a partnership with key business leaders. It often crosses traditional

functional boundaries and rarely sits neatly in the organisational hierarchy.
What are some defining characteristics of OD work?
1. Taking a whole systems view.
2. Adopting a predominantly humanistic approach.
3. Being business-focused and data driven.
4. Being facilitative.
5. Being challenging.
6. Working at the boundaries.
2.1.3 OD is it a useful term to use?

ODpractitionersadvisedcautioninusingthetermOD.Oneproblemwithusingit
isthatmanypeople(includingsomeHRprofessionals,ourresearchersweretold)
donotreallyknowwhatODis.Somepeople,therefore,usethetermOD
inappropriately;forexample,tocovertraining(evenwhenthattrainingisnot
linkedtooverallperformance),ortosignifyanextendedHRorganisation.Asa
result,ODpractitionersoftenuseotherlabelstodescribewhattheydo.
Thewordsorganisationaldevelopmenthavebeenusedsomuch,butactually
peopledontunderstandwhattheymean.Ieitheruseorganisationchangeor
organisationeffectiveness.
ODconsultant
AsecondproblemisthebroadandhighlycontextualnatureofOD.One
practitionercommented,IdontknowODasacoherentformofwidespreadpractice
andexplainedthatitis,therefore,extremelyimportantforanyODpractitionerto
understandwhattheirclientmeansbythetermorganisationaldevelopment.
2.2 What OD people do

HavingexploredwhatODmeanstoODpractitioners,itisnowhelpfultoconsider
whatODpeopleactuallydo.AlthoughithasalreadybeenrecognisedthatODis
notonethingandthatitwillbeshapedbyitsspecificcontext,therearepatternsto
thetypeofworkandthenatureoftheactivitiesthatODpractitionersareengaged
in.
Thisshortsectionattemptstogiveaflavourofsomeoftheworkdiscussedby
practitionersduringthecourseofourresearch.Forconvenienceinthisreport,itis
dividedintothreeareas:programmes,interventionsandapproaches.Inreality,
thesearecloselyrelatedareaswhichinfluenceeachotherandarealsoheavily
influencedbyorganisationalgoalsandcontext.
2.2.1 Programmes
FrequentlyOD(essentiallyamindsetaboutworkingwithorganisations)is
operationalisedthroughprogrammesandorganisationalprocesses,or,more
informally,throughconversations.
Largechangeprogrammeswerefrequentlymentionedbypractitionersinour
research.Oftenthesewereconceivedaroundspecificssuchasimprovingthe
supplychain,becomingmorecustomercentredorintroducinganewERPsystem.
However,akeyODrolewastoensurethattheywereconsideredaspartofamuch
broaderchangeagendawhichalsoexploredimplicationsfornewwaysofworking,
suchasmovingfromacountrystructuretobeingmoreglobal,orusingmoreopen
formsofenquiryintheorganisation.
Shapingtheorganisation,intermsofstrategy,structure,cultureandvaluesalso
featuredregularlywhenODpractitionerstalkedabouttheirwork.Forexample,
leadingandfacilitatingstrategygroups,helpingmanagerstoputtogetheranR&D
strategy,ortakingatopdownandbottomupapproachtostrategy.Oneperson,who
commentedthatalotofmyworkhasbeenaroundrestructuring,talkedabout
helpingmanagerstothinkthroughtheirstructureandworkingwithlargegroups,
includingunionrepresentativestococreatethedesign.Othersdescribed
developingaculturetosupporteffectiveknowledgemanagement,orworking
withaleadershipteamtoconsiderhowtheirculturesupportedtheirstrategy.
Muchofthecultureworkdescribedbypractitionersinvolvedworkaroundcore
valuesandemployeeengagement.
IssuesofperformanceanddevelopmentcanalsocomeundertheremitofOD.
Leadershipdevelopmentandtalentmanagement,forexample,werementioned
bymanyofthepractitioners,particularlyintermsofdecidingwhattheoverall
strategywasgoingtobeintheseareas.OneheadofODdescribedtheirworkhere
aseverythingfromownershipofprocessesperformancemanagement,talent
management,successionplanningtomakesuretheyrunproperly,toworkingwiththe
datathatcomesoutofallofthat.Whentrainingwasmentioned,itwasnotprimarily
aboutdevelopingknowledge,skillsorattitudes,buttheODperspectivewasto
usetrainingtocreatetheconnectionsacrossgroupsandinserviceoforganisational
goalssuchasenhancingemployeecommitment.
SometimesODworkislesssystematicandisaboutworkingwithwhatpresents
itselfwithinanorganisation.Thismaytaketheformoffacilitating,coaching,
modelling,orchallengingasopportunitiesarise.However,whatmakesitODis
thelinktotheoverallstrategicintent.
2.2.2 Interventions
ODpractitionersusearangeofinterventionsintheirwork.Peoplementioned
workshopsinserviceofsuchgoalsastoclarifythevisiongoingforward.Many
wereusingLargeGroupInterventions(LGIs)suchasOpenSpace,Caf
Conversations,largeleadershipconferencesandwholecompanyevents.Surveys
werementioned.Forexample,toenquireintorealasopposedtoespousedvalues
inanorganisationandstaffsurveys.Whilethedatadrivennatureofsurveysgoes
backtoODsroots,manypractitionersareusingmoreparticipativeformsof
enquirysuchasAppreciativeInquiry(AI)1asaformofactionresearcharoundthe
areaoforganisationalvalues.SomeODpractitionersspendmuchoftheirtime
workingwiththetopteam,facilitatingtheirbusinessmeetingsandalsofacilitatingthe
integrationofmanysmallbusinessesthattheyhadintheUS.Smallgroup
interventions,suchasactionlearning,arealsousedbyODpractitioners.Oneto
oneinterventionsmayalsoformpartoftheODpractitionerswork;forexample
coachingaCEOofasmallbusinesstohelphimreenvisionwhathewantedforthe
businessorworkingwithanHRdirectortoputtogetheranODstrategy.
OnepractitionertalkedpassionatelyaboutthevalueofembeddingtheirODwork
inthedaytodayworkoftheirinternalclients:
Earlierinmycareer,Iusedtoverymuchlikedoingteamdevelopmentbeingout
foradayanddoingactivities,gettingthemtotalk....Iamnowconvincedthatitis
bettertohelpthemtoruntheirdaytodaybusinessregularoperationalmeetings
orwhatever.Itsbettertoembedsometeamdevelopmentinthat,ratherthandoing
itseparatelyandthenhavingtocomebackandapplyit.Becauseitisnotseparate,
itisseamless.
ODconsultantforaleadingtechnologycompany
1 AImayalsobethoughtofasaLargeGroupIntervention.
2.2.3 Approaches
ODdoesnotuseafixedsetofapproaches.Infact,somecommentatorshavenoted
thatODishappytoborrowfromarangeofdisciplines.Manyofthemethods
mentionedinourresearchseemtositwellwithtodaysvolatileandmore
uncertainworkingworld.Forexample,usinganddevelopingimprovisational
skills,orusingmetaphortogetwhattheaccepted,unconsciousassumptionsareabout
whatbusinessisalsobeingabletogivethem[managers]achoice.
Overall,however,theemphasiswasplacedveryfirmlybypractitionerson
participativeprocesses.
2.3 The impact of OD

OurresearchaskedabouttheimpactofODinorganisations.Practitionerstalked
bothaboutthebenefitsofODandalsoabouthowto,andevenwhetherto,tryand
measurethosebenefits.
2.3.1 Benefits of OD
ItseemsthatthosewithdirectexperienceofODwork,eitheraspractitioners,
participantsorproactivesupporters,areoftenabletopointtorealchange.
However,therewasrecognitionthatitisofteneasiertoseethebenefitsatan
individuallevel,thanacorporatelevel.Forexample,feedbackfromaseriesof
roadshowsindicatedthatpeoplerecognisedachangeinbehaviouratthetopwith
commentssuchas,ItsamazingtheMDcamedown.
Inadditiontobehaviouralchange,therecanalsobetangible,commercialbenefits
fromODwork.Onepractitionerdescribedhowpeoplefromnewlyacquired
businesses,whoinitiallywantedtomaintaintheirownseparateidentityfrom
theirmuchlargernewparent,beganworkingtogetherverydifferentlyaftera
seriesofworkshopswithclients.Asaconsequence,somekeynewproductswere
launched:
Theystartedcollaboratingmuchmoreacrossbordersandbeingmuchmoreopen
andsharingmorethingsandworkingacrossboundariesmuchmorethanbefore.[It
brought]amorecoherentfocusontheproductand,asaresulttheyputouta
coupleofbig[technology]productsinthemarket.
ODconsultantinalargetechnologycompany
Anotherpractitionertalkedaboutculturechangeandhowbeingabletotrackhard
indicatorsofchangeincreasedbuyintoODwork.
Hardnosedoperationalperformanceimprovedover26hardindicators.Then,of
course,peoplewantedtoknow.[Itwas]reallygoodtoseethatculturechanged
sosignificantly,thewholeorganisationbegantoshift.
Formerheadoflearninganddevelopment(whocommentswedidntcallit
OD,notthen)inalargepublicsectororganisation
Otherbenefitsdiscussedbypractitionersincludedreducedresistancetochange
throughinvolvement,whichwasseenasessentialinahighlyunionised
environment,andimprovementsinthequalityoftheoverallworking
environment.
2.3.2 To measure or not to measure?

WhileODpractitionersarenostrangerstomeasurementtools,andareoftenkeen
toevaluatestaffandclientperceptions,theystressthatitishardtomeasurethe
impactofOD.Onepractitionerusesthemetaphorofamovingstream(after
Heraclitus)toexplainwhy:
AsanODpersonyoustepintoamovingstream.Yourenotpresentedwitha
blankslate.Youwalkaroundinthatstreamabit,pushingrocksandwhatever.But
therearepeopleinthatstreamdoingthingsandsoitsjustreallyhardtomeasure
whattheimpactsbeen.
ODconsultant
Theease,orotherwise,ofmeasuringtheimpactsfromODmayalsobeaffectedby
theoverallapproachtaken.Practitionerscommentedthatitmaybeeasierto
measureprogrammatic,ratherthanemergentapproaches,yetmoreemergent
stylesofworkingarefelttobemoreappropriatetotodaysfastchangingworld.
Practitionersalsoadvisedagainstmeasuringindividualinterventions,asabigger
pictureviewisneededtoconsidertheoverallimpactofODwork.
Whilemostpractitionerstalkedaboutthedifficultiesofeffectivelyevaluatingthe
impactofODwork,onepersonchallengedthewholenotion,suggestingthat,You
onlyevaluateifsomeonedoesntfeelitaddedvalue.Shewentontosuggestthatmuch
measurementiscarriedoutsimplytojustifyactivitiesandquestionedthe
commercialvalueofmuchofthatwork.Likemanyotherpractitioners,thishead
ofODsoughtinsteadtodevelopastrongpartnershipwiththeCEOandtherestof
theseniormanagementteam,explaining,ifIvedonemyjobproperly,itsnotabout
me,itsaboutthem.
2.4 HR and OD connections and contrasts
2.4.1 OD has a much broader remit

AlthoughODmaybepositionedaspartofHRinsomeorganisations,
practitionersinourresearchtookpainstopointoutthatODsremitismorewide
rangingthanHRinanumberofways.ODlooksatthewholeorganisation,itis
interconnectedwithoverallbusinessstrategy,itisbusinessfocusedandnotjust
peoplefocused.SomeODpeopleseeHRashavingtightlydefinedboundaries
whereas,withOD,thefeelingisthatnowhereisofflimits.
IftheHRstrategyisntalignedwithODstrategy,anditsthatwayroundasits
bigger,thenIthinkthatitcausescompleteconfusionandconflict[andthey]startto
competeratherthantocomplementeachother.
FormerHeadofHRandODforalargehousingassociation
ManyODpeoplealsoseeHRasaclient.
OneoftherolesthatIplayishelpingMartin1inthedevelopmentofhisteamitself.
ThereisanODroletobeplayedthereintermsofsteppingbackandhelpingMartin
asaclienttopushHRforward.
IconsiderchangingHRaspartofmyremit,itsanotheroperatingunit.
HeadofODforaninstitutionalfundmanagementbusiness
2.4.2 and OD
Awhileago,theHealthServiceadvertisedeverydirectorofHRasDirectorofHR
andOD.And,atthetime,Ithought,thisisreallybadnewsbecauseactuallyODis
justbeingtackedon.
ODconsultant
Inmanyorganisations,ODisfunctionallypackagedwithHRandisoftenheaded
byaHRdirectororadirectorofHRandOD.TheandODlabelisasourceof
frustrationforanumberoftheODpractitionersinourresearch,includingthose
whohavebeenresponsibleforboth.Onepersondescribedapreviousroleashead
ofODandHR.SheexplainedthatitwasofficiallyheadofHRandODand
commentedbutIalwaysturneditaround.AnotherODconsultantandformerHR
directorinamajorconsultingfirmexplainedthat,Organisationallyalotofpeople
wouldseeODsittingunderHR.Ithinkthatitstheotherwayround.
1 Nameshavebeenchanged.
2.4.3 Links with strategic HR

PractitionersseeclearlinksbetweenODandstrategicHRasbothmaybein
serviceofoverallorganisationaleffectiveness.
WhenyougetintostrategicHR,IthinktherestartstobesomeoverlapswithOD.
InsomeplacesstrategicHRmayverywellbedoingsomeofthesamethingsasOD
practitioners,buttheycallitstrategicHR.
Inaddition,thereisrecognitionthatHRpolicies,proceduresandstrategiescanbe
extremelyusefulinorganisationdevelopment,withonepersondescribingthem
asanextrasetoftools.
2.4.4 Disconnects with operational HR

However,theperceptionisthattherearealsosomerealdisconnectsbetweenHR
andODwhenamoreoperationalmindsetprevailsinHR,asthisquotefromthe
HeadofODinafinancialinstitutionclearlyillustrates.
StrategicHRandODarecompatible.OperationalHRandODareinconflict.
PersonnelandODareondifferentplanets.
TheexplanationsgivenforthisgulfbetweenHRandODmainlyfocusedaround
theviewthatODandHRpeopletendtohavedifferentmindsets.Suggested
reasonsforthiswere:
differencesinthenatureoftheworkand,therefore,thetypeofpeopleeach
attracts
differencesintherootsofeachprofessionHRbeinggroundedinbusiness
andODinthesocialsciences.
2.4.5 How OD practitioners see the contrasts between OD and HR

ODpractitionershighlightedanumberofkeycontrastsbetweenODandHR,
manyofwhicharesummarisedinTable2.1,opposite.
Table 2.1: Key contrasts between OD and HR
OD HR
OD is a big picture thing HR policies and procedures are about detail
No rules, no boundaries, no restrictions Ensuring that we protect the organisation
OD is very often about change in whereas HR is about steady state
organisations organisation
Social science roots Business roots
Position of influence Position of power
(OD advisor to CEO) (HR function)
Leadership metaphor Management metaphor
Play to strengths Focused on deficit
Focus on high performers and good performers Focus on poor performers
Focus on top two-thirds to create a tipping Focus on the naughty child in the class
point whats the impact on all the other kids?
Focus on diversity Focus on conformity
eg role-specific competencies eg core competencies
Source: practitioner interviews
2.5 Who we spoke to

ThenineODpractitionerswhotookpartinourresearchallhadmanyyearsof
businessandODexperience,gainedfromavarietyofindustrysectors.Sixhad
heldthetopODjobinalargeorganisationandhalfofthosehadalsohad
responsibilityforHR.OfthesixexternalODconsultants,fourwerenewly
independent,havingpreviouslyheldODmanagementrolesinternally,andthe
othertwohadonlyeverworkedexternallyinanODcapacity.
MoreinformationaboutoursamplecanbeseeninFigure2.2,below:
Figure 2.2: The sample
Gender split Functional experience
compensation & benefits: 1 HR generalist: 0
male: 3 operations: 1
marketing: 4
projects: 1
purchasing: 1
female: 6
learning & development: 4

Source: IES
Intervieweeshadheldpermanentrolesinthefollowingsectors:
Airlineindustry
Bankingandfinance
Broadcasting
Consulting(largeconsultingfirms)
Housingassociation
Oilandgas
Pharmaceuticals
Publicsector
Technology
Personal Perspectives: Christine Lloyd 33
3 Personal Perspectives: Christine Lloyd
Youmustbethechangeyouwanttoseeintheworld.
MahatmaGhandi
IhaveworkedinandaroundthefieldthatiscalledODforover25yearsallofit
employedwithinorganisations.DuringthattimeIhavecomeatitfrommany
perspectiveslogical,intuitive,intellectualandemotional.Ihavegrappledwith
theconceptsofODintheenergy,automotive,pharmaceutical,financialservices,
technologyandmorerecently,thenotforprofitsectors.However,tryingtodefine
orquantifythisdisciplinestilleludesme.ItfeelsasifIamchasingabutterfly
around,butasitlandsandIamabouttograspititisoffagain,morphinginto
somethingelsetheeternalchameleon.
WhatthenhaveIlearntfrommyjourneyarethereanythreads?Werethereany
eurekamoments?IoftensummarisemydilemmaaroundODasthecocktailparty
conversation.Youknow,thatdreadedmomentatasocialgatheringwhen
someoneasksyouandwhatdoyoudo?,OhIhelporganisationstodevelop,I
supportorganisationsthroughchange.IusuallygetabemusedlookfollowedbyOK
butwhatdoyoureallydo?.
Havingsaidallofthat,25yearson,apatternisemerging.Iwastemptedtosay
thatitisstartingtomakesense,butIthinkthatisthepartoftheconundrum.The
moreyoutryandmakesenseofit,themorecomplexitbecomes.Soformethekey
toworkinginthisfieldofODistoacceptwhereyouareinthepresentmoment,
workwiththeissuesthatarepresentingthemselvestodayandacceptthattodays
challengesandresponsesaretheresultofarichtapestryofpastexperience,
currentcircumstanceandintuition.IfthereisanythingIhavelearnt,itisthatyou
cannotengineerODanditisnotaformulaicdrivenfield.Havingsaidthat,I
believethatgroundingyourselfinabeliefandvaluesystemisessential.Exploring
therootsanddevelopmentofthinkingaroundODisanimportantpartof
understandingyourownassumptionsandapproaches.Ioftenusedtheexpression
opportunisticODtodescribesomeofmycurrentthinkingandworkandIwill
tryandelaborateonthatasIdescribemyownexperientialjourney.
Forme,thatjourneyhasinvolvedunderstandingmoreaboutmyownpersonal
rootsaswellasthoseofOD.Iamnotdelvingintothatpersonaljourneyindetail
here,butIwouldliketotellsomestoriesaboutmyexperiencesofODasIhave
travelledthroughorganisations.AsIthoughtaboutthis,Irealisedthat,inmany
ways,myowncareerdevelopmenthasmirroredthevariousstagesofthe
transitionofODinthelast25yearsstartinginarelativelystructured
organisationbutincreasinglybeingattractedtomorefluidandspontaneous
environmentsasmycareerdeveloped.Ihopetohighlightsomeofthedilemmas,
questionsandaha!momentsthatIhaveexperienced.Perhapsmostimportantly,
Iwilltryandsharethosesmall,butoftensignificant,incidentsandconversations
thathaveshapedmybeliefsandcontribution.Thefollowingareanumberofpen
portraitsofphasesinmyprofessional(andpersonal)development.Theyarethe
moresignificantexperienceswhichhaveshapedwhatandwhereIamtoday.
3.1 Sitting on the fence

IhavechosentostartsomewaybackwithmychoiceofAlevelanduniversity
subjects.Ihadalwaysenjoyed,andhadsometalentfor,thespatialrelationship
topics(anyonerememberVenndiagrams?).AsIenteredsixthform,Ihad
difficultyinmakingthefinaldecision,buteventuallychosemaths,physics,
historyandgeography.Maybeastrangecombination,butthisthemeofmixing
hardandsoftwastoemergemanytimeslaterinmycareer.Mymainsubjectsat
universitybecamegeologyandeconomics.Irealisenowthat,evenatthisstageof
mylife,Iwasattractedtothecontrastsofoppositesandhavecontinuedtobe
fascinatedbyboundaries.Boundariestomeareintriguingplacestobe.Youcan
viewtwoworlds,dipintoeitherandseekoutthesimilaritiesanddifferences
betweenthem.Thishasbeenacontinuingthemeinmycareer.
3.1.1 Water, water everywhere

MyspecialistsubjectatuniversitywashydrologyandalthoughIneverwentonto
usetheknowledgeinapracticalsense,Iknowthattheflow,characteristicsand
energyofwaterhasstronglyinfluencedmyapproachtoorganisations.The
interconnectivitybetweenwatersystems,theirfluidboundariesandthe
dependencyofeachcomponentonthewholecyclewasthebeginningofmy
viewingmanyaspectsoflife(andorganisations)asaconnectednetwork.Iwas
alsostruckbythesheerdeterminationofwatertofindanaturalcoursethrough
anyartificialbarriersorblockagesinitsway.Watermouldsitselftoovercome
obstacles,takingontheshapeandformofitsoppositioninordertomove
forward.ThislaterdevelopedintoafascinationwithTaoistbeliefandphilosophy.
3.1.2 Stop watches and mainframes

Ienteredorganisationallifeasagraduatetraineeintheelectricityindustry.Atthe
time,theelectricityindustrywasstillinthepublicsector(priortoprivatisation)
andwasrunalongrelativelybureaucraticandrigidlines.Tomirrorthis
somewhatrigidorganisationalframework,myfirstrolewasinproductivity
serviceswhichwasinvolvedindefiningandmeasuringactivitiesandtasksto
optimiseefficiency.Mymantrabecame,ifitmovestimeitormeasureit!
Ibecameacquaintedwiththetechniquesofstructuredprojectmanagementand
thevocabularyofmilestones,deliverablesanddeviations.Changemanagement
wasdefinedastheactionsneededtogetusbacktotheplan.Duringthisperiod,
mainframecomputerswerebecomingpartofmainstreamorganisationallifeandI
becameinvolvedintransferringmanualprocessesovertotechnologicalsolutions.
Inparallel,wewerealsopreparingforprivatisationintheelectricityindustry,
withitshiftingfrompublictoprivatesector.Onreflection,mykeylearningatthis
stageofmycareer(IwasnotevenawareofthetermOD)washoweventhemost
wellthoughtoutandrigorousplans(transferstomainframe,migrationtoprivate
sector)wereinfluencedbyawholeseriesofunpredictablevariablessuchas
behaviour,emotions,feelingsandpreferences.Theoftenmachinelikeapproaches
toimplementingprocessandtechnologychangeswereoftenrenderedunworkable
whenhumanbehaviourwasoverlaidontothem.Justlikethewaywaterfindsits
naturalcourseifstructuresandbarriersarecreatedtotryandcontrolit.
3.1.3 Autumn leaves and winter beaches

Theseexperiencesmotivatedmetoexploreandtrytounderstandtheseconcepts
furtherandinthelate80sIstartedanMAinManagementLearningatLancaster
University.Thiswasasomewhatexperimentalprogrammeinitsearlyyearsof
evolution(andstillinexistencetoday).MydissertationwastitledTheimpactof
technologyonorganisationsofthefutureasIsensedthatthisclashofhard
technologywithsofterbehaviourswasattheheartoforganisationaldynamics.I
alsosensedsomehowthattechnologycouldholdthekeytounlockingand
enablingrigidhierarchiestobecomemoreopenandenabling.
However,itwasnotjustthecontentoftheprogrammethatdeeplyinfluencedmy
approach,itwastheconstructoftheprogrammeitself.Afewyearsearlier,
LancasterhadlaunchedthisparttimeMastersbasedonprinciplesofopen
learningandselfmanagement.Placingagroupof24peopleinaroomandasking
themtodesignandevaluatetheirowntwoyearMastersprogrammewasatthe
timeaninnovative,andslightlyrevolutionary,idea.Possiblytheacademic
equivalentofBigBrother!
Thelearningthatcamefromthewidedifferenceofviewsinthegroup,thediffering
needsforcontrol,thedeepconversationsinthewoods,hillsandbeachesoftheLake
Districtandpeoplescomfortordiscomfortwithambiguityledtoaprofound
learningexperience.WedidexplorethemoreacademicfoundationsandrootsofOD,
theprogrammeitselfbeingheavilyinfluencedbyTavistockapproaches,butmore
thanthatIlearntaboutconceptssuchaschoices,flow,complexityandresponsibility.
3.1.4 Architecture vs Art

Mynextperiodoflearningwasintwoorganisations(achemical/pharmaceutical
companyandabuildingsociety)thatwerefocusingheavilyonprocessre
engineering.Myroleinbothorganisationsinvolveddesigningprocesses,systems
andstructures,butwithaspecificfocusonintegratingthepeopleandbehavioural
aspects.Whilefocusingonorganisationaldesignandarchitecture,Ibecameeven
moreawareoftheoverlayofsocial,humanandbehaviouralconsiderations.It
begantostrikemethatindesigningorganisationsyoucouldpotentiallybe
creatingsomeformofcagethatconstrainsinnovationsandcreativity.The
balancebetweenframeworksandfreedomsuddenlybecameofparamount
importance.Indeed,Istartedtoquestionwhetheryoucoulddesignan
organisation.Dotheysimplyevolveaccordingtotheexternalstimuliand
challenges?Shouldweletthemevolvemorenaturally?Designinghasthefeelof
doingtoasopposedtocreating,whichinvolvesdoingwith.
3.1.5 Harare to Houston

ThenextphaseofmycareerliterallywasajourneyasIenteredadecadeof
internationalfocusandtravel.Growth,reorganisationandculturalintegration
becamethekeythemesforthenextdecadeandIlivedabroadforthemajorityof
thisperiod.Ironically,expandingmyhorizonstoexperienceamultitudeof
cultures,ratherthanexposingdifference,enabledmetoseethehugecommonality
andsimilarityofhowpeopleworkwithinorganisationalframeworksacrossthe
world.Peoplealwaysseemedtoconcentrateonthedifferences,butwhatstruck
meinallmyglobetrottingyearswasthecommonalityandconsistencyofhuman
behaviourwithinanorganisationalcontext.
Theconceptofidentity,knowingwhereyouhavecomefromandwhoyouare
todaybecameacornerstoneformuchofmyworkinthisperiod.Roots,grounding
andasenseoflegacyprovedtobejustassignificantasfuturevisionandpurpose.
Iexperiencedmanyorganisationsandteamsfocusingpurelyonfuture
perspectivesoftenneglectingthepastandpresent.Ibelieveyoucannotbecome
whatyouwanttobetomorrowunlessyouhavesomeunderstandingofwhere
youaretoday.Forme,heritage,traditionandidentityarethegluewhichenables
differencetobeacceptedwithinanoverallorganisationalculture.
3.1.6 The space in between

NowherewasthismoreimportantthanduringmyfiveyearswithNokia.Manyof
thechallengesinthisperiodwerearoundhowyouenableandencourage
diversitywhileretainingthestrongculture(Finnish)thatcreatedtheinitialvalue.
Inamethisorganisationasitwasanimportantperiodinmycareer,workingand
interactingwithsomeveryspecialpeople.Thisiswheremanyofthethreadsof
myownODstyleandbeliefscametogether.Connectingpeoplewasthestrap
lineofNokiaanditwasherethatIpersonallyredefinedmyviewoforganisations
aswebsofrelationships.Myexperienceinhelpingtosetupaventuring
organisationwithinNokiahelpedmeunderstandthatitwasoftentherelationship
(orthespaceinbetween)ratherthanthetaskthatwasimportant.Connecting
peopletoformnetworksandtrustingthemtocreatetheirownsolutionsbecame
thefocusofmyODwork.Pace,rhythmandtimingwasaphraseusedbymy
mentorduringthisphaseandonethatIstillrelyontoday.
Theimportanceofholdingontocomplexityandambiguityandnotrushinginto
simplifyingorclarifyingsituationstooearlywasakeylearning.Istartedto
becomemoreinterestedintopicssuchascomplexitytheoryandselfadapting
systems.Eventhoughmuchofmyapproachmayhaveappearedcounterintuitive
forananalyticaltechnologyorganisation,theculturewithinNokiaacceptedand
soughtoutdifferenceandIfeltIprovidedabalancinginfluencewithinthe
organisation.AlthoughitwassomewhatdifferenttomainstreamstyleinNokia,it
wasaparticularlyrichandrewardingphaseofmycareer.
3.2 The importance of being earnest

Andso,finally,beforeItryandpullallofthisintosomeinsights,mycurrentphase
oftheODjourney.FouryearsagoIwasdrawnintothenotforprofitworld,back
inaUKcontextandintoanorganisationonetenthofthesizeofNokia.Perhapsa
strangemovetosomebut,apartfromthecause,theorganisationappearedtohave
thepotentialtobringallthechallengesofmypreviousrolestogether.Aswellasa
motivationalandinspirationalfocus,thereisanimportantsenseofresponsibility
andgovernanceintermsofbeingaccountablefordonatedfunds.
Perhapsthekeyfocusandchallengeinmycurrentroleisoneofcontradictionand
paradox,bringingtogetherallaspectsofthepreviousphasesofmycareer.How
doyoufosterinnovationinastrongresearchcommunitywhileadheringtothe
strictgovernanceofthecharitablesector?Howdoyouintegrateprobablythemost
diverseculturesIhaveeverworkedwithwhilestillvaluingdifference?Howdo
youharnessthepassionofbeatingcancerwiththeneedtoperform?Howdoyou
bringfocustoanorganisationthatlargelyconsistsofloosenetworksand
collaborations?
MycurrentrolealsoenablesmetohavealegitimateODrolefromanexecutive
boardlevelposition.IdefineODhereinaverybroadsenseformeit
encompassespeople,processes,systemsandframeworks.Myrolefocuseson
internaleffectivenesscombiningthemoreorganicpeopleandbehavioural
aspectswithsomeoftheharderelementsoftheorganisationsuchasprocess
effectiveness,internalauditandriskmanagement.Thisprovidestheopportunity
tocreateandinfluencethenecessaryframeworksandboundarieswithinwhich
freedomandcreativitycanbeencouraged.
3.3 Key insights

Ihavedescribedthepatternofmycareerinordertohighlightsomekeypoints
relatingtoboththenatureofODandhowpeopleworkanddevelopinthisfield.
Firstofall,IcallODafieldratherthanaprofession.Aprofessiontendstohave
disciplines,topics,standardsandaccreditation.Iamnotoftheschoolofopinion
thattriestodefinethecompetencyapproachtoOD,assomehowtheverynature
oftryingtodefineitappearstocontradictitsveryessence.Myneedtorespondto
thecocktailpartyquestionhasbecomelessimportantastimegoeson.Iconnect
people,Icreatespaceforconversations,Iencouragenaturalflows.Allofthese
seemperfectlyreasonableresponsestomeandIhaveletgooftheneedtojustify
myworldorwork.
Mymetaphorsandcomparisonshavealwaysbeenconnectedwithnature.When
didnatureeverproduceastraightline?ImustadmitIdohavesomestrangesort
ofallergytoboxes,gridsandExcelspreadsheets.Flow,balance,pace,contextand
frameworksaremuchmorenaturalconceptsforme.
Contextiscritical.Ihavealwaysworkedinorganisationswheretherehasbeenat
leastaninquisitivenessfortheapproachIadopt.Ithasnotalwaysbeeneasy.My
rolehasoftenbeentoprovidebalancetothemorefinancial,analytical,results
drivenbehavioursinorganisationsandithasnotalwaysbeeneasy.Resilienceand
persistencearekeypersonalitytraits.
Mybackgroundofcombininghardandsoftelementshasbeencrucial.Iqualified
earlyinmycareerasacompanysecretarysobeingabletoreadbalancesheets,
profitandlossaccountsandunderstandconceptssuchasriskandgovernancehas
enabledmetoholdmyowninthefinancialarena.Mybalanceofcareerexperiences
betweenstructure,process,systemsandbehaviourhasalsobeenkey.
IrealisewithhindsightthatIhavefollowedacareerprogressionthrough
companiesthathasbroadlymappedontostagesofODdevelopment:
Table 3.1: Career progression mapped onto stages of OD development
Industry Operated as
Electricity industry Hierarchical structure
Chemical/pharmaceutical Value chain
Financial services Process map
Automotive/ Oil Eco-system
Nokia Complex network
Not-for-profit Adaptive system
IhaveneverplannedmycareerithasevolvedbutIhaveworkedinnumerous
rolesandroletitlesinorganisationsrangingfromHRtostrategytosystems
architecture.Atsomesubconsciouslevel,Ihavealwaysbeenattractedtothenext
naturalstageofevolutionofmyODapproach.SometimesIhavejoinedan
organisationnotknowingwhatmyrolewouldbe,buttrustingIwouldfindthe
appropriateplacetobeinfluentialfrom.Akeyattractorhasbeenthepersonwho
Ihavereportedto.People,morethanbrand,cultureorsectorhavebeenmymain
decisioncriteriaformovingbetweenorganisations.
WheredoesODbelonginanorganisation?ItisoftenviewedasasubsetofHR,
althoughIhavenevervieweditasthisactuallyquitethereverse.TrueODcan,
andshould,befacilitatedfromanywhereinanorganisation.Ihaveoftenadopted
aTrojanhorseapproachjointheorganisationalmostinanyroleandthenevolve
influenceandimpactinaviral,bottomupway.Forme,mymostsuccessful
interventionshavebeenwhennobodyrealisedtheyweretakingplace.Iearlier
referredtoopportunisticODstartwhereverthereisanopportunityandevolve
andconnectfromthere.ODformeisapervasiveanddistributedcapabilitywithin
anorganisationnotadepartment.
Howdoyoumeasureitsimpact?Again,myexperiencehastaughtmenottofall
intothetrapoftryingtoanswerthisquestioninanoverlyanalyticalway.Ihave
chosenonlyworkinorganisationswheretherewassomeexistingbeliefthat
organisationshavedynamicandselfadaptingqualities.Giventhisprecondition
(evenifheldonlylightly),Ihavefoundthatapproachingactivitiesinaholistic,
connectedandopenstylesoonbecomesaddictive.Successbreedssuccess.My
mainmeasureofsuccessiswhenseniorleadersintheorganisationaresayingwe
cantstartthisprojectunlesswehaveODinvolvementfromthebeginning.
3.4 Patterns for the future

Sofinally,whatofthefutureofOD?Iamincreasinglynoticingmovement
towardsbalancingthehardandsoftelementsofODandIbelieveemerging
themesforthefutureinclude:
Theevolutionoforganisationdesignthroughtheinfluenceoftechnologyand
socialsoftwareintoamorphousnetworks.
ODlinkingmorecloselytostrategicreframingratherthanlimitingittothe
HRorpeopleaspectsoftheorganisation.
Strongerlinkswithcommunicationsandengagementshapedbythe
emergenceofagenerationwheretechnologyistheirkeyformof
communication.
Theincreasingemphasisonriskasaframeworkfororganisationdesignand
decisionmaking.
Linkstootherframeworkssuchasgovernanceandassurance.
ThecurrentdownturnmovingorganisationstowardsOE(Organisational
Effectiveness)ratherthanOD.
Ihavehad25greatyearsworkinginandaroundthiselusivefieldofOD.What
startedasajobhasmorphedintomylife.Fundamentalconceptssuchasoptions,
choices,paradoxesandboundariesarethewayIchoosetobeinmypersonaland
businessworlds.Ithasbeenanadventurouslearningjourneywithmanypaths
stilltoexplore.
Customer Perspectives 41
4 Customer Perspectives
Someofthemostfundamentalproblemsthatwefacestemfromthefactthatthe
complexityandsophisticationofourthinkingdonotmatchthecomplexityand
sophisticationoftherealitieswithwhichwehavetodeal.
Morgan(1986)
Oneveryimportantperspective,particularlyintoughtimes,iswhat
organisationalcustomersexpectfromboththepracticeofODandfromOD
practitionersthemselves.WehaveseenthatakeyaspectofODispartneringwith
organisationalstakeholdersandwefirstconsiderhowtheODagendaisshaped.
InadditiontoODpractitioners,wespoketotenseniorexecutivesinbothpublic
andprivatesectorstofindoutwhatODmeansforthemandtheirorganisations.
Wethenlookedatvariousrecruitmentagenciestoseewhatkindofrolesareon
offerandwhatkindofskillsandexperiencecustomersexpectODprofessionalsto
have.
Inthischapterwelookat:
shapingtheODagenda
customerfocusforODwork
whereODsitsintheorganisation
customerrequirementsforODprofessionals.
4.1 Shaping the OD agenda

Asweheadintoevermoreturbulenteconomictimes,ourresearchaskedwhoor
whatwasdrivingtheODagenda.Practitionersandcustomershighlighteda
numberofkeydriverswhicharesummarisedintheboxbelowanddiscussedin
thissection.
What is driving the OD agenda?
Driven by the external environment.
Driven by what is going on in the industry.
Who is driving the OD agenda?
Driven from the top.
Driven by enlightened leaders wherever they sit in the business.
Driven by OD reframing and responding to the issues that people are facing.
ClearlytheODagendaisoftendrivenbytheexternalenvironmentandthe
industrycontext.Onepersonsaiditsaboutrespondingtoworldeventsand
explainedthat,inalowmarginindustrysector,theconcernhasoftenbeenhow
canwereducecostsandreducecostsintelligently?Andfocusingonwhatsourcore
business?Inanotherindustry,whichbenefitsfromhighermarginsandis
challengedbyhugeskillsshortages,developingtalentwashighontheOD
agenda.Anindustrywhichattractshighperformingindividualcontributorsis
concernedtogetpeopletoplaytotheirstrengthstocreateahighperformingteam.
Interestingly,ratherthantalkingaboutODinresponsetoorganisationalstrategy,
practitionerswerekeentopointoutthatODhasakeyroletoplayinformingand
informingtheorganisationsstrategy.
IbelievethattheculturalsideandthestrategyarebothpartofOD.
It(OD)startswith,whatsthepurposeofthisorganisation?Everythingelse
flowsoutofthat.
FormerheadofODandHRinapublicserviceorganisation
Somepractitionerswerekeentopointoutthatbeinginvitedtotakepartin
strategydevelopmentisnotanautomaticrightconferredwiththeODtitle.Those
whowereontheseniormanagementteamintheirorganisationswerequickto
explainthattheyhadearnedaseatatthetablethroughtheirbusinessknowledge.
OneheadofODevendescribedhavingtopitchagainstawellknownexternal
consultancyinordertoearntherighttoleadthepeoplestreamofthat
organisationsstrategydevelopmentprocess.
Unsurprisingly,theODagendaisoftendrivenfromthetopoftheorganisationby
anenlightenedCEOormanagingdirector.However,itcanalsogainground
throughotherseniorleaderswhoappreciatethevaluethatODcanadd,areina
positiontosupportitandareabletoinfluencetheirpeers.Inmanycases,
however,itisODpractitionersthemselveswhoareconnectingwiththebusiness
andobtainingorganisationaldatatoinformthedevelopmentoftheODagenda.
Noonescomingtomeandsaying,thatswhatyouneedtodo.Itsaboutintelligently
connectingwiththeorganisationandalmostmakingthathappenforyourself.
WhiletheODagendaisessentiallydrivenbybusinessneeds,itisshapedand
honedbyanumberoffactorsincludingtheorganisationalpurpose,the
organisationalstrategyandthepersonalitiesandpreferencesofthemostsenior
people.UnlikeHRorfinance,wherelegalframeworksdictatecertainactivitiesto
becarriedoutacrossallorganisations,therearenoregulatoryframeworksspecific
toOD.Forthesereasons,ODcanlookandfeelverydifferentindifferentcontexts.
4.2 Customer focus for OD work

ODconsultancyrangesfromonetooneleadershipcoachingandworkwith
individualsandteamstolargescalechangeprojects.Seniorexecutivesdescribein
thenextsectionabroadarenaforODworkaroundefficiency,embedding
strategy,capability,knowledge,changeandculture.
4.2.1 Efficiency
Aswemightexpect,topteamsarelookingforefficiencybutlooktoODtoachieve
thisthroughharnessingtheenergyoftheirpeopleratherthansimplecostreduction:
OneofthethingsyouareconstantlylookingtodoisdriveefficiencyandODis
tryingtoachievethatthroughbehaviouralandculturalaspectsratherthantaking
costsoutofthebusiness;drivingproductivitythroughchangingbehaviouralstyles.
Privatesector
OnelocalgovernmentODrolewithastrongefficiencyagendaidentified
managingperformanceasakeyaspectoftherolewithODtakingresponsibility
foronetoonesanddevelopmentoffollowupplans.
4.2.2 Embedding strategy

Severaloftheleaderswespoketoinbothpublicandprivatesectorsclearlysaw
ODascloselyalliedtostrategyandacceptedtheirownroleascentraltosetting
theODagenda.IntheNHS,thereisastrongchangeagendafollowingtheDarzi
reviewaroundquality,particularlysafety,effectivenessandpatientexperience.
LordDarzihasstressedtheimportanceofclinicalandmanagerialengagementin
whathedescribesasarebuildingofthewholeoftheenginefromthebottomup.
SeveralNHSchiefexecutivesthereforesawODasanessentialtooltosupport
strategy,startingatthetop:
ThereisareallysignificantODagendaandthefocusisonCEsandtheirexecutive
teams. NHStrust
OneNHSchiefexecutivewhohadtakenoverafailingTrustdescribedthe
enormityoftheturnaroundrequiredtorebuildmoraleandreputation.He
describedthedistancebetweenhisownvisionandthefrontservicelineas
separatedbytheHimalayasofseniormanagers.Hisapproachwasthereforeto
devolveresponsibilityforchangerightdowntheorganisation:
Myviewofturnaroundisdifferenttomostusuallythereisamovetocentralise
control.Myapproachisthatthebiggertheproblem,themorepeopleyouneedto
involve,soIwentonadevolutionapproachasquicklyasIcould,whichmany
thoughtwasahighriskstrategy.
NHStrust
Inoneprivatesectororganisation,theODroleunderpinnedarangeofactivity
relatingtostrategydelivery:
Diagnosis,design,deliveryandevaluationofthestrategies,policies,products,systems,
infrastructure,capabilityandprocessestoenableachievementofkeybusinessstrategies.
Globalbank
4.2.3 Building capability

Organisationsinallsectorshavehadtocontinuallybuildnewcapabilityinorder
toremaineffectiveandmostleaderssawthisasacombinationofhavingcapable
individualsanddevelopingorganisationalcapability.
Itsaboutdevelopingthecapabilityoftheorganisation.Thereisalwaysquitealot
ofchangeintheNHS.Wehavetomakesurewehaveresilienceandcanmovewith
thosechangesbecausewehavecapablepeople.
NHStrust
Itsaboutdesigningandexecutingstrategiestoimproveindividualandteam
performanceandimprovethebusinessscapabilitiestodeliveragainsttheirgoals.
Privatesector
Asalliancesandcrossborderworkinghavebecomethenorm,therehasbeena
needtodeveloppartneringskills.Thepublicsectorhashadtoadapttoamore
mandatedapproachtoworkingacrossregionsandsectors.Onelocalimprovement
partnershipseekingtoworkacross13differentlocalcouncilswantedODsupport
todevelopacollaborativecultureandgoodpartneringskillsandbehaviours.
Oneofthestrongestmessagesthroughoutthefirstyearofthepartnershiphasbeen
thatchangerequiressystemsthinking.Itchallengestheislandmentality.Evena
smallchangeinworkingpracticescanrequirechangestobroaderprocessesand
systems.Peoplecanfindthemselvesdealingwithmultiplechangesandrequire
differentformsofsupporttoallayanxietyorfrustration.
Localauthority
Amajorchangeforthispartnershipwastheneedtomovemembercouncilsaway
fromatraditionaltopdownleadershipstyle.Councilchiefexecutivesdescribed
thebestpartnershipleadersas:catalysts,facilitators,rolemodels,valuesdriven,
culturallyagile,mobilisersofresources,entrepreneurial/experimentaland
humble.
Leadershipandexecutiveteamdevelopmentarehighonmanyorganisational
agendas,aswellasleadershipsupportwhichrangesfrommeeting
design/facilitationtochangemanagement,leadinglargescalechangeand
maximisingbusinessopportunities.
Inoneglobalfinancialservicesorganisation,theODdirectorrolehadaprime
focusofworkingwiththetopquartileleadershippopulationtodeliveran
integratedleadershipandorganisationcapabilityapproachalignedtobusinessstrategy
andkeyperformancedrivers.
TalentmanagementoftenalsofallswithintheremitofODaspartofbuilding
capability:
Weinvestheavilyforanorganisationofoursizeintalentmanagement.Weputa
lotintopersonalcoaching,developmentprogrammesacombinationofboth
conventionaldevelopmentandODbutIwouldputwhatwedowithourleaders,
managers,potentialintothatcategory,aswellastheonetoonecoaching.
Technologysector
Foroneretailorganisation,theODrolewasexpectedtopartnercloselywiththe
talentandorganisationalcapabilityteamsandprovidesupportforbusinessunit
leadersandHRdirectorsinorganisationalcapability,talentplanningand
developmentandleadershipdevelopment.
4.2.4 Engagement
Itisbroadlyrecognisedbymanyoftheseniorleaderswespoketo,however,that
buildingcapabilityaloneisnotsufficientandthebehaviouralscienceapproachof
ODisessentialinchangingmindset.
Itisaboutattitudesandbehaviour.Youcanteachpeopleskillsbutitshardto
changebehaviour.Ifyougettherightattitudesyoucanequipthemwithanything.
NHStrust
Employeeengagementhasbeenhighonthecorporateagendaforseveralyears
nowandisakeydeliverableexpectedofODpractitionersbytheseniormanagers
weinterviewed.Engagementsurveysandbecominganemployerofchoicewere
bothimportantobjectives.
Theydescribeengagementasactivelyworkingtowardstheorganisational
strategy,aswellasunderstandingandsupportingtheneedforchange.
Oneofthekeythingsistogetpeopletobuyintothestrategyandunderstandhow
theycanrelateandimpactthestrategy.Itisakeythingintermsofgettingbelief
andbuyinthathasarealpotentialtoacceleratethestrategynotpushinguphill.
Iwouldclassifythecommunication,theparticipation,theengagementasOD.
Privatesector
ODisvital.Ifwearedeadlyseriousabouttransformingservicesweneedcapable
peoplewhocanworkwithourstafftoengagethemastowhychangeisnecessary
andwhattheyneedtodotochange.
NHSfoundationtrust
4.2.5 Evidence and knowledge

WehavealreadyseeninChapter1thatclassicalODwasstronglyevidencebased
usingtheoryanddataanalysisincyclesofactionandlearning.Thelearning
organisationlegacyisstillseenasimportantinaknowledgemanagementrole:
ODhasalwaysusedevidenceanddataandthisisnowusedtoinformacustomer
focusedcultureThereisahugeamountofknowledgeinthebusiness.Thewhole
datagatheringpieceabouttalkingtoyourcustomersandpeopleintheorganisation
andextractingthatinformationonwhatisimportantcrystallisingwhatwethink
isimportantreengagingwiththeorganisationandsayingwewanttobethere
whatarethekeythingsweneedtodotogetthere.
Privatesector
AnotherprivatesectororganisationexpectedtheODconsultantroletowork
throughcrossfunctionalprojectsto:
Capitaliseonorganisationalknowledgeanddrivesystemsandprocessesthatcreate
ahighperformanceculture.
Privatesector
InChapter2,wesawareluctancebyODpractitionerstomeasureoutcomes.
Nevertheless,onechiefexecutivehighlightedtheneedforevidencethat
interventionsworked:
ODwillworkifyoucanmeasuretheoutput.Generallythoughitisseenasa
processyougothrough,verywoollyandneverreallyresultsinchange.Tofloodan
organisationwithanODinterventionwithlotsofactivitybutnomeasureswould
beadisaster.
NHStrust
4.2.6 Managing change

WhatevertheorganisationsprincipalODfocusis,practitionerssuggestitinevitably
tendstoinvolvesomeformofchange,whetherincrementalortransformational.
OneseniorODroleinaleadingbluechipcompanyworksacrossdesign,
development,communications,engagement,talentandchangemanagement.
ODisaboutchangeheartsandmindsitisaskillyoucantdoitbyhalves.
NHSfoundationtrust
Strategicdevelopmentmeansdoingthingsdifferently.Thereareprogrammesto
embedchangeintotheorganisationIdothinkofODinthatmanner.
Privatesector
Whilemajorchangehasitsownmomentumhowever,sustaining,maintainingand
buildingonchangeoftenpresentsanevenbiggerODchallenge:
Asanorganisationwehavedoneahugeamountofchangebutwearenowona
plateau.WecouldeasilyslipoffandIamlookingforwhatcantakeusup.Change
managementthingslikeinvolvingpeople,therewasntacultureofworkshopsor
largescalemeetingssopeoplenevertooktimeoutandmetandtalked.
NHStrust
Onechiefexecutivehadcometoappreciatetheimportanceofsupportingaculture
changewithODactivity:
IamacautiousscepticaboutOD.AdecadeagoIwouldnthavegivenitmuchtime.I
havegotmoreinvolvedrecentlybecauseoftheemotionalintelligenceandpsychological
importanceofchangemanagementchangingpeopleandbehavioursratherthan
systemsortogiveitgreateremphasisthanhowyoudoaparticularprocess.
NHStrust
TheprivatesectorisnostrangertousingODtosupportacustomercentricculture:
Animportantperspectiveiscustomerserviceandsatisfactiongettingthe
orientationandculturemoreoutwardlookingandwehaveprogrammestodothat
frombespoketrainingtospecificactionsinrelationtothesurveyswedo.
Privatesector
4.2.7 Managing in tough times

Oneprivatesectororganisationhadbeenupforsalefortwoyears.Duringthat
timethemanagingdirectorbelievesthatiftheyhadnotdonethingsunderanOD
bannertheywouldhaveexperiencedhugeattritionintheorganisationand
disengagement,withpeopleswitchingoffandwaitingpotentiallytolosetheir
jobs.Instead,theyhadagoodunderstandingofthemarketandastrategytoget
there,givingpeopleavisionofwheretheycouldparticipateandbenefit.
Itisveryimportantintoughtimestryingtobringyourorganisationwithyou
whenyouhaverapidlychangingmarketconditions,increasedcompetition,
economicuncertaintyandyouareupforsaleitsabitofachallengeandifyou
donttakeyourorganisationwithyouitwilljustdie.Yesit[OD]hasbeen
important.Wecantaffordtolosekeypeople.
Theretentionstrategyhasbeenaroundengagingpeopleinthefutureofthe
business.Themanagingdirectorbelieves:
Itisprobablymoreimportantintoughertimesingoodtimesyougetanatural
buoyancyinanorgandafeelgoodfactorandpeoplearemorereceptiveandeasier
toabsorbchange.Whentimesaretoughpeoplegettheirheaddown,become
introspective.
4.2.8 Where OD sits in the organisation

InourfinalchapterwewillconsiderwhatthefuturemightholdforOD,butwe
tooktheopportunitytoaskchiefexecutivesaboutthecurrentpositioningofODin
theirorganisations.TherehavebeenaplethoraofnewOD/HRtitlesrecentlyanda
rapprochementbetweenODandHR.InsomeorganisationsODisstill
unstructured,informalandlesswelldefined,albeitstillveryeffective:
ODsitsinvariousplaceswedonthaveadefinedODchampionorgroup.Loosely
somefallinHRandsomeinL&DDoweeverbringthistogetherintoODpolicy
andstrategy?No,butarewetryingtochangebehaviouralpatterns?Yes.
Privatesector
Inothercases,theneedtofinditahomeandastructuralreportinglineleavesan
uneasyalliance.
WehavejustbroughtODandHRtogetherandwewilllooktoequipHRpeople
withODskillstakingresponsibilityforleadership,cultureandskills.Many
wouldntknowwhatODdoes.Itsamixtureofdefiningandcommunicationthatis
neededpeopledontfullyrecogniseateamwithoneagendaandwehaventfully
graspedthepotential.
Governmentagency
RaisingtheprofileofODwassimilarlyontheagendaforoneoftheNHSTrusts:
Wehavesetupasmallteamwhohaveaninternalconsultancyroletohelpthe
directoratesortheprojectteamsdeliverwhattheyneedtodoandtheyare
oversubscribedwhichisgreat.Iwantthemtobeineverydirectionsopeoplecansee
thevalueofwhattheydo.
NHStrust
4.3 Customer requirements of practitioners

Wehaveseeninthechapteronpractitionerperspectives(Chapter2)thatalotis
demandedofODpractitionersintheabsenceofastandardprofessional
qualification.
Toexaminetheseexpectationsmoreclosely,wedidasweepofthejobsadvertised
forseniorODprofessionalsinthemajorrecruitmentagencies.Welookedatwhat
thecandidatewouldberequiredtodo,wheretheywouldreport,thequalities,
skills,qualificationsandexperiencetheywererequiredtobring.Ascanof22
seniorODmanager,consultantanddirectorrolesduringSeptemberandOctober
2008suggestthatorganisationsareindeedlookingforabroadrangeofskills,
qualificationsandexperience.Mostrequiredapostgraduatequalificationin
organisationalbehaviour,occupational/organisationalpsychologyorhuman
resourcemanagement(HRM)andsomewereseekingbusinessqualificationssuch
asanMBAorpracticalsixsigmaexpertise.Arangeofexperienceisalsoimportant
frompartneringwithkeystakeholders,leadership,projectmanagement,
commercialandsometimesglobalexperiencetoevidenceofdeliveryintalent
management,culturechange,restructuring,organisationalcapability
developmentandchangemanagement.Table4.1showssomeoftherangeof
customerexpectations.
Unsurprisingly,seniormanagerssuggestthatpeoplewiththeseabilitiesarenot
easytofind.
Itisthechangingheartsandmindsstuffthedeeplyculturallyembeddedstuff
thatwearenotgoodatandIamnotconvincedwehaveastrongfieldofpeoplewho
havethoseskills.Thevastmajorityoforganisationsbuyitin.
NHSfoundationtrust
Oneorganisationis,therefore,tryingtodevelopsomecareerpathwaysaround
bothHRandODroles:
Wearelookingforprofessionalexperienceandskills;credibilityinanoperational
area.Selfconfidenceisimportantandmostwillhaveworkedinotherpartsofthe
business.Wearelookingtodevelopcareersinamorelogicalandstructuredway.
Governmentagency
Ournextchapterconsiderssomeofthecareerimplicationsofthesehighcustomer
expectations.
Table 4.1: OD customer requirements for senior OD manager/director and business partner roles
Range of qualifications required

Minimum relevant degree or equivalent in Post graduate qualification or equivalent: Full CIPD;
HR related field: OD, org behaviour, org MSc occupational psychology; post graduate qual in org six sigma;
psychology design or change; MBA; dip/masters in HRM or psychology impressive academic record
Experience
Partnership & OD/HR/L&D Leadership Project mgmt Organisational
consultancy experience experience
Internal/external/senior Talent mgmt/high potential Highly autonomous working. Experience of working Large complex orgs.
leadership consultancy development. Working at senior level. through project life Nationally dispersed
success. Achievements through metrics & cycles. businesses.
Leading an OC or OE team.
Successful working with, ROI. Large scale project mgmt. Commercial experience.
Successful contribution to/&
leading & influencing, Creating/implementing OD Culture surveys.
leading matrix teams. Global exposure in
leaders & colleagues. strategies. Leading nationally based multi-country set up.
Working in partnership Organisational restructuring. L&D programmes. Global blue-chip
with key stakeholders.
Leadership/organisational org/corp & consultancy
Working with unions. capability mgmt. environment.
Well-developed Strong L&D background & 10 yrs work exp in
consultancy approach. experience. similar field.
Strong Culture change in customer-
background/experience of centric model.
BP role.
Training/coaching at all levels.
Relationship mgmt of
OD projects in HR or L&D
multiple stakeholders.
capacity.
Initiating/driving/facilitating
change.
Process improvement.
OD/HR/L&D cont
Performance mgmt & assessment.
Reward.
Succession planning.
Establishing effective
performance culture.
HR support to commercial ops or
retail.
Diversity.
Qualities/Skills
Organisational Business & Communication & Leadership Consultancy skills Strong delivery skills Internal &
skills & autonomy commercial influencing skills in areas of OD external
acumen relationship mgmt
Time mgmt. Commercially Strong Leadership skills. Contracting, Ability to evaluate & Customer &
Planning. aware. communicator, Remote mgmt diagnostic and assess organisational delivery focused.
Strong commercial good presentation skills. advanced capability & develop Client relationship
Used to working
acumen. skills. consulting skills. strategies/tactics to mgmt.
with a high degree Natural leader.
Fluent & able to Use of continuous close the gaps &
of autonomy. Demonstrate Confident & Team oriented.
persuade others. improvement enable achievement
Confidence in authority. credible. Ability to operate
tools & methods. of business objectives.
using own HR generalist Influence without at senior levels.
positional power. Desire to Ability to prioritise,
judgement. knowledge. Relationship
influence change. lead & manage
Project mgmt Excellent building skills.
change, implement
skills. negotiation skills. High level
systematic, practical Ability to operate
facilitation skill.
Analytical skills. talent planning & in complex
Able to read development environment.
situations. processes at all levels.
Source: OD roles advertised in September/October 2008
5 Career Perspectives
TheODprofessionalwillbeequippedwithanewsetofskillsandaformof
knowledgethatmayderivefromthepastbutwillnotbetiedtoit.Inthatsenseitis
moreselfcriticalandselfreflective.
Grieves(2000)
Intheabsenceofaformalprofessionandrecognisedqualification,ODrelies
heavilyontheabilityofindividualpractitioners.Wehaveseenthatcustomer
expectationscanbeverydemanding.Grieves(2000)describestheODpractitioner
asajourneyman,atermfromtheMiddleAgesconferringstatusandfreedomof
movement.Thejourneymanacquiresskillsandknowledgetobecomeamaster
craftsman.
5.1 The self as an instrument

CheungJudge(2001)alsosuggeststhatODconsultingnecessitatesahighdegreeof
selfknowledgeandpersonaldevelopmentthatmustengageODpractitionersthroughout
theirprofessionallives.Shearguesthatamongthemanycompetenciesrequiredofus
(ODpractitioners)theuseofselfasaninstrumentisattheheartofouruniquenessand
effectiveness.
ODstillreliesontheability,effectivenessandcommitmentofindividualsandcan
seeminglybealonelyroletoplayasonepractitionerdescribes:
Ilearnedaswellthatworkingalonewithacomplexsystemisquitedifficult.Iwasunable
tointernallyholdallsystemmembers,thatis,totakeinallitsparts,tovalidatethem
separately,toseethemasallpartofthewhole.YetduringmuchoftheprojectIheldonto
thegrandioseillusionthatIshoulddosowhichspeaks,Ithink,tohowcaughtIwasinthe
agencyssearchforasaviourandinmyfantasythatIcouldbeone.
Kahn(2004)
Akeydilemma,however,forthedevelopmentofODprofessionalsiswhatmight
bedescribedasanomadicstatusinorganisations.MostODspecificacademic
Career Perspectives 53
trainingandnetworksarestillUSbased.Thereisnostandardprofessional
qualificationoraccreditationtodemonstratecompetenceandpractitionersare
fromavarietyofcareerpaths.Itscorporatehomeisoftendependentonthe
partnershipsitforgeswithHR,learninganddevelopment,strategy,
communicationsorotherareasofthebusiness.
Withsuchbroaddevelopmentrequiredofpractitioners,itisunlikelythatthereis
aquickfixorasingleroutetoachievingthisstatusofmastercraftsmanotherthan
throughalongandvariedapprenticeship.
OneapproachisillustratedwithSharonVarneysreflectionsonherownpersonal
careerjourney:
5.2 My career journey developing an OD mindset

Thisillustrationbrieflyexplainshowmycareerdevelopedandthenreflectsback
onwhatnowappeartobekeystagesinthatjourney.
5.2.1 Career building blocks

Figure 5.1: Career in a nutshell
Manufacturing Oil & gas Travel Banking Oil & gas Consulting
(4 yrs) (4 yrs) (3 yrs) (6 yrs) (3 yrs)
UK focus International focus
The early years broad business background
Mycareerbeganwithacommercialapprenticeship,whereIworkedinanumber
ofcommercialandsupportfunctions:purchasing,sales,qualityassurance,
trainingandpersonnel.IalsoworkedonaprojectTaskForce,providingsupport
toseniormanagersandexternalmanagementconsultantswhowereseekingto
improveandstreamlinethebusinessunderaqualitybanner.Havingdecidedto
specialiseinmarketing,Ithenspenttwoyearsworkinginproductmarketingand
marketingcommunications.
A career in people and OD
Whenanopportunitycameupinacommercialtrainingrole,Iwasinvitedto
applyandbecamepartofthetraininganddevelopmentworld.Aftercommercial
training,Imovedintomanagementdevelopment.
Thiswasfollowedbyachangeofindustryandrole.Althoughstilllocatedinthe
traininganddevelopmentteam,myrolewasaninternalconsultantandI
supportedthedirectorsofthreebusinessunitswithpeopleandOD.Afterthat,I
movedintomanagementandthenseniormanagementrolesinlearningand
developmentintwofurtherindustries.Thescopeandcomplexityoftheroles
increasedasdidtheinternationalcontent.
Consulting
Withsolidexperienceinfourindustries(somelowmarginsectors,othershigh
marginsectors;somebusinesstobusinessandothersbusinesstoconsumer),
companiesatvaryingstagesofmaturity(somegrowingrapidly,othersfacing
maturityorpotentialdecline),andofworkingwithpeoplefromanumberof
countriesaroundtheworld,Imovedintoconsulting.
5.2.2 My OD journey
ThetraditionalcareerjourneyoutlinedabovereallyonlygivesanodtotheOD
world.However,lookingunderneathIcantracethesamejourneyinarather
differentway.BelowIhavepennedmyODjourneyintermsofthequestionsthat
aroseinmywork.
Key questions Links to OD

Marketing
What makes money for this organisation? Generated an understanding of external
What are customers motivations to buy? customers and how organisations connect
with them.
What are sellers motivations to sell?
Training & development
How do we skill-up people to do the work Collecting data on skills gaps, designing,
that makes money for this organisation? delivering and evaluating interventions. While
How can we prepare people to take on the not OD, this provided useful foundational
challenges of management at each stage of skills.
their career? Connecting people with good ideas and
practices in one function and helping them
develop their own solutions in their own
context. Again, not OD, but good experience
of working at and across boundaries.
Internal consulting
How can we engender a greater customer This was OD by business unit. The partnership
focus through the business in this region? was with the directors of specific functions
Why are finance people leaving when they (operations, finance, purchasing, commercial,
qualify and what can we do about it? corporate communications).
How can we be more effective in the way we
work in the purchasing support area?
How can I get my customer service managers
to work together as a team, as right now
theyre all pulling in different directions?
What are the values we share across this
organisation?
Career Perspectives 55
Key questions Links to OD

Learning & development management
How can we help people understand where These were critical organisation-wide issues
their role fits within the overall operation and all sought to improve organisational
and how it impacts on other areas? effectiveness. My partnerships were with
How can we make sure weve got the people executives and senior managers typically
we need in a period of rapid growth? across functions.
How can we accelerate the development of When learning and development interventions
our new investment management business in (such as leadership development
Europe? programmes) were used, they were often the
tip of the iceberg the visible part of a wider
How can we develop a learning culture to
OD intervention. The wider intervention
create a more resilient and flexible
would include a whole series of meetings,
organisation?
conversations and written communications
How can we integrate people from merged which are vital, but less visible.
and acquired businesses?
At a higher level, the learning and
How can we develop a global project development strategy and infrastructure also
management capability, so that our clients formed part of the broader OD intent.
dont just insist on working with the project Managing learning and development gave me
managers they know? the chance to operationalise some of those
How can we bring a new sense of identity to supporting OD strategies in my own function.
this changed organisation?
How can we improve communications
internally?
OD,Iwouldcontend,islessaboutthetitleandmoreabouttheapproachand
mindset.Fromafairlyearlystage,mymindsetwasallaboutenhancing
organisationaleffectiveness.Duringmyearlycareer,seniormanagershighlighted
theproblemandthesolution.Whileitofferedtheopportunitytobuildmy
businessunderstandingandmyskills,itwasnotOD.
Inmidcareer,functionaldirectorswouldhighlighttheproblemandIwouldwork
withthemtounderstandtheissuesanddeveloparesponse.IsthisOD?Some
wouldsayno,butIdisagree.Theboundariesoforganisationareoftenmore
arbitrarythanmanysuggest.Individualfirmsarepartofamuchwiderinterplay,
thesameasthebusinessunitswithinthem.SoOD,whilealwaystakingasystem
wideapproach,canworkatanumberoflevels.Theexactnatureofthe
partnershipmightalsobequestionedherebyODpurists.However,Ibelievethat
thistypeofengagementistypicalforamidcareerODprofessional.
Duringthelasttenyearsorso,myworkhasbeenaboutengagingwiththe
organisationandnoticingareasfordevelopment,oftenattheinterfacesand
boundaries,whichothersmaynothavefullyappreciated.HereODhasbeenmore
aboutdevelopingasharedunderstandingofissues(oftenfromamuchwider
perspective)andsupportingotherstohelpthemdeveloptheirresponses.
5.3 OD can it be encapsulated in a set of competencies?

AsanODpractitionercommentedrecently,theressomethingaboutODthatyou
cantputintoacompetencyframework.Clearly,thereareskills(businessskills,
consultingskills,interpersonalskillsandsoon)andexperiencesthatarehelpfulin
developingthepotentialofODpractitioners.Therearealsobehavioursthathigh
performingODprofessionalstypicallydemonstrate.So,whatarethethingsthat
donotfitsoneatlyintoacompetencyframework?
IftheODpractitionerisaninstrumentofOD,ratherthansimplyapplyingtools
andtechniques,thentheinternalbecomesmuchmoreimportant.Thequestionis
notjustwhatdoODpeopledotobeeffective,buthowdotheythinkaboutwhat
theydoinordertobeeffective?
ManyODpractitionershavemastersleveldegreeswhichencouragethekindof
criticalthinkingandreflectionthatisoftensocentraltoODpractice.Beyondthat,
however,itbecomesmuchhardertocapturetheessenceofODthinkingina
personspecification.
Thenotionofselfasaninstrumentgoesfurtherthandoubleloopthinking(to
paraphraseChrisArgyristerm).Ittakesintoaccountourwholeinternalworldof
thoughts,emotions,values,beliefs,anxietiesandsoon.TheODpractitioner
embodiesallofthatinhowtheyengagewithpeopleandorganisations.Unlike
otherfieldsofwork,whichfocusmoreontangibleoutcomessuchassales
generated,positionsfilledandaccountsfiled,thatpersontopersonengagementis
theworkinOD.So,thewholepersonbecomesthatbitmoreimportantwhenwe
considerODpracticeanditisnoteasytofitawholepersonintoacompetency
framework.
Future Perspectives 57
6 Future Perspectives
Whenchaoseruptsitnotonlydisintegratesthecurrentstructure,italsocreates
theconditionsfornewordertoemerge.Changealwaysinvolvesadarknight.
MWheatley(2006)
NoonecanconsiderhowODmightevolvewithoutfirstacknowledgingthe
extremeandchallengingnatureofthecurrentglobaleconomicenvironment.This
chapterconsidersODintoughtimesandintothefuture,thendrawstogethera
numberofthreadsfromearlierchapterstoaddressthequestionposedrightup
frontOD:fishorbird?Itfinisheswithsomefinalthoughtsonthevalueand
relevanceofOD.
6.1 OD in tough times

Inspiteofpredictionsofanendtoboomandbust,burstingbubbleshavebeenan
inevitablepartofeconomiclifefromtheSouthSeatothedot.com.Inevolutionary
theorysuchupheavalsareknownaspunctuationpointsthatinterruptlonger
periodsofrelativecalm,sometimesreferredtoasdynamicequilibriumor
dynamicstability.
Beinhocker(1997)suggeststhatorganisationshavetobothcompetesuccessfullyin
timesofstabilityandbeabletoadaptandevolveduringthepunctuationpoints.
Hepointsoutthedilemmaofmotivatingathrivingorganisationinastableregime
totakeonthetaskofbecomingmoreinnovativeandadaptivesoastomeet
challengesitcannotevenforesee.Equally,acompanystrugglingthroughamajor
punctuationpointhasnottimetoworryaboutlongtermagility.Toughtimes
thereforebecomethetestofhowwellorganisationshaveusedtheintervening
periodtobuildagileandflexiblestructuresthatareabletoweatherstormsinthe
externalenvironment.
TheroleofODandthetypesofinterventionsusedintheseperiodsofrelative
calminevitablylookverydifferentfromtheactivityrequiredindifficulttimesthat
havebeenaptlydescribedastheedgeofchaos.Attheedgeofchaos,thefuture
becomesunpredictableandorganisationsbegintofeelunstable.Recentmovesto
stabilisethebankingsectorandstimulatetheeconomy,forexample,haveseenold
policiesandgoldenrulesabandonedinfavourofemergencymeasureswhose
successisbynomeansguaranteed.Therehavebeentimeswhenchaosandatotal
breakdownoftheinternationalmarketsystemhaveseemedinevitable.
RalphStacey(1999)proposestwocriticalfactorsthatdeterminethetypeofOD
activityrequiredinsuchsituations;firstly,thedegreeofcertaintyaboutcausal
linkswhereactionsleadtopredictableoutcomesand,secondly,theextentto
whichorganisationalagentsagreeonthenatureoftheproblemfacingthem.
WehaveusedStaceyscertainty/agreementconceptwithourownadoptedimage
ofbirdandfishbelowtodefinethenatureofOD.Wherethereisbothagreement
onthenatureoftheproblemandthereisaclearcourseofaction,interventions
willbemoretraditional,easilyidentifiableandstraightforward.Wherethereis
bothhighuncertaintyandalotofdisagreement,wherethefutureisessentially
unknowableieapproachingtheedgeofchaos,itisatimefornewthinking,self
organisingandinnovation.
Figure 6.1: OD: fish or bird?
Far from Far from

certainty agreement

Close to
certainty
M.C. Eschers Sky and Water. 2008 The M.C. Escher Company Holland. All rights reserved
Intoughtimes,Wheatley(2006)suggeststhatitisimportanttobuildnetworks,
enhancecommunication,workcollectivelyandallowdirectiontoemergewithjust
enoughprocesstoavoidriskandchaos.Thenaturalreaction,meanwhile,isto
wanttocontrol,toregulateandtocentralise.
LaneandMaxwell(1996)describegenerativerelationships,inwhichthe
interactionsamongpartsofacomplexsystemproducevaluable,newand
unpredictablecapabilitiesthatarenotinherentinanyofthepartsactingalone.
Surprisingandinnovativeideascanemergefromunpredictablecornersofa
complexsystemthatfostersdiverserelationshipsamongthepartieswithinthe
system.
Attheedgeofchaos,thefacilitativenatureofODmaybecomemoreimportant,
ensuringconnectionsaremadewithintheorganisation,enablingitsself
organisingpropertiestocreatenewsolutions.
6.1.1 Pressures for practitioners

ODpractitionersinourresearchweregenerallybullishinthefaceofeconomic
uncertaintyandclaimthatODisneededmorethaneverwhentimesaretough.
ChangeanduncertaintybringagreaterneedforOD,theytoldus,andaburning
platformcanmakepeoplemorereceptive.Continuingeconomicpressuresandthe
warfortalentintensifythatneed,weheard,asODcanhelpyoukeepyourbest
peopleANDtheywillbemoreproductive.Therewasalsoabeliefthatorganisations
havelearnedfrompreviousdownturnsthatdrasticcutsmeanplayingcatchup
later.
So,whatvaluemightODaddintoughtimes?HereswhatODpractitionershadto
say:
ODcanhelporganisationstorefocusontheircorepurpose.
ODcanhelppeopletodealwithstressanduncertainty.
ODcanhelporganisationsbemoreefficientandeffective.
ODcanhelporganisationstoretaintalent.
DespitetheoverallpositivityaboutthevalueandtheneedforODintoughtimes,
practitionerswerepragmaticinacknowledgingthatthereislikelytobean
increasedfocusoncost.Expectationsarethatthiswillrequirethemtofindmore
innovativeapproachesandtodemonstratevalueadded.Althoughstoicaboutthe
likelihoodofprogrammesbeingcut,thebigfearamongsomepractitionersisof
thoseinchargerevertingtofamiliarbehavioursinacrisis.Forexample,adopting
acommandandcontrolstyleandnarrowingtheirfocusatatimethatcallsfor
greaterparticipationandflexibilityinthefaceofgreaterchangeanduncertainty.
WhilethereisclearlyanimportantroleforODtoplayintoughtimes,the
challengeisforODtoensurethatthatisunderstoodbythosewhohavethepower
andthepursestrings.
6.2 OD: into the future

Recognisingthatthenotionofpunctuationpointsmightdiverttheexpected
evolutionofOD,itisstillhelpfultoconsiderwhatthefuturemightholdbyway
ofthecurrentdebatesandemergingpatternsinthefield.
6.2.1 The HR/OD debate

HowcanODavoidtheterminaldeclinesomehaveforecastintheUS?Isittime
forastrategicallianceorevenamergerwithHR?
SomehavesuggestedthatthereshouldbeaconvergenceofHRM,human
resourcedevelopment(HRD)andOD(RuonaandGibson,2004)oratleasta
strongpartnershipbetweenthem.Ultimately,allarestrivingtomake
organisationsmoreeffectivethroughpeople.Burke(2004)hadsuggestedthatan
integratedmodelwhereODbecameintegratedintoallaspectsofHR,withchange
asaprimaryresponsibility,wouldbeapracticalwaytostrengthenbothfunctions.
UlrichsstrategicbusinesspartnerrolewithmoreofanODfocushasbeenwidely
adoptedbymajororganisationsbutitremainsarealboneofcontentionwithinthe
HRcommunity.Themainreasonsseemtobethatittendstoinvolveachangeof
title,butnotofskillsetandhasresultedindivisionsandconflictwithinHRitself
(Bentley,2008).Supportersofthebusinesspartnerrole,however,respondthatitis
poorimplementationratherthantheconceptthatisatfault.
WehaveseeninthechapterontheODpractitionerperspectivesthatthey
themselvesdoseethelinksandpotentialoverlapswithHRandparticularly
strategicHR,butarequicktodifferentiatetheirbroaderrole,sometimesseeingHR
asacustomerratherthanapartner.ODpractitionersdescriptionsofthecontrasts
betweenHRandODalsohighlightmoreofafreespirit,areluctancetobetiedtoa
departmentorfunction;thestartanywhere,goanywhereapproach.Thereisstilla
strongsenseofODasbeingoutsidethesystem,workingattheboundaries,
retainingindependenceandnotcolludingwithshortterm,bottomlinefocus.ODis
notaformuladrivenfieldanditssystemicnatureandorganisationwideremit
meanthatitrarelysitsneatlyintheorganisationalhierarchy.
ItislikelythatamergerwithanestablishedfunctionsuchasHRwouldinevitably
leadtoabsorptionintotheprevailingmindsetandcompromiseODsabilityto
challenge.Therearewarningsignsthatthismayalreadybethecase.Peck(2005,
p.23),forexample,suggeststhatsince1997,ODinhealthcarehastosomeextent
becomeaservantinsupportoflocalimplementationofnationalpolicyleadingto
uncomfortabletensions.EdmonstoneandHavergal(1995)alsowarnthat,inthe
NHS,ODhadbecomesanitisedandasupporterofthestatusquocriticisingthe
recipebooksthatportrayODastheapplicationofproblemsolvingtoolsandtechniques.
TheysuggestODhadbecomethecustodianofthesofterorganisationalvaluesand
theterrainoftheagonyaunt.
6.2.2 Emerging patterns

PractitionerspointouttwoemergingpatternsintheODfield.Thefirstisthe
increasingfragmentationofODintheUK.ThesecondistheenlargementofOD.
Increasing fragmentation
SowhydopractitionersseeODasincreasinglyfragmented?Onereasonisa
perceivedlackofprofessionalstatusofODintheUK(asopposedtotheUS).Part
ofthismaybeduetothelackofaprofessionalbodyspecificallyforOD.
AccordingtooneintervieweethepeopleinODarecarvedup,splitbetweenthe
CIPD1andtherebelsinAMED2andODiN3whostayclearofCIPD.Onereasonfor
thissplitmightbetodowiththebroadremitofOD,consideredearlier.As
anotherintervieweeexplained,ThebestODfolkarenottalkingwithapeoplehaton,
theyretalkingwithabusinesshaton.
AsecondpotentialcontributortotheperceivedfragmentationofOD,forsome,is
thelackofanacknowledgedcentreforODtraining.Twopractitionerstalked
aboutalackofprofessionaldevelopmentforODpeopleandfeltthattherewastoo
muchfocusontoolsandtechniqueswhichcanbeseenaslargelythesamestuff,
packageddifferently.Oneintervieweeexpressedhisfrustrationwiththis:
Lotsofpeoplegoinground,takingthingsofftheshelf,tryingthistechnique,that
technique.Thatmaybefineatthetime.Butmaybeitcouldbemoreeffective,with
therighttypeofdevelopment.Whatdoesitalladduptointheend?
DifferencesinopinionoverwhereODisbestsituatedalsohavethepotentialto
furtherfragmentthefield.InadditiontothedebateoverwhereODshouldsit
withintheorganisation,therearealsodivergingviewsaboutwhetherOD
practitionersaremoreeffectivesituatedwithinoroutsidetheorganisation.One
intervieweeobservedthatmanyODpeoplearemovingoutoforganisationsto
becomeindependentconsultantsandattributedthistotheirownviewthatyou
1 CharteredInstituteofPersonnelandDevelopment
2 AssociationforManagementEducationandDevelopment
3 ODInnovationNetwork
cantdoitfromwithin.Anotherrecognisedthattheinternalpractitionerneedsto
moveonafterafewyearsinordertobringafreshperspectiveandchallengeto
theirwork,butfeltverystronglythatODneededtobelocatedinsidethe
organisationinordertofullyunderstanditsculture.
Enlargement of OD
Somepractitionerssawmoreandmorepeopleinorganisationsinvolvedin
improvementinitiatives,oftentraditionalODterritory,andexplainedthatthe
boundariescanbefuzzy.Forsome,ODisbecomingmorebusinessfocusedandis
alsoattractingmorepeoplefromcommercialfunctionstoODwork.
TheideaofODpermeatingthroughoutorganisationsmightbewhereweneedOD
togonext.Afterall,almostnoonenowadayswouldstilladvocatethatmanaging
peopleispurelytheprovinceofHR.However,thedangeristhat,withoutastrong
centreofgravityforOD,theresultmightbeadilutionofOD,ratherthanan
importantevolution.Togetherwiththeissuesoffragmentationdiscussedearlier,
thispotentialdilutioncouldbearealdangerforODasaprofession.
Takingalltheseideastogether,twoquestionsseemtolieattheheartofwhereOD
goesnext.First,howcanwecreateacentreofgravityforODwithinorganisations
andasaprofession,withoutconstrainingit?Second,howcanwedevelopODas
adistributedcapabilitywithoutdilutingit?
6.3 OD: fish or bird?

ThetensionsinherentinthesedebatesaboutODintothefuturehelpusreturnto
ourprovocativeopeningquestionandthemetaphorwhichunderpinsthis
researchOD:fishorbird?
Atonelevel,thismetaphorreflectsthenotionofODpracticebeingcontextual.Itis
sensitivetospecificorganisations,industriesandenvironmentalconditions.Itis
developedthroughrelationships.Toenhanceorganisationaleffectiveness,
therefore,sometimesODmayneedtolookmorelikeafish,whileatothertimes,it
morecloselyresemblesabird.Attheboundaries,whereODsooftenplaysa
crucialrole,ourcoverillustrationhighlightsthatthosedistinctionsmaynotbeso
apparent.Askingittobeoneortheother,forreasonsofconvenientclassification,
couldunderminethepotentialforODtoaddvaluetoorganisations.
Atanotherlevel,however,ourmetaphorreflectstheinherentlyparadoxicalnature
ofOD.ThepointisnotsomuchthatODispractiseddifferentlyindifferent
contexts(abirdinoneandafishinanother),butthatitembracestheparadoxof
beingboth.TakingtheconceptsofODpracticediscussedearlierasexamples,itis
importantthatODisnotsometimeshumanisticandsometimesbusinessfocused,
thatsometimesitfacilitatesandatothersitchallenges.Therichnesscomesfrom
beingbothhumanisticandbusinessfocused,frombeingbothfacilitativeand
challenging;frombeingbothafishandabird.
6.4 Some final thoughts

ODhasalongtraditionandastronglegacy,whichremainsasrelevanttodayin
tacklingworkeralienationasitdidinthepostwaryears.Boththesocialandthe
technicalaspectsoforganisationswouldseemverydifferenttopioneersof
classicalOD,butthereisstillaneedforbothawholesystemapproachandone
thatisunderpinnedbyvalueswhetherthesearetheoriginalhumanrelations
valuesormoregeneralorganisationalvaluesthatinspireemployees.
Whilethephysicalspaceofsystemsgraduallybecomeslessrelevant,theartof
managingandcoordinatingglobal,virtualandallianceteamshasbecomea
constantleadershipchallenge.Behaviouralsciencesandanunderstandingof
socialsystemsstillhavemuchtoofferhere,particularlyintheuseofpull
techniquesorattractorsthattapintointrinsicmotivationandleadtoemployee
engagement.
Meanwhile,organisationaldesignforapostglobalrecessionageislikelytobe
highontheagenda.Hock(1995)maywellhavebeenpropheticinhisbeliefthat
ourinstitutionsmustbecomechaordic.Hiskeyquestionthenwaswhetherwewill
gettherethroughmassiveinstitutionalcollapse,enormoussocialcarnage,andpainful
reconstruction,withthedistinctpossibilitytothatultimatemanifestationofNewtonian
conceptsofcontroldictatorship.Therearealreadycallsforregulation,
centralisationandmorecontrol.
ODpractitioners,however,aswehaveseen,remainupbeataboutthefutureand
believetheymakeanimportantcontributionintoughtimesthroughensuring
organisationsusetheenergyinthesystemefficiently,encouraginglearningand
innovation,retainingafocusonthefutureandupholdingvalueswhentheycome
underpressure.Therearechallenges,however,tobecomemoreshorttermand
bottomlinefocused,providereadymadesolutionsanddeliverchangedrather
thanchangereadyorganisations.
ODwillonlyremainrelevantifitcancontinuetodemonstratevalue.The
tendencyforittobedefinedcurrentlyintermsoftoolsandtechniquespavesthe
wayforittobecomequicklydatedandthereisconstantpressuretofindnew
waystodelivervalueandsupportchange.
ODintheUKhasnotyetbecomeembroiledinthesortofselfdoubtingdebate
thathasdoggedHRforsolongaroundwhetherithasaseatontheboard,how
strategicitisandhowitcanbestmeasurevalue.Practitionersarequicktosaythat
ifaCEOhastoaskformeasuresofhoweffectiveanODinterventionisthenitis
notworking.Thismaynotbeaviewthatisuniversallypopular,althoughmany
seniorexecutivesalsofeltthattheywouldknoweffectiveODwhentheysawit.
WhereverODsitsintheorganisationitwillfindalliesandforgepartnershipswith
likemindedindividualswhohaveaninstinctiveunderstandingofhow
organisationsworkandthisisparticularlyeffectivewhentheleadershipalsohas
anODmindset.WhereHRandODaresufficientlycompatibletheywillnaturally
formapartnershipratherthanbestructurallydriventoanuneasymerger.
ODinevitablyretainsanauraofmystiquebecauseittakessomanyforms,draws
onmultipledisciplinesandoperatesinthemomentaccordingtocontextand
culture.GenuineODisnonformulaicandisdifficulttodefine,buttakingmultiple
perspectiveshelpstocreateacontemporarypictureofODpractice.Whilethe
debatearounddefinitionsandstructuresisinteresting,itshouldnotbeallowedto
underminewhatisdoneandhowitisdone,norlimitODactivitytothosewitha
titleoradesignatedfunction.
OngoingdevelopmentforODpractitionersremainsarealpriority,however,as
thenatureoftheworktheydoreliesheavilyontheirindividualabilitytoread
organisationsandmakeeffectiveinterventionswhicharerelevantandsensitiveto
theorganisationalcontext.WhereHRpractitionersarerebadgedintoanOD
role,itisparticularlyimportantthattheyarenotsetuptofail.
Finally,ODhassurvivedandevolvedthroughembracingnewchallenges,new
disciplinesandnewparadigms.Manypractitionershavealsodevelopedmoreofa
businessfocusthantheirforerunners.Whilethequestfororganisational
effectivenessandhighperformance,agilestructuresandprocesses,effective
leadershipandthechallengeofchangeremaintopprioritiesforseniormanagers,
therequirementforODissurelysettogrow.
Bibliography 65
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Appendix 1: OD Definitions
Aplannedeffort,organisationwide,managedfromthetop,toincrease
organisationeffectivenessandhealth,throughplannedinterventionsinthe
organisationsprocessesusingbehaviouralscienceknowledge.(Beckhard,1969)
Aresponsetochange,acomplexeducationalstrategyintendedtochangethe
beliefs,attitudes,valuesandstructureoforganisationssothattheycanbetter
adapttonewtechnologies,marketsandchallengesandthedizzyingrateof
changeitself.(Bennis,1969)
Aprocessofplannedsystemchangethatattemptstomakeorganisationsbetterable
toattaintheirshortandlongtermobjectives.Thisisachievedbyteachingtheorgan
isationmemberstomanagetheirorganisationalprocesses,structureandculturemore
effectively.Facts,conceptsandtheoryfromthebehaviouralsciencesareutilisedto
fashionboththeprocessandthecontentoftheinterventions.(Frenchetal.,2000)
Aplannedchangeprocess,managedfromthetop,takingintoaccountboththe
technicalandhumansidesoftheorganisation.(Schein,1992)
Asystemwideapplicationofbehaviouralscienceknowledgetotheplanneddevelop
mentandreinforcementoforganisationalstrategies,structures,andprocessesfor
improvinganorganisationseffectiveness.(CummingsandWorley,2001)
Organisationaldevelopmentisattemptingtodeveloporganisationswiththe
abilityandwillingnesstobecontinuallyreflexiveabouttheirownhuman
processesandsocialstructures.(HardacreandPeck,inPeck2005)
Arisingoutofthehumanrelations,cultureandorganisationalbehaviourschools
ofthought,ODisasystematicprocessforapplyingbehaviouralscienceprinciples
andpracticesandisdirectedatorganisationalimprovement.(Holbeche,2006)
ODisaleadingbehaviouraldisciplineforteaching,researchandpracticedevoted
toapplyingitscorevaluesatseniorlevelsoforganisationsbyadvancingthe
importanceandparticipationofhumancapitalinthedesignandchangeprocess
whilesolvingmajorinternalandexternalstrategicissuesfacingorganisations.
(GreinerandCummings,2004)
Appendix 2: OD Glossary 69
Appendix 2: OD Glossary
Actionresearch:alearningprocessbywhichreal,practicalchangestakeplacein
whatpeopledothroughaprocessofexaminingandreflectingonhowthey
interactwiththeworldandwithothersinit,andonthediscoursesinwhich
theyinterpretandunderstandtheirworld.Itisaprocessinwhichparticipants
cometounderstandtheirpositionlocatedinitspolitical,culturalandsocial
situation,andsocancometotransformit.(CentreforActionResearchin
ProfessionalPractice,UniversityofBath)
AppreciativeInquiry(AI):thecooperativesearchforthebestinpeople,their
organizations,andtheworldaroundthem.Itinvolvessystematicdiscoveryof
whatgivesasystemlifewhenitismosteffectiveandcapableineconomic,
ecological,andhumanterms.AIinvolvestheartandpracticeofasking
questionsthatstrengthenasystemscapacitytoheightenpositivepotential.It
mobilizesinquirythroughcraftinganunconditionalpositivequestionoften
involvinghundredsorsometimesthousandsofpeople.(Cooperriderand
Whitneyaccessedathttp://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu/intro/definition.cfm)
Autopoiesis:alllivingthingssharethesameorganisationknownasautopoiesis.
Anautopoieticorganisationisanetworkofproductionprocessesinwhichthe
functionofeachcomponentistoparticipateintheproductionor
transformationoftheothercomponentsinthenetwork.Inthiswaytheentire
networkcontinuallymakesitself.(Chapman,2002,p.41)
Chaord:anyselforganizing,adaptive,nonlinear,complexsystem,whether
physical,biological,orsocial,thebehaviourofwhichexhibitscharacteristicsof
bothorderandchaosor,looselytranslatedtobusinessterminology,
cooperationandcompetition.(Hock,1995)
Complexadaptivesystems:acollectionofindividualagentswhohavethe
freedomtoactinwaysthatarenotalwaystotallypredictableandwhose
actionsareinterconnectedsuchthatoneagentsactionschangesthecontextfor
otheragents.(Plsek,2003)
Emergentproperties:relatetothewholesystemandarenotpresentinthe
constituentpartsiethewholeisgreaterthanthesumoftheparts.
Entropy:theamountofdisorderinasystemwhichisrunningdown.(Peck,2005
p.146)
Farfromcertainty:whereneitheragreementabouttheattributesofthesystem
existsnorcertaintyaboutthenatureoftheinterconnectionsisavailable,thiscan
becharacterisedasthezoneofchaos.(Stacey,1999)
FutureSearch: aplanningmeetingthathelpspeopletransformtheircapabilityfor
actionveryquickly.Themeetingistaskfocused.Itbringstogether60to80
peopleinoneroomorhundredsinparallelrooms.Itbringspeoplefromall
walksoflifeintothesameconversationthosewithresources,expertise,
formalauthorityandneed.Theymeetfor16hoursspreadacrossthreedays.
Peopletellstoriesabouttheirpast,presentanddesiredfuture.Through
dialoguetheydiscovertheircommonground.Onlythendotheymakeconcrete
actionplans.(www.futuresearch.net/method/whatis/index.cfm)
Homeostasis:referstotheabilityofcomplexadaptivesystemstomaintaincertain
governingvariableswithindefinedlimits,forexamplebodytemperature.
(Chapman,2002,p.42)
Largegroupinterventions:orwholesystemeventsaredesignedtoengage
membersacrossawholesysteminthinkingandreflectingandsomovingto
planningactionandactingtogether.(BunkerandAlban,1997)
Largescalechange:theemergentprocessofmovingalargecollectionof
individuals,groups,andorganisationstowardavisionofafundamentallynew
futurestate,bymeansofhighleveragekeythemes,distributedleadership,
massiveandactiveengagementofstakeholders,andmutuallyreinforcing
changesinmultiplesystemsandprocesses,leadingtosuchdeepchangesin
attitudes,beliefsandbehavioursthatsustainabilitybecomeslargelyinherent.
(Plsek,2003)
Nonlinearity:anonlineareffectoccurswhentheoutputisdisproportionateto
theinput.(SweeneyinPeck,2005p.145)
OpenSpaceTechnology:wascreatedinthemid1980sbyorganizational
consultantHarrisonOwenwhenhediscoveredthatpeopleattendinghis
conferenceslovedthecoffeebreaksbetterthantheformalsessions.Combining
thatinsightwithhisexperienceoflifeinanAfricanvillage,Owencreateda
newformofconferencing.Sittinginalargecircle,participantslearntocreate
theirownconference.Anyonewhowantstoinitiateadiscussionoractivity,
writesitdownonalargesheetofpaperandthenannouncesittothegroup.
Appendix 2: OD Glossary 71
Theyposttheirproposedworkshoponawall.Wheneveryonewhowantsto
haspostedtheirinitialofferings,itistimeforthevillagemarketplace:
participantsputtogethertheirpersonalschedulesfortheremainderofthe
conference.ThemostbasicprincipleisthateveryonewhocomestoanOpen
Spaceconferencemustbepassionateaboutthetopicandwillingtotakesome
responsibilityforcreatingthingsoutofthatpassion.(www.co
intelligence.org/POpenspace.html)
OpenSystemsTheory:conceptualisingorganisationsaslivingsystemswitha
permeableboundarytotheenvironment.Changeinonesystemorpartimpacts
othersystemsorparts.
Organisingrelations:Theaimofscienceisnotthingsinthemselves,butthe
relationbetweenthings.Outsidetheserelationsthereisnorealityknowable.
(Poincare,1958)
Positivism:afamilyofphilosophiescharacterisedbyanextremelypositive
evaluationofscienceandscientificmethod.(Reese,1980,p.450)
Postmodernism:thedeathofthegrandnarrativeofsocietyandhistoryand
celebratesthegrowthofmultipleandoftencompetingaccountsofwhoweare,
wherewehavecomefromandwherewearegoingitleadsODpractitioners
tofocusontheidentificationofstakeholdersandtheircontrastingperspectives
andthepotentialfortheseperspectivestosparkunexpectedyetfruitfuloutputs
whenbroughttogether.(Peck,2005,p.5)
Punctuatedequilibrium:naturalendogenousfeatureoftheevolutionaryprocess
occurswhentimesofrelativecalmandstabilityareinterruptedbystormy
restructuringperiods,orpunctuationpoints.(Beinhocker,1997,McKinsey
Quarterly)
RealTimeStrategicChange:developedbyJacobs(1994)tocreatean
organisationspreferredfutureandsustainitovertime.Itishelpfulwhere
issuesarecomplexandilldefined.Itisawholeorganisationapproachandcan
alsoincludeexternalstakeholders,sometimesinvolvingupto1000people.For
the10phasesandsixprinciplesofRTSCseeJacobswebsite:
www.rwjacobs.com/phases.html.
Receptivecontext:aprerequisitefororganisations,ascomplexadaptivesystems,
toproducecoherentbehaviour,toselforganiseandtocoevolve.(Peck,2005
p.147).
Selforganisingbehaviour:thetendencywithincomplexsystemsforpatternsof
observablecoherentbehaviourtoemergefromwhatinitiallyappeartobe
randominteractions.(Peck,2005,p.146)
Selfreferencing:thekeytofacilitatingorderlychangeinaneverchanging
environmentorganisationsrelyonaclearsenseoftheirownidentity,a
compositeoftheirvalues,competencies,experiences,successesandfailures
(Wheatley,2006).
Socialconstructionism:arguesthatallofoursocialinstitutionsincludingour
organisationsarephenomenathatcomeaboutasaconsequenceofthelocal
conversations(intalkorintext)thattakeplacebetweenparticipantsinthese
institutions.Themeaningsthatweattributetoorganisationsarethusmultiple
(becauseeachofushasourown),negotiated(becauseweseektofindcommon
groundwithothers),contested(becausefindingsuchcommongroundcanbe
difficult)andtransient(becausewearefrequentlydiscoveringnewmeaningsin
theseconversationsanddiscardingoldones).(Peck,2005,p.4)
Softsystemsmethodology(SSM):astructuredwaytoestablishalearning
systemforinvestigatingmessyproblems.(Chapman,2002p.61)
System:takentorefertoasetofelementsjoinedtogethertomakeacomplex
whole.(Chapman,2002,p.29)
Tgroups:Tgrouptrainingfocusedonthewayinwhichpeopleingroups
understandhowtheirownbehaviourimpactsonotherindividualsandthus
affectsgroupprocesses.(Peck,2005p.10)
Transformationalchange:multidimensional,multilevel,qualitative
discontinuous,radicalorganizationalchangeinvolvingaparadigmaticshift.
(LevyandMerry,1986)
WorldCaf:aninnovativeyetsimplemethodologyforhostingconversations
aboutquestionsthatmatter.Theseconversationslinkandbuildoneachother
aspeoplemovebetweengroups,crosspollinateideas,anddiscovernew
insightsintothequestionsorissuesthataremostimportantintheirlife,work,
orcommunity.Asaprocess,theWorldCafcanevokeandmakevisiblethe
collectiveintelligenceofanygroup,thusincreasingpeoplescapacityfor
effectiveactioninpursuitofcommonaims(www.theworldcafe.com/what.htm)

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Fish or Bird?

The Institute for Employment Studies

The IES HR Network

Who this report is for

2 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

About the Authors 3

About the Authors

4 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

6 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

1.1.1 Root 1: The human relations movement

1.1.2 Root 2: Training and development

1.1.3 Root 3: Employee feedback

1.1.4 Root 4: Action research and change

1.1.5 Root 5: Systems thinking

8 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

1.2.1 Organisation design

1.2.2 Organisational culture

1.2.3 Learning organisations

10 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

1.2.4 Positive psychology

1.2.5 Transformational, discontinuous and non-linear change

1.2.6 New leadership styles

1.2.7 Drawing on the new sciences

12 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

14 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

1.3.2 OD in the ascendance

1.3.3 Where next?

16 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

Figure 1.1: History of OD

Social and political backdrop Economic backdrop Key influences

1940s 1940s 1940s

WWII Group dynamics

Mass production &

1970s Open systems theory

1990s Theory of practice

Anti-capitalism riots in London

1940s 1940s 1940s

Lewin (1890-1947) T groups

1950s Survey research methods

Trist & Bamforth (1951)

1960s Questionnaires for 1960s

Lawrence & Lorsch (1967) Process consultation (1969)

Participatory research 1980s

Figure 1.2: Different levels of OD

Second-order Job design

2.1 What is OD?

20 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

2.1.1 Core OD concepts

Figure 2.1: Core OD concepts

Change, change, change

Enhancing organisational effectiveness

22 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

An organisation-wide scope and a systemic approach

2.1.2 Fuzzy boundaries

24 Fish or Bird? Perspectives on OD

What is the purpose of OD?

What is its scope?

Where does it sit in the organisation?

Successful OD is a partnership with key business leaders. It often crosses traditional

What are some defining characteristics of OD work?

1. Taking a whole systems view.

2. Adopting a predominantly humanistic approach.

3. Being business-focused and data driven.