American Journal of Ethnomedicine, 2014, Vol. 1, No.

4, 186-205
Available online at http://www.ajethno.com
American Journal of Ethnomedicine

Assessment of Ethnomedicinal Plants in

Shivalik Hills of Northwest Himalaya, India
Usha devi*, Pankaj Sharma and J.C. Rana

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Regional Station, Phagli, Shimla

(HP) 171 004, India

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to document the traditional knowledge on the

utilization pattern of medicinal plants from the Shivalik hills of north western
Himalaya. The local stakeholders were interviewed and data on the species such
as the botanical name, family, local name, habit, part used and their traditional
methods of drugs administration in different ailments was presented. The
informant consensus factor (ICF) and use value (UV) was calculated to know the
relative importance of each species. The paper enumerated143 species belonging
to 123 genera and 59 families. Ailments were categorized into 17 categories. Most
of the species were used for treating dermatological disorders followed by
gastrointestinal, skeleto-muscular, respiratory and common fever etc. 58 %
species were reported from wild sources, 16 % were from cultivated home
gardens and 26 % were collected from both cultivated and wild sources. The use
value of plant species were ranged from 0.15 to 1.70. The informant consensus
factors for different ailment category ranged from 0.67 to 0.83. The study
concluded that the systematic documentation and conservation of local medicinal
plants and traditional herbal knowledge will be helpful for botanical and
pharmacological research in future.

Keywords- Ethnomedicinal plants, Himalaya, Informants consensus factor,

Shivalik hills, Use value.

INTRODUCTION its efficacy, affordable cost and minimal

According to WHO 80% of the world
population, especially in developing
countries, rely chiefly on indigenous
medicine for their primary healthcare1-3.
Globally, about 85% of all medications are
derived from plants for primary health care4.
Use of medicinal plants is more beneficial
than synthetic and modern medicines as of
side effects5. The traditional medicine
systems that based on plants is increasing in
recent years and have a respectable position
today, especially in developing countries,
where modern health service is limited6.
In India since the Vedic period, the
use of plants for therapeutic purpose has
been practiced7. The ethnic and rural people
of India have preserved a bulk of traditional
knowledge of medicinal uses of plants

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American Journal of Ethnomedicine ________________________________________ ISSN: 2348-9502
growing around them8. The Indian
Himalayas have a great wealth of medicinal
plants and traditional medicinal knowledge9.
Himachal Pradesh, a northwestern
Himalayan state is well known for its rich
repository of medicinal plants10. Out of
more than 3500 higher plants reported to
occur in the state11, nearly 1500 species have
been valued for their medicinal and aromatic
properties10. Because of lack of proper
research and record we are losing this
traditional knowledge with succeeding
generations12. Hence, their documentation
and assessment not only helps to preserve
the valuable information for future
generations, but has been considered as a
high priority all over the world13-15 to
support the discoveries of news drugs of
modern medicines in healthcare system16-18.
A number of studies have earlier
been carried out on the traditional use of
medicinal plants in this region of
Himalaya10,19-26. However, the traditional
knowledge is eroding due to rapid
urbanization and loss of traditional cultural
systems. Thus, the present work is done with
an aim to document the traditional
knowledge on the utilization pattern of
medicinal plants from the Shivalik hills of
Himachal Pradesh by using qualitative and
quantitative methods. To estimate the use
variability of medicinal plants from the
region, the informant consensus factor
(henceforth ICF) and use value (henceforth
UV) was also calculated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The state of Himachal Pradesh is
situated in the northwest India Himalaya. It
lies between latitudes 302244 N - search of grazing pastures. The inhabitant of
331240 N and longitude 754555 E - Shivalik range collects important plant
790420 E with an area of 55, 673 km2. species from their surroundings according to
Geo-physically it has been divided into
lower or outer Himalayas, middle or inner
Himalayas and upper or greater Himalayas
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(Figure 1). Lower or outer Himalayas are
also known as Shivalik hills. The Shivalik
hills also known as Manak Parbat in ancient
times and it is the southernmost and
geologically youngest east-west mountain
chain of the Himalayas. Its altitude ranges
from 350 m to 1500 m a.s.l. (above sea
level). The average rainfall in this area is
about 1500-1800 mm27. These are composed
of sandstone and conglomerate rock
formations, which are the solidified detritus
of the great range in their rear28. The climate
in the area is subtropical to mild warm
temperate. Shivalik hills are considered as
the gold mine of biodiversity where
vegetation of several distinct zones and
forest types like dry evergreen forests, broad
leaved mix forests, scrub land and grassy
pasture land are predominant. Pine forests
are found in the steep dry slopes and in the
lower regions along with Shores Robusta,
Phyllanthus emblica, Aegle marmelos and
pomegranate, olive, oleander etc. are
present. Middle and upper Shivalik have
grassland type of vegetation.
Majority of population of the
Shivalik hills is rural in character. In
addition to livestock rearing, the inhabitants
generally practice traditional farming and
grow Rice, Maize, Wheat, Millets, Mustered
are the main crops and other cash crops like
peas, potatoes. Number of castes and ethnic
groups viz., Brahmins, Mahajans, Rajputs,
Kirths, Kumhars, Lohars, Muhasa, Dumna,
Kolis, Halis, Chamars and migratory
shepherds like Gaddis and Gujjars is
inhabited the area, each of which have its
own diverse religion, cultural and social
traditions. The shepherds go to higher
altitudes in summers along with their herds
and return to Shivalik hills in winter in
their traditional lore.
American Journal of Ethnomedicine ________________________________________ ISSN: 2348-9502
Data collection
The present study was conducted in
the rural pockets of Shivalik range of
Himachal Pradesh. Political boundaries of
this range are confined to Una, Bilaspur,
Hamirpur, parts of Solan and Sirmaur and
lower parts of Mandi and Kangra districts.
Study was conducted between August 2011
to August 2013 through random selection of
the representing areas. The information on
medicinal plants and their traditional uses
was gathered through semi-structured
questionnaires with local knowledgeable
people and Vaidhyas (Local medical
practitioners/healers) as they have a sound
knowledge of medicinal uses of plants
growing in their vicinity. Total 20 resource
people were interviewed through semi-
structured questionnaires of which 19 were
male and only one were female. All the
resource persons identified were in the age
group of 3585 years out of which six were
between age group of 30 to 50 and rests
were above 50 years old (Table 1).
Most of the plants were identified in
loco and rest were brought to laboratory and
identified through the regional floras11, 29-31
and available literature in the library of
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
Phagli, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. Standard
procedures were adopted for collection,
preserving and identifying the specimens32.
The data on ethnomedicinal plants such as
the botanical name, family, local name,
habit, part used and their traditional methods
of drugs administration in different ailments
are presented (Table 2).
Informant consensus factor (ICF)
The ICF was used to analyze general
use of the plants in the study area. This
highlights the agreement in the use of plants
to the ailment categories between the plant
users. To calculate this factor the diseases
were broadly categories in different ailment
categories33 e.g. (1) Dermatological, (2)
Gastro-intestinal, (3) Dental care, (4)
Page 186-205
General health problem, (5) Renal
complaint, (6) Poisonous bites, (7) Eyes
problem, (8) Genito-urinary complaint, (9)
Skeleto-muscular system complaint, (10)
Respiratory system disease, (11) Endocrinal
disorder, (12) Ear, nose, throat problem, (13)
Liver problem, (14) Common fever, (15)
Circulatory system, (16) Malaria and (17)
Hair care.
The ICF was calculated by following
formula given by Heinrich et al., 199833.
ICF= NurNt/ Nur1
Where Nur is the number of use-
reports for a particular ailment category and
Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a
particular ailment category by all
informants. The value of ICF ranges from 0
to 1. A high value (close to 1) indicates that
fewer species are used by a large proportion
of the informants. A low value indicates that
the informants disagree on the taxa to be
used in the treatment within an ailment
category.
Use value (UV)
The relative importance of each
medicinal plant species was calculated by
the use value (UV) which was calculated by
using the following formula given by
Phillips et al., 199434.
UV=U/N
Where UV is the use value of a
species, U is the number of use reports cited
by each informant for a given plant species
and N represent the total number of
informers interviewed. It is helpful in
determining the plants with the highest use
(most frequently indicated) in the treatment
of an ailment. UVs are high when there are
many use-reports for a plant, implying that
the plant is of high importance and low
value indicates their few use-reports and its
comparatively less importance. However,
use value does not distinguish whether a
plant is used for single or multiple purposes.
American Journal of Ethnomedicine ________________________________________ ISSN: 2348-9502
RESULTS
Diversity and utilization pattern
As this part of Himalaya is rich in
medicinal plant diversity, a total of 143 plant
species belonging to 123 genera and 59
families have been recorded and enumerated
(Table 2). Out of these plants species, 42
were trees, 30 shrubs, 65 herbs, and 7 were
climbers (Figure 2). Major plant families in
the study area were Asteraceae (18 spp.),
Poaceae (9 spp. each), Papilionaceae (7
spp.), Rutaceae (7 spp.), Moraceae (6 spp.),
Brassicaceae, Caesalpiniaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Solanaceae (5 spp. each),
Liliaceae and Lamiaceae (4 spp. each),
Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Arecaceae,
Combretaceae, Meliaceae, Mimosaceae,
Myrtaceae (3 spp. each).Rest of families
were represented by one or two species.
Majority of genera were monotypic except
Ficus (4 spp.), Cassia, Citrus, Phoenix,
Terminalia (3 spp. each) and Acacia,
Amaranths, Artemisia, Asparagus, Bauhinia,
Brassica, Calotropis, Tagetes, Ziziphus (2
spp. each).
Based on the information so
revealed, 67 ailments were reported and
categorized into 17 ailment categories
(Table 3). Most of the species were used for
treating dermatological (74 spp.),
gastrointestinal (68 spp.), skeleto-muscular
(26 spp.), respiratory (25 spp.), common
fever (21 spp.), dental (20 spp.), liver
problem (18 spp. each), genito-urinary and
endocrinal disorders (17 spp. each). For eyes
and renal complaint only two species were
used.
Different plant parts used for the
treatment of various ailments viz., Leaves
(45.5% spp. i.e. 65 spp.) were found to be
the most frequently used plant part for
herbal preparation followed by root, bark,
seed, fruit, whole plant, stem, flower, aerial
part, rhizome and latex etc. Wood, pulp,
resin and gum were least used plant parts.
(Figure 3). Various modes of preparation of
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herbal remedies were reported e.g.,
decoction, juice, powder, paste, oil and
whole plant extract etc. Most of the herbal
preparations were administered through oral
mode in the form of decoction (37 %),
extraction (34 %), juice (8 %) and powder
(17 %). Topical application was also quite
prevalent mode which was administered in
paste or poultice forms (42 %). Some others
are applied on teeth or used as tooth brush
(13 %).
For making powder, plant parts are
dried in shade and grinded into fine powder.
Whereas decoction is prepared by boiling
the plant parts or powder in water until the
volume of the water reduced to minimum or
required amount. However, extract of the
plant part is prepared by straining well-
pounded fresh plant parts. Citing few
examples of the different forms used are
decoction of rhizome of Acorus calamus L.
is used for cough, asthma and joint pains
and of bark of Albizia lebbek (L.) Willd. Is
used for boils, cough and as blood purifier.
Extraction of fresh leaves of Adhatoda
vasica Nees is used for cold, cough, fever,
asthma, dysentery and joint pains.The paste
form is commonly applied externally on
cuts, boils, burns, swellings, wounds, etc.
e.g. the leaves and bark paste of Melia
azedarach L. is externally applied for skin
problems (allergy and itching). Zanthoxylum
armatum DC, Adhatoda vasica Nees,
Juglans regia L. and Psidium guajava L.
etc. are used as tooth brush. Mostly the
herbal formulations of plants were taken
once or twice a day; depending on age,
health and types of ailment. Out of the total
plants reported, 83 species (58 %) were
reported from wild sources, 23 (16 %) were
cultivated in home gardens and 37 species
(26 %) were collected from both cultivated
and wild sources (Table 2).
Use value (UV)
Medicinal plants used frequently
showed higher use value as compared to
American Journal of Ethnomedicine ________________________________________ ISSN: 2348-9502
others less used medicinal plants (Table 2).
The use value ranges from 0.15 to 1.70.
Sixteen species have use value above 1.00.
Among these Melia azedarach has highest
use value (1.70) with 34 use-reports as it is
frequently used for skin ailments and dental
problem, followed by Aloe vera (1.55),
Adhatoda vasica (1.50), Ocimum sanctum
(1.30), Cyperus rotundus (1.20), Cynodon
dactylon and Justicia adhatoda (1.15 each)
etc. Sixty four species have use value
between 0.50-1.00 and notable among these
are; Morus alba, Terminalia chebula,
Acacia catechu and Agave americana Sixty
five species have use value less than 0.50.
Some of these are Aegle marmelos, Avena
sativa and Cassia fistula etc. Most rarely
used plant species were Bidens pilosa,
Brassica rapa, Tragopogon gracilis,
Tribulus terrestris which have use value of
0.15 for each; as these species were
mentioned by few stakeholders.
Informants consensus factor (ICF)
The ICF of local knowledge for
ailment treatment depended on the
availability of plant species and the
occurrence of diseases in the study area. In
our study, the informant consensus factors
of medicinal plant usage ranging from 0.67
to 0.83 per ailment category (Table 3).
Seven ailment categories have ICF above
0.80. The consensus analysis revealed that
the dermatological disorders (422 use-
reports, 74 species) have the highest ICF
factor of 0.83 followed by the gastro-
intestinal ailments (0.82). The category of
plants used to treat hair care have the lowest
degree of consensus (ICF=0.67) and only
seven reports were recorded for three
species.
DISCUSSION
In Himachal Pradesh, more than 90
percent people live in the rural areas. In
spite of having modern healthcare facilities
Page 186-205
available, the village folks still rely on
traditional medicines as these play an
important role in daily life and are less
expensive and often regarded as being more
effective. Results in the present study
showed that the area is rich in medicinal
plant diversity (Table 2, Plate 1). Asteraceae
and Poaceae are the dominant families to
treat various ailments as these families are
wildly distributed in the area.
Oral or topical modes of drug
administration are mostly used in the area
which permit quick physiological action and
enhance the curative power the herbal
preparations35. The most cited plant parts
used were the leaves. As use of leaves and
aerial parts is safe and sustainable35, 36, as it
does not influence the survival and
continuity of medicinal plants, in
comparison with the collection of
underground parts, seeds, fruits, flowers and
whole plant, which leads to destructive
effects on the growth of plant population in
nature37. The predominance in the use of
leaves for preparation of traditional herbal
remedies has been agreed with other studies
of the Himalaya26,38. Roots were also
extensively extracted for making different
herbal preparations to treat different human
aliments and comparatively high utilization
of roots has affected the survival and
ecological aspect of the plants. This has put
them at a risk of extinction because of the
damages inflicted in the course of uprooting
the species37,39.
UV was calculated to evaluate the
importance of medicinal plants in terms of
their traditional uses in the area. This
quantitative method evaluates the relative
importance of each medicinal species based
on its relative use among informants. The
species having higher use values are
frequently used for a particular ailment or all
ailments altogether should be further
screened for their ethno pharmacological
studies to see any valued compound in the
particular species. Similarly, a species
American Journal of Ethnomedicine ________________________________________ ISSN: 2348-9502
having less use value should not be ignored
as failing to declare them to the next
generations could raise the threat of
diminishing of the invaluable traditional
knowledge40.
Most of the plant species reported
from the Shivalik hills were also reported in
other studies in different parts of India44-53.
It has been observed that some of the
medicinal plants reported for the treatment
of various ailments have also been reported
from the area studied with similar uses. This
is imperative because similar plant use by
different communities from different areas
may be a trustworthy indication of their
curative properties. On the other hand,
information on biological activities and
chemical constituents of most of the species
is also available9,54-56 and the scientific
validation of these remedies may help in
discovering new drugs from these plants.
Highest informant consensus factor
was recorded for treatment of
dermatological disease (ICF 0.83) and
gastro-intestinal ailments (ICF 0.82 each).
This may suggest the high prevalence of
dermatological disease and gastro-intestinal
ailments41 in the study area, indicating
greater homogeneity among informants for
these ailments. These findings are in
compliance with studies from Indian
Himalayas42,43.
We found that informants knew
many more useful plants than they actually
used. For example, Ainsliaea aptera,
Amaranthus spinosus, Lathyrus aphaca and
Tragopogon gracilis were not commonly
used, however some informants mentioned
their high medicinal uses. There appears to
be a definite risk of knowledge loss of the
rare uses of plants if nothing is done to
identify folk herbal practices.
Furthermore, the traditional
medicines are impacted by urbanization,
rapid socioeconomic and cultural changes.
The indigenous knowledge of medicinal
plants transmitted orally from one
Page 186-205
generation to next generation along the
family line and mainly through sons58,59.
Moreover, they try not to leak the
knowledge out of the family
circle. Furthermore lack of interest in the
younger generation cause serious threats to
the existence of the traditional medicines
knowledge. In addition, the natural forest
cover which provides protection to the
medicinal plants is shrinking with time due
to expanding agricultural demands. Fuel
wood extraction at large scale and
agricultural expansion along with seasonal
drought are main factors in reduction of
medicinal plants35,57. In the present study, it
is the observation that most of herbal
practitioners gathered medicinal plants from
the wild. However, few important species
that grow in wild were also found to be
cultivated on farmlands e.g., Aloe vera,
Asparagus spp., Centella asiatica, Justicia
adhatoda, Rauvolfia serpentina, Vitex
nigundo etc. But the practice of cultivating
medicinal plants is very little in the rural
parts of this area. This could be due to the
lack of knowledge among ordinary people
about the importance of wild medicinal
plants because most of them are only known
by few elderly knowledgeable people and
traditional healers. The local communities
are not giving much attention for
management and sustainable utilization of
medicinal plants.
CONCLUSION
Motivation to local community to
grow medicinal plant species by mixing with
different crops can help to protect the wild
medicinal plants from overexploitation. In
addition to this, most of the plants have been
an important source of precursors and
products used in a variety of industries,
including those of pharmaceuticals, food,
cosmetics and agrochemicals60. These
species need to be cultivated and conserved
extensively through various government and
American Journal of Ethnomedicine ________________________________________ ISSN: 2348-9502
non-government agencies through different
ex-situ or in-situ programmes. This will help
in boosting the local economy of the region
as well as conserving these valuable
medicinal resources. Therefore the
systematic documentation of local medicinal
plants and traditional herbal knowledge is
helpful for botanical and pharmacological
research in future alongwith possible
phytochemical investigation which may
highlight their true value so that they can be
managed and conserved for the benefit of
the indigenous communities as well as for
welfare of the mankind.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to the local
inhabitants for their willingness to share the
valuable knowledge and for their
wholehearted co-operation.
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Province, China. Asian J Plant Sci 2006; 5:
646-653.
41. Sood SK, Ram Nath, Kalia DC.
Ethnobotany of cold desert tribes of Lahoul-
Spiti (N.W. Himalaya), (Deep Publications,
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42. Namsa ND, Manda M, Tangjang S, Mandal
SC. Ethnobotany of the Monpa ethnic group
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at Arunachal Pradesh, India. J Ethnobiol
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44. Majumdar K, Saha R, Datta BK, Bhakta T.
Medicinal plants prescribed by different
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45. Panghal M, Arya V, Yadav S, Kumar S,
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46. Rout SD, Panda SK. Ethnomedicinal plant
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47. Ayyanara M, Ignacimuthu S. Ethnobotanical
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48. Barurial J, Sarmah JN. Ethnomedicinal Plant
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49. Khongsai M, Saikia SP, Kayang H.
Ethnomedicinal Plant used by different
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50. Choudhury S, Sharma P, Choudhury MD,
Sharma GD. Ethnomedicinal plants used by
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51. Das S, Choudhury MD. Ethnomedicinal
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found in Tripura, India. J Med Plant Res
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pharmacy research 2013; 6: 284-297.
53. Sinhababu A, Banerjee A. Ethno-botanical
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of Bankura Districts, West Bengal. Indian J
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plants. Vols. I IV (Text) + V-VIII (Plates),
(Reprinted by Bishen Singh, Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehradun), 1984.
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Biodiversity in medicinal and aromatic
plants in India: Conservation and
Utilization, (National Bureau of Plant
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Properties, (Science Publishers, USA), 2005.
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An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants
in Mana Angetu District, southeastern
Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008; 4: 10.
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Table 1. Age group of informants

Age group Male Female

>70 3 -
61-70 5
51-60 6 -
41-50 3 1
30-40 2 -

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Table 2. Description of the plants with traditional medicinal uses and Use Value (UV) in Shivalik hills of Himachal Pradesh
Local Part
Taxon Family Habit Traditional medicinal uses UV
name used
Rt, Lf, Root decoction is used in cough and cold. Seeds paste is used for joint
Abrus precatori L. Papilionaceae Ratti S 0.75
Sd pains. Leaf paste is used for skin problems (itching)
Paste of fresh root used for joint pain. Paste of bark is used on wounds
Acacia catechu (L. f.) Rt, Bk,
Mimosaceae Khair T and helps in quick healing. Wood is used against mouth sours. Tree 0.95
Willd.** Wd, St
twigs are used as tooth brush for scouring teeth
Acacia nilotica (L.)Willd. Mimosaceae Kikar T Bk & Lf Decoction of bark and leaves is used in fever and dysentery 0.55
The leaves extraction is used for leucorrhoea and diarrhoea. Paste of
Lf, Rt, leaves is used in case of scorpion sting. Decoction of whole plant is
Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Puthkanda H 1.10
Wp used for curing skin problem (itching, skin eruption). Decoction of root
is used for jaundice
Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae Bach H Rz Decoction of rhizome is used for cough, asthma and joint pains 0.70

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Belpatra, Fruits pulp is used for diarrhoea, dysentery and indigestion. Extraction
Rutaceae T Fr, Lf 0.45
Serr.** Bel of young leaves is used in fever
The pulp of plant is taken orally as blood purifier, constipation, acidity,
Agavaceae
Agave americana L.** Ramban S Pulp as liver tonic and paste applied on skin problems (itching, boils and 0.95
pimples)
Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Nila fulnu H Lf Leaf extract is applied on boils, burns, cuts, sores and body swelling 0.40
Ainsliaea aptera DC. Asteraceae Karvi Booti H Rt Powder of roots is used for stomach ache and diarrhoea. 0.20
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich Neel- Leaf extraction is used to cure fever and mouth ulcers and paste for
Lamiaceae H Lf 0.35
ex Benth kanthi joint pains
Albizia lebbek (L.)Willd.** Mimosaceae. Darek T Bk Decoction of bark is used for boils, cough and as blood purifier 0.50
Leaf pulp is used to treat of diabetes, jaundice and vermifuge. Poultice
Aloe vera (L.) Webb. &
Liliaceae Kwarya S Lf Pulp of pulp is applied on fractured bones and as cooling agent on skin 1.55
Berth**
infections, burn
Amaranthus caudatus
Amaranthaceae Chaulyi H Lf Leaf paste is used against cuts, wounds, boils and burns 0.25
L.*
Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Chaulyi H Wp Plant decoction is used in gonorrhoea and snake-bite 0.30
Anaphalis busua (Buch.-
Asteraceae Ruighass H Ap Paste of aerial part is used for bruises, cuts and wounds 0.35
Ham. ex D. Don) DC.

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Anethum graveolens L.* Apiaceae Soya H Fr Decoction of fruits are used in acidity, indigestion and stomach-ache 0.25
Latex is applied for skin problems (ringworm infection). Stems
Lx, St,
Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae Barbhand H extraction is used in diabetes and that of leaves is used for jaundice, 0.80
Lf
malaria and fever
Artemisia cappillaris Leaves powder with ghee (clarified butter) massage on painful joint
Asteraceae Jhau H Lf 0.30
Thunb. pain.
Artemisia roxburghiana Plant decoction is used in fever. Plant powder is used as vermifuge.
Asteraceae Jaau S Ap 0.60
Wall. ex Besser Plant paste used on allergy.
Root powder is given with milk and ghee (clarified butter) and
Asparagus adscendens
Liliaceae Sanspai, S Rt, Lf considered as an aphrodisiac. Leaf powder are used for the treatment 0.65
Roxb.**
of dysentery
Asparagus racemosus Root powder is taken with milk as aphrodisiac. Extraction of roots is
Liliaceae Shatavari S Rt 0.80
Willd.** used in diarrhoea and diabetes
Paste of seeds used for allergies. The seeds are fried in ghee (clarified
Avena sativa L.** Poaceae Jayee H Sd 0.45
butter) and milk used as aphrodisiac
Bambusa bambos (L.)
Poaceae Bans H Rt Root decoction is used for diabetes 0.20
Voss
Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae - H Lf, Rt Powder of leaves and roots are used for cough and fever 0.25
Powder of flower used for constipation. Bark paste used on wounds,
Bauhinia purpurea L.** Caesalpiniaceae Karyala T Fl, Bk 0.55
cuts and sores
Bauhinia variegata L.** Caesalpiniaceae Karyala T Bk Bark paste is used in skin problem (itching, blister) 0.30
Decoction of bark is used for eye inflammation, fever and for blood 0.65
Berberis lycium Royle Berberidaceae Kashmal S Bk, St
purification. Peeled off stem considered good for scouring teeth
Extraction of whole plant is used on cuts, wounds and other skin
Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae - H Wp 0.15
problem
Boehmeria platyphylla Decoction of leaves used for dysentery. Leaves are used for scouring
Urticaceae Handa S Lf 0.55
D.Don teeth
Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae - H Rt, Lf The decoction of leaves is used for jaundice 0.20
The juice of bark is used in anaemia, dysentery and as tonic. Gum from
Bombax ceiba L. Bombacaceae Simbal T Bk, Gm 0.60
stem given to cure leucorrhoea
Leaf extract is used for curing constipation and to expel abdominal
Brassica campestris L.* Brassicaceae Sarson H Lf 0.30
worm
Brassica rapa L.* Brassicaceae Shaljam H Sd Seeds powder is used for kidney stone 0.15

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Extraction of leaves and flowers is used for cough, cold and fever.
Butea monosperma Palah, Lf & Fl,
Papilionaceae T Decoction of roots is used in tuberculosis. Decoction of bark used for 0.65
(Lamk.) Taub. Palash Rt, Bk
dysentery and menstrual disorder
Calotropis gigantea (L.) Extraction of leaves is used as vermifuge and for curing fever. The
Asclepiadaceae Ak S Lf, Rt 0.55
Atit. F. extract of roots used in joint pains
Latex and powder of the leaves is used on cuts and wounds for healing.
Calotropis procera R. Br. Asclepiadaceae Desi Ak S Lf, Lx 0.75
Latex is used to treat toothache and asthma
Seed oil is massaged for arthritis. Leaf juice is useful for healing wounds
Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae Bhang H Sd, Lf 0.95
and stomach-ache
Capillipedium assimile
Poaceae Tooli ghas H St Decoction of stem is used for treating leucorrhoea 0.25
(Steund.) Camus.
Capsella bursa-pastoris
Brassicaceae - H Lf Leave paste is used on wounds, bruises and boils 0.30
(L.) Medik.
Carica opaca Stapf. Ex Leaf and root decoction is used against asthma, jaundice. Paste of
Apocynaceae Garnu S Lf , Rt 0.80
Haines leaves and roots used for wound healing
Amaltas Sd, Rt, Decoction of seeds used to cure stomach-ache and in low blood
Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae T 0.45
Bk pressure. Root and bark used for constipation and fever
Extraction of leaves is used for cough, cold and fever. Leaves are also
Cassia occidentalis L. Caesalpiniaceae Relu S Lf 0.45
used for scouring teeth
Panwar, Paste of leaves is used for treating skin diseases (wounds, bruises and
Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae S Lf 0.40
Aelo boils)
Paste of leaves is used in cuts, wounds, bruises, boils and leprosy. An
Centella asiatica (L.) Bharahmb
Apiaceae H Lf, Wp extraction of whole plant is used in dysentery. Powdered of leaves 1.05
Urban** uti
improve memory power
Centratherum anthelmint
icum (L.) Kuntze ex Asteraceae Kali jiri H Sd Paste of seeds is used on skin problem (bruises and boils) 0.30
Gamble
Wp, Whole plant is used for intestinal ulcers. Juice of fruits is used as
Chenopodium album L.** Chenopodiaceae Bhadhu H 0.30
Fr, Rt vermifuge. Decoction of roots is effective against jaundice
Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae Chikori H Rt Decoction of roots used for menstruation problem and vomiting. 0.40
Cinnamomum tamala
Lauraceae Tej-patta T Lf Leaf extract is used for diarrhoea and for scouring teeth 0.55
Nees & Eberm**
Citrus grandis (L.)
Rutaceae Chakotra T Fr Fruit juice is used in anaemia, blood purifier and constipation 0.50
Osbeck*

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Fruit juice is used in diarrhoea. Crushed fruits are applied on wound of

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.* Rutaceae Nimbu T Fr, Lf. 0.90
burns. Leaves and fruits pericarp is used for scouring teeth
Fruit juice is used for diarrhoea. Fruit extract used in indigestion and
Citrus medica L.* Rutaceae Galgal T Fr, Lf 0.55
constipation. Leaves and pericarp of fruit used for scouring teeth
Citrus sinensis (L.) Kinno/Mal
Rutaceae T Fr Fruit juice is used in constipation and piles 0.35
Osbeck* ta
Convolvulus arvensiss L. Convolvulaceae - C Lf, Sd Leaves and seeds are used for stomach-ache 0.20
Stem decoction is used in joint pains. Paste of fresh plant is used in
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Cuscutaceae Akashbel C St, Wp 0.45
dandruff
Extraction of aerial parts is used in piles, dysentery, menstrual
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Dhoob Ap, complaints, as blood purifier and poured in the nostril to stop nasal
Poaceae H 1.15
Pers. ghass Wp, Rt bleeding. Paste of whole plant used on cuts and wounds. Root
decoction is given to treat fever
Decoction of dried rhizome is used for fever, diarrhoea, dysentery,
Nagarmot
Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae H Rz, Rt indigestion and blood purifier. Root powder is used as tonic to improve 1.20
ha
body health. Paste of roots is used to cure skin problem (boils)
Leaves are used in treating leucorrhoea. Decoction of bark is used for
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.** Papilionaceae Shisum T Lf, Bk 0.55
throat infection. Bark paste used on boils and skin eruption
Solanaceae Datura Poultice of seed mixed with mustard oil and paste of leaves applied for
Datura innoxa L. H Sd, Lf 0.35
joint pain. Roasted leaves are applied for headache
Dendrocalamus
Extract of young shoots used for eye infections. Paste of nodal portion
hamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex Poaceae Bans H St 0.45
of stem is used for skin problem (blister, boils)
Munro
Dioscorea deltioidea Singli- Tuberous root decoction used for dysentery, piles and vermifuge.
Dioscoreaceae C Rt 0.60
Wall. Ex Kunth Mingli Tuber paste is applied externally on joint pain
Duchesnea indica Rosaceae 'Kaphal' H Lf Paste of leaves is applied on wounds, cuts and other skin problem 0.25
Extraction of whole plant is used for malaria, high blood pressure and
EcliptaprostataRoxb. Asteraceae Bhringraj H Wp, Lf 1.05
acidity. Paste of leaves is used on burns, cuts and wounds
Tara- Decoction of leaves is used for constipation. Seed-paste is used in skin
Eruca sativa L. Brassicaceae H Lf, Sd 0.35
meera problem (blister, boil).
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Myrtaceae Sufaida T Lf Leaves are boiled in water and vapours are inhaled for cold 0.30
Dehnh.**
Decoction of the whole plant is used in cough, asthma, bronchitis,
Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Doddak H Wp 0.50
jaundice and digestive problems

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Decoction of bark is used for constipation and vomiting. Juice made

Moraceae Bk, Lf,
Ficus religiosa L.** Pipal T from leaves is used for diarrhoea, asthma, cough and toothache. Paste 0.80
Bk
of bark used for wound healing
Ficus benghalensis L.** Moraceae Decoction of bark is used for diarrhea, dysentery, and diabetes. Latex is
Bargad T Bk, Lx 0.60
applied for joint and muscular pains
Fruits are used for constipation. Plant milk is useful for skin problems
Ficus palmata Forssk. Moraceae Bedu T Fr 0.50
(boils)
Ficus roxburghii Wall. ex Paste of leaves is used on wounds. Fruit extract is used for diarrhoea
Moraceae Traimblein T Lf, Fr 0.40
Miq. and dysentery
Fumariaindica(Haussk.) Extract of leaves used for malaria and as blood purifier. Powder of
Fumariaceae Pitpapar H Lf, Wp 0.50
Pugsely whole plant is used for jaundice
Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Asteraceae Piplu ghas H Wp Pates of whole plant used on wound for quick healing 0.30
Decoction of tuberous root is used for asthma, piles, joint pain. Paste
Langli, Rt, Lf,
Gloriosa superba L. Liliaceae C of root is used on wound and skin infection. Leaves are used for cold 1.10
Nagardi Rz
and cough. Decoction of rhizome used for leucorrhoea
Grewia disperma Extraction of bark is used for respiratory problems. Paste of bark is
Tiliaceae Byuli T Bk 0.65
Rottb.** used for boils
Suraj Extraction of stem is used on wounds, sores, swellings and spider bites.
Helianthus annus L.* Asteraceae H St, Sd 0.65
Mukhi Seeds extraction is used for whooping cough
Holarrhena
Decoction of bark is used for diabetes. Milky extract used on the cut for
antidysenterica Wall. Ex. Apocynaceae Kayor S Bk, Lx 0.40
healing
A. DC.
Paste of whole pant is used as a poultice for burns and wounds.
Hordeum vulgare L.* Poaceae Jaun H Wp, Sd 0.60
Decoction of seeds is used to control diabetes
Jasminum officinale L.** Oleaceae Chameli S Fl Extract of flowers is used against skin problems (boils and blister) 0.30
Sd, Lx, Seed oil is used in joint pains. The latex is used on wound, pimples and
Jatropha curcus L. Euphorbiaceae Ratanjot S 0.80
St boils. Twigs are used as tooth brushes
Powder of leaves is used in leucorrhoea. The bark is used for allergy,
Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae Akhrot T Lf, Bk 0.75
toothaches and scouring teeth
Extraction of leaves is used for asthma, cough cold fever, dysentery
Justicia adhatoda L.** Acanthaceae Basuti S Lf, St 1.75
joint pains and skin diseases (cuts, boil, wounds).
Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae Fulnu S Rt, St Root paste is used for body pains. Stem used as tooth brush 0.30
Lathyrus aphaca L. Papilionaceae Jangli H Sd Paste of seeds is applied on wounds for quick healing 0.20

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matar
Paste of leaves is used on boils, cuts, wound and burn. Powder of
Lawsonia alba L.** Lythraceae Mehndi S Lf 0.40
leaves is applied as hair dye
Decoction of whole plant used for malaria and jaundice. Extraction of
Leucas aspera(Willd.) L. Lamiaceae - H Wp, Lf 0.65
leaves applied in scabies infection and scorpion sting
Decoction of seeds is used as laxative and vermifuge. Seeds oil is used
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae Alsi H Sd 0.80
for skin problem (burns, boils) and muscular pain, swelling
Mallotus philippensis Fr, Lf, Fruit powder is used for diabetes and as vermifuge. Paste of the leaves
Euphorbiaceae Kamabal S 0.60
(Lam.) Muell.-Arg. Bk and barks are used for skin diseases (scabies, wounds, itching)
Decoction of leaf and seed is used in fever, diarrhoea and vomiting.
Mangifera indica L.* Anacardiaceae Mango T Lf , Sd 0.75
Paste of fruit pulp applying externally for throat infection
Decoction of wood is given for asthma. Extraction of leaves is used for
Wd, Lf,
Melia azedarach L.** Meliaceae Neem T jaundice, vermifuge, blood purification and as a cooling agent on 1.70
St
pimples, boils skin allergy and itching. Twigs are used as toothbrush
Mentha spicata L.** Lamiaceae Pudina H Lf Leaves extraction are used for diarrhoea, dysentery and stomach-ache 0.55
Fruits extract is used for diabetes, jaundice and cholera. Leaves extract
Momordica charantia L.* Cucurbitaceae Karela H Fr, Lf 0.85
is used as vermifuge
Decoction of leaves is used for cough and high blood pressure. The
Morus alba L.** Lf, Fr,
Moraceae Shahtut T decoction of fruit is used for sore throat and skin infections. Extract of 1.00
Rt, Bk
root and bark used as vermifuge
Fruits are used for indigestion and constipation. Paste of bark is used in
Morus serrata Roxb. Moraceae Keemu T Fr, Bk 0.60
cuts and wounds
Murraya koenigii Gandla, Powder of leaves is used for diarrhoea and dysentery. Leaf paste is
Rutaceae S Lf, St 0.80
Spreng.** Gandela applied on cuts and wounds. Twigs are used as tooth brush
Stem extraction used on burns, cuts and wounds. Fruits used for
Musa paradisiaca L.* Musaceae Kela T St, Fr 0.50
diarrhea and dysentery
Extract of young leaves is used for fever, dysentery, on cuts, wound.
Ocimum sanctum L.* Lamiaceae Tulsi H Lf 1.30
Decoction of leaves is used for cold and cough
Kahtta- Extraction of leaves is used for diarrhoea and dysentery, on cut and
Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae H Lf , Wp 0.60
mitha wounds. The paste of whole plant is used on insect bites
Phoenix acaulis Buch.-
Arecaceae Khajoori T Lf Leaves extract is used as vermifuge 0.25
Ham. ex Roxb.
Phoenix humilis Royle Arecaceae Khajur T Lf Decoction of leaves used for sore throat problem 0.25

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Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Arecaceae Khajoorein T Fr Fruit juice is used in constipation and as tonic for general weakness 0.55
Fruits are a rich source of vitamin C. Extraction of fruits is used for
leucorrhoea and diabetes. Fruit powder is used for indigestion,
Phyllanthus emblica L.** Euphorbiaceae Ambla T Fr 1.10
diarrhoea, dysentery and fever. Paste of fruits is used to reduce
burning sensation in skin
Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinaceae Chir T Rs Resin is applied on burns boils and cracked toes 0.30
Plantago ovata L. Plantaginaceae Isabgol H Sd Powder of seeds is used for constipation, diarrhoea and jaundice 0.45
Rt , Root paste used for leprosy and joint pain. Extraction of aerial part is
Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Chitra S 0.90
Ap, St used for malaria. Stem used as tooth brush for scouring teeth
Prunus cerasoides
Rosaceae Pajja T Bk Decoction of bark is used in joint pains 0.20
D.Don**.
Fr, Lf, The fruit is used for diarrhoea, dysentery and to expel abdominal
Psidium guajava L.* Myrtaceae Amrood T 0.60
St worms. Leaf and stem is used as toothbrush
Punica granatum L.* Punicaceae Anaar T Fr Fruit extract is used in anaemia, diarrhoea, dysentery and diabetes 0.55
Raphanus sativa L.* Brassicaceae Muli H Lf, Rt Extract of leaves and root is used for jaundice 0.30
Decoction of roots is used for blood pressure, dysentery, diarrhoea and
Rauvolfia serpentina Sarapgand
Apocynaceae H Rt labour pain to increase uterine contraction. Root paste is used for all 1.10
Benth.ex Kurtz.** ha
types of poison bites
Seed oil is used for constipation. Paste of leaves and seeds applied on
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Arind S Sd, Lf 0.75
headache, joint-swellings and pimples
Flower extraction is used for bronchitis. Bark powder is used for
Robinia pseudo-acacia L. Papilionaceae Rasinia T Fl, Bk 0.20
toothache
Khata
Rumex hastatus D. Don Polygonaceae H Lf Paste of fresh leaves is used on wounds to stop bleeding 0.25
mitha
Saccharum officinarum
Poaceae Ganna H St Extract of stem is used for constipation and jaundice 0.65
L.*
Leaf paste is applied on burn, cuts and wounds. Oil from seeds is used
Sesamum indicum L.* Pedaliaceae Til H Lf, Sd 0.70
on joint pains
Root powder is used for dysentery. Decoction of root used for
Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae - C Rt 0.70
leucorrhoea and as general tonic
Extract of plant used to cure jaundice and stomach-ache. Paste of
Solanum nigrum L Solanaceae Makoi H Wp, lf 0.40
leaves is applied on skin pimples
Solanum surattense Powder of flower is used for diarrhoea. Decoction of fruits is used for
Solanaceae Kantakari H Fl, Fr 0.30
Burm.f. cough and asthma

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Sonchus asper L. Asteraceae Dodak H Wp Past of whole plant is applied on burns, wounds and skin problem 0.25
Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Poaceae Chari H Sd The decoction of the seed is used for urinary complaints 0.20
Moench.*
Leaves are chewed in toothache. Root paste used for skin problem
Spilanthes camella L.** Asteraceae Kar-kara H Lf, Rt 0.60
(skin infections)
Syzygium cuminii (L.) The decoction of bark is used for fever and dysentery. Seed powder is
Myrtaceae Jamun T Bk, Sd 0.95
Skeels** used for diabetes. Paste of bark is used on wound
Paste of leaves is used on skin problem (boils). Leaves extract used for
Tagetes erecta L. Asteraceae Genda H Lf 0.30
earache.
Gaindagha
Tagetes minuta L. Asteraceae H Ap Extraction of plant used for irritation of skin and on wounds. 0.20
s
Taraxacum officinale Dulal, Decoction of rhizome is used for jaundice. Paste of root used in
Asteraceae H Rz, Rt 0.30
Wigg. Dudhi treatment of joint pain
Terminalia arjuna
Combretaceae Decoction of bark is used as cardio tonic. Bark in pasty form externally
(Roxb.ex DC.) Wt. & Arjun T Bk 0.55
used in skin problem (cuts, wound)
Arn.**
Terminalia bellirica
(Gaertn.) Combretaceae Bahera T Fr Fruits powder are used for piles, diarrhoea , dysentery and as laxative 0.40
Roxb.**
Terminalia chebula Fruit powder is used for indigestion, constipation, diarrhoea, diabetes,
Combretaceae Harar T Fr 1.00
Retz.** leucorrhoea, cough and sores in throat
Tinospora cordifolia Glonya
Menispermacea Extraction of stem is used for fever, jaundice, diabetes, leucorrhoea, as
(Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. Giloe, C St 1.10
e blood purification and malaria
&Thoms. Gulaj
Toona ciliata Roem.** Meliaceae Toon T Bk Extraction of bark used for fever, bronchitis, and gastric trouble 0.45
Tragopogon gracilis D.
Asteraceae Dudhi H Lx Latex of plant is used on wounds and blister 0.15
Don.
Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae Gokaru H Fr Decoction of fruit is used as aphrodisiac 0.15
Paste of leave is used on skin problem (cuts and wounds). Leaf used for
Tridex procumbens L. Asteraceae Doodhli H Lf 0.35
dandruffs
Decoction of whole plant is used for whooping cough, digestive
Trifolium resupinatum L. Papilionaceae Barseen H Wp 0.45
disorders and its paste is used for skin sores
Vicia sativa L. Papilionaceae Rodi C Lf Leaf paste applied on scorpion sting and skin problems such as cut, 0.30

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garodi wound and itching

Viola odorata L. anskan Violaceae Banshafa H Fl Tea made from flowers is useful for fever, cough and cold 0.55
Rt, Lf, Extraction of roots is used in fever. Paste of leaves is used in joint pain.
Vitex negundo L.** Verbenaceae Bana S 1.05
St Stem used as toothbrush
The powder of roots is used as aphrodisiac and in the treatment of
Withania somnifera Ashvagand Rt,
Solanaceae S joint pain. Powder of whole plant is used to remove kidney stones. 0.90
Dunal.** ha Wp, Fr
Fruits are used for diabetes
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Flower decoction is useful for the treatment of leucorrhoea. Paste of
Lythraceae Dhavi T Fl 0.40
Kurz. flower is used in skin problems (skin infection, cuts, wounds)
Solanaceae Extract of aerial parts is used for leucorrhoea and urinary problems.
Xanthium strumarium L. Dhatura S Ap, Lf 0.40
Leaf paste used for skin problem (boils, wounds)
Zanthoxylum armatum Fruit powder is used for indigestion and gastric problem. Young shoots
Rutaceae Tirmir S Fr, St 0.70
DC are used as toothbrush
Zea mays L.* Poaceae Chhali H Sd Soup of corn seed used for preventing nausea 0.25
ZingiberofficinaleRosc.* Zingiberaceae Adarakh H Rz Extract of fresh rhizome used for malaria, cold and cough 0.90
Lf, Bk, Paste of leaves and bark are used on cuts, wounds and burns. Seeds
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.** Rhamnaceae Bair S 0.55
Sd are used for leucorrhoea
Ziziphus nummularia Decoction of roots is used against diabetes and fever. Extract of bark is
Rhamnaceae Malya S Rt, Bk 0.60
(Burm. f.) Wight & Arn used in diarrhoea

Abbreviations used: Ap=Aerial parts; Bk=Bark; C= Climber; CF= Common fever ; CS= Circulatory system; DD =Dermatological disease;
DC=Dental care; ED=Endocrinal disorder; ECEyes problem; ENTEar, nose, throat problem; Fl=Flower; Fr=Fruit; GHP=General health
problem; GIAGastro-intestinal ailments; GUC=Genitourinary complaints; H=Herb; HC=Hair care; Lf=Leaf; LP =Liver problem;
Lx=Latex; ML=Malaria; PB=Poisonous bites; RC=Renal complaints; RSD=Respiratory system diseases; Rs=Resin; Rt=Roots;
Rz=Rhizome; S= Shrubs; Sd=Seeds; SMSC=Skeleto-muscular system complaints; St=Stem; T= Tree; Wd= Wood; Wp=Whole plant;
*=Cultivated; **=Cultivated and Wild sources.

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Table 3. Informant consensus factor (ICF) by ailment categories for commonly used medicinal
plants
Number of No of Informants
Ailments categories Ailments use-reports Taxa consensus
(Nur) used factor (ICF)
Dermatological disease Cuts, wounds, boils, scabies, itching,
422 74 0.83
(DD) pimples, allergy, sores, blister, leprosy
Diarrhea, constipation, acidity,
vermifuge, stomach-ache, ulcer,
Gastro-intestinal ailment (GIA) 370 68 0.82
indigestion, piles, dysentery, cholera,
gastric problem
Dental care (DC) Scouring teeth, toothache 109 20 0.82
Tonic, aphrodisiac, anaemia, memory
General health problem (GHP) 70 14 0.81
power
Renal complaint (RC) Kidney stone 6 2 0.80
Snake-bite, snake-bite, spider bites,
Poisonous bites (PB) 31 7 0.80
scorpion sting, insect bites.
Eyes problem (EC) Eye infections, eye inflammation 6 2 0.80
Leucorrhoea, child birth, gonorrhea,
Genito-urinary complaint (GUC) 76 17 0.79
menstrual disorder
Skeleto-muscular system complaint
Joint pain, fractured bone, headache 116 26 0.78
(SMSC)
Bronchitis, Coughs, cold, asthma,
Respiratory system disease (RSD) 106 25 0.77
whooping cough
Endocrinal disorder (ED) Diabetes 70 17 0.77
Nose infection, throat infection, nasal
Ear, nose, throat problem (ENT) 29 8 0.75
bleeding
Liver problem (LP) Jaundice, liver tonic 64 18 0.73
Common fever (CF) Fever 74 21 0.73
Circulatory system (CS) blood purifier, blood pressure 48 14 0.72
Malaria (ML) Malaria 21 7 0.70
Hair care (HC) Dandruff, hair fall 7 3 0.67

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