MODUL II

BAHASA INGGRIS

Daftar isi Cover..................................................................................................

Daftar isi.............................................................................................................

Kegiatan Belajar I : Introduction

Tujuan Pembelajaran Umum.............................................................................

Tujuan Pembelajaran Khusus...........................................................................

Uraian materi.....................................................................................................

Pokok pokok materi............................................................................................

Rangkuman ......................................................................................................

Tugas terstruktur...............................................................................................

Test formatif ......................................................................................................

Test akhir ...........................................................................................................

Kegiatan Belajar II : READING AND GRAMMER

Tujuan Pembelajaran Umum.............................................................................

Tujuan Pembelajaran Khusus...........................................................................

Uraian materi.....................................................................................................

Pokok pokok materi............................................................................................

Rangkuman ......................................................................................................

Tugas terstruktur...............................................................................................

Test formatif ......................................................................................................

Test akhir ...........................................................................................................

Daftar Pustaka....................................................................................................
MODUL II

BAHASA INGGRIS

I. Tujuan Pembelajaran Umum : Setelah menyelesaikan kegiatan belajar 1

diharapkan
mahasiswa mampu berkenalan dan bertanya dengan benar.

II. Tujuan Pembelajaran khusus: Setelah mempelajari kegiatan belajar 1

diharapkan
mahasiswa mampu:
a. Melakukan perkenalan
b. Memahami Reading about Introduction
c.Menjelaskan fungsi dan bentuk WH question

III. Pokok pokok materi

Untuk mencapai tujuan dalam kegiatan belajar 1 ini, Anda diharapkan

mempelajari

Tentang konsep konsep berikut:

A. Introducing yourself / berkenalan

B. WH-question
 III. Uraian Materi

INTRODUCTING YOURSELF

Hi friends, my name is Lukman Hakim, you can

call me Lukman. I am 18 years old, I am a student at Health Polytechnic of
Surakarta, I am Muslim and I am still single. My home address is jl. Raya Slamet
Riyadi no.1, my phone number is 08882984401, My hobby is playing computer, my
zodiac is aries. Thats all about me, thank you very much.

Now, please tell me about you ! hehee.

A. Self Introduction
Lukman : Hey, Anang. Its good to see you here.
Anang : Hi, Lukman. Glad to see you too. Are you here for the interview?
Lukman : Yes. Are you?
Anang : Yes. I was called to come for the interview the other day.
Lukman : Good, me too. Did you come all by yourself?
Anang : Actually, My friend from the same Academic is here for the interview as well.
Here, Lukman, I would like you to meet my friend, Gadis.
Lukman : Oh, hello, my name is Lukman. How do you do?
Gadis : Hi, my name is Gadis. How do you do
Lukman : How are you, Gadis?
Gadis : Im fine, thank you. And you?
Lukman : Im fine too. Thank you So, you are from the same Academic as Anang?
Gadis : Yes, thats true.
Lukman : Were you his classmate?
Gadis : No. Actually, we were in different academic.
Lukman : Oh, really?
Gadis : Yes, I was from the physiotherapy of Surakarta while Anang was from the
occupational therapy of Surakarta.
Anang : Yes. We knew each other since we were in high school.
Lukman : Oh, I see that Well, Pardon me, I think I should get going for registration
first. Pleased to meet you, Gadis
Gadis : Well, pleased to meet you too, Lukman.

Contoh :
Excuse me, May I introduce myself to
 you?
Excuse me, I want to introduce myself
Id like to introduce myself
My name is Andi
How do you do Mr Andi ?
Very pleased to meet you
Nice to meet you
Its nice to see you
It is great to see you
Where are you from?
Where do you come from in Indonesia?
Where do you live?
I live in Surabaya
Im from Surabaya
I come from Surabaya
Where do you stay?
I stay at hotel Melati
Who do you come with?
Do you come with your family?
How long have you been here?
How long will you stay here?
One week
Until 30th
All right Mr Andi, come to my house if
you have time
Here is my address
With pleasure
Id glad to
It will be alots of fun

Self Introduction
Expressions Responses
Formal
Allow me to introduce my self, my name is Nice to meet you. My name is / Im
Linda Im / My names / ( just name)
Let me introduce my self, Im ( Linda) How do you do?
How do you do?
Informal
Whats your name? My name is
Im ( Linda) whats yours? Im
How are you? Fine, thanks
Hi Hi

Introducing someone to someone else

Expressions Responses
Formal
Let me introduce you to How do you do?
May I introduce my husband, John.
Id like to introduce my best friend, Shinta
Informal
Whats your name? Hi. Im Lisa
This is Mr. Andre Hello, Im Chandra
This is Mary, Mary Jane Nice to see/ meet you

B. Pengertian Question Word

Question word adalah kata yang digunakan untuk menanyakan waktu, tempat, orang,
benda, hal, alasan, cara, dan lain-lain.

English question word berupa berbagai wh-word, yaitu kata yang diawali oleh wh
(what, where, when, why, which, who, whom, whose) atau kata yang mengandung
huruf w dan h (how).

Fungsi dan Contoh Kalimat Question Words

Question Contoh Kalimat
Fungsi
Word Question Words

What do you want from

me?
(Apa yang kamu inginkan
what Question word ini digunakan untuk dari saya?)
(apa) menanyakan benda atau hal (thing).
What are you doing here?
(Apa yang sedang kamu
lakukan disini?)

where Where digunakan untuk menanyakan tempat Where does he live?

(dimana) (place). (Dimana dia tinggal?)

When does the train from

when Question word ini digunakan untuk Yogyakarta arrive?
(kapan) menanyakan waktu (time) (Kapan kereta dari
Yogyakarta tiba?)

Why do you hate cats?

why Kata ini digunakan untuk menanyakan alasan
(Mengapa kamu benci
(mengapa) (reason).
kucing?)

Question word ini untuk menanyakan orang

Which one is better?
which (person), benda atau hal (thing) yang mana
(Yang mana yang lebih
(yang mana) yang dimaksud diantara sejumlah orang, benda,
baik?)
atau hal.

Who send me a letter?

who (Siapa yang mengirimiku
Question word ini digunakan untuk surat?)
(siapa
menanyakan orang (person).
subject) Who is that man?
(Siapa pria itu?)

Whom are you going to

whom Whom digunakan untuk menanyakan orang
meet?
(siapa yang menerima aksi, atau dengan kata
(Siapa yang akan kamu
object) lain: direct object.
temui?)

whose
Question word ini digunakan untuk orang yang Whose turn is it?
(siapa
mana yang memiliki sesuatu (possessive). (Giliran siapa?)
possessive)

how How digunakan untuk menanyakan cara How did you meet your
(bagaimana) (manner). Question word ini juga dapat soulmate?
dikombinasikan dengan dengan berbagai huruf (Bagaimana kamu
menjadi: how often (seberapa sering), how far bertemu belahan
 jiwamu?)

How often should I

change my toothbrush?
(Seberapa sering saya
(berapa jauh), how much/many (berapa harus mengganti sikat
banyak), how long (berapa lama). gigi?)

How far is moon from

earth?
(Berapa jauh bulan dari
bumi?)

Tugas Terstruktur
a. Mahasiswa melaksanakan praktek conversation tentang Introduction seperti
contoh dibawah ini!
- What s your name ?
- My name is.....
- How old are you ?
- I am.....years old
- Which physical therapy academy are you from ?
- I am from
- the physical therapy academy
- Which Semester are you ?
- . . . . .Semester
- Where are you from ?
- I am from .........
- Do you enjoy being a physical therapy student ?
- Yes, I . . .
- What is your favorite the physical therapy subject ?
- My favorite subject is . . .
- Where do you study ?
- I study in . . .
b. Make 10 sentences with yes/ no question.
c. Make 10 sentences which word question are what, where, when, why, which,
who, whom, whose.
I

Kegiatan Belajar II

I Tujuan Pembelajaran Umum : Setelah menyelesaikan kegiatan belajar II

diharapkan
mahasiswa mampu memahami reading tentang organic foods dan grammar
tentang simple present, past tense dan future tense dengan benar.

II. Tujuan Pembelajaran khusus: Setelah mempelajari kegiatan belajar II diharapkan

 mahasiswa mampu:
a. Memahami Reading about Organic Foods
b. Mengetahui vocabulary di dalam Reading
c. Menjelaskan fungsi dan bentuk Simple Present
d. Menjelaskan fungsi dan bentuk Past Tense
e. Menjelaskan fungsi dan bentuk Future Tense

III. Pokok pokok materi

Untuk mencapai tujuan dalam kegiatan belajar II ini, Anda diharapkan

mempelajari

Tentang konsep konsep berikut:

A. Reading about Organic Foods

B. Vocabulary Organic Foods

C. Simple Present

D. Past Tense

E. Future Tense

IV. Uraian Materi

A. Organic Foods Texs

You can check organic foods vocab before reading.

Organic food is very popular. It is also expensive. Some

organic food costs twice as much as non-organic food. New
parents and pet owners pay up to 200% more for organic food.
Some people think organic food is a waste of money.
Organic baby food costs up to 200% more than non-organic.

There is one main difference between organic and non-

organic food. Organic farms do not use agricultural chemicals,
such as pesticides. In many countries organic foods have special
labels. These guarantee that the products are natural.

Some people think organic means locally grown. Originally

this was true. Over time organic farming became more difficult.
The demand for organic food grew larger than the supply. Small
companies had to sell out to large companies. There wasn't
enough organic ingredients, such as grain and cattle. This made
it difficult for many organic companies to stay in business.
Today, many large companies have an organic line of products.

Organic does not always mean local.

Is organic food more nutritious? This is part of the debate.

Many farmers and consumers believe it is. They think
agricultural chemicals cause health problems such as cancer or
allergies. Many health professionals disagree. Few studies prove
that organic foods prevent health problems. Health specialists
worry more about bacteria, such as E.coli and salmonella. These
can come into contact with organic and non-organic food.
Doctors recommend washing produce very carefully. Handling
meat carefully is important too. Washing non-organic produce is
very important.

Most people agree that naturally grown food tastes better.

Is tastier food worth the extra money? This is a matter of
opinion. Whether it is healthier or not may require more
research. However, organic consumers argue it is better to be
safe than sorry.

Word Meaning

agricultural adjective related to farming

better safe than sorry idiom it's better to take precautions rather than risks

consumer noun (also verb) person who buys something

debate noun an issue that has strong arguments on both sides

expensive adj costs a lot of money

handling noun using hands to move or prepare the item

labels noun information printed on the outside of a product

nutritious adj healthy choice for the body

organic adj does not contain chemicals, such as pesticides

pesticides noun a chemical that keeps bugs away from crops

stay in business idiom continue offering service or supplies to consumers

supply noun something that the consumer wants or

needs

waste of money idiom a poor choice in how to use money

B. Simple Present

FORM

[VERB] + s/es in third person

Examples:

You speak English.

Do you speak English?

You do not speak English.

USE 1 Repeated Actions

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual.
The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something
that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually
does not do.

Examples:

I play tennis.

She does not play tennis.

 Does he play tennis?

The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.

The train does not leave at 9 AM.

When does the train usually leave?

She always forgets her purse.

He never forgets his wallet.

Every twelve months, the Earth circles the Sun.

Does the Sun circle the Earth?

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true
before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the
speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about
people or things.

Examples:

Cats like milk.

Birds do not like milk.

Do pigs like milk?

California is in America.

California is not in the United Kingdom.

Windows are made of glass.

Windows are not made of wood.

New York is a small city. It is not important that this fact is untrue.

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the
near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public
transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as well.

Examples:

The train leaves tonight at 6 PM.

The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.

When do we board the plane?

The party starts at 8 o'clock.

When does class begin tomorrow?

USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is
happening or is not happening now. This can only be done with Non-Continuous
Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs.

Examples:

I am here now.

She is not here now.

He needs help right now.

He does not need help now.

He has his passport in his hand.

Do you have your passport with you?

Questions and Answers

1. Budi always ..... on time

A. Come B. Comes C. Came
2. I ..... Indonesian
A. Am B. Are C. Is
3. My Friend and I ..... English at EnglishShop everyday
 A. Learn B. Learns C. Learning
4. He usually ..... some books everyday
A. Reads B. Read C. Reading
5. Santi's Cat ..... a beautiful bird
A. Bite B. Bit C. Bites
6. Mathematics will be the most difficult subject
A. Mathematics are the most difficult subject
B. Mathematics is the most difficult subject
C. Mathematics will to be the most difficult subject
7. She laid the baby in his crib
A. She laids the baby in his crib
B. She lay the baby in his crib
C. She lays the baby in his crib
8. An Architect are a person who plans a new building
A. An Architect are a person who plan a new building
B. An Architect is a person who plan a new building
C. An architect is a person who plans a new building
9. Teachers are teaching in schools, they are explain and give homework to
the students
A. Teachers teach in schools, they explain and give homework to the
students
B. Teachers teach in schools, they explains and gives homework to the
students
C. Teachers are teaching in schools, they explain and give homework to
the students
10. The old Men had bought an apple
A. The old men bought an apple
B. The old men buy an apple
C. The old men buys an apple

C. Simple Past Tense

Simple Past
FORM

[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples:

You called Debbie.

Did you call Debbie?

You did not call Debbie.

Complete List of Simple Past Forms
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a
specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the
specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.

Examples:

I saw a movie yesterday.

I didn't see a play yesterday.

Last year, I traveled to Japan.

Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.

Did you have dinner last night?

She washed her car.

He didn't wash his car.

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These
actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.

He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00,
and met the others at 10:00.

Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A
duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years,
for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.
Examples:

I lived in Brazil for two years.

Shauna studied Japanese for five years.

They sat at the beach all day.

They did not stay at the party the entire time.

We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.

A: How long did you wait for them?

B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It
can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking
about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never,
when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

Examples:

I studied French when I was a child.

He played the violin.

He didn't play the piano.

Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?

She worked at the movie theater after school.

They never went to school, they always skipped class.

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which
are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar
to the expression "used to."

Examples:

She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.

 He didn't like tomatoes before.

Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?

People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.

IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete
sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped
my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and
they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.

Examples:

When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.

She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.

When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses
are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I
paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important
whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the
end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First,
she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.

Example:

I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always,
only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You just called Debbie.

Did you just call Debbie?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

Tom repaired the car. Active

The car was repaired by Tom. Passive

D. Simple Present Continous

FORM

[am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:

You are watching TV.

Are you watching TV?

You are not watching TV.

Complete List of Present Continuous Forms

USE 1 Now

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that
something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show
that something is not happening now.

Examples:

You are learning English now.

You are not swimming now.

Are you sleeping?

I am sitting.

I am not standing.

Is he sitting or standing?

They are reading their books.

They are not watching television.

What are you doing?

Why aren't you doing your homework?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this
century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are
in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might
not be doing it at this exact second.
Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a
restaurant.)

I am studying to become a doctor.

I am not studying to become a dentist.

I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.

I am not reading any books right now.

Are you working on any special projects at work?

Aren't you teaching at the university now?

USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will
or will not happen in the near future.

Examples:

I am meeting some friends after work.

I am not going to the party tonight.

Is he visiting his parents next weekend?

Isn't he coming with us tonight?

USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses

the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the
meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the
words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

She is always coming to class late.

He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.

 I don't like them because they are always complaining.

E. Past Continuous
FORM

[was/were + present participle]

Examples:

You were studying when she called.

Were you studying when she called?

You were not studying when she called.

Complete List of Past Continuous Forms

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past

Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was
interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past.
Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:

I was watching TV when she called.

When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.

While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

What were you doing when the earthquake started?

I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.

You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.

While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.

Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.

While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.

A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?

B: I was snowboarding.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption

In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action

in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:

Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.

At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.

Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.

IMPORTANT
In the Simple Past, a specific time is used to show when an action began or
finished. In the Past Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action.

Examples:

Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner.

I started eating at 6 PM.

Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.

I started earlier; and at 6 PM, I was in the process of eating dinner.

USE 3 Parallel Actions

When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it
expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The
actions are parallel.

Examples:

I was studying while he was making dinner.

While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.

Were you listening while he was talking?

I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several
mistakes.

What were you doing while you were waiting?

Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either.

 They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

Present Perfect

FORM

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

You have seen that movie many times.

Have you seen that movie many times?

You have not seen that movie many times.

Complete List of Present Perfect Forms

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time
before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present
Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last
week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one
day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as:
ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

I have seen that movie twenty times.

I think I have met him once before.

There have been many earthquakes in California.

People have traveled to the Moon.

People have not traveled to Mars.

Have you read the book yet?

Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.

A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?

B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?

The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to English learners. It is

best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics:
 TOPIC 1 Experience

You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I
have the experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never
had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific
event.

Examples:

I have been to France.

This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France.
Maybe you have been there once, or several times.

I have been to France three times.

You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.

I have never been to France.

This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to
France.

I think I have seen that movie before.

He has never traveled by train.

Joan has studied two foreign languages.

A: Have you ever met him?

B: No, I have not met him.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a
period of time.

Examples:

You have grown since the last time I saw you.

The government has become more interested in arts education.

Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since
the Asian studies program was established.

My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and
humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.

Examples:

Man has walked on the Moon.

Our son has learned how to read.

Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.

 Scientists have split the atom.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not
happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the
action to happen.

Examples:

James has not finished his homework yet.

Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.

Bill has still not arrived.

The rain hasn't stopped.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have
occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not
complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:

The army has attacked that city five times.

I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.

We have had many major problems while working on this project.

She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows
why she is sick.

Time Expressions with Present Perfect

When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some
point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is
not important.

Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We

can do this with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week,
this month, so far, up to now, etc.

Examples:

Have you been to Mexico in the last year?

I have seen that movie six times in the last month.

 They have had three tests in the last week.

She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for
three different companies so far.

My car has broken down three times this week.

NOTICE
"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year"
means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which
requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is
not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.

Examples:

I went to Mexico last year.

I went to Mexico in the calendar year before this one.

I have been to Mexico in the last year.

I have been to Mexico at least once at some point between 365 days ago and
now.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use

the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued
up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all
durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

I have had a cold for two weeks.

She has been in England for six months.

Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-

Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live,"
"work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they
are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always,
only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You have only seen that movie one time.

Have you only seen that movie one time?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

Many tourists have visited that castle. Active

That castle has been visited by many tourists. Passive

More About Active / Passive Forms

Using the words in parentheses, complete the text below with the appropriate tenses, then click
the "Check"button to check your answers.

1. A: Did you like the movie "Star Wars?"

B:I don't know. I (see, never) that movie.

2. Sam (arrive) in San Diego a week ago.

3. My best friend and I (know) each other for over fifteen years. We still get

together once a week.

4. Stinson is a fantastic writer. He (write) ten very creative short stories in the last

year. One day, he'll be as famous as Hemingway.

5. I (have, not) this much fun since I (be) a kid.

6. Things (change) a great deal at Coltech, Inc. When we first

(start) working here three years ago, the company (have, only)

six employees. Since then, we (expand) to include more than 2000 full-time

workers.

7. I (tell) him to stay on the path while he was hiking, but he

(wander) off into the forest and (be) bitten by a snake.

8. Listen Donna, I don't care if you (miss) the bus this morning. You

(be) late to work too many times. You are fired!

9. Sam is from Colorado, which is hundreds of miles from the coast, so he (see,

never) the ocean. He should come with us to Miami.

10. How sad! George (dream) of going to California before he died, but he didn't

make it. He (see, never) the ocean.

11. In the last hundred years, traveling (become) much easier and very

comfortable. In the 19th century, it (take) two or three months to cross North

America by covered wagon. The trip (be) very rough and often dangerous.

Things (change) a great deal in the last hundred and fifty years. Now you can fly

from New York to Los Angeles in a matter of hours.

12. Jonny, I can't believe how much you (change) since the last time I

(see) you. You (grow) at least a foot!

13. This tree (be) planted by the settlers who (found) our city

over four hundred years ago.

14. This mountain (be, never) climbed by anyone. Several mountaineers

(try) to reach the top, but nobody (succeed, ever) . The climb

is extremely difficult and many people (die) trying to reach the summit.

15. I (visit, never) Africa, but I (travel) to South America

several times. The last time I (go) to South America, I (visit)

Brazil and Peru. I (spend) two weeks in the Amazon, (hike) for a

week near Machu Picchu, and (fly) over the Nazca Lines.
 Using the words in parentheses, complete the text below with the appropriate tenses, then click the "Check" button to
check your answers.
Robin: I think the waiter (forget) us. We (wait) here for over half an hour and nobody

(take) our order yet.

Michele: I think you're right. He (walk) by us at least twenty times. He probably thinks we (order,

already) .

Robin: Look at that couple over there, they (be, only) here for five or ten minutes and they already have

their food.

Michele: He must realize we (order, not) yet! We (sit) here for over half an hour

staring at him.

Robin: I don't know if he (notice, even) us. He (run) from table to table taking

orders and serving food.

Michele: That's true, and he (look, not) in our direction once.

Using the words in parentheses, complete the text below with the appropriate tenses, then click the "Check" button to check
your answers.
Since computers were first introduced to the public in the early 1980's, technology (change) a great deal.

The first computers (be) simple machines designed for basic tasks. They (have, not)

much memory and they (be, not) very powerful. Early computers were often quite expensive and customers

often (pay) thousands of dollars for machines which actually (do) very little. Most

computers (be) separate, individual machines used mostly as expensive typewriters or for playing games.

Times (change) . Computers (become) powerful machines with very practical

applications. Programmers (create) a large selection of useful programs which do everything from teaching

foreign languages to bookkeeping. We are still playing video games, but today's games (become) faster,
more exciting interactive adventures. Many computer users (get, also) on the Internet and

(begin) communicating with other computer users around the world. We (start) to create

international communities online. In short, the simple, individual machines of the past (evolve) into an

international World Wide Web of knowledge.

Community Q&A

How to Write a Good Paragraph

How to Write a Good Paragraph: A Step-by-Step Guide Writing well
composed academic paragraphs can be tricky. The following is a guide
on how to draft, expand, refine, and explain your ideas so that you
write clear, well-developed paragraphs and discussion posts:
Step 1:
Decide the Topic of Your Paragraph Before you can begin writing, you
need to know what you are writing about.
First, look at the writing prompt or assignment topic. As you look at
the prompt, note any key terms or repeated phrases because you will
want to use those words in your response. Then ask yourself:
On what topic am I supposed to be writing?
What do I know about this topic already?
If I dont know how to respond to this assignment, where can I go to
find some answers?
What does this assignment mean to me? How do I relate to it? After
looking at the prompt and doing some additional reading and
research, you should better understand your topic and what you need
to discuss.
Step 2:
Develop a Topic Sentence Before writing a paragraph, it is important
to think first about the topic and then what you want to say about the
topic. Most often, the topic is easy, but the question then turns to
what you want to say about the topic. This concept is sometimes
called the controlling idea. Strong paragraphs are typically about one
main idea or topic, which is often explicitly stated in a topic sentence.
Good topic sentences should always contain both
(1) a topic and
(2) a controlling idea.
The topic The main subject matter or idea covered in the paragraph.
The controlling idea This idea focuses the topic by providing
direction to the composition.
Read the following topic sentences. They all contain a topic (in
orange) and a controlling idea (in purple). When your paragraphs
contain a clearly stated topic sentence such as one of the following,
 your reader will know what to expect and, therefore, understand your
ideas better.
Examples of topic sentences:
People can avoid plagiarizing by taking certain precautions.
There are several advantages to online education.
Effective leadership requires specific qualities that anyone can
develop.
Step 3:
Demonstrate Your Point After stating your topic sentence, you need to
provide information to prove, illustrate, clarify, and/or exemplify your
point.
Ask yourself:
What examples can I use to support my point?
What information can I provide to help clarify my thoughts?
How can I support my point with specific data, experiences, or other
factual material?
What information does the reader need to know in order to see my
point?
Here is a list of the kinds of information you can add to your
paragraph:
Proprietary Information of Ashford University, Created by Academics,
CR 215140
Facts, details, reasons, examples
Information from the readings or class discussions
Paraphrases or short quotations
Statistics, polls, percentages, data from research studies
Personal experience, stories, anecdotes, examples from your life
Sometimes, adding transitional or introductory phrases like: for
example, for instance, first, second, or last can help guide the reader.
Also, make sure you are citing your sources appropriately.
Step 4:
Give Your Paragraph Meaning After you have given the reader enough
information to see and understand your point, you need to explain
why this information is relevant, meaningful, or interesting. Ask
yourself:
What does the provided information mean?
How does it relate to your overall point, argument, or thesis?
Why is this information important/significant/meaningful?
How does this information relate to the assignment or course I am
taking?
Step 5:
Conclude After illustrating your point with relevant information, add a
concluding sentence. Concluding sentences link one paragraph to the
next and provide another device for helping you ensure your
 paragraph is unified. While not all paragraphs include a concluding
sentence, you should always consider whether one is appropriate.
Concluding sentences have two crucial roles in paragraph writing:
First, they draw together the information you have presented to
elaborate your controlling idea by:
Summarizing the point(s) you have made.
Repeatingwords or phrases from the topic sentence.
Using linking words that indicate that conclusions are being drawn
(e.g., therefore, thus, resulting).
Second, they often link the current paragraph to the following
paragraph. They may anticipate the topic sentence of the next
paragraph by:
Introducing a word/phrase or new concept which will then be picked
up in the topic sentence of the next paragraph.
Using words or phrases that point ahead (e.g., the following,
another, other).
Step 6:
Look Over and Proofread The last step in good paragraph writing is
proofreading and revision. Before you submit your writing, look over
your work at least one more time. Try reading your paragraph out loud
to make sure it makes sense.
Also, ask yourself these questions:
Does my paragraph answer the prompt and support my thesis?
Does it make sense?
- Does it use the appropriate academic voice?
-View additional proofreading tips and editing strategies.

Conditionals

A conditional sentence is a sentence containing the word if. There are three common
types* of conditional sentence:

1. if clause > present simple tense : main clause > future tense (will)

o If you help me, I will help you.

o If I win the lottery, I will buy a new car.

o If it snows tomorrow, we will go skiing.

2. if clause > past simple tense : main clause > would

o If you knew her, you would agree with me.

o If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car.

o If it snowed tomorrow, we would go skiing.

3. if clause > past perfect tense : main clause > would have

o If you had helped me, I would have helped you.

 o If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a new car.

o If it had snowed yesterday, we would have gone skiing.

Of course, it is possible to start conditional sentences with the main clause:

I will buy a new car if I win the lottery.

I would buy a new car if I won the lottery.

I would have bought a new car if I had won the lottery.

English speakers choose one of the three conditional structures as follows:

1. Conditional one - to express a simple statement of fact or intent

o I will buy a new car if I win the lottery.

o I will go home if you don't stop criticizing me.

o You will fail your exams if you don't start working harder.

o She will lose all her friends if she continues to talk about them behind
their backs.

2. Conditional two - to refer to a present unreal situation or to a situation in the

future that the speaker thinks is unlikely to happen

o If I had a lot of money, I would buy a new car. (but I don't have a lot of
money)

o If I were you, I would tell him you're sorry. (but I am not you)

o If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house. (but I don't expect to win
the lottery)

o If it snowed tomorrow, we would go skiing. (but I don't have much hope

that it will snow)

3. Conditional three - to refer to the past and situations that did not happen

o If it had snowed yesterday, we would have gone skiing. (but it didn't

snow, so we didn't go skiing)

o If you had studied harder, you would have passed your test. (but you
didn't study hard, so you didn't pass your test)

o If I had known that, I would have told you. (but I didn't know, so I didn't
tell you)

o If she hadn't been driving slowly, she would have had an accident. (but
she was driving slowly, so she didn't have an accident)

* Note: The way native speakers of English express conditions (use if-clauses) is much
more varied than the 3 rigid combinations of tenses exemplified on this page. Learners
 should consult a good grammar reference work for a deeper understanding of this
complex aspect of English grammar.

Do a quiz on this grammar topic.

time clauses and conditionals

Verbs in time clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other
clauses except:

In clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present
tense forms to talk about the future:

Ill come home when I finish work.

You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have had dinner.

in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to
talk about the future:

We wont be able to go out if it is raining.

If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.
I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children.

We do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:

Ill come home when I will finish work.

We wont be able to go out if it will rain. rains.
It will be nice to see Peter when he will get home gets home.
You must wait here until your father will come comes.

but we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

I will be very happy if you will come to my party.

We should finish the job early if George will help us.

"if" clauses and hypotheses

Some clauses with if are like hypotheses so we use past tense forms to talk about the
present and future.

We use the past tense forms to talk about the present in clauses with if :

for something that has not happened or is not happening:

He could get a new job if he He cannot get a job because he has not
=
really tried tried.

If Jack was playing they would Jack is not playing so they will probably
=
probably win not win.
 I do not have his address so I cannot write
If I had his address I could write to him =
to him.

We use the past tense forms to talk about the future in clauses with if:

for something that we believe or know will not happen:

We would go by train if it wasnt so We wont go by train because it is too

expensive = expensive.

I would look after the children for you at the I cant look after the children because
weekend if I was at home = I will not be at home.

if clause

to make suggestions about what might happen:

If he came tomorrow we could borrow his car.

If we invited John, Mary would bring Angela.

When we are talking about something which did not happen in the past we use the past
perfect in the if clause and a modal verb in the main clause:

If you had seen him you could have You did not see him so you could not
spoken to him = speak to him

You could have stayed with us if you You couldnt stay with us because you
had come to London = didnt come to London.

If we hadnt spent all our money we We have spent all our money so we cant
could take a holiday. = take a holiday

If I had got the job we would be living I did not get the job so we are not living in
in Paris = Paris.
If the main clause is about the past we use a modal with have:

If you had seen him you You did not see him so you could not
could have spoken to him. = speak to him.

You could have stayed with us if you had You couldnt stay with us because you
come to London. = didnt come to London.

If you had invited me I might have come. You didnt invite me so I didnt come.
=

If the main clause is about the present we use a present tense form or a modal without
have:

If I had got the job we would be I did not get the job so we are not living
living in Paris now. = in Paris now.

If you had done your homework You did not do your homework so you do
you would know the answer. = not know the answer.

Transitive verbs have both active and passive forms:

active passive

The hunter killed the lion. >> The lion was killed by the hunter.

Someone has cleaned the windows >> The windows have been cleaned
The passive forms are made up of the verb be with a past participle:

be past participle

English is spoken all over the world

The windows have been cleaned

Lunch was being served

The work will be finished soon

They might have been invited to the party

We sometimes use the verb get to form the passive:

Be careful with the glass. It might get broken.
Peter got hurt in a crash.
If we want to show the person or thing doing the action we use by:
She was attacked by a dangerous dog.
The money was stolen by her husband.
We can use the indirect object as the subject of a passive verb:

active passive

>
I gave him a book for his birthday He was given a book for his birthday.
>

Someone sent her a cheque for a thousand > She was sent a cheque for a thousand
euros > euros.

We can use phrasal verbs in the passive:

 active passive

They called off the meeting. >> The meeting was called off.

His grandmother looked after him. >> He was looked after by his grandmother.

They will send him away to school. >> He will be sent away to school.

Some verbs very frequently used in the passive are followed by the to-infinitive:

be supposed to be expected to be asked to

be scheduled to be allowed to be told to

John has been asked to make a speech at the meeting.

You are supposed to wear a uniform.
The meeting is scheduled to start at seven.

the -ing form

We can use the -ing form of the verb:

as a noun:
I love swimming.
Swimming is very good for your health.
You can get fit by swimming regularly.

-ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns

as an adjective:
The main problem today is rising prices.
That programme was really boring.
He saw a woman lying on the floor.
Because the -ing noun or adjective is formed from a verb it can have any of
the patterns which follow a verb, for example:

... an object:
I like playing tennis.
I saw a dog chasing a cat.

... or an adverbial:
You can earn a lot of money by working hard.
There were several people waiting for the bus.
 ... or a clause:
I heard someone saying that.
The -ing noun can be used:

as the subject of a verb:

Learning English is not easy.

as the object of a verb:

We enjoy learning English.
Common verbs followed by an -ing object are:

admit like hate start avoid

suggest enjoy dislike begin finish

as the object of a preposition

Some people are not interested in learning English.
The -ing adjective can come:

in front of a noun:
I read an interesting article in the newspaper today.
We saw a really exciting match on Sunday.
The commonest ing adjectives used in front of the noun are

amusing interesting worrying shocking disappointing

boring surprising exciting terrifying frightening

tiring annoying

after a noun:
Who is that man standing over there?
The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother.

and especially after verbs like see, watch, hear, smell etc.
I heard someone playing the piano.
I can smell something burning.
 1 Some verbs are followed by the to-infinitive:

I decided to go home as soon as possible.

We all wanted to have more English classes.

Common verbs followed by the to-infinitive are:

Verbs of thinking and feeling:

choose

decide

expect

forget

hate

hope

intend

learn

like

love

mean

plan

prefer

remember

would like

would love

Verbs of saying:

agree

promise

refuse

Other common verbs are:

arrange
 attempt

fail

help

manage

tend

try

want

2 Some verbs are followed by a noun and the to-infinitive:

She asked him to send her a text message.

He wanted all his friends to come to his party.

Common verbs with this pattern are:

Verbs of saying:

advise

ask

encourage

invite

order

persuade

remind

tell

warn *

*Note: The verb warn is normally used with not

The police warned everyone not to drive too fast.

Verbs of wanting or liking:

expect

intend

would

prefer

want

would like
 Other verbs with this pattern are:

allow

enable

force

get

teach

3. Passive infinitive

Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by a passive infinitive

(to be + past participle):

I expected to be met when I arrived at the station.

They wanted to be told if anything happened.
I dont like driving myself. I prefer to be driven.

Common verbs followed by ing nouns are:

Verbs of liking and disliking:

detest

dislike

enjoy

hate

fancy

like

love

I love swimming but I hate jogging.

They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
A: Do you fancy going for a walk?
B: I wouldnt mind

Phrases with mind:

wouldnt mind (= would like)

dont mind (= I am willing to)

would you mind (= will you please?)

I wouldnt mind having some fish and chips.

I dont mind waiting for a few minutes.
Would you mind holding this for me?
 Verbs of saying and thinking:

admit

consider

deny

imagine

remember

suggest

Our guide suggested waiting until the storm was over.

Everyone denied seeing the accident.

Other common verbs are:

avoid

begin

finish

keep

miss

practise

risk

start

stop

I havent finished writing this letter.

Lets practise speaking English.

Passive form of -ing

Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by the passive form of -

ing: being + past participle

I dont like being interrupted.

Our dog loves being stroked under the chin.

Noun + -ing clause

Some verbs are followed by a noun and an -ing clause:

Verbs to do with the senses:

see

watch
 hear

smell

listen to

etc.

We saw everybody running away.

I could hear someone singing.

Other common verbs:

catch

find

imagine

leave

prevent

stop

I caught someone trying to break into my house.

We couldnt prevent them getting away.

With "that"

We can use clauses with that:

after verbs of thinking:

think

believe

expect

decide

hope

know

understand

suppose

guess

imagine
 feel

remember

forget

I hope that you will enjoy your holiday.

She didnt really think that it would happen.
I knew that I had seen her somewhere before.

after verbs of saying:

say

admit

argue

reply

agree

claim

deny

mention

answer

complain

explain

promise

suggest

They admitted that they had made a mistake.

She argued that they should invest more in the business.
The children complained that they had nothing to do.

Note: tell and some other verbs of saying must always have
a direct object (see clauses, sentences and phrases):

tell

convince

persuade

inform

remind

We tried to tell them that they should stop what they were doing.
The police informed everybody that the danger was over.
 as postmodifiers after nouns to do with thinking or saying:

advice

belief

claim

feeling

argument

hope

promise

report

guess

opinion

idea

He made a promise that he would do all he could to help.

I had a funny feeling that something was wrong.

after some nouns to say more about the noun:

fact

advantage

effect

possibility

chance

danger

evidence

problem

difficulty

She pointed out the danger that they might be left behind.
There was a chance that we would succeed

Note: We often use a that clause to define one of these nouns

after the verb be :

danger

problem
 chance

possibility

fact

The danger is that we will be left behind.

The fact is that it is getting very late.

after some adjectives which describe feelings to give a reason for

our feelings:

pleased

sorry

happy

unhappy

sad

excited

glad

disappointed

afraid

I am sorry that you cant come.

Everybody was pleased that the danger was past.
It is lucky that you were able to drive us home.

No "that"

NOTE: We can always use a clause without the word that:

They admitted [that] they had made a mistake.

The police informed everybody [that] the danger was over.
I am sorry [that] you cant come.
There was chance [that] we would succeed.

A good public speaker (in storytelling)

A good public speaker takes their audience on a journey, leaving them feeling inspired
and motivated. But structuring your speech to get your ideas across and keep your
audience engaged all the way through is tricky. Try these eight storytelling techniques
for a presentation that wows.

Youre doing a presentation, so you start with the facts you want to get across. Wrong!
Humans are hardwired for stories. They love heroes, journeys, surprises, layers and
happy endings.

Deliver a presentation that captures the hearts and heads of your audience by stealing
one of these classic storytelling techniques. Start with the story the rest will be history.
1. Monomyth
The monomyth (also called the heros journey), is a story structure that is found in many
folk tales, myths and religious writings from around the world.

In a monomyth, the hero is called to leave their home and sets out on a difficult journey.
They move from somewhere they know into a threatening unknown place.

After overcoming a great trial, they return home with a reward or newfound wisdom
something which will help their community. Lots of modern stories still follow this
structure, from the Lion King to Star Wars.

Using the monomyth to shape your presentation can help you to explain what has
brought you to the wisdom you want to share. It can bring your message alive for your
audience.

Good for:

Taking the audience on a journey

Showing the benefit of taking risks

Demonstrating how you learned some newfound wisdom

See also: The Heros Journey by Joseph Campbell

Japanese yo-yo-er BLACK tells the inspiring story of finding his lifes passion, and the
difficult path he took to become world champion. He closes by sharing his newfound
skills with the audience, bringing his journey full circle.

2. The mountain
The mountain structure is a way of mapping the tension and drama in a story. Its similar
to the monomyth because it helps us to plot when certain events occur in a story.
Its different because it doesnt necessarily have a happy ending. The first part of the
story is given to setting the scene, and is followed by just a series of small challenges
and rising action before a climactic conclusion.

Its a bit like a TV series each episode has its ups and downs, all building up to a big
finale at the end of the season.

Good for:

Showing how you overcame a series of challenges

Slowly building tension

Delivering a satisfying conclusion

See also: This interactive mountain diagram at readthinkwrite.org

Aimee Mullins uses a mountain-structure speech to tell a personal story from being
born without fibula bones in her lower legs to becoming a famous athlete, actress and
model.

3. Nested loops
Nested loops is a storytelling technique where you layer three or more narratives within
each other.

You place your most important story the core of your message in the centre, and use
the stories around it to elaborate or explain that central principle. The first story you
begin is the last story you finish, the second story you start is second to last, etc.

Nested loops works a bit like a friend telling you about a wise person in their life,
someone who taught them an important lesson. The first loops are your friends story,
the second loops are the wise persons story. At the centre is the important lesson.
Good for:

Explaining the process of how you were inspired/ came to a conclusion

Using analogies to explain a central concept

Showing how a piece of wisdom was passed along to you

See also: Simon Sineks TED talk shows how successful organizations place the why?
of what they do at the centre, surrounded by the what? and how? of their business.
Nested loops are an ideal way of framing this message, giving your audience a real
insight into your identity.

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie uses the framework of her experiences in university and the
way that Africa is perceived in the Western world to drive home her argument about
stories.

4. Sparklines
Sparklines are a way of mapping presentation structures. Graphic designer Nancy
Duarte uses sparklines to analyse famous speeches graphically in her book Resonate.

She argues that the very best speeches succeed because they contrast our ordinary world
with an ideal, improved world. They compare what is with what could be.
By doing this the presenter draws attention to the problems we have in our society, our
personal lives, our businesses. The presenter creates and fuels a desire for change in the
audience.

Its a highly emotional technique that is sure to motivate your audience to support you.

Good for:

Inspiring the audience to action

Creating hope and excitement

Creating a following

See also: Resonate by Nancy Duarte

Martin Luther Kings speech is famous the world over because it contrasts the racist,
intolerant society of the day with an ideal future society where all races are treated
equally.

5. In medias res
In medias res storytelling is when you begin your narrative in the heat of the action,
before starting over at the beginning to explain how you got there.

By dropping your audience right into the most exciting part of your story theyll be
gripped from the beginning and will stay engaged to find out what happens.

But be careful you dont want to give away too much of the action straight away. Try
hinting at something bizarre or unexpected something that needs more explanation.
Give your audience just enough information to keep them hooked, as you go back and
set the scene of your story.
This only works for shorter presentations though if you string it out too long your
audience will get frustrated and lose interest.

Good for:

Grabbing attention from the start

Keep an audience craving resolution

Focusing attention on a pivotal moment in your story

See also: An overview of in medias res storytelling at story-papers.com

Zak Ebrahim begins his talk with the revelation that his father helped plan the 1993
World Trade Centre bombing. His audience is gripped from the beginning, as he begins
to recount the events of his childhood and the path he took after his fathers conviction.

6. Converging ideas
Converging ideas is a speech structure that shows the audience how different strands of
thinking came together to form one product or idea.

It can be used to show the birth of a movement. Or explain how a single idea was the
culmination of several great minds working towards one goal.

Converging ideas is similar to the nested loops structure, but rather than framing one
story with complementary stories, it can show how several equally important stories
came to a single strong conclusion.

This technique could be used to tell the stories of some of the worlds greatest
partnerships for example, web developers Larry Page and Sergey Brin.

Larry and Sergey met at Stanfords PhD program in 1995, but they didnt like each other
at first. They both had great ideas, but found working together hard. Eventually they
found themselves working on a research project together. A research project that became
Google.

Good for:

Showing how great minds came together

Demonstrating how a development occurred at a certain point in history

Showing how symbiotic relationships have formed

See also: Steven Johnsons TED talk, where he explains how collaboration has fuelled
some of historys best ideas

John Bohannon and the Black Label Movement explain (verbally and through dance)
how scientists and dancers came together to form an exciting, dynamic alternative to
boring presentations.

7. False start
A false start story is when you begin to tell a seemingly predictable story, before
unexpectedly disrupting it and beginning it over again. You lure your audience into a
false sense of security, and then shock them by turning the tables.

This format is great for talking about a time that you failed in something and were
forced to go back to the start and reassess. Its ideal for talking about the things that
you learnt from that experience. Or the innovative way that you solved your problem.
But best of all, its a quick attention hack which will disrupt your audiences
expectations and surprise them into paying closer attention to your message.

Good for:

Disrupting audience expectations

Showing the benefits of a flexible approach

Keeping the audience engaged

See also: Retroactive continuity is when a storyteller goes back and alters the facts in
their story. If you are a character in the story youre telling, you can use a false start to
go back and retell your own story in a surprising way.

J K Rowling begins her speech at Harvard in a typical fashion. She talks about her time
at university and the expectations of her parents. The audience expects her to talk about
the growing success of her writing career instead she focuses on a time in her twenties
where she felt she had failed in life. What comes next is inspirational.

8. Petal Structure
The petal structure is a way of organising multiple speakers or stories around one central
concept. Its useful if you have several unconnected stories you want to tell or things
you want to reveal that all relate back to a single message.
You tell your stories one by one before returning back to the centre. The petals can
overlap as one story introduces the next but each should be a complete narrative in itself.

In doing so, you can weave a rich tapestry of evidence around your central theory. Or
strong emotional impressions around your idea.

By showing your audience how all these key stories are related to one another, you leave
them feeling the true importance and weight of your message.

Good for:

Demonstrating how strands of a story or process are interconnected

Showing how several scenarios relate back to one idea

Letting multiple speakers talk around a central theme

See also: Carnegie Mellon Universitys guide to story nodes

Simon Sinek again! His theory might lend itself perfectly to nested loops, but he himself
chose to deliver his talk in a petal structure. He tells his audience a series a stories to
help illustrate his ideas, each one strengthening his message further.

Start with a story

So there you have it 8 classic storytelling shapes to brighten up your talk and really
engage your audience.

Of course there are many other storytelling techniques out there that you can use. What I
hope this post has done is show you that stories are powerful. They are the language of
your audience.

Your talk however dry the subject can be brought alive if you find the story at the
heart of it all.

See also:
 7 Universal story plots that still entrance audiences

How to write an engaging story

How to make your customer a hero

The Seven Pillars of

Storytelling

Audiences are tired of

facts and figures. But
stories? Were
hardwired to see stories
as a gift.

Download your free

ebook and become a
master storyteller.

Absorb/menyerap/mempelajari
en
Finding Your Story
By Aaron Shepard
(Tell a Story! ~ Part 1)
Part of the booklet Tell a Story! first published by Simple Productions,
Arcata, California, 1990

For more resources, visit Aaron Shepards Storytelling Page at

www.aaronshep.com/storytelling
Copyright 1990, 1996 by Aaron Shepard. May be freely copied and shared for any
noncommercial purpose as long as no text is altered or omitted.

Your first step is to find a story. Not just any story. Find a story you love! Youll tell it
often, and you want to enjoy it every time.
A story for telling could be
a folktale, meaning a story from the oral tradition. This could be a fairy tale, hero
tale, humorous tale, tall tale, wisdom tale, animal story or fable, love story, ghost
story, myth, or legend.
a literary tale, by a single author, originally meant to be read.
a real-life story, from history or personal experience.
For most beginners, folktales are easiest, because theyre made for telling.
Theyre simple, direct, and lively, with built-in memory aids. So from here on, well
focus on folktales.
 You can gather folktales from books, storytelling recordings, and word of mouth.
Find books and recordings in both the adult and the childrens sections of your library
and bookstore.
Start with short talesone to three pages of text, or a few minutes of recording.
Look for stories with clear action, strong characters, and simple structure. Of course,
pick a story that also suits your listeners, if you know who theyll be. Modern retellings
are easiest to work from, because they are already refined and adapted for listeners in
our culture. But you too can alter a story to suit yourself or your audience.
Professional storytellers must be careful about copyright protection on stories they
wish to tell, but this is less important for an amateur. If you have relied on only one
version of the story, it is courtesy to at least mention your source. Be aware, though, that
some storytellersincluding many native Americansfeel youve stolen their stories if
you tell them without personal permission.

Preparing Your Story

By Aaron Shepard
(Tell a Story! ~ Part 2)

Part of the booklet Tell a Story! first published by Simple Productions,

Arcata, California, 1990

Storytellers learn their stories in many different ways. Some read or listen to a story over
and over. Some meditate on it. Some type or write out the story. Some draw charts.
Some begin telling the story at once.
However you do it, you must absorb the story until it becomes second nature. Find
the best way for you.
Some parts of the story can be memorized word for wordbeautiful beginnings
and endings, important dialog, colorful expressions, rhymes and repeated phrases.
But dont try to memorize an entire folktale that way. Strict reciting creates a distance
from your listeners that is hard to bridge.
Instead, picture the story. See the scenes in your mind, as clearly as you can.
Later, these pictures will help you recreate your story as you tell itwhether or not you
consciously call them to mind.
Its best to practice your story with a mirror. This can be a real mirror, or an
audio or video recorder, or a friendanything that helps you see how youre doing.
First practice to get the storyline. Your version wont convey everything from the
story you found, but it must convey enough to make sense. Then, once the story is
straight in your mind, focus on how you tell it.
Use repetition. In folktales, events often repeat themselves in threesa magic
number. Pay special attention to repeated rhymes and phrases. Repetition helps your
listeners stick with the story by providing familiar landmarks.
Alongside repetition, use variety. Vary the tone, the pitch, and the volume of your
voice, your speed, your rhythms, your articulation (smooth or sharp). Use silences.
Remember, variety catches and holds attention.
Use gestures, but only ones that help the story. Use them to mime the action, or
just for emphasis. Make them big! Gestures keep the eyes on you.
In your story, pay special attention to beginnings and endings. You may want to
practice an introduction along with the story. This introduction can tell something about
the story or about you. But dont give away the plot!
Endings should be clear, so your listeners know that your storys over without
your telling them. You can do this by slowing down and adding emphasis. For example,
many story endings use a slow threehappily ever after, thatsthe end of that,
and they never saw him again.
Pay special attention also to how you portray your characters. Good characters
bring a story to lifeso put life into them, with face, voice, gesture, body posture. Try
to make each of them different enough so theyre easily told apart.
 When portraying two characters talking together, try a trick called cross-focus":
Make each one face a different 45-degree angle.
Youll tell stories at your best if you prepare not only your story but yourself. Your
voice and body are your instrument, and it helps to use them well.
To project and sustain your voice, you must breathe deeply and correctly. To
check this, place your hand on your stomach. As you inhale and your lungs expand, you
should feel your stomach push out. Many people do the opposite, holding in their
stomachs and breathing only with their upper chests. Also be sure to keep your back
straight, so your lungs can expand fully.
Dont push your voice too hard or use it unnaturally (except maybe when
speaking as a character.) To avoid strain, relax your throat and jaw muscles, and the rest
of your body as well. A big, loud sigh will help this. Also try the lions yawnopen
your mouth wide and stick your tongue out as far as it goes.
Pronounce each sound of each word distinctly. Tongue twisters are good for
making the tongue more nimble.

Telling Your Story

By Aaron Shepard
(Tell a Story! ~ Part 3)

Part of the booklet Tell a Story! first published by Simple Productions,

Arcata, California, 1990

Dont think you have to be perfect the first time you tell your story. Its not likely! But,
if you love your story and have prepared it reasonably well, you will surely give
pleasure to your listeners and yourself. And, each time you tell the story, you and your
story will improve.
If possible, tell your story first to friends in a small group. As you gain
confidence, perform for larger, less intimate groups. Before long, youll think nothing of
telling to a large room full of strangers.
Storytellers have their own styles, differing widely. If a suggestion here doesnt fit
your idea of how you want to tell stories, ignore it. Dont be afraid to try something
different, if it feels right.
A good storytelling space is comfortable, intimate, and free of distractions. Check
the space ahead of time, so you can spot problems and arrange any special needsa
stool, a glass of water. You may also want time alone just beforehand, to collect
yourself, or to warm up your voice and body.
Give your listeners the full force of you. Aim your voice at the back row. Make
your words ring. Avoid verbal trash like um or yknow. Sit or stand, but face your
audience squarely, and with a straight back. No fidgeting, hands in pockets, or shifting
from foot to foot.
Storytelling is magic in part because its personalso make a personal contact
with your listeners. Talk to themnot at themand dont be afraid to talkwith them.
Look them in the eyes. If there are too many of them, or you cant see them all,
look mostly at the ones in front. If some arent paying attention, focus on those who are.
As you tell your story, take your time, and give time to your listenerstime to
see the story, time to laugh, time to feel, time to reflect, time to hang on the edge of
their seats for what comes next. Its easy to go too fast, hard to go too slow. If youre
losing their attention, you may need to slow down! After the story, be sure to leave time
for the audience to appreciate you.
Storytelling is interactive. As your listeners respond to your story, let your story
respond to your listeners. Make your voice and gestures bigger or smaller. Stretch
or shrink parts of the story. Pay attention to what works and what doesnt, so next time
you can change, add, or subtract.
 Above all, trust yourself, your audience, and your story. Remember, anyone who
comes to hear a storyteller is already on your side. Just being a storyteller is magic
even before you say a word.

Final Hints
By Aaron Shepard

(Tell a Story! ~ Part 4)

Part of the booklet Tell a Story! first published by Simple Productions, Arcata,
California, 1990

Here are some ways to go further with storytelling.

See and hear as many good storytellers as you can. Youll pick up performance
techniques, new stories, and general storytelling magic. Storytelling festivals are
wonderful events held all over North America and the United Kingdom.
Read folktale collections. Youll not only find stories to tell, youll develop a feel
for what makes a folktale. This will help if you want to alter a tale or create a new one.
Take a class. Many colleges, universities, and other organizations sponsor them.
This is a fairly safe way to begin storytelling, with support and helpful comments.
Join a local storytelling group. Many communities have groups that meet to try
out stories or organize performances.
Above all, tell, tell, tell, as often as you can. Thats the best way to learn
storytelling!

Article about Health

Vitamins and minerals can be absorbed by the body in a number of

ways. They first enter our body through the food we eat. Secondly, we
can take vitamin supplements to increase the amount of pertinent
vitamins and minerals. There are different methods of taking
medication and one of the most common methods is absorbing it in
its liquid form. Do the advantages of liquid vitamins far outweigh its
disadvantages

if there are any? Read on and find out. Better or Easier Absorption for
Kids Although liquid vitamins may taste worse than vitamins
in flavored, chewable tablet forms, they are however easier to absorb.
There are numerous cases in which children have problems with
choking, breathing and swallowing simply because of their inability to
absorb medication or vitamins in this form. This is the same
problem as well for adults who have lost their ability to control their
jaws or are unable to digest anything that is not in liquid form. Liquid
Vitamins are More Effective Because of its form, liquid vitamins can be
assimilated immediately into the blood stream for a more systemic
administration of the vitamin and its average absorption rate is
approximately 90 to 98%. It is also three to five times more
concentrated than vitamin pills and this lead to higher bio-activity and
greater therapeutic benefits. The Link between Antioxidants and
Liquid Vitamins Have you ever wondered whether or not liquid
vitamins contained oxidants as well? Vitamins E, C and A are
examples of antioxidants and they are commonly found in vitamin
supplements but what about liquid vitamins?
And the answer is an absolute YES. Liquid vitamins must in fact
contain such antioxidants or theyll prove to be
ineffective compared to other vitamins. Remember that the
most important of all antioxidants

Vitamins A, C and E

are not internally produced by the body so they must be a
regular fixture in our diet. Antioxidants are our main defense against
effects of damaging oxidation reactions. Antioxidants are our
best weapons against suffering from any form of cancer. Without it,
we are basically weaker and less healthy. Liquid Vitamins versus
Digestive Acids One reason why people refuse to acknowledge
the benefits of liquid vitamins is because of the supposed destruction
by digestive acids of any vitamin or mineral that it does not recognize
as part of the process of digestion. The opposite is, in fact true. Our
digestive system actually prefers or is able to better absorb liquid
vitamins and minerals rather than those made in pill or capsule form.
A vitamin pill or tablet has to be digested completely before it can
benefit the human body. It must be broken down into absorbable
nutrients or only up to thirty percent of it will be absorbed by the
human body. Liquid vitamins however provide a better and easier
solution for the digestive system. Because it does not depend in
any way on mechanical digestion, an estimated 90% of it can be
absorbed directly by

The practice of writing paragraphs is essential to good writing. Paragraphs help to

break up large chunks of text and makes the content easier for readers to digest. They
guide the reader through your argument by focusing on one main idea or goal.
[1]
However, knowing how to write a good, well-structured paragraph can be little tricky.
Read the guidelines below and learn how to take your paragraph writing skills from
good to great!

Planning Your Paragraph

1
Decide what the main topic of the paragraph is going to be. Before you
begin writing your paragraph, you must have a clear idea of what the paragraph
is going to be about. This is because a paragraph is essentially a collection of
sentences that all relate to one central topic.[2] Without a definite idea of what the
main topic is, your paragraph will lack focus and unity. In order to pin down the
exact topic of your paragraph, you should ask yourself a number of questions:
What is the prompt I have been given? If you are writing a
paragraph as a response or answer to a particular prompt, such as "You have
decided to donate money to charity. Which charity do you choose and why?" or
"Describe your favorite day of the week," you will need to think carefully about
that prompt and make sure you are directly addressing it, rather than going off
topic.
What are the main ideas or issues that I need to
address? Think about the topic you are being asked or have decided to write
 about and consider what the most relevant ideas or issues relating to that topic
are. As paragraphs are usually relatively short, it is important that you try to hit
on all of the main ideas, without going off topic.
Who am I writing for? Think about who the intended readership
of this paragraph or paper is going to be. What is their prior knowledge? Are
they familiar with the topic at hand, or will it require a number of explanatory
sentences?
If your paragraphs are part of a larger essay, writing an essay
outline can help you define the major ideas or goals of each paragraph.
2

2
Write down information and ideas relating to that topic. Once you have a
clearer idea of what you want to address in your paragraph, you can start
organizing your thoughts by writing down your ideas on a notepad or word
document. There's no need to write out full sentences just yet, just jot down
some key words and phrases. Once you see everything on paper, you may get a
clearer idea of which points are essential to include in your paragraph, and
which points are superfluous.
At this point, you may realize that there's a gap in your knowledge
and that it will be necessary to look up some facts and figures to support your
argument.
It's a good idea to do this research now, so you will have all the
relevant information easily at hand when it comes to the writing stage.
3

3
Figure out how you want to structure your paragraph. Now that all of your
thoughts, ideas, facts and figures are laid out clearly in front of you, you can
start to think about how you want to structure your paragraph. Consider each of
the points you wish to address and try to arrange them in a logical order - this
will make your paragraph more coherent and easier to read. [3]
This new order may be chronological, may put the most important
information first, or may just make the paragraph easier and more interesting to
read - it all depends on the topic and style of the paragraph you wish to write. [3]
Once you have decided where you want everything to go, you can
rewrite your points according to this new structure - this will help to make the
writing process a lot faster and more straightforward.

Part 2
Writing Your Paragraph
1.

1
 Write a topic sentence. The first sentence of your paragraph needs to be the
topic sentence. A topic sentence is an introductory line that addresses what the
main idea or thesis of the paragraph is going to be. It should contain the most
important and relevant point you wish to make regarding your topic, thus
summarizing the paragraph as a whole. [2]
Don't: use an obvious fact as your topic sentence.
Do: feel free to start with a vague idea if you feel stuck, and improve it once
you've finished the paragraph.
Every other sentence you write should support the topic sentence
and provide further detail and discussion of the issues or ideas it raises. If any
sentence you write cannot be directly related to the topic sentence, it should not
be included in this particular paragraph.
More experienced writers can include their topic sentence at any
point in the paragraph; it doesn't necessarily need to be the first line. However,
writers who are new or less comfortable with paragraph writing should stick with
having the topic sentence first, as it will help to guide you throughout the rest of
the paragraph.[2]
Your topic sentence should not be too broad or too narrow. If your
topic sentence is too broad you will not be able to discuss its ideas adequately in
your paragraph. If its too narrow, you wont have enough to discuss. [4]
2

2
Fill in the supporting details. Once you have written and are happy with your
topic sentence, you can start to fill in the rest of your paragraph. This is where
the detailed, well-structured notes you wrote earlier will come in handy. Make
sure that your paragraph is coherent, which means that it is easy to read and
understand, that each sentence connects with the next and that everything flows
nicely as a whole. To achieve this, try to write clear, simple sentences that
express exactly what you want to say.[3]
Link each sentence with transition words which form a bridge
between one sentence and the next. Transition words can help you compare
and contrast, show sequence, show cause and effect, highlight important ideas,
and progress smoothly from one idea to the next. Such transition words include
"furthermore", "in fact" and "in addition to". You can also use chronological
transitions, such as "firstly", "secondly" and "thirdly". [3]
The supporting sentences are the meat of your paragraph, so you
should fill them with as much evidence to support your topic sentence as
possible. Depending on the topic, you can use facts, figures, statistics and
examples or you can use stories, anecdotes and quotes. Anything goes, as long
as it is relevant.[2]
In terms of length, three to five sentences will usually be enough to
cover your main points and adequately support your topic sentence, but this will
vary greatly depending on the topic and the length of the paper you are writing.
There is no set length for a paragraph. It should be as long as it needs to be to
adequately cover the main idea.[3][5]
3

3
Write a concluding sentence. The concluding sentence of your paragraph
should tie everything together. A good concluding sentence will reinforce the
idea outlined in your topic sentence, but now it has all the weight of the evidence
or arguments contained in your supporting sentences behind it. After reading
the concluding sentence, the reader should have no doubt as to the accuracy or
relevance of the paragraph as a whole.
Don't disagree with your own evidence: Despite these comments, the report was
a failure.
Do qualify the conclusion if it transitions to the next paragraph: These quotes
prove the report had major support, but this does not mean it led to major
change.
Dont just reword the topic sentence. Your concluding sentence
should acknowledge the discussion that has come before it and remind your
reader of the relevance of this discussion.[6]
For example, in a paragraph dealing with the topic "Why is Canada
a great place to live?" The concluding sentence might look something like "From
all the evidence provided above, such as Canada's fantastic health care
provisions, its top-notch education system and its clean, safe cities, we can
conclude that Canada is indeed a great place to live."
4

4
Know when to move on to a new paragraph. Sometimes it can be difficult to
tell where one paragraph should end and another begin. Luckily, there are a
number of guidelines you can follow which can make the decision to move on to
a new paragraph an obvious one. The most basic guideline to follow is that
every time you start to discuss a new idea, you should move on to a new
paragraph. Paragraphs should never contain more than one central idea. If a
given idea has multiple points or facets, then each individual aspect of the idea
should be given its own paragraph.[2][7]
A new paragraph is also used each time you are contrasting two
points or presenting each side of an argument. For example, if your topic is
"should civil servants receive lower salaries?" one paragraph would deal with
the arguments supporting lower pay for civil servants, while the other paragraph
would provide arguments against it.[2]
Paragraphs make a piece of writing easier to comprehend and
give readers a "break" between new ideas in order to digest what they have just
read. If you feel that the paragraph you are writing is becoming too complex, or
contains a series of complex points, you may want to think about splitting it up
into individual paragraphs.[2]
 When writing a paper, the introduction and conclusion should
always be given their own paragraphs. The introductory paragraph should define
the aim of the paper and what it hopes to achieve, while also giving a brief
outline of the ideas and issues it will go on to discuss. The concluding
paragraph provides a summary of the information and arguments contained in
the paper and states in clear terms what the paper has shown and/or proven. It
may also introduce a new idea, one that opens the reader's mind to the
questions raised by the paper.[2]
If youre writing fiction, you need to start a new paragraph in
dialogue to show a new speaker.[8]

Part 3
Reviewing Your Paragraph
1.

1
Check your paragraph for spelling and grammar. Once you have finished
writing, it is essential that you re-read your paragraph two or three times to
check it for misspelled words and poor grammar. Spelling mistakes and bad
grammar can significantly impact the perceived quality of your paragraph, even
if the ideas and arguments it contains are of a high quality. It is very easy to
overlook small mistakes when writing, so don't skip this step, even if you're in a
rush.
Ensure that each sentence has a subject and that all proper nouns
are capitalized. Also make sure that all of the subjects and verbs agree with
each other and that you use the same tense across the entire paragraph.
Use a dictionary to double-check the spelling of words that you are
unsure about, don't just assume that they are correct.
Check your paragraph for the proper use of punctuation, making
sure that you use marks such as commas, colons, semicolons and ellipses in
the correct context.
2

2
Check your paragraph for coherency and style. Not only should the technical
aspects of your writing be spot on, but you should also try to achieve clarity in
your writing, as well as stylistic flow. You can do this by varying the length and
format of your sentences and by using transitional words and a varied
vocabulary.[2]
Don't: use long words or "thesaurus finds" for their own sake.
Do: use well-known synonyms to vary your writing rather than repeat the same
word many times.
The point of view of your writing should remain consistent
throughout the paragraph, and indeed, the entire paper. For example, if you are
writing in the first person (e.g., "I believe that...") you should not switch to a
passive voice ("it is believed that") halfway through.
However, you should also try to avoid beginning every sentence
with "I think..." or "I contend that..." Try to vary the format of your sentences, as
 this will make the paragraph more interesting for the reader and help it to flow
more naturally.
For beginner writers, it is better to stick to short, to-the-point
sentences which clearly express your point. Long, rambling sentences can very
quickly become incoherent or fall victim to grammatical errors, so try to avoid
them until you gain more experience as a writer.
3

3
Decide if your paragraph is complete. Once you have re-read the paragraph
and fixed any grammatical or stylistic errors, you should have one more glance
over it to determine whether it is complete. Try to look at the paragraph
objectively and decide whether it sufficiently supports and develops your topic
sentence, or whether it needs a few more details or additional evidence to back
up your claims.[3]
Don't: get bogged down in minor edits before you've finished your essay.
Do: make sure your point is crystal clear before you move on.
If you feel that the main claim of your topic sentence is sufficiently
supported and well-developed by the contents of the rest of your paragraph,
then your paragraph is probably complete. However, if any important aspect of
the topic remains unexplored or unexplained or if the paragraph is shorter than
three sentences, it probably needs a little more work. [3]
On the other hand, you may decide that your paragraph is too long
and contains superfluous or tangential content. If this is the case, you should
edit the paragraph so it contains only the most relevant information.
If you feel that all of the content is necessary to your point, but the
paragraph is still too long, you should think about breaking it up into several
smaller, more specific paragraphs.