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ESDEP WG 11

CONNECTION DESIGN: STATIC LOADING

Lecture11.1.1ConnectionsinBuildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE

Toidentifythewaysinwhichstructuralconnectionsaremadeinsteelbuildings,todiscusstheimportanceofaproperchoiceof
connectiontypeonbothoverallstructuralbehaviourandeconomicsandtopresentthebasicprinciplesofconnectiondesign.

PREREQUISITES

Lecture1B.5.1:IntroductiontoDesignofSimpleIndustrialBuildings

Lecture1B.7.1:IntroductiontoDesignofMultiStoreyBuildings

Lecture3.1.1:GeneralFabricationofSteelStructuresI

Lecture3.5:Fabrication/ErectionofBuildings

RELATEDLECTURES

Lecture11.1.2:IntroductiontoConnectionDesign

Lectures11.2:WeldedConnections

Lectures11.3:BoltedConnections

Lecture11.4:AnalysisofConnections

Lecture11.5:SimpleConnectionsforBuildings

Lecture11.6:MomentConnectionsforContinuousFraming

Lecture11.7:PartialStrengthConnectionsforSemiContinuousFraming

Lecture11.8:Splices

Lectures13:TubularStructures

SUMMARY

Theneedforvariousformsofstructuralconnectionsinsteelbuildingsisestablishedandtheirbasicformsareidentified.
Methodsofmakingconnectionsarediscussedwithinthecontextoftransferringlocalforcesbetweencomponents,ensuring
consistencyofoverallstructuralbehaviourandthepracticalaspectsoffabricationanderection.Thebasicprinciplesof
connectiondesignarethusestablished.

1.INTRODUCTION
Steelframebuildingsconsistofanumberofdifferenttypesofstructuralelements,eachofwhichhastobeproperlyattachedto
theneighbouringpartsofthestructure.Thiswillinvolvetheuseofseveralformsofconnection.Themainclassesofconnection
are:

i)Whereachangeofdirectionoccurs,e.g.beamtocolumnconnections,beamtobeamconnectionsandconnectionsbetween
differentmembersintrusses.

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ii)Toensuremanageablesizesofsteelworkfortransportationanderectione.g.columnsarenormallysplicedeverytwoorthree
storeys.

iii)Whereachangeofcomponentoccurs,includingconnectionofthesteelworktootherpartsofthebuilding,e.g.column
bases,connectionstoconcretecoresandconnectionswithwalls,floorsandroofs.

Figure1givesexamplesofconnectionswithinthecontextofamultistoreyframe.

Connectionsareimportantpartsofeverysteelstructure.Themechanicalpropertiesoftheconnectionsareofgreatinfluenceon
thestrength,stiffnessandstabilityofthewholestructure.

Thenumberandthecomplexityoftheconnectionshaveadecisiveinfluenceonthetimethatisnecessaryforthestatical
analysisandtheproductionofdrawings.

Productionofconnections,i.e.cutting,drillingandweldingofmainmembers,plates,cleatsandstiffeners,consumesmuchof
theworkcontentinthefabricationshop.Theeasewithwhichthesiteconnectionscanactuallybemadeisakeyfactorin
erection.

Thustheselection,designanddetailingoftheconnectionsinabuildingframehasaverysignificantinfluenceoncosts.

2.COMPONENTSOFCONNECTIONS
Connectionsinsteelstructuresarenormallymadeusingweldsand/orbolts.

Welds

Althoughvariousformsofstructuralweldsarepossible,filletweldingofthetypeillustratedinFigure2aisnormallytobe
preferredtobuttweldingasshowninFigure2b,sinceitrequiresonlysimplepreparationofthepartstobejoined,canusually
beaccomplishedwithrelativelysimpleequipmentanddoesnotrequirespecialskillsofthewelder.

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Althoughweldingmaybeconductedonsite,ittendstobeexpensiveforthefollowingreasons:

Temporaryplatformswithsafeaccesshavetobeprovided.
Workcanbedelayedunlessweldsareprotectedfromtheweather.
Electriccurrenthastobesuppliedtotheworkingpoint.
Temporaryboltsandcleatsarestillneededtoholdmemberstogether.
Costofinspection.
Thelongererectionperiodmeansthattheclientcannottakeoverthebuildingasquickly.

Sitejointsare,therefore,normallymadeusingbolts.

Bolts

Dependingontheshapeoftheconnectionandthelocationofthebolts,theyareloadedintension,inshearorincombined
tensionandshear,seeFigures3and4.

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Toaccommodatesomemismatchinholedistancesandboltdiameters,holesarenormallydrilled2mmindiametergreaterthan
theboltdiameter(clearanceholes).Wheredisplacementsduetotheseclearancesarenotacceptable,theboltsmaybepreloaded
topreventslip.Forstaticallyloadedstructures,suchasbuildings,preloadedboltsshouldnormallybeavoided.Thespecial
treatmentofthecontactsurfacestoobtainahighandreliablevaluefortheslipfactorandtheprocedurestoachievethedesign
preloadareexpensive.

OtherParts

Inadditiontoboltsandwelds,otherpartsareoftenalsonecessarytotransferforces,e.g.platesandanglecleats.Figure5shows
someexamplesinbeamtocolumnconnections.

Potentiallyweakareasmayoccurinconnections.InthebeamtocolumnconnectioninFigure6suchareasmaybethecolumn
flangeandthecolumnweb.Thetransmissionofhighlocalisedforcesinthecolumnmaycauselocalyieldingandlocal
buckling.Thesefailuremodesmaybedecisiveforthemomentresistanceofaconnection.Forexample,themomentresistance
oftheconnectionshowninFigure6islowerthanthefullplasticmomentofthebeam.

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Ifnecessary,themomentresistancecanbeincreasedbystrengtheningtherelevantweakareasoftheconnections,seeFigure7.

3.TYPESOFCONNECTIONS

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Forbuildingsdesignedtoresistessentiallystaticloading,includingwindloads,itwillnormallybesufficienttodesign
connectionstoresistforcesthatprimarilyactinonedirectiononly.However,inseismiczoneslargeloadreversalsmayoccur.
Thisloadreversalwillnormallyrequireadifferentapproachtothedesignoftheloadresistingstructure,leadingtodifferent
formsofconnection.

Formultistoreybuildingstheconnectionsbetweenthemainstructuralelementsmayconvenientlybeclassifiedas:

Beamtobeamconnections
Beamtocolumnconnections
Columnsplices
Columnbases
Bracingconnections.

Thislistdoesnot,ofcourse,includeconnectionsbetweenthemainframeworkandotherpartsofthestructure,e.g.beamsto
floors,attachmentofthecladding,etc.Despitethedifferentgeometricalconfigurationsanddetailedstructuralrequirementsof
thefivedifferenttypes,certaingeneralfunctionalrequirementsmustalwaysbeaddressed:

Theconnectionsshouldbestrongenoughtotransmitthedesignloads.Tothisend,theyshouldbearrangedtotransmit
internalforcesfromonemembertoanotheralongsmoothloadpathssoastoavoidseverestressconcentrations.
Theymustpossestheintendeddegreeofflexibilityorrigidity.
Theconnectingelements(platesorcleats)shouldbearrangedsuchthat,asfaraspossible,theyareselfpositioning,
accessibleforfixing(intheshopandonsite),andcapableofprovidinga'goodfit'.

Thusthedesignofanysteelworkconnectionmustsimultaneouslysatisfytheneedsofstructuraladequacy,anappropriatetype
ofbehaviourandpracticalengineering.Clearlyitwilloftenbepossiblethatdifferentarrangementssatisfyeachoftheseneeds
todifferingdegrees.Acertainamountofjudgementandexperienceindecidingtherelativeimportanceofthedifferentdesign
criteriaisrequiredtodecidewhichrequirementshouldbegiventhegreatestemphasisinagivensituation.Ofcourse,the
designerdoesnothaveacompletelyfreechoiceashemustalwaysensurethattheconnectionisabletotransmittherequired
levelofloads.Hischoiceinthisrespectrelatestotheexactarrangementselectedand,perhaps,totheextenttowhichamore
easilyfabricatedconnectionmightprovidemorestrengththanisactuallyrequired.

Inthisrespectalsotheworkshopshouldhaveaninfluenceonthedesign.Itscapabilitiesandequipmentshouldbetakeninto
considerationwhendetailingconnections.Therefore,thedetailingworkshouldbeundertakeninconsultationwiththe
workshop.

Connectionsinvolvingtubularmembersrequirespecialcareasthearrangementsusedforopensectionsmaynotsimplybe
adapted.Themainfactoris,ofcourse,thelimitedaccessthatpreventstheuseofboltswithnutsinsidethetube.Incaseswhere
theconnectionsmaybemadewhollybywelding,e.g.shopfabricationoftrusses,thesolutionisclear.However,sitejointsneed
particularattention,especiallyifthecleanlineswhichareoftenafactorinselectingatubularconfigurationaretobepreserved.
MoreinformationisprovidedintheLecturesingroup13.

Inordertogiveanimpressionofthewidevarietyofpossibledesigns,thefollowingdescriptionsincludefigurestoprovide
examplesoftheconnectiontypesmentionedabove.

3.1ColumnSplices(Figure8)

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8.1and8.2:Theseareweldedsplices.Wheretherearedifferentthicknessesoftheplates,cheaperfilletweldscanbeused.It
shouldberecalledthatweldingmaynotbethemostappropriateconnectionmeansforsiteconnections.

8.3:Boltedsplice.Theverticalforcesmaybeassumedtobetransmittedbybearingand/orthroughtheplates.Theplatesalso
servetotransmitbendingmomentsandshearforces.Wherethereisunequalthicknessoftheflanges/webs,intermediateplates
arenecessary.

8.4:Afrequentlyusedspliceconnection.Duetotheweldingintheworkshop,theplatesmaynotbeperfectlyflat.Normallyno
subsequentmachiningisnecessarytoflattentheseplates.

8.5:Sometimesitiseasiertomakethebeamcontinuous.Totransmittheforcesandforstabilityreasons,itisnecessaryto
stiffenthebeambetweenthecolumnflanges.

3.2ColumnBases(Figure9)

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9.1and9.2:Thickbaseplatesneednostiffening.Normallythisisthecheapestsolution.

9.3:Thinnerbaseplatewithstiffenersasusedinolddesigns.

3.3SimpleBeamtoColumnConnections(Figure10)

10.1:Connectionwithfinplatesweldedtothecolumn.Thebeamisconnectedsinglesided.

10.2:Boltedconnectionwithanglecleats.Cleatsmaybeweldedtoeithermemberasanalternative.

10.3:Connectionwiththinflexibleendplatesweldedtothebeam.

10.4:Boltedconnectionwithanglecleats.Thehorizontalanglecleatprovidesextrabearingresistance.

10.5:Forathickwallofatube,theplatescanbeweldeddirectlytothewallwithoutmakingasleeveinthetubetohavea
continuousplate.Formoredetailsinvolvingtubes,seeLectures13.

10.6:Thestiffnessdependslargelyonthethicknessoftheendplateonthecolumnandthethicknessoftheflangeofthebeam.
Thestiffeningplatesmaybeomittedinmanycases.

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3.4MomentResistingBeamtoColumnConnections(Figure11)

11.1:Fullyweldedconnection.

11.2:Boltedkneeconnection.

11.3:Kneeconnectionwithweldedendplates.

11.4:WeldedTconnection.

11.5:BoltedTconnection.

11.6:Boltedendplateconnection.Itisassumedthatanotherbeamisconnectedontheothersideoftheweb.

3.5SimpleBeamtoBeamConnections(Figure12)

12.1:Dependingonthegeometryandtheappliedforces,stiffenersmayormaynotbenecessary.Thisconnectionhasthe
advantageofcheapfabricationbutthedisadvantagethatitstotalconstructionheightishigherthanthatoftheotherdesignsin
Figure12.

12.2:Inthisconnectionthereisnoneedtomakeacopeasintheconnection12.3.Thereforeitisalsoacheapdesignto
fabricate.

12.3:Thetopflangesareatthesameheight.Thecopemakesthisdesignmorecostlythanthedesignof12.2.

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12.4:Thebeamtobeconnectedishigherthanthemainbeam.Thisdesignisrathercheaptofabricate.Thehingewillbelocated
wheretheplateisweldedtotheweb.

3.6MomentResistingBeamtoBeamConnections(Figure13)

13.1:Thisdesigniscomparabletothedesignof12.1.Ofcoursestiffenersshouldbeomittedwherepossible.

13.2:Thetensileforceinthetopflangeistransmittedviatheflangeplatethatcrossesthewebofthemainbeamthrougha
sleeve.Onthecompressionside,smallcompressionpartsmaybenecessarytointroducethecompressionforce.

13.3:Inthisdesignalsoacopeofthebeamisnecessary,asin12.3.

13.4:Bothbeamshavethesameheight.

3.7HorizontalBracingConnections(Figure14)

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14.1,14.2,14.3:Thegussetplatesonthetopflangesmaybeaproblemwhenmetalrooforfloordeckingisused.

14.4,14.5,14.6:ThechannelsectioninFigure14.4isneededasachordforthehorizontaltruss.

3.8VerticalBracingConnections(Figure15)

15.1,15.2,15.3,15.4:Variouspossibilitiesfortheconnectionsofbracings.

4.REQUIREMENTSFORECONOMY
Asalreadyindicated,thereareagreatnumberofrequirementstobemetwhendesigningconnections.Therequirementsrelating
tostructuralbehaviourareexaminedfurtherinotherLectures11.Thebasicrequirementsforeconomyarediscussedfurther
below.

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Thecostsforasteelstructurecanbedividedintocostsformaterialandcostsforlabourasfollows:

Material 2040%
Calculation }
Drawings }
Fabrication } 6080%
Protection }
Erection. }

Fromthisdivisionofcostsitcanbeconcludedthatasavingoflabourcostshaspotentiallymoreinfluenceontheoverallcosts
ofsteelstructuresthansavingonmaterial.

Aninfluencingfactoristherelationbetweencostperkgsteelandcostpermanhour.

Inthepastdecadesthepriceofsteelhasincreasedconsiderablylessthanthepriceoflabour.Thistrend,togetherwith
developmentsinfabricationtechnology,meansthatstructuraldesignsthatwereoptimal10yearsagomaynotbecompetitive
now.

Amajorpartoflabourcostshasadirectrelationtothedesignandfabricationofconnections.Itisoftenbetterindesigntosave
labourattheexpenseofmaterial.Thisfactcanbeillustratedwithsomesimpleexamples.Toestimatethecosts,thefollowing
assumptionsaremade:

thecostsfor1cm3ofweldisequivalentto0,7kgofsteel.
thecostsforfabricationofstiffeningplatesareequaltotheweldingcosts.
thecostsperholeareequivalentto2kgofsteel.

InFigure16abeaminabracedframeisgiven.Thebasisisadesignwithsimpleconnectionstotransmitshearforceonly.
Whenthe"hinges"arereplacedbymomentconnectionasin[B]and[C],thenforthebeamanIPE140canbeselectedinstead
ofanIPE180.However,duetotheextracostsfortheconnections,thealternatives[B]and[C]aremoreexpensive,especially
[B].Thedifferencewith[C]whichusesbackingplatestostrengthenthecolumnflangesisless.Whenthesameexerciseis
carriedoutforabeamwithgreaterspan,e.g.10m,itisfoundthatalternativeCisthecheapest.

ThebalancebetweenmomentresistanceintheconnectionandinthebeamisdiscussedfurtherinLecture11.7onsemi
continuousdesign.

AnotherexampleisthebaseplatesillustratedinFigure9.Itcaneasilybeshownthatthethickbaseplatewithoutstiffenersis
thecheapestinnearlyallcases.

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Fortheexamplewiththebeamcolumnconnections,itshouldbementionedthatthealternativeAhasnowelds.Thismaymean
thattheflowofmaterialinthefabricator'sshopissimplerasnostopisneededattheweldingstation.

Someotheraspectswhichfacilitiateeconomyindesignare:

limitthenumberofboltdiameters,boltlengthsandboltgradesasfaraspossible.UseforinstancestandardM20boltsin
grade8.8(ultimatestrength800N/mm2andproofstrength640N/mm2),seealsoLecture11.3.
Ensuregoodaccesssothatweldscanbemadeeasily.
Minimisesituationswhereprecisefittingisrequired.
Achieverepetitionofstandarddetails.
Provideeaseofaccessforsitebolting.
Providemeansforsupportingtheselfweightofthepiecequickly,sothatthecranecanbereleased.
Achieveeaseofadjustmentforalignment.
Considermaintenancewherenecessary.

Formoreinformationontheseaspects,referenceismadetotheLecturesingroup3,onfabricationandLecturesingroup4Aon
corrosion.

5.CONCLUDINGSUMMARY
Connectionsarerequiredwhenachangeofcomponentoccurs,atchangesinframingdirections,andtoensure
manageablemembersizes.
Connectionsmustsatisfytherequirementsofstructuralbehaviour.Theyshouldbestrongenoughtotransmitthedesign
loadsandatthesametimehavetheintendeddegreeofflexibilityorrigidity.
Connectiondesignhasamajorinfluenceonthecostsofrealstructures.
Twotypesoffastenersareusedforconnectionsweldsandbolts.
Normallyweldingisappliedinthefabricationshopandboltsareusedforerection.
Whendetailingconnections,thoughtshouldbegiventofabricationpracticalitiesanderectionsequenceandmethod.

6.ADDITIONALREADING
1.Boston,R.M.andPask,J.W.'StructuralFastenersandtheirApplications',BCSA1978.

Drawingsofboltsofallkindsandphotographsoffixingsprocedures,plusexamplesofconnectiondesign.

2.Interfaces:ConnectionsbetweenSteelandotherMaterials,OveArupandPartners.EditedbyR.G.Ogden,1994.
3.Hogan,T.J.andFirkins,A.,'Standardizedstructuralconnections',AustralianInstituteofSteelConstruction,1981,3rdEd,
1985.

Presentsdesignmodelsandresistancetablesforthemainconnectiontypes.

4.Blodgett,O.W.,'Designofweldedstructures',JamesFLincolnArcWeldingFoundation,Cleveland,Ohio,USA,1972.

Informativeandwellillustratedreferencemanualcoveringallaspectsofweldeddesignandconstruction.

5.Ballio,G.andMazzolani,F.M.,'Theoryanddesignofsteelstructures',ChapmanandHall,London,1983.

Comprehensivetextontheoryanddesignofsteelstructures.Dealsextensivelywithconnections.Adetailedtreatmentof
combinedloadsonfilletweldsisofparticularinterest.

6.DraftforDevelopmentDDENV199311:1992Eurocode3:DesignofSteelStructures,Part1,GeneralRulesandRules
forBuildings.

Chapter6presentsrulescoveringthedesignofindividualitemsofconnections,e.g.bolts,welds,holeedgedistances,etc.
AnnexJdealsinmoredetailwiththedesignofboltedandweldedbeamtocolumnconnections.

7.EssentialsofEurocode3,DesignManualforStructuresinBuildings,ECCSPublication65,1991.
8.Bijlaard,F.S.K.etal,StructuralPropertiesofSemiRigidJointsinSteelFrames,IABSEPublications,1989.

Explainshowflexibilityarisesinbeamtocolumnconnectionsandpresentsmethodsforassessingstiffnessandstrength
properties.
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9.Jointsinsimpleconstruction,Volume1:Designmethods,

SCI/BCSAPublication205,2ndEd,1993.

Providesdesignmodelsandsomebackgroundforthemostpopulartypesof:beamstocolumns,beamtobeam,column
spliceandcolumnbase.

10.JointsinSimpleConstruction,Volume2:PracticalApplications,SCI/BCSAPub206,1stEd,1992.

Expandsonthemorepracticalaspectsofconnectiondesignprovidestablestofacilitateconnectiondesignina"lookup"
basis.

11.Owens,G.W.andCheal,B.D.,StructuralSteelworkConnections,1stEd,1989.

Comprehensivecoverageofmanyaspectsofconnectionbehaviouranddesign.

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