Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AC/323(AVT-024)TP/30
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION
RTO-TR-045
RTO/NATO 2002
Single copies of this publication or of a part of it may be made for individual use only. The approval of the
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in another publication. Requests to do so should be sent to the address above.
Work performed by the RTO Applied Vehicle Technology Panel (AVT) TG 024.
Work performed by the RTO Applied Vehicle Technology Panel (AVT) TG 024.
The Research and Technology
Organisation (RTO) of NATO
RTO is the single focus in NATO for Defence Research and Technology activities. Its mission is to conduct and promote
cooperative research and information exchange. The objective is to support the development and effective use of national
defence research and technology and to meet the military needs of the Alliance, to maintain a technological lead, and to
provide advice to NATO and national decision makers. The RTO performs its mission with the support of an extensive
network of national experts. It also ensures effective coordination with other NATO bodies involved in R&T activities.
RTO reports both to the Military Committee of NATO and to the Conference of National Armament Directors. It comprises a
Research and Technology Board (RTB) as the highest level of national representation and the Research and Technology
Agency (RTA), a dedicated staff with its headquarters in Neuilly, near Paris, France. In order to facilitate contacts with the
military users and other NATO activities, a small part of the RTA staff is located in NATO Headquarters in Brussels. The
Brussels staff also coordinates RTOs cooperation with nations in Middle and Eastern Europe, to which RTO attaches
particular importance especially as working together in the field of research is one of the more promising areas of initial
cooperation.
The total spectrum of R&T activities is covered by the following 7 bodies:
AVT Applied Vehicle Technology Panel
HFM Human Factors and Medicine Panel
IST Information Systems Technology Panel
NMSG NATO Modelling and Simulation Group
SAS Studies, Analysis and Simulation Panel
SCI Systems Concepts and Integration Panel
SET Sensors and Electronics Technology Panel
These bodies are made up of national representatives as well as generally recognised world class scientists. They also
provide a communication link to military users and other NATO bodies. RTOs scientific and technological work is carried
out by Technical Teams, created for specific activities and with a specific duration. Such Technical Teams can organise
workshops, symposia, field trials, lecture series and training courses. An important function of these Technical Teams is to
ensure the continuity of the expert networks.
RTO builds upon earlier cooperation in defence research and technology as set-up under the Advisory Group for Aerospace
Research and Development (AGARD) and the Defence Research Group (DRG). AGARD and the DRG share common roots
in that they were both established at the initiative of Dr Theodore von Karman, a leading aerospace scientist, who early on
recognised the importance of scientific support for the Allied Armed Forces. RTO is capitalising on these common roots in
order to provide the Alliance and the NATO nations with a strong scientific and technological basis that will guarantee a
solid base for the future.
ISBN 92-837-1077-0
ii
Design Loads for Future Aircraft
(RTO TR-045 / AVT-024)
Executive Summary
The selection of design loads and requirements is defining the structural weight of airplanes and their
safety. Therefore the definition of requirements should be performed very critically by the customer
and structural weight should be assessed based on sensitivity analysis of the total aircraft which
includes flight manoeuvre simulation, flight control system, aerodynamics and elastic effects
introduced by finite elements. To produce these analyses is the job of the aircraft companies.
After selection of most load critical flight manoeuvres (pull up manoeuvres, initiation of roll
manoeuvres etc.) the calculation of airloads and inertia loads must include the flight control system and
its failure cases because it affects the motion of the control surfaces and therefore the aircraft.
With the advent of carbon fibre composite structures discrete loads are the predominant limiting design
conditions but it should be emphasised that most structures are of a hybrid nature with metal frame
which are still susceptible to fatigue loads. For airplanes designed to civil requirements such as
transport airplanes, tankers etc. the definition of continuous turbulence and inclusion of FCS failure
cases and nonlinearities such as control surface angles is extremely important.
There was a long way from load assumptions used by the Wright Brothers who designed their Flyer to
a 5g limit to the load limiting capabilities of the care free handling flight control system of the
Eurofighter. Also the US-Airforce Mil-Specifications which were used to design NATO airplanes such
as Tornado, F16 and F18 in the 1970s are obsolete today and the MIL-A-87221 (USAF) is only a
frame without the essential quantitative material. All these issues are addressed in this manual
including comparisons of regulations and descriptions of new specifications. Complete procedures how
to establish design loads are presented which should help for the design of new airplanes.
The importance of dynamic phenomena which produce design loads for various aircraft parts such as
intakes, leading edges etc. is also highlighted. Loads monitoring systems are necessary to prove
calculated loads and monitor fatigue loads to establish the remaining structural life. There is a
description of a modern system.
For transport type aircraft gust load cases are the most critical for strength design and they are also the
main fatigue loading source for the major part of the structure. Methods for discrete and continuous
gust loading cases are presented together with nonlinear example calculations.
In the appendix there is a description of failure cases and their effect on loads for transport aircraft and
a specification of a landing gear which could be used as an example how to specify the whole structure
as a system. The military use of this manual is to establish procedures to build the lightest structure for
the military requirements. Agreement on requirements and design loads within the NATO countries
could standardise pilot training, aircraft usage, increase aircraft life and reduce maintenance. Since the
search of the best usage of the aircraft for its military purpose will continue to integrate structure and
avionics such as fire and flight control systems as an example there will be a continuous need for
future work.
iii
Les charges de calcul pour de futurs aeronefs
(RTO TR-045 / AVT-024)
Synth`ese
Le choix des charges theoriques et des specifications determine la masse structurale des aeronefs et leur
securite. Cest pourquoi la definition des specifications doit e tre realisee de facon tr`es rigoureuse par le
client, la masse structurale e tant, dans ce cas, e valuee a` partir dune e tude de sensibilite de laeronef dans
son ensemble, couvrant une simulation devolution en vol, un syst`eme de commandes de vol, des
considerations aerodynamiques et deventuels effets e lastiques introduits par des e lements finis. Il incombe
aux avionneurs deffectuer ces e tudes.
Apr`es avoir defini les e volutions en vol les plus critiques en termes de charges (ressource, tonneau, etc.), le
calcul des charges aerodynamiques et des charges dinertie doit e galement inclure le syst`eme de commande
de vol et ses defaillances potentielles car il a une incidence sur le mouvement des gouvernes et par
consequent sur laeronef.
Avec lav`enement des structures composites en fibre de carbone, les charges discr`etes sont devenues les
principales conditions restrictives pour la conception, mais il est a` noter que la plupart des structures sont
hybrides avec une cellule metallique et restent vulnerables aux charges de fatigue. En ce qui concerne les
aeronefs concus selon des specifications civiles, tels que les avions de transport, les avions ravitailleurs,
etc., la definition de la turbulence continue et linclusion des cas de pannes du syst`eme de commandes de
vol (FCS) et des non-linearites, tels que les angles de gouverne, sont extremement importantes.
Un long chemin separe les hypoth`eses de charge retenues par les fr`eres Wright, qui ont concu leur Flyer
pour un facteur de charge limite de 5g, et les caracteristiques de limite de charge du syst`eme de commandes
de vol a` pilotage securise de lEurofighter. De meme, les specifications MIL de lUS-Airforce, utilisees
dans les annees 70 pour la conception des avions de combat de lOTAN, tels que le Tornado, le F16 et le
F18, sont aujourdhui obsol`etes et la specification MIL-A-87221 (USAF) ne represente quun cadre, denue
du materiau quantitatif essentiel. Lensemble de ces questions est aborde dans le present manuel avec la
comparaison des r`eglements et des descriptions de nouvelles specifications. Des procedures compl`etes
permettant de definir des charges de calcul sont presentees, ce qui devrait faciliter la conception des
nouveaux aeronefs.
Limportance des phenom`enes dynamiques, qui gen`erent des charges de calcul sappliquant a` differents
e lements de laeronef, tels que les entrees dair, les bords dattaque etc. est e galement soulignee. Des
syst`emes de surveillance des charges sont necessaires pour justifier les charges calculees et surveiller les
charges de fatigue en vue detablir la duree de vie structurale restante. La description dun syst`eme moderne
est donnee.
Pour les aeronefs de transport, les charges de rafale sont lelement le plus critique en ce qui concerne les
calculs de resistance, et elles sont e galement la principale source de charges de fatigue pour la majeure
partie de la structure. Les methodes relatives aux cas de charges de rafale continues et discontinues sont
presentees avec des calculs dexemple non lineaires.
Lannexe presente une description des cas de panne et de leurs effets sur les charges pour les avions de
transport, ainsi que la specification dun train datterrissage qui pourrait e tre utilisee comme exemple pour
e tablir la specification de lensemble de la structure en tant que syst`eme. Ce manuel permet de mettre au
point des procedures pour la fabrication de structures les plus leg`eres repondant aux specifications
militaires. Un accord portant sur les specifications et les charges de calcul en vigueur dans les pays de
lOTAN pourrait conduire a` la standardisation de la formation des pilotes et de lexploitation des aeronefs,
associee a` laccroissement de la duree de vie des aeronefs et a` lall`egement de la maintenance. En
conclusion, e tant donne que la recherche de lexploitation optimale dun aeronef a` des fins militaires
continuera dintegrer la structure et lavionique, tel que par exemple les syst`emes de commandes de vol et
de tir, la demande de travaux de recherche sera maintenue.
iv
Click inside the blue boxes to view the corresponding section
Contents
Page
Executive Summary iii
Synth`ese iv
Publications of the RTO Applied Vehicle Technology Panel ix
Task Group Members xi
1 Introduction 1
2 Loads Requirements Review 1
2.1 The development of maneuver load criteria for agile aircraft 1
2.1.1 Introduction 1
2.1.2 Status of present Criteria 1
2.1.3 The influence of piloting technique 6
2.1.4 The influence of advanced control systems 7
2.1.5 Conclusion 8
2.1.6 References 9
2.2 Changes in USAF Structural Loads Requirements 9
2.2.1 Introduction 9
2.2.2 Structural Loading Condition 9
2.2.3 Flight Loading Conditions 10
2.2.4 Ground Loading Conditions 10
3 Maneuver Loads 18
3.1 Classical Approach 18
3.1.1 Definitions 18
3.1.2 Limit Load Concept 19
3.1.3 Safety Factors Review 20
3.2 Non Classical Approach 21
3.2.1 Maximum Load Concept 21
3.2.2 Operational Flight Parameter Approach 26
3.2.3 Determination and Verification of Operational Maneuver Parameters and Time 27
Histories
3.2.4 Flight Loads derived from Operational Maneuvers 36
3.2.5 Flight Parameter Envelopes Approach 40
3.3 Dynamic Loads 52
3.3.1 Introduction 52
3.3.2 Types of Dynamically Acting Loads 52
3.3.3 Prediction Process & Methods 56
3.3.4 Design Assumptions, Criteria and Certification 59
3.3.5 Developments 59
3.3.6 Summary 60
3.3.7 Acknowledgements 61
3.3.8 References 61
3.4 Managing the Technical Risk - Dynamic Loads in-flight Monitoring 62
3.4.1 Dynamic Loads Monitoring System 62
3.4.2 Dynamic Loading Phenomena Monitored 63
3.4.3 Dynamic Loads Monitoring System Implementation 63
3.5 Airframe Certification Against Birdstrike Threats 68
3.5.1 Certification via Empirical Testing 68
3.5.2 References 69
v
4 Gust loads 70
4.1 Introduction 70
4.1.1 Discrete Gusts 70
4.1.2 Continuous Gusts 71
4.1.3 Gust Load Requirements 71
4.2 Overview of Gust Requirements 72
4.2.1 Draft NPRM on Continuous Turbulence 72
4.3 Comparison of Methods to calculated Continuous Turbulence Design Loads for 72
Non-Linear Aircraft
4.3.1 Analyses made by NLR 73
4.3.2 Analyses made by the University of Manchester 74
4.4 Conclusions & Recommendations 76
4.5 References 76
4.6 Appendix A4.1 85
4.6.1 Stochastic Methods 85
4.6.2 Deterministic Methods 87
4.7 Appendix A4.2 Description of Aircraft Models 91
5 A More Global Approach 96
5.1 Why a more global approach 96
5.2 Limit Loads 96
5.2.1 Basic principles of the more global approach for limit loads 96
5.2.2 Maximum Loads through Load Severity Indicators 96
5.2.3 Maximum Loads Expected in Service 97
5.2.4 Application to design of fly by wire aircraft 97
5.3 Ultimate load definition and Safety Factors for multiphysical effects 97
5.4 Safety factors evolution with innovations 98
5.4.1 The particular case of fly by wire aircraft 98
5.4.2 Towards probabilistic approaches 98
Appendix A The Impact of Electronic Flight Control System (EFCS) Failure Cases on
Structural Design Loads 99
A.1 Introduction 101
A.2 Certification Requirements 102
A.3 EFCS Failures 103
A.4 Procedure to Handle Failure Cases in Loads 104
A.5 Consequences on Design 105
A.6 OFIS, Approaches to OFC Detection 107
A.7 Conclusion 108
A.8 References 108
vi
B.5 Requirements 114
B.5.1 Detailed Structural Design Requirements 114
B.5.2 General Parameters 117
B.5.3 Specific Design and Construction Parameters 160
B.5.4 Structural Loading Conditions 177
B.5.5 Vibration 188
B.5.6 Strength 189
B.5.7 Durability 194
B.5.8 Damage Tolerance 200
B.5.9 Durability and Damage Tolerance Control 206
B.5.10 Sensitivity Analysis 208
B.5.11 Force Management 208
B.5.12 Production Facilities, Capabilities, and Processes 211
B.5.13 Engineering Data Requirements 211
B.6 Verification 212
B.6.1 Detailed Structural Design Requirements 212
B.6.2 General Parameters 214
B.6.3 Specific Design and Construction Parameters 224
B.6.4 Structural Loading Conditions 226
B.6.5 Vibration 232
B.6.6 Strength 236
B.7 Definitions 265
B.7.1 Acoustic Environment 265
B.7.2 Aerial Delivery 265
B.7.3 Aeroacoustic Fatigue 265
B.7.4 Aeroacoustic Load 265
B.7.5 Aircraft 265
B.7.6 Airframe 265
B.7.7 Air Transport 265
B.7.8 Air Vehicle 265
B.7.9 Auxiliary Systems 265
B.7.10 Container Delivery System (CDS) 265
B.7.11 Damage Tolerance 265
B.7.12 Damping Coefficient (G) 265
B.7.13 Degree of Inspectability 265
B.7.14 Discipline 266
B.7.15 Divergence 266
B.7.16 Durability 266
B.7.17 Durability Service Life 266
B.7.18 Factor Of Uncertainty 266
B.7.19 Fail-Safe Crack Arrest Structure 266
B.7.20 Critical Parts 266
B.7.21 Frequency of Inspection 267
B.7.22 Hardness 267
B.7.23 Initial Quality 267
B.7.24 Load Factor 267
B.7.25 Margin of Safety 267
B.7.26 Minimum Assumed Initial Damage Size 267
B.7.27 Minimum Assumed In-Service Damage Size 267
B.7.28 Minimum Period of Unrepaired Service Usage 267
B.7.29 Multiple Load Path Fail-Safe Structure 267
B.7.30 Operational Needs 267
B.7.31 Pallet 267
B.7.32 Personnel Ear Protection 267
B.7.33 Pure Tone or Narrow Band 267
B.7.34 Reported Sound Pressure Level 267
B.7.35 Safety of Flight Structure 268
B.7.36 Slow Crack Growth Structure 268
vii
B.7.37 Sound Pressure Levels 268
B.7.38 Special Mission Aircraft 268
B.7.39 Speeds 268
B.7.40 Store 268
B.7.41 Structure 268
B.7.42 Structural Integrity 268
B.7.43 Structural Operating Mechanisms 268
B.7.44 Survivability 268
B.7.45 Vulnerability 268
B.7.46 Key Process Characteristics 268
B.7.47 Key Product Characteristics 269
B.7.48 Key Production Process 269
B.7.49 Process Capability Index (Cp) 269
B.7.50 Production 269
B.7.51 Production Control 269
B.7.52 Production Process 269
B.7.53 A-Basis Allowable 269
B.7.54 B-Basis Allowable 269
viii
Publications of the RTO
Applied Vehicle Technology Panel
Unmanned Vehicles (UV) for Aerial, Ground and Naval Military Operations
MP-052, January 2002
Active Control Technology for Enhanced Performance Operational Capabilities of Military Aircraft,
Land Vehicles and Sea Vehicles
MP-051, June 2001
Gas Turbine Operation and Technology for Land, Sea and Air Propulsion and Power Systems (Unclassified)
MP-34, September 2000
Small Rocket Motors and Gas Generators for Land, Sea and Air Launched Weapons Systems
MP-23, April 2000
Missile Aerodynamics
MP-5, November 1998
ix
EDUCATIONAL NOTES (EN)
Supercavitating Flows
EN-010, January 2002
High Order Methods for Computational Physics, Published jointly with Springer-Verlag, Germany
EN-5, March 1999
x
Task Group Members
Chairman
Mr. Claude Perron
Bombardier Inc. Canada
Military Aircraft Division
10,000 Cargo Road A-4, Montreal International Airport
Mirabel, Quebec J7N 1H3
em: claude.perron@defence.bombardier.com
Co-Chairman
Prof. Dr. O. Sensburg
European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company - EADS
Military Aircraft MT2
Postfach 80 11 60, 81663 Munich, Germany
em: aeroelastic@t-online.de
xi
EDITORS
Mr. W. Luber
European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company - EADS
Military Aircraft MT24
P.O. Box 80 11 60
81663 Munich, Germany
em: wolfgang.luber@m.eads.net
xii
1
1 Introduction CONCLUSIONS
During the past few years there has been an increased In this manual several approaches are presented how to
interest of the aircraft community on design loads for calculate design loads for existing and future aircraft.
aircraft. Consequently there was a workshop in 1996 There is a description of requirements included with
SC73 on Loads and Requirements for Military Aircraft some historical background.
(AGARD Report 815). Elastic effects on design loads
were presented at a Workshop: Static Aeroelastic It very soon becomes clear that for fly by wire, agile,
Effects on High Performance Aircraft. inherently unstable aircraft, these requirements as far as
manoeuvres are concerned are obsolete.
Also an Agadogragh was written on Gust Loads:
AGARDograph 317: Manual on the Flight of Flexible Therefore, an approach as described for the Eurofighter,
Aircraft in Turbulence. All these topics are covered in where flight parameters are restricted and care free
this manual. handling of the aircraft is provided, is a possible solution.
With the increased use of active control systems on Gust loads are also presented with some very interesting
aircraft, there is currently a strong need to revisit some comparisons of methods dealing with non-linear aircraft.
concepts used for conventional aircraft and to identify the
correction to be brought forward to existing procedures to There is also an extensive compendium of dynamic loads
compute the several loads affecting a military aircraft and which may be designing the aircraft structure.
the effect of the active control system. Special attention
has been given to cover these items. A more global approach is also shown which tries to
avoid insufficiencies of classical load regulations.
This report contains the following:
It is hoped that this manual can be helpful for aircraft
Maneuver Loads designers to produce realistic flight loads which will
result in optimum weight structures.
Under this topic, design loads derivation covers the
following aspects:
2 Loads Requirements Review
Aerodynamic/inertia loads
Aeroservoelastic effects The design of modern fighter aircraft is becoming an
Effects of control system failure on design envelope increasingly complex process, and the establishment of
Dynamic loads design criteria is an extremely important element in that
process. The Structures and Materials Panel of AGARD
have noted with concern that the existing design
Gust loads maneuver load regulations in the NATO nations a ) are
not uniform in content and b) do not generally reflect the
Although not a major concern for fighter aircraft, gust actual service experience of the aircraft.
loads play an important role on aircraft that are designed
under civil requirements. A complete description of the Therefore an AGARD manual was prepared which tries
methods used is presented along with recommendations to put together the latest requirement and methods which
on their use. The effect of control system failure is have been used for the design of recent modern airplanes.
described for the case of gust alleviation systems in As an introduction to the present situations two
Appendix A. contributions to military requirements are given. The first
one gives a suggestion how maneuver loads criteria could
be developed for modern agile aircraft.
Aircraft/Landing Gear Loads
In the second one the changes in the USAF Structural
The specification of a landing gear as a system is shown Load Requirements are presented which show the
in the Appendix B. evolution of general load criteria valid for every aircraft
to a specific document which is part of the overall
specification.
Limit Loads Concept
Similarly a specification for undercarriage is shown in
Limit load concepts and design loads criteria are explored the Appendix B. The third set of specifications is for civil
for actively controlled aircraft. airplanes and is laid down in JAR25 (not included in this
report).
2
2.1 The development of maneuver load In the course of an aircraft development programme, box
criteria for agile aircraft 4 is given a priori, and apart from special training effects,
box 1 is also given at the start in average form. Box 3 is
frozen relatively early by definition of the aircraft
Max Hacklinger configuration and so is the architecture of box 2. But then
Munich, FRG for a long period of simulation and flight testing the
AGARD Report 746, May 1987 functions of 2 are optimized, not only for the clean
aircraft but for a variety of external stores. To a lesser
degree corrections are also possible in this period for box
2.1.1 Introduction 3. This optimization process concerns both handling
qualities and maneuver loads, but the approaches are
The flight maneuver loads are major design criteria for different. The handling specialist has to analyze the
agile aircraft (aerobatics, trainer, fighter aircraft), because whole spectrum of possible flight maneuvers with main
large portions of their airframe are sized by these loads. emphasis an stability and achievement of performance.
They also belong traditionally to the most elusive Design load investigations are a search for maximal and
engineering criteria and so far engineers never succeeded an experienced loads analyst can narrow down the vast
in precisely predicting what pilots will eventually do with spectrum of possible flight cases to relatively few which
their machines. One extreme solution to this problem become load critical. However, this process is becoming
would be to put so much strength into the structure that increasingly difficult with modern active control systems
the aerodynamic and pilot tolerance capabilities can be and the control system departments have to live with a
fully exploited by maneuvering without failure. This is new burden - the responsibility for causing exotic loads.
more or less the case with aerobatics aircraft, but modern
fighters would grow far too heavy by this rule.
To keep things lucid in this overview, I shall try to
generalize or simplify the Problems but retain the
essential interrelations. Fig. 1 serves to illustrate this:
pilot steering
1
capability
sensor data
flight control
2
system capability
Aircraft class
MIL-A-8861 B (AS) 1986 for the US Navy
Basic design All Max design
t1 [sec]
mass masses mass
DEF-STAN 00-970 1983 for the UK
Max Min Min at Max Min
AIR 2004 E 1979 for France.
at VH VL at VH
The US situation at the moment is curious. (A) used to be
the main US specification for flight loads over many A,F,T 8.0 -3.0 -1.0 4.0 -2.0 0.2
years. It has been replaced for the Air Force in 1985 by 1)
MIL-A-87221 (USAF), but this new specification is only
a frame without the essential quantitative material and as A,F,T 6.5 -3.0 -1.0 4.0 -2.0 0.2
such no great help for the designer. The US Navy on the 2)
other hand, who traditionally used to have their own and
different specification, have now adopted the old USAF O 6.0 -3.0 -1.0 3.0 -1.0 0.3
Spec. (A) and updated and amplified it for application to
modern control system technology, including direct force
control, thrust vectoring etc. Thus (B) seems to be the U 4.0 -2.0 0 2.5 -1.0 0.3
most up-to-date specification available now. Although 1) subsonic
modern fighter tactics use combined control inputs in 2) supersonic
several axes, for a starting basis we prefer to treat them
separately as pitching, rolling and yawing maneuvers. Table 1: Symmetrical maneuver parameters of 8861 A
(e) is a special case for computer control, fly -by-wire, 2.1.2.2 Rolling maneuvers (with pitching)
active control, stability augmentation, the direct lift
control, or other types of control system where the pilot US Air Force
control inputs do not directly its establish control surface
position" which we shall call here generically ACT The rolling cases of (A) assume rapid control inputs and
systems. This case requires that aircraft strength shall reversal (checked maneuvers), see Fig. 4. With 267 N
also be sufficient to cover modifications of cases (a) to force the stick shall be moved sideways in 0.1 sec, held
(c) caused by ACT systems partially failed (transients, until the specified bank angle is attained and then
changed gains etc.), a requirement which is easier stated reverted to neutral in 0.1 sec. If a roll rate greater than
than proven. 270/s would result, control position may be lessened to
just achieve this value, but the roll rates shall never be
lower than those necessary to achieve the time to bank
UK criteria in the handling qualities specification (T360 = 2.8
sec gives Pmax 150/sec).
In the UK, pitching maneuvers have traditionally been
covered by airplane response calculations after the Fast 180 rolls are required starting from level flight with
Czaykowski method which assumed an exponential -1 to + 1g.
function for elevator movement and no checking. This Fast 360 rolls are required starting from n=1.
was an expedient way to obtain tail loads but the new UK Rolling pull out is required to start from steady level
specification (C) advises that pilot control inputs should turns with load factors from 1 to 8 n1 ( for a typical 8 g
be used now. It does not specify any details of these. airplane this is 1 to 6.4 g).
much advertised carefree (foolproof) handling system, In criteria in the handling specification which amounts to
reality control systems are primarily optimized for actual about 200 /sec; 200 /sec for ground attack and 250
maneuver performance and not for achievement of some /sec for aerial combat maneuvers. The control input time
theoretical load cases. On the positive side this criterion history is roughly as in (A).
recognizes the need to retain some reference to proven
maneuver design load practice.
Another addition in (B) is the requirement that the France
structure shall also be designed to withstand the
demonstration requirements of MIL-D-87088 (AS), The French specification also requires negative initial
which apparently is not obvious. conditions for the rolling cases:
-1.6 to 6.4 g. (D) has control inputs similar to (A), but
with t1 = 0.2 and t3 = 0.3 or maximum servo capability.
UK The roll limits are more severe, i.e., a full 360 roll and
pmax
!
In the UK a wider envelope of initial conditions is that US pilots tend to avoid negative g maneuvers in
required for the rolling cases, including a negative g roll contrast to their European colleagues:
reversal: -1.5 to 7.2 g. For the maximum roll rate several Table 4 summarizes the rolling parameters for a typical
limits are given: at least 1 1/3 of the roll performance 8 g airplane.
180 roll 1 to +1 g Same as A plus ACS fool Rolling pull out from 360 roll, pmax = 360/sec
360 roll at 1g proof ness with maximum 1.5 to 7.2 g, rolling pull out from 1.6
rolling pull out control authority plus pmax = 1.33 p handling to 6.4 g
from 1 to 6.4 g, demonstration
t1 = 0.2 sec
t1 = t2 = 0.1 sec, requirements Ground attack 200/sec t2 = 0.3 sec
pmax = 270/sec Aerial combat 250/sec or max servo capability
No t1, but maximum servo under zero load and
capability t1 = t2
US Navy
UK
France
Even for the old-fashioned aircraft without ACT the At this point it is well to remember that the results of any
specified control inputs were never fully representative of ground based simulation are severely limited by the
actual pilot handling. They came closest for a control absence of realistic motion cues to the pilot - nevertheless
system with a solid stick directly connected to tail these simulations have become an indispensable
surfaces without sophisticated tabs, but they were only development tool.
engineering simplifications of nature - like a ( 1 - cos )
gust which does exist nowhere but is used to produce
reasonable loads.
2.1.4 The influence of advanced control
Pilots are quite inventive in finding new techniques for systems
combat maneuvering - in fact this is part of the selection
process (survival of the fittest). For this reason and due to
changed tactical scenarios, most aircraft later in their The cockpit environment has drastically changed in
service life are used differently from the way projected at recent years with the rapid development of flight control
the design stage. If a sophisticated simulated combat systems. For many decades pilots had to move large
maneuver is used to derive critical design loads this case controls against inertia and air forces to keep their
may be overtaken by evolution after a few years in machines under control. Most of the aircraft in service
service. ACT gives the possibility of late adjustments of now have still control movement but artificial feel to
the limiting functions, ideally by software changes only, provide some indication of the flight conditions. Now
but this is equally true for an aircraft designed to the old sidestick controllers are being introduced which are very
criteria. sensitive and require almost no motion. Although man is
basically a motion sensitive animal, pilots seem to have
Perhaps the major difference between the old criteria and adapted to this type of control. But from our viewpoint of
the new piloting techniques lies in the longer sequences aircraft loads, we should keep in mind that many natural
of combined maneuvers and not so much in the short limitations which used to prevent the pilot from
elementary inputs (stick to the stops, maximum pilot commanding critical flight situations, do not exist with
force). ACT-aircraft. The conventional type of control is
essentially a low pass filter. With sidestick controllers
If so, it would be easier to adapt an aircraft designed to many high frequency inputs, some of them unintentional,
the old criteria to changed operational practice than one can make the FCS nervous.
with sizing load cases derived from specific complex
simulated maneuvers. Several loading cases in the existing criteria are based on
maximum pilot forces. The attempt in (B) to replace this
An important difference to the old criteria exists in the for ACT-aircraft by "maximum pilot authority" is not
absolute level of maneuver loads. Improved g-suits, convincing. What is this pilot authority? The phrase
increased aircraft performance and improved control "maximum deflection of motivators" in (C) does not
systems with load limitation - all these factors have led resolve the problem either. This is just another case
pilots to pull limit loads more often and for longer where we have lost an engineering yardstick which used
duration. There is also indication for an increased to work well in the past.
application of negative g in jinking maneuvers. This
general tendency goes so far that high performance More important than changes at the input side are
aircraft are now more frequently crashed due to pilot changes in the main FCS functions. Traditionally, flight
incapacitation (GLC). control systems have been optimized for handling
qualities, with a few loads related functions like roll rate
The increased overall load level certainly necessitates limitation incorporated separately. So the problem was to
adjustment of the old fatigue strength criteria (e.g. provide maximum maneuverability with sufficient flight
MIL-8866); whether it also requires expansion of the stability to prevent loss of control. This task requires high
design g-envelope, is debatable. Following the rationale authority and strong control outputs. Now ACT systems
which has been the basis of our airworthiness criteria for have a new basic function, load limitation, which requires
many years now, it would be sound engineering practice low authority and mild control outputs. Thus FCS
to increase design strength if the overall load level has optimization has become a much more demanding task to
statistically increased. Other people argue however, that unite two conflicting targets.
the load limiting capability of ACT does not only justify
staying with the old design loads, but even reducing the The FCS-certification effort has also increased drastically
factor of safety. with automatic load limitation since the FCS is now a
direct component of the proof of structural integrity.
Whilst designers are confronted with a very real increase Where it was previously efficient to show that
in the overall level of the symmetrical load cases, the consecutive failures in the FCS led to degraded handling
situation is more obscure with the unsymmetrical loads. but still preserved a minimum get-you-home capability,
Due to various scheduled interconnects between rudder, the load limiting function of the FCS is directly safety
taileron, aileron or spoilers, the pilot now is rarely aware critical and must therefore satisfy severe criteria for
of the effect his commands have on the aircraft control failure rates, redundancy etc.. To a degree this is reflected
surfaces. The only real limitation of unsymmetrical in (B) by the requirement that the loading cases shall also
maneuvers is probably the pilot's tolerance to lateral include different failure states of the FCS. The associated
acceleration which is far less than in the vertical problems are severe and can only be touched upon:
direction. Turning to Fig. 1 again, this control function is Sensor redundancy, -disparity, software qualification,
executed via the feedback path between boxes 3 and 1. load distribution and a. o.
8
It is clear that proof of airworthiness of ACT aircraft conventional criteria for the basic design. Then, for a
would be incomplete with consideration of the long period of simulation and flight testing, adjustments
deterministic loads cases only the ACT part needs to be are made whenever weak areas are discovered. This
treated statistically and this can be a cumbersome journey requires an integrated approach by the FCS and loads
through the woods of failure trees. Quantitative guidance departments. The certification process must recognize
can be taken from [2] this by not aiming at the usual final operational clearance,
but over many years providing preliminary clearances
The overall failure rates given there are still applicable to which reflect the temporary state of knowledge about
new designs. tested maneuver loads and the related build standard of
the FCS.
Let us return now to the "carefree handling" concept
which appears to offer great possibilities for loads control In summary, the maneuver loads part of aircraft design
and which Air Staffs are all too ready to specify because has evolved from a relatively clean-cut, predetermined
it would reduce pilots workload significantly and free analysis to a long iterative process which gradually
them for tactical tasks. In our context of maneuver loads utilizes flight test information to expand the flight
such a control system ideally would limit all flight loads envelopes; a process which is also much more demanding
to the design values so that neither pilot nor designer because it involves the reliability of the FCS in proving
need to worry about exceeding the structural capability of structural integrity.
the airframe. This requires a large number of reliable
inputs - air data, flight path coordinates, but also
continuous compete knowledge of the aircraft mass
status, including external stores partially released (speed 2.1.5 Conclusion
limits would probably still have to be observed by the
Design maneuver load regulations in the NATO nations
pilot).
have evolved from crude assumptions of single control
surface movement to relatively complicated series of
The central problem of such a system however, is the fact
Pilot inputs in all three axes. These inputs need to be
that good handling qualities and reliable load limitation
standardized to permit the assessment of structural loads
have conflicting tendencies in the FCS optimization. So
with reasonable effort, but with the advent of active
at best, a compromise can be achieved where due to the
control technology the hiatus between standardized
load limiting functions the handling envelopes are
control inputs for load assessment and actual pilot
reduced, particularly in the upper left hand corner.
practice with agile aircraft is rapidly increasing. A
solution of this dilemma may be to design flight control
Load distribution is another complicating factor for an
systems such that they provide "carefree handling", that
ACT aircraft the same flight condition can often be
is a system which even for the wildest pilot inputs does
achieved with a variety of aircraft configurations,
not lead to structural damage. But this solution has also
depending an foreplane position, maneuver flap
disadvantages:
scheduling and perhaps vectored thrust. Assessment of
a) structural designers lose the wealth of experience
those cases is even more difficult because airload
contained in previous design practice and with it their
distribution is already a great problem on modern agile
basis for initial dimensioning of the airframe. This affects
aircraft due to non - linearities, elastic structure, fuselage
a large portion of the aircraft mass and later re-design
lift, dynamic lift etc.
may be impossible.
b) Structural safety becomes crucially dependent an the
It appears unlikely that we shall see comprehensive
functioning of black boxes and their connections. As long
carefree handling control systems in operational use
as we have no technically feasible direct load sensing and
which would also effect complete load limitation. More
controlling system, a compromise is proposed: Use the
realistic is the selection of a few single parameters such
best combination of the old criteria for initial design but
as symmetric g, roll rate and perhaps sideslip which are
allow for a long development period flight control system
controlled automatically. After all, who wants a formula
adjustments of load critical functions to fully exploit the
1 racing car with a carefree handling control system?
maneuver capability of the aircraft without structural
damage. This will require a flexible system of operational
One of the great benefits of ACT is its flexibility. Where
clearances where the user can not have a complete
previously adjustment of the handling characteristics
definition of the maneuver capabilities at the start of a
during development was very limited to changes of
program.
springs, bobweights and control surface tabs, it is now
possible to tailor handling qualities over a wide range
We have no consistent set of airworthiness criteria which
during flight testing without large hardware changes.
fully covers maneuver loads of agile aircraft.
Also greater changes in operational usage can be
accommodated later on by ACT. This has consequences
Attempts to update the existing criteria to embrace the
for the loads; they are subject to larger changes during
vast possibilities of ACT are only partially successful.
the aircraft life. On the other hand development of
modern aircraft takes so long that the basic configuration
Proof of airworthiness of aircraft with ACT has become
must be frozen long before the final loads situation is
more demanding since the load influencing functions of
known with confidence.
the FCS are directly safety critical and must be analyzed
for failure to the same quantitative criteria as the structure
In consequence, the certification process needs to be
itself.
changed too. It is futile from the start trying to find
structural maneuver load criteria which cover all
The existing criteria can and should still be used for
eventualities. What we can do is to keep our feet an
initial design to define the airframe. Certification needs to
proven ground initially, that is to use the updated
9
become adaptive to reflect a long period of testing and approach. The contracting and legal authorities believed
FCS changes . that the existing system of many layers of specifications
needed to be simplified. Also, rapidly advancing
structural technologies, coupled with new realms of
performance and control capabilities, demanded that the
2.1.6 References: structural specifications address much wider range of
conditions while using an ever widening mix of
technologies. The new military specification for aircraft
(A) MIL-A-008861 A (USAF) 31.03.1971
structures, MIL-A-87221 (USAF), is a major deviation
Airplane Strength and Rigidity, Flight Loads
from past requirement practices. It establishes weapon
system uniquely tailored structural performance and
(B) MIL-A-8861 D (AS) 07.02.1986
verification requirements for airframes based on an
Airplane Strength and Rigidity, Flight Loads
in-depth consideration of operational needs and
anticipated usage. In the past, specifications set arbitrary
(C) DEF STAN 00-970 October 1985
conditions, levels, and values to be used in the design of
Design and Airworthiness Requirements for
broad categories of aircraft.
Service Aircraft, Volume 1 Airplanes,
Part 2 Structural Strength and Design for Flight
Various sources have alleged that design requirements
have not kept pace with current usage practices;
(D) AIR 2004 E Resistance des Avion 08.03.1979
especially in the area of flight combat maneuvers. These
allegations ignore the new requirement philosophy and
[1] Mohrman, R.:
are wrong for several reasons. The specification,
Selecting Design Cases for Future Aircraft
MIL-A-87221 (USAF), does not preclude the
AGARD-Report 730, 1986
consideration of any type of loading situation. The new
specification actually requires the consideration of any
[2] Hacklinger , M.:
loading condition that can be identified for either
Airworthiness Criteria for Operational Active
analysis, model testing, or full scale measurement.
Control Systems.
Therefore, if a loading condition is overlooked, the fault
Paper for DGLR panel Aeroelastics and
is not with MIL-A-87221 since it is not a set of rigid,
Structural Dynamics 1979 (translation)
pre-determined requirements.
conditions are divided into subsections as shown in systems. This specification provides guidance in both
figures 2a and 2b respectively. Each of the many these areas to establish appropriate design conditions.
subsections contain various specific load sources which
the designer can either accept or modify as appropriate. Since the very beginning of aircraft pressurization,
During aircraft design, particular care must be exercised specifications have addressed its loading effects.
in defining both the structural loading conditions and the However, this new specification addresses pressurization
associate distributions used to design the airframe, which in a more inclusive manner then in the past. Usually,
in turn directly influences the performance and reliability pressurization concerns have been focused an cockpits or
of the aircraft. No single section of the specification can crew compartments. In contrast, the new specification
be addressed independently. All requirements pertaining addresses all portions of the aircraft structure subject to a
to all technologies must be considered as one unified pressure differential. The requirements to consider
entity. Both flight and ground operating conditions must pressurization even apply to such areas as fuel tanks,
be based on the anticipated usage, unique to a specific avionics bays, or photographic compartments. The broad
aircraft design effort. These conditions reflect the application of this section of the specification requires
operational usage from which design loads shall evolve. constant and capable vigilance by the designer to include
all pertinent structure.
Even though this new approach gives the designer
considerable flexibility, the designer is not abandoned to Since this specification does not presume to directly
establishing all requirements without guidance or address all possible loading phenomena, a special
assistance. In both the requirement and verification category is reserved for any unique situations. This
sections, numerous possibilities are presented for category is called "other" and is available so the designer
consideration. The applicability or non-applicability of can completely define all anticipated aircraft flight
Bach suggested requirement or verification can be loading conditions. The important aspect of this category
indicated by inserting either "APP" or "N/A" in a blank is that the designer is free to include any flight loading
provided with Bach one. For those that are considered condition derived from operational requirements that can
applicable, either the requirement or verification be appropriately defined for analysis
procedure is then fully defined. Additionally, unique
requirements can be added as a direct product of the
tailoring process.
2.2.4 Ground Loading Conditions
2.2.4.3 Towing
2.2.4.6 CONCLUSIONS
Since the beginning of aviation, it has been necessary to
tow aircraft. While the designer is free to define his own The new specification, MIL-A-87221, will allow design
towing conditions and associated loads, he must also to requirements to be more closely tailored to the
verify the legitimacy of these conditions. In this category anticipated use of the aircraft. In this way the final
the new specification comes close to the previous Air product will be more efficient, with less wasted,
Force criteria specifications by providing the values unneeded, and unused capabilities. This will lead in turn
given in figures 5 and 6. One should remember that these to reduce costs of ownership for Air Force weapon
towing conditions are very much result of years of systems. This specification has been applied to the
empirical experience. Justifying and verifying new definition of requirements for the Advanced Tactical
towing load conditions could be a very difficult task. Fighter. This process is now taking place.
2.2.4.4 Crashes
The flight maneuver loads are major design criteria for General Definition:
agile aircraft (aerobatics, trainer, fighter aircraft), because Safety Factors are used in aircraft structural design to
large portions of their airframe are sized by these loads. prevent failures when the structure is subjected to various
They also belong traditionally to the most elusive indeterminate uncertainties which could not be properly
engineering criteria and so far engineers have never accessed by the technological means, such as:
succeeded in precisely predicting what pilots will
eventually do with their machines. One extreme solution the possible occurrences, during flight or ground
to this problem would be to put so much strength into the operations, of load levels higher than the limit load
structure that the aerodynamic and pilot tolerance uncertainties in the theoretical or experimental
capabilities can be fully exploited by maneuvering determinations of stresses
without failure. This is more or less the case with scatter in the properties of structural materials, and
aerobatics aircraft. But modern fighters would grow far inaccuracies in workmanship and production
too heavy by this rule. deterioration of materials during the operational life
of the aircraft.
So the history of maneuver load criteria reflects a
continuous struggle to find a reasonable compromise
between criteria which do not unduly penalize total Static Loads
aircraft performance by overweight and a tolerable Airframe static loads are considered to be those loads that
number of accidents caused by structural failure. change only with flight condition: i. e. airspeed, altitude,
(angle of incidence, sideslip, rotation rates, ..) etc. with a
Several approaches are presented in the next sections loads / loads-parameter oscillating below 2 Hz. These
which have been used for the design of the most recent loads can be considered to be in a steady non oscillating
fighter airplanes. state (rigid body motion).
Dynamic Loads
3.1 Classical Approach Dynamic loads are considered to be those loads which
arise from various oscillating elastic or aeroelastic
excitation which frequencies above 2 Hz. The loads are to
be determined by dynamic loads approaches, depending
3.1.1 Definitions on the sources of excitation and would include:
Atmospheric turbulence / Gusts
Loads External Loads on the structure Buffet / Buffeting / Buzz
Stores Release and Jettison
Limit Load Missile Firing
Military Specification (MIL-Spec.): Hammershock
Maximum loads which can result from authorized flight Ground Operations
and ground use of the aircraft including certain Birdstrike
maintenance and system failures etc.
Requirement: The cumulative effects of elastic, permanent
or thermal deformations resulting from limit loads shall
not inhibit or degrade the mechanical operations of the Maximum Load = Maximum external Load
airplane. (general used as classical definition)
Civil Requirements (FAR,JAR): resulting from authorized flight use (Mil.
Maximum loads to be expected in service. Specification)
Requirement: Without detrimental permanent deformation
of the structure. The deformation may not interfere with expected in service (FAR/ JAR Requirement)
safe operation.
derived by the Maximum Load Concept Approach
Ultimate Load
Military Specification:
limited by the Flight Control System, applying
Limit Load multiplied by a factor of safety.
Flight Parameter Envelope Approach
Requirement: No structural failure shall occur
derived from operational flight monitoring applying
Civil Requirements:
Operational Flight Parameter Approach
Limit Load multiplied by a factor of safety.
19
derived from load spectra (cumulative occurrences properly assessed by the technological means of that
of loads) applying Extreme Value Distribution time, such as:
Limit Loads
Military Specifications: 3.1.2.2 Actively Controlled Aircraft
MIL-A-8860 (ASG),
MIL-A-008860 A (USAF), For actively controlled aircraft the limit loads are to be
AFGS-87221 A determined taking into account the flight control system
is the maximum load normally authorized for (fly by wire, load alleviation) for:
operations.
normal operating conditions, without system
Federal Aviation Regulations: failures
Part 23,
Part 25 conditions due to possible system failures
is the maximum load to be expected in service.
The resulting loads have to be considered for design
Ultimate Loads respectively proof of the structure.
is limit loads multiplied by prescribed factors of safety.
For civil aircraft required by recent regulations (FAR,
The basic premise of the Limit Load Concept is to define JAR):
that load, or set of loads, which the structure should be
capable of withstanding without permanent deformation, for normal operating systems
interference or malfunctions of devices, degradation of as limit loads, ultimate loads applying the
performance, or other detrimental effects. prescribed safety factor (1.5)
for failure conditions
At any load up to limit loads, the deformation may not the safety factor is determined by the failure
interfere with safe operation. The structure must be able probability distinctive:
to support ultimate loads without failure for at least 3
seconds. The limit loads, to be used in the design of the active failure ( at time of failure )
airframe subject to a deterministic design criteria, shall be
the most critical combination of loads which can result passive failure ( after failure for continuation of
from authorized ground and flight use of the aircraft. flight )
Obviously with the introduction of active control the last 30 years considerable progress has been made in
technology, as well as care free maneuvering features, the fields of structural materials, semi finished products
recent specifications no longer define the control surface and testing methods. Furthermore advances in
deflections but rather provide the cockpit displacements aerodynamic and aeroelasticity, combined with
of the controls in the cockpit (Mil-A-8861). developments in electronic data processing, facilitate a
This means that existing design load regulations and more precise prediction of structural loads and structural
specifications based on conventional aircraft analysis.
configurations, structural design concepts and control
systems technologies, may not be adequate to give A reappraisal of the safety factor would therefore seem to
unequivocal criteria for the determinations of design be in order, not with the intention of lowering the level of
loads and ensure the structural integrity of future aircraft safety, but with the aim for examining the various safety
using novel control methods. requirements in the light of present knowledge. This,
To cope with using the limit load concept for actively together with the fact that there exists a lack of a rational
controlled aircraft several approaches have been basis for the factors of safety concept presently applied
applied: to the design of air vehicles, brought up a discussion of
changing the structural safety concept and the factors
Maximum load concept involved within AGARD-SMP in 1977. The Structural
Background and suggested models are described in and Materials Panel formed an ad hoc Group to conduct
3.2.1. this discussion. Three pilot papers contained in Ref.(1)
addressed the different aspects to be envisaged, and show
An example of application: up inconsistencies of the present concept as well as
means and methods for permissible changes.
The flight control system for a naturally unstable The result of the discussion following the presentations
aircraft is designed with the feature to feed in before the Sub - Committee was, that it would not be
maneuver parameter boundaries ( load factors, rates, appropriate at the present time to change the concept, but
accelerations ) in such a way that limit design loads it was found worthwhile to have a collection and
are not exceeded. evaluation of all those factors concerning structural safety
including the philosophies which back up the application
This approach could lead to a reduction of the safety of these factors.
factor for flight maneuver loads keeping the structural The Sub - Committee found it most suitable to collect all
safety at least as for conventional aircraft e.g. from 1.5 to pertinent data and back up information by means of a
1.4 for EFA. questionnaire, which was drafted by two coordinators
The application is described in Ref. (2). (one for North America, one for Europe) and reviewed by
the members of the Sub - Committee.
Flight Parameter Envelope Approach This questionnaire was distributed to the addressed
The loads process is described in 3.2.5 Airworthiness Authorities of the NATO - Nations with a
request for cooperation. The replies of the questionnaire
Probabilistic determination of limit load were summarized and evaluated by the coordinators and
presented before the Sub - Committee. The answers
Operational Flight Parameter Approach given, including the results of personal discussions
The procedure is described in 3.2.2 between coordinators and nominated representatives of
the authorities, are condensed published in Ref.(2).
From the evaluation it may be concluded that there exists
3.1.2.3 References a considerable amount of agreement with respect to the
Factors of Safety and their application. On the other
[ 1 ] H.-M. Besch, H.-G. Giesseler, J. Schuller hand, some disagreements and interpretations have
AGARD Report 815, resulted. Thus, this report forms a basis for discussing the
Impact of Electronic Flight Control System (EFCS) disagreements in order to achieve a higher degree of
Failure Cases on Structural Design Loads conformity between the authorities of NATO - Countries
with a regard to structural safety and reliability.
[ 2 ] Sensburg O., Bartsch O., Bergmann H.
Journal of Aircraft, Vol.24, No.11, Nov. 1987 At that time the present concept and the Factors of Safety
Reduction of the Ultimate Factor by applying a were in general regarded as satisfactory with the intention
Maximum Load Concept. to review the Safety Concept till such time as more
knowledge and experience in application of new
technologies are available;
e.g.
Improvement of knowledge about flight and ground
3.1.3 Safety Factors Review
loads occurring in service (operational loads) to
know the margin between the design conditions and
3.1.3.1 History the operational conditions.
Introduction of new technologies, which are not The product of both factors is known, keeping the
included in the scope of the existing design approved total factor of 1.5 .
requirements
FS = FSl x FSs = 1.25 x 1.20 = 1.50
active control
Another suggestion from US ( D. Gibson) is to divide the
behavior of new materials ( composites ) Factor of Safety into three terms
[1] AGARD - Report No. 661 In this proposal U1 and U3 are the same as FSl and FSs.
Factors of Safety , Historical Development , State of the U2 for predicting the actual operational environment
Art and Future Outlook. might be applied using deterministic criteria. The
proposed values for all terms are 1.15.
[2] AGARD - Report No. 667
Factors of Safety , Related to Structural Integrity . e.g. U1 x U2 x U3 = 1.15 x 1.15 x 1.15 = 1.52
A Review of Data from Military Airworthiness
Authorities. For aircraft which apparently will not be able to exceed
design loads during operations e.g.
3.1.3.3 Possible Methods for Splitting of Safety applying operational maneuver models for deriving
Factors or updating of design loads (see chapter 3.2.4)
Allowable loads are defined as those load values that will On the basis of these load - parameter - spectra a
only be exceeded by expected loads with a prescribed probability of occurrence of the main load parameters is
small probability. These loads are then referred to as defined for each type of mission and maneuver, and the
maximum loads. maximum value of the main load parameter can be
Gust or landing loads are strongly influenced by random determined from this.
physical or human characteristics. But also in these cases
safety could be much better defined by extrapolation of If, for instance, an aircraft is designed for air-to-air
loads from statistical data, rather than the application of a combat, a maximum load factor of 9.0 may be derived
safety factor of 1.5 for all cases. Furthermore, loads that from the statistical cumulative frequency distribution for
are limited naturally by the ability of the aircraft to every tenth aircraft after 4000 flight hours. This value is
produce them, or by internal aircraft systems, (load taken to be maximum main load parameter. For this load
alleviation, flight control systems) could be regarded as parameter the loads produced by the maneuvers specified
maximum loads to which a safety factor need not be in the pertinent regulations are determined by means of a
applied. The determination of maximum loads with a deterministic calculation such that the maximum value of
small probability of being exceeded is entirely possible the main load parameter is just attained, but not
for modern fighters which are limited in their maneuvers, exceeded. An example is the loads as a function of time
or for control configured vehicles (CCV) which are in produced by the actuation of cockpit controls according
any case equipped with an active flight control system to MIL-A-008861.
(flybywire). As a principle the prescribed design A recent approach for active controlled aircraft has been
boundaries and the corresponding safety factor should not applied to the European Fighter (EFA) for the
be applied separately, i.e. the entire design philosophy determination of the design loads, called Flight Parameter
should be considered. Therefore a mixed application of Envelope Approach. ( Description see 3.2.5 )
various regulations to a single project is not advisable.
Up to now the safety factor has been reduced in only a
Semi-statistical / semi empirical
few cases. Within the pertinent regulations only the case
It has been known for years that VG and VGH
of the American MIL-A-8860 (ASG) issue is known,
measurements do not suffice for the definition of criteria
where no safety margin is required for the undercarriage
for structural design.
and its supporting structure.
In order to obtain statistically supported design criteria, a
It may be supposed that with the consent of the
special NACA Sub-Committee on Aircraft Loads
appropriate authorities the safety factor or the load level
recommended (1954) to expand statistical load programs
could be reduced in the following cases:
to the extend that they included measurements of time
histories of eight parameters, three linear accelerations (x,
in emergencies, such as emergency landings into an
y, z,), three angular accelerations (p, q, r,), airspeed (V)
arresting net or cable
and altitude (H).
The first measurement of this kind where made with the
for transient phenomena (hammer shock pressure in
F 105 D Fighter with the aim to develop a maneuver load
aircraft inlets)
concept which was to predict design loads (Ref. 2). All
data were processed to calculate time histories of loads,
where actuators are power-limited and large loads
with peaks called observed loads. The data
cannot be produced
oscillogramms were examined in order to define 23
recognizable types of maneuver. Assuming that for every
type of maneuver the same sequence of aircraft motion
3.2.1.2 Suggested Models
occurs with the exception of differences in amplitude and
duration, the measured parameters were normalized with
The following models are proposed for the application of respect to amplitude and time.
the Maximum Load Concept. Finally, to determine the loads, the normalized
parameters were denormalized in order to get the load
Semi-statistical / semi deterministic peak distribution for the wing, the fuselage, and the
In the past operational loads were predominantly checked empennage. The good agreement between the observed
by measurement of the main load parameters, in the form and predicted load peak distribution demonstrated the
of cumulative frequencies or load - parameter - spectra feasibility of the maneuver model technique for the F-105
(Ref. 1). D aircraft. The F-106 Fighter was selected to demonstrate
They are: this model, thereby determining the models usefulness
on another aircraft. The detailed results of 3770 flight test
the normal load factor, in flight and on the ground hours made it possible to apply the maneuver model
technique i.e. the empirical calculation of component
the angle of sideslip and/or the transverse load factor loads as compared to F-106 design loads (Ref. 3).
The results in the form of cumulative occurrence of the
the rolling velocity in flight loads for wing, elevon, and vertical tail made it possible
to determine the design load for a given cumulative
the bank angle during landing occurrence.
23
A recent approach has been elaborated in the Working Fig. 1 shows the extreme value distribution
Group 27 of AGARD-SMP called Operational Maneuver
Model. The demonstration of the feasibility is reported in Maximum loads on vertical tail derived from in -
AGARD Advisory Report 340 Evaluation of Loads from flight measurements with F-106 Fighter Aircraft
operational Flight Maneuvers (Ref. 4). AIAA - Paper No. 70-948, page 8
(Description see 3.2.2 Operational Flight Parameter
Approach) Fig. 2 shows the cumulative occurrences
3.2.2 Operational Flight Parameter The flow chart in Figure 1 presents the general data flow
Approach and indicates the major phases of the procedure.
These operational loads can be statistically evaluated for
use in static design and for fracture assessment.
3.2.2.1 Introduction
In the first part of the procedure the verification of the
The determination of the design maneuver loads is Operational Maneuver Parameter Time Histories is
largely specified in regulations independently of the described in boxes with black frames, Fig 3.2.3.
maneuvers or missions actually performed in operation. The steps of the verification are:
For conventionally controlled aircraft the regulations give
the time history of the control surface deflections and Recording and Evaluation of Operational Parameters
numerically define several essential maneuver load Identification of the Maneuver Types
parameters for the determination of the design load level. Normalization of the Parameters
Obviously with the introduction of the fly-by-wire and/or Determination of the Standard Maneuver Types
active control technology, as well as care free
maneuvering features, recent specifications no longer In the second part the Derivation of Operational Flight
define the control surface deflections but rather provide Loads is described in boxes with red frames in 3.2.4
the cockpit displacements of the controls in the cockpit. applying the Maneuver Model in the steps:
This means that existing design load regulations and
specifications based on conventional aircraft Selection of the Standard Maneuver Type to be
configurations, structural design concepts and control considered
system technologies, may not be adequate to ensure the Definition of the Boundary Condition as design
structural integrity of future military aircraft criteria
configurations using novel control methods, structural
Calculation of the Control Deflections necessary to
concepts and combat tactics.
perform the Operational Maneuver
Response Calculation and Verification of the
In service, maneuvers, especially combat maneuvers, are
parameter time history
flown in accordance with practiced rules that lead to
specified motions of the aircraft in the sky. An evaluation Determination of Structural Loads
of operational flight maneuvers has been made for
several aircraft types flown by the USAF, CF and GAF The evaluation of this procedure done by the Working
with the aim of deriving operational loads by applying Group (WG 27) has demonstrated the feasibility of
parameters measured in operational flights. determining loads from operational flight maneuvers
(Ref. 1)
This approach is based on the assumption that maneuvers
trained and flown by the NATO Air Forces can be This Operational Flight Maneuver Approach can be used
standardized. for:
The standardized maneuver time history is the
replacement as a quasi unit maneuver, for all operational The judgment of the operational load level for
maneuvers of the same type. aircraft already designed with regard to the design
The Standardized Maneuver is obtained by normalization level (static and fatigue) as specified in the
of parameter amplitudes and maneuver time to make the regulations.
parameters independent of mass configurations, intensity
of the maneuver, flight condition, flight control system, That means the margin between design loads and the
and of the aircraft type. extreme operational loads is known.
The goal is to find a standardized time history for each
type of maneuver, which is independent of the extreme The determination of the load level for static and
values of the relevant parameters and aircraft type. fatigue design due to operation for new aircraft to be
developed.
One promising approach is to derive design loads from a
careful analysis of operational maneuvers by current
fighters to extract critical parameters and their range of 3.2.2.2 References
values. To investigate this approach, Working Group 27
Evaluation of Loads from Operational Flight Maneuver (1) AGARD ADVISORY REPORT 340
was formed, AGARD involvement was particularly Structures and Materials Panel, Working Group 27
relevant since it allowed the expansion of the types of on Evaluation of Loads from Operational Flight
aircraft and the control systems considered in the study. Maneuvers.
The Working Group formulated a set of activities that
addressed the fundamental premises of a method to (2) AGARD REPORT 815
generate operational loads from flight parameters by Loads and Requirements for Military Aircraft, Page
determination of Standard Maneuvers independent of the 3 1, and Page 4 1
aircraft type and the control system.
27
Maneuver
Identification
Normalization C
Process B
Maneuver Type A
M A N E U V ER MODEL
Structural Loads
Static Design and / or Fatigue
3.2.3 Determination and Verification of For the evaluation of operational parameters, the
Operational Maneuver Parameters and following data were made available and have been
Time Histories judged as applicable.
The actively controlled aircraft ( Tornado, F-16, CF-18 ) and additional parameters only for the verification
fit in the same scatter band as the conventional controlled process:
aircraft. This means the hypothesis that the operational
maneuvers are performed in the same way, i.e. (alpha) Angle of Attack
performing the same normalized parameter time history, (beta) Angle of Sideslip
can be considered as confirmed.
(xi) Aileron / Flaperon Deflection
The result is, that the Operational Standard Maneuver (eta) Elevator Deflection
independent of the aircraft type is applicable as unit input (zeta) Rudder Deflection
for calculation of the movement of a specific aircraft by
reconstitution of the real aircraft configuration and flight
condition.
3.2.3.3 STANDARD MANEUVER PROCEDURE
The following operational parameters are necessary: (3) Determination of the mean values for each relevant
parameter time history of the same maneuver type
Ma Mach-number
Alt Altitude (4) Idealization and tuning of the parameter time
histories
n(x) Longitudinal Load Factor
n(y) Lateral Load Factor (5) Determination of the standard maneuver time
n(z) Normal Load Factor histories
Bank Angle
Pitch Altitude
Heading
29
First:
Break The data are checked for completeness and suitability for
N(z) > 3 separating them into missions and maneuver types.
Figure 3 shows as an example for the identification of a Therefore, maneuvers of the same type are transformed
High g Turn Maneuver. In this case the roll rate trace into a unified roll direction. See Figure 4.
primarily defines the maneuver length.
The pilot first rolls the aircraft in the direction of the turn For a requisite comparison, a two dimensional
and finally rolls it back to the wings level position. In normalization is necessary.
parallel, the g rises to a peak value. The peak is held as Figure 5 illustrates the basic procedure of normalization.
long as desired. The g drops down from its peak as the The ordinate presents one of the parameters of motion :
aircraft is rolled back to the wings level. y= n(y), n(z), p, ........for several maneuvers of the same
The start and the end of the maneuver are determined as type : y(1), y(2), ........y(n).
follows: the maneuver starts when the first negative / These parameters are normalized by relating them to the
positive deflection of the roll rate trace starts and the maximum values (absolute derivation from zero) which
maneuver finishes after recovering i.e. the opposite have occurred. This means the maximum value of each
deflection of the trace, decreased to zero. normalized parameter becomes in this case:
The Eulerian angles , , ,give the aircraft orientation Y= y(1)max = y(2)max = + 1.0
with respect to the earths coordinate system.
The time is presented by the abscissa t , where by the
The bank angle values indicate the type of maneuver as maneuver executing time is marked by t(1), t(2), .......t(n)
defined in Maneuver Type Description. for several maneuvers.
The normalization is accomplished in that way that:
All recorded parameters are time related.
firstly, the maneuver time is chosen as the value 1.0 i. e.
t(1)= t(2) = T = 1.0
secondly, the extreme values of the relevant parameters
3.2.3.5 NORMALIZATION is chosen at the same normalized time.
In the normalized time scale, T=0 corresponds to the time 3.2.3.6 MEAN VALUES
when the roll rate trace first goes negative or positive
(start of the maneuver ), and T=1 corresponds to the time After normalization of the maneuver time, for all selected
when the roll rate trace is back to zero after the opposite maneuvers of the same type, the typical values of the
roll rate peak (finish of the maneuver). Figure 7 shows relevant parameters in this case the peaks of the roll
the normalized roll rate trace (positive roll direction). rate coincide at the same normalized time. Each
parameter time history contains the similar number of
This normalization procedure is dependent on the time steps, independent of is individual maneuver length.
accurate maneuver start value. (p0) This is the basis for calculating the arithmetic mean
values for each of the time steps.
In several cases the start values of the available time
slices are very poor. One reason is the low sample rate of Figure 9 presents the comparison of the non- normalized
e.g. 1 or 2/sec. Recordings from flight tests are sampled roll rate traces versus normalized time for the selected
24 times per second. High g Turn maneuvers. The roll rate is a good example
An other reason is the selected parameter threshold for all relevant parameters.
values of the data reduction and maneuver identification Note: The amplitudes for the mean value calculation are
process, combined with a low sample rate. not normalized.
For these cases an upgraded normalization procedure,
derived from the basic procedure, is used. The mean value is defined by:
y ( j)
high correlation with the difference between the time of
the first and the second roll rate peak. See Figure 8. This i
time ratio is very important for the normalization
procedure ym ( j ) = i =1
n
The time transformation from real time into normalized n = number of maneuver of the same
time requires several steps: type
1. Determination of time ratio. The time ratio is defined j = time step
by t`(1)= dt/t(m)
2. Harmonization For the comparison of the parameter
traces, a harmonization of the maneuver time ratio is yi (j) = relevant parameter
necessary.
t 1sf 1 = t 2sf 2 = t 3sf 3 = ..... = t nsfn ym (j) = mean value
sfn = scale factor
The mean values of all parameters have been formed in
3. Shifting A new interpolation of a similar number of combination by smoothing of the time history.
time steps for each of the correlated parameters for all For plot comparison, a normalization of the amplitude is
maneuver of the same type is necessary Then the roll rate necessary.
traces were shifted in a way, that all selected first peaks
coincided at the same time step.
3.2.3.7 IDEALIZATION
All correlated parameters are shifted parallel in the
similar way. The mean value traces represent a good estimation of the
relationship between the selected parameters during a
Figure 9 presents the comparison of the shifted roll rate maneuver (e. g . High g Turn ).
traces versus normalized time for the selected High g For the compensation of any minor errors by the mean
Turn maneuvers. value calculation and for reasons of compatibility, the
mean values have to be idealized and tuned.
The amplitudes of the traced are normalized individually. The interpretation of idealized and tuned as follows:
Each value of the trace is divided by its absolute To cover the most extreme peaks of the control surface
deviation value from zero, therefore, all normalized deflections possible, the most extreme accelerations in
amplitudes will fall between 1.0. roll (p), pitch (q), and yaw (r ) are used.
Figure 10 shows the result of the peak to peak These values are obtained by linearization of the
normalization procedure. acceleration time history in a way that the same response
of the aircraft is obtained.
The application of the two-dimensional normalization
procedure is very helpful for the comparison of maneuver For the idealization, the calculation is performed in three
time histories. In this normalized form, all parameter time steps.
histories are independent of the aircraft type.
36
In the first step, the following parameters were Eulerian angles , and the angular rates p, q, r is
calculated: verified with the equations:
The three angular accelerations p, q and r by The result is the standardized maneuver.
differentiating the three angular rates p (roll), q (pitch)
and r (yaw) with respect to maneuver time.
y sin +
r= cos cos
The differentiation was given by y =
x
In the second step, the acceleration traces p, q, r, were cos +
q= sin cos
replaced by linearized traces
sin
p=
37
For calculation of the control deflections necessary to These boundary condition parameters can be derived
generate the operational parameter time history, the from spectra of main load parameters by applying
following data are needed: extreme value distributions, an example is shown in
Figure 13.
Aircraft configuration If no spectra are available the main load parameters
geometric data stated in the Design Requirements ( MIL Spec. ) can be
operational mass applied.
inertia properties
Fatigue Maneuvers
Aerodynamic data set for the aircraft Cl, Cm= f(), All the main load parameters can be taken from related
Cy, Cl, Cn = f(,) spectra available.
Design Maneuvers
o the shortest maneuver time (Tman = minimum)
o realizable by the control system and the
aerodynamic limits
o the maximum vertical load factor ( nz )
o the maximum lateral load factor ( ny )
o the maximum bank angle () for the maneuver
to be considered
38
artificial longitudinal stability In comparison to earlier aircraft like Tornado the design
loads for the new FCS controlled fighter aircraft have to
extensive control augmentation throughout the flight be defined without a detailed knowledge of the final
envelope standard of the FCS because
carefree maneuver capability with automatic load a very limited understanding of the FCS- control laws
protection achieved by careful control of maneuver is available in the initial design phase.
response parameters
This problem can be solved by the definition of new
Structural Design Criteria where among other design
conditions the principal flight maneuver requirements for
the aircraft have to be defined. In this case the FCS
dependent loads critical Flight Parameter Envelopes (s.
Fig. 2) are defined by:
translatory accelerations (ny, nz)
rotational velocities (p, r)
rotational accelerations (pdot, qdot, rdot)
sideslip conditions (qdyn)
Fig. 2 Loads Critical Flight Parameter Envelopes for the Loads Model Interdependence between the Flight Parameter
Envelopes and Critical Design Load Cases for Main A/C- Components
42
The calculation of aircraft design loads will be done with components) to correct the rigid aerodynamics
a modern computer tool the so called Loads Model and (aerodynamic pressures, aerodynamic coefficients/
the Flight Parameter Envelopes are a part of this tool. derivatives) for defined Mach numbers.
The mass- and aerodynamic data have to be stated for
different loads critical aircraft configurations.
3.2.5.2 The Flight Parameter Envelope Approach The idea of the Loads Model is to calculate the critical
and the Loads Model aircraft component design loads (aircraft component
loads envelopes) to get balanced load cases for the total
Both the FCS dependent Flight Parameter Envelopes
aircraft. That means the total sum of the aircraft
(Fig. 2) and the Loads Model (Fig. 3) result in a highly
component forces and moments is zero (equilibrium) for
efficient computer tool for aircraft design load
each load case:
calculations:
- the maneuver requirements of the aircraft controlled Fx,y,z = 0 Mx,y,z = 0
by the FCS are indirectly defined by the Flight These balanced load cases (Fig. 4) are the basis for the
Parameter Envelopes and the Loads Model contains calculation of nodal point loads for the total aircraft
all the important aircraft mass and aerodynamic Finite Element Model (FE-Model) and for the stress
informations which have to be known to calculate analysis.
the critical design loads for the aircraft
Simplified the Loads Model is a combination of big input
and output data files and a number of computer programs
3.2.5.3 Description of the Loads Model (Fig. 3). The input data sets contain all information which
is necessary for load calculations while the output data
The todays computer capacities allow extensive load sets contain the results of the load calculations as load
investigations considering: case conditions, forces, moments, aircraft component
load envelopes, etc..
- all mass informations (masses, c.g.s, moments-of-
inertia, mass distributions) for the total aircraft and The computer programs of the Loads Model can be
specific aircraft components classified into two different groups
- the corresponding aerodynamic information - programs to establish and to handle the required data
(aerodynamic pressures, aerodynamic coefficients/ sets
derivatives) for the total aircraft and the defined - programs to compute the critical aircraft component
aircraft components for different Mach numbers loads (balanced load cases, loads envelopes)
- the static aeroelastic input (flexibility factors and
increments for total aircraft and aircraft
SDC. Angle-of-Attack
Pitch Rate
Y Title
0 Taileron
Pilot Input
-5
3.2.5.4 Structural Design Criteria (SDC)
-10
Because more and more the Military Specifications (e.g.
MIL-A-08861A) are getting obsolete for the design of
-15
modern fighter aircraft it becomes important to define the 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Criteria.
The following conditions have to be defined in the Fig. 5 MIL - Pull-Push Maneuver
Structural Design Criteria:
Design Flight Envelope- Mach/altitude
8
nz-max./min. vs. Mach
6
flimit, fult. - limit/ultimate load factor
4 Vertical Load Factor
Loads critical aircraft configurations with and Angle-of-Sideslip
Lateral Load Factor
without stores key configurations 2 Taileron
Roll Rate
Roll Acceleration
Gust conditions:
-6
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
gust design speeds in combination with aircraft Time (s)
Fig. 8 Flight Control System Design - together with the correction factors and increments
Tolerance of Flight Parameter for the aerodynamic coefficients/derivatives for the
aircraft components and the total aircraft
- the corrected flexible aerodynamic pressures
including the corresponding flexible total aircraft
- For example: aerodynamics and the flexible aircraft component
to define nzmax./min. for the most important Flight aerodynamics
Parameter Envelopes
nz = f(qdot)
nz = f(p, pdot, r, rdot, ny, *qdyn)
45
Fig. 9 - Load Monitor Stations for Demonstrator Aircraft and Corresponding Main Loads Components
The main programs for establishing the required - pressures and the aerodynamic coefficients
aerodynamic data sets and for data set handling are: /derivatives for the aircraft and the aircraft
components
- a theoretical aerodynamic program (e.g. the Dasa
HISSS program higher order panel method) to - a static aeroelastic program to calculate the
calculate the rigid aerodynamic pressures for the aeroelastic pressure increments for the correction of
above described loads relevant aerodynamic the rigid pressure distributions and to calculate the
influences. correction factors and increments for the
aerodynamic coefficients/derivatives for the aircraft
In Fig. 10 it is shown how starting from a CATIA components and the total aircraft to establish the
model the HISS panel model will be derived. flexible aerodynamic data set.
- a correlation and integration program to compare an aerodynamic pressure summation program to
and correct the theoretical total aircraft aerodynamic summarize the aerodynamic pressures due to
results up to first total aircraft wind tunnel
measurements and with it to correct the aerodynamic , , control deflections, p, q, r, etc.
for the selected critical load cases to calculate the
aerodynamic nodal point loads for the FE- Model.
The following mass data sets are part of the Loads - The Balance Program will define the remaining
Model: ones:
- the aircraft component masses, component c.g.s and , , -T/E-sym. or -F/P, -T/E-unsym., -R
moments of inertia including the corresponding
internal fuel states and external stores (Fig. 9 A/C and nx and the thrust level
Monitor Stations) if required. In a second step the corresponding air-,
- the total aircraft mass, c.g., moments of inertia inertia- and net- loads for all monitor stations are
including the internal fuel states and external stores computed for the selection of critical design loads
as sum of the above described aircraft component to establish the loads envelopes for the defined
masses aircraft components
To be sure that the defined requirements will be fulfilled
the program also checks
3.2.5.8 Aircraft Loads Monitoring - the derived control surface deflection angles
compared to the max. deflection angles
The calculation of critical design load cases (loads
monitoring) for the aircraft components (monitor - the derived hinge moments for the control surfaces
stations) can be started when the required input data sets compared to the max. defined hinge moments if
for the Loads Model are established. The outcome of the necessary
aircraft loads monitoring are Loads Envelopes (Fig. 11) - the user defined flight parameters compared to the
for the defined monitor stations. Flight Parameter Envelopes
The computer program which will be used for the It seems to be useful to establish a program for loads
calculation of critical load cases under consideration of calculations which can be used for different degrees of
the defined Flight Parameter Envelopes is the so called freedom (DOF):
Balance Program. The loads analysis for the monitor
stations (Fig. 9) will be performed by means of user - 6 DOF balance of Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
defined dynamic equilibrium points (time steps of a time
- 5 DOF - without Fx balance (tangential force)
dependent flight simulation):
- 3 DOF balance of Fx, Fz, My for pure symmetric
- The user has to define for each load case the
conditions
following flight parameters
- 2 DOF balance of Fz, My for pure symmetric
Mach number, altitude, nz, ny, p, pdot, q, qdot, r, rdot
conditions without Fx balance
respecting the Flight Parameter Envelopes (Fig. 2)
It should also be possible later on in the aircraft clearance
and as a special case for this demonstrator aircraft
phase when the carefree handling and load limiting FCS
the foreplane deflection (F/P) and trailing edge is available to use a flight simulation program to do time
deflection (T/E-sym.) dependent loads critical flight simulations and to
calculate the corresponding flight load time histories (air-
under consideration of the foreplane schedule , inertia-, net- loads for all time steps) for the aircraft
monitor stations with the Loads Model.
Fig. 11 Example of Loads Envelopes for Monitor Stations Design Load Cases
47
To fulfil the above described additional program check - The max. deflection angles versus Mach number and
functions the following margins have to be defined: the maneuver conditions for the control surfaces
have to be defined for example the foreplane trim
- max. deflection angles for control surfaces versus schedule.
Mach number
- A maneuver load alleviation (MLA) concept should
- max. allowable hinge moments for the control be defined if necessary under consideration of
surfaces respective max. normal forces if necessary -
as result of structural optimization of wing, fin and the required reduction of wing root bending
foreplane moment for high g conditions
- engine thrust conditions if necessary the trailing edge split flap schedule as function
of g respective
- Maneuver Load Alleviation (MLA) concept if the
FCS will have a MLA procedure to reduce the the foreplane trim schedule.
wing bending moment respective the other in Para.
3.2.5.13 described load reducing FCS rules
- as a special case for this demonstrator aircraft the
foreplane trim schedule including possible
tolerances because the foreplane and the trailing
edge flaps will be used for symmetric flight control
3.2.5.11 Check Stress Phase The aircraft structure has to be cleared for the conditions
defined in the Structural Design Criteria as there are:
The Check Stress Phase is the second development phase.
The design loads have to be checked and updated with design flight envelope (Ma/altitude)
the updated Loads Model for the design of the production critical aircraft configurations
aircraft structure:
limit/ultimate load factor
- the panel model for the theoretical aerodynamic
calculations has to be updated (configuration aircraft design masses
changes, external stores, etc.)
nz-max./min. vs. Mach
- the new theoretical linear aerodynamic has to be
etc.
updated by comparing and correcting it to the latest
windtunnel tests (configuration changes, additional
store configurations, mass flow, etc.)
- first windtunnel based store aerodynamic increments
can be available (store balances) and can be
included in the Loads Model
- the static aeroelastic corrections have to be updated
by using the updated structure (FE- Model) and the
updated aerodynamic pressures
- the aircraft masses have to be updated for
production aircraft standard
- the foreplane trim schedule and the tolerances for
the trim schedule have to be updated
- the MLA concept has to be checked and updated if
necessary
Fig. 14 Allowable Load Envelope for Aircraft
- the max. hinge moments for the control surfaces Clearance Phases Structural Reserve Factors < 1.0 are
have to be checked and updated if necessary considered
- if required additional monitor stations have to be
included in the Loads Model For the clearance of the aircraft structure so called
- the Flight Parameter Envelopes have to be checked Allowable Loads Envelopes (ALE) will be used. The
and updated in line with the FCS development. That ALEs (Fig. 14) contain the structural information of the
means in detail that the flight control laws have to prototypes respective of the production aircraft. The
be reviewed during all design phases to check their ALEs have to be defined by the stress office based on
function as a load limiting system. For example the the design load envelopes of the aircraft components and
defined tolerances of the Flight Parameter under consideration of the results from the stress analysis
Envelopes have to be checked, e.g. the nz tolerances: and structural tests. To be on the severe side during the
clearance activities (flight test) only structural Reserve
nz max./min. nz Factors (RF) < 1.0 have to be considered in the ALEs.
as explained in Para. 3.2.5.5. The prerequisites to increase the clearance level are :
As for the Design Phase the load calculations have to be - Major Airframe Static Test (MAST) to limit,
done by using the Balance Program and the updated ultimate, failure load condition and other aircraft
Flight Parameter Envelopes. The up to now available component tests - to check the aircraft structure
FCS has only a check function because the carefree
handling and load limiting procedures are not finally - FCS updates from preliminary carefree handling to
agreed (preliminary carefree handling). The load full carefree handling to check the load limiting
investigation should be expanded and additional procedure of the FCS
Mach/altitude points should be considered. - Validation of the Loads Model via the Flight Load
The revised aircraft component design load cases Survey to update the data basis for loads monitoring
(balanced load cases, load envelopes) from the Check and to proof also the load limiting procedure of the
Stress Phase are the basis for the stress analysis for the FCS
production aircraft and with it for the structural clearance The first Loads Model for the structural clearance of the
activities in the Clearance Phase. aircraft consists of non-linear aerodynamic data based on
wind tunnel pressure plotting measurements. The
validation of this non-linear Loads Model will be done by
3.2.5.12 Structural Clearance Phase the Flight Load Survey. The Flight Load Survey will be
performed for selected primary aircraft configurations
The aircraft clearance will be done in different steps from (clean aircraft and external store configurations). During
the first flight clearance for the prototypes up to the the Flight Load Survey aerodynamic pressures of the
Initial Flight Training Clearance (IFTC) and the Final surfaces (wing, foreplane, fin) and the fuselage will be
Operational Clearance (FOC - 100% load level) for the
production aircraft.
49
measured (Fig. 15). The integrated pressures A new possibility for the latest high performance fighter
(aerodynamic coefficients for the total aircraft and for aircraft generation like Eurofighter are load optimized
aircraft components) will be correlated against the load maneuvers because the FCS can be used in some cases
predictions from the non-linear Loads Model. The Loads for load reduction under the consideration that the aircraft
Model will be than corrected where significant performance is not prejudiced.
discrepancies exist. Finally the flight validated Loads
Model for the primary aircraft configurations is available Three examples for load optimized maneuvers controlled
and should be used for the Final Operational Clearance by the FCS are given below:
(FOC) 100 % load level and production FCS.
During the Structural Clearance Phase at all clearance 1. Load optimized foreplane/trailing edge deflection
levels the confidence that the load level will not be schedule as a special case for the demonstrator
exceeded has to be shown by the loads monitoring of aircraft described in this paper:
loads critical flight simulations using the current FCS and a) reduction of front fuselage loads
the validated Loads Model. Some typical pilot stick
inputs for the flight simulations (flight clearance The front fuselage loads are normally
maneuvers) are shown on Fig. 7. dominated by the inertia loads. To reduce the
front fuselage loads (Fz -normal force and My -
The loads from the simulated flight maneuvers have to be vertical bending moment) the foreplane has to
compared to the Allowable Loads Envelopes for each be deflected in that way that the aerodynamic
monitor station. If the loads monitoring shows that the foreplane loads are acting against the front
loads are inside the ALEs the clearance step is fulfilled. fuselage inertia loads (s. Fig.16 ). In this case
If not: the aircraft has to be controlled by the trailing
- the areas have to be defined where control law edge flaps.
changes are required to maintain acceptable loads
b) reduction of trailing edge flap loads - e.g.
or hinge moments.
- modifications may be necessary to improve the For low g conditions (1g) where the maximum
aircraft structure for higher loads roll performance of the aircraft is required the
trailing edge flaps can be zero loaded for the
aircraft trim conditions by trimming the aircraft
3.2.5.13 Load Optimized Maneuvers only with the foreplane. The trailing edge flap
itself has to be deflected in that way that the
In the past the aircraft were optimized mainly to influence on the flap will be compensated:
aerodynamic performance conditions (drag, etc.) and the T/E-symm(nz=1.0)= f(, Mach, A/C-cg)
design loads were the result of the aerodynamic With it the flap hinge moments can be reduced
configuration, the aircraft mass conditions and the and the roll efficiency of the aircraft can be
application of single axis pitch, roll or yaw maneuvers increased in some cases.
(e.g. MIL-A-08861A).
Fig. 15 Flight Load Survey - Pressure Transducers at the Prototype of Demonstrator Aircraft
50
In all these cases it must decided whether the load But as explained in Para. 3.2.5.12 an extensive Flight
optimized maneuvers sacrifice aircraft performance or Load Survey has to be done to verify the load limiting
whether the benefit (i.e. mass saving) is big enough to procedure of the FCS and to proof the reduction of the
compensate the loss of performance! ultimate load factor.
For FCS independent loads (e.g. landing gear loads,
Hammershock pressures, etc.) the ultimate load factor
will still be 1.5.
For further information about the ultimate load factor see
Chapter 3.1.3 Safety Factor Review.
3.2.5.15 Conclusion
3.3 Dynamic Loads airflow over the structure becomes separated and
oscillatory. The unsteady environment to which a
modern airframe is subjected has therefore become
3.3.1 Introduction increasingly harsh. At the same time, a requirement
The intention of this chapter is to discuss the prediction exists to reduce the factors applied to the design loads to
of unsteady loads arising as a result of pilot actions (as drive down structural mass. The need to predict the
opposed to atmospheric turbulence, say). Gusts and unsteady load component more accurately, to ensure
ground loads are treated in separate chapters. Loads due safety, has therefore become correspondingly more
to buffet and buffeting, hammershock, gunfire and store important. To that end, modern military combat aircraft
ejection/release loads are mentioned. The aim is met by are designed to withstand the worst static and dynamic
briefly describing the background, prediction processes load cases which they are likely to encounter in-service.
and calculation methods, and certification issues. This has led to some regions of modern combat aircraft
Consideration of the latter is essential, even at the design structures being designed by dynamic load cases.
stage. In addition, the likely way forward for this
technology is noted. A table is provided as a guide for
consideration of dynamic loading sources and their 3.3.2 Types of Dynamically Acting Loads
effects on an airframe.
conditions (fatigue implications) and the large magnitude clearance issues to overcome. Control of such acoustic
of these unsteady loading actions (strength). environments is a major study area.
Consequently, the ability to predict these flows has
assumed a far greater importance in aircraft design.
3.3.2.3 Hammershock
Another consequence of active flight control systems is
the potential for affecting the structural response under
Hammershock (H/S) is an event whereby an aircraft
unsteady loading conditions. If the system interprets
engine surges, sending a pressure pulse upstream,
structural response as aircraft response and tries to
opposing the direction of airflow that would exist during
correct it by driving the controls, then there is a potential
normal engine operation. This results in a loss of engine
for increasing the loads on the structure. This area of
performance, the possibility of a flame-out and/or
expertise is known as Aero-servo-elasticity (ASE) or
permanent engine damage.
Structural Coupling. A well-designed flight control
system (FCS) will not exhibit such adverse
H/S events can occur anywhere within a combat aircraft
characteristics. It is not a design driver when assessing
flight envelope but are more significant at the envelope
loads, but an awareness of the total system (aircraft +
extremities. They have many causes. These include:
FCS) characteristics is required for flight clearance work.
over-fuelling;
Ways of using active control for reducing structural
response to unsteady loading, like buffet, are under bird strike;
consideration. A view of this is given in reference 1. foreign object ingestion and
disturbed intake airflow (e.g. wake ingestion).
The above is applicable to combat aircraft. However,
buffet also occurs due to impingement of vortical and A single surge may occur or a series of pressure pulses
wake flow on downstream surfaces, separated flow over may be generated if the surge becomes 'locked-in' i.e.
control surfaces, and flow interaction between adjacent conditions are such that repeated surges occur.
stores (or engines), their pylons and other airframe
structure, to name a few generic examples. These are not The pressure pulse created impinges on the engine intake
restricted to highly maneuverable aircraft. Indeed, and on the forward fuselage. Both of these items must
straight and level flight at transonic conditions, on any have sufficient strength to withstand a H/S event. This is
class of aircraft, can lead to complex shock-boundary particularly critical for aircraft which have foreplanes
layer interactions, which induce separated flow and hence located in the path of the pulse. The concern here is that
buffet, i.e. a forced response. a locked-in surge may occur with a pulse frequency close
to a fundamental foreplane vibration mode. If an item of
Further buffet inducers include excrescence and structure is excited at a frequency near one of its natural
cavities. Examples of the former include blade aerials, vibration modes (i.e. a resonant frequency), the resulting
chaff/flare dispensers, auxiliary cooling system intakes amplitudes of vibration and hence load are large.
and exhausts. Flow separation occurs from these unless
they are carefully designed, and faired-in specifically to Realistic prediction of the excitation can be achieved by
avoid this phenomenon. The result is unsteady pressure deliberately surging an engine on the ground and
fluctuations on surrounding, external paneling and measuring the resultant pressure pulse amplitudes in the
surfaces. The risk here is that surface panel modal intake duct, splitter plate/lip regions and forward of the
frequencies can be excited which can lead to rapid intake. Account can then be taken of airspeed, altitude
fatiguing of the affected structure. etc. to derive excitation throughout the desired flight
envelope. Wind tunnel testing is an alternative approach,
Flow spillage from cavities can have similar effects. The but scale effects are significant, and can lead to major
cavities can be those occurring when the landing gear is over-prediction if not accounted for adequately.
deployed, or when internally carried weapons are H/S was considered during the development of EAP
released. The latter is likely to be much more of a (shown in Figure 1). This resulted in the foreplanes being
problem due to the wider range of flight conditions at modified to prevent them 'tuning' with the predicted pulse
which it may occur. H/S frequency. This proved to be overly cautious. The
actual pressure pulses dissipated more quickly than was
Further, there is much potential for adversely affecting anticipated or had been measured in the wind-tunnel.
the internal and back-up structure of the weapons bay due This experience, of course, can be used on future aircraft
to acoustic effects. Similarly, stores and equipment projects.
installed in the bay will have difficult environmental
54
3.3.2.3.1 Influence on inlet duct design H/S pressure wave at the forward intake. Figure 2 shows
a typical example of a H/S excitation time history in
which the vertical axis represents the ratio of incremental
Examples of load cases on the inlet duct include
H/S pressure to maximum incremental H/S pressure and
maneuver g-loads, steady state pressures and
the horizontal axis corresponds to the H/S pulse duration
hydrostatic pressures of neighboring fuel tanks. However,
the pressure loads acting on the inlet duct caused by the ().
propagation of the high velocity pressure wave(s)
associated with surge phenomena is the predominant The characteristics of H/S loading as described above
design factor for combat aircraft. leads to the consideration of dynamic magnification of
loads during duct design, especially when taking into
The majority of modern combat aircraft utilize account of locked in surges. This is due to the potential
rectangular, or other non-circular, shaped inlets with a of a pulse sequence having repetition frequencies which
gradual longitudinal change into a circular shape duct in could coincide with the natural frequencies of the duct
order to merge effectively with the engine face. The H/S paneling.
loads become critical for such variable duct geometry due
to complex load paths in the throat region and stress Conventional approaches of designing ducts to cope with
distributions around the corners of, say, a rectangular H/S loads include increasing duct skin thickness and
inlet. The H/S loads associated with the circular duct employing additional ring stiffeners around the duct in
sections produce hoop tension and are less critical. between the frames. Furthermore, special attention is
made to the local design of frames and stiffeners in the
From reference 2, two aspects of H/S phenomena which rectangular sections of the duct as well as axial fastener
are of importance to the dynamic response of the intake and bond peel strengths which could result in localized
duct structure are (i) magnitude of the pressure wave and structural strengthening. Approaches such as these serve
(ii) the rise time to positive and negative peaks. It should to increase duct weight: an undesirable trend.
be noted that the negative peak is caused by the reflected
1.00
PHS / PMAX HS
0.00
-0.40 Time
Another aspect of duct design in relation to H/S gunfire rates. From the blast impingement point of view,
phenomena is the attenuation of pressure waves. pod mounted guns are usually better. Almost by
Attenuation is key to the reduction of pressure loads definition, they are mounted such that the gun muzzle
acting throughout the duct, particularly in critical areas will be further away from the aircraft. This would be
such as frontal inlet region. Two processes (detailed expected to allow some dissipation of the blast energy
discussion provided in reference 3) which can relieve before hitting the nearest parts of the airframe.
pressures are (i) airflow bleed through a bypass exit
which reduces diffuser volume and (ii) ramp edge
leakage to the plenum allowing pressure transmissions at 3.3.2.5 Store Release / Jettison / Missile Firing
sonic velocity. However, trade-off studies must be
Stores release can vary from jettison of fuel tanks to
conducted to determine the feasibility of duct weight
missile firing activities. Stores release design cases are
reduction due to the alleviation of pressure loads, against
few and far between, but the possibility must be
the losses in intake efficiency during operation of the
considered. The effects of store release during extreme
bleed / leakage processes, and the weight increases due to
maneuvers must be assessed.
implementation of the more complex mechanisms
involved.
Excitation of the airframe arises from the 'kick' provided
by the loss of mass during release, this effect being
directly in line with the mass of the store, and also from
3.3.2.4 Gunfire the ejector release units which push the store away from
This is an obvious source of high energy, short duration the aircraft. Unlike buffet, gunblast and H/S excitation,
dynamic loading. Attention is traditionally given to the point of application of a release impulse to the
designing structure to absorb recoil forces transmitted to structure is more localized. However, the effect can be
it, whether from an internal or pod-mounted installation. just as global if significant transmission through the
Conventional metallic structure, with its joints and airframe is possible, as discussed in the previous section
fastenings, tends to absorb energy (via damping and on gunfire.
friction) better than extensively bonded designs. Hence,
transmission of loading is limited. With bonded Special design consideration must be given to 'ripple'
structures the recoil effects can affect a much larger part store releases i.e. multiple stores released in rapid
of the airframe. This gives the potential for tuning with succession. This may be required to give a wide
modal frequencies, and hence loading problems. munitions coverage of the target or as part of an
emergency stores jettison sequence. As with H/S events,
Muzzle/exhaust blast could increase this effect if the proximity of release 'pulses' could have an excitation
transmitted through a significant part of the airframe. It frequency close to a major airframe vibration mode. The
could be possible for some parts to be loaded by both the result would be large structural oscillations. This implies
recoil forces and the blast effects. Even if this is not the large structural loads but would also affect 'dumb' store
case, the blast effects on localized external structure delivery accuracy.
should be assessed. Again, tuning with panel modal
frequencies is a possibility given the current range of
56
3.3.3 Prediction Process & Methods The second approach can be classed as the theoretical
approach although it does not yield an exact solution; the
accuracy being dependant upon the quality of the input
3.3.3.1 Loads Prediction and Simulation
data, and the inherent assumptions regarding linearity of
The main emphasis here is about primary lifting surfaces characteristics.
undergoing general bending and torsional responses due
to a dynamic loading action, eg. buffet excitation. 3.3.3.1.1 Empirical Approach
Localized loads use similar principles, but may not need An example of a successful use of an empirical approach
a full aero-structural simulation. This depends upon the is that of designing EAP to account for fin buffeting.
needs of the technical problem being addressed. Figure 3 illustrates how an initial prediction of structural
response can be carried out. From Tornado measured
There are 2 major approaches. The first is empirical, and characteristics, an estimate of EAP fin response was
assumes that the new design is similar in general nature made. It assumes that the dominant parameters affecting
to a previous project for which there exists an adequate the fin response are wing sweep angle, incidence, and
database of information. dynamic pressure.
EMPIRICISM
Fin vibration characteristics
TORNADO
( =250)
TORNADO
( =450)
EAP
( =570)
Incidence (AoA)
FIGURE 3. Fin Vibration Characteristics
Actual numbers on the axes are removed to preserve the and numerical representation of the forcing function (eg.
unclassified nature of this document. However, use of buffet excitation).
the original plot will lead to the response on the EAP fin
for a given flight condition. Assuming a detailed The mathematical equation to be solved is of the
knowledge of the fin structural characteristics, then the following form
internal structural loads can be derived. This was
successful because of the large amount of information
generated, and hence available, in the course of studying
Ax + VE Bx + V E 2 Cx + Dx + Ex = F ( t )
fin buffeting on Tornado. where
A = generalized inertia matrix
As stated before, there is a large amount of publicly B = generalized aerodynamic damping matrix
available information which could allow derivation of C = generalized aerodynamic stiffness matrix
empirical methods for other projects. The example given D = generalized structural damping matrix
would not, of course, be applicable to twin fin designs, or E = generalized structural stiffness matrix
if the new fin structure (and, hence, modal response) was VE = equivalent airspeed
radically different. x = generalized co-ordinates
= relative air density
3.3.3.1.2 Theoretical Approach F(t)= generalized forcing function
This approach requires a numerical model of the structure Post-processing of the output from the response solution
(inertia, damping and stiffness), numerical representation leads to derivation of loads at defined points on the
of the oscillatory aerodynamics (damping and stiffness) structure. The process is shown diagrammatically in
figure 4.
57
Alternative
Aerodynamic
Doublet-Lattice
Aerodynamics [Nastran
Theoretical
based or in-house] Methods
Loads
Finite Element Derivation
Modal Vib. Dynamic Response
Model [Forces &
Characteristics
Moments]
Buffet Exction
NASTRAN, or In-Company developed alternative, is tunnel accuracies. This is for a rigid wind tunnel model
used as the analytical tool for the calculation technique and is illustrated in figure 5.
shown above.
There are several points to note. In current practice, the An interesting, but less used variation of the above, is to
unsteady aerodynamics and structural models are linear create a dynamically scaled, flexible wind tunnel model.
approximations. Development of improved, advanced This involves scaling the full size structural
aerodynamic methods is discussed later. For early design characteristics to the model, but does mean that the
information there is unlikely to be detailed structural and surface forces and moments can be measured directly.
mass data available. In addition, the excitation function There is still the problem of then re-scaling to full size in
may well be derived from existing databases pending order to derive the full scale loads.
availability of wind tunnel test data.
The first approach is likely to be used earlier in the
For the detailed design and clearance phases of a project design cycle. Unless the new aircraft is a development of
the response model is likely to be the same as that used an existing type, detailed structural information will not
for Flutter assessments. During the clearance phases of a be available for manufacture of the flexible wind tunnel
project, it should be possible to include a structural model model. The latter is also likely to be more expensive
matched to reflect GVT data. The excitation data will because, in addition to increased model manufacturing
probably be based on wind tunnel testing of the finalized costs, a dedicated set of test runs will be required. The
project lines. However, it will still be subject to scaling rigid data can possibly be acquired on a ride-along basis
from wind-tunnel to full scale, as well as normal wind with other testing.
Tunnel Test of Rigid Pressure Measurement W/T to Full- Size Buffet Excitation
Model Scaling
A useful guide to the state-of-the-art for numerical 3.3.3.1.4 Superposition of Steady and Unsteady
aeroelastic simulation techniques is reference 4. Loading
LOAD (kN)
LOAD (kN)
0
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5
-2.5 -2.5 -2.5
-3.5 -3.5 -3.5
TIME TIME TIME
These approaches are driven by pragmatic applications of This can lead to lengthy discussions with Customers and
available methods and tools. It is a recognition that not Certification Authorities about what should be addressed
all organizations have the latest available technology and in design and certification of a given aircraft project.
computing power. Indeed, the third approach above is Experience has shown that an open-minded approach at
only recently becoming more common as tool sets and the design stage, which can include work that positively
design processes become more integrated. For instance, eliminates a phenomenon from consideration, will ensure
formerly it might have been necessary to have separate a smoother progression, later in the project cycle, to flight
methods for development and analysis of structural, clearance and qualification. In short, at present there are
aerodynamic and FCS models. If consideration of other no hard rules governing consideration of dynamic loading
disciplines was necessary, each would probably model in structural design, other than that it should be taken into
the others in its own home environment. This led to a account!
number of notionally similar numerical models being
developed - each needing extensive quality assurance and As engineers, we are bound to consider these loading
checking, and none of them fully compatible. actions because they can be significant. This is
As stated before, there is no definitive method. Readers illustrated by the technical papers covering fin and tail
must judge the appropriate way forward for their own buffeting on F-18, and similar aircraft, which are
particular projects. However, it should be noted that numerous (e.g. references 5, 7, 8, 9 and 10 picked nearly
some aspects of 1 and 2 above are favourable because the at random from a wide choice). Wing buffeting is a well
quasi-steady loads can be based upon more mature, known phenomenon, and also well documented. It is
speedier, theoretical methods (CFD) than unsteady clear that buffeting must be examined in the early stages
loading. In addition, for similar reasons there are likely of design for aircraft with significant maneuver
to be more extensive wind tunnel test data available. capability. The problem for other areas is deciding what
is an acceptably low risk for a given set of circumstances.
Often, there are little data available which can be
3.3.4 Design Assumptions, Criteria and analyzed effectively.
Certification
It is stressed that the reader must decide what is
Reference 6, gives a very brief overview of important
appropriate for his particular work. It must be clear what
dynamic loading phenomena that should be considered
the latest design criteria are, and what is applicable to a
during the design of combat aircraft. It notes, however,
given project. If standards change through the life of an
that specific design and certification criteria/guidelines
aircraft project, this can lead to a very complex
are few.
documentation trail!
FUTURE
levels, but is not yet sufficiently robust or rapid for 3.3.6 Summary
production application. The above discussions are aimed at raising awareness of
dynamic loading effects, and their prediction, which is
Reference 11 gives an outline of some work done in the advisable to consider at the design stage of an aircraft
UK to address the shorter term requirements of engineers. project. Historically, this has not been so prevalent, but
It reports on the combination of an extensive set of wind is necessary now due to the requirements to more
tunnel tests with the aim of providing insight into the effectively optimize structures, from both a strength and
aerodynamic phenomena associated with novel wing fatigue point of view. Indeed, active control of structural
planforms. These planforms impact both steady and response (due to buffeting, say) is under very energetic
unsteady aerodynamics. research and must now also be considered as a possible
option at the design stage of an aircraft project.
The wind tunnel tests have produced steady pressure
distributions, overall forces and moments, surface oil Because of the immense breadth of the subject, there are
flow patterns and unsteady surface pressure frequency no definitive statements here. Readers are required to
spectra. The steady flow results have been compared formulate their own approach to their own particular
with output from converged Reynolds Averaged Navier- technical challenges.
Stokes (RANS) CFD solutions.
It is apparent that wind tunnel and CFD methods are vital
The work has enabled a design tool to be proposed for to future prediction techniques, particularly of non-linear
use early in the design process. For an arbitrary wing aerodynamic effects. However, examination of non-
planform, at maneuvering conditions, steady CFD can be linear structural effects (e.g. control surface backlash
used to establish mean flow topology, including tracking characteristics) as part of the overall aero-structural
of vortex shear layers. Empirical representations of the system are dependant upon more robust and rapid
characteristic buffet frequencies can then identify the techniques for coupling CFD with a FEM than are
dominant frequencies of the dynamic loads. When available at present.
coupled with relatively simple finite element models,
predictions of buffeting response are expected to be The table below is intended as an aide memoir. It
sufficiently accurate to enable meaningful evaluation and summarizes different types of dynamic loading and
comparison of different wing planforms. which parts of an aircraft they affect. It includes gusts
and ground operations for completeness, although these
are described in different chapters.
61
Strain-gauges could be used to measure load 'directly'. function such that signals with frequencies up to around
There are, however, a number of problems associated 80Hz are not attenuated.
with their use, namely:
The VAX-based software component of the monitoring
suitable calibrations being available to convert system is only used for certain flight test points - those
gauge signal to load; where significant wing and/or fin buffet is likely to occur
e.g. wind-up turn maneuvers. The fin and wing buffet
reliability of the gauges and the signals that accelerometer data are conditioned as follows:
they produce;
high and low-pass filtered to remove any DC
strain gauge signals vary with temperature; signal component and to include only the
the gauge is measuring structural load in a response frequencies of interest. This is
highly localized area, making prediction more limited to only those frequencies associated
difficult to do accurately. Measured with the first few fundamental aircraft vibration
accelerations give a more global picture of modes (the modes most likely to cause
structural response. structural damage in the case of buffet
monitoring).
Accelerometer Locations
F IN B U F F E T
P E A K G (% )
P E A K G / D Y N A M IC P R E S S U R E
NCIDENCE ANGLE (degs) NCIDENCE ANGLE (degs)
P re d ic te d T re n d
P E A K G (% )
M 0 .5
P E A K G / D Y N A M IC P R E S S U R E
Incidence
Data Transmission
Accelerometers
Mach No.
Dynamic Pressure
Time
Flight Test
Ground
Station
VAX
SAVE
67
TIME
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
cel. (g)
1 Second
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
cidence,
(degs)
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
ynamic
ressure,
(kPa)
W3 TIME HISTORY
Predicted Trend
3.5 Airframe Certification Against Birdstrike Furthermore, past testing has revealed that structural
Threats components with sharp leading edges (i.e. leading edge
radius less than bird diameter) leads to a significant
increase in the impact velocity required to cause
The phenomena of birdstrikes requires serious structural damage, due to higher local stiffness levels
assessment during the design stages of an aircraft. Over inherent in smaller radii. Therefore, design specifications
the last decade there has been an increase in fatal of leading edges for forward facing regions of the
accidents due to birdstrikes on military aircraft. airframe can be influenced by birdstrike phenomena, in
Furthermore, it is the single greatest cause of military addition to aerodynamic, structural and manufacturing
aircraft loss in peace time. aspects.
To certify the airframe against birdstrikes, resistance to
representative impulse loads acting on all leading edge
and forward facing sections of the airframe must be 3.5.1 Certification via Empirical Testing
considered early in the design phase. The design work
would involve predictions of stress levels associated with Chapter 209 of Ref. 1 specifies the minimum
such loads in both the skin and substructure of the requirements for the resistance of airframes to damage
frontal airframe region. To prevent stress levels caused by birdstrike ;
exceeding the allowable limit, high strain rate
performance, yield strength and fracture toughness may A 1kg bird with an impact velocity of 480 knots
be critical factors in determining material selection. must not penetrate the structure.
69
A 1kg bird with an impact velocity of 366 knots interaction, presents significant challenges to the
must not cause structural damage. available codes and analysis techniques.
The latter specification reflects the need to reduce the Coupled Euler-Lagrange and smooth particle
cost of repair after lower kinematics energy impacts. hydrodynamic codes are now being developed that will
Currently, meeting this specification is an expensive and significantly improve the modelling capability in the
time consuming procedure, primarily due to model future. Current analytical techniques attempt to represent
manufacture and test set up costs. the bird behaviour in the best possible manor in a
Lagrangian approach.
The standard approach is to fire real (dead) birds using
compressed air in a gas gun. The birds are fired at The failure behaviour of structures under high velocity
varying projectile velocities (up to high subsonic Mach impact and the representation of these events in the codes
No.s) onto the frontal area of the airframe, i.e. nose is also subject to on going research and development.
cone, transparency, intake lips, foreplane, wing leading This is particularly significant in the area of composite
edges etc. Testing considers birdstrikes head on to the materials where there are many complex failure modes
airframe and angles up to 15 - 17 degree azimuth from and particular problems in including these effects into the
the nose direction. Maximum deflections of the structure codes.
are recorded and the impacted structure is inspected for
damage and evidence of penetration. This data may be To address these issues and improve the analytical
supported by strain gauge information, high speed capability several working groups and research activities
photography and deflection time history data from laser have been set up in industry. These include programs that
measuring devices. Due to the difficulties involved in have established bird biometrics and flocking behaviour,
firing real birds, the inherent variability in the bird investigated the use of more consistent artificial birds,
structure, the difficulty in controlling the centre of gravity investigated the high rate failure behaviour of composites
location and the bird orientation, tests are notoriously and assessed the on-going developments in the available
prone to high levels of variability. codes.
Empirical design rules are available for metallic The results of one (FE based) birdstrike prediction tool is
structures however equivalent methods are not available shown in Figure 6 below. The figure shows a strain map
for composites making the potential role of analysis more of a leading edge after impact and allows direct
important. A single test that fails the structure may not comparisons with strains measured from experiment.
provide much information for a successful redesign to be
produced, particularly in the light of other design Upon extensive validation of birdstrike FE prediction
considerations that may apply. tools, some form of certification of airframes against
birdstrikes by analysis could become feasible, although it
Current Developments is envisaged that empirical testing will never be fully
In an attempt to alleviate costs involved with standard eradicated from a combat aircrafts developmental
birdstrike testing, one approach that has been accepted in programme.
the civil aerospace industry is to certify aircraft against
birdstrikes using generic analysis (Ref. 2). However, it
may be some time yet before military aircraft would be 3.5.2 References
allowed to be certified in this way.
1. DEFENCE STANDARD 00-970 MINISTRY OF
The idea behind the generic analysis approach is that if DEFENCE
you have designed and tested a similar component before, DESIGN AND AIRWORTHINESS
and if the analytical method has proven accuracy, REQUIREMENTS FOR SERVICE AIRCRAFT
clearance of a new generic component can be achieved VOLUME 1 AEROPLANES, BOOK 1
by analysis alone. Generic analysis requires
comprehensive understanding of mechanical properties 2. S351 IMechE SEMINAR PAPER 1
and failure modes of the airframe structure and bird DEVELOPMENT OF A BIRDSTRIKE
behaviour under impact. Bird impacts above a certain CLEARANCE PHILOSOPHY
velocity threshold has been shown to be essentially C H EDGE
fluidic. The modelling of an event which incorporates Published in Foreign Object Impact and Energy
both fluidic and structural behaviour, with strong Absorbing Structure MARCH 1998
70
With the growing size and increasing flexibility of Comparing now the PSD- gust criterion and the Discrete
aircraft these assumptions became more and more gust criterion, we notice the difference and the reason
unacceptable. Hence, the major Airworthiness Codes why both criteria are included in our design procedures.
currently demand for a full dynamic response calculation, The PSD criterion is based on a rational and consistent
including all rigid and all relevant elastic modes. As the model of the atmospheric turbulence; it defines design
length of the gust has a direct effect on the structural loads that are based on an average response, considering
response, a range of gust lengths has to be considered. all possible gust lengths that prevail in random
The one giving the highest design load (the Tuned turbulence. The Discrete Gust Criterion is typically a
Discrete Gust) must be assumed, up to a defined level of worst case criterion; the highest load resulting from a
severity e.g. the minimum gust distance is specified. discrete bump with most adverse length must be taken.
The Discrete Gust cases are included and maintained in
airworthiness codes to safeguard against sudden more or
4.1.2 Continuous Gusts less stand alone gust outbursts that have been observed
to occur in practice.
The discrete gust concept assumes an atmosphere where
separate and independent gust bumps occur that may
hit the aircraft. Measurements in gusty conditions, 4.1.3 Gust Load Requirements
however, revealed a pattern more resembling a process of
continuous turbulence. This notion led in the early Gust load requirements have been, and are subject to, a
sixties to the development of a completely new gust process of continuous change due to the experience
concept and a set of additional Design Criteria, known as gained from previous aircraft, changes in aircraft design
the Continuous Turbulence Concept and the PSD philosophy and advances in analysis techniques. Section
(Power Spectral Density) Gust Design Criteria. 4.2 gives an overview of the gust requirements in the
principal civil and military requirements prevailing today.
In this concept, the loading action is described as a The military requirements tend to lag behind compared to
continuous process of random turbulence. Over shorter FAR/JAR 25, due to a lack of available flight data as well
periods of time this process may be considered as as the lower criticality of gust loads for military aircraft.
stationary with Gaussian properties and standard In FAR 25 and JAR 25, major changes have been
deviation w. In the longer term, the standard deviation included over the last few years with regard to the
or gust intensity is not a constant, but varies randomly discrete gust cases and a major change of the continuous
with a given probability function. The turbulence is gust criteria is in preparation. A relevant part of the
characterized by the von Karman type Power Spectral associated NPRM (Notice on Proposed Rule Making) is
Density function, describing how the energy in the included in Paragraph 4.2.
process is distributed with frequency.
These developments have prepared by the ARAC Loads
On the basis of this turbulence concept, two design and Dynamic Handling Working Group, supported by the
methods were developed referred to as the Mission Committee of International Gust Specialists.
Analysis and the Design Envelope Concepts5. The Airworthiness Requirements tend to be put in rather
Mission Analysis Concept, which is of a purely general legal terms, which may be subject to different
statistical nature, has the virtue of elegance. It is, interpretation. Additional documents, describing
however, difficult to apply and may lead to acceptable means and methods to comply with the
unconservative predictions if the actual Mission Profile requirements may be very helpful. Such information
of an aircraft changes and starts to deviate from design may be contained in ACJs (Acceptable means of
assumptions. Hence, the criterion is seldom applied and it Compliance to JAR) in the case of JAR requirements, or
is expected that in the near future it will be deleted from in Advisory Circulars in the case of FAR requirements.
the Airworthiness Codes.
Traditionally, the calculation of aircraft response has
The Design Envelope criterion shows a resemblance to been made assuming linearity. With the advent of
the Discrete Gust Criterion in that it also specifies a nonlinear active control systems, aircraft are becoming
design gust strength U as a function of altitude the increasingly nonlinear and the assumption of linearity is
design value Ydes of any load quantity y is found from becoming more and more unacceptable for accurate load
prediction. The calculation of the response to a discrete
gust for a nonlinear aircraft may be time-consuming but
Ydes = A r * U offers no fundamental problem. Three deterministic type
methods are considered here: Matched Filter Theory, the
72
A brief description of these methods is given in Appendix The gust filter impulse response for the IDPSD filter
A4.1. gives by definition exactly the von Karman Spectrum.
Comparing the original MFB gust filter ("NASA"), and a
The following nonlinear aircraft models were used: new MFB gust filter that has been taken from Hoblit5, it
appears that the Hoblit filter clearly approaches the von
- Noback model: 2 DOF large transport aircraft with Karman PSD better than the original NASA filter. The
load alleviation through ailerons. Hoblit gust filter has therefore been implemented in the
- F100 model: medium-sized transport with "Fokker- present MFB procedure, which resulted in correct PSD
100-like" characteristics with load alleviation loads in linear cases, contrary to MFB with the original
through ailerons. NASA gust filter, where slight deviations from AU were
- A310 model: an A310 model with load alleviation found.
through ailerons and spoilers.
The bar-charts in figures 4.2 - 4.7 show the results of the
A description of these models is given in Appendix A4.2. calculations for the three aircraft models and five
Nonlinearity is introduced in these models by limits on calculation methods. The notation in the axis labels of
the control surface deflections. The A310 model control these figures is as follows:
surfaces can only deflect upward (max. 10 deg.) in the
nonlinear version, so that a non-symmetrical nonlinearity y,des = design load value of load quantity y.
is introduced. Analysis could be performed using either y,cor z = correlated value of y if z has its
the linear or non-linear versions of these models. design value.
nonlin = closed loop system, nonlinear
(limited) load alleviation.
4.3.1 Analyses made by NLR nolim = closed loop system, linear
(unlimited) load alleviation.
nocon = open loop system (linear).
The NLR investigation4 compared the three Deterministic Stoch. Simul. = Stochastic Simulation result.
methods with the Stochastic Simulation methods and the PSD = standard PSD result.
PSD technique for the linear cases. For linear aircraft POS = "positive" design load case (A310
models, these Deterministic PSD methods and Stochastic model only).
Simulation result in design and correlated load values yd NEG = "negative" design load case (A310
and zc that are equal to the "standard" PSD loads: model only).
MFB and IDPSD both approach the Stochastic - IDPSD: Indirect Deterministic Power Spectral
Simulation results reasonably in figure 4.3; only the Density
correlated value of n for the nonlinear F100 model is - MFB 1-D: Matched Filter Based 1-Dimensional
really very incorrect (wrong sign) for both methods, see - MFB Multi-D: Matched Filter Based Multi-
figure 4.4. The corresponding MFB/IDPSD design levels Dimensional
of the bending moment in figure 4.5 differ more than - PEC: Probability of Exceedence Criteria
10 % from the Stochastic Simulation value. The SG - SS: Stochastic Simulation
procedure design loads and correlated loads can both - SDG: Statistical Discrete Gust
deviate appreciably from Stochastic Simulation results.
Similar findings were obtained for the Noback model, The description of the methods can be found in Appendix
figures 4.6-4.7, where the major differences occur in the 4.1. The methods were applied to the simple 2-dof and
correlated y values. A310 aircraft. Since the absolutely correct design load
cannot be obtained for a nonlinear system, one of the
The ailerons and spoilers of the A310 model can only methods was to be used as a benchmark. In this case, the
deflect upward in the nonlinear version, so that different benchmark was chosen to be the Matched Filter Based 1-
gust design loads will occur in positive and negative Dimensional search method. This choice was dictated by
directions. In the IDPSD and MFB procedures, negative the relative simplicity of the method and by the fact that
gust cases are created by reversing the sign of the gust it is less computationally expensive than the other
inputs to the "first system". In the SG procedure the sign methods. However, the term "benchmark" does not imply
of a design load is determined, by calculating the sign of: that the design loads predicted by the MDB 1-D method
are taken to be the best estimates.
y y dt
0
The graphical comparisons between the methods
presented in this section are based on the following
where y is the load quantity response to an SG input. figures (unless otherwise stated).
It can be seen in figure 4.3 that the positive and negative - Figures 4.8 and 4.9 show a direct comparison of
design load cases of wing bending do not differ maximum and correlated loads obtained by the
significantly, but the negative torsion design load is methods for the Noback aircraft model.
considerably lower than the positive design load in the - Figures 4.10 and 4.11 show a direct comparison of
results of Stochastic Simulation, MFB, and IDPSD. It is a maximum and correlated loads obtained by the
good point for MFB and IDPSD that they appear to methods for the A310 aircraft model.
represent this effect in the same way as the Stochastic - Figures 4.12 and 4.13 Load variation with time and
Simulation method. critical gust shape for Noback aircraft load 2 and
A310 load 3
With regard to the required computational times the
following observations could be made. The SG method is
very fast, because only four time responses are 4.3.2.1 Stochastic Simulation Method
calculated. The IDPSD method takes some more
calculation time than MFB, because the "first system"
response in IDPSD is twice as long as in MFB. Stochastic The figures show a very good agreement between results
Simulation takes much more time than the other methods using the SS method and those from the two deterministic
(14 times the MFB time), mainly due to the counting methods. Figure 4.12 shows the load variation with time
procedures for finding design levels and correlated loads. and the critical gust shape for the Noback aircraft as
predicted by the MFB, SS and IDPSD methods. It can be
The following conclusions can be drawn from this seen that, even thought there is some differences between
comparison of Deterministic methods with the Stochastic the three gust shapes, the load variations are in very good
Simulation and "standard" PSD methods: agreement with each other. This phenomenon highlights
the main difficulty in predicting gust loads and worst-
- With the Hoblit gust filter, MFB is equivalent to case gusts for nonlinear aircraft i.e. that there is not one
IDPSD and "standard" PSD in linear cases. single solution.
- The results of MFB and IDPSD are reasonably
similar in nonlinear cases; correlated loads may The good agreement between the two deterministic
deviate somewhat. methods and the SSB however, heavily depends on the
- MFB and IDPSD reasonably approach Stochastic choice of the value of the turbulence intensity, g . The
Simulation results in nonlinear cases, but this is not
authors of reference 6 suggest that, in order to compare
enough for design load calculations.
the two methods, the value of the turbulence intensity
- The SG method deviates significantly from the other
used with the MFB scheme should be
methods in nonlinear cases.
- Stochastic Simulation takes much more calculation
time than the Deterministic methods. g = U
4.3.2 Analyses made by the University of where U is the design gust velocity. For the SSB
Manchester method, the suggested value is
The turbulence intensity used during the course of this negligible. The fact that the multi-dimensional search is
work was much more computationally expensive but only delivers a
small improvement in the final result suggests that the 1-
g = U / 2.5 dimensional search is more suitable, especially in the
case of the gust-load prediction for a full aircraft, where
the design loads need to be predicted at a very large
This value was preferred4 to U / 3 because it agrees number of stations over the whole aircraft.
The SDG method is the approach that yields loads which 4.3.2.6 Comparative Results
are in least agreement with those obtained from the other
techniques. For the Noback aircraft, the SDG yields the The IDPSD method tends to predict slightly more
most conservative design load for load 1 and the least conservative results than the MFB 1-D method. In the
conservative one for load 2. For the A310, the SDG case of the Noback model the IDPSD results are closest
estimate for load 3 is in good agreement with those to those obtained from the MFB M-D method. Since the
obtained from the DPSD procedures but, for load 4 the SSB and PEC are stochastic, their design load predictions
SDG again provides the least conservative design loads. change slightly every time the calculations are
This discrepancy is caused by the fact that the SDG performed. Consequently, there is no definitive way of
methodology, being based on a search through families of determining whether these predictions are generally more
discrete gusts, is significantly different to the other four or less conservative than the results obtained with the
methodologies (see Appendix 4.1). other two methods.
18 J.G. Jones, Formulation of Design Envelope using matched filter theory and constrained
criterion in terms of Deterministic Spectral optimization. NASA TM 104138, 1991.
Procedure, J. Aircraft, 30(1):137-139, 1993. 21 R.Noback, The Deterministic Power-Spectral-
19 G.Rosenberg, D.A.Cowling, & M.Hockenhull, Density method for nonlinear systems, TP
The deterministic spectral procedure for gust 92342 U, NLR, National Aerospace
response analysis of nonlinear aircraft models. Laboratory, Holland, 1992.
Intl Forum on Aeroelasticity and Structural 22 R.Noback. The Deterministic Power-Spectral-
Dynamics. pp 339 358. 1993 Density method for linear systems. TP 92062
20 R.C. Scott, A.S. Pototzky, and B. Perry III, U, NLR, National Aerospace Laboratory,
Maximized gust loads for a nonlinear airplane Holland, 1992.
V
w
V = w/V
L=1/2 V2 S Cl
12
IDPSD
MFB 1-D
10 MFB M-D
0
1 2
Design Load -Correlated Load
8
IDPSD
CoG Acceleration Caused by Aileron Only (m/s 2)
7 MFB 1-D
MFB M-D
PEC
6 SDG
SSB
5
0
1 2
Design Load -Correlated Load
Figure 4.9: Results for Noback model, centre of gravity acceleration caused by aileron only
83
6
x 10
3
IDPSD
MFB 1-D
2.5 MFB M-D
PEC
SDG
SSB
2
Wing Bending (lb.ft)
1.5
0.5
0
1 2
Design Load -Correlated Load
5
x 10
2.5
IDPSD
MFB 1-D
MFB M-D
2 PEC
SDG
SSB
Wing Torsion (lb.ft)
1.5
0.5
0
1 2
Design Load -Correlated Load
Figure 4.12: Comparison between SSB, MFB 1-D and IDPSD (labeled nob)
for Noback a/c load 2 (design load and gust shape)
Figure 4.13: Comparison between SSB, MFB 1-D and IDPSD (labeled nob) for A310 wing torsion
(design load and gust shape)
85
3. An input white noise signal with wr is generated, U / 2 .5 . This latter approach is also adopted in the
present work since it is suggested that increasing the total
passed through a gust pre-filter and fed into the
nonlinear aeroelastic model. The resulting load time simulation length at one value of w improves the
history for load y is used to calculate the probability quality of the design load predictions by a larger amount
that the design load will be exceeded in a turbulent than increasing the number of simulations at different
flow-field of intensity wr using values of w.
1
y2 P(z > zc|y yd) = 0.5
A wr exp dyd wr
2 2A wr
2 2
yd i.e. the probability of load z to be higher than the
correlated load, zc , when load y assumes its design value
is 0.5. This is implemented by extracting the value of z at
where A = y / wr all the time instances were y=yd. The probability
distribution of these values is then calculated and the
4. The design load is defined as the value of the load correlated load is obtained as the load whose probability
for which is 0.5. As with the design load, the correlated loads can
be obtained using the number of exceedences instead of
the probability distribution.
1 U
P( y > y d , wr ) = erfc
Since the PEC input to an aeroelastic model is stochastic
2 2 wr turbulence, modelled as white noise, in order for the
method to work accurately, long simulation times are
where erfc is the error function complement. needed so that the variance of the input is as close as
86
11 ( ) = g2
L 1
2 5/6
1 + 1.339 L
4.6.1.2 Statistical Discrete Gust Method V
2
The Statistical Discrete Gust Method (SDG) has been 8 L
introduced as a method that employs a better description 1 + 1.339
3 V
22 ( ) = 33 ( ) = g2
of atmospheric turbulence than the Power Spectral L
Density method for extreme gusts on linear aircraft 10,11. 2 2 11 / 6
L
This description is based on families of discrete 1-cosine 1 + 1.339
ramp gusts. The present implementation of the SDG V
methodology is based on a similar implementation9. It
should be noted that the method was developed as an
attempt to bridge the gap between continuous turbulence Simple algebra shows that the limit of both 11() and
and discrete gusts methodologies and is being 22() as tends to infinity (which defines the inertial
continuously refined, most recently with the use of subrange where self-similarity applies) is
wavelets. The SDG calculates design loads.
lim = A 5 / 3
Figure A4.1 shows a single discrete gust, as used by the
SDG method. Initially, its velocity increases in a 1-cosine
fashion until, at a distance H, it levels out to the value U where A is a proportionality constant. Consequently
which is given by
5 / 3
(2 +1)
U = U0H 1/ 3 h A = A 5 / 3
h
For this expression to be satisfied, h must vanish from the
if H is less than L, the length-scale of turbulence, and
left-hand-side, or
U = U 0 L1 / 3 5
2 1 =
3
if H L. The value of U0 is decided by the
equivalence of the design value of g in the continuous Hence for continuous, self-similar turbulence, =1/3.
turbulence PSD analysis to the SDG analysis as11
Discrete gusts are extreme events for which self-
similarity breaks down. They are larger-scale and more
g
U0 = ordered events than the background turbulence within
which they are contained. The similarity parameter for
10.4 such events is given by10
calculated using two pairs of gusts and four pairs of seconds has been suggested14). Long simulation times
gusts. Finally, four design loads are calculated using also ensure that the white noise input has a variance very
close to unity and a mean very close to zero. Finally, the
y d 1 = p1 1U 0 extraction and averaging process must take place
separately for positive and negative peak load values.
y d 2 = p 2 2U 0
The stochastic simulation method, as outlined here
y d 3 = p3 3U 0 cannot be used on its own since it requires a target load to
be specified, around which it will search for peaks in the
y d 4 = p 4 4U 0 load response. This target load value can be supplied by
another method. The authors of ref. 14 used the MFB
with p1=1.0, p2=0.81, p3=0.57 and p4=0.40. For highly multi-dimensional search procedure to obtain the target
damped systems the first two design values are more design load value and picked peaks in the SSB load
important, for slightly damped ones the last two design output within 8% of that value. Of course, the object
values predominate. of their work was to show that the MFB results are
equivalent to stochastic results. In a straightforward
For linear systems, estimating the maximum response design loads calculation it would be extremely wasteful
due to SDG gusts is simple since superposition can be to use two of the most computationally expensive
employed. For nonlinear systems this estimation can only methods to produce the same results twice.
be performed by means of an optimization scheme,
especially for the longer gust-shapes. The optimization However, it is suggested here that the SSB method can be
scheme chosen for this study was Simulated Annealing13. used to supplement results obtained by the Probability of
Exceedence Criteria method. As mentioned earlier, the
PEC method will only produce values for the design and
4.6.1.3 Stochastic Simulation correlated loads. It will not calculate time-variations of
the loads or the gust velocity. The SSB, on the other hand
The Stochastic Simulation method (SS) models can produce design and correlated load responses and
continuous turbulence as a white noise input with a Von critical gust waveforms. Hence, the PEC method can be
Karman spectrum, in the same way as the PEC method. used to yield a target value for the design load to be
Hence, the SSB is stochastic and can calculate design subsequently used with the SSB method.
loads, correlated loads and worst-case gusts, given a
target value for the design load. The procedure is as
follows14:
4.6.2 Deterministic Methods
1. A Gaussian white noise signal with unity variance is
generated and fed through a gust pre-filter, such as
Figure A4.3 and table A4.1 summarize the Deterministic
G (s ) =
procedures. An input signal to the "first aircraft system",
H1, is generated by feeding a pulse through a (von
L L Karman) gust filter G, with ,G(jf),=[nww(f)]2. The power
1 + 2.618 s 1 + 0.1298 s spectrum of the input to the first system will thus have
L V V
g the shape of the von Karman spectrum. The pulse
V Ls Ls Ls
1 + 2.083 1 + 0.823 1 + 0.0898 strength k is variable in the MFB method, and constant in
V V V the IDPSD (k=U) and SG (k=UT, where T = length of
gust input) methods. It should be noted, that the gust
filter in the MFB method is only an approximation of the
The output of the filter is a time history of von Karman spectrum, and in the version used in this
continuous turbulence data. The object is to identify report it is the Hoblit approximation .
segments of this time history that lead up to peak
loads. The first aircraft system, H1, represents the non-linear
2. A number of long time-domain simulations are aircraft equations of motion in MFB and SG. In IDPSD,
performed H1 is a linearized version of the non-linear aircraft, by
3. The load time histories obtained from the replacing the non-linearity by a linear element with an
simulations are analysed. Instances in time are "equivalent gain", Keq. Keq is a multiplication factor to the
isolated where the load exhibits a peak near a original gain in the feedback loop, with 0Keq 1
prescribed value or within a specified range. Then
standard durations of time data leading up to the For nonlinear systems, the three Deterministic methods
peak values are extracted, lined up in time and
averaged. The result is 'averaged-extracted' time- apply different procedures:
histories of the excitation waveform (input to the - MFB varies the strength k of the input pulse to the
gust filter), gust profile (section of turbulence data) first gust filter.
and load. These have been shown to be directly
- IDPSD varies the value of the equivalent gain that
equivalent to results obtained by the MFB
methods14, if the value of the turbulence intensity represents the nonlinearity in the first system.
g is selected appropriately. - SG varies the phase relation of the gust filter, which
is limited to only four different phase relations.
To ensure that there is an adequate number of extracted
samples so that the final waveforms are as smooth as
possible, very long simulations are required (1000
88
4.6.2.1 Matched Filter Based 1-Dimensional method is deterministic. The procedure consists of the
search following steps:
Matched Filter Theory (MFT) was originally developed 1. A model input shape in the time-domain is
as a tool used in radar technology15. The main objective generated.
of the method is the design of a filter such that its 2. The input shape is parameterized to produce a set of
response to a known input signal is maximum at a describing coefficients
specific time, which makes it suitable for application to 3. The coefficients are used to generate the input
gust response problems. The method can only be applied waveform
to linear systems because it makes use of the principle of 4. The energy of the input is constrained by dividing
superposition, which does not apply to nonlinear systems. the signal by its rms value
However, by applying a search procedure, it can be 5. The constrained waveform is fed into a turbulence
adapted to provide results for nonlinear aircraft. The pre-filter and next through the nonlinear aircraft
method is deterministic. system
6. The aircraft load response is assessed. If it has not
The technique is quite simple and consists of the been maximized the coefficients that generate the
following steps15,16 : input are changed and the process is repeated from
step 3.
1. A unit impulse of a certain strength Kg is applied to
the system. This iterative procedure requires a constrained
2. The unit impulse passes through a pre-filter optimization scheme, to ensure that the maximum load
describing gust turbulence (usually the Von Karman has been obtained, and a model input shape. The
Gust pre-filter). optimization scheme proposed originally18 was simulated
3. The pre-filtered input is fed into the aircraft model annealing. Another approach16 is to convert the
and the response of the various loads is obtained constrained optimization problem to an unconstrained
(e.g. wing root bending and torsional moments). one by means of the Kreisselmeier-Steinhauser function.
4. The response of the load whose design value is to be
estimated is isolated, reversed in time, normalized As for the generation of the initial input shape, two
by its own energy and multiplied by U, the design approaches have been proposed. In ref. 19 a white noise
gust velocity (which is determined by airworthiness gust model is used. The problem with this approach is
requirements 5). that it is more difficult to parameterize a random signal
5. The resulting signal is the input that maximizes the than a deterministic one. Alternatively 16, the MFB 1-
response of the chosen load for this particular dimensional search results are proposed as the input to
impulse strength, Kg. It is then fed back into the the DSP loop, which results in what is called the MFB
system (first the Gust pre-filter, then the aircraft multi-dimensional search procedure.
model) in order to obtain the response of the load
whose design value is to be estimated and also the The parameterization process is probably the most crucial
responses of the other loads (which are termed the aspect of the DSP method. Input waveforms have to be
correlated loads). described by a minimum number of coefficients to
6. The procedure is repeated from step 1 with a minimize computational cost but this description has to
different Kg. be as accurate as possible. Again, two popular procedures
can be found in the literature. The first19 is to fit the
The characterization of the method as one-dimensional waveform by a number of half-sinusoid (or cosinusoid)
refers to the variation of Kg. The end result is a graph of functions. The other approach is to fit the waveform
peak load versus initial impulse strength. The maximum using a set of Chebyshev polynomials16. In the same
of this function is the design load and the gust input that reference, a Fourier series approach was considered but it
causes it is termed the Matched Excitation Waveform. It was found to be much more computationally expensive.
must be mentioned at this point that the method does not
guarantee that the maximum load for a nonlinear aircraft The most common implementation of the DSP method is
will be obtained. As was found in refs. 7 and 17, the the Multi-Dimensional Matched Filter Based method
variation of peak load with initial impulse strength for which is described next.
some types of nonlinearities (e.g. freeplay and bilinear
stiffness) does not display a global maximum (instead it
slowly asymptotes to a certain value). 4.6.2.3 Multi-Dimensional Matched Filter Based
Method
4.6.2.2 Deterministic Spectral Procedure The Multi-Dimensional Matched Filter Based (MFB
Multi-D) method16,20 for gust load prediction for
This method was first proposed by Jones18. In its most nonlinear aircraft is a practical application of the
general form it is based on the assumption that there Deterministic Spectral Procedure. It was designed to
exists a single deterministic input function that causes a provide a more computationally efficient alternative to
maximum response in an aircraft load. It states that a the Stochastic Simulation Based approach. Reference 16
design load on an aircraft can be obtained by evaluating shows how the method provides almost identical results
the load response to a family of deterministic gust inputs to those obtained by use of the SSB but with less
with a prescribed constraint. In practice, this implies a computational effort. The method is deterministic.
search for the worst case gust, subject to the constraint
that the energy of the gusts investigated is constant. The
89
The MFB Multi-D approach revolves around the fact that replaced by a variable gain. The resulting waveform
the usual design envelope analysis can be reformulated as forms the input to the nonlinear system, called the second
an exactly equivalent time-domain worst-case analysis. In system. The search procedure consists of varying the
other words, the search for a worst-case gust load in the linear gain until the response of the second system is
presence of a turbulence field of prescribed intensity is maximized.
equivalent to the search for a design load19. Hence, the
simplest possible procedure for determining the worst- The input to the first system is given by U V (t ) ,
case load is to simulate very long patches of turbulence
and to look within the load response of the aeroelastic where U is the design gust velocity and V(t) is the
system in question for the design load. This is the
Fourier Transform of the two-sided Von Karman
ww ( ) , given by
stochastic simulation approach that requires significant
amounts of computation. Spectrum,
2
8 L
The worst-case load problem can be simplified by noting
that the significant part of a long turbulent signal that 1 + 1.339
3 V
ww ( ) =
causes the maximum load is short and can be
L
V 2 2
approximated as a discrete gust. Hence the MFB Multi-D
L
method searches for the single discrete worst-case gust 1 + 1.339
waveform thus avoiding the need for long simulation V
times.
where is the radial frequency, L is the turbulence
The implementation of the method is as follows, also length-scale and V is the aircraft velocity22. This input
depicted graphically in figure A4.4: can be alternatively defined as the Auto-Correlation
1. An initial guess for the worst-case gust waveform function pertaining to ww ( ) , i.e.
(or matched excitation waveform) is obtained by use
of the 1-dimensional MFB procedure. 1
2. The initial guess is parameterized. In the present
application the parameterization scheme used is
V (t ) = R22 (t ) =
2
ww ( )e jt d
Chebyshev Polynomials.
3. The values of the various parameters are changed The Von Karman Spectrum can be expressed in a more
and the resulting waveform is fed into the practical form as the Auto-Correlation function of the
aeroelastic system (including a turbulence pre-filter filtered MFB impulse,
as described earlier).
4. The resulting maximum load is compared to the
previous value for the worst-case gust load and is u g ( )u g ( + t )
accepted or rejected according to some optimization V (t ) =
procedure. The optimization procedure used for the u g ( ) 2
present application is Simulated Annealing. The
procedure is repeated, i.e. the parameters are where ug is the MFB filtered impulse gust velocity, the
changed again resulting in a new gust waveform overbars denote averaging and is an integration
which is then used as an input to the system, until variable. The solid line is the Fourier Transform result
the worst-case gust load is obtained. and differs from the Auto-Correlation result (dotted line)
in that it takes negative values away from the peak. As a
consequence the Auto-Correlation result was preferred
4.6.2.4 Indirect Deterministic Power Spectral for the present work.
Density Method
The IDPSD Method procedure is as follows:
The Indirect Deterministic Power Spectral Density
method (IDPSD)20,21, is derived from the Design 1. U V (t ) is formed, say using equation (6).
Envelope Analysis5 of the continuous Power Spectral
Density method. For linear aircraft it yields design loads 2. The input is fed into the linearized aircraft model
equal to those obtained by the PSD method but using a with linear gain K and the response of the various
deterministic input, in a similar way to the linear MFT loads is obtained (e.g. wing root bending and
method. For nonlinear systems it can be extrapolated to a torsional moments).
1-dimensional search procedure, equivalent to the MFB 3. The response of the load whose design value is to be
1-D search but involving a linearized representation of calculated is isolated, convoluted by V(t),
the system. The method is deterministic. normalized by its own energy and multiplied by
U , the design gust velocity.
The IDPSD procedure is very similar to the MFB 1-D 4. The resulting signal is the input that maximizes the
method with two main differences. Firstly, the IDPSD response of the chosen load for this particular
method uses a different gust filter and, secondly, the linearised gain, K. The signal is then fed into the
initial excitation is applied to a linearised version of the nonlinear system in order to obtain the response of
system whose output is then reversed, normalized and fed the load whose design value is to be calculated and
into the nonlinear system. Hence, the MFB 1-D method also the responses of the correlated loads.
consists of a filtered impulse of variable strength fed into 5. The procedure is repeated from step 2 with a
the nonlinear system, the resulting gust waveform being different K.
fed into the same system. In the IDPSD method, an initial
input of constant strength is fed into a linearised system, Reference 21 suggests that the values of the linearized
called the first system, whose nonlinear element has been
gain should be between 0 and 1.
90
1/ 2
= s ( jf ) s* ( jf ) df
-
-----------------------------------------------------
For linear system:
1/ 2
+
y norm = k 2 H 1 . H 1* G.G df = k Ay
-
if k = U y norm = y des
4.7 Appendix A4.2 Description of Aircraft A Load Alleviation System is implemented in the model
Models that feeds back the load factor to a (symmetrical) aileron
deflection. Figure A4.6 shows the aircraft system with
Three symmetrical aircraft models have been considered
the feedback loop to the aileron input. The configuration
in this research. The first one is a simple model of a
of the Fokker 100 model used in this report is:
large transport aircraft with two degrees of freedom, pitch
and plunge, and a load alleviation system that feeds back
ma/c = 40,000 kg Iy = 1.782 106 kgm2
the centre of gravity acceleration to aileron deflection.
V = 220 m/s, altitude = 7000 m
The model is shown in figure A4.5. The functions C(s)
centre of gravity location at 25 % mean-
and D(s) are the transformed Wagner - and Kssner
aerodynamic-chord.
functions representing unsteady aerodynamic loads.
Output y in the figure is the centre of gravity The third model has been distributed at the Gust
acceleration, and output z is the centre of gravity Specialists Meeting of March 1995. It represents an A310
acceleration caused by aileron action only. This model is aircraft, containing plunge, pitch, and 3 symmetric
called the Noback-model in this report. flexible degrees of freedom. Unsteady response is
assumed instantaneous, and gust penetration is not
The second model represents an aircraft with "Fokker-
represented. The aircraft with control system is depicted
100-like" characteristics. This model has the two rigid
in figure A4.7. The centre of gravity acceleration is fed
degrees of freedom pitch and plunge, and ten symmetric
back to both the ailerons and the spoilers through a
flexible degrees of freedom. This flexibility is
feedback gain of 30 degrees per g load factor. Ailerons
represented by the first ten natural modes of the aircraft
and spoilers have the same authority: deflections between
structure. Aerodynamic forces are calculated with strip
0 and 10 degrees. This means that the nonlinearity in this
theory, and unsteady aerodynamics is accounted for by
control system is "non-symmetric"; the control surfaces
Wagner - and Kssner functions. The wing has 27 strips
can only deflect upward. The load quantity outputs of this
and the tail 13; the fuselage is considered as one lifting
system are the increments of:
surface. The Wagner - and Kssner functions are
- Engine lateral acceleration [g].
calculated at 3 locations on the wing and at 1 location on
- Wing bending moment [lb.ft].
the horizontal tail.
- Wing torque [lb.ft].
- Load factor [g].
The gust penetration effect and the time delay of the
downwash angle at the tail with respect to the wing are
included. Taking these two effects into account, makes it
necessary to apply time delays to the gust input, and to
the state variables (because the angle of incidence at the
reference point on the wing is a function of all states)
respectively. Especially the latter considerably increases
the total number of system states.
92
elevator
x' = Ax+Bu a/c response
Mux
y = Cx+Du loads responses
input
0 u[3]
trim
select_dn
1
-K
Ta.s+1
nfilt(s)
[T,inpt] 1/.3048 statespace1
dfilt(s)
From To Workspace1
TFF gust m2ft
Workspace
filter x' = Ax+Bu
Mux Mux outp
y = Cx+Du
To Workspace
Mux Mux1
State-Space
u[4]
1
select_dn
taua.s+1
Aileron
pi/180 maingain
Saturation
1 deg2rad Gain
taus.s+1
Spoiler
Indicators"
The safety factors philosophy
The notion of "maximum Loads" has a meaning only
first it is a need to clarify the present safety
through the effects of loads induced on the structure:
factor rules when other physical effects
(thermal, environmental, aging/fatigue, ) are
added to mechanical loads, where several A load case is referred to as a maximum load case as
components of safety factor must appear, soon as it produces the maximum value of at least 1
corresponding to each physical effects. failure mode strength criterion.
97
Which need in theory : marking as limit load case conditions where maximal of
"load severity indicators" are reached,
To identify of all structure failure modes liable to
occur under mechanical loading (local stress - or and/or :
strain - induced ruptures, local or general buckling,
non-allowable overall deflections, ), and more checking that these maximal remain under the level of
generally under all other physical effects (thermal, "reference design loads" chosen a priori.
aging, ).
To allocate to each one of these failure modes of a 5.2.3 "Maximum Loads Expected in Service"
scalar strength criterion calculable in function of
the loading conditions and of the structure design. That means that we have to sweep all possible scenario,
When necessary the strength criteria may take into during an aircraft life, of missions / maneuvers /
account thermomechanical and aging effects. environments /, computing previous Load Severity
Indicators, and selecting, as design load cases, loading
To sweep all "expected" loading conditions (see conditions where load severity indicators are maximal.
6.2.3) calculating each of these strength criteria.
When relevant, it can correspond to probabilistic
To reduce the effort of monitoring thousands of local analyses in the spirit of Continuous Turbulence
strength criteria, we have introduced the notion of : regulations( e.g. FAR 25, appendix G)
The strain gauge distribution of flight test aircraft will Design of airframe
attempt to reflect the choice of load severity indicators, supported by F.E./Aeroelasticity analyses /
thereby providing for calibration and validation of the optimizations
operators and thus, of the whole load computation
process. delivering "load severity indicators" operators
and their associated limit values
Once "load Severity Indicator operators" are
built/calibrated/validated, the computer cost of maximum
load case selection comes cheap, corresponding to linear Design of F.C.S.
combinations of "load severity indicator operators",
to maintain "load severity indicator" responses
downstream sweeping of:
below their limit values for all possible scenario
flight mechanics simulations, (numerical simulations
of missions / maneuvers / environments,
/ real time flight simulator), or
to define new limit load cases ( airframe
environmental aircraft responses (gust, turbulence, design iteration).
),
ground load conditions, 5.3 Ultimate load definition and Safety Factors for
etc ,
multiphysical effects
Ultimate loads result of multiplication of limit loads experience, based on observation over half a century
by a prescribed safety factor. of a globally satisfactory structural strength of
aircraft in service ; but this safety factor cannot be
When others physical effects (thermal, aging, ) occur decorrelated from the rest of the environment of the
in limit conditions, specific safety factors must be used construction techniques, analysis methods and
applied successively and separately on each of these verification process. Any partial change that occurred
effects (the others remaining at their limit values) ; for in the technical environment requires a demonstration
instance: to establish that there is no regression in Safety
(cf. qualification rules for composite materials),
although this would not mean that any likely gain in
on heat fluxes or on parts of heat fluxes or on one point can be exchanged against a reduction of the
resulting temperature fields. margin in another point.
on life duration for fatigue/aging loads. A further element for debate bears on the advantages
that might be drawn from a potential safety factor
reduction:
for each kind of other physical/chemical
environmental conditions.
For new projects, the potential gain in terms of
structure mass is likely to be slim, the safety factor-
The nature and the levels of these specific safety factor to-mass exchange ratio will remain far below
must be adapted for each type of vehicle liable to meet proportionality (fatigue sizing of metallic parts,
these special physical effects, levels could result from design to technological minimal for large areas, areas
probabilistic considerations ( see 6.4.2 ) . with design-sizing aeroelasticity constraints, ).
Another requirement for these multiphysical effect safety
factors is to keep possible a verification test in the The discussion is somewhat more open, for existing
ultimate conditions; it leads to avoid safety factors on and proven by flight service airframes, when
"calculation beings" physically inseparable by test considering any specific or circumstance-related
conditions as with the present thermal stress safety factor maneuver performance characteristics improvement.
of AIR2004-E and other regulations.
Appendix A
1
H.-M. Besch, Dipl.-Ing., Head of Loads Department, Member of AIAA
2
H.-G. Giesseler, Dipl.-Phys., OFIS Project Leader
3
J. Schuller, Dipl.-Ing., Project Engineer System Failures in Loads
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The current requirements for structural design of EFCS MLA Manoeuvre Load Alleviation
A/C are explained. By giving several examples of system MMEL Master Minimum Equipment List
failures of the new EFCS technology, it will be
MS Monitoring System
demonstrated how the requirements are met, whereby the
influence on structural loads is especially emphasized. NFUL Non-Failure Ultimate Loads
Generic system-failure cases (software/ hardware) having NOP Normal Operation
an influence on structural loads, are runaway, jamming OFC Oscillatory Failure Case
and oscillation of control surface(s), the latter we call
Oscillatory Failure Cases (OFC). OFC cause significant OFIS Oscillatory Failure Identification System
component loads and can cause resonance phenomena pFh Probability of failure per flight hour
which may generate excessive loads for poorly damped
rigid body and flexible modes. This motivated the PIO Pilot Induced Oscillations
research programme Oscillatory Failure Case q Probability of being in failure state
Identification System (OFIS) which, as a future
component of the common Monitoring Systems, aims at RF Reserve Factor
detection of OFC in time. We describe the current status SF Safety Factor
of OFIS that exploits the specific properties of OFC for
detection enhancement. SSA System Safety Assessment
Furthermore, by investigating the inverse effect, namely, tfail Mean time spent in failure state
that structure loads have an influence on system layout TLU (Rudder) Travel Limitation Unit
(or modification), this presentation will underline the
TFM/OFIS OFIS based on Transfer Function
necessity, mentioned above, of co-operation between all
disciplines in modern aircraft design. Monitoring
ToO Time of Occurrence
List of Symbols
A.1 INTRODUCTION
A/C Aircraft
AFC Automatic Flight Control Introduction of EFCS has a profound effect on all
ALE Adaptive Line Enhancer disciplines involved in civil A/C design. From Loads
point of view, three main interactions with system failure
AP Autopilot cases exist:
ASP Adaptive Signal Processing Firstly, the structural design is substantially affected by
CoF Continuation of Flight special functions implemented in the EFCS (via software)
to reduce structural design loads (e.g. Manoeuvre Load
Conf Confirmation, issues true when input is true
Alleviation Function).
for a confirmation time
Secondly, EFCS control laws and active flight envelope
DO/OFIS OFIS based on Deflections-Only protection modify the response of the A/C due to any
measurement disturbance, and thus have an effect on design inputs as
DRP/OFIS OFIS based on Detection of Resonance well [1].
Phenomena And consequently, thirdly, faults or loss of functions
EFCS Electronic Flight Control System, esp. enter design conditions, and influence loads level and (if
no provision is taken) the level of safety. This is the issue
control laws and protection functions of this paper.
FBW Fly-By-Wire
In order to show and to prove that the required safety
FC Flight Control standard is maintained even in failure condition [2], it is
102
necessary to investigate system failure cases for their hour pFh and a duration of the failure case tfail is
influence on structural loads, which requires more effort specified.
as for conventional A/C.
The following two definitions affect the way the failure
Failure case investigations show, that structural design case is to be investigated.
conditions do not cover all system failure conditions. If
Definition: Time of Occurrence (ToO)
no provisions were taken, these system failures would
become design conditions which is a situation to be ToO is the time a transient or a permanent failure with
avoided. In the course of this presentation we will influence on loads occurs by faulty movement of one or
investigate whether this desideratum can still be met in more controls including pilot corrective action.
the new generation of A/C and arrive at what will be, we
trust, a convincing conclusion. Definition: Continuation of Flight (CoF)
In addition, we will demonstrate the influence of EFCS CoF refers to the time after occurrence of the failure,
failures on structural design, emphasizing the necessity of lasting until the end of the flight or until the failure
co-operation among the different disciplines involved in condition is removed.
civil A/C design (here HQ/Systems/Loads/Stress). These definitions replace the former active and passive
Further, the new requirement situation arising from this part of a failure case.
context is discussed and interpreted with special
considerations of how the safety level can be maintained We give examples for ToO and CoF problems:
for such an A/C. ToO: For failure cases which are likely to become
critical at ToO, the conditions as given in the failure
We treat in some detail the problematic class of case definition are to be simulated resulting in
oscillatory failure cases and shortly describe our manoeuvres not included in the standard design
monitoring solution OFIS. conditions, for instance asymmetrical elevator runaway
or oscillatory surface movements (OFC).
CoF: For failure cases which remain undetected by the
A.2 CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
MS or cannot be removed otherwise (pilot action,
inspection ...) simulation of design condition with AC in
Loads certification of A/C is reached when it can be failed state must be done.
shown that the structure complies with all relevant
The failure limit loads envelope is to be multiplied by a
requirements which are JAR-25 [3] and FAR-25 [4].
failure case dependent safety factor in order to result in
These requirements specify manoeuvre, gust and ground failure ultimate loads. Two different formulas for
loads condition, which, via simulation (using an adequate deriving the safety factor for ToO and CoF respectively
modelling of A/C and systems) and subsequent envelope have to be applied:
forming, result in limit loads.
At Time of Occurrence
Definition: Limit Load
Given the probability of failure per flight hour pFh for a
The maximum load to be expected in service. The specific failure case, the safety factor to be applied to the
structure must be able to support limit loads without ToO loads simulation outcomes is given by
detrimental permanent deformation.
For standard design tasks, a safety factor of normally 1.5
is applied to the limit loads resulting in ultimate loads. using Fig. 1 :
Definition: Ultimate Load
This is limit load multiplied by a prescribed factor of
safety, for static design conditions this factor is 1.5. The
structure must be able to support ultimate loads without
failure for at least 3 seconds.
This accounts for uncertainties in the design process and
for scatter in material properties and manufacturing.
In addition to the non-failure static design, the influence
of flight control system failures on structural design has
to be investigated showing compliance with the Notices
of Proposed Amendment to JAR-25 (NPA 25C-199 - Fig. 1 Safety factor for ToO versus probability of
Interaction of Systems and Structure), which resulted failure per flight hour pFh
from harmonization of JAR and FAR. The regulations
have been established in co-operation between industry
and authorities during A320 and A330/A340 design
phases. For Continuation of the Flight
Definition: Flight Control System Failures Given the probability of failure per flight hour pFh for a
specific failure case and tfail, the average time the A/C is
Flight Control System Failures are specified either in
operating in failure condition, the safety factor to be
terms of control surface movement as a direct
applied to the CoF loads simulation outcomes is given by
consequence of the failure case (runaway or oscillating)
or by describing the failure case itself (loss of limiter).
For each failure case a probability of failure per flight
103
the A/C structure must not be overstressed by the degradation of rate of deflection (e.g. because of low
incident itself or during the completion of the flight. hydraulic pressure)
To meet these requirements, a justification is carried out loss of special functions (load alleviation).
as done for all large transport A/C and is documented in In the next chapter, several system failures are described
the so called System Safety Assessment (SSA) and their consequences on the structure are demonstrated
established by the System Departments. A lot of defined as basic examples for the complete failure case analysis
failure cases consist of single cases which are comprised process. The complete work of system failure case
to a worst case scenario. Each of these defined system analysis requires an extended (and iterative) effort, and is
failures has to be analyzed for its impact on the structural far beyond the scope of this presentation.
loads.
Before concluding this chapter, an economic aspect
All possible failure cases are investigated in detail by should be mentioned. Up until now, all system failures
establishing fault trees and performing an analysis on the described have been Normal Dispatch Cases. But there is
104
also the approach of dispatching the A/C under known The first step 1 of the investigation of system failures
system failures. having an influence on the structure is to select the loads-
relevant failure cases from all failures of the SSA. The
Airlines are interested in being able to fly the A/C to the
co-operation between System and Loads Department
next maintenance center without repairing the A/C at a
starts at this point. Both Systems and Loads derive a
remote airport lacking facilities. Furthermore, it might be
scenario for each selected case which generally includes
allowed to operate the A/C under some restrictions up to
the worst conditions in order to have a pessimistic
the next planned maintenance check.
approach for the impact on structural loads.
The minimum system (hardware or software) required for
For may cases it may be sufficient to cover the failure
dispatching the A/C, that is which have to be in normal
loads by argumentation 2 and therefore satisfy the
operating mode, are laid down in the so called Master
requirements.
Minimum Equipment List (MMEL). Two kinds of
MMEL-dispatch cases are distinguishable: If it is not possible to solve a case by arguing (i.e. failure
loads expected to be close to or greater than the design
Failures, which allow dispatch of the A/C under envelope loads) a loads calculation has to be carried out
MMEL and 3. For each affected component the ultimate loads under
failure conditions (FUL-Failure Ultimate Loads) are
subsequent failures after the A/C has been dispatched
calculated according to the requirements and then
under MMEL-conditions.
compared with the non-failure ultimate loads envelope
The second item is of especial importance for the level of (NFUL-Non Failure Ultimate Loads).
safety because the A/C no longer retains its original
redundancy of the EFCS. Thus it is more likely that any It should be noted, that the non-failure ultimate loads are
further subsequent failure will have consequences. This is obtained by multiplying the limit loads by a SF
expressed by the higher probability of the MMEL depending for time of occurrence on the probability of
failures. The MMEL approach is used particularly for occurrence of the failure and for continuation of flight on
failures affecting the LAF/MLA, because this function the probability of being in failure state.
reduces the loads in severe turbulence but has - for some If the failure loads are below the non failure ultimate
failure states - no effect on A/C handling. An example is loads NFUL FUL, the investigation for this case is
given in the next but one chapter. finished.
If, however, the FUL exceed the NFUL, there is a
A.4 PROCEDURE TO HANDLE FAILURE problem. Fortunately, there are also several ways to solve
CASES IN LOADS it. Especially at this stage of the failure case
investigation, good-working co-operation between the
As mentioned above, possible system failures are different involved disciplines becomes of particular
summarized in the SSA. Each item of the SSA is to be importance.
processed according to Fig. 3 which we are going to One possibility is to use structural margins 4. The
describe now. structure can stand the design ultimate loads at the least.
This means that it can often stand higher loads. The
proportion between the ultimate loads level and the real
capability of the structure is figured in the Reserve Factor
(RF).
If the RF for loads under failure condition is greater than
1. the investigation is finished; however this special
failure case has now become a design case which must be
considered in all later stress calculations. This is an
undesirable situation.
To avoid this or in case of a RF being less than 1., the
following alternatives remain:
Another type of failures is the group of control law This system scenario has to be investigated for loads at
reconfiguration failures. Table 1 shows the different all A/C stations in detail. The result must show that all
combinations of pitch and lateral control law failure loads are covered by the non-failure ultimate loads
degradations with their appropriate probabilities. envelope.
106
The next example describes, how the solution of a failure Fig. 7 Potential Location of sources of OFC
case problem was achieved by modifying the system.
indicated by
It is a failure concerning the rudder with its so-called
rudder travel limitation unit (TLU). The TLU limits the The OFC may manifest itself as liquid or solid at the
maximum allowed rudder deflection for structural control surface. In liquid OFC, the OFC signal adds to
purposes as a function of the speed VCAS (Fig. 6 ). the normal operation (NOP) signal issued by the EFCS
and the control surface(s) deflects according to the
superimposition. In solid OFC the control surface
executes a pure periodic motion.
Solid OFC of control surface occurs, when OFC of
actuator/servoloop is solid or when we have an upstream
OFC in the EFCS, AP or in the sensor system with no
pilot input or feedbacks from the control system.
Upstream OFC (i.e. OFC that occur in the EFCS or AP or
even in the sensor system) in general manifest itself as
liquid at the control surface, because feedbacks from
different paths can add. Solid OFC is most severe,
because the oscillating control surface cannot execute any
damping action that can ease the impact of the OFC on
the structure.
Fig. 6 Limitation of rudder deflection ( r) by TLU, OFC frequencies are uniformly distributed over the
solid line is 2 jamming detection threshold. frequency range where the structure responds to
o occurrence of TLU jamming, excitation. Amplitudes are determined by A/C and
detection of TLU jamming control law dynamics. They are limited by the capability
commanded TLU value of the associated hydraulic jacks or by the detection
levels of the MS.
In case of TLU failure the TLU immobilizes at the last The requirement demands investigation of the full
commanded rudder position. If the failure occurs at low frequency range, i.e. from the lowest body mode (rigid or
speed with a higher commanded rudder deflection than elastic) up to the highest elastic mode. However
the TLU allows at high speeds, it might be dangerous for frequencies below 0.2 Hz need not be regarded [5].
the structure if the A/C operates at increased speed.
The determination of loads is carried out as follows:
In the beginning of this failure case investigation, it was
found that this failure was not detected by any system The complete, full flexible A/C model from design load
(e.g. MS) and therefore not reported to the crew. Thus, calculations in dynamic response analysis is the basis for
we were confronted with the unpleasant fact that rudder OFC simulation. A harmonic disturbance is used to
deflections at high speed, producing loads at fin and rear analyze the structural A/C response whereby the
fuselage which could not be sustained by the structure, frequency is varied over the entire range, and the
were possible. After many solutions had been discussed amplitude is kept at unit (1 degree). Thus the transfer
and a lot of additional calculations had been done, the functions for unit control surface deflections for different
only economic way of covering this failure and critical stations at all relevant A/C components over
maintaining the required level of safety was to perform a frequency are determined. The transfer functions show
system modification. several peaks for different frequencies, characterizing the
eigenvalues (eigenfrequencies) of the A/C structure.
Is was decided to implement an additional function in the
MS which would detect the failure as soon as the It must be demonstrated, that loads due to OFC with
commanded position of the TLU decreased to 2 below amplitudes as high as the detection level of the MS can
the jammed position providing a warning on the crews be sustained by the structure. This is tested using Fig. 8 :
warning display AUTO FLT RUD TRV LIM SYS with the dashed line is the MS detection level (or, if lower, the
the additional remark to use the rudder with care, Fig. 6 . actuator performance curve); the solid line represent
107
allowed angles. They are constructed by dividing the prohibitively expensive. Model based FDI with deep
non-failure design loads by the unit load per degree, i.e. roots in Decision Theory and Estimation Theory is
allowed angles would generate design loads when used in currently the subject of extensive research. As mentioned
OFC simulation. above current A/C are equipped with a MS, but we
believe that it can be improved with respect to OFC
detection performance - the add-on system we call OFIS,
Oscillatory Failure Identification System. In the literature
on FDI, the problem of OFC seems to be rather unknown
and the procedures there were not readily applicable. For
OFIS, we utilize some classical approaches for FDI, but
also introduced new ones (Adaptive Signal Processing
(ASP) and resonance condition monitoring).
The different types and sources of OFC lead to a family
concept for OFIS, which up to now has four members,
Fig. 9 . The underlying algorithms are based partly on
Kalman Filtering and on Adaptive Signal Processing and
adaption procedures developed there, but also on the
observation of basic properties of response characteristics
of an harmonic oscillator. We explain now the working
principle for the different members, more details are
Fig. 8 Allowed Control Surface Deflection given in [14].
FSF/OFIS: In [7] the Fault Sensitive Filter (FSF) was
As can be seen from Fig. 8 , some peak values of allowed proposed as a fast responding detector for the ToC
angle fall below the detection level. Thus, loads due to problem of liquid actuator/servoloop OFC. Roughly
oscillating for this frequency are not covered by the speaking, the FSF/OFIS is based on a comparison of
design loads at this station. actuator/servoloop input with output, approximately
Since it may not be possible to reinforce the structure at taking into account the actuator/ servoloop dynamics.
that time, and since it is not economical to do this for a More precisely, a Kalman Filter is used to estimate the
small frequency range, another solution has to be chosen. states of a simple model of the actuator/servoloop plus
There are several options: additional failure states that respond in case of OFC. A
subsequent detection state examines the failure state and
a structural filter to avoid critical frequency derives a quantity to be subject to threshold test. It is
clear, that this procedure can only detect OFC that occurs
system modification (e.g. rate limiter in the inside the actuator/ servoloop (or, more generally
respective frequency region) between input/output (I/O) measurement points). First
results were given in [8] while [9] addresses the false
more restrictive motoring: a special OFC detection alarm issue of FSF. Improvements of the present day MS
device (see Oscillatory Failure Case Identification (smaller detection levels in the most critical frequency
System (OFIS) below). regions) shifted our interest to CoF and Fatigue problem
A final solution to the problem of OFC is obtained only, area which was the genesis of [10], where Adaptive
when OFIS can be put into practice: occurrence of OFC Signal Processing (ASP) for detection of sinusoids in
must be detected by the MS before the loads on the A/C noise was involved, working either on the states of the
can damage the structure. FSF or on the Innovation Process (i.e. prediction error) of
a KF (without failure model).
When the OFC is such that design loads will ultimately
be exceeded, detection must be very fast in order to DRP/OFIS: In order to cover upstream OFC we gave a
neutralize the OFC before design loads are reached. This procedure for Detection of OFC causing Resonance
defines the ToO problem. Phenomena, which was offered as an extension to OFIS
[12][13]. DRP/OFIS is confined to frequency ranges,
If OFC remains undetected or cannot be cut-off before
where a couple can be found showing resonance. To fix
completion of flight, then simultaneous occurrence of
ideas, think of the dutch roll frequency range and the
OFC and standard design conditions must not exceed
couple rudder deflection and sideslip response. From an
ultimate loads level. This defines the CoF problem. Even
ongoing forced oscillation we conclude, that OFC has
if this can be achieved, an undetected OFC can cause
occurred. We found an easy way to monitor the forcing
severe fatigue problems even (when small amplitudes)
condition by investigating the sense of rotation in a phase
which is due to the relatively large frequency of loads
plane plot of sideslip versus rudder. As we detect forcing
cycles and to the long inspection intervals. This is the
conditions in general, we note, that there might be a
fatigue problem associated with OFC.
chance of applying this procedure to the phenomena of
Pilot Induced Oscillation (PIO) too, although it was not
A.6 OFIS, APPROACHES TO OFC designed for it.
DETECTION
A.7 CONCLUSION
(6) Besch, H.-M., Schuller J. 1988: Influence of EFCS- (11) Besch, H.-M., Giesseler H.-G. 1992: OFIS
Failure on Structural Design of Modern Transport Oscillatory Failure Identification System, Proposal
Aircraft, 16th ICAS Congress Jerusalem/Israel for Detection of Forced Oscillations Causing
ICAS-88-1.72 Resonance Phenomena, Deutsche Aerospace Airbus
EF 322 - 36/92
(7) Besch, H.-M., Giesseler H.-G. 1991: OFIS,
Oscillatory Failure Identification System, Proposal (12) Besch, H.-M., Giesseler H.-G. 1992: Progress
for application of Failure Detection Methods in Report B.2: Daimler-Benz Aerospace Airbus EF 322
Dynamical Systems to the Problem of Control - 35/94
Surface Oscillation, Deutsche Airbus EF 32 -18/91
(13) Besch, H.-M., Giesseler H.-G. 1992: Progress
(8) Besch, H.-M., Giesseler H.-G. 1991: OFIS Progress Report X.2: Daimler-Benz Aerospace Airbus EF
Report A.1: First Results from OFIS simulation: 322 - 35/94
Performance of Fault Sensitive Filter operating on
artificial I/O, Deutsche Airbus EF 32 - 35/91 (14) Besch, H.-M., Giesseler H.-G. 1995: The Oscillatory
Failure Identification System OFIS,
(9) Besch, H.-M., Giesseler H.-G. 1992: Progress 36th AIAAS/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures,
Report A.3: Towards a Robust OFIS: Reduction of Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference and
False Alarm Rate Due to Low Frequency Mismatch AIAA/ASME Adaptive Structures Forum New
of System Model, Deutsche Aerospace Airbus EF Orleans, LA April 10-13 1995
322 - 41/92
Appendix B
(Attention: please note that all references to sections in the Appendix itself exclude the prefix B).
This page has been deliberately left blank
This landing gear design specification defines the high This paragraph identifies the program, primary
level landing gear design requirements. The high management responsibility, structural engineering
level requirements are mainly focused on the landing responsibility, and level of structural engineering
gear interface with the airframe. In developing these change required.
requirements a very broad brush approach was taken
in developing the requirements, requirements REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
rationale, requirement guidance, requirements lessons
learned, verification methods, verification rationale, Identify the weapon system program. Identify the
verification guidance, and verification lessons learned. agency or agencies primarily responsible for the
program, and the organization(s) responsible for
The spirit of the development activity was to structural engineering. If structural modifications are
incorporate anything that might have an impact on the involved, identify the level of structural change.
landing gear design or aircraft backup structure. Some
readers may feel that some of the requirements and REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
verification methods may not be appropriate for their
procuring activity. This document was written to be a Programs involving significant structural
general guideline and the individual procuring modifications have been confused with programs
activities are free to customize the document to suit involving minor changes. This resulted in delay and
their needs. added expense when it became clear that structural
changes required engineering review and evaluation
In various places the word airframe or aircraft is before flight clearances could be validated. Care
used. While these are general terms the meaning in should be exercised to assure that all modification and
mind when using these terms is the sense of using change programs are properly identified and
these terms in how they relate to landing gear and gear controlled by competent authority.
backup structure specifically. Any meaning attached
to general terms that is not directly translatable into B.3.2 AIRCRAFT
landing gear and gear backup structure is incorrect.
This specification applies to ________________.
B.2 SCOPE
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
This guide establishes the joint structural performance
and verification requirements for the landing gear. This paragraph is needed to identify the type of
These requirements are derived from operational and aircraft, in general descriptive terms, to which the
maintenance needs and apply to the landing gear specification applies.
structure which is required to function, sustain loads,
resist damage and minimize adverse operational and
readiness impacts during usage for the entire service REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
life.
Describe briefly the type of aircraft. The specification
This usage pertains to both land and ship based applies to power driven aircraft only; however, the
operations including take-off, catapult, landing, aircraft may be manned or unmanned, possess fixed or
arrestment, ground handling, maintenance, and testing. adjustable fixed wings, and V/STOL with similar
This specification also provides for trade studies and structural characteristics of those above. For example:
analyses to identify and establish certain structural This specification applies to a manned, power-driven
design parameters and criteria which, as a minimum, aircraft with fixed wings. Further, the following
are necessary to enable the landing gear to meet these statement or parts thereof should be included to
structural performance requirements, consistent with identify those sub-systems to which the specification
the program acquisition plan for the force level is not applicable: "Propulsion systems, engines,
inventory and life cycle cost. power generators, avionics, helicopters, and
helicopter-type power transmission systems, including
lifting and control rotors, and other dynamic
machinery are not covered by this specification.
B.3.3 LANDING GEAR STRUCTURE applicable contract specification change notice (SCN)
procedures.
This specification applies to metallic and nonmetallic
landing gear structures. The landing gear structure B.4 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS
consists of all components that make up the total
landing gear and backup support structure, carrier The appropriate applicable documents can all be found
related apparatus/devices, structural operating in U. S. Air Force Joint Services Specification
mechanisms, and structural provisions for stowage or Guidance (JSSG) 2006 and the English and French
gear. It also includes ___________. Specifications.
This paragraph is needed to identify and define the (The instructional handbook provides the rationale for
parts and components of the air vehicle structure specified requirements, guidance for inclusion of
(airframe) to which the specification is applicable. supplemental information, a lessons learned
repository, and _________. This specification is
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE meant to be tailored by filling in the blank elements
according to the particular landing gears performance
Include in the list of airframe items, those assemblies requirements and characteristics, with appropriate
or components which are applicable to the particular supporting engineering justification. In the absence of
air vehicle being acquired. For example, permanently such justification and acceptance, the
installed external fuel tanks and chemical tanks, recommendations in the handbook shall be used to fill
peculiar radomes and pods, and add-on skis. in the blanks of this specification. In addition, specific
paragraphs may be tailored by deletion or not
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED applicable, by inserting N/A in parentheses
following the number and title, or by rewriting of the
None. paragraph by inserting REWRITE in parentheses
following number and title.)
B.3.4 USE
B.5.1 DETAILED STRUCTURAL DESIGN
This specification cannot be used for contractual REQUIREMENTS
purposes without supplemental information relating to
the structural performance of the landing gear The requirements of this specification reflect
structure. operational and maintenance needs and capabilities
and are stated in terms of parameter values,
B.3.5 STRUCTURE conditions, and discipline (loads, etc.) requirements.
The landing gear and backup structure shall have
The supplemental information required is identified by sufficient structural integrity to meet these
blanks within the specification. requirements, separately and in attainable
combinations.
B.3.6 INSTRUCTIONAL HANDBOOK
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
This specification is broken into two sections. The
first main section contains all the requirements. The This requirement is needed to ensure that all
second main section contains all of the verifications applicable structural design requirements are defined
procedures. The requirements section is of the format in engineering quantities in the specification to ensure
(1) Requirement, (2) Requirement Rationale, (3) that the landing gear and backup structure properly
Requirement Guidance, and (4) Requirement Lessons functions during the intended usage and that the
Learned. The verification section is of the format, (1) structural integrity of the landing gear and backup
Verification, (2) Verification Rationale, (3) structure is maintained. This requirement establishes
Verification Guidance, and (4) Verification Lessons the starting point for the design of the landing gear and
Learned. The guidance sections under each backup structure and the conduct of the engineering
requirement and verification informs the reader on analyses and tests to verify the adequacy of the design.
how to go about filling the blanks, if the requirement
or verification has any blanks. REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
enable the design, analyses, fabrication, and testing of B.5.1.1 DETERMINISTIC DESIGN
the landing gear and backup structure to be CRITERIA
undertaken.
The deterministic structural design criteria stated in
The selection of each specific structural design this specification are, as a minimum, those necessary
requirement must be carefully made so that the to ensure that the landing gear and backup structure
landing gear and backup structure designed, built, and shall meet the detailed structural design requirements
maintained to meet these requirements will have established in this specification. These criteria are
adequate structural integrity, acceptable economic cost also based on the requirements derived from the
of ownership, and acceptable structural performance inherent operational, maintenance, engineering, and
in terms of aircraft performance capabilities and test needs of the landing gear. Each individual
weight. Although in many cases past experience will criterion established herein has been selected based
provide the basis for the selection of the specific upon historical experience with adjustments made to
requirements, each selection must consider the impact account for new design approaches, new materials,
of new design approaches, new materials, new new fabrication methods, unusual landing gear
fabrication methods, unusual aircraft configurations, configurations, unusual usage, planned landing gear
unusual usage, planned aircraft maintenance activities, maintenance activities, and any other significant
and past lessons learned. factors. Trade studies and analyses supporting the
substantiation of the adequacy of these criteria in
There is a clear distinction between design meeting the specified and inherent design
requirements and design criteria. Design requirements requirements, and their use in design details, shall be
establish a capability that the landing gear and backup documented in accordance with the verification
structure must possess. Design criteria establish the requirements in 5.6.1.1.
engineering standards to be used to enable the landing
gear and backup structure to achieve the required REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
capability. For example, the factor of uncertainty is a
design criteria and not a design requirement. The This requirement is needed to ensure that the specific
requirement is to have adequate ultimate load structural design criteria required to enable the landing
capability. The factor of uncertainty is one gear and backup structure to achieve the operational,
engineering method for achieving this requirement. maintenance, engineering, and test needs are
Care should be taken to distinguish between design completely defined and are rationally related to the
requirements and design criteria. structural design requirements.
Prior to the 1950 time period, the service life The structural design criteria is the statement of the
expectancy of medium and heavy bomber aircraft was engineering standards that will be used to meet the
on the order of 1000-5000 flight hours. The missions structural design requirements and achieve the needed
requirements were maximum range/payload high operational, maintenance, engineering, and test
altitude weapon delivery. These requirements led to capabilities. These criteria are derived from and
the use of new high strength aluminum alloys at directly relatable to the specific design requirements.
relatively high stress levels. Very little emphasis was They provide critical information to the engineer on
given to structural durability and damage tolerance. how to design, analyze, build, and test the landing gear
and backup structure. It is important that the
When mission requirements for these aircraft changed historically used criteria be thoroughly reviewed and,
to include high-speed low level operation over a much as appropriate, be updated to reflect the use of new
longer service life, many kinds of structural problems design methods, new materials, new fabrication
began to occur. Fatigue cracking initiated in areas of methods, unusual aircraft configurations, unusual
high stress concentration. The high strength alloys usage, planned aircraft maintenance activities, and
were susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and had a past lessons learned. The substantiation of the
low tolerance for fatigue cracking or other defects adequacy of the selected criteria is normally
because of low fracture toughness. documented in the structural design criteria report.
B.5.1.2 PROBABILITY OF DETRIMENTAL combined with the appropriate limit and ultimate
DEFORMATION AND loads, would yield the same final element design.
STRUCTURAL FAILURE This updated criteria can then be used to design
similar structural elements. In addition to establishing
Only where deterministic values have no precedence new design criteria, the conduct of the probability
or basis, a combined load-strength probability analysis analysis also aids in gaining an increased
shall be conducted to predict the risk of detrimental understanding of the more important design drivers
structural deformation and structural failure, subject to and enables an improved design to be produced.
the approval of the procuring activity. For the design
requirements stated in this specification, the landing If combined load-strength probability analyses are not
gear and backup structure shall not experience any used, insert N/A (not applicable) in the first blank.
detrimental structural deformations with a probability
of occurrence equal to or greater than _________ per REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
flight. Also, for these design requirements, the
landing gear shall not experience the loss of adequate None
structural rigidity or proper structural functioning such
that safety is affected or suffer structural failure B.5.1.3 STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
leading to the loss of the air vehicle with a probability
of occurrence equal to or greater than _________ per The landing gear shall meet the structural integrity
flight. Shipboard landings are per the multi-variate requirements of this specification. These integrity
distribution of landing impact conditions of requirements shall apply to all parts of the landing
___________. gear including actuators, seals, films, coatings, etc.
Critical parts may have additional requirements
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE designed to control their quality, durability, and/or
damage tolerance.
This requirement establishes the maximum acceptable
frequency of occurrence of detrimental deformation B.5.1.3.1 PARTS CLASSIFICATION
and structural failures that are used in conjunction
with combined load-strength probability analyses. All landing gear parts and components shall be
classified for criticality.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
B.5.1.3.2 FATIGUE/FRACTURE CRITICAL
In some instances, historically based deterministic PARTS
criteria are not applicable to the specific combination
of design approaches, materials, fabrication methods, Fatigue/fracture critical parts shall meet the
usage, and maintenance for the structural element requirements of durability 5.5.11, damage
being designed. In these instances, it may not be tolerance5.5.12, and the control processes of durability
possible to rationally arrive at an alternative and damage tolerance control 5.5.13.
deterministic criteria and a combined load-strength
probability analysis is conducted to establish that the B.5.1.3.3 MAINTENANCE CRITICAL
risks of detrimental structural deformation and PARTS
structural failure are acceptable. The selection of the
maximum acceptable frequency of occurrence of Maintenance critical parts shall meet the requirements
detrimental structural deformation, loss of structural of durability 5.5.11 and damage tolerance 5.5.12.
functioning, or structural failure can be made by
examining relevant historical repair and failure rates. B.5.1.3.4 MISSION CRITICAL PARTS
A maximum acceptable frequency of permanent
structural deformations would be 1 x 10-5 occurrences In addition to the requirements of this specification,
per flight. A maximum acceptable frequency of the mission critical parts shall have special design criteria
loss of adequate structural rigidity or proper structural developed to meet the requirements of the landing
functioning, or structural failure leading to the loss of gear specification. In addition, special controls on
the air vehicle would be 1 x 10-7 occurrences per quality, processes, and inspections may be required.
flight.
B.5.1.3.5 FATIGUE/FRACTURE CRITICAL
In most cases, a combined load-strength probability TRACEABLE PARTS
analysis is only selectively used in the analysis of the
structural elements for which historically based Fatigue/fracture critical traceable parts shall meet the
deterministic criteria are not appropriate. In these requirements of durability 5.5.11, damage tolerance
cases, a probability analysis of a highly loaded 5.5.12, and damage tolerance control 5.5.13.
representative structural element is performed. This
analysis would address all of the significant variations REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
in load, material properties, dimensions, etc. Once the (For 5.5.1.3 through 5.5.1.3.5)
design of the element has been completed by these
probabilistic means, it is usually possible to develop a None
set of modified deterministic criteria which, when
117
The intent of this requirement is to ensure that all Typical engineering approaches involve the
equipment, including government furnished identification of the larger vehicles for which space
equipment, is adequately supported and their loads and and mass are a primary concern, identification of
motion have been considered. maximum duel and single wheel axle loading,
identification of maximum running loads for tracks
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE and pallets, and the use of running loads and
volumetric block loading to address the multitude of
Equipment mass properties and loads frequently palletized and loose supplies. Careful attention to the
change during development. They must be constantly permitted, off center loading is required.
monitored and the analysis of the airframe adjusted as
necessary. The equipment list should include Payload listed may be in the design/development
contractor furnished equipment, government furnished phase. There is a risk that the payload design
equipment, and equipment installed after delivery. parameters could change during its development phase
and thereby exceed the airframes parameters which
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED were based on the original air vehicle parameters.
Close coordination between the air vehicle developer
Typical engineering approaches involve the identity of and air vehicle systems program office is required to
larger vehicles for which space and mass are a primary reduce this risk, and insure that the most up-to-date
concern, identity of maximum dual and single wheel vehicle parameters are used.
axle loadings, identity of maximum running loads for
tracks and pallets, and the use of running loads and B.5.2.4 WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
volumetric block loadings to address the multitude of
palletized and loose supplies. Careful attention to the The air vehicle weight distributions shall be those
off center loadings permitted is required. required for operations and maintenance use.
established. The policy decision was, For future witnessed by the U. S. Air Force multi-role fighter as a
design, analysis testing, and qualification the most pound a day. The primary reason for the initial weight
adverse combinations of pilot weight, fuel weight, and growth is because requirements may not be well
ballast shall be considered. The maximum pilot defined. That is, the geometry may change (spars,
weight need not exceed a combined weight a bulkheads, skin thicknesses, etc.) equipment (black
combined weight of 200 pounds for the pilot, personal boxes, hydraulics, etc.) may have changed due to
items, parachute, and survival vest. The minimum better understanding of the mission, loads may have
pilot weight need not be less than a combined weight been optimistic, the government furnished equipment
of 150 pounds for the pilot, personal items, and (like engines) weight may have matured, the material
parachute. Variable ballast shall be considered in a properties may have been optimistic, and other such
rational manner. For formal weight reports, weight reasons. Other reasons for weight growth are
reference sheets and Prime Item Development optimism in the weights estimates, insufficient
Specifications, a nominal combined pilot weight of schedule for development, lack of funds and the lack
240 pounds including personal gear and parachute will of management support for mass properties. All
be required along with the fuel weight for the prime services have experienced aircraft weight growth in
fuel used. For maximum and minimum weight this period. Using IOC weights for analysis
conditions, informal weight reports, weight reference eliminated the iteration of analysis each time weight
sheets, and Prime Item Development Specifications, changes took place during the development process.
use the most adverse combinations of fuel weight,
variable ballast, and pilot weight. There is a need to combat weight growth to protect the
advertised performance, to protect the required
B.5.2.5 WEIGHTS structural integrity, and to restore political confidence
in the acquisition process. There are may ways to
The weights to be used in conducting the design, combat weight growth. One of the best ways is to
analysis, and test of the landing gear are derived remove the optimism in the weight prediction. A
combinations of the operating weights, the defined weight reconciliation process in which the contractor
payload, and fuel configuration. These weights shall and the government compare weights and agree on
be the expected weight at Initial Operation Capability what the weight should be may help to reduce over-
(IOC). optimistic weight estimates. But that should only be
part of the solution to minimize the weight growth.
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE Other methods may be strong configuration
management, a weight margin, zero weight growth
Requirements which define the ranges of weight development, adequate performance margins,
which the air vehicle will experience during its usage incentive fee program, or a combination of the above.
are needed since these weights directly influence the A good mass properties management and control
structural performance of the airframe. process is required.
B.5.2.5.2 MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT This requirement defines the highest landing weight
required for design purposes.
The maximum zero fuel weight shall be the highest
required weight of the loaded air vehicle without any REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
useable fuel and is specified as the operating weight
plus ________________. The normal definition of maximum landing weight is
the maximum flight weight minus assist-takeoff fuel,
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE droppable fuel tanks, items expended during routine
take-off, and fuel consumed or dumped during one go-
This requirement defines the highest aircraft weight round or 3.0 minutes, whichever results in the
without useable fuel. minimum amount of fuel.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED The maximum ground weight shall be the highest
weight required for ramp, taxiway, and runway usage
None and is specified as the operating weight plus
____________.
B.5.2.5.3 LANDPLANE LANDING WEIGHT
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
The landplane landing weight shall be the highest
landing weight for the maximum landbased sink rate This requirement defines the highest ground weight
and is specified as the operating weight plus required for design purposes.
___________.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
This weight is frequently referred to as maximum
This requirement defines the highest weight which is ramp weight. It is used for ground handling, jacking,
to be used in combination with the maximum sink taxiing, and runway usage. It is usually higher than
speed consistent with the intended use of the weapon the maximum take-off weight by the amount of fuel
system. used in taxiing the aircraft for take-off.
121
This requirement defines the heaviest take-off weight REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
for design purposes.
This weight, which is used to determine the limit tow
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE force loads, is normally the maximum mission weight
plus an anticipated weight growth factor (IOC plus
The maximum take-off weight is normally defined as 10% weight empty). Almost every current U. S. Navy
the weight of the aircraft with the maximum internal carrier aircraft has experienced significant weight
and external loads and full fuel except for fuel used growth and without a pre-design growth capability, the
during taxi and warm-up. ship speed and available wind over deck would be
insufficient, within the structural design to provide the
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED required launch end speed. The maximum launch tow
force resulting from this weight will be used to
None determine the maximum CSV setting in the launch
bulletins to preserve static demonstrated strength.
B.5.2.5.7 MAXIMUM LANDING GEAR
JACKING WEIGHT B.5.2.5.9 MAXIMUM CATAPULT WEIGHT
(____)
The maximum landing gear jacking weight shall be
the highest weight required for landing gear jacking The maximum catapult weight shall be the maximum
and is specified as the operating weight plus launch weight for which shipboard launch is required
__________. within the structural limits of the airframe, wind over
deck (WOD) capability and launch end speed of the
ship system and is specified as the operating weight
plus _______.
This requirement defines, for design purposes, the This requirement defines the highest weight at which
highest weight that can be jacked at the landing gear the aircraft can be safely launched based on the design
for purposes of wheel or brake changes. tow force, most capable catapult, maximum ship
speed, and wind over deck.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
The maximum landing gear jacking weight is
normally the maximum ground weight since it is Based on ship speed, wind over deck, and maximum
desired not to offload fuel and payload when a tire catapult end speed, the maximum launch weight can
change is required. be determined. This weight should be used to
determine airframe strength limits.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
None
Rather than determine gear stretch
B.5.2.5.8 MAXIMUM CATAPULT DESIGN capability/limitations, based on improved catapult
GROSS WEIGHT (____) energy capability and increased weight growth after
the aircraft is fielded and contractor support and flight
The maximum catapult design gross weight shall be test support is no longer available, this determination
the maximum catapult launch weight to be used to should be provided during EMD.
determine maximum tow force and in determining
maximum launch constant selector valve (CSV)
settings and is specified as the operating weight plus
___________.
122
The primary catapult mission weight is the minimum The maximum weight at which shipboard barricade
weight used to determine the maximum horizontal recovery can be initiated and is specified as the
acceleration used in setting launch bulletin limits and operating weight plus ________.
is specified as the operating weight plus __________.
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
This requirement defines the highest weight at which
This requirement defines the weight at which the emergency shipboard barricade engagements are
maximum NX (horizontal load factor) will be required for design purposes.
determined, based on maximum tow force and
maximum thrust. REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
The NX value is used to determine both mass item This weight and the allowable MK-7 MOD 2
design requirements resulting from minimum weight Barricade characteristics will determine the strap loads
launches and to establish catapult/weight CSV setting to be used for on-center and off-center ultimate loads,
limitations. and the resultant airframe design requirements
resulting from this condition. Airframe design
B.5.2.5.11 CARRIER LANDING DESIGN configuration should be such that propeller placement
GROSS WEIGHT (____) or sharp leading edges will not damage the barricade
straps. Also based on location of external stores, strap
The carrier landing design gross weight shall be the loads will impinge on them causing load conditions
maximum aircraft weight at which shipboard recovery for configuration/design consideration.
can be initiated and shall be based on the ability to
perform ____ passes and fly _____ nautical miles with B.5.2.5.13 OTHER WEIGHT
______ payload.
The air vehicle, fuel, and payload configuration to be
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE used in determining the design weights for other
conditions and the corresponding design conditions
This requirement defines the highest weight at which are as follows: ___________.
shipboard landings/arrestments and shore-based FCLP
(Field Carrier Landing Practices), and U. S. Navy REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
Field Landings will be determined for design
purposes. This requirement defines all other weights used in the
design such as limiting wing fuel allowable weight, in-
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE flight system failures, ground system failures, etc.
B.5.2.6 THE CENTER OF GRAVITY weapon release will cause the aircraft to immediately
exceed limits. The aircraft specification required that
The center of gravity envelopes shall be under any operational condition a single failure of the
commensurate with the requirements in the detailed fuel system shall not prevent the weapon system from
specification and all the weights in 5.5.2.5 plus and completing its mission. A central test system and
minus a tolerance to account for manufacturing internal software checks were designed into the
variations, addition of planned equipment, variations FCGMS to detect computer error, but not to compare
in payload, flight attitudes, density of fuel, fuel system systems. Undetected failure of the FCGMS
failures (see system failures 5.5.2.22) and _______. monitoring system will adversely affect safety and
mission performance. Attainable center of gravity
a. The tolerance is ___________. positions, such as indicated above, need to be
considered for inclusion and coverage in 5.5.2.14.
b. The envelope is ____________.
For the swing wing bomber, no tolerance was applied
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE to the most forward and most aft center of gravity
positions resulting from practical loading conditions
Depending upon the type of airframe program, a and considering fuel transfer rates and wing sweep
requirement for tolerance is necessary since no operational rates. Since the aircraft had an automatic
airframe can be built that does not vary somewhat fuel management control system, errors or changes in
from the drawings and experience variations in predicted c.g. locations were accounted for by
loadings with usage. For example, a small adjustment of the fuel management control system.
modification program may not require a large
tolerance. As a general rule, any time a change is B.5.2.7 SPEEDS
made to the airframe, the weight goes up and the
center of gravity goes aft. This is an application of The following speeds and any attainable lesser speeds
Murphys law. Failure to provide for rational are applicable for ground use of the air vehicle
tolerances and loadings can result in ballast considering both required and expected to be
requirements which result in additional weight. encountered critical combinations of configurations,
gross weights, centers of gravity, thrust or power and
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE shall be used in the design of the airframe.
Loads calculations for a fighter model change were The speeds defined in the subparagraphs are to be
based on center of gravity positions in the 30 degree based on the operational capability and margins of
nose down attitude. Additionally, 1.5 percent further safety of flight required of the air vehicle. These
aft tolerance on the center of gravity positions in the speeds may be definitions, ratios of other speeds,
30 degrees nose up attitude was used. It was not felt functions of altitude, or combinations thereof. It may
necessary to calculate or determine loads with a 1.5 be desirable to present the airspeed requirements in a
percent forward tolerance. figure of equivalent airspeeds, calibrated air speeds,
Mach number, or a combination of these airspeeds
Fuel/center of gravity management system. Failure of versus altitude. Airspeeds and ground speeds should
monitoring systems which allow differences between be in knots and identified as to the systems correct
primary and secondary systems without alerting the units of indicated (IAS), calibrated (CAS), or true
aircrew will degrade safety and mission performance (TAS) with the exception of sink speed and gust
requirements and could result in an unstable aircraft. speeds which are in feet per second. For modification
The FCGMS failure monitoring system for a swing programs, use applicable technical order speeds with
wing bomber allows differences between the primary changes as required by the new usage. Airframe
and secondary system center of gravity calculations development and operating costs increase, often
without alerting the pilots. This becomes critical, substantially, with increased maximum equivalent
when, unknown to the pilot, incorrect input data is speed.
utilized by the system in control. The result is that the
center of gravity computation/control will be in error REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
and could drive the aircraft out of limits. The
condition will also exist where the center of gravity With the onset of new powerful engines, it appears
calculation would not warn the pilots that a selected that the speed criteria must be thoroughly evaluated.
124
Trade studies need to be conducted to determine the until initiation of flap retraction and subsequent 20-
most applicable and effective speeds and their usage. second retraction time.
These speed requirements are necessary to assure This speed is the maximum ground speed with any
adequate operational capability exists for the air landing gear tire in contact with the ground during
vehicle to satisfactorily operate out of and into service takeoff, including those takeoffs at maximum ground
airports and bases. altitude in a hot atmosphere for any required mission
using normal techniques for rotation and holding of
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE pitch attitude.
The landing, approach, and takeoff limits speeds REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
should be sufficient to allow operation of the air
vehicle safely within these phases and to safely None.
transition into and out of these phases. Some air
vehicles may require only one speed for all of these B.5.2.7.3 TOUCH-DOWN LIMIT SPEEDS,
phases, whereas, others may require several. An VTD
appropriate limit speed may need to be established for
the operable speed range required of airframe The touch-down limit speeds shall be the maximum
components, for example, landing gear, slats, and authorized and necessary ground contact speeds for
flaps. These speeds must be relevant to the operations the landing operations and are ________.
and operating crew efforts necessary to safely fly the
air vehicle. Consideration must be given to such REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
factors as the time required to extend or retract/close
the high lift devices and landing gear when The touch-down limit speed greatly influences the
establishing VLF. Safe transition between phases landing gear loads resulting from landing impact,
entails, in part, maintaining adequate margins above particularly the spin-up and spring-back loads. The
the 1.0g stall speeds and minimum control speeds. impact loads also are transmitted to the airframe and
Consideration should also be given to maintaining can result in significant dynamic loads, particularly
sufficient margin above normal operating speeds to affecting those items mounted on the extremities of
allow for pilot inaction. The importance of allowing the airframe, for example, external stores, control
for pilot inaction is largely a function of the surfaces, etc.
acceleration and deceleration capability of the aircraft
as the normal operating speed varies. The effect of REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
altitudes higher than the maximum ground altitude at
5.5.2.8 should be considered to assure flight in these This speed is the maximum ground speed with the
configurations will be adequate for operations to train landing gear tire in contact with the ground during
flight crews. landing, including those landings at maximum ground
altitude in a hot atmosphere. This also applies for a
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED one go-round abort immediately after lift-off of any
required mission, using normal techniques for holding
A swing wing bomber landing, approach, and take off of final approach pitch attitude and no pilot induced
speeds for the landing gear and high lift devices were flare.
chosen to be compatible with expected operational
capabilities and procedures. Speed varied as a REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
function of flap extension and was based on
maintaining a constant flap loading from 30 to 100 None.
percent flap deflection. Maximum speed was derived
using maximum airplane acceleration after a take off
at 1.1 times stall speed, followed by a 6-second delay
125
B.5.2.7.4 TAXI LIMIT SPEEDS, VT operations and operating crew efforts necessary to
safely fly the air vehicle. Safe transition between
The taxi limit speeds shall be the maximum authorized phases entails, in part, maintaining adequate margins
and necessary ground speeds for ground operations on for control.
taxiways and ramps and are _________.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
None.
The airframe can experience significant ground
induced dynamic loads which are a function of taxi B.5.2.7.6 SHIPBOARD RECOVERY SPEED,
speed. This speed requirement must be stated clearly VTDC (____)
so as to not compromise the structure in the flight
crew cannot discern this speed limit and may This shall be the maximum deck touch-down speed for
inadvertently overload the structure. Further, if the determining recovery bulletin limits based on the
speed is arbitrarily set too high, the airframe will have carrier landing design gross weight, critical c.g.
extra weight which will be carried throughout its life. position and store loadings authorized for bring-back.
This value used to determine structural landing criteria
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE shall be based on design performance requirements
and tropical day temperature.
Large and heavy air vehicles may require two taxi
limit speeds, one for ramps and one for taxiways.
However, the two speeds must be identifiable and REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
discernable to the operating crew so they can operate
safely within these speeds. The taxi limit speeds must The mean shipboard recovery speed influences the
be compatible with the intended operational usage of determination of engaging speed and sink rate.
the air vehicle and the ability of the operating crew to
recognize the taxi limit speeds and keep the air vehicle REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
ground speeds below them on ramps and taxiways.
Ramp speed may be expressed in terms of a man This speed is based on the defined on-speed angle of
walking at tip of wing (4-8 knots) and taxiing on attack which meets the performance requirement s for
ramps (30-40 knots). Operations using high speed taxi carrier operations times a factor of 1.05. The on-speed
turn-off will require much higher taxi speeds to be angle of attack and corresponding approach speed
established. (VPA versus weight) will become a part of the
USNATOPS (U. S. Naval Air Training and Operating
Procedures Standardization) and the VTD = 1.05 VPA
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED will be listed in the ship-board recovery bulletin for
the purpose of wind over deck determination.
The residual thrust at idle power setting for a high
thrust to weight fighter resulted in taxi speeds up to 60 REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
knots to avoid excess brake wear and maintenance.
This required the canopy to be closed, since the The analytical determination of approach speed and its
canopy open speed did not cover this operating shorebased validation during flight test has been
concept. shown to be statistically lower than the value
measured at the ship during normal operations, thus
B.5.2.7.5 LANDING STALLING SPEEDS, VSL the correction factor of 1.05 is used to reflect the
observed touch down speed.
The landing stalling speeds shall be the minimum
level flight speeds in the landing Configuration with B.5.2.7.7 SHIPBOARD ENGAGING SPEED,
zero thrust. VE (____)
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE For structural airframe design this shall be equal to the
shipboard recovery speed less the average wind over
This speed requirement is needed to establish the deck plus a 3.1 sigma (P0 =.001) on engaging speed
minimum level flight speed in the landing derived from aircraft survey data of similar class
configuration and to define the left side of the aircraft.
operational flight envelope (speed versus altitude).
B.5.2.7.8 SHIPBOARD LAUNCH END
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE SPEED,VC (____)
The stalling speeds shall be sufficient to allow This shall be the minimum launch end speed required
operation of the air vehicle safely within the landing not to exceed ______ feet of sink over the bow
phases and to safely transition into and out of the (summation of ship speed, natural winds, and catapult
landing phases. Some air vehicles may require only end speed).
one speed for all of these phases, whereas, others may
require several. These speeds must be relevant to the
126
This parameter sets the lower limit for catapult tow List and define other speeds as necessary and
force. applicable to the air vehicle and its intended usage.
The operational value of catapult end speed is equal to With a petal door design, a large transport has a 200
the minimum value plus 15 knots. knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS) airdrop
configuration limit speed. However, there is a 180
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED KCAS airdrop limit speed due to the differential
pressure created on the petal doors during the
None. extraction of the cargo.
B.5.2.7.9 MAXIMUM BRAKE SPEED, VHD There have been several instances of accidents caused
(____) by the crew deploying high lift devices at speed above
the extended use speed of the device, so care should
This shall be the maximum allowable speed at which be exercised in establishing the extended usage speeds
the arresting hook may be lowered during carrier of devices, their speed limitations and including the
operations and is ________. limits in applicable documents.
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
Altitude requirements are needed because density and
Landing gear extend and retract design speeds are temperature effects associated with altitude variations
based on speeds in the high lift take-off and landing also effect the loads, etc. the structure is subjected to
configuration and are too low of a value for carrier during its usage and hence the structural integrity of
operation where the aircraft is transitioning through the airframe is effected.
the break in clean or up-away configuration. In the
break, the pilot is required to extend the hook and REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
perform a tight turn simultaneously while in the clean
configuration. Also if a bolter occurs, the pilot does For modification programs, the appropriate altitudes
not want to raise the hook but to keep it in the trail from applicable technical orders with changes
position as he goes around. necessary to be compatible with the air vehicle as
modified and its new usage are applicable. For other
B.5.2.7.10 OTHER SPEEDS programs, altitudes consistent with the intended usage
of the air vehicle are applicable. The maximum
Other speeds applicable to specified uses are ground altitude includes the highest ground elevation
_________. at which the air vehicle must be capable of operating
regarding ground handling, takeoffs, and landings.
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
Not all required speeds can be identified in the general
specification, therefore other speed requirements are None.
necessary to allow for identifying speeds related to
other useful aircraft configurations.
127
B.5.2.9 LOAD FACTORS 5.5.2 and 5.5.4. Lesser values of the following
parameters are applicable in determining attainable
The following load factors shall be the maximum and combinations.
minimum load factors authorized for use and shall be
used in the design of the airframe. REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
Landing, approach, and takeoff load factors should be b. Ship based landing design gross weight (____)
compatible with air vehicle high lift configurations ____________________.
and the maneuvers required to safely operate the air
vehicle during these flight phases. c. Maximum land based landing weight:
_________________.
For other load factors, identify and present other load
factors as necessary to quantify the full operational REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
maneuver capability required of the air vehicle. In
general, load factor selection is a major concern, not The landing sink speed requirement is needed to
only to those who are responsible for determination of assure that adequate energy absorption capability
adequate strength levels, but for those who must adapt exists in the landing gear shock absorbers and
these aircraft to continually varying operational arresting hook damper (to preclude hook bounce), and
requirements. that the rest of the airframe is able to withstand the
dynamic loads resulting from the landing impact.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
None.
Choose the limit sink speed compatible with the air
B.5.2.10 LAND BASED AND SHIP BASED vehicles intended usage and the repeated load sources
AIRCRAFT GROUND LOADING sink speeds of 5.5.2.14.2. The sink speeds of
PARAMETERS 5.5.2.14.2 are based on cumulative occurrences at the
lower or mid-band value. Thus, the landplane landing
The airframe shall have sufficient structural integrity weight sink speed should be associated upper-band
for the air vehicle to take-off, catapult, land, arrest, value. The maximum landing weight sink speed
and operate on the ground or ship under the should be 60% of the landplane landing weight sink
appropriate conditions of ground loading conditions speed value. However, it should be no less than that
5.5.4.2 and the parameters defined here-in, in sink speed resulting from the air vehicle landing at its
attainable combinations, considering the required and maximum landing weight and associated maximum
expected combinations of the applicable parameters of
128
landing touchdown velocity without flare reducing the probability within an ellipsoid with axes or roll, yaw,
sink speed from a two degree glide slope approach. and pitch. The extremes on these axes are:
For navy aircraft, the design mean sink rate is a a. Roll angle. Plus _____ and minus _____.
function of the ship Frensol Lens setting, the approach
speed of the aircraft, size and characteristics of the b. Yaw angle. Plus _____ and minus _____.
ship, and the sea state conditions in which operations
are allowed. Based on carrier surveys the mean sink c. Pitch angle. Mean plus _____ and minus _____
speed is equal to 0.128 times the mean engaging speed
(in knots); and the standard deviation of sink rate is d. Sink speed. Mean plus _____ and minus _____
equal to 0.015 times engaging speed plus 1.667
feet/second. Sink rate is one of the eight multivariate REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
parameters in which the maximum/minimum values
equal the mean plus or minus 3.1 standard deviations. This requirement is needed to assure that adequate
structural integrity exists in the airframe for all types
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED of landings of which the air vehicle may be subjected.
B.5.2.10.2 CROSSWIND LANDINGS The roll angles (plus and minus) should be the same
and no less that that roll angle needed to maintain the
The crosswinds at take-off and landing shall be those longitudinal axis of the air vehicle in line with the
components of surface winds perpendicular to the runway centerline when landing in a maximum
runway centerline or ship landing reference centerline. crosswind without ground effect, flare, or pilot
The landing gear loads resulting from crosswind alleviation prior to touchdown. The yaw angle (plus
operations shall be __________________. and minus) should be equal and no less than that yaw
angle needed to maintain a flight path in line with the
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE runway centerline when landing (wings level) in a
maximum crosswind without ground effect, flare, or
Crosswind landings cannot be avoided throughout the pilot alleviation prior to touchdown. The pitch angles
life of the air vehicle. Therefore, this requirement is (plus and minus), normally will not be equal. The
needed to assure adequate strength exists in the positive angle should be the maximum angle
airframe for either field or shipboard operations. attainable considering landing parameters,
aerodynamics, tail bumper contact (or contact of other
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE parts of the airframe), etc. The negative angle should
be the minimum angle attainable considering landing
Most airports are laid-out with the runways in line parameters, aerodynamics, etc. Sink speeds associated
with the prevailing wind. However, it is not with the above landing attitudes shall be combined to
uncommon to have winds of reasonable magnitudes produce the landing conditions. For tricycle landing
blowing from any direction. Crosswind and drift gear air vehicles, the nose landing gear first landings
landings can result in main gear side loads up to 80% should be considered only for training aircraft.
of the vertical reaction for the inboard acting load and
60% of the vertical reaction load for the outboard REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
acting load. The vertical reaction is generally
considered to be 50% of the maximum vertical None.
reaction load from two point and level symmetrical
landings. The side loads and vertical reaction (with B.5.2.10.4 TAXI DISCRETE BUMPS, DIPS,
zero drag load) should act simultaneously at the AND OBSTRUCTIONS
ground with these loads being resisted by the aircraft
inertia. Alternatively, a dynamic analysis of shipboard The bumps and dips shall be of the _____ wave
and field landings for 900 crosswinds of 30 knots may lengths, amplitudes, and shape.
be accomplished for typical landing techniques (e.g.
crabbed, tail-down top rudder). a. Maximum ground weight, slow speeds up to:
_________
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
b. Maximum ground weight, speeds at and above:
None. ________
dynamic loads induced during taxi over all operational f. Repeatable release holdback bar load
ground surfaces. ___________.
The slow speed requirement must cover all surfaces, This requirement defines the analysis requirement for
including parking areas, ramps, and taxiways, as well the catapult run, dynamic loads determination used for
as the runway. The values in Figure 1 should be used, airframe strength design, and for determining the
choosing those curves applicable to the type surface to shock environment of mass items.
be operated on. The higher speed requirement of
Figure 2 needs cover only runways. The aircraft REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
transition over bumps and dips should be such that the
angle between the path of the aircraft and the lateral The catapulting loads, for all weights ranging from the
axis of the contour will be all angles up to 45 degrees. primary mission to the maximum catapult weight as
The values on the second figure above should be used, limited by the maximum NX and maximum two force,
choosing those curves applicable to the type of surface throughout the catapult run, and the required initial
to be operated on. Displaced runway/taxiway concrete spotting shall be determined for all specified catapults
slabs, hangar doorway rails, bomb damaged repaired and catapult forces. The engine thrust should be all
runway profiles, etc. may also be included. values from zero to maximum. The effects of
pretension loads, holdback release, and weight
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED variations shall be included.
B.5.2.10.5 JACKING WIND LOADING The results of holdback release and end of shuttle run
CONDITIONS cause large dynamic airframe response accelerations
and inertia loads which effect equipment design, fuel
The maximum combination of wind loading and air slosh (fuel pressures), and external store responses.
vehicle load factor conditions that shall be allowed The catapults which determine maximum tow force
during the jacking of the air vehicle are _________. may not be the catapult which causes maximum
dynamic response, thus all combinations of CVS
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE setting, launch weight, and catapult must be included
in the analysis.
This requirement defines the maximum wind loading
conditions that will be assumed to exist in determining B.5.2.11 LIMIT LOADS
the total forces and loads acting on the air vehicle
during jacking. The limit loads, to be used in the design of elements of
the airframe subject to deterministic design criteria,
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE shall be the maximum and most critical combination
of loads which can result from authorized ground use
The maximum wind loading conditions can be of the air vehicle, including maintenance activity, the
determined from weather records taken at military and system failures of 5.5.2.22 from which recovery is
civilian airfields. Specify the magnitude and direction expected, a lifetime of usage of 5.5.2.14, and all loads
of the winds relative to the longitudinal axis of the air whose frequency of occurrence is greater that or equal
vehicle. to ________ per flight. All loads resulting from the
requirements of this specification are limit loads
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED unless otherwise specified.
B.5.2.10.6 CATAPULT TAKEOFF (____) This requirement defines the load capability that the
airframe must possess to achieve adequate structural
a. Maximum catapult design gross weight safety and economic operation. Where such loads are
____________. the result of randomly occurring loads, the minimum
frequency of occurrence of these loads must be
b. Maximum catapult weight __________. defined. This insures the inclusion of loads which are
of sufficient magnitude to size elements of the
c. Primary catapult mission weight _________. airframe and whose frequency of occurrence warrants
their inclusion.
d. Maximum NX (rigid c.g.) __________.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
e. Maximum horizontal tow force ___________.
Limit loads reflect the operational requirements.
These loads establish the structural envelope which
defines the capability of the airframe to resist loads
130
experienced during flight within the flight manual and uncertainty and the conditions and circumstances
handbook limits and the loads experienced during and where these factors are used are defined so that the
following the system failures of 5.5.2.19 from which calculation of ultimate loads can be made. Historical
recovery is expected. service experience has shown that an acceptable level
of risk of loss of aircraft due to structural failure can
The determination of the limit loads includes flight be attained if limit loads are multiplied by a factor of
anywhere within the design flight envelope. This uncertainty (formerly known as a factor of safety) of
selection of limit loads should address all critical 1.5.
combinations of inertia, aerodynamic and mechanical
forces, heat flux, and the thermal strains resulting from REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
the resulting temperature gradients, variations in
payload, external configurations, types of missions, The selection of the factor of uncertainty, formerly
and fuel and its distributions. Conservative predictive called the factor of safety, should be made by
and test methods should be used to determine these assessing the factors that have been used on similar air
loads. When determining the loads, expected vehicles performing similar missions. The value for
variations in the ability of the pilot or the flight control manned aircraft has been 1.5. The value for
system to maintain flight within the established limits unmanned aircraft has been 1.25, except that a factor
should be addressed. This is especially important of 1.5 has been used when a failure of the structure
when the performance capability of the air vehicle could result in injury to personnel or damage to or loss
significantly exceeds the flight manual and handbook of the carriage and launch equipment. The 1.5 factor
limits. has been successfully used on metallic airframes using
A and B material allowables, well understood
The selection of the critical limit loads needs to take analysis methods validated through appropriate
into account the time dependency of the occurrence of testing, demonstrated fabrication methods, and correct
the loads. For some aircraft, such as modern fighters, maintenance and inspection procedures.
the maximum tail loads may occur at different times
during the maneuver and not necessarily during the The selected value of the factor of uncertainty should
sustained portion of the maneuver. For airframe be increased to account for above normal uncertainty
components subjected to significant heat flux, the in the design, analysis, and fabrication methods, when
critical design condition does not necessarily coincide the inspection methods have reduced accuracy or are
with the occurrence of the maximum heat flux. limited by new materials and new fabrication methods,
and where the usage of the air vehicle is significantly
The selection of the minimum frequency of different. Similar considerations need to be made in
occurrence of loads, to be included in the the selection of the factor for unmanned aircraft. The
determination of the limit loads, can be done by use of reduced factors of uncertainty needs to be
assessing frequency data for similar types of aircraft carefully defined and justified. In this case,
performing similar missions. This data can then be consideration of the impact of the use of reduced
used in determining the rates at which loads are factors on the safety, maintenance, performance, and
experienced which cause detrimental structural structural life needs to be addressed. Such reductions
deformation for structure built using conventional should only be undertaken when a substantial positive
structural design criteria. It is generally only benefit to the air vehicle is shown.
necessary to include loads whose frequency of
occurrence is greater than or equal to 1 x 10-7 per Where thermal loads are significant, factors of
flight. uncertainty to apply to the external or internal thermal
loads should be specified. The selection of these
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED factors should consider the following:
d. The accuracy of the predictive methods used to d. Require repair or replacement of any part,
determine the thermal loads used in the design of component, or assembly.
the airframe.
e. Reduce clearances between movable parts of the
e. The accuracy of the predictive methods used to control system and adjacent structures or
determine the structural response of the airframe equipment to values less than the minimum
to the input thermal loads. permitted for safe flight.
f. The criticality of the failure of the thermally f. Result in significant changes to the distribution of
loaded structure, especially failure due to thermal external or internal loads without due
loads. consideration thereof.
Service life specified in the contract may not reflect j. Other service life and usage as specified in
the actual service life of a system. Manufacture, ________.
design tolerances, and usage change may vary the
service life significantly. A very large transport was REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
originally projected to have a 30,000 hour service life
but ended up with a wing that was good for 8,000 This requirement is necessary to ensure that
hours. No initial requirement existed to include quantitative and qualitative performance, operations,
damage tolerance considerations. and support parameters and characteristics are
developed in response to and in support of an
Aircraft designed for high altitude operation required approved Mission Need Statement (MNS). These user
life extension structural modifications when their defined requirements (operational requirements)
mission was changed to include high speed, low provide a basis for identifying the detail structural
altitude penetration. design requirements established to ensure system
performance objectives are achieved and validated.
Mission flight plans for strategic aircraft include low
level terrain following tracks of specified length. It REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
was found more useful to define the terrain following
segment in terms of distance rather than duration, The approval of the MNS and the issuance of the
especially in cases where the flight speed was not Program Management Directive (PMD) mark the
clearly established. Terrain following tracks should be beginning of the user defined requirements activity.
obtained from the using command. An average track Such requirements may address operational and
length was found to be approximately 440 NM support concepts, deployment and employment of the
without reentry. Reentry for a repeat of a race track proposed system, missions, mission constraints,
segment would add on the average 170 NM. operational environments, and effectiveness and
system reliability requirements. Those requirements
B.5.2.14.1 USER IDENTIFIED that result in functional requirements for structural
REQUIREMENTS performance should be specified in this section.
Reference the document which provides the following
The number of flights, flight hours, shipboard and information or fill the blank with the planned number
field operations, landings, mission data, etc. shall be: of flights, flight hours, landings, mission data, etc. that
the typical airframe is expected to experience in one
a. __________ Service life (Flight hours). In service life.
service use, ninety percent of all aircraft shall
project to meet or exceed this value for durability REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
and all aircraft shall meet this value with respect
to safety. The requirements specified in this section must reflect
applicable mission and operations parameters that
b. For time dependent design functions, a life of promote integrated design approach, considering
__________years. economics, supportability, producibility, and optimum
system commonality.
c. ________ of ________ Ground-air ground
cycles (flights) Minimum requirements must clearly be stated
preferably in the context of threshold values.
d. _________ of ________ Field taxi runs Structural design trades conducted in support of
identifying preferred concepts can use threshold
e. _________ of _________ Field takeoffs values to conduct trades for identification of
operationally significant performance above threshold
f. _________ of _________ Catapult launches values.
(4) ________ of ________ Carrier touch and Occurrences and durations of taxi, turns, pivoting,
go braking, fuel, and payload loading and unloading,
engine trim runs, towing, and other ground/carrier
h. (____) mission profiles as specified in operations shall be shown in ____________.
__________.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED f. Heat flux (____) The repeated heat flux time
histories are _________.
A percentage of strategic aircraft in service are rotated
on a ground alert mission for a fixed number of days. g. Other loads (____).
These ground alerts include recurrent ground
movements involving engine starts, taxiing, turns, and REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
runway accelerations to fairly high speeds. A ground
alert movement profile should be defined. All sources of repeated loads affecting the durability
Determination of the magnitudes of ground turning and damage tolerance of the airframe must be
load occurrences is most readily obtained from considered to ensure that the required service life of
historical data. The approach and data of ASD-TR- the system is not degraded. Development of a
79-5037 has been applied successfully on a strategic comprehensive database of load sources, exceedances,
aircraft. and other parameters, based on data recorded from
actual usage experience, will ensure the greatest
B.5.2.14.3 REPEATED LOADS SOURCES possible accuracy in the representation of the design
usage and function of the system.
All sources of repeated loads shall be considered and
included in the development of the service loads REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
spectra and shall not detract from the airframe service
life. The following operational and maintenance a. Provide load factor spectra representative of
conditions shall be included as sources of repeated projected service ground operation based on user
loads: requirements and the latest historical data. Final
loads spectra should include all variables that
a. Suppression systems. Systems which enhance impact the landing gear backup structure so that
ride qualities (____) they reflect the projected average usage within
the design utilization distribution and also usage
(1) Active oscillation control such that 90 percent of the fleet will be expected
to meet the service life. Baseline exceedance data
b. Vibration. The vibration loads spectra and representative of average fleet usage and
associated duration shall reflect the operational exceedance adjustments to account for changes
usage of the aircraft as required in 5.5.6. in projected service operations are provided to
generate exceedance data used in the damage
c. Landings. The a landing loads spectra shall tolerance analysis given in 5.5.2.14.7. The
reflect operational parameters and conditions statistical dispersions provided are used to
applicable to landings from 5.5.2 and 5.5.4.2 generate exceedance data used in the durability
respectively. The sink speed spectra are analysis and test spectra in 5.5.2.14.6 for which
__________ 90 percent of the fleet is expected to experience
during the operational service life. Repeated
d. Other ground loads. The taxi, braking, brake loads sources are documented in ASC-TR-xxxx
release, pivoting, turning, towing, and by aircraft type, mission type, and mission
Miscellaneous ground loads spectra shall include segment. See the discussion in 5.5.4.
vertical, lateral, and longitudinal loads and
accelerations resulting from ground/carrier b. Provide cumulative occurrences of sink speed
operations of 5.5.2.14. These spectra shall per 1000 landings, by type of landing, typical or
include: projected service operation. ASC-TRR-xxxx
provides representative data for U. S. Air Force
(1) Hard and medium braking occurrences per and Navy operations. Final data should include
full-stop landings of _________. the most representative data available. Careful
consideration is to be given to STOL operations.
(2) Pivoting occurrences of ____________. If practical, bi-variant tables should be used to
present roll versus pitch, etc., probability of
134
occurrence requirements. See ASC-TR-xxxx for failures occurred when hot surface flow caused skins
taxi vertical load factors at the center of mass of to distort sufficiently to introduce high mean stresses
the air vehicle. in skins. The skins then failed in vibratory fatigue.
c. Completion of the other ground loads paragraphs The service life of transports can be shortened
will provide the basis for the ground taxi spectra significantly by constant hard landings and using
for one service life. rougher than average airfields.
(1) Enter the number of hard and medium For a multi-role fighter, actual store configurations
braking occurrences per full stop landing employed in the field differed significantly from the
along with the associated braking effects. baseline configurations used in loads spectra
Guidance for braking occurrences is development. The difference in configurations
provided in ASC-TRR-xxxx. A typical combined with the fact that only inertia loads were
entry would be hard-braking with maximum used for stores may have had a significant impact on
braking effects five times per landing. service life.
Include anti-skid effects, if applicable.
B.5.2.14.4 OTHER REQUIREMENTS
(2) Enter the number of pivoting occurrences
and the corresponding torque load. Other operational and maintenance requirements
Guidance for pivoting occurrences is affecting the airframe service life or usage are
provided in ASC-TR-xxxx. A typical entry ____________.
would be one per ten landings with self-
limit torque load. REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
(3) Define the roughness characteristics of the See 5.5.2.14 Requirement Rationale.
airfield(s) from which the airplane is to
operate and the number of taxi operations to REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
be conducted on each airfield. Roughness
characteristics should be stated as power Define requirements or functions which affect
spectral density roughness levels. airframe service life or usage not otherwise included
Representative roughness levels are in 5.5.2.14. Examples are functional check flights,
presented in ASC-TR-xxxx. ground maintenance checks, jacking, and towing.
d. The operation of doors, landing gear, and other REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
devices should be included in service life usage
parameters. Service load recorders which are not maintained or
logistically supported result in a loss of data which
e. If the aircraft is required to carry and employ affects the actual service life prediction based on
stores, insert APP. If not, insert N/A. Store actual usage.
carriage and employment loads shall be
determined for representative store B.5.2.14.5 AIRFRAME STRUCTURE
configurations and be included in all applicable INSPECTION
loads spectra. Representative store
configurations, both like loadings and mixed By design, the airframe structure shall not require
loadings, should consider both critical design and inspection during the service life specified in 5.5.2.14.
anticipated future store configurations.
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
f. List all other repeated loads sources which could
have an impact on the airframe service life and In order to assure optimal operational cost and safety,
usage. Appropriate loads spectra should be the airframe must have adequate durability and
developed for each of these repeated load damage tolerance capability by design such that when
sources. subjected to the expected service loads and
environmental spectra there shall not be any
Representative data for various aircraft types are inspections required within the service life.
continually accumulated and are documented in ASC-
TR-xxxx. Access to and assistance in selection of REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
suitable data will be provided by the Structures Branch
(ASC/ENFS), Aeronautical Systems Center, Wright- To meet this requirement, the airframe structure
Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7101 should be designed to ensure that cracking or
delamination does not occur within two lifetimes of
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED usage and environments specified in 5.5.2.14.6. In
addition, the airframe safety of flight structure should
The combination of thermal loads and aeroacoustic maintain residual strength capabilities within two
loadings caused fatigue failures in primary structure lifetimes of usage and environments specified in
very early in the life of a large bomber aircraft. The 5.5.2.14.7.
135
spectrum since it directly influences the damage tracking program has revealed that this is mainly
which each major component will experience attributable to weight increases and operation at Mach
during its service life. In order to assure that numbers higher than originally expected. Early
each major component is exercised as close as operational service data for an attack aircraft showed
practical to its full service life, a durability that usage was approximately three times more severe
analysis spectrum developed by mission analysis than originally intended. This was partly due to an
methods should have 100% of the equivalent increase in normal load factor spectrum, and partly
damage of the untruncated spectrum, but some due to fuel loading in excess of design. The
locations could have as little as 95%. A development of a flight by flight spectrum which
durability analysis spectrum developed by the represents the usage which the majority of the fleet is
multiple points in the sky analysis method should expected to experience during the operational service
result in single components damage being less life is extremely difficult to achieve. However, this
than 80% of its reference level. problem can be minimized by careful selection of the
most current historical usage data for similar type
b. Test Spectrum. Development of the durability aircraft and by modifying this usage data to account
test spectrum shall be based on the analysis for changes in projected service operations based on
spectrum. Truncation, elimination, or substitution user requirements. A non-readable fracture surface
of stress cycles in the test spectrum may be can make it difficult to determine what portion of life
required to reduce excessive test time and cost for was crack initiation and what portion was crack
metallic structure. Truncation for composite and growth. In a full scale fatigue test of a fighter aircraft,
hybrid structure (metallic/composite mix) should a completely random flight sequence of recorded
be evaluated to determine impacts. Durability service usage data was employed as the spectrum.
analysis and development tests will be required to The results were mostly non-readable fractures even
define the effect of the differences in time to for tension dominated locations which made the
reach detrimental crack sizes or establish crack analytical correlation very difficult.
initiation by use of the analysis spectrum and
proposed test spectrum. The results of these B.5.2.14.7 DESIGN DAMAGE TOLERANCE
analyses and tests shall be used to establish the SERVICE LOADS/SPECTRUM
final test spectrum and to interpret the test results.
Particular care should be exercised during the This spectrum shall represent the service life and
development of the final test spectrum since its is usage defined in 5.5.2.14.1 through 5.5.2.14.4,
used to demonstrate the airframe service life adjusted for historical data, potential weight growth
requirements specified 5.5.2.14, identify critical and future aircraft performance at least to initial
structural areas not previously identified by operational capability (IOC), to reflect baseline
analyses or development tests, and establish utilization within the design utilization distribution
special inspection and modification requirements and such that the average aircraft usage of the fleet
for the service airframe. In order to assure that will be expected to meet the service life. A flight-by-
the test spectrum satisfies these requirements, a flight analysis spectrum shall be developed for design
test spectrum goal is to achieve 100% of damage tolerance analysis and a flight-by-flight test
equivalent damage for the entire airframe but spectrum shall be developed for verification tests to
because of practicality, some areas may not verify the structural requirements of 5.5.8.
achieve this level. Where damage levels will not
meet the 100% goal, justification should be REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
provided. To provide assistance in evaluating
and investigating fracture surfaces, the test The purpose of this requirement is to develop a design
spectrum should include distinguishing indicators damage tolerance spectrum to size aircraft structure
such as Marker Cycles at specified percentages early in the airplane development. A proper balance
of the test spectrum. A number between 5% and between performance and safety is achieved by
10% of full life test spectrum has been used in designing in the aircraft safety of flight structure to
past programs. The Marker Cycles could be meet the damage tolerance requirements with a
rearranged sequence of flights, regroupment of spectrum that is representative of the average aircraft
cycles, or substituted cycles into the test usage which the fleet is expected to experience during
spectrum. The Marker Cycles should be the operational service life.
verified by element tests to provide readable
fracture surfaces with negligible impact on REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
fatigue damage and test time.
Based on past experience, the development of the
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED design damage tolerance service loads spectrum
should be established from the average aircraft usage
Aircraft often experience different uses from those for of the fleet. The design damage tolerance service
which they were designed. An example is a multi-role loads spectrum shall be developed for the design
fighter, which is used approximately eight times more service life and usage requirements of 5.5.2.14.1 and
severely than its design intended. The current usage the representative basing concept of 5.5.2.14.2. The
of another air superiority fighter is approximately four design damage tolerance service loads should
times more severe than its designed plan. The represent loads expected to occur in the average fleet
137
operation flight envelope and should not necessarily final test spectrum and to interpret the test results.
be the loads as established for static design criteria. Particular care should be exercised during the
The process of developing a design damage tolerance development of the final test spectrum since its is
service loads spectrum begins with the selection of all used to demonstrate the airframe service life
significant repeated loads sources specified in requirements specified 5.5.2.14, identify critical
5.5.2.14.3 and the selection of chemical, thermal, and structural areas not previously identified by
climatic environments specified in 5.5.2.15 and ends analyses or development tests, and establish
once these individual loads spectra are assembled on a special inspection and modification requirements
flight by flight basis to form the design service loads for the service airframe. In order to assure that
sequence. The repeated loads sources are documented the test spectrum satisfies these requirements, a
in ASC-TR-xxxx by aircraft type, missions, and damage tolerance test spectrum goal is to achieve
mission segments. Baseline exceedance data 100% of equivalent damage for the entire
representative of average fleet usage and exceedance airframe but because of practicality, some areas
adjustments to account for changes in projected may not achieve this level. Where damage levels
service operations are also provided in the document. will not meet the 100% goal, justification should
Ground loads spectra and all significant loads spectra be provided. To provide assistance in evaluating
are developed by use of the exceedance data and and investigating fracture surfaces, the test
repeated loads criteria provided in ASC-TR-xxxx. spectrum should include distinguishing indicators
The flight by flight spectrum is a realistic stress such as Marker Cycles at specified percentages
spectrum based on the random ordering or required of the test spectrum. A number between 5% and
missions and associated load occurrences. Load 10% of full life test spectrum has been used in
occurrences less than once per mission segment or past programs. The Marker Cycles could be
once per flight shall be rationally distributed rearranged sequence of flights, regroupment of
(randomized or ordered, as appropriate) among cycles, or substituted cycles into the test
appropriate segments and flights. An appropriate spectrum. The Marker Cycles should be
distribution of aircraft weight, center of gravity, verified by element tests to provide readable
altitude, speed, configuration, and other significant fracture surfaces with negligible impact on
operational parameters shall be made within each fatigue damage and test time.
mission segment. Full compliance with this
requirement is achieved by development of a separate REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
design analysis and test spectrum as discussed below:
None.
a. Analysis Spectrum. The design damage
tolerance service loads spectrum may require B.5.2.15 CHEMICAL, THERMAL, AND
modifications such as truncation, clipping, and CLIMATIC ENVIROMENTS
other appropriate techniques in order to achieve a
practical damage tolerance analysis. Truncation The landing gear shall be designed to operate in the
of the design spectrum is normally required to environments defined below:
facilitate the burden of analyzing extremely large
numbers of stress cycles which produce a. Ground environments ________________.
negligible damage on aircraft components. High
and low stresses in the design spectrum may b. Shipboard environments: Sulfur and nitrogen
require clipping of all stress levels above 90% oxide containing gasses from ship stacks and
limit load in order to reduce the impact of crack aircraft exhaust combined with 3.5 percent
retardation. The analysis spectrum is generated sodium chloride sea spray to form highly acidic
as a direct result of these spectrum modifications. moisture films of pH 2.4 4.0. Relative
Particular care should be exercised during the humidity of 70 percent to 100 percent conditions
development of this spectrum since it directly exist simultaneously with sand and dust particle
influences the damage which each major concentrations ranging from 1.32 x 10-4 to 4.0 x
component will experience during its service life. 10-6 lbs/ft3.
A developed damage tolerance spectrum should
have more than 95% of equivalent damage of the c. Air environments ______________
untruncated spectrum.
d. Man-made environments ______________.
b. Test Spectrum. Development of the damage
tolerance test spectrum shall be based on the e. Usage environments _______________.
analysis spectrum. Truncation, elimination, or
substitution of stress cycles in the test spectrum f. Maintenance environments _____________.
may be required to reduce excessive test time and
cost. Damage tolerance analysis and development REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
tests will be required to define the effect of the
differences in time to reach detrimental crack These requirements are needed to cover those
sizes by use of the analysis spectrum and operational environments to which the airframe will
proposed test spectrum. The results of these be exposed to assure that adequate structural integrity
analyses and tests shall be used to establish the
138
exists from the viewpoints of corrosion, with best occupational safety, and health
thermal/mechanical stress interactions, etc. practices, and minimize hazardous waste
generation.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
Applicable ground, shipboard, and air environments
may be selected from MIL-STD-210, MIL-STD-810, Proper material selection is necessary to assure
and AFCRL-TR-74-0052. As applicable, heavy rain adequate structural properties, such as strength,
(8 inches/hour minimum), snow, and icing conditions stiffness, fatigue, crack growth rates, fracture
may be encountered. Consider using FAA toughness, corrosion susceptibility, and material
requirements for icing condition, FAR, Part 25, system and processes stability for the imposed
Airworthiness Standards, Transport Category environment such that operational performance,
Airplanes, Appendix C. In terms of the above safety, reliability, and maintainability can be achieved.
references, list the applicable paragraph and table To avoid shutdown and fines in both manufacture and
number, title, and any discriminating information, for operation, it is necessary to ensure materials and
example, percent risk. processes selected are compliant with environmental
regulations/laws.
Identify those man-made environments the air vehicle
will be reasonably expected to encounter. For REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
example, airborne chemical oxides and residues from
power plants, vehicles, etc. may be significant man- Guidance from Military Handbooks. Throughout the
made environments. Also, for example, mud, dirt, and following sections MIL-HDBK-5, MIL-HDBK-17,
other contaminates inside the cargo area resulting and MIL-HDBK-23 are referenced extensively as
from loading, carriage, and unloading of the cargo, sources of material allowable data and design
including spills of chemicals, may be significant. application guidance. These documents contain
standardized data and procedures for characterizing
The heating incidental to operation of power plants material systems and analyzing their performance for
and other heat sources from within the aircraft must be given applications and product forms and should be
considered. Include steady state and transient used as a baseline for addressing materials and
excursions of the airframe into and out of regimes of processes characterization, selection and application,
aerodynamic heating consistent with the operational and should be deviated from only with appropriate
intent. The airframe needs to include provisions for supporting engineering justification.
handling the cumulative effects of the temperture/load
history for its planned service life. Pre- and post-flight Guidance from Military Specifications and Design
operations such as ground run-up and extended taxiing Documents. The guidance contained in MIL-STD-
with the tail to wind need to be considered. 1568, MIL-STD-1587, and SD-24 should serve as
baseline data for addressing materials/processes and
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED corrosion requirements and should be deviated from
only with appropriate supporting engineering
None. justification. MIL-STD-1568 and MIL-STD-1587
provide extensive guidance/lessons learned for
B.5.2.16 MATERIALS AND PROCESSES corrosion prevention and control, and materials and
processes performance data and documentation
Materials and processes shall be in accordance with requirements. MIL-STD-1587 and SD-24 provide
the following requirements so that the airframe meets information relating to materials and processes
the operational and support requirements. selection in the design process, material systems
performance, and application dependent processes and
a. Relevant producibility, maintainability, documentation requirements.
supportability, repairability, and availability
experience with the same, or similar, materials Material Systems and Material Processes Selection.
and processes shall be a governing factor for The requirements for strength, damage tolerance,
suitability of the airframe design. durability, vibrations, sonic fatigue, and weapons
Environmentally conditioned tests must be effects including battle damage must be defined. One
performed at the appropriate development test option for establishing material allowables is
level to meet relevant design conditions. addressed in the Air Structural Integrity Program;
however, these allowables must be established
b. Material systems and materials processes selected including environmental effects. Materials and
for design shall be stable, remain fixed, and processes should be selected with consideration to
minimize unique maintenance and repair minimize unique maintenance or repair practices
practices in accordance with the specified beyond existing organization, immediate, or depot (as
operational and support concepts. applicable) capability. The selection of specific
material systems should be based on comparison
c. Material systems and materials processes between material properties of all candidate materials
(including radioactive materials and processes) and the operational requirements for each particular
shall be environmentally compliant, compliant application. The spectrum of operational requirements
139
that should be considered include: Load paths and defects for its design life without in-service
magnitudes, operating temperatures and environments, inspections should utilize the upper bound spectrum
including the presence of corrosive and abrasive loading and the environmental conditioning developed
elements, and water. for the durability tests. These two lifetime tests must
show with high confidence that the flawed structure
Materials should be selected on the basis of suitability meets the residual strength requirements of table IV.
and availability, and should include consideration of These residual strength requirements are the same for
the additional restrictions created during a national the metallic structures.
emergency. The use of strategic and critical materials
(see definition in MIL-STD-295) should be Special considerations for composites.
minimized. Nonstrategic, noncritical materials should
be selected when performance, interchangeability, For composites, particular emphasis should be placed
reliability, maintainability, or safety will not be on the issue of battle damage from weapons since the
adversely affected, or production significantly altered. containment of this damage may well dictate the
Those selected should not include environmentally design configuration. Materials and processes
hazardous materials such as chlorofluorocarbons, employed in structure must also be selected based on a
asbestos containing materials, paint coating containing consideration for repairability for in-service damage.
lead, or primer/topcoat paints exceeding vilatile Further, the design usage and missions must be
organic compound limits. adequately defined such that the potentially damaging
high load cases are properly represented.
The contractor should consider the requirements of the
Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Toxic Substance a. Temperature and moisture. The temperatures
Control Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery should be derived from the projected operational
Act, Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act, usage of the aircraft and the moisture conditions
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know ranging from dry to the end of lifetime condition
Act, and other service related guidance. The selection expected from a basing scenario that is
of subcontractors should be governed by their ability representative of the worst expected moisture
to comply with the requirements herein. exposure. The allowable for a given flight
condition should be based on the temperature
Manufacturing and in-service damage. Composite appropriate for that flight condition combined
structures as well as metal structures must be designed with the most critical of the range of possible
to minimize the economic burden or repairing damage moisture conditions. The factor of uncertainty to
from low energy impacts such as tool drops, etc. To be used in the application of the allowables
accomplish this goal, the structure is to be divided into derived above is 1.5. Since the strength of a
two types of regions. The first type is one where there composite structure is inherently dependent on
is a relatively high likelihood of damage from the lay up of the laminate, geometry and type of
maintenance or other sources. The second type of loading, the B basis allowable must include
region is one where there is a relatively low these factors. This B basis allowable divided
probability of the structure being damaged in service. by the mean strength allowed when interpreting
The specific requirements for these two areas are the results of single complex component tests.
given in the table I. There are two other threats to the
structure that may cause an economic burden or b. Low cycle fatigue in composites. Government
adversely impact safety. These threats are hail research programs have demonstrated that
damage to the aircraft when parked and runway debris aerospace composite structures are relatively
damage to the aircraft from ground operations. The insensitive to low cycle fatigue loading for the
hailstone size for which the structure must be low stress cycles, but much more damaged by the
hardened was chosen to include most of the potentially high stress cycles. Unfortunately, the data base
damaging objects found in ground operations. The from which the high stress cycles for a new
velocity of these objects is dependent on the weapon aircraft are derived is somewhat meager.
system. The details of the hail and runway debris Consequently, care must be used in defining the
requirements are shown in the table II. The loading design usage.
spectrum and environmental conditioning for the
testing associated with table I and table II c. Battle damage. For many composite structures,
requirements will be the same as that described for the the damage tolerance requirements will
durability tests. determine the allowable strain. However, the
battle damage requirements are likely to
Additional damage considerations. In addition to the influence the composite structure arrangement.
threats described above, the safety of flight structure For example, the need to contain battle damage to
must be designed to meet other damage threats. These prevent catastrophic loss of the aircraft may well
threats are those associated with manufacturing and dictate the use of fastener systems and/or
in-service damage from normal usage and battle softening strips. The battle damage threat must
damage. The non-battle damage sources are described be examined in the initial phase of the design. A
in table III for manufacturing initial flaws and in- fall out capability for battle damage based on
service damage. The design development tests to configurations that meet all other requirements
demonstrate that the structure can tolerate these may not be adequate.
140
d. Extreme loading of composites. Since the of failure of cadmium plated titanium fasteners
composites may be critical for the severe loading under ideal conditions, to no failures in instances
cases, care must be exercised to assure that these where some of the variables are less than ideal.
high level load occurrences are properly taken
into account in the force management tracking After the temperature base was established by flight
program. tests, a theoretical damage tolerance assessment
program was initiated. This analysis defined such
e. Residual strength. To obtain the desired high items as type of crack, limit stress, and critical crack
confidence that the structure meets the residual length for each component in question.
strength requirement in the composite
components, it may be necessary to show that the Several contractor/military survey teams were
growth of the initial flaws is insignificant. assembled to physically examine titanium components
Similar to durability testing, there should be a in contact with cadmium, especially those exposed to
program to assess the sensitivity to changes in the temperatures above 4500F on a high time aircraft. A
baseline design usage spectrum. stereoscopic microscope and a fiber optic rod
borescope were used in conjunction with florescent
f. Modification programs. For modification penetrant to help enhance the capability to locate any
programs, reference the requirements of the cracks around fastener holes. Several components
original development program if they are still were exchanged and the original part examined by
technically valid and cost effective. Otherwise various metallurgical techniques such as the scanning
leave 5.5.2.12 unchanged. electron microscope and X-ray image scans. No
cadmium related cracks were found. Therefore,
In a fighter airplane, many delaminations occurred cadmium/titanium contact on this series of aircraft
between the aluminum skin and aluminum honeycomb under service environment experienced does not
in a high temperature and high humidity environment. constitute an operational problem.
A recommended improved adhesive was implemented
in the form of a corrosion inhibiting primer, a superior A realistic laboratory test was devised. Specimens
adhesive, and a change to phosphoric acid etching. which represented the various Cad/Ti hardware
These improved materials with the requirement for combinations were assembled and exposed for time,
hermetical sealing and for leak checking critical temperature, and stress levels of the operational
bonded structures plus improvements in the bond shop aircraft. The fabrication and assembly were performed
environment dramatically improved the structure. by standard manufacturing procedures, except
After temperature base was established by flight tests, maximum torque values were used, and the
a theoretical damage tolerance assessment program installation was made dry (without the use of primer).
was initiated. This analysis defined such items as type The results indicated that cracking of titanium
of crack, limit stress, and critical crack length for each components will not occur from solid cadmium
component in question. embrittlement when exposed to the following
Cadmium interaction with titanium. Cadmium plate conditions:
fasteners have been assembled in direct contact with a. Maximum permissible torque.
titanium alloy (Ti-6AI-4v) hardware in an all metal
weapon system airframe. Cadmium is a widely b. Surface contact between cadmium and base
recognized contaminant of titanium and is generally titanium caused by failure to apply epoxy sealant
known to cause embrittlement cracking of titanium. to holes prior to fastener installation.
Titanium clips were inspected in two air vehicles to
determine if a problem did actually exist. One of the c. Temperature of 5000F for times equivalent to
clips, located in a very high temperature area did 8000 hours of service.
produce a crack. An extensive investigation to
evaluate the effect of Cad/Ti interfaces in actual d. Over temperature conditions of 6000F for one
airframe hardware has been conducted. This survey hour after completion of exposure of 5000F.
found:
e. Various modes of contact between cadmium and
a. That even though cadmium plated fasteners were titanium including: thread to thread, shank to
being used in conjunction with titanium, no hole, and flat surface to flat surface.
service failures were reported.
Several additional high fit stress (82% of limit) tests
b. Additional laboratory tests suggested there might were performed at 5000F and 3000F. Cracking
be a problem. The latest literature puts emphasis occurred in all the titanium holes of the specimens
on laboratory test results involving high tensile tested at 5000F, but the low temperature specimens did
stress in the titanium and intimate contact at the not crack. In actual service all of the significant
Cad/Ti interface at high temperature. It was factors; high stress, high temperature, and no diffusion
apparent that there were conflicts between barrier, such as epoxy primer are generally not present
theoretical results, laboratory results, and actual and, therefore, cracking does not develop.
experience. The literature survey presents a story
of laboratory test results with a high percentage
141
Silver plating. Silver embrittlement can pose the same condition and shall be subject to testing for
threat as cadmium embrittlement, as was observed in a verification of minimum design properties after
cowling of a light air/ground fighter. final processing.
c. A basis design allowables shall be used in the The additional guidance on material systems contained
design of all critical parts (see definitions section, in MIL-STD-1568, MIL-STD 1587, and AFSC DH 1-
definitions ______ through ______). A basis 2 should serve as the baseline approach for addressing
design allowables shall also be used in the design materials systems requirements and should be deviated
of structure not tested to ultimate load in full from only with appropriate supporting engineering
scale landing gear testing. B basis design justification. These documents provide extensive
allowables may be used for all other structure guidance/lessons learned for materials and materials
which include: ____________ processes selection, application, and support
throughout the life cycle of the airframe.
d. S basis design allowables are acceptable for Metallic material properties. Properties of materials
design when A or B basis allowables are not for design purposes should be obtained from MIL-
available, provided they are specified in a HDBK-5 or developed, substantiated, and analyzed
governing industry/government document that using statistical analysis criteria and procedures
contains quality assurance provisions at the heat, consistent with those presented in MIL-HDBK-5.
lot, and batch level in the as-received material MIL-HDBK-5 statistical techniques are employed for
condition. Appropriate test coupons shall maintaining uniformity in the presentation of "A"
accompany the material in the as-received
142
basis allowables, whereby 99% of the population of subsurface hardness should not exceed two (2)
values is expected to equal or exceed the "A" basis Rockwell C (HRC).
mechanical property allowables, with a confidence of
95%. In the presentation of "B" basis allowables, 90% h. The mechanical drilling of holes in martensitic
of the population of values is expected to equal or steels after hardening to strength levels of
exceed the "B" basis mechanical property allowables 180,000 psi and above should be avoided. When
with a confidence of 95%. MIL-HDBK-5 represents such drilling is unavoidable, the procedure used
effect-of-temperature curves on the mechanical should be fully substantiated and documented in
properties of metallic properties as well as curves on the appropriate process specification. When
creep, thermal elongation, and temperature fatigue. required for close tolerance holes or removal of
Any variance from MIL-HDBK-5 methods for decarburization, holes may be reamed after final
determining reliable mechanical and physical heat treatment. Reaming should be followed by
properties should be fully substantiated and retempering at a temperature not more than 50oF
documented. Where it is necessary to develop data for below the specified tempering temperature.
materials, the test materials and processes should be Reamed holes require a non-embrittling temper
those intended for use in production aircraft. The etch inspection.
generation and analysis of test data for new material
i. Grinding of martensitic steels and chromium
should follow the guideline presented in Chapter 9 of
plated martensitic steels hardened to 200,000 psi
MIL-HDBK-5.
and above should be performed in accordance
Selection of Steels. Selection of steels should be as with MIL-STD-866.
follows:
j. Maximum use of materials with high fracture
a. Aircraft quality, vacuum-melted steel should be toughness is required. Ferrous materials with
used for parts which are heat treated to an fracture toughness of less than 100 ksi-in1/2 in
ultimate tensile strength of 200,000 psi and
the longitudinal direction, and 95 ksi-in1/2 in the
above.
transverse direction should not be used in fracture
b. The maximum ultimate tensile strength of critical traceable fracture critical, or maintenance
production parts should not be greater than critical applications.
20,000 psi above the established allowable
k. H-11, D6-AC, 4340M, and 300M steels should
minimum requirement.
not be used.
c. Preference should be given, in selection of carbon
Corrosion-Resistant Steels. The following limitations
and low alloy steels, to compositions having the
should be observed in the selection and application of
least hardenability which will provide through-
corrosion-resistant steels:
hardening of the part concerned.
a. Unstabilized austenitic steels should not be
d. Compositions should be selected such that heat
fusion welded.
treatment to the required strength and service
temperatures should preclude tempered b. Precipitation hardening semi-austenitic grades
martensite embrittlement and temper should not be used in applications which require
embrittlement. extended exposure to temperatures in the 750F
e. Steels should be selected having ductile-brittle through 900F range.
fracture transition temperatures as determined by c. 431 and 19-9DL steel should not be used.
impact test below the minimum operating
temperature. d. Precipitation hardening stainless steels should be
aged at temperatures not less than 1025F.
f. Steels whose mechanical properties are Castings may be aged at 935F plus or minus
developed by cold deformation should have 15F, and springs in the CH900 condition may
recovery temperature of at least 50oF above the be used.
expected operating temperature range.
e. Corrosion-Resistant Maraging Steels (ALMAR
g. Critical parts should be designed and processed 362, CUSTOM 455, CUSTOM 450) should be
so as to result in no decarburization in excess of aged at temperatures not less than 1000F.
0.003 in. in highly stressed areas. Elsewhere,
decarburization should be avoided, and where f. The 400 Series martensitic steels should not be
unavoidable, should be compensated by used in the 150,000 to 180,000 psi strength
appropriate reductions in design fatigue strength. range.
Unless otherwise specified, design should g. Free machining stainless steel should be avoided
preclude use of as-forged surfaces. Carburization for all critical Aluminum Alloys. Whenever the
and partial decarburization of fully hardened steel design requires the selection of aluminum for
parts should be restricted such that the difference structural applications, maximum use should be
in hardness from the surface to the nominal made of alloys and heat treatments which
143
minimize susceptibility to pitting, exfoliation, condition prior to bonding. The references above to
and stress corrosion. Recommended alloys and exterior surfaces and skin mean the external surface
tempers for exfoliation and stress corrosion only, and do not preclude use of material clad only on
resistance are given: one side, or the removal of cladding from internal
surfaces. Clad, high strength aluminum alloys should
not be fusion welded.
EXFOLIATION RESISTENCE Aluminum Alloy Selection Limitations. The use of
2020, 7079, and 7170 is not advisable without
engineering justification and procuring activity
Alloy Temper approval. The use of 2000 series T3 and T4 temper
alloys greater than 0.125 in. thickness and 7075-T6
alloys greater than 0.080 in. thickness is not advisable
2014 Artificially Aged without engineering justification and procuring
activity approval.
2024 Artificially Aged
Titanium and Titanium Alloys. Titanium alloy
2124 Artificially Aged
extrusions should be procured in accordance with the
2219 Artificially Aged requirements of MIL-T-81556. All titanium bar and
forging stock should be procured in accordance with
7049 T76XX, T73XX the requirements of MIL-T-9047 or MIL-F-83142 as
7050 T76XX, T74XX appropriate and supplemented by such contractor
documents as necessary to insure the metallurgical and
7075 T76XX, T74XX structural properties required to meet the reliability
7150 T77XX and durability requirements of the system.
7175 T76XX, T74XX Titanium Sheet and Plate. Titanium sheet and plate
stock should be procured to meet the requirements of
MIL-T-9046, as supplemented by contractor
specifications, drawing notes, or other approved
STRESS CORROSION RESISTANCE
documents which reflect quality, properties, and
processing to provide material suitable for its intended
use.
Alloy Temper
Titanium Fretting. Application of titanium should be
designed to avoid fretting and the associated reduction
2024 Artificially Aged in fatigue life. Components should be designed to
fretting allowables. Analyses should be conducted for
2124 Artificially Aged all fretting conditions and should be augmented when
2219 Artificially Aged necessary by testing to insure that fatigue life
requirements are met. In lieu of repeat testing, the
7050 T73XX results of previous element or component tests that
studied fretting may be used to establish design factors
7050 T74XX for similar applications where fretting may occur.
7075 T73XX Titanium Alloy Prohibition. The use of titanium alloy
7175 T73XX 8Al-1Mo-1V in other than the beta heat treated
condition is not recommended without engineering
7175 T74XX justification and procuring activity approval.
7475 T73XX Surface Considerations for Titanium Alloys. All
surfaces of titanium parts should be free of alpha case
and, if necessary, should be machined or chemically
In the event these alloys and tempers, or other milled to eliminate all contaminated zones or flaws
approved alloys are not used, the susceptibility to formed during processing. Titanium fasteners or
stress corrosion cracking of the selected alloy should components should not be cadmium or silver plated.
be established for each application in accordance with
the American Society for Testing and Materials Magnesium Alloys. These alloys are not suitable for
(ASTM), test methods ASTM G44 and ASTM G47. salt water environments and should not be used
without engineering justification and procuring
Clad Aluminum Alloys. Suitably clad or inherently activity approval.
corrosion-resistant alloy should be used in exterior
skin which (1) is 0.125 in. or less in thickness, (2) Beryllium and Beryllium Base Alloys. Beryllium and
forms a leading edge, exhaust trail area of any source, beryllium based alloys are classified as hazardous
or wheel well area, (3) is spot or seam welded, or (4) material systems and should not be used without the
is the face sheet in bonded sandwich construction. To approval of the procuring activity. Beryllium copper
preclude partial aging in heat treatable alloys, the alloys containing less than 2% beryllium by weight
bonded sheet should be in the artificially aged have generally not been considered hazardous.
144
Beryllium Copper Alloys. For high bearing load information should be retained and documented
applications, critical wear applications, and wear by the contractor.
applications where good structural load capability is
required, the use of a beryllium copper alloy is (1) Residual Stresses in Forgings. Procedures
recommended. Alloy UNS C17200 or UNS C17300 used to fabricate structural forgings for
or equivalent is required. Wrought beryllium copper fatigue critical applications should minimize
should be acquired to ASTM B196, ASTM B197, or residual tensile stresses. Procedures for heat
ASTM B194. Beryllium copper castings should be treatment, straightening and machining
acquired to AMS 4890, and classified (class and should be utilized which ensure minimum
grade) per MIL-STD-2175. residual tensile stresses.
Bronze Bearing Alloys. For moderate and light duty c. Castings including those cold/hot isostatically
bearing loads, wrought UNS C63000 aluminum-nickel pressed. (C/HIP). Castings should be classified
bronze per ASTM B150 and ASTM B169 is the and inspected in accordance with MIL-STD-
preferred alloy. Aluminum bronze (alloys UNS 2175. Aluminum castings should confirm to the
C95200-C95800) and manganese bronze (alloys UNS requirements of MIL-A-21180. AMS 5355
C86100-C86800) castings are acceptable and, where should be used for 17-4 pH castings. The use of
used, should be classified (class and grade per MIL- castings or C/HIPed parts for primary or critical
STD-2175, and acquired per QQ-C-390. The use of applications requires successful completion of a
bronze alloys other than those discussed above should developmental and qualification program.
be avoided. Avionics equipment castings should be in
accordance with MIL-STD-5400.
Nickel and Cobalt Base (Superalloy) Alloys. The use
of nickel and cobalt base superalloys is acceptable. d. Plate. The use of aluminum alloy plate starting
For light gage welded ducting, Inconel 625 (UNS stock equal to or greater than four inches in
N06625) per AMS 5581, AMS 5599, or equivalent is thickness should be avoided without engineering
required. Nickel and cobalt base superalloy casting justification and procuring activity approval.
classification, grade, and inspection standard, with Composite material properties. Properties for
justification including effects of defects analysis, composite materials should be obtained from MIL-
should be fully substantiated and documented. HDBK-17 (if available) or developed, substantiated,
Material Product Forms. and analyzed using statistical analysis criteria and
procedures consistent with those presented in the
a. Extrusions. Extrusion should be produced in appendix to Volume II of MIL-HDBK-17. Additional
accordance with QQ-A-200 for aluminum, MIL- guidance for design and application of composite
S-46059 for steel , and MIL-T-81556 for material systems are described in MIL-P-9400, MIL-
titanium. Titanium extrusions to be used in T-29586, and the composites subparagraphs of MIL-
applications requiring little or no subsequent STD-1587. These properties should account for those
machining should be ordered with a class C characteristics of fibrous composites which are
finish (descaled, free of alpha case). associated with the required operating environments
b. Forgings. All structural forgings should comply (including representative moisture conditions), the
with the following requirements. Forgings directionality of the fibers, and the construction
should be produced in accordance with MIL-F- variables. The properties should include, but not be
7190 for steel, MIL-A-22771 for aluminum, and limited to, tension, compression, shear fatigue, and the
MIL-F-83142 or MIL-T-9047 as appropriate for associated elastic constants.
titanium. The ultrasonic requirements for Selection of composite materials. The selection of the
titanium should be fully substantiated and materials to be used for structural applications should
documented. The forging dimensional design take into account all factors which affect required
must consider forging allowances such as strength, rigidity, and structural reliability. Such
parting line with regard to final machining such factors should include, but are not limited to, chemical
that short transverse grains (end grains) are characterization of the resin matrix of the composite
minimized at the surface of the part. After each pre-preg, impact damage, delaminations from
forging technique (including degree of manufacturing, scratched, electromagnetic
reduction) is established, the first production environmental effects, bird strikes, hail damage,
forging should be sectioned and etched to show manufacturing processes; static, repeated, transient,
the grain flow pattern and to determine vibratory, and shock loads; and specific effects of
mechanical properties at critical design points. operating environment associated with reduced and
Sectioning should be repeated after any major elevated temperatures, (including effects of various
change in the forging technique. Orientation of operating chemicals on composites) repeated exposure
predominant design stresses in a direction to climatic, erosive, and scuffing conditions, the use of
parallel to the grain flow should be maximized. protective finishes, the effects of stress concentrations,
The pattern should be essentially free from re- and the effects of fatigue loads on composite
entrant or sharply folded flow lines. All such endurance limit and ultimate strength. The actual
145
values of properties used for structural design should organic materials used in the fabrication of aircraft
include such effects. Field and depot repair structures and components:
procedures should be established for accepted
applications of fibrous composite aircraft structures. a. All organic materials should have resistance to
Such procedures should be documented for subsequent degradation and aging (including resistance to
incorporation in pertinent structural repair manuals. hydrolysis, ozonolysis, and other degradive
Composite material selection should allow a minimum chemical processes attendant upon atmospheric
exposure), and minimum flammability
50F wet glass transition temperature margin above
consistent with performance requirements for
the service design temperature as measured by
the intended use.
dynamic mechanical analysis.
b. Organic materials used in contact with other
Environmental exposure and conditioning. The
types of materials, metals, and/or other organics
temperature exposure range of the composite materials
should be separated by suitable barrier materials,
should include the full range of temperatures
should not induce corrosion or stress corrosion,
anticipated during the life of the aircraft including -
and should be otherwise entirely compatible.
65F and aerodynamic heating based on MIL-
Decomposition and other products, including
STD-210 and local heat source effects. The design
volatile and leachable constituents, released by
moisture content should be expressed as a percentage
organic materials under normal operating
of weight gained due to moisture absorption. The
conditions should not be injurious or otherwise
design moisture content should be achieved by
objectionable with respect to materials or
subjecting the test specimens to temperatures equal to
components or to personnel with which they
or less than the maximum operating temperature
may be reasonably expected to come in contact.
experienced on the aircraft for a given material system
and as percent relative humidity simulating the worst c. Cellular plastics, foams, and wood should not be
case moisture gain environment until either: (a) a used for skin stabilization in structural
specified percent of weight gain is achieved, (b) components, other than in all-plastic sandwich
equilibrium is reached, or (c) 75 days are needed. components as specified herein. Use of foam as
sandwich core material should be fully
Lamina. For purposes of developing the lamina
substantiated and documented.
properties of the fibrous composites, specimens from a
minimum of three batches (which includes three resin d. Natural leather should not be used.
batches in combination with three fiber lots) of
material should be tested to arrive at minimum e. Elastomeric encapsulating compounds used
mechanical properties above which at least 90% of the should conform to MIL-S-8516, MIL-S-23586,
population values is expected to fall with a confidence MIL-M-24041, MIL-A-46146, or MIL-I-81550.
of 95%. Use of hydrolytically unstable encapsulation
materials is not advisable without engineering
Laminates. Composite laminate properties which are justification and procuring activity approval.
established from single ply properties through Use of polyester polyurethanes requires
analytical techniques should be substantiated by the substantiation of hydrolytic stability.
performance of a sufficient number of laminate tests to
permit the statistical evaluation of the laminate. This f. Adhesives used in the fabrication of aircraft
analysis should produce design values for minimum structure, including metal faced and metal core
mechanical properties above which at least 90% of the sandwich, should be fully substantiated and
population values are expected to fall with a documented.
confidence of 95%. The test data should be correlated g. Integral fuel tank sealing compounds should
with the design values obtained by the analytical conform to MIL-S-8784, MIL-S-8802, MIL-S-
techniques and appropriate corrections should be made 29574, and MIL-S-83430.
to the structural design margins-of-safety. When a
fibrous composite of specified constituent composition h. Materials that are in direct contact with fuels
and construction in all respects representative of the should be resistant to fuel-related deterioration
material to be used in a new application, has been used and capable of preventing leakage of the fuel.
previously in sufficient quantities to establish i. All elastomeric components should possess
adequacy of its properties, such properties may be adequate resistance to aging, operational
used for structural design in the new application. The environmental conditions, and fluid exposure for
design allowable for a given environmental condition the intended system use.
should be established by testing a reduced number of
specimens for combined temperature-moisture Transparent materials. Transparent materials used in
environmental conditions. However, the equivalence the fabrication of cockpit canopies, cabin enclosures,
of the established properties to those for the material windshields, windows, and ports should be limited
intended for the new application should be within the following restrictions:
substantiated by the appropriate tests.
a. Acrylic plastic should be of the stretched type,
Organic materials. The following restrictions should conforming to MIL-P-25690. Stretched acrylic
apply to the selection of elastomers, plastics, and other plastic should not be used where it will be
exposed to temperatures above 250F.
146
b. Laminated glass should conform to MIL-G- may be directly referenced in the strength
25871 and bullet resistant glass should conform analyses report. Property values from sources
to MIL-G-5485. other than MIL-HDBK-17, military
specifications, or contractor-generated values,
c. The use of polycarbonate should be fully previously approved by the acquisition activity,
substantiated and documented. are typically presented in a manner similar to the
Composite design considerations. presentation in MIL-HDBK-5. However,
properties which are unique for fibrous
a. Plastics and glass fiber reinforced plastics composites, due to their special characteristics
conventionally conform to the requirements associated with directionality of fiber and
contained in MIL-HDBK-17. Design data and construction variables, are included. A sufficient
properties may be obtained from MIL-HDBK-17, number of specimens are tested to arrive at "B"
developed in accordance with the methods minimum mechanical-property values which at
prescribed in MIL-HDBK-17, or obtained from least 90% of the population of values is expected
other sources subject to the approval by the to fail with a confidence of 95%. Fibrous
acquisition activity. The requirements in MIL- construction representative of successful previous
STD-1587 covering composites and adhesive usage may be used for structural design in the
bonding are applicable. Base use of glass fiber new application, provided its material properties
reinforced plastic upon weight saving, strength are established by appropriate test substantiation.
maintainability, adequacy of manufacturing
methods, and temperature-strength relationship. f. Fibrous composite property values, from sources
MIL-P-9400 should be considered in the other than MIL-HDBK-17 or contractor
fabrication of fiber reinforced plastics, using generated values previously approved by the
resins which conform to MIL-R-7575, MIL-R- acquisition activity, should address the following:
9299, or MIL-R-9300.
(1) Mechanical properties. Mechanical properties
b. Advanced composites materials usually conform for use as structural design allowables should
to the specifications contained in contractor- be furnished for fibrous composites. Such
prepared documentation acceptable to the properties should be compatible with the
acquisition activity. The guidance for composites applicable analysis procedures, conditions, and
and adhesive bonding in MIL-STD-1587 should configurations. Typically, the following
be considered mechanical properties include:
c. All applicable environmental effects should be
accounted for in establishing allowables for (a) Tensile ultimate strength-longitudinal (0) and
structural components. Temperatures should be transverse (90) including attendant elongation.
derived from the projected operational usage of
the aircraft and moisture conditions should range (b) Tensile yield strength-longitudinal and
from dry to the end of lifetime condition expected transverse.
from a basing scenario that is representative. The
(c) Compressive ultimate strength-longitudinal and
allowable for a given flight condition should be
transverse including attendant deformation.
based on the temperature appropriate for that
flight condition combined with the most critical (d) Compressive yield strength-longitudinal and
of the range of possible moisture conditions. The transverse.
factor of uncertainty to be used in the application
of the allowables derived above is 1.5. Since the (e) Interlaminar tension
strength of a composite structure is inherently
dependent on, for example, the lay-up of the (f) Shear ultimate strength-membrane and
laminate, geometry, and type of loading, the interlaminar.
allowable must include these factors.
(g) Core shear strength.
d. Structural sandwich composites design data and
properties should satisfy the requirements of (h) Flexural strength.
applicable sources subject to the approval of the
acquisition activity. The guidance on adhesive (i) Bearing ultimate strength.
bonding and sandwich assemblies contained in
MIL-STD-1587 as well as those within DN 7B1- (j) Bearing yield strength.
11 of AFSC DH 1-2 should be considered. Limit
load residual strength of bonded structural (k) Modulus of elasticity.
components (assuming 100% failure of the bond
line) is a baseline performance requirement. (l) Poisson's ration.
(2) Typical properties. Physical properties and associated with hole elongation and shear tear-
certain other properties of the fibrous out criteria; compression strength associated
composite materials intended for use in the with failure criteria such as crazing or other
design and construction of aircraft should be matrix properties degradation when such
developed as typical (average) values. For degradation is sufficient to result in incipient
such properties, information on data scatter fatigue failure. Wet properties are established
should be prepared based on applicable test when they differ from dry properties. Material
values. Typically such properties include the systems which lose strength during the
following: airframe's expected life due to moisture and
temperature excursions are to be accounted for
(a) Full range tensile stress-strain curves with in reducing and establishing the "B" allowable
tabulated modulus data. strength level.
(4) Substantiation of composite strength. For
(b) Full range compressive stress-strain and tangent substantiation of the structural integrity of
modulus curves. composites, the following should be
established:
(c) Shear stress-strain and tangent modulus curves.
(d) Flexural stress-strain curves. (a) Expected absorption rate and saturation level of
moisture in the composite matrix.
(e) Fatigue data-tension and tension/compression
stress-life curves. (b) Resultant strength/modulus and fatigue life
degradation associated with this moisture
(f) Reduced and elevated temperature effects- content and expected temperature extremes.
temperature range from -65F to a maximum of
+160F or to the maximum elevated temperature (c) Design allowables reflecting the most extreme
to be encountered by the vehicle under applicable conditions.
acquisition, whichever is greater.
(d) A statistical description of composite failure
(g) Directional variation of mechanical properties parameters achieved by pooling observations
include 360 polar plots as appropriate. from replicated sample sizes of 5 or more to
establish batch-to-batch and within-a-batch
(h) Pullout strength of material with mechanical variability.
fasteners (or without fasteners for
cocured/cobonded structure). (e) Validity of fatigue/environment interaction
effects from coupon tests by tests of
(i) Variation of mechanical properties with laminate representative subcomponent structure.
thickness and with test specimen width.
(f) The reduction in residual strength capability as a
(j) Creep rupture curves. result of exposure to fatigue loads with thermal
and humidity environment (wear-out) for bolted
(k) Effects of fatigue loads on mechanical and bonded joints and complex laminate
properties. cionfiguration.
between disciplines for the same component from a contribute to unacceptable degradation of the
materials processing and applications viewpoint. properties of the materials when the landing gear is
Check the material properties development exposed to operational usage and support
requirements for the different disciplines (strength, environments.
aeroelasticity, durability and damage tolerance) for Specific material processing requirements are:
consistency and congruency within the applicable
discipline and between all structures disciplines. This a. ________________.
requirement is also applicable to other materials,
including metallic materials. b. _________________.
During an evaluation of the effects of various fluids on REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
composite materials, graphite/polyimide coupons in
tin cans containing a combination of jet fuel and salt This requirement is needed to define material
water solution were seen to suffer degradation induced processes and joining methods to ensure adequacy of
by galvanic corrosion. Testing has shown that the the airframe in meeting structural integrity
experiment in question was unrealistically severe. requirements.
However, a unique effect associated with -imide resins
in the presence of corrosion by-products was REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
discovered.
The potential for galvanic metal corrosion resulting The guidance contained in MIL-STD-1568 and MIL-
from contact with graphite reinforced epoxies has long STD-1587 should serve as the baseline approach for
been recognized, and design practices have been addressing materials/processes and corrosion
established to work around this potential. Sufficient requirements and should be deviated from only with
experience is in place such that no design knockdowns appropriate supporting engineering justification. MIL-
are required when working with such materials (MIL- STD-1568 and MIL-STD-1587 provide extensive
STD-1586: Materials and Processes for Corrosion guidance/lessons learned for materials processes
Prevention and a Control in Aerospace Weapons selection and application.
Systems; MIL-F-7179: Finishes and Coatings,
General Specification for Protection of Aircraft and Metallics processing.
Aircraft Parts). Heat treatment. Heat treatment of aluminum alloys
An industry working group was convened to evaluate should be in accordance with the material
the unique -imide phenomenon and develop a specification and MIL-H-6088. Titanium should be
recommended position. USAF Wright Laboratory heat treated in accordance with the material
Materials Directorate and Naval Air Warfare Center specification and MIL-H-81200. Steels should be heat
personnel participated. The results of their findings treated in accordance with the material specification
were presented at a workshop hosted by USAF Wright and MIL-H-6875. All reasonable precautions should
Laboratory Materials Directorate in 1991. be taken to minimize distortion during heat treatment.
Steel parts which require straightening after hardening
Findings: The unique findings of this working group to 180,000 psi or below may be cold straightened
was that galvanic corrosion by-products can degrade - provided a stress relieving heat treatment is
imide resins. Testing was performed with various subsequently applied. Except for the 14Co-10Ni
polyimide, fluid, and metal combinations. -Imide family of alloys, straightening of parts hardened to
resin degradation was found to occur only when: tensile strengths above 180,000 psi ultimate tensile
aggressive metal corrosion occurs where there is a strength should be accomplished at temperatures
mechanism for concentrating hydroxyl ions and where within the range from the tempering temperature to
the -OH concentrations are directly in contact with the 50F below the tempering temperature. The 14Co-
polyimide resin surface. Standard corrosion control 10Ni family of alloys may be straightened at room
procedures were found to be effective in protecting temperature in the as quenched condition (after
against this phenomenon, and engineering solutions austenitizing and prior to aging). Parts should be
were demonstrated through control of design and nondestructively inspected for cracks after
material selections. straightening.
Service experience with polyimide aircraft structures Quench rate sensitivity. Parts produced of materials
has shown no such reported corrosion problems. which (a) require quenching from elevated
Refer to MIL-STD-1568, MIL-STD-1587, SD-24, temperature to obtain required strength and, (b) have
MIL-HDBK-5, AFSC DH 1-2, and AFSC DH 1-7 for corrosion or stress corrosion resistance sensitivity as a
additional lessons learned and precautionary function of quench rate should be heat treated in a
information. form as near final size as practicable. Wrought
aluminum alloys that meet strength and other
B.5.2.16.2 PROCESSES requirements and have been mechanically stress
relieved by stretching or compressing (TXX51 or
The processes used to prepare and form the materials TXX52 heat treatments) may be machined directly to
for use in the landing gear as well as joining methods the final configuration.
shall be commensurate with the material application.
Further, the processes and joining methods shall not
149
Welding. Welded joints may be utilized in designs level of the part, its margin of safety, and the required
where shear stresses are predominant and tensile level of integrity of the part.
stresses are a minimum. Weldments involving steels
which transform on air cooling to microstructure other Reference the applicable military specifications and
than martensite should be normalized or otherwise documents and provide the indicated requirements in
processed to equivalent hardness in the weld zone. the appropriate blanks. If a subparagraph is not
Weldments in parts subject to fatigue conditions applicable, leave it out and re-letter the following
should be fully heat treated after welding, unless subparagraphs. For castings, MIL-STD-2175 is
otherwise specified. Precautionary measures applicable for classifying and inspecting. For
including preheat, interpass temperature control, and aluminum castings, MIL-A-21180 must be complied
postheating should be applied when welding air with, in structural applications. For magnesium
hardenable steels. Primary structural weldments castings, MIL-M-46062 or other casting specifications
should be stress relieved after all welding is in MIL-HDBK-5 may be applicable. For steel and
completed. During welding operations heated metal CRES castings, AMS 5343 or other casting
should be protected from detrimental contaminants. specifications in MIL-HDBK-5 may be applicable to
Spot welding of skins and heat shields should be structural applications. The margins of safety,
avoided unless approved corrosion control procedures considering "S" property values, are conventionally
subsequently are applied. not less than 0.33 unless a lower value can be
substantiated empirically. For premium grade
Weld bead removal. To avoid the possibility of stress aluminum castings of the A357-T6 alloy, the
corrosion or fatigue damage, all weld bead following margins of safety on yield and ultimate
reinforcement of fatigue and fracture critical parts strength are applicable for the radiographic inspection
should be accessible for machining after fabrication, quality grades as defined in MIL-A-21180. For grades
and should be fully machined. The weld bead "A" and "B", the margin of safety shall not be less
reinforcement on the interior diameter of tubular than 0.0. For grades "C" and "D" the margins of
structures should be fully machined if accessible. safety shall not be less than 0.33 and 1.0, respectively.
Conformance with welding specifications MIL-W- Flaws shall be assumed to exist in the repaired area
6858 (Resistance Welding), MIL-W-6873 (Flash and any heat affected zone in the parent material and
Welding), and MIL-STD-2219 (Fusion Welding for of a size and shape determined empirically. However,
Aerospace Applications) is required as applicable. the flaw sizes shall not be less than those required by
Qualification of welding operators should be in 5.6.6.11.1.1. Other casting requirements may need to
accordance with MIL-STD-1595. Weld quality be defined and those in AFSC DH 1-7 are applicable.
should conform to ASTM E-390, as applicable.
Forgings have had to conform to MIL-F-7190 for
Brazing. Brazing should be in accordance with MIL- steel, to MIL-A-22771 and QQ-A-367 for aluminum,
B-7883. Subsequent fusion welding operations or and to MIL-F-83142 for titanium. These requirements
other operations which involve high temperature in the have been proven necessary to assure structural
area of brazed joints should not be depended upon for integrity of the airframe.
any calculated strength in tension. When used, brazed
joints should be designed for shear loadings. Metallic parts, especially forgings, exhibit the greatest
Allowable shear strengths should conform to those in strength along the grain direction, which is imparted
MIL-HDBK-5. Titanium should not be brazed. as the metal is worked between the stages of ingot and
finished form.
Soldering. Soldering materials and processes should
be as specified in MIL-STD-2000. Soldering should Reference the applicable military specifications and
not be used as a sole means for securing any part of documents and provide the indicated requirements in
the airframe or controls. MIL-T-83399 should be the appropriate blanks. If a subparagraph is not
complied with for testing for removal of residual flux applicable, leave it out and re-letter the following
or by-products after soldering. The contractor should subparagraphs. For steel forgings, MIL-F-7190 is
establish a soldering schedule for each joint to be applicable. For aluminum forgings, MIL-A-22771 or
soldered and a flux neutralizing and removal schedule. QQ-A-367 is applicable. For titanium forgings, MIL-
Surface finish. The following surface roughness F-83142 is applicable. Other forging requirements
requirements for parts installed in aircraft should may need to be defined and those within MIL-STD-
apply: 1568, MIL-STD-1587, and AFSC DH 1-7 are
applicable.
a. The surface roughness of chemically or electro-
chemically milled parts should not be in excess of For rolled, extruded, or forged material forms, MIL-
200 microinches as defined in ANSI B46.1-1978. HDBK-5 tabulates allowable stresses for the
longitudinal (L), long transverse (LT), and short
b. The surface roughness of forgings, castings, and transverse (ST) grain directions. Forgings should be
machined surfaces not otherwise designated formed from such stock and dimensions that work
should not be in excess of 250 microinches. accomplished on the finished shape results in
approximately uniform grain size throughout. Employ
Castings are classified to establish the inspection and forging techniques that produce an internal grain flow
test procedures and requirements consistent with the pattern, so that the direction of flow in highly stressed
importance and criticality of the part, design stress areas is essentially parallel to the principal stresses.
Ensure that the forging grain flow pattern is essentially
150
free from reentrant and sharply folded flow lines. forging characteristics are used to the best advantage.
Ensure that the angle of grain direction at the surface Reduced mechanical properties usually exist in the
does not exceed 90 degrees. vicinity of the parting plane.
Composites processing. Composite processing should Aluminum die forgings are frequently subject to
pay strict attention to process control to ensure the full unhealed porosity in the areas of the parting plane.
development of engineering properties. Materials Steel parts are also subject to reduced tensile
allowables development must accurately represent allowable stresses across the parting plane. Since
actual manufacturing conditions including lay-up, these characteristics significantly affect the
cutting, drilling, machining, and curing. Statistical mechanical properties of the finished part, they should
Process Control (SPC) should ensure process be considered in the design, the sizing, and the
optimization and control through in-process strength analysis of the forged part.
monitoring and recording. An SPC Plan for
composites should be established. The SPC Plan Experience has shown that most fatigue cracking
should take into account all process variables which problems originate on the outer surface of parts. Shot
influence the final composite product including peening has been found to produce compressive
receiving inspection, handling, environmental stresses in this region and delay the occurrence of this
controls, dimensional controls, processing, curing, type of cracking. The compressive stresses on the
machining, etc. outer surface also have reduced the maintenance
burden from corrosion and wear. Parts that are
Shot peening. Metallic parts that require fatigue life designed with the intent to employ the fatigue benefits
enhancement in areas away from fastener holes or of shot peening in meeting the required structural life
corrosion resistance should be shot peened. For non- must use the computer controlled processes of AMS
critical parts, the requirements of AMS 2430L are 2432A.
considered adequate. For critical parts, including
5.5.1.3.2, fatigue/fracture critical parts; 5.5.1.3.3,
maintenance critical parts; and 5.1.3.4, mission critical B.5.2.17 FINISHES
parts; the requirements of AMS 2432A should be
used. The landing gear and its components shall be finished
in compliance with the following requirements.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
a. Environmental Protection. ________________.
It has been mandatory to conform to MIL-STD-2175 Specific organic and inorganic surface treatments
for classifying and inspecting castings, in order to and coatings used for corrosion prevention and
reduce the possibility of parts failure. The single control must be identified and established.
failure of a Class 1A casting could not only cause
significant danger to operating personnel, but could
result in loss of the air vehicle. It has also been a. Visibility. ______________.
mandatory to conform to MIL-A-21180 for aluminum,
to MIL-M-46062 for magnesium, and to MIL-S-46052 b. Identification. _____________.
for low alloy steel in the use of high strength casting
applications. These specifications are necessary for c. Aerodynamically smooth exterior surfaces.
prescribing the composition, inspection, mechanical ____________________.
properties, and quality assurance requirements of high
strength castings produced by any method. It is d. Other. ___________________.
necessary to limit the margin of safety to 0.33, in order
to account for the lower strength of production REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
castings, which may be as low as 75% of MIL-HDBK-
5 tabulated values. It is the policy of some contractors Structural and other parts of the airframe need to be
to mandate a margin of safety even greater than 0.33. protected from adverse environments, including man-
Experience has shown that special considerations are made as well as natural to enhance their useful life and
required in the design and strength analysis of to reduce maintenance down-time and costs.
forgings. In general, small quantities of hand Visibility and identification finishes used on the
forgings, made by blacksmithing bars or billets with airframe must also be addressed to assure that they do
flat dies, are less expensive than die forgings, but hand not adversely affect the airframe. Environmental
forgings also have lower allowable stress levels. regulations/laws must be addressed to ensure the
Because of the time required to manufacture dies for finishes used on the airframe are in compliance with
die forged parts, it may be necessary to use substitute applicable environmental protection regulations.
parts on the earlier production aircraft. These
substitute parts may be machined from bar stock or REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
hand forgings. The strength analyst should be aware
of the fact that substitute parts have different material Identify and reference appropriate finish requirements
properties than die forgings. The design of die for preservation (including corrosion prevention and
forgings dictates the direction of grain flow and the control), visibility, and identification, and insert N/A
designer strives to make certain that the inherent for those areas which are not applicable. The
151
guidance contained in MIL-STD-1568, MIL-S-5002, known method that will reliably detect this condition.
and MIL-F-7179 should serve as the baseline One method of positive bond control is overall proof
approach for identification and application finishes load testing. Another is local loading by a suction cup
and should be deviated from only with appropriate or a secondary bonded pad. Contamination typically
supporting engineering justification. For modification affects an entire bonded surface rather than a local
programs reference the requirements of the original area, and as such testing of a tag end from each
development program if they are still technically valid bonded panel may be sufficient. The flight
and cost effective. Otherwise, identify and reference environment will include temperatures, air loads,
applicable portions of MIL-STD-1568, MIL-S-5002, structural strains and deflections, vibrations, bird
MIL-F-7179, MIL-M-25047. The selection and impacts, rain, hail, salt air, etc. The ground
application of all organic and inorganic surface environment will include humidity, temperature,
treatments and coatings should comply with air quality impact from runway debris, salt spray, fuel and other
requirements. Exterior surfaces should be system fluids, rain, hail, dust, etc. The maintenance
aerodynamically smooth. Organic coatings (other environment will include impact damage from
than fire insulating paints) should not be used for dropped tools and line replaceable units, abrasion, and
temperature control in inaccessible areas. cleaning fluids. In general, both the number of hours
of exposure and the number of cycles of application of
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED each parameter may influence the durability behavior
of the coating, film or layer, and the means of
Primers, topcoatings, specialty coatings, cleaner, attachment. The time period inserted in the blank
corrosion preventative compounds, etc. have been depends upon the requirements of each system, but
reformulated to comply with lower volatile organic two airframe service lifetimes of 5.5.2.14 is
compounds (VOC) content requirements recommended. The guidance contained in MIL-STD-
(environmental regulations). 1568, MIL-S-5002, and MIL-F-7179 should serve as
the baseline approach for identification and
B.5.2.18 NON-STRUCTURAL COATINGS, application finishes and should be deviated from only
FILMS, AND LAYERS with appropriate supporting engineering justification.
Any likely type of propulsion system failure including Flight control systems are becoming quite complex;
the airframe parts of the propulsion system that can however, they all function based on some pilot or crew
have an adverse effect on the structural integrity of the member command resulting in some control surface
airframe, including extinguishable fires, should be response inducing an anticipated air vehicle response.
considered. Abrupt engine failure conditions, Any single element failure of the flight control system
including unstarts, seizures, and the failure of active which prevents the pilot's command from resulting in
cooling systems, should be considered at all speeds. a reasonable air vehicle response is a candidate for
Pilot action to mitigate the impact of the failure should causing a potential airframe problem.
be started no earlier than two seconds after the List all other failures that can have an impact upon the
detection of the failure. Define the applicable structural integrity of the airframe. Special
propulsion system failures in the blank. consideration should be given to new or unique
Historical data indicate that the likely cause of failure systems. Examples of such systems are pneumatic
is from bird strikes, hail, or pressurization. The back- systems and structural active cooling systems.
up and other structure exposed after the failure of the
radome should not deform detrimentally or fail. REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
Define the applicable radome failures in the blank.
Heavy air/ground fighter: Aircraft blew both main
The expanded use of composites (dielectrics in tires upon landing. Touchdown was approximately
particular) may have unique structural integrity 1100 feet down runway. Upon touchdown, smoke
implications as in the use of radar absorbing structure was observed from behind both main gears. One
of various kinds for stealthy aircraft configurations. thousand feet down runway from touchdown, sparks
The emphasis here will probably be on secondary from both main gears followed by flames. At
153
approximately 3000 feet from touchdown, aircraft out on final, the aircrew heard a pop and noted that it
veered to left side of runway. Aircraft departed took excessive aileron to keep wings level. The left
runway 3500 feet from touchdown, with a counter- flap was full up and the right full down. The IP
clockwise spin and came to a stop with right main gear initiated a go-round and retracted the flaps. An
buried in the mud. Left main and nose gear were still uneventful no flap, full stop landing was
on the runway. The WSO exited from the rear cockpit accomplished. Investigation revealed the left flap
via emergency ground egress. Pilot shut down both operating rod end broke, allowing the flap to retract.
engines and exited aircraft normally. Rod end failed at 929 hours and is a 1200 hour time
change item.
Trainer/transport: Tire blowouts and loss of
directional control have contributed to 66 aircraft Supersonic trainer: This split flaps mishap is similar
accidents and incidents since 1971. Incorporation of to the one reported where the left flap lower rod end
an anti-skid modification was subject to numerous broke and caused the left flap to retract. The student
delays which were caused by quality control and made a no flap landing without further incident. Rod
design problems, long lead times for delivery of end failed at 646 hours.
components, and a strike.
Air supremacy fighter: During an inspection on an
Very large transport: During second takeoff attempt, aircraft two wing attach bolts which retain the wing to
local runway supervisor notified pilot that he appeared fuselage attach pins in proper position were found to
to have blown a tire. Takeoff was aborted and be missing from the wing attach pins. This was the
stopping roll became extremely rough. Aircraft was result of improperly installed washers on the bolts
stopped; crew and passengers deplaned on runway. which retain the wing attach pins.
Damaged parts included: six tires, two rims, and
minor structural damage in wheel well. Swing wing fighter: The overheat sensing elements in
the lower crossover area between the engine bay and
Delta wing fighter: The mission was briefed and the wheel well did not respond until an overheat
flown as a student intercept training mission. During condition reached 575F. Approximately five aircraft
the Weapons Systems Evaluator Missile (WSEM) pass had hot air leaks that were not detected, but did get hot
the pneumatic pressure light illuminated, therefore, the enough to burst the frangible disc on the fire
planned formation landing was not flown. On or extinguishing bottle resulting in loss of the
immediately after touchdown, the left main tire blew. extinguishing agent.
The aircraft departed the left side of the runway.
Shortly before the aircraft came to a stop in the soft Swing wing fighter: During post flight inspection, a
earth, the nose gear collapsed and the aircraft fell on section of the left aft spike tip assembly was found
its nose. lying in the engine intake. The spike aft tip attaching
eye bolt had broken and the tip assembly had slipped
Prototype fighter aircraft: Part of the landing gear off and gone into the engine. Engine damage was
strut mechanism on this aircraft extended in a confined to the first stage fan section. No engine
downward and forward direction from the wheel axle. damage resulted from the second reported failure. The
With a normally-inflated tire no problems existed; exhibit eye bolts failed from an overload condition. It
however, with a deflated tire or after loss of a tire, the is suspected that the overload was the result of
clearance of the mechanism above the runway was overtorqued latch assemblies. Casting shrinkage
less than three inches and it extended beyond the cracks were noted at the break area. Six eye bolt
wheel rim. As a result, the mechanism rode under and samples with existing shrinkage cracks were destruct
snagged the barrier arrestment cable. The resulting tested and they exceeded design specification
loads collapsed the gear rearward. The aircraft went requirements with only one exception. Existing
off the runway and sustained major damage. shrinkage cracks were determined to not seriously
weaken the eye bolt. ECOs were incorporated into
Heavy air/ground fighter: Engine explosion in flight.
drawings to increase the eye radius and reduce the
While flying a low level route, 17 minutes after
heat treat hardness to eliminate the shrinkage cracks.
takeoff, the crew heard a loud explosion and felt the
aircraft vibrate. The left engine fire light came on and Large transport: Problem noted on functional check
the No. 1 engine was shutdown. The left fire light flight from Robins AFB when pilot experienced
remained illuminated for the rest of the flight. A difficulty in holding the wings level. A scan of the
chase aircraft (from another wing) observed a large wings revealed that the right aileron was up even
hole in the fuselage in the vicinity of the left engine though the pilot was holding a significant opposite
turbine section. The aircrew performed a controlled aileron input. Inspection of the aileron system after
jettison of external fuel tanks in the jettison area. A landing showed that the aileron fairing had contacted
single engine landing and normal egress were the access door cover assembly and jammed in the up
accomplished. position.
A very large transport aircraft was lost because Air superiority fighter: High angle of attack
hydraulic lines were routed in such a way that failure maneuvers caused high vibration levels in the
of the pressure door caused loss of control to an extent stabilator actuators at a resonant frequency causing
that return to base was not possible. failure of the input lever. Failure of the input lever
resulted in a hard over command and loss of control of
Supersonic trainer: Flaps were full down prior to
the aircraft. The aircraft crashed. The solution
initiating final turn for a full stop landing. Once rolled
154
involved improving the structural integrity of the airframes with the electrical properties necessary to
actuator and incorporating a centering spring in the assure vehicle safety. Fuel tanks built of composite
control valves to prevent hard over commands to the structures can be designed to be spark free to the direct
control surfaces. strike lightning environment.
Historical data indicate the transparencies fail or are REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
severely damaged more frequently than 1 X 10-7 times
per flight. Such failures are often caused by foreign Complete the blank with the applicable lightning
object damage. The modes of failure and the resulting environment that the airframe will be exposed to.
redistribution of loads, both internal and external, need Generally, this blank is filled in with "the lightning
to be determined. Define the applicable transparency environments defined in requirements derived from
failures in the blank. MIL-STD-1795." MIL-STD-1795 is a MIL PRIME
Transport: From 1965 to July 1981, there were 60 standard that defines the external lightning
reported Air Force instances of life raft deployments. environment that the air vehicle structure needs to be
In addition to the cost of lost equipment and the risk able to withstand. The airframe must withstand
from falling objects, the possibility of losing an lightning strikes without jeopardizing the crew,
aircraft and crew exists. In several instances, aircrews degrading the structural integrity of the airframe, or
experienced severe control difficulties. The most requiring unscheduled maintenance time to repair
recent attempt to eliminate inadvertent life raft damage or replace parts. MIL-STD-1795 contains a
deployments was the acquisition and installation of a requirement for a lightning protection program to
new valve. We have experienced an increase in assure that all aspects of providing lightning
inadvertent deployments since installing the new valve protection for an air vehicle are considered. MIL-
and have gone back to the old valve and careful STD-1795 is virtually identical to the lightning
evacuation of the life rafts. requirements imposed by the FAA on commercial
aircraft and is in the process of being adopted by
NATO countries.
B.5.2.20 LIGHTNING STRIKES AND
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE
Tanker/transport: A lightning strike to the aircraft
The following electricity phenomena occurring
caused an explosion in a reserve fuel tank and loss of
separately shall not degrade, damage, or cause critical
twenty-four feet of the outboard wing. Four other
components of the landing gear to fail and shall not
wing tip explosions during a three-year period were
cause injury to support personnel servicing or
caused by lightning strikes and ignition of fuel vapors
maintaining the landing gear.
in the wing tip cavity on this same type aircraft.
Modification to the wing tip assembly was required to
B.5.2.20.1 LIGHTNING PROTECTION. (____)
eliminate the potential of an arc occurring during a
lightning strike.
The landing gear shall be capable of withstanding
____________. Fighter: The airplane was carrying an empty external
fuel tank and was struck by lightning which resulted in
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE an explosion of the external tank. This explosion
resulted in fragments severing the hydraulic lines and
Operational use of any air vehicle will require it to fly resulted in loss of the aircraft. Design changes to the
into atmospheric conditions conducive to its being fuel tank were required to eliminate arcing. This was
subjected to lightning strikes. Strikes occur often at a case where the aircraft was designed to the lightning
substantial distances from obvious thunder storm cells. requirements but overlooked on the fuel tank.
This requirement is needed to protect the air vehicle
structure from significant lightning damage and to Bomber: The aircraft, on a training mission,
preclude loss of an air vehicle. approached a steadily lowering ceiling with associated
rain showers and elected to discontinue terrain
There are concerns relating to the expanded use of following and climb to IFR conditions. About 30
composites which have generally been of secondary seconds after entering the clouds, the crew saw a
importance in predominantly metal aircraft. These bright flash and felt a jolt and heard a loud bang. The
concerns arise from the lower conductivity of weather radar was showing no weather returns. One
graphite/epoxy materials and the non-conductivity of side of the vertical stabilizer lost a 6-foot section and
other materials. The structural response to lightning the other side had a 3-foot by 3-foot section.
differs from that of metals. The use of composite
structural materials as an electrical ground plane and Swing wing fighter: A flight of three aircraft showed
as a shield for the attenuation of electromagnetic fields no weather on their radars, however, all three aircraft
requires special joining techniques, surface treatments, were struck by lightning. There was a momentary
coatings, edge treatments, etc. Sparking hazards are interruption of flight instruments, then all systems
potentially more prevalent in fuel tanks constructed of returned to normal. Shortly afterward, the flight broke
the less conductive materials. Design practices need up for separate approaches and one aircraft was hit by
to be developed to provide composite material lightning again, this time losing all instruments except
155
standby. One engine also experienced an overheat normally done by the installation of precipitation static
indication. dischargers on trailing edges. Non-conductive
sections must be provided with conductive coatings.
B.5.2.20.2 ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE
CONTROL. (____) An aircraft had a small section of the external
structure made of fiberglass. Post flight inspections
The landing gear shall be capable of adequately required personnel to get in close proximity to this
controlling and dissipating the buildup of electrostatic non-conductive structural component. On several
charges for ____________. occasions, personnel received significant electrical
discharges which caused them to fall off ladders and
receive injury. Corrective action was easily
accomplished by applying a conductive paint to the
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE fiberglass area and providing an electrical bond to the
rest of the aircraft structure. Generally, 106 to 109
As aircraft fly, they encounter dust, rain, snow, ice, ohms per square is adequate to dissipate an
etc, which results in an electrostatic charge buildup on electrostatic charge.
the structure due to the phenomenon called
In another incident a maintenance person working
precipitation static charging. Means must be used to
inside a bomb bay next to non-conductive panels,
safely discharge this buildup so that it does not cause
generated a charge on himself by contact with the
interference to avionics systems or constitute a shock
panel and created an electrical arc as he was opening a
hazard to personnel. During maintenance, contact
fuel tank access panel.
with the structure can create an electrostatic charge
buildup, particularly on non-conductive surfaces. This Fighter: The aircraft was experiencing severe
can constitute a safety hazard to personnel or fuel. degradation of the UHF receiver when flying in or
near clouds. Investigation revealed that the aircraft
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE was not equipped with precipitation static dischargers
and the normal precipitation static buildup and
This paragraph is generally applicable to all structural subsequent uncontrolled discharge was causing
systems. Generally, the blank is completed with electromagnetic interference to the radio. Installing
"internal and external portions of the air vehicle, in precipitation static discharges on the aircraft solved
particular those components exposed to air flow or the problem.
personnel contact." Any component of the structure
can accumulate an electrostatic charge and adequate B.5.2.21 FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE (FOD)
means must be provided to dissipate the charge from (____)
the aircraft at a low level so as not to cause
electromagnetic interference to avionics, shock hazard The landing gear shall be designed to withstand the
to personnel, puncture of materials, etc. Also, retained FOD environments listed below. These FOD
charge after landing may pose a shock hazard to environments shall not result in the loss of the air
ground personnel. All components need to be vehicle or shall not incapacitate the pilot or crew with
electrically bonded to provide a continuous electrical a frequency equal to or greater than___________ per
path to dissipate the electrostatic charge. Non- flight. These FOD environments shall not cause
conductive components of the structure will require unacceptable damage to the airframe with a frequency
special attention. They do not provide an inherent equal to or greater than ______________ per flight.
means for the electrostatic charge to dissipate;
therefore, some technique will need to be provided to
dissipate the charge as it accumulates. MIL-E-6051
provides some additional requirements on B.5.2.21.1 RUNWAY, TAXIWAY, AND RAMP
precipitation static discharging and the use of DEBRIS FOD (____)
conductive coatings for external air vehicle structure.
In general, all internal and external sections of the air The airframe shall be design to withstand the impact
vehicle structure will require some type of conductive of ___________ FOD during any phase of taxi,
coating. For most applications 10E6 to 10E9 ohms takeoff, and landing without loss of the air vehicle or
per square is required to dissipate the charge buildup. the incapacitation of the pilot or crew. The airframe
The shock hazard to personnel starts to be felt at about shall be designed to withstand the impact of
3000 volts. As a rule, the charge on airframe _________ FOD during any phase of taxi, takeoff, and
components should not be allowed to exceed 2500 landing with no unacceptable damage. Unacceptable
volts. damage is __________.
designed and suitably protected to resist jamming by foam can restrict motion of the flight control system
foreign objects. In principle, the best approach to until the soft object is dislodged, crushed, or cut-
solving foreign object intrusion problems is to prevent through. Changes are being implemented to improve
foreign objects from being generated. However, this the adhesion of the foam, to shape the foam blocks to
is idealistic, and every designer of equipment or minimize breakage, to protect the exposed
systems should assume that foreign objects will exist surfaces/corners with a durable coating/mesh, and to
and should design the equipment or system to be improve instructions in the maintenance manuals on
invulnerable to foreign object intrusion. For flight how to avoid damage to foam when performing
systems which are exposed to combat threats, foreign maintenance in the region.
objects may be in the form of fragments (as a result of
a bullet/missile hit) and equipment or systems should Ground attack: Migration paths - Once a foreign
be designed with this in mind as a survivability object is generated within an aircraft, maneuvering of
enhancement. The aircraft was designed to survive the aircraft, vibration, and landing jolts will cause the
extensive in-flight battle damage, but the flight control foreign object to move around. In most aircraft, the
system in particular was found to have a number of bulkheads and frames will have openings to allow
close clearances vulnerable to foreign object jamming wire bundles or cables to pass through and may have
and the Special Review Team has recommended cut-outs for weight reduction purposes. Every
changes to improve that situation. The recommended opening must be regarded as a migration path for a
changes are being documented in the Review Team foreign object to take, and the probability must be
final report currently in preparation. assessed with many factors considered (i.e., the
size/shape of the opening and the relative size/shape of
Ground attack: Foreign object sources - There are the foreign object, the location of the opening, the
probably many thousands of possible sources of maneuvering accelerations and orientations which can
foreign objects in any aircraft if one considers that be commanded by the pilot, the presence of equipment
every fastener, rivet, pin, nut, and bolt can be a foreign items which may act as baffles, etc.). Further, as the
object when it is not in its proper place. Two of the foreign object migrates along probable paths, one must
most probable reasons for such an object not to be in assess whether there are any critical components (e.g.,
its place are: (1) failure of the object to be retained a flight control system bellcrank) which can be
because of a breakage or malfunction; and (2) human adversely affected by the foreign object. To this
error - improper installation or oversight. Of these writer's knowledge, there are no situations where a
two probabilities, human error is by far the most likely foreign object has ever improved the operation of a
reason. The data base on foreign object system, therefore, only two assessments are possible -
incidents/accidents almost always identifies that the the foreign object will either be detrimental or have no
suspect object was an unattached fastener or other part effect.
which was not broken, and frequently shows the
foreign object to be a tool or some other item needed Prior to recent improvements, the ground attack
for assembly, maintenance, or repair which had been aircraft was found to be designed with a highly
left in the aircraft. In a ground attack program, the probable and hazardous migration path. In tracing the
statistics show an average of only one piece of foreign cause for one in-flight flight control system jam
object matter being found in every five aircraft followed by an emergency it was found that a Tridail
undergoing Air Force Initial Receiving Inspection and fastener used as an access panel support rod pin had
this is an excellent record. However, after the aircraft fallen into a forward avionics compartment, bounced
has been in field operations and maintenance for a few through a bulkhead opening, fell into the U-shaped
years, there are records showing that several pieces of fuselage longeron, traveled the length (about 10 feet)
foreign object matter exist in every aircraft inspected. of the longeron, and lodged in the lower part of the
As a consequence, for several of the aircraft which aileron bellcrank causing a temporary jam.
crashed for unknown reasons and when the pilot was Improvements being made include the blocking of the
also fatally injured, the accident investigating boards last bulkhead openings above the fuselage trough,
invariably list a flight control system jam (implying a placing a barrier in and above the trough to block
foreign object jam) as one of the possible primary migration of loose foam and hard foreign objects from
causes. upstream into the bellcrank region, and a design for
more positive retention of the access panel support rod
The ground attack aircraft design features a ballistic end pin.
foam, often referred to as void filler foam, which is in
a block form and fitted into the cavities of the fuselage Ground attack: Clearances - The flight control system
and wing root just external to the fuel tanks. This specification, MIL-F-9490, reflects the allowable
ballistic foam is intended to improve the survivability clearances within the flight control system to insure
of the aircraft against fires/explosion caused by a that no probable combinations of temperature effects,
bullet/missile fragment puncturing a fuel tank. The air, loads, structural deflections, vibrations, build-up
foam has been noted to be one of the primary sources of manufacturing tolerances, or wear can cause
of soft foreign objects and one fatal crash is suspected binding or jamming of any portion of the control
to have been caused by a loose piece of the foam system. The minimum allowable clearances vary from
migrating between the aileron bellcrank and an 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch depending on the region/function
adjacent bulkhead. Although unconfirmed, the (see MIL-F-9490 paragraph on System separation,
possibility exists that soft foreign objects such as loose protection, and clearance) and reflect the lessons
learned from problems experienced in earlier flight
158
vehicles. At the start of the production program, In fact, the opportunity is increased because
waivers to these clearances were requested by the maintenance is often required to be performed in a
contractor and granted by the Government; in more exposed environment and under poorer lighting
retrospect, this reduction in clearances was probably conditions than exists on a typical
an economically correct decision but may have over- manufacturing/assembly line. Another factor is that
looked the increase in probability for having flight the experience of blue suit maintenance personnel is
control system jams due to foreign object intrusion. generally much less than that of the manufacturer's
The Special Review Team has identified areas where work force and it is common that the maintenance
small clearances cause a high potential for jam due to manuals are not written as clearly as they might be.
foreign object intrusion and changes are being made to Although this is not a unique problem, the Special
install covers over some of these small clearance areas Review Team has found that the maintenance manuals
or to add barriers in the potential migration paths into are generated by engineers and reviewed by more
the region of the small clearance. experienced Air Force senior NCOs with very little
involvement by the lower grade maintenance people
Ground attack: Manufacturing/assembly - During the who have to ultimately interpret and apply the
manufacture and assembly of every aircraft, there instructions.
exists a very high potential for foreign objects to be
introduced into the aircraft. This is due to many The number of foreign objects being found in ground
different people working with many different tools attack aircraft is in a decreasing trend but the Special
and having to install many fasteners and other small Review Team maintains a concern that there are a lot
parts in the aircraft. The Air Force Regulation 66-33 of aircraft flying with foreign objects in them. The
covering foreign object prevention is normally Maintenance Working Group has caused
incorporated in every aircraft acquisition contract and improvements to be made in the maintenance manuals
manufacturers add to the regulation their special and also has caused a buddy system of maintenance to
documents governing how their Manufacturing, be done at bases whenever a foreign object sensitive
Assembly and Quality Assurance Departments will area is opened up for maintenance and repair. These
implement their Foreign Object Prevention Program. improvements, coupled with the addition of the
In addition, the DPRO (resident Government plant changes described earlier (barriers, covers, better
representative) will assign Quality Assurance adhesion, etc.), should greatly reduce the generation of
inspectors to assure that the foreign object prevention foreign object and the system vulnerability to them.
program is being implemented as planned. The However, it is again emphasized that the effectiveness
crucial ingredient in any foreign object prevention of a good foreign object prevention program is very
program is the people who perform the manufacturing, dependent on the attitude and discipline of the people
the assembly, and the inspections - and how well they performing the maintenance. Carelessness breeds
have developed their attitude and discipline towards foreign objects.
producing a foreign object free product.
Ground attack: Protective measures - Because
The Special Review Team reviewed the program and humans always have the potential to make a mistake,
operations at both divisions (where the manufacturing because an aircraft such as this one has some
and partial assembly is done and where the final areas/systems which are vulnerable to foreign object
assembly and testing is done prior to delivery to the intrusion, and because a flight control jam can be
Air Force). In summary, a good program for foreign catastrophic if it occurs during a maneuver near the
object prevention was found and needed only a ground, protective measures must be taken to assure
renewal of emphasis plus some minor changes to that the system does not suffer a jam for any reason.
assure consistency between the two divisions. Small clearances are conducive to jams (e.g., a Tridair
Management elected to shift the responsibility for fastener head diameter is 1/2 inch and the aileron
their Foreign Object Prevention Program from their bellcrank clearance in the fuselage trough is between
Quality Assurance Department to their 1/4 and 3/8 inch); relying on humans to not generate
Manufacturing/Assembly Department. This was foreign objects is insufficient protection. A cover can
based on the logic that it is better to have the activity be added over the region where a small clearance
that is most probably the generator of foreign objects exists but care must be exercised that the cover itself
(i.e., manufacturing and assembly) be responsible for or the means by which it is attached does not become
keeping the foreign objects out than to rely on the a source of foreign objects. Care should also be
quality assurance inspectors to find and remove the exercised that the cover be complete because if an
foreign objects. QA will still perform their opening in the cover is large enough to allow foreign
inspections and the AFPRO QA will still inspect and objects to enter the region, the cover may perform just
sign off on each compartment as it is closed during opposite to its intent (i.e., it will keep the foreign
final assembly. object in rather than keeping it out) and increase the
Ground attack: Maintenance/modification - Once an probability for a jam. The Special Review Team has
aircraft has been delivered to the Air Force, it is recommended that the aileron bellcrank with the small
exposed to numerous maintenance actions and to clearance be covered, but if that is impractical, then
occasional modification actions. This presents the some form of a sweep be added at the bottom of the
opportunity for foreign objects to be generated in the bellcrank to deflect foreign objects approaching the
aircraft principally because it involves many people, region.
many tools and many loose fasteners and other parts.
159
Producibility must be designed into the landing gear Repair ability must be designed into the landing gear
structure from the beginning and must be a design structure from the beginning and must be a design
influence throughout the design process. influence throughout the design process. Repairability
is required to support production, maintain the fleet,
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE and maximize operational readiness by repairing battle
damage. High or moderate maintenance items and
None. items subject to wear must be repairable.
None. None.
None. None.
None. None.
None. None.
with the landing gear struts in any position. The Transport: Trooper door tracks are a part of the basic
door/panel cut-out support structure shall meet the in- structure and require about 125 man-hours to replace.
flight residual strength requirements of 5.5.12.2. Field units recommend tracks not be made a part of
the aircraft basic structure. Further investigation
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE reveals the door tracks have approximately 15 years of
life. Door reliability prior to onset of wearout is very
Access into airframe compartments, both large and good. A weight penalty and additional inspections
small, has long been a necessity. However, the would most likely be required if tracks were not part
consequences are not readily apparent regarding the of basic structure. Therefore, it appears the current
placement and motions of doors and panels during use design of the tracks is the best trade-off. A possible
under all attainable operational and maintenance improvement of the door system would be quickly
conditions. This requirement is needed to promote the replaceable rollers with sacrificial wear properties to
consideration, evaluation, and avoidance of such further extend the life of the tracks.
ramifications regarding airframe doors, including
structural panels when applicable. B.5.3.1.3 ACCESS DOORS AND
COMPONENTS (____)
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
Access doors and components with one or more quick-
As needed, the requirement can be expanded to opening latches or fasteners shall not fail, open,
include structural panels and their associated vibrate, flap, or flutter in flight with
operational requirements. ________________. This requirement also applies to
structural doors and panels. The most critical
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED combinations of latches or fasteners are to be designed
for left unsecure conditions.
Swing wing fighter bomber: This series of aircraft
incorporate large access panels and doors (over 20 sq. REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
ft.). When the aircraft came out of production, the
engine bay access doors could be opened and closed This requirement is intended to keep access doors
by hand with minimal effort. These doors are opened from opening in-flight and becoming damaged from
daily for inspection and maintenance purposes. being torn free from the airframe and becoming FOD.
Repeated opening/closing actions have worn the
alignment pins and locking mechanism. This, coupled REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
with small structural deformation as the aircraft ages,
has caused extreme difficulty in maintaining gap Small as well as large external access doors need to be
tolerances and aerodynamic smoothness requirements. inherently stable when subjected to attainable air
Alignment pins and locking mechanisms are flows with one or more retaining devices fully
inspected, repaired, and adjusted during isochronal nonfunctioning. Doors with one or two latches need
(ISO) inspections to the extent possible. to have the hinge located so that the air flow will tend
to keep the door closed. The second blank is to be
Transport: The cargo doors are sealed using a filled with the number of latches or fasteners per door
combination of methods, including a rubber flap or panel that can be left unsecured. Recommend
which is sealed by the pressure placed on it and a filling in the blank with the cube root (rounded off) of
pliable bead or strip of sealing material at the point of the total number of latches or fasteners per door or
contact between the door edge and aircraft structure. panel.
This bead must be of uniform thickness and remain
pliable to be an effective seal. The current seal REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
material hardens with age and requires constant
maintenance to retain pressurization. The rubber flap None.
also tends to harden with age and lose its sealing
ability. B.5.3.2 TAIL BUMPER. (____)
Very large transport: The crew entry door/ladder is A tail bumper shall be provided.
being overstressed during use. When several crew
members or maintenance personnel climb up the a. Type: ___________.
ladder with their suit cases or tool boxes, excessive
stress is applied to the mounting point at the fuselage, b. Capability: _________.
since the ladder is not supported at the other end. A
recent modification has been initiated to provide an REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
extension to the ladder by adding two rods with small
wheels that will extend from the ladder to the ground. This requirement is aimed at protecting the
This will minimize the cantilever stresses in the door empennage from damage during ground usage when
mount. In addition, the hydraulic system used to the brakes are applied while the air vehicle is rolling
activate the crew entry door is highly complex backwards or the air vehicle is over-rotated on take-off
requiring many man-hours to rig and adjust. or landing, or during shipboard towing operations for
all allowable sea state conditions.
162
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE For aircraft with nose wheel type gear arrangements,
the landing gear geometry shall be in accordance with
Define the remaining requirements. See 5.5.2.14 for Navy Drawing 607770. Landing gears of ship-based
general service life usage requirements regarding aircraft shall include provisions to prevent damage due
number of arrestments, etc. The type of hook and to repeated sudden extension of the landing gear as the
shoe may be emergency (non-retractable from the wheels pass over the deck edge subsequent to
cockpit) with or without a replaceable shoe or it may catapulting, bolter, or touch and go. Also, the landing
be operational (retractable from the cockpit) with a gear shall not contain features such as sharp
replaceable shoe. The type of engagements may be projections or edges that could cause failure of the
take-off abort, landing, but in-flight cable pick-up,
163
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED The design load level of the holdback is crucial to
carrier operations. Too low of a release load level and
None. during engine run-up with heavy sea state conditions,
the aircraft will release prematurely; too high of a
B.5.3.4.2 REPEATABLE RELEASE level and at light weight, high wind over deck values
HOLDBACK BAR (___) with low CSV setting, release may not occur, or
significant head-bob will be experienced by the pilot
The holdback bar shall restrain the aircraft against causing disorientation during launch.
aircraft engine thrust, catapulting tensioning force, and
ship motion. The holdback bar shall be of the B.5.3.4.3 OTHER DESIGN AND
repeatable release type and shall be designed in CONSTRUCTION PARAMETERS.
accordance with MIL-B-85110. The configuration of (___)
the lower portion (deck end) of the holdback bar shall
conform to the requirements of NAEC Drawing REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
607770. The design load for the holdback bar is
______________. This requirement is needed to provide flexibility and
coverage of additional design and construction
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE requirements that may arise or exist at the time the
Type I specification is being prepared.
This requirement defines the holdback load level
design for shipboard operations.
164
(except stress panels) or those located where loose Debris enters the interior of the aircraft moisture drain
parts can be drawn into an engine should be designed area through the valve and the floor panels in the
with quick release fasteners to provide ease of cargo compartment. Gaining access to clear or replace
maintenance and aid in reducing aircraft downtime. these rubber flap drains is very time-consuming. The
technical order specifies normal cleaning or
Swing wing fighter bomber: The overspeed warning replacement of drain valves during programmed depot
system on the engine has had many false alarms and maintenance. However, failure to gain access and
failures. Major cause for the failures is the wiring. clean or replace drain valves at more frequent intervals
Secondary cause is sheared tach generator shaft. The results in major corrosion repair/replacement.
tach generator used to monitor the revolutions per
minute (RPM) of the N1 compressor is mounted on Attack fighter: The design of the avionics and other
the nose cone of the engine. The wiring is run through component bays on the aircraft is a very desirable
the guide vane and must be cut if the tach is replaced feature. Most of the items which require frequent
or the guide vane removed. The wires are spliced maintenance are located in bays that can be easily
together when the tach is hooked up. The spliced reached by a mechanic standing on the ground. This
wires create problems by shorting, opening, and poor feature enhances safety, makes for ease of work, and
continuity. This problem is aggravated by the fact that reduces the amount of support equipment required for
the inlet guide vane is presently experiencing a high this weapons system.
failure rate and must be removed for repair. This
causes repeated cuts and splices of the tach generator Transport: The throttle control incorporates a system
wiring. Installation and removal of components/parts of mechanical cables from the throttle quadrant to the
should be able to be done without cutting wires. engines. The cables are routed through a series of
three 90-degree turns. The small diameter pulleys
Swing wing fighter bomber: The alternate landing used at these turn points apparently contribute to
gear extension system is serviced through a charging fraying and other cable failure problems that are being
valve located in the MLG wheel well. This valve experienced. Although the system manager is
(which is common to other emergency pneumatically considering a modification to increase the size of the
activated systems) is normally easy to reach; throttle cable pulleys, the more serious problem
however, when the aircraft is fully loaded, the valve involves inaccessibility, because the cables are routed
becomes inaccessible. The airframe sits so low that under the flight deck and through other hard to get at
the right MLG strut will not allow enough clearance to places, visual inspection of some critical segments of
hook up the service hose. If any of the emergency the cables is impossible. Moreover, braided cable is
systems linked to the common valve requires used on the throttle control. This type of cable is
servicing, the only way to gain access is to pump up difficult to inspect adequately because points of
the struts to full extension and then readjust the struts weakness may be hidden from view. These
after servicing. If this valve were located a few inches weaknesses which have been known to cause throttle
forward of its present location, the interference control failures have been corrected by new cables and
problem would not exist. larger pulleys. Another problem involves the use of
cables for remote actuation of switches and valves
Swing wing fighter bomber: The forward equipment which have critical adjustments in position, such as
cooling duct has become brittle with age, and is the hydraulic ground test selector valve and the flap
experiencing a high failure rate because of cracks and position indicator. Proper adjustment and tensioning
breakage. Repairs of the duct on site are usually of these cables is difficult and time-consuming.
unsuccessful. Replacement is difficult because of
inaccessibility. Replacement of the ducting requires Transport: The bolts which mount the engine to the
removal of all avionics equipment and equipment aircraft are very hard to torque since the bolts are
racks on the right hand side and some on the left side. located between two of the main engine supporting
Replacement of the duct requires 36 to 48 man-hours. arms. An extension of approximately 6 inches or
Vibration and temperature fluctuations increase the more is required to reach and torque the bolts. Since
failure rate of the brittle cooling duct. The system high torque is required with an extension, sometimes
manager has an agreement with depot maintenance to the socket slips off the bolt resulting in damage to the
inspect cooling ducts whenever the forward equipment engine or individual doing the work. Structural or
bay is opened for work during programmed depot supporting bolts, which require high torque need to be
maintenance. If the defect in a cooling duct is accessible for torquing without the aid of extensions.
obvious, then repair is initiated. Aging has caused the
polyurethane-type material in the forward equipment Air superiority fighter: Removal of the cockpit
cooling ducts, located in a highly inaccessible area, to canopy is necessary when the ejection seat is removed
become brittle and crack. Many man-hours are from the aircraft for inspection and modification of
required for replacement. ejection components (lines, initiators, chutes, etc.) or
for replacement of avionics components behind the
Transport: Rubber flap type drain valves are installed seat. The task of removing the canopy is time-
in the lower fuselage to allow draining of moisture consuming and requires special support equipment
accumulated from natural condensation, leaks, and slings and special handling precautions to prevent
spillage. This draining is an important part of the scratching or abrasion of the optical surface. The
corrosion prevention program. When these drains canopy removal and reinstallation requires eight man-
become blocked with debris, standing moisture results. hours and three clock hours. A delta wing fighter does
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not require removal of the canopy in order to remove engine, the aircraft has to be jacked. This necessitates
the seat. towing the aircraft to a hangar to avoid the possibility
of wind blowing it off the jacks. The engine has to be
Swing wing fighter: The aircraft has 17 access panels removed frequently for other maintenance actions.
that use form-in-place seals. To replace the form-in- The tailpipe, which is frequently removed for repair of
place seal, maintenance personnel must first remove cracks, cannot be removed unless the engine is
the old sealant by solvents and hand scraping. The removed first. The same is true of the fuel control,
surface where the seal is to be applied is cleaned and which is highly susceptible to leaks and requires
primed and the primer is allowed to cure. The fastener frequent adjustment.
holes are then covered with plastic or washers and the
sealant is applied. The access cover or door is Subsonic trainer: Seat removal is not as complicated
positioned over the sealant with fasteners at least as for many other aircraft, but it is still a process that
every fourth hole and the sealant is left to cure. After requires a significant amount of time. When an
curing, the cover/door is removed, cleaned and ejection seat is removed, it is usually to facilitate
reinstalled using all the specified fasteners. The scope maintenance on other items rather than to repair the
of the task can be appreciated, considering that two seat itself. Some of the principal actions requiring seat
access covers have 174 fasteners each. A review of removal include adjustment of flight control sticks,
data for a six month period indicates that 1363 man- throttle controls, and linkage; rigging of elevator
hours were expended on these two covers as opposed control cable and canopy actuator declutch cable; and
to only 662 man-hours for two other access covers adjustment of flap detent. Although seat removal
which do not have form-in-place seals. Easily takes only 1.5 hours, it is a frequently required action
replaceable, expendable seals cut from sheet stock or and represents a significant cost over the life of the
seals fabricated from molded rubber as composition system. Cables and other items requiring that the seats
material are more desirable. be taken out cannot always be rerouted, but some
means of adjustment with the seats installed is
Ground attack: Servicing of the LOX system on the desirable.
aircraft is required before each flight. The LOX
converter is located behind an access panel which, due Subsonic trainer: The design of the passing and taxi
to the proximity of the nose landing gear hinge points, lights has caused a serious accessibility problem. A
was designed as a stress panel. This panel, with 21 light check is required just before takeoff, and if either
fasteners, must be opened and resecured for servicing the taxi or passing bulb fails to function, replacement
of the LOX system. This procedure requires over 20 takes over 30 minutes and delays the flight. Since the
minutes. Air National Guard units have modified this aircraft sits close to the ground, the nose strut is not
access panel with a small, quick-open, servicing door. sufficiently exposed for the two lights to be positioned
Their servicing time is now three minutes. The on it (as they are in many other aircraft). Instead, the
average airplane flies three sorties per day; which passing and taxi lights are located behind the nose cap
means a savings of almost one hour servicing time per and are protected by clear windows. These windows
day per airplane flown. are attached by screws and nuts (rather than by screws
and nutplates) and as a result are extremely difficult to
Bomber: The track antenna azimuth drive motor cable remove and install. The only practical way to get at
connector was placed behind the right side brace on the lights is by removal of the nose cap (fastened to
the gun turret, beneath the track transmitter the airframe by 24 screws) and the pitot tube; although
installation. Removal of the search antenna requires even with this means of access, the job requires
disconnecting this and other connectors. To several maintenance personnel and over half an hour.
disconnect the connector the maintenance technician
must either remove the track transmitter to gain access Subsonic trainer: The nose gear steering valve,
or reach up from beneath with a long screwdriver, located atop the strut, often must be removed because
using the tip to loosen the connector. When wiring it is prone to hydraulic fluid leaks. When the valve
repairs are required on the connector (which is malfunctions or needs adjustment, the entire nose gear
frequent because of the age of the equipment, assembly must be replaced. This requirement ties up a
compounded by high vibration which occurs during number of maintenance personnel for several hours.
gun firing), the track transmitter must be removed.
Removal and replacement takes several hours to Subsonic trainer: The four brake control units on the
accomplish because the upper right machine gun must aircraft are located in the cockpit, attached to the
also be partly removed to get the track transmitter out. rudder pedal supports. Frequent access is required to
Upon reinstallation the connector must be safety check the sight gauges and to service the fluid
wired. Had the connector been located directly behind reservoirs. Unfortunately, because of the location of
the antenna, as the elevation drive motor connector the control units, the sight gauges are extremely
was, access would not have been a problem. difficult to read. However, the filler-bleeder plug is
on the back of each control unit and, consequently,
Subsonic trainer: Engine removal and replacement is accessibility is poor and maintenance is time-
one of the most difficult and time-consuming tasks on consuming. A supersonic trainer is designed with
the aircraft. The difficulty results primarily because external brake servicing and, as a result, routing brake
the aircraft is low to the ground and designed with maintenance can be performed much more efficiently.
embedded engines that can only be removed from the
underside of the nacelle. In order to remove the Subsonic trainer: Aircraft static grounding receptacles
are usually considered not to be replaced devices, even
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though maintenance experience has proven otherwise. has an external access panel which facilitates the
Consequently, design and location often lead to removal/replacement process. Desire the use of
inaccessible receptacles. On this aircraft, a receptacle sensing devices that do not require internal access for
is mounted inside the outboard leading edge of each removal; have an external access panel that would
wing and the leading edge must be taken off before a enable the technician to readily gain access to them; or
damaged ground can be removed and replaced. If the are placed where internal access is not a problem.
grounding receptacle was located differently (e.g.,
next to an access panel), such extensive removal Heavy air/ground fighter: Much of the maintenance
would not be necessary. In many other USAF aircraft, cost on ejection seats is attributed to requirements for
replacement of grounding receptacles necessitates scheduled maintenance on seat mounted components
removal of fuel tanks or other structural assemblies. that cannot be inspected without seat removal. Seat
This inaccessibility increases man-hour requirements removal and replacement averages approximately one
and in some cases manpower limitations may prevent and one-half hours. It is virtually impossible to time
defective grounds from being replaced at all. change or inspect some seat mounted components,
such as the catapult or the rocket motor, without first
Subsonic trainer: The aircraft has a forward retracting removing the seat. Many seat mounted components
nose landing gear design which is susceptible to could probably be designed so they could be inspected
collapse if towed without proper support. A peculiar without removing the seat. Adequate access is needed
piece of support equipment, often referred to as a stiff to permit removal and replacement of seat components
knee, was developed to prevent collapse during without removing the seat.
towing. It is awkward to install because the
maintenance specialist has to lie on the ground to Radomes: Operational data generally shows a large
position the stiff knee and insert safety pins. A few expenditure of man-hours charged to maintenance on
failures have occurred because of improper fighter aircraft radomes. In the majority of instances,
installation, but the primary objection to the procedure these man-hours are reported as "No-Defect"
is the requirement for such a peculiar brace when maintenance and are generated by the need to gain
other aircraft drag braces can be secured with a ground access to functional components, such as radar and
safety pin. antenna LRUs, installed behind the radome. The cost
exceeds $2.00 per aircraft flying hour in logistics
Subsonic trainer: Approximately 16-20 man-hours are support cost. The opening or removal of some
required to remove the upper attachment bolt of the radomes can require several maintenance personnel to
speed brake actuator. In order to remove and replace handle its bulk and weight. High surface winds,
the upper speed brake attachment bolt you first have to inadequate hold-open devices and complex hinge
remove both ejection seats and the actuator cover that designs add to the service complexity and frequently
is located between the right position rudder pedals. require peculiar age such as jury struts. The area
Since the rudder pedals are under the instrument behind the radome must be weather proof and too
panel, there is very little working space and the often the seals are not capable of long life or easy
removal of the actuator cover attaching screws is a replacement in this frequent access area. The action of
very time-consuming process. A modification to the opening and closing the radomes should be a one-man
access cover that included the cutting of access holes task. Desire the number of fasteners/locking devices
on each side of the attachment bolt has reduced some be held to a minimum. Desire a hinge configuration
of the removal time, but it still requires excessive that would support the opened radome in gusting wind
man-hours for the removal of one bolt. conditions. Desire weather seals that can be easily
removed and have a reasonable service life. Where
Bomber: Space constraints and interference with practical, desire the number of functional components
equipment on the interior of the aircraft increases the requiring access through the radome be held to a
amount of time required to change the pitot tube, angle minimum.
of attack transducer, and temperature transmitter. The
angle of attack transducer requires four to eight man- Main instrument panel: Accessibility to equipment
hours for removal. A fiberglass panel must be forward of the main instrument panel is usually
removed and the mechanic on the inside of the aircraft restrictive. Examination of field data indicates that
must blindly reach through control cables and air ducts removal of one such panel to facilitate maintenance
to gain access to the transducer. In the period from can take over six hours. Simplification of instrument
October 1978 through March 1979 a total of 62 panel removal or outside access doors will
transducers failed on two models of the aircraft. To significantly reduce the logistics support cost and
gain access to the pitot tube on the right side of the reduce maintenance time.
aircraft requires removal and replacement of a BNS
junction box. This task requires five hours from the Very large transport: There is a small, quick-access
bomb-nav specialists and one hour from the door on the engine cowling door for servicing the
instrument shop. The temperature transmitter is an engine oil tank. However, a similar door was not
external sensing bulb and the transducer is at provided for CSD oil level inspection. A single
station340. Access is below the floor panels and the maintenance person should be able to open an engine
BNS remote unit modules power supply rack. During cowling door for quick easy access. If this is not
the October 1978 through March 1979 period on one practical, then provisions should be made to provide
model there were 11 failures which required 110 quick-access panels on the cowling door for
unscheduled maintenance man-hours. Another mode
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components that require frequent access for aircraft design features, urinal placement and removal
inspections or servicing. of waste does not appear to have been a priority design
item. Inherent corrosion problems have resulted.
Very large transport: During depot maintenance many Although performance considerations and placement
cracks are found in bulkhead fitting frame flanges at of aircraft components may necessitate unique
the chine web and outer chine attachments. Large 35 locations, priority consideration should be given to
to 48 foot floor panels must be unfastened, jacked-up, latrine locations and easy access for cleaning and
and removed before the bulkhead fittings can be treating to avoid detrimental corrosion impacts.
removed for repair of the chine web and the outer
chine attachments. In addition, the cargo floor must Very large transport: Hydraulic lines routed under the
be resealed after repairing and reinstalling the fitting forward cargo floor to provide hydraulic pressure to
to prevent fluids and debris from falling into the under the NLG actuators sometimes develop leaks and must
floor area. Removal and reinstallation of the cargo be repaired. In addition, access to this area is required
floor panels can sometimes consume as much as 600 periodically to inspect the hydraulic lines and other
man-hours. If the large one-piece bulkhead fittings items. Access is by removal of large floor panels.
could be manufactured in sections, the section above Ease of access is inadequate. Removal of the large
the cargo floor and the section below the cargo floor floor panels is time consuming and physically difficult
could be removed independently and without because of the size and weight of the panels. It is
removing floor panels, repairs would cost less and desirable to have adequately stressed access panels
maintenance would be much easier. provided directly in the floor to gain access to the
hydraulic lines and other underfloor areas.
Very large transport: Maintenance personnel have
been hampered in their efforts to perform the required Ground attack: The mounting bolts for the wing outer
repairs on components located inside the engine pylon panel have to be torqued periodically. The torquing of
due to the limited accessibility provided. Engine ship these wing bolts to 900 in-lbs requires the removal of
personnel have a hard time trying to reach and replace a small access panel (12" x 18") located in the top of
the engine anti-icing valve located at the lower the main landing gear pod. The mechanic must be
forward section of the pylon. This valve has failed very small and must crawl up into the landing gear
193 times in a six-month time period with 1858 pod, make a 90 degree bend of the body, and squeeze
unscheduled man-hours expended. In addition, other down a four foot passage before torquing the bolts.
shop personnel are frequently required to enter the This procedure is required every 50 flying hours.
pylon area to perform maintenance tasks on cables,
wiring, tubing, and hydraulic fittings. There are no Transport: The Doppler radar antenna cover is a stress
side access panels. The only panel large enough to panel because the compartment is pressurized. The
provide accessibility to the inside of the pylon is the compartment also contains the receiver-transmitter
top access panel; however, the pylon is about four to and other Doppler system components which require
five feet deep to the bottom components. A tall thin frequent access. In order to make these units more
person has to go in head first to reach the components, accessible, the antenna cover is attached with fasteners
cables, wiring, and tubing and is limited to how long designed for quarter turn removal and installation. A
he can work hanging upside down. threaded socket is incorporated in these fasteners
which is designed so that a greater force than that
Very large transport: Inspection of landing gear in afforded by the spring tension applied by a normal
flight is accomplished by use of two small windows quarter turn fastener can be generated. In practice,
for the main landing gears and a fiber optics viewer although the fastener can be disengaged with a quarter
for the nose landing gear. Usually, the landing gears turn, the threaded socket must be backed out so that
are inspected in flight to determine proper down lock, the quarter turn may be reengaged. Many times the
for the condition of the gears, and for inspection after socket has corroded so that it is difficult to backout.
damage or fire has occurred. The fiber optic viewer In addition, backing the socket out too far or trying to
installed for the NLG is not effective, is limited to engage the quarter turn by impact breaks the socket so
viewing a single component, and provides very poor that it must be replaced. Many man-hours are
visual quality. This is because of the inherent consumed in replacing these fasteners. Stress panels
characteristics of the fiber optics. They become must, by their very nature, have high strength,
opaque when moisture enters the assembly as well as multiple load path attachment to the structure which
from wear and aging. A window near the NLG is makes quick access difficult. Equipment requiring
desired instead of the fiber optic viewer. frequent access should not be placed behind stress
panels. It is highly desirable to make such equipment
Very large transport: A port hole or exterior fuselage accessible from inside the aircraft or place it behind
access panel large enough for personnel access is quick access panels.
needed for cleaning and inspection of corrosion,
water, and hydraulic fluid. Because of the lack of Transport: Modifications made to the aircraft
these design features, it will continue to be a problem especially by other than the original manufacturer
in the bilge area. Mechanics must crawl have degraded or eliminated access to other
approximately 25 feet to reach the problem area. The equipment. The inventors have had additional
crawl space is very small with several obstacles, ribs, equipment installed in front of them; the gaseous
formers, etc. obstructing the path. The problem is oxygen bottles installed in demoding certain special
compounded in one area by urinal waste. As in other mission aircraft were placed in front of electrical
169
terminal boards, and a wing mod completely application of every casting and the safety
eliminated the individual tanks refueling access for the implications of the failure of any given casting. The
auxiliary fuel tanks which were used for defueling worst case strength reduction was determined and the
also. Desire modifications consider the impact on uncertainty factor was calculated for each casting.
maintainability of other systems existing in the Nine casting classifications were developed based on
aircraft. the expected results of a failure and each casting was
identified with its appropriate classification. A
Air supremacy fighter: Provisions were not provided sampling plan for each classification was developed
for appropriate in-flight stowage of ground safety and testing was accomplished to gather data on the
locks, pins, and missile covers. The practice is for the condition of the deficient castings. Engineering
ground crew to remove the pins before taxiing out and recommendations were devised which detailed action
retain them on the ground until the aircraft returns. to be taken on each casting or group of castings
However, the aircraft does not always land at the base already installed on aircraft. The recommendations
of departure, and there is a risk that adequate pins will were: to continue flight operations without urgent
not be available at the destination. Stowage in the inspection of some castings, remove and replace some
cockpit during flight is not practical because of the castings; and perform special inspection of other
danger of handing up the items while directly in front castings. Several lessons were learned from this
of the engine intake with engines running. In addition, experience. One was that for critical items care must
there is no adequately secure place in the cockpit for be exercised in the source selection process. The
stowage. Ideally, the pins and covers should be second was that receiving inspection, especially on
stowed after engine start in a compartment safely critical items, must be thorough. A third was that an
accessible from the ground. One ECP to solve the in-depth study that brings together the expertise and
problem was rejected because of the nearly $800,000 cooperation of all functional areas may be used to
production and retrofit cost. Based on a field salvage expensive critical items since a thorough
suggestion, a solution to the problem is expected analysis of failure modes and safety margins may
which will provide a restrained compartmented reveal latitudes not otherwise apparent.
stowage bag in an existing ground accessible
compartment in the underside of the fuselage. With Chafing of cables, tubing, and wires
no structural change required, this solution is expected
to be cost effective. Swing wing fighter bomber: An avionics cable is
damaged (i.e., wires cut or wire coating shaved off,
Cargo handling etc.) when the tail hook system is operated. The
problem results because the cable and tail hook
Transport: An early model cargo winch used on some actuation rod are extremely close together and no
models of the aircraft is frequently damaged because protection is afforded the cable by a shield or cable
the cable crosses over itself or the hook is wound onto jacket from a bolt used in the actuation assembly.
the reel. The problem occurs when the cable is being Field personnel must cut out approximately two feet of
retrieved without a load and usually results in damage cable and splice in a new piece using male and female
to the housing, the cable, or both. The winch used on connectors. One airplane has been fitted with
a large transport and some models of the transport has aluminum tubing to protect the cable and has
cable guides and limit switches. This winch has been experienced no damage. Cables, wire bundles, and
very reliable and does not have any of the problems other similar materials must not be routed through
associated with the other type of winch which does not areas where damage from moving parts is possible or
have cable guides and limit switches. else they must be protected (by metal conduit, tubing,
Transport: Excessive man-hours are spent cleaning etc.).
the cargo compartment. The cargo rail system has Wiring/tubing interaction: Electrical cables and steel
several deep crevices and cavities which catch a great lines carrying hydraulic fluid and gas should not be
deal of debris. It is not practical to hose out the rails routed in close proximity. Chafing of the insulation
because the drains are inadequate and equipment in on electrical wires may lead to arcing, subsequently
the bilge area could be damaged by backed-up water. causing a fire. When electrical cable clamps are
A large transport has a similar but superior rail system. mounted to the same, or adjacent, post as fluid line
The rails are hinged on the outboard side and can be clamps, the close proximity can cause a fire. If cable
flush-stowed against the fuselage when not in use. chafing occurs, electrical arcing erodes the steel lines
The system requires minimal cleaning and does not to the degree that internal pressure blows a hole in the
have the debris problem associated with the other line. Subsequent arcing ignites the fluid escaping
transport system. from the line.
Castings Heavy air/ground fighter: As a result of a notable
Welded versus unwelded castings. Castings were increase in engine/engine bay fire/chafing occurrences
received which had a potential strength reduction. in 1976, a conference was convened to determine what
The most serious deficiencies were due to corrective measures were required. Recommendations
unauthorized and undocumented welding, suspected covered a broad spectrum including extensive revision
incorrect weld material, welding techniques without of applicable publications. These improvements also
established quality parameters, and suspected incorrect include reclamping the affected fluid lines and wire
heat treatment. An analysis was made of the bundles in the engine bays to reduce chafing potential.
170
Rerouting or repositioning of some components may holes. Fiberglass panels are used for aircraft weight
be necessary to obtain adequate clearance at specific reduction. Fiberglass is lightweight, structurally
locations. sound and is used in many non-load carrying areas.
However, constant opening and closing of fiberglass
Swing wing fighter: During basic post flight panels elongates the fastener holes.
inspection, a fuel tube was found leaking from a small
hole. The hole was caused from the tube chafing Swing wing fighter bomber: The cables and
against a hydraulic tube. Local inspection of 49 connectors to and from pivot pylons are subject to
aircraft revealed eight additional chafed tubes. frequent damage during pylon mate/de-mate
operations. The insulation is subject to wear because
Very large transport: An in-flight fire in a pylon was of in-flight pylon vibration. The pivot pylons mount
caused by chafed electrical wire sparks rupturing a both conventional and non-conventional ordnance.
hydraulic line and igniting hydraulic spray. Two types of station program units (SPUs) are in each
Engineering study recommends rerouting wiring and pylon to program the two types of weapons release: A
fluid systems to reduce possibility of same type of conventional SPU and an aircraft monitor and control
failure recurring. (AIAC) SPU. The pivot pylons require frequent
Air supremacy fighter: Inboard and centerline pylons change to tank pylons because of mission
problem of the preload post pin rubbing against wire requirements. Several problems are associated with
bundle assembly and air pressure regulator tube the pivot pylons. Cables and plugs connecting the
assembly causing damage to both assemblies. pylon to the aircraft are frequently damaged during the
mate/de-mate operation because they get hung up.
Large transport: Inspection TCTO was issued Also, they are located in a hard to reach position and
specifying inspection of specific thrust reverser lines. connecting them causes pin and cable damage.
During inspection, oil residue was noted in area of Another cause of cable damage is pylon vibration
other thrust reverser lines. Further inspection found during flight. This results in the insulation being worn
lines on one engine had worn through. Inspection of off the wires. Finally, SPUs located in the pylons
four other engines found bad chafing on the same lines were reported to be damaged because of frequent
on each engine. Additional clamps solved the pylon change.
problem.
Swing wing fighter: The two upper shear pins for the
Clearance, alignment, and wear aft engine door frame are difficult to align for
Transport: Lack of sufficient clearance on the landing insertion of the quick release locking pin. The aft
gear results in frequent interference and requires engine door frame is attached to the main bulkhead
extensive man-hours to correct. While the main with four shear pins. The upper shear pins are secured
landing gear system is reliable, the close clearances by a ball lock quick release pin which passes through
frequently result in the main landing gear strut rubbing both shear pins. With the engine installed, there is
either the shelf bracket that serves as a gear down limited access to the holes through which the quick
support and location guide, or the gear on the gear release pin must be installed. If an index mark (such
microswitch. Serious out-of-adjustment or failure as etched line) were installed on the head side of the
conditions can result in stopping the gear travel, but shear pin, installation of the locking device would be
the majority of problems stem from a slight rubbing made much simpler. Alignment or index marks on the
contact between the components mentioned. visible side of components are needed to facilitate
Correction of these rub conditions usually requires alignment of locking devices.
minor adjustments to the shoe assemblies that locate Very large transport: On the aircraft, some
the gear in the track assembly. This requires components do not fit as required. Mating parts, with
significant maintenance man-hours to jack the aircraft misaligned holes, were apparently forced into place,
for retraction and adjustment of the gear. The inducing cracks. A significant number of cracks have
adjustment may solve the majority of these problems. appeared in the fuselage contour box beam assembly.
This problem has been solved by a change to afford Cracks have been found on ten airplanes at one fueling
sufficient clearance to allow for tolerance build-up due station and on seven airplanes at another. Repair
to uneven wear of attaching components. times are 75 man-hours for cracks at the first station
Swing wing fighter bomber: Fire access doors on the and 150 man-hours for cracks at the other. Total man-
aircraft have a high wearout rate and are not available hours required have reached 1800. In addition, gaps
as spares. Fire access doors in four panels are spring between parts were not corrected with shims to
loaded and flutter in flight. This flutter causes quick prevent preloading, bending, and stress in those cases.
wearout of hinges and doors. Hinges are frequently The problem was primarily a tooling problem which
repaired in the sheet metal shop. The doors affected early aircraft.
themselves are not provisioned. When a door is Complex and secondary structural components
damaged beyond repair, the entire panel must be
replaced. Swing wing fighter bomber: There are several
secondary structural components that do not have a
Wear of fastener holes: Frequent removal of critical function but do require frequent repairs or
fiberglass panels results in severe wear to the fastener
171
replacement. The following areas were noted by the Subsonic trainer: The basic sheet metal airframe is
using commands as examples of this on-going easily maintained with minimal depot level support.
problem. First, the auxiliary flap system has minor The semi-monocoque design is frequently referred to
functional benefits. However, this system has as a sheet metal airplane by maintenance personnel.
numerous interference problems as well as a complex Although the airframe has some forgings and castings,
rigging procedure that is usually inadequate. Because it does not have exotic materials or components such
of these difficulties, TAC has reportedly deactivated as titanium, composites, honeycomb and chemmilleds
the system; SAC frequently flies its aircraft without skins. Instead, the structure is primarily formed sheet
auxiliary flaps. In addition, a PRAM study was metal parts and extruded angles, hence the name sheet
conducted by Sacramento ALC. The resulting metal airplane. This type of construction is highly
recommendation was that the system be deleted. desirable, from a maintenance point of view, because
Second, the attaching former on the forward wing root the majority of the structural rework can be
teardrop fairing requires frequent replacement because accomplished by field level maintenance (FLM)
of the thin material design. The problem is personnel. Using typical repairs in the structural
compounded by the fact that each former has to be repair manual (SRM), the FLM personnel can locally
match-drilled to fit each aircraft. (Some of the manufacture the repair parts and replace structural
features of the airplane, e.g., auxiliary flaps and damaged parts without expensive depot level support.
rotating glove, were added primarily to achieve U.S.
Navy required carrier operation capability. As such, Very large transport: The crosswind takeoff and
little could be done in the area of landing capability is achieved by rotating the main
performance/structural complexity tradeoffs. The landing gear to allow the pilot to point the aircraft into
User, as well as the contractor, must weigh the wind. The rotation mechanism is a complex
performance requirements/gains against development system of actuators, sensors, hydraulic plumbing and
costs and anticipated maintenance.) electrical wiring. This system is the most frequent
cause of gear malfunction. Comparably sized
Swing wing fighter bomber: The aircraft initially used commercial aircraft do not have this feature. The
translating (movable) vanes (one 12-inch vane for attendant actuators, sensors, wiring, etc. are
each flap at the trailing edge of the wings). The complicated and drive up maintenance costs. The
translating vanes were required because of aircraft can safely operate with a 35-knot crosswind
performance goals and the narrow profile of the without the crosswind capability.
wings. As a result, the vanes interfere with normal
flap movement when the flaps are retracted. A PRAM Corrosion
project was authorized to develop a permanent General: It is reasonably obvious that maintenance
engineering fix to this problem along with other costs increase when corrosion occurs and that ease of
auxiliary flight control improvements which will access to the corroded areas also affects maintenance
simplify flap/slat rigging procedures. An engineering costs. Providing access for maintenance is one of the
fix has been developed. The change will permanently many considerations that are traded against other
attach the vane assemblies to the flaps and will requirements, such as performance and structural
significantly reduce maintenance on the flap/vane integrity, during design efforts. To insure corrosion
system. (Emphasis on performance requirements prevention considerations are included in the initial
without limits or guidance regarding the means of design, current systems require a corrosion prevention
achieving the performance have resulted in what plan in accordance with MIL-STD-1568. This plan
appears to be unnecessarily complex systems that give describes the approach to preventing corrosion and
only marginal performance gains for high maintenance includes the establishment of a corrosion prevention
upkeep costs.) Ground attack: The entire throttle team. This team has the responsibility to review
quadrant has to be removed whenever a switch on the preliminary drawings to insure corrosion protection
throttle handle fails. This requirement to remove the techniques are adequate. This team also reviews the
quadrant causes excessive man-hours to be expended Corrosion Peculiar Technical Order (see MIL-M-
in removal, repair, replacement, and functional check 38795) which identifies corrosion prone areas and
of all components on the throttle quadrant. The defines maintenance actions. In addition, AFR 400-44
throttle quadrant contains the following switches: requires establishment of a Corrosion Prevention
speed brake switch, missile reject/uncage switch, right Advisory Board (CPAB) on all new major weapon
and left ignition button, communications "MIC" systems.
button, master exterior lights switch-missile video
polarity, missile seeker head slew/track control, flap Transport: Overboard draining of aircraft comfort
lever, throttle friction control, APU start switch, stations allows waste to coat aircraft surfaces resulting
engine fuel flow norm, engine operator override, and in severe corrosion. The overboard draining of
L/G warn silence. There are about 33 maintenance comfort stations, urinals, and relief tubes causes
actions involved in the removal, repair, replacement, severe corrosion. To comply with existing corrosion
and checkout of the throttle quadrant. The majority of prevention and remedial directives, excessive
the man-hours expended are in the throttle rigging, maintenance man-hours are expended in the constant
engine trim, and functional check/adjustment of the actions necessary to prevent and deter this type of
various switches on the throttle quadrant.
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corrosion. Avoid overboard draining of comfort operation, air is forced into the cap assembly via the
stations, urinals, and relief tubes. Some aircraft have drain hole causing the cap assembly to act as a baffle.
incorporated chemical toilets with holding tanks to When this happens, the trailing edge of the cap
avoid this situation. assembly tends to split open in order to relieve the
pressure which has built up inside.
Crew entrance steps and ladders
Very large transport: Four drain lines are installed in
Swing wing fighter bomber: High failure of crew each pylon. However, the existing drains incorporate
entrance step pegs is caused by spline damage to the finger screens which can trap foreign matter and
pegs and by solenoid failure. The crew entrance step unless carefully inspected, become plugged. To
pegs, which are also used to secure the entrance alleviate this possibility, an ECP has been approved to
ladder, are unnecessarily complex. They are splined replace the finger screens with ones that are flush with
and run in and out of the step housing with a the pylon lower surface and accessible for inspection
windowshade-type spring return mechanism. The and cleaning.
pegs are spring-loaded to the extend position; they are
held in the closed position by a retaining pin that is Engine/pylon removal/replacement
solenoid-operated from the pilot's compartment. The
step pegs can be manually released from the outside Ground attack: A positive feature of the aircraft is the
by turning the manual release screws. The solenoids engine/pylon design. The engine and pylon are
are disabled on many aircraft because of a high failure designed to be handled as a unit which is attached to
rate. The close tolerance of the step peg splines and the airframe by three mounts and seven quick
the step housing results in pegs jamming when disconnects. Thus, all the tubing, hoses, fittings, and
damaged by the ladder or foot. connections between the engine and pylon can be done
in the engine shop and the entire engine/pylon
Ground attack: The internal boarding ladder is assembly can be installed on the aircraft as a unit. The
difficult and unsafe to use. Structural failures of the engine-to-pylon attachment is still a difficult and time
telescoping sections and the rungs have occurred. In consuming task, but it is much easier to perform in the
addition, the ladder has been jettisoned accidentally. shelter of the engine shop than out on the flight line.
It consists of a telescoping square tubular aluminum As a result of this design, an engine change can be
apparatus with rungs extending from the left and right done in as short a time as four hours.
sides. The pilot can deploy the ladder by energizing
the rotor solenoid that opens the door panel. A ladder Equipment location and retention
ejection spring pushes the ladder outward, allowing it Liquid oxygen converter, life support systems: On
to swing out and telescope to its fully deployed several aircraft, the liquid oxygen converter is the
position. The ladder protrudes at an obtuse angle from highest logistic support cost item of the life support
the vertical axis of the aircraft. This angle imposes a system. On some of the larger aircraft, the converter
bending load throughout the ladder sections and it has is located remote from the crew compartment at the
caused splitting of the lower tubular section and far aft section of the fuselage in an area susceptible to
breaking of the rungs. The ladder is held open by a high vibration. Excessively long distribution lines are
magnet which is not sufficient to prevent damage from not insulated from surroundings and result in
ground winds which cause the door to flop. A failure increased generation of gaseous oxygen through
of the step casting has occurred. Other problems agitation and heating. This situation causes increase
include accidental jettison of the ladder and the in amount of venting through relief valves. Foreign
absence of positive indication of ladder deployment. materials, including moisture particles freezing in the
Some of the foregoing deficiencies have been lines and forming small ice crystals, enter the oxygen
corrected; the lower tubular section and the rungs have system during converter connection and also
been strengthened. The pin ball locks that permit the contribute to excessive venting until melted or blown
jettison of the ladder during a scramble have been loose. Maintenance actions consists of inspecting,
replaced with a solid bolt and nut. servicing, and testing without any repair being
Air supremacy fighter: The steps are telescoping, performed. This is attributed to the excessive venting
spring actuated, and mechanical locked devices. and the loss of oxygen being improperly diagnosed as
Repeated extensions (high bottoming out loads) have leaks.
caused cracks and structural failures. The latching Supersonic trainer: As the result of a major accident,
mechanism is not adequate since several inflight a need was recognized to modify survival kits so that
extensions have occurred. In two cases the steps they are retained in the seat bucket under negative g
failed and parts separated from the airplane fortunately conditions. An ejection seat crew/kit retention strap
missing the engine inlet. (Crotch Strap) mod was developed.
Drain holes External lighting (formation)
Ground attack: The bottom cap assembly on the Swing wing fighter: The aircraft require lighting
rudder fails from internal pressures caused by ram improvement for join-up and formation flying. An
pressure on drain holes. The rudder on the vertical airplane was modified with four lighting fixes to
stabilizer contains a bottom cap assembly which is determine the best lighting arrangements: (1)
made of fiberglass. This cap assembly is hollow and electroluminescent strip lights; (2) improved
has a drain hole at the bottom. During high speed formation lights; (3) wingtip/glove light circuits; and
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(4) flood lights, OT&E was conducted. Lighting fixes retaining rod breaks below the filter cap, the retaining
(1) through (3) above constitutes total requirements. strap will slide off the fuel filter cap and 10 PSI
Three separate modifications will be processed to internal fuel pressure will cause the cap to separate
provide these lighting improvements. from the filter body assembly. Field level installation
of an improved retaining strap and cable assembly on
Flight control (actuators, primary and secondary main fuel filters is being done (1981).
systems, surfaces, etc.)
Fuel vents
Swing wing fighter bomber: The electrical backup
system which operates the flap/slat extend/retract Air superiority fighter: The fuel vent on the aircraft is
mechanism under emergency conditions does not flush with the bottom of the left wing. When the
include limit sensors. This permits actuation beyond aircraft is on the ground, changes in ambient
normal limits with resultant structural damage. The temperatures can cause fuel to expand and be vented
normal hydraulic flap/slat actuation system has limit from the fuel vent. Surface adhesion causes the fuel to
sensors which shut-off pressure to the hydraulic cover the entire bottom of the wing. The area covered
motors at the extremes of travel. The lack of sensors by the dripping is larger than any drip pan and creates
in the secondary system is conductive to damage to a fire hazard.
the electric motor and the flex drive shafts. The
applicable technical order (T.O.) and the Heavy air/ground fighter: A mishap investigation
corresponding checklist include numerous warning board identified a problem in the aft fuselage fuel vent
and caution notes to alert maintenance personnel to line system. There were four more mishaps involving
use extreme caution when operating the system in the aft fuselage fires and damage to the aft section of the
emergency mode. This attempt to preclude damage aircraft. A test program was performed as the last
through warning notes would not be required if the phase of an evaluation to insure the improvements
aircraft were equipped with switches which would would solve the existing problems. The test program
disengage the electric motor at the extremes of travel. was completed and a modification was made to
enlarge the bulkhead holes through which the vent line
Swing wing fighter bomber: The flap asymmetry passes, relocate the pencil drain in the vent system and
sensor is mounted on the number 4 flap segment of install brackets to stiffen the vent line.
each wing. The sensor prevents flaps 1 through 4
from moving out of synchronization. Number 5 flap, Ground refueling
however, has no asymmetry sensing device; Subsonic trainer: Over-the-wing refueling is a high
consequently, hang-ups at the number 5 flap cannot be man-hour consumer and has contributed to fuel system
detected. Field activities have indicated that no in- contamination problems. Two people are required for
flight control problems have been reported to date; refueling because both wing tanks must be filled
however, post-flight inspections have revealed simultaneously to preclude damage caused by fuel
structural damage and flap separation at the number 5 imbalance. Single point refueling requires only one
flap. The reason the asymmetry sensor is located at person and can use higher flow rates, resulting in
the number 4 flap instead of the number 5 flap is that significant manpower savings. The over-the-wing
all swing wing fighter aircraft produced prior to the filler ports are a source of fuel contamination. Paint
swing wing fighter bomber had only four flaps. When and metal chips are knocked into the tanks by the filler
the swing wing fighter bomber was designed with an nozzles and cap retainer lanyards and nozzle basket
extra 2 1/2 feet of wing and a number 5 flap, the ports are frequently broken off or dropped into the
asymmetry device was left at the number 4 flap. tanks. The rate of fuel tank contamination
Large transport: Field reports have identified the occurrences on this subsonic trainer is 10 times that of
following problems: Ailerons sticking in the up and a supersonic trainer. Review and include as applicable
down positions and inability to center, unwanted the Standardization Agreement 3212ASP on diameters
movements, and lagging and overshooting of manual for gravity filling orifices.
and automatic input commands. These conditions are Hoist/cable guides
caused by inability of the ailerons to overcome input
linkage friction and control valve operating forces at Hoists: One of the most difficult line replaceable units
cold temperature in the presence of contaminated (LRU) to handle in the avionics intermediate shop
hydraulic fluid, which also tends to compress the input (AIS) is the radar antenna. Because of the weight
override bungee. (approximately 80 pounds) and the bulkiness of an
antenna, many times damage is caused just in
Fuel filter retaining strap transporting and mounting the unit into the fixture. In
Tanker/transport: A flight mishap was caused by the one of the AIS, the hoist/cable required constant
cap of the main fuel filter separating from the filter tension to prevent the cable from slipping off the reels.
body assembly. This was a repeat of a similar mishap When this occurred the antenna would have to be
in 1959. A retaining strap and cable assembly was manually lifted off the fixture, the cable reinstalled on
installed over the cap and body assembly to prevent the reel, and then remounted onto the fixture. The
this from occurring. Since that time no cap need for cable retention guards and guides applies to
separations have occurred; however, testing of the airborne hoists as well.
retaining strap and cables has revealed that if the filter
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Impact bags, parachutes, and pressure bottle wheels on each bogie and increased the braking
installations pressure. Because of the reversed lines, this pressure
increase was directed to the "B" pair of wheels. The
Swing wing fighter bomber: The escape capsule system sensed the impending skid of the "B" wheels
impact bag, the stabilizer brake chute, and the and relaxed the pressure in the "B" lines which were
recovery chute are time change items requiring misconnected to the "A" wheels. The end result was
periodic replacement. All three items are compressed no braking on the "A" wheels and four blown tires on
and sealed in their shipping containers. Once the the firmly locked "B" wheels. Thus, the misrigged
containers are opened, the items immediately start to system caused the condition it was intended to
swell. The impact bag in particular will swell to the prevent.
point that it must be compressed into position with a
jack stand if it is not installed in the aircraft within Transport: Two jacks are required to change a flat
thirty minutes. Installation of all three items takes tire. The first jack is needed to lift the strut high
three days. enough for a 35 ton jack to be inserted. The second
jack will then raise the aircraft so that the tire can be
Swing wing fighter: Fuel was discovered leaking replaced.
from the nose wheel well. Investigation revealed the
left hand pressure source bottle for the impact Very large transport: Non-permanently installed jack
attenuation bag had exploded causing extensive pads increase maintenance man-hours, require 780
aircraft damage. The F-1 fuel tank bulkhead had been record maintenance, and result in the loss of jack pads
punctured, the left hand seat structure attaching points and attaching parts. Jack pads were not originally
had broken and forced the seat forward, and the installed as a permanent part of the airframe,
adjacent outside aircraft skin was bulged outward. subsequently, the pads were permanently installed
Burst tested six pressure source bottles. All exceeded after a test proved that jack pads exposed to the
virgin burst requirements. Burst testing of 15 airstream did not result in an appreciable increase of
damaged bottles removed in accordance with TCTO. fuel used due to drag. This action reduced 780
Problem still under investigation. equipment record keeping time. Maintenance man-
hours required to install and remove the jack pads
Interchangeability whenever the aircraft was jacked were eliminated. In
Swing wing fighter bomber: The teardrop panels, like addition, jack pad and attaching part losses were also
many other panels, come from supply as undrilled eliminated.
blanks. Since the aircraft structure normally warps Landing gear position change
during its life cycle, predrilled panels usually will not
fit. The blank panels are drilled in place to fit the Air supremacy fighter: The original location of the
existing structure. For this reason, panels from one MLG was changed to enhance the location of center-
aircraft will seldom fit any other aircraft. In the case of-gravity relative to the MLG and the crosswind
of the teardrop panels, the panels attach to a heavy landing characteristics of the aircraft. The change
forging which is not subject to warping. Predrilled incorporated an extended drag link to effect this
panels would have been practical in this case. enhancement rather than a redesign of the MLG. The
change, when incorporated, caused geometric
Very large transport: Landing gear and brake failures misalignment of the MLG wheels resulting in
have occurred as the result of cross-connected excessive MLG tire wear and maintenance support
hydraulic lines. One of the landing gear retracted, cost.
both the normal and emergency systems failed to
lower the gear. The normal system was inoperative Landing gear position locks and servicing
because of a broken linkage between the unlock
actuator and the over-center mechanism that locks the Swing wing fighter: Slight (5-7 percent) overinflation
gear in the retracted position. A separate emergency of the gear struts will prevent the main gear from
lock/unlock actuator is included in this design but the locking in the retract position. The landing gear strut
hydraulic lines to it were reversed. Hence, when the servicing procedure uses air pressure in conjunction
emergency geardown system was activated, pressure with strut extension for proper inflation of the shock
was applied to drive the mechanism firmly into the struts. The strut extension is measured in one-eighth
locked (up) position. One would expect such a inch increments and the air pressure is held to plus or
condition to be discovered by required checkout minus twenty-five pounds per square inch. The gage
procedures following any maintenance on the system. used for this procedure has a range of 0-4000 pounds
Although such checks were performed, the gear and the dial face is marked in 100 pounds increments
functioned normally during the tests in spite of the which makes accurate air servicing very difficult and
cross-connected hydraulic lines. In flight, however, almost impossible to meet the plus or minus 25 pound
the timing of the door opening and loads on the system requirement.
were changed. As a result, the gear remained in the up Subsonic trainer: The main landing gear cannot be
position. A similar incident occurred involving the lowered by either the hydraulic system or the
brake system. During maintenance, hydraulic lines emergency air system unless the main gear door
were inadvertently crossed on both main landing gear uplock mechanism can be released. The conventional
bogies. Later, maximum braking was applied upon tricycle landing gear retracts and extends by power
landing from a functional check flight. The anti-skid from the aircraft hydraulic system. The inboard main
system sensed a nonskid condition on the "A" pair of gear doors are actuated hydraulically and are operated
175
by a sequencing valve in the landing gear system. Swing wing fighter: The canopy seals on the cockpit
This valve synchronizes opening and closing of the canopy are depressurized when the power is off, as it
doors with extension and retraction of the main gear. is when the aircraft is parked. Originally, when these
The inboard main gear doors engage the uplock hooks. seals were depressurized rain leaked through, causing
The nose-wheel doors are actuated open and closed by corrosion and damage to electronic components, such
mechanical linkages which are connected to the nose as short circuits. Subsequently, a round tubular shield
gear. The landing gear emergency extension system was placed around the cockpit periphery outside of the
consists of an emergency gear T-handle and an original seal. This blocked any moisture from
emergency air bottle containing 2000 +250 psi of air. penetrating, even when the pressure seals are
Activation of the emergency system directs air to the depressurized.
actuators to open the main gear doors and to lower the
landing gear when a failure occurs in the hydraulic Ground attack: Thin panels used on avionics bays do
system. If mechanical failure occurs which prevents not prevent water intrusion. When sealant is applied
operation of the main gear door actuator or the door to the panels, the panels deform and eventually fail
uplock release mechanism, the main gear cannot be with fasteners pulling through the panels. One factor
extended. Consideration should be given to a manual in the design was to have thin, lightweight, flush
uplock release, free-fall emergency landing gear panels on all bays. Thin panels do not prevent water
extension system, as one alternative for aircraft such intrusion very well and are very susceptible to
as a light trainer. deformation. The deformation problem is increased
when seals are added to prevent water intrusion.
Attack fighter: The MLG uplock system has Space for the seals could have been allowed and still
experienced problems due to difficulties in kept the panels light in weight, thin, and flush.
maintaining proper rigging. This condition results in
failure of the uplock structure and subsequent failure Overload (NZW) warning
of the gear to extend. Cause of the problem is Overload warning system: Although the aircraft
abnormally large loads being transferred into structure mounted accelerometers give accurate "g" load
not designed to withstand such loading. Three gear up readings, they do not consider weight or altitude for a
landings and numerous maintenance actions have true depiction of aircraft load conditions. The
resulted from this condition. A TCTO to replace acceleration limits of one fighter are 5.1 g at 53,300
MLG restrictor with a design allowing for slower gear pounds and 7.3 g at 37,400 pounds. The aircraft has
retraction and resulting smaller loads has been issued. the lowest tolerance to excessive "g" loads occurring
Evacuation transport: During free fall testing of the in the area of 20,000 feet pulling 7.5 g at 40,000 feet
NLG, it was discovered that down and locked may be and less than 37,000 pounds would indicate the same
indicated prior to the gear downlock mechanism being on the accelerometer counter at 7.5 g at 20,000 feet at
overcenter (safe). a weight of 53,000+ pounds. Although instrument
indications would be identical for each, the latter
Lost antennas would be more critical, affecting the fatigue life of the
airframe. Consideration should be given to
Transport/large transport: Aircraft antennas are bolted developing and installing an overload warning system
to the outer fuselage skin. The loss of an antenna in future high performance air combat fighters.
becomes significant when cabin pressure is lost
through the hole created by the loss of the antenna. Paratroop seats
For example, an airplane was cruising at 39,000 feet
when a rapid loss of cabin pressure was detected. The Transport: The paratroop seats are designed in
pressure was lost through the hole left when an segments to facilitate handling. Segments are
antenna came off in flight. Aircraft antennas are connected by 16 inch nylon zippers to form a bench.
subject to ground damage, vibration, shock, and The zippers frequently fail under the loads applied
internal/external pressures while in flight. The cabin during normal use and handling. Replacement zippers
pressure tends to force the antenna away from the are available, but replacement requires removal of two
aircraft and results in advertent depressurizations seat segments. Many times the whole seat unit is
when the entire antenna is lost. Cabin pressure forces replaced because of zipper failure. In either case
should tend to hold the antenna in place rather than significant man-hours are required.
force it loose. External removal and replacement Redundant routing of cables, lines, and wires
should also be a consideration.
Very large transport: Failure of the T-tail flight
Moisture intrusion controls was caused when the aircraft pressure door
Subsonic trainer: Rain, melting snow, and other forms broke loose in flight and severed the hydraulic lines,
of moisture seep into the avionics compartment of the electrical wires, and cables to the hydraulic power
aircraft during foul weather causing premature packs that operated the flight controls. Because
avionics failures. This problem is further complicated primary and secondary hydraulic lines were routed
because of the design of compartment covers, which together along with electrical circuits for trim control,
raise up and allow water to run off into the failure of the control cables was compounded by loss
compartment. The moisture problem is attributed of any control of the primary and secondary flight
mainly to the design of these covers and associated surfaces in the empennage. This problem has been
rubber seals. minimized by rerouting and separating the redundant
flight control system hydraulic lines, electrical wires,
176
and cables. Rerouting has minimized the potential for of these units compared to fixed lights. Streamlined,
redundant system loss. fixed, anti-collision lights instead of retractable lights
should be considered.
Swing-wing bomber: The aircraft was flying a
designated low level, high speed leg of a simulated Very large transport: Fittings in the hydraulic return
bombing training mission. A bird penetrated the lines in areas of high flexing (wings and pylons) are
aircraft structure through the inboard side of engine failing due to flange separation in the self-aligning
three's boundary control gutter wall. Critical hydraulic part of the tube to fitting interface. They were
lines, fuel lines, and numerous electrical lines, cables, designed to allow angular misalignment caused from
and junction boxes were grouped together in this bird wing and pylon flexing and linear
impact penetration vulnerable area. The requirement expansion/contraction from pressure surges and
to separate critical lines, such as hydraulic, fuel, and thermal effects. A fitting consists of a nut, stainless
electrical is to be made applicable to all airframes, steel locks or snap ring, O-ring, and two half moon
particularly those that are to be used at low level for sleeves made of stainless steel or aluminum
extended periods of time. This requirement to (depending on where in the hydraulic return system
eliminate the grouping of critical lines and subsystems they are used--the stainless steel sleeves are used in
that do not have separated redundant counterparts is to areas of higher vibration). The function of the half
be made applicable regardless of the size of bird moon sleeves is to fit over and around the flanges of
required in 3.2.24, Foreign Object Damage (FOD). the two connecting tubes to permit the tubing to slip
during flexing. Some of the problems with the fitting
Refueling overpressure can be attributed to the fitting design; others to the thin
Tanker/transport: Two aircraft are barred from aerial walled tubing that is used with them. Examples of
refueling with the aircraft due to unsafe conditions. reported failures are: cracked half moon sleeves
Some aircraft are restricted to only partial refueling (aluminum), broken tube flanges, cracked nuts, holes
with the aircraft due to unsafe/hazardous results if the in tubes caused by rubbing the half moon sleeves, and
receiver aircraft obtains full tanks during refueling holes at tube anchor points in high flexure areas.
(i.e., receiver aircraft fuel tanks will rupture due to Some aircraft have not experienced this problem. A
tanker fuel pressure). large transport uses standard AN fittings in the high
flex areas with thicker walled tubing. On a
Aircraft that are designed to receive fuel during tanker/transport, the straight swivel slip coupling is
inflight refueling operation must have provisions to used at strategic locations to absorb the expansions
preclude overpressurization when the fuel tanks reach and movement of the hydraulic lines. An air/ground
the full condition. fighter used flexible line segments and rigid fittings.
The refueling system on tanker aircraft must include Repair of lightweight tubing
pressure regulation to preclude unacceptable pressure
surges in the event of failure of pressure relief systems Ground attack/air superiority fighter/electronics:
on receiver aircraft. These aircraft use high strength 21-6-9 instead of the
widely used 304 1/8 tubing as a weight savings. The
Transport: Number one fuel tank over pressurized weight savings on the fighter was 18 pounds and 108
causing internal and external structural damage. pounds on the electronics aircraft. The major
Review and include as applicable the Standardization difference between the tubing is 21-6-9 has thinner
Agreement 3681PHE on criteria for pressure fueling wall structure but is stronger. The 304 1/8 stainless
of aircraft. steel tubing was used on earlier aircraft prior to
introduction of 21-6-9 and is presently available in the
Reliability field. By using the 21-6-9 tubing, new tooling and
special mandrels were required since the tooling for
Swing wing fighter bomber: The tail light is a high
the 304 1/8 tubing was too soft for bending 21-6-9
failure item. Many times, two or more bulb
tubing. To alleviate procuring additional tooling for
replacements are required after flight. The tail light
bending 21-6-9 tubing, AFLC has authorized the use
assembly is isolated to absorb approximately ten g's of
of 304 1/8 stainless steel as the repair item for failed
vibration. Vibrations as high as 50 g can occur in the
21-6-9 stainless steel tubing. Authorization for repair
tail section. Vibrations of this magnitude can snap a
of 21-6-9 tubing with 304 1/8 should be included in
bulb filament. The use of adequate vibration isolation
each technical order and document applicable to
and the use of non-filament high reliability type light
performing tube replacement.
bulbs for all light assemblies should be considered.
Taxi damage
Swing wing fighter bomber: The anti-collision lights
are retracted when they are not in use. The retraction Large transport: During taxi for takeoff, the aircraft
mechanism causes many failures and significantly made a right turn onto the taxiway. During the turn
lower reliability in comparison with fixed lights. The the aircraft right wing tip contacted a building
drag benefits of having the lights retracted appear to inflicting damage to approximately 18 to 24 inches of
be minuscule. During normal operations the lights are the right wing tip. Fuel from the number four main
always extended and on. It appears that the fuel tank spilled. The engines were shut down and the
performance benefits of the retractable lights are more crew evacuated the airplane.
than offset by the increased cost and lower reliability
177
Toxic materials together and the rivets must be drilled out to separate
the sections. These removals contribute to the wear
Heavy air/ground fighter: An aircraft was lost when and tear on the inlet cowling. Maintenance data shows
its cockpit filled with smoke and the crew ejected. that in a 6-month period, 335 failures were reported
The smoke, which prevented all outside vision and and 13,779 maintenance man-hours expended. The
totally obscured the instruments, was generated by the majority of the failures were attributed to cracks.
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) lining of a cockpit insulation Cowlings should be adequately constructed to
blanket. A failed bleed air line clamp allowed high withstand maintenance actions imposed on and around
temperature air to impinge on the outside wall of the them. Segment size should be reduced to facilitate
cockpit. The blanket which was in contact with the easy removals. This applies to similarly exposed
inside cockpit wall began to smolder and gave off the airframe components as well.
dense smoke. In an attempt to clear the cockpit
sufficiently to fly the aircraft, the crew jettisoned the B.5.4 STRUCTURAL LOADING
rear canopy. The increased air flow in the cockpit, CONDITIONS
however, fanned the smoldering blanket into a small
fire and increased the density of the smoke. All visual The airframe operational and maintenance capability
references were lost and the crew ejected. PVC is a shall be in accordance with the following structural
highly versatile material which has definite cost loading conditions in conjunction with the detailed
advantages. However, the hazards associated with this structural design of 5.5.1 and the general parameters
material must not be overlooked. Although not highly of 5.5.2.
flammable, it will give off toxic fumes, dense smoke,
and burn when sufficiently heated. Its use in occupied REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
areas of an aircraft, and especially the cockpit, should
be seriously questioned. Alternate materials with The purpose of this requirement is to insure that the
better high temperature characteristics are available critical loading conditions and associated loading
and, although pound-per-pound costs may be higher, distributions are established in accordance with the
may provide the optimal solution. In this mishap, it specified structural design criteria.
was the smoke that cost us the aircraft, not the fire.
Elimination of the material which generated the smoke REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
is the only completely satisfactory answer. Solutions
which center on potential ignition sources exist. The During flight operations, and maintenance the
materials used in aircraft interiors are to comply with airframe will be subjected to forces such as
the PVC restrictions of MIL-STD-1587. aerodynamic, inertia, thrust, and mechanical. The
Upper torso crash restraint determination of these forces is required to establish
the external and internal loads which in general are
Evacuation transport: The present forward and aft influenced by structural flexibility and which the
attendance seats do not provide upper torso restraint to airframe must sustain during its expected usage.
protect medical crew members from crash impact. Within the ground rules of the specified structural
Observation: An aircraft on a tactical range mission design criteria, it is necessary to define the structural
crashed during maneuvers. The aircraft was observed loading conditions and load distributions which are
to fly past the target, initiate a pull-up and aggressive required to generate design loads. The loading
right turn greater than 90 degrees to target. Pilot made conditions shall be categorized as flight loading and
an abrupt pull-out in an estimated 30 degree nose low ground loading conditions. For the purposes of this
delivery. The aircraft struck the ground short of the document flight loading conditions are considered
target. The accident board investigation has been only insofar as they impact landing gear and airframe
completed. A recommendation for a feasibility study backup structure.
to determine how to reinforce the seat base and
shoulder harness attach points to increase crash REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
survivability was established by engineering.
Particular care should be exercised in defining the
Walking on structural components structural loading conditions and load distributions
which are used to design the airframe since these
Very large fan jet engine cowling: The inlet cowling
items directly influence the performance and structural
is constructed in large segments made of light-weight
reliability of the airframe.
aluminum. These segments are easily damaged when
maintenance is performed on or around them. The fan
B.5.4.1 FLIGHT LOADING CONDITIONS
section has an inside diameter of approximately seven
feet. This large opening allows maintenance
Flight loading conditions are essentially realistic
personnel to stand inside the cowling and work on the
conditions based on airframe response to pilot induced
fan assembly. Damage to the cowlings results from
or autonomous maneuvers, loss of control maneuvers,
tools being dropped on them and people walking on
and turbulence. These realistic conditions shall
them. Another problem associated with the large inlet
consider both required and expected to be encountered
cowling is due to its design and size. To provide
critical combinations of configurations, gross weights,
access to components under the cowling, large
centers of gravity, thrust or power, altitudes, speeds,
sections must be removed. The sections are riveted
and type of atmosphere and shall be used in the design
178
of the airframe. Flight loading conditions shall reflect moments are usually established by determining
symmetric and asymmetric flight operations and are maximum lateral airloads. Maximum aft fuselage
established for both primary and secondary structural torsions are likely to occur from rolling maneuvers
components by careful selection of flight parameters which produce large differential tail loads. Maximum
likely to produce critical applied loads. Symmetric horizontal tail loads are generally established by
and asymmetric flight operations shall include determining conditions which require maximum
symmetric and unsymmetric fuel and payload loadings balancing tail loads. Maximum horizontal tail torsions
and adverse trim conditions. The following conditions are likely to occur from large deflections of control
reflect required flight operations capability of the surfaces such as elevators. Rolling maneuvers with
airframe. heavy wing mounted stores usually produce large tail
loads. Maximum vertical tail loads are likely to occur
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE from rolling and yawing maneuvers which produce
large sideslip angles. Maximum vertical tail torsions
The purpose of this requirement is to insure that all may occur from maneuvers involving large rudder
applicable flight loading conditions are established in deflections. Flight loading conditions for primary and
accordance with the detailed structural criteria of secondary structural component were previously
5.1.1. specified in MIL-A-008861.
simultaneously with the landing gear in each critical investigating various aircraft attitudes at ground
position between fully extended and fully retracted: contact in conjunction with the air vehicle flying at the
specified landing and sinking speeds. A typical set of
a. Aerodynamic loads up to the limit speed landing conditions for an aircraft with tricycle gear is
specified for the takeoff and landing as follows:
configuration.
a. Level landing, three point
b. Inertia loads corresponding to the maximum and
minimum symmetrical limit load factors b. Level landing, two point
specified for flight in the takeoff and landing
configurations. c. Tail down landing
load factor is 0.5 or that lesser value which causes conditions at all critical combinations of aircraft
overturning. For the pivoting condition, the brakes are weight, c.g., and mass distributions shall be included
locked on one wheel unit and the air vehicle is pivoted in the analyses. The sum of the vertical loads acting at
about that unit. A coefficient of friction of 0.8 is the ground shall be 2.0W where W is the weight of the
assumed in the analysis. aircraft. The total load of 2.0W shall be reacted at
each mass item. For nose gear design, 3.0W shall be
Runway roughness for ground operations will be used instead of 2.0W. No wing lift shall be considered
stated in terms of power spectral density levels or for the 2.0g taxi condition. To account for taxi
discrete bumps and dips. asymmetry and servicing, loads should be distributed
equally (50/50) and alternately 60/40.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
The ground loading conditions should be carefully
established since these conditions are used to None.
determine the service loads and ground loads which
the airframe must sustain during its expected usage. B.5.4.2.2 TURNS
In general, ground loading conditions are not truly
realistic conditions but are situations that should result a. Turns on ramps at speeds up to ___________
in loads which equal or exceed those expected from
realistic conditions. Ground loading conditions such b. Turns on taxiways at speeds up to ____________
as landing and ground handling were previously
specified in MIL-A-008862. Catapult and arrestment c. Runway turn-offs at speeds up to ____________
condition requirements were defined by MIL-A-
008863. Requirements for crash and ditching REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
conditions, control system conditions, refueling
conditions, and other miscellaneous conditions were The purpose of this requirement is to provide
defined by MIL-A-008865. structural requirements for unbraked steady turns.
B.5.4.2.1 TAXI REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
a. Dynamic taxi conditions _____________. Define the turn requirements in terms of required
parameters of 5.5.2 and 5.5.3, and rational
b. 2.0g TAXI (___) Taxi conditions at all critical combinations thereof. Turning design loads should be
combinations of _______________. based on operational requirements such as taxiway,
runway, and tire conditions. Turning requirements
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE shall be established at appropriate speeds of 5.5.2.7,
but nose gear steering angle and associated turn speed
The purpose of this requirement is to establish need not exceed those required for a lateral load factor
structural requirements for straight ahead taxi without of 0.5g at the aircraft center of gravity. For example,
braking. Straight taxi typically produces maximum turns on ramps at speeds up to the taxi limit speed, VT
vertical loads on the landing gear and may produce
significant loadings on other primary structure. on paved and semiprepared surfaces. Turns on
taxiways at speeds up to the taxi limit speeds, VT on
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE paved and semiprepared surfaces. Runway turn-offs
at speeds up to the taxi limit speed, VT, on paved and
Define the taxi requirements in terms of required semiprepared surfaces. The effects of weight, cg
parameters 5.5.2 and 5.5.3, and rational combinations position, mass distribution, and landing gear
thereof. Dynamic taxi conditions should be based on characteristics shall be accounted for.
operational requirements such as taxiway, runway, and
tire conditions. Taxi loads shall be established at REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
appropriate speeds in accordance with 5.5.2.7. For
example, low speed taxi on taxiways and ramps of A technique for establishing lateral load factors during
paved and semiprepared airfields at speeds up to the ground turning is presented in ASD-TR-79-5037.
taxi limit speed, VT and high speed taxi on runways of
paved and semiprepared airfields at speeds up to the B.5.4.2.3 PIVOTS
lift-off limit speed, VLO. The appropriate effects of
weight, cg position, mass distribution, and landing a. The pivot points are ____________
gear characteristics will be included. RTD-TDR-63-
4139 Vol. I and ASD-TDR-62-555 Vol. I provide b. The power or thrust levels shall be
criteria and analysis techniques for establishing _____________
alighting gear dynamic loads. Further guidance on
dynamic taxi loads is presented in 5.5.4.2.7.
Alternately, with approval of the procuring agency, a
2.0g taxi analysis may be substituted. If applicable,
define the extent of applicability. For example, taxi
181
e. Braking after landing on ___________ Define the takeoff requirements in terms of required
parameters of 5.5.2 and 5.5.3, and rational
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE combination thereof. Takeoff structural requirements
shall be based on operational requirements, such as
The purpose of this requirement is to establish runway conditions. Takeoff conditions shall be at
structural requirements for ground handling involving speeds up to those of 5.5.2.7. For hard surface
the use of braking. runways, semi-prepared runways, and unprepared
surfaces, define the extent of applicability. For
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE example, takeoffs on semi-prepared runways shall be
at speeds up to the lift-off limit speed, VLO. For
Define the braking requirements in terms of required launch and assisted takeoff, define the extent of
parameters of 5.5.2 and 5.5.3, and rational applicability. For example, catapult launch shall be at
combination thereof. Braking design loads should be speeds up to the maximum specified launch speed.
based on operational requirements such as taxiway, Further guidance on catapult launch loads is presented
runway, and tire conditions. Braking requirements in 5.5.4.2.7. For aircraft required to takeoff from ships
shall be established at appropriate speeds of 5.5.2.7. with either catapult assist ramps or ski-jump, structural
For example, taxiing and turning on paved and requirements and entry speed limitations shall be
semiprepared surfaces, at speeds up to the taxi limit established.
speed, VT. For pivoting, define the extent of
applicability. Braking after an aborted takeoff on REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
paved and semiprepared airfields shall be at speeds up
to the liftoff limit speed, VLO. Braking after landing None.
on paved and semiprepared airfields shall be at speeds
up to the touch-down limit speed, VTD. The static
182
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
Runway profile elevations used in the continuous development phase and aircraft ground operations
analysis shall have power spectral densities (PSD) tests.
which equal or exceed the spectra for paved,
semiprepared, and unprepared airfields which are The need for a requirement which consists of an
presented in figures 12 though 14. The terrain integrated design approach is clearly demonstrated by
roughness contours used to define airfield surfaces for an inadequate main landing gear design process used
the discrete input shall consist of step inputs and on a large cargo aircraft. The process consisted of
single and double (1-cosine) shaped bumps and providing the landing gear developer with fixed design
depressions. The step inputs shall be up to 1 inch for loads and spatial constraints with no requirement for
paved, 2 inches for semiprepared, and 4 inches for dynamic stability. The design process did not allow
unprepared surfaces. The maximum amplitudes for feedback to assess the adequacy of the design. This
the bump and depression inputs shall be those of the process proved to be inadequate because of many
applicable surfaces for slow and high speed taxi as main landing gear shimmy incidences which occurred
presented in figures 4 and 5. The aircraft shall later in the aircraft test program.
approach the contours at all critical angles from 0 to Historically, shimmy analyses have not followed a
90 to the crestline of the contours. well defined standardized approach in determining
landing gear shimmy characteristics. A number of
The landing impact loads shall be determined by a
these analyses have not properly considered items
rational dynamic landing analysis which takes into
such as nonlinear effects, structural damping,
account the characteristics of the aircraft landing gear
structural stiffnesses, freeplay, and the capability to
and realistically models air vehicle response during
assess the effect of a velocity squared damper.
landing impact. The magnitude, directions, and
Landing gear tests have shown that a large number of
distribution of external and internal loads shall be all
parameters such as tire and structural stiffness, tire and
loads which occur during landing impact. If the
structural damping, and tire shimmy properties vary in
landing gear is located on the wing, dynamic loads
a nonlinear manner as a function of strut stroke
imposed on a wing during landing impacts may result
position. Experience has shown that landing gear
in more critical wing down loads and wing-mounted
structural damping can vary anywhere from 1 to 10%
store loads.
of the critical viscous damping. The amount of
The damping requirement specified in 3.2.1.4 of damping during any given taxi run is not constant and
AFGS-87139A is necessary to establish an acceptable can vary between these two percentages. Stability
level of dynamic stability. The primary concern is the predictions made for a prototype fighter were based on
damping of steered landing gear to prevent shimmy. an assumption of a constant 7% critical viscous
The system shimmy stability requirements shall be damping. This assumption resulted in erroneous
determined by a nonlinear dynamic analysis which analytical predictions which overestimated the
properly accounts for torsional freeplay, Coulomb shimmy stability of the landing gear. The analysis
friction, wheel unbalance, and the capability to assess agreed with experimental data when an assumption of
the effect of a velocity squared damper. The structural 1% damping was used. It is generally recommended
model should include effective masses and inertias, that a 1% assumption will expose any potential
structural damping, structural stiffnesses, and sensitivity that the landing gear might have toward
gyroscopic effects of the rotating wheel assembly. shimmying.
The tire shimmy model should be either the Von
Finite element analyses used to predict landing gear
Schlippe Dietrich or the Moreland model. Excitation
structural stiffness parameters have not always proven
of the shimmy analysis model shall include impulse,
to be reliable. Further, these analyses have
cyclic, and initial displacements of the landing gear.
consistently predicted the structure to be stiffer than
Ground tests to support development of the landing
what it really is. Use of these stiffer values in the
gear analysis model includes ground vibration tests
shimmy analysis will generally lead to overconfidence
(GVT), structural stiffness parameter tests, tire
in landing gear stability. This problem has been
parameter tests, and dynamometer tests.
observed on a large cargo aircraft, a prototype trainer,
and a low observable air superiority fighter.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
Landing gear torsional freeplay can significantly affect
Recurrent landing gear shimmy problems have analytical stability predictions and should always be
occurred during the development of many aircraft considered in the development of shimmy analyses.
systems. These problems have caused significant Experience indicates that a reasonable range of
impacts on program cost and schedule as well as freeplay on a new landing gear is from an absolute
overall aircraft integrity and performance. Because of minimum of .5 and is generally not larger than 2
these problems, the need to focus on a structured degrees. Some landing gears are extremely sensitive
approach to prevention of landing gear shimmy is to increasing torsional freeplay while some do not
required. The structured approach should consist of a seem to be affected by it. For example, the nose gear
total quality systems approach which integrates the of an air superiority fighter was extremely sensitive to
landing gear design into the overall aircraft design, small torsional freeplay variations. On the other hand,
utilizes a standardized analytical approach in defining the nose gear of a prototype trainer was totally
landing gear shimmy characteristics, and requires both insensitive to the freeplay range cited above.
dynamometer testing early in the landing gear Therefore, a freeplay sweep in the shimmy analysis to
184
determine landing gear dynamic response sensitivity identify potential design changes earlier in the
over the design speed range of the gear is development phase to help minimize cost and
recommended. schedule impacts. These tests are recommended to
support risk management, enhance experimental
Velocity squared shimmy dampers have shown repeatability, and measurement reliability in a
themselves to be useful on marginally stable landing controlled laboratory environment. However, some
gears in spite of added weight and tire wear penalties. caution must be used in setting up a dynamometer test.
Therefore, a standardized shimmy analysis should The landing gear cannot simply be rigidly mounted to
include consideration of this option to demonstrate a platform above the dynamometer. Instead,
that adequate damping is achieved if a velocity compliant structure must be inserted between the
squared shimmy damper is used. platform and the landing gear to properly simulate the
While shimmy analysis with analytically derived input fuselage backup structural flexibility. Experience
data may be useful in identifying major problems of indicates that the stiffness values obtained from both a
the gear early in the design stage, this approach does rigidly mounted gear and actual aircraft are nonlinear
not provide a sufficient level of accuracy in the and vary with stroke position. Also the rigidly
prediction of physical stability characteristics. For this mounted gear values will be in error by as much as
reason, testing of an actual gear is needed to establish 300% when compared to the values obtained on the
further confidence in the analysis. This testing actual aircraft. The dynamometer test conditions
includes ground vibration test (GVT), structural should include runs with and without excitation forces
stiffness parameter tests, tire parameter tests, and applied either at the farthest axle from the primary
dynamometer tests. landing gear post or at the primary landing gear post.
The location selected should produce the greatest
The GVT is conducted to measure landing gear mode excitation to the gear structure. The forcing
shapes, frequencies, and modal damping for the fore mechanism used in the dynamometer tests should be
and aft, lateral, and torsional modes of the main and capable of applying either a single or cyclic impulse to
auxiliary landing gears. During these tests, the wheels the gear with sufficient force to insure that breakout
shall be free from the ground. The test results shall be from the torsional friction binding occurs. For cyclic
used to verify all dynamic response analyses. Where impulses, care should be taken in the design of the
applicable, results of the GVT shall be used in mechanism to insure that it recoils faster than the gear
resolving and preventing transient vibration problems does to prevent interference with the natural motion of
due to brake chatter, gear walking, antiskid control, the gear. Experience indicates that the dynamometer
wheel unbalance resonances, and shimmy. test matrix should include ten knot speed increments,
Structural stiffness tests are conducted to determine at least four strut stroke positions, and at least three
the accuracy of the original stiffness values obtained tire pressures to prevent overlooking a critical shimmy
from the finite element analysis. A common approach speed, to account for nonlinear effects, and to assure
used in making these measurements is to input forces that aircraft weight configurations are adequately
to the gear and measure the resulting deflections. A represented by these tire pressures.
frequent oversight consists of ignoring the stiffness
contribution of the fuselage backup structure. If B.5.4.2.8 SKI EQUIPPED AIR VEHICLES
appropriate fuselage backup structure is unavailable (___)
during these tests, then a compliant structure which
simulates the flexibility of the fuselage structure shall a. Frozen skis ________.
be inserted as an interface between the landing gear
and the test support structure. Because of difficulties b. Ski load distribution conditions
associated with predicting structural flexibilities, ______________.
sensitivity studies which consider a range of
flexibilities should be conducted to determine the
effects of flexibility variations on the stability of the REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
landing gear design. Design of the compliant structure
should be based on results of the sensitivity studies The purpose of this requirement is to establish
and subject to the approval of the procuring agency. structural requirements for ski equipped aircraft
operating on snow, ice, and mud.
Tire parameter tests are conducted to determine the
specific parameters associated with the selection of REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
either the Von Schlippe Dietrich or the Moreland tire
model over the range of loading conditions and tire If the subparagraphs are applicable, define the
pressures which the tire will experience in actual requirements in terms of required parameters of 5.5.2
operations. The specific parameters associated with and 5.5.3, and rational combination thereof. Ski
the Von Schlippe Dietrich tire model are provided in structural requirements shall be based on operational
NACA TR-1299. The Moreland tire model requirements such as taxiway and runway, surface
parameters are provided in "The Story of Shimmy" by conditions and environmental conditions. Ski
William J. Moreland. requirements should reflect appropriate speeds of
5.5.2.7. For example, ski equipped air vehicles shall
Dynamometer tests are conducted to determine the
operate in snow, in mud, and on ice. During the
overall dynamic stability of the landing gear and to
takeoff and landing run, the airplane shall be in the
185
three-point attitude. The vertical load factor at the combination thereof. Maintenance requirements
gear shall be 1.0 at the maximum ground weight with should be based on operational requirements such as
a linear variation of load factor to 1.2 at the normal towing, jacking, and hoisting. For example, towing,
landing weight. The coefficient of friction shall be jacking, and hoisting loads shall be established in
0.40. Pitching moment shall be balanced by rotational accordance with the following:
inertia. For frozen skis, the air vehicle shall be in the
three-point attitude with each ski alternately assumed a. Towing. The air vehicle shall be in a three-point
fixed. The loads and torques shall be those resulting attitude. The resultant of the vertical reactions at
from application of maximum engine power or thrust the wheels shall be equal to the weight of the
aircraft and shall pass through the cg. The
available at -60F to the engine(s) on the side opposite
towing loads shall act parallel to the ground.
from the fixed ski. The loads shall be reacted by the
The side component of the tow load at the main
main gear ski and nose gear ski and alternately, by the
gear shall be reacted by a side force at the static
main gear ski alone. The nose-gear ski shall resist full
ground line at the wheel to which the load is
steering torque. Ski load distribution conditions shall
applied. Additional loads necessary for
be established in accordance with the following:
equilibrium shall be applied. Review and
a. Vertical and side loads resulting from takeoff include as applicable the Standardization
and landing run shall be distributed as shown on Agreement 3278ASP on towing attachments on
figure 15. Side loads shall be applied on either aircraft.
ski where applicable.
b. Jacking. The vertical load shall act singly and in
b. Treadwise loads shall be distributed alternately combination with the horizontal load acting in
to the inboard and outboard side of the ski, any direction. The horizontal loads at the jack
except that for rolled attitude landings, the joints shall be so reacted by inertial forces that
distribution shall be 3 to 1. there will be no change in the vertical loads at
the jack joints. The maximum landing gear
Drag load shall be distributed uniformly along the jacking weight is normally the maximum ground
base of the ski. Side load and drag need not be weight since it is desired not to offload fuel and
combined. payload when a tire change is required. The
maximum airframe jacking weight is usually
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED defined as the maximum ramp weight minus the
crew and passengers and is used to define the
The criteria suggested above have been used jacking point loads and related structrure.
previously and have proven adequate for operations on Review and include as applicable the
normal snow surfaces. The criteria have proven Standardization Agreement 3098ASP on aircraft
inadequate for operations on rough hard packed snow jacking.
containing blocks of ice and for loose, deep snow
containing sastrugi ridges of greater than 12 inches. c. Hoisting. When the aircraft is in the level
The criteria are adequate for heavy gross weight attitude, the vertical component shall be 2.0 WH.
operations on smooth, well maintained skiways, where The maximum airframe hoisting weight, WH, is
a smooth skiway is defined as one which has been usually defined as the maximum ramp weight
graded a surface free of hardened snowdrifts, ice minus crew and passengers, and is used to
blocks, pressure ridges, mounds of snow, and sastrugi design the hoisting point loads and related
ridges and which has changes in elevation not structures. This is to allow for a more timely
exceeding four inches in twenty feet. removal of an aircraft disabled on a runway.
B.5.4.2.9 MAINTENANCE
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
a. Towing (___) _________.
None.
b. Jacking (___) __________.
B.5.4.2.10 GROUND WINDS
c. Hoisting (___) __________.
a. Ground operations ___________.
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
b. Maintenance __________.
The purpose of this requirement is to establish
structural requirements for specified maintenance c. Parked, unattended __________.
conditions.
d. Tied-down __________.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
e. Jet blast (____) ___________.
Define the maintenance requirements in terms of
required parameters of 5.5.2 and 5.5.3, and rational
186
The purpose of this requirement is to establish During maintenance, large aircraft may be positioned
structural requirements for ground and shipboard inside a building with the fuselage aft body and
winds for ground/shipboard operations as well as empennage protruding. The resultant jack/landing
operational maintenance in normal and adverse gear reactions will differ from those which occur when
weather conditions. the entire aircraft is exposed to the ground winds. In
particular, the aerodynamic yawing moment is
typically higher for the condition where only the
empennage and fuselage aft body are exposed to the
ground winds rather than the entire airplane. During
taxi in carrier deck, engine exhaust has caused static
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE failure or high temperatures to be experienced on
adjacent aircraft.
Define ground and ship wind requirements in terms of B.5.4.2.11 OTHER GROUND LOADING
required parameters of 5.5.2 and 5.5.3, and rational CONDITIONS (___)
combination thereof. Wind structural requirements
shall be based on operational requirements such as REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
prelaunch and recovery requirements, operational
maintenance, and adverse weather operations. During The purpose of this requirement is to establish
normal operations, the airplane shall be subjected to structural requirements for other ground loading
horizontal tail winds and crosswinds. For example, conditions such as hail damage, arrested landing, and
ground wind on longitudinal, lateral, and directional repaired bomb damaged runways.
control surfaces shall be a 70 knot horizontal tail wind
(including a 25 percent gust). With the air vehicle on REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
the ground at zero ground speed and all engines
delivering thrust or power required for takeoff, the air For other ground loading conditions, define the
vehicle shall encounter a horizontal wind (including a requirement in terms of required parameters of 5.5.2
25 percent gust) at 70 knots in all directions within +/- and 5.5.3 and rational combinations thereof. Other
45 degree from dead ahead. During maintenance, the ground loading conditions shall include consideration
airplane shall be subjected to ground winds from any of system failures 5.5.2.19.
horizontal direction. For example, external doors and
radomes shall be subjected to winds, while in their REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
open and any intermediate positions, of 50 knots
(including a 25 percent gust) from any horizontal None.
direction. The doors and radome actuating
mechanisms shall be able to operate during 35 knot B.5.4.3 VIBRATION
steady wind in any horizontal direction combined with
a vertical load factor of 1.0 +/-0.5g and a horizontal Vibration loadings shall be combined with the ground
load factor (in the most critical direction) of +/-0.5g. loads of 5.5.4.1 and 5.5.4.2. Vibration loads shall be
When parked and unattended, the airplane shall be required by 5.5.5 and 5.5.6.
subjected to ground winds from any horizontal
direction of 50 knots (including a 25 percent gust). REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
When tied-down, the airplane shall be secured in the
static attitude and with control surfaces locked and In general, vibroacoustic and flight loads can be
battens in place and shall be subjected to a 70 knot handled separately. However, there are cases when
wind (including a 25 percent gust) from any horizontal the two loadings in combination will cause failures or
direction. For jet blast, define the extent of operational problems.
applicability. Jet blast requirements shall reflect for
operational requirements such as close proximity to REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
other operating jet aircraft.
During shipboard operations, control surface and Review the flight and vibroacoustic loadings and
folded surface loads will result from a combination of determine those areas of the airframe or those
inertial loads resulting form ship motion and air loads combinations of flight or ground conditions where
resulting form the combination of wind over deck loadings may combine in such a way as to cause
(natural winds plus ship speed) as well as failures or operational problems. In these cases,
superposition of engine exhaust of adjacent aircraft develop design requirements which preclude failure or
(catapult launch near JBD). Tables I and II of MIL-T- operational problems due to these combinations of
81259A provides combinations of inertia load factors loadings.
and wind speeds for various ships and weather
conditions.
187
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED catapult with the jet blast deflector (JBD) raised,
and when the air vehicle is behind the raised
The combination of thermal loads and aeroacoustic JBD in position for the next launch. Time of
loads caused fatigue failures in primary structure very exposure for these conditions are as follows.
early in the life of a large bomber aircraft. The
failures occurred when hot surface flow caused skin to (1) Thirty seconds of maximum power when in
distort sufficiently to introduce high mean stresses in launch position on shipboard catapult.
skins. The skins then failed in vibratory fatigue.
(2) Thirty seconds behind raised JBD when in
position for next launch.
Many failures have occurred in propeller aircraft
fuselage sidewall structure due to the combination of Jet engine exhaust and temperature.
pressure loads and oscillatory pressure fields
associated with propeller blade passage. REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
objective of WADC-TM-58-4 was to control and usage of 5.5.2.14. Vibration sources include:
aeroacoustic fatigue to prevent a maintenance burden, _____________.
determine how and when to inspect and repair, and
prevent safety of flight failures. In MIL-A- REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
8870(ASG), the concept of preventing any
aeroacoustic failures was introduced. The succeeding Determination of sources which must be considered to
specifications, MIL-A-8870B(AS), MIL-A- prevent vibration problems in flight and ground use is
8870C(AS) and MIL-A-8893, were aimed at needed as a basis of a successful vibration program. A
prohibiting fatigue failures during the airframe service list of generic sources is included below. Other
life or the life for replaceable parts. sources should be included as necessary.
Uncertainty factors are necessary in the application of Safety and maintenance considerations require that
aeroacoustic loads and durations. This is because structures and components demonstrate freedom from
current and near term state-of-the-art aeroacoustic and fatigue cracking for the service life. MIL-A-
vibratory fatigue analysis, prediction, and 8870(ASG), MIL-A-8870B(AS), and MIL-A-
measurement technology are not adequate to provide 8870C(AS) prohibited failures due to vibration and
sufficient operational life unless factors are applied. required fail-safe features if failures did occur. MIL-
A-8892 required freedom from failures during the
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE service life or the life for replaceable parts.
Fill the first blank with +3.5 dB unless a smaller factor REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
can be fully substantiated based on proven
improvements in state-of-the-art technology, Identify the vibratory sources associated with the air
exceptionally well defined environments, or vehicle and its usage. Some sources of vibration to
exceptionally complete test data. Fill the second blank which the airframe may be exposed are listed below.
with 2.0 unless fatigue design data (S-N curves)
a. Forces and moments transmitted to the aircraft
represent documented lower bound (-3.0 sigma)
structure mechanically or aerodynamically from
material properties.
the propulsion systems, secondary power
sources, propellers, jet effluxes and aerodynamic
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
wakes, downwashes and vortices (including
those from protuberances, speed brakes, wings,
The most common types of aeroacoustic failures are
flaps, etc.) and cavity resonances. Forces from
encountered in skin panels and support structure
gun recoil or gun blast.
including stiffeners and rivets. During the full scale
test of a large bomber aircraft, a total of approximately b. Buffeting forces.
700 failures occurred in 10 hours of maximum engine
power. c. Unbalances, both residual and inherent, of
rotating components such as propellers, and
Experience over many years and many programs has rotating components of engines.
consistently shown that capabilities to measure,
analyze, and reproduce aeroacoustic loads and to d. Forces from store and cargo carriage and
analyze vibratory fatigue are not adequate without ejection.
factors of uncertainty. In addition, forecasted e. Forces due to operation from airfields and ships.
improvements in the state-of-the-art will only slowly
decrease this uncertainty.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
location not subjected to turbulent airflow resolved the B.5.6.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
problem.
Strength related material property requirements are
On an electronic countermeasures aircraft, flight contained in 5.5.2.16.1.
testing showed that blade antennas located
downstream from centerline stores were subjected to
severe turbulent flow in sideslip maneuvers. Damping
material was incorporated into the design of a new
antenna to minimize antenna dynamic response loads.
The design of blade antennas and associated mounting REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
structures must account for potentially high dynamic
loads, because in-flight separation of an antenna from This requirement references the basic material
the aircraft poses risks of downstream damage to the properties requirement which are in one place and
aircraft, injury to ground personnel, and operational cover all of the structures disciplines requirements.
deficiencies.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
An increase in engine power and a change in
propellers was effected without checking empennage Check to see that all strength related material
response. This resulted in secondary failures in the properties requirements are included in 5.5.2.16.1.
empennage structure and investigation revealed that
primary structure had experienced damage as well. REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
The empennage, it was found, was responding to the
propeller slipstream. Solution of the problem None.
consisted of detuning the empennage natural
frequencies from the range of propeller excitation B.5.6.2 MATERIAL PROCESSES
frequencies.
Experience with doors and access panels demonstrates Strength related material processing requirements are
that careful attention should be given to the effects of contained in 5.5.2.16.2.
buffeting and movement in flight.
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
provide highly reliable structures, while indirect load B.5.6.4.1 FITTING FACTOR
paths result in complex reactions, inefficient load
paths, and heavier structural weights. For each fitting and attachment whose strengths are
not proven by limit and ultimate load tests in which
actual stress conditions are simulated in the fitting and
surrounding structure, the design stress values shall be
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE increased in magnitude by multiplying these loads or
stress values by a fitting factor. This fitting factor and
Internal loads on all structural members are typically the conditions for its use are as follows:
determined for critical loading conditions. Detailed ______________.
internal loads are identified as limit or design ultimate
loads. For landing gears and other beam-column REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
members, ultimate internal loads are calculated by
multiplying the factor of safety times limit internal It is necessary to use a fitting factor, since many
loads, which necessarily include secondary moment uncertainties exist in regard to stress distributions
effects resulting from the strut's limit load bending within fittings. Manufacturing tolerances are such that
deflections. Recommended load paths and design bolts within a pattern rarely fit the holes perfectly and
guides are described in Chapter 2 of AFSC DH 2-1. small variations in dimensions may affect stress
Internal loads may be determined using classical distributions. Failures are more likely to occur at
methods such as those described in "Analysis and fittings connected to members than in the members
Design of Flight Vehicle Structures", "Airplane themselves because of local stress concentrations at
Structure", and "Aircraft Structures", or using the connections, slight eccentricities of the
computer finite element computer programs. attachments, or more severe vibration conditions.
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED A state of the art fighter is using HIP ped castings with
thin walls and a casting factor of 1.00 in safety of
None. flight applications. The nominal thickness of these
thin walls was 0.08, but the actual range of casting
B.5.6.4.4 HIGH VARIABILITY STRUCTURE wall thicknesses came out from 0.05 to 0.12. The
casting vendor wanted the thickness tolerances opened
Due to the nature of some structural designs or up to allow this wide variations. Since this variation
materials, high variability may be encountered around in wall thickness would allow up to a 38%
the nominal design. Such design features must have a understrength condition to exist, the contractor agreed
minimum level of structural integrity at the acceptable to design to minimum thickness x 1.10 while opening
extremes of dimensions, tolerances, material up the thickness tolerance to increase casting yield.
properties, processing windows, processing controls, The strength of some critical structure such as stability
end or edge fixities, eccentricities, fastener flexibility, critical panels varies with the square of the thickness.
fit up stresses, environments, manufacturing If the minimum thickness is not controlled either by
processes, etc. For the critical combinations of these callout or tighter tolerance, a significant understrength
acceptable extremes, the structure must have no condition could exist while still being "per blueprint."
detrimental deformation of the maximum once per
192
Sufficient static strength shall be provided in the Case histories of static testing programs have been
landing gear and backup structure for reacting to all assembled for a number of Air Force aircraft. The
loading conditions loads without degrading the static test programs surveyed are typical of all past
structural performance capability of the gear or programs. All production aircraft were static tested in
backup structure. Sufficient strength shall be provided a timely manner, using very low numbered airframes.
for operations, maintenance functions, and any tests Some delays were experienced when major structural
that simulate load conditions, such that: failures occurred, but these do not reflect on the
timeliness of the overall programs. For the aircraft
a. Detrimental deformations, including surveyed from 1950-1970, the only aircraft not
delaminations, shall not occur at or below 115 experiencing major failures were direct outgrowths of
percent of limit loads, or during tests required earlier models which had gone through complete static
in6.6.10.5.3 and the deformation requirements of test programs; the other tested aircraft are known to
5.5.2.13 apply. have suffered major test failures.
b. Rupture or collapsing failures shall not occur at Comparison of Air Force and FAA structural test
or or below ultimate loads. requirements is often made. Despite the fact that
commercial transports are flown conservatively, are
c. All structure shall be designed to nominal designed to low nominal stress levels, and there are no
dimensional of 110 percent of minimum values, complete ultimate load test requirements by the FAA,
whichever is less. an increasing number of manufacturers are conducting
ultimate load tests. It should be noted that the size and
d. Bonded structure shall be capable of sustaining expense of these airframes has not deterred the
the residual strength loads of 5.5.12.2 without a manufacturers from recognizing the benefits of such
safety of flight failure with a complete bond line tests. The primary goal has been for the purpose of
failure or disbond. determining growth potential.
Historically, increased mission requirements have
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE been levied on most military aircraft after entering
service. This usually means increased fuel or
The mission potentials of the air vehicle must not be armament with associated weight increase. At the
compromised by lack of airframe static strength. same time, it is desired to minimize structural
Excessive deflections may not only produce capability degradation. It is, therefore, of prime
deleterious aerodynamic or aeroelastic effects, but importance to know the growth potential in the
may cause binding interferences between hinge structure or, precisely, what limitations may have to be
connected and adjacent structures as well. Exterior imposed. A proof test program cannot determine
surface buckles, especially those that are permanent, growth potential. This can only be accomplished by
may produce undesirable aerodynamic characteristics. complete, ultimate load tests, including judiciously-
selected, failing load tests.
Efforts have usually been made to discover structural
deficiencies by static tests at the earliest possible time,
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE in order to minimize the impact of retrofit changes.
Most major, static test failures have necessitated
Ultimate stresses are not to be exceeded at ultimate subsequent engineering changes. These changes were
loads. Calculated deflections and surface buckling usually incorporated within early, follow-on
deformations need to be coordinated through production aircraft with minimal retrofit effort
responsible aerodynamic and aeroelastic disciplines required. However, when major structural redesign
for evaluating possible performance penalties. efforts have been initiated in programs, concurrent
with production adjustments, static tests have had to
For composites, the allowable for a given flight be rescheduled. Consequently, decisions have had to
condition shall be based on the temperature be made on retrofitting previously produced aircraft
appropriate for that flight condition combined with the with whatever changes the test showed to be
most critical of the range of possible moisture necessary.
conditions. The factor of uncertainty to be used in the
application of the allowables derived above is 1.5. Almost without exception, past static test programs
Since the strength of a composite structure is have revealed a variety of structural deficiencies or
inherently dependent on the lay up of the laminate, related problem areas. Table V is taken from
geometry, and type of loading, the "B" basis allowable "Structural Testing for Aircraft Development" to show
must include these factors. However, the cost of a test failure trend data and reinforce the basic requirement
program involving the number of complex for conducting static tests at the earliest possible time
components necessary to determine the "B" basis in the production or preproduction cycle.
allowable could be prohibitive. An acceptable Additional information and data from "Analysis of the
approach is to determine the "B" basis allowable from Premature Structural Failures in Static Tested
coupon data representative of the lay up and loading. Aircraft" are the results of a study of static tests
193
performed at WPAFB from 1940 to 1976. See tables first failure curves. It appears that the major
VI through XI. The early tests (1940-1948) represent component first failure curves are quite similar to
115 airplanes, and the later tests (1950-1976) represent the airplane first failure curves, even at the high
22 airplanes. Many different types of airframes were end, supporting the removal of conservatisms
tested in the 1940s as follows: fighter-32, trainer-22, trend.
glider-20, bomber-14, cargo-12, attack-8, liaison-4,
observation-2, and one helicopter. Because of the war As data becomes available from programs wherein the
demand for metals, considerable use of wood/plywood airplane is designed to durability and damage
in many airplanes resulted. After the war, from 1950 tolerance requirements, it will be interesting to see if
and on, the use of wood/plywood was phased out the curves and trends change. Further, as more and
completely as far as primary structures were more structures are made of composites, it will be
concerned. A review of the data indicates that the equally interesting to see what happens. It appears
type of airplane and material used do not bias or that both of the above aspects will tend to decrease the
disproportionately influence the distribution of number of static test failures, at least those associated
failures. The following is a discussion of the test with the classical tension, shear, torsion and bending
results from the viewpoint of airplane first failure and failures. It is not apparent that the structural instability
major component first failure. Other parts of this (buckling, etc.) problems have been completely
handbook have reviewed the test results from the solved. Nor have the secondary and flight control
viewpoint of distribution of structural failures, system structural problems been solved. Some of
considering only those components which failed, these problems will probably always be with us and,
including all retests of those components. just around the corner, waiting for someone to decide
not to run a proof test of the first article or not to
The data presented in figure 26 is from four groupings perform a static test of a major component,
of the test results. Two of the groups are for first particularly those that are stability critical.
failures of a major component of each airplane. The
next two groups are for first failures of each of the five B.5.6.6 DYNAMIC STRENGTH
major components of an airplane, that is, fuselage,
wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, and landing gear. Sufficient static strength and energy absorption
capability shall be provided in the landing gear backup
a. 1940-1948, Airplane first failure. The data structure to react to all dynamic design landing
represents a wide range of airplanes from liaison conditions and reserve energy requirements. For land-
to bomber and the two predominant materials, based aircraft, the maximum sink speed is_______ and
wood and aluminum. Because of the type of the reserve energy condition is _________. For ship-
loading used (lead shot or sand filled bags), it based aircraft, the design requirements are _______.
was not always possible to state the exact percent
of ultimate load at which the component failed. REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
Hence, the failure occurred between the last load
the structure held and the next load level which it Adequate airframe strength and energy absorption
could not hold. This leads to the discontinuous must be provided to meet the operational requirements
box type of curve. The data shows that 25-30 and provide safety of flight. The results of these
percent of the airplanes had a first failure below analyses and tests are required to conduct verification
limit load and 10-16 percent of them had a first flight tests and carrier suitability testing.
failure below 80 percent of limit load. These
failures below limit load indicate that many of the REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
airplanes would have experienced operational
problems if they had not been static tested. The structure and aircraft systems shall have sufficient
b. 1950-1976, Airplane first failures. The strength and energy absorption capability so that it can
distribution of failures is remarkably similar to carry limit and design loads without detrimental
that of the 1940s. However, one can draw some deformations which would interfere with continued
conclusions which may be more intuitive than operation. The structure must be able to react ultimate
actual. For example, it appears that there are loads without rupture or collapsing failure.
fewer failures below 60 percent of ultimate,
supporting the notion that more is known REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
technically so fewer errors have been made. But, None.
on the other end, 90 to 100 percent of ultimate
load, it appears we learned too much (took too B.5.6.7 MODIFICATIONS
many of the conservatisms out of the analyses)
and didn't quite have all of the structure needed to Modifications to an existing air vehicle affecting the
carry ultimate load. external or internal loads on the landing gear structure,
as well as new or revised equipment installations, shall
c. 1940-1948 and 1950-1976, Major component have adequate structural capability for the intended
first failures. Obviously the second failure of an usage. This requirement also applies to unmodified
airplane must occur at a higher percentage of structures whose loads have been increased because of
ultimate load than the first failure. Hence, these the modification.
curves will lie above their respective airplane
194
d. Projected weight to at least Initial Operating g. Result in visible damage from a single ______
Capability (IOC) based on historical data foot-pound (ft-lb) impact.
regarding weight growth during development
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
e. Any other change which may impact the scenario
in which the air vehicle may operate When subjected to design service loads and
f. Combined impact of natural environmental environment, an airframe must resist fatigue
exposure and service usage on the residual cracking/delamination damage and other structural
strength capabilities of the structural material. In anomalies (e.g. disbonds, deformations, defects, etc.)
cases where structural material systems are throughout its service life to preclude adverse safety,
utilized which do not exhibit a classical metallic economic, operational , maintenance cost impacts.
structure deterioration mechanism, i.e., fatigue
crack initiation and propagation, the concept of REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
durability life still applies. The relevant factors
which could cause the deterioration of a See 5.5.7 Requirement Guidance.
particular structural material system must be used To satisfy durability requirements and account for data
to define the point at which the onset or level of scatter, structural anomalies should not occur within
deterioration is unacceptable. two lifetimes of usage and environments specified in
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED section 5.5.2.14. While the full scale durability test
results are the primary indicators of compliance, the
The durability and corrosion resistance of the structure durability analysis supports key elements in the
is the final measure of success in service. Durability development of durable structure by establishing stress
must be designed into the structure to maximize the levels, aiding in definition of structural details and
life of the airframe and ensure its safe and economical reducing risk relative to testing.
operation. When adequate durability is not attained, Composite structures, as well as metal structures, must
adverse cost, operational and safety impacts may be designed to minimize the economic burden of
result. For example, a very large transport and a inspecting or repairing damage from low energy
ground attack aircraft lacked sufficient durability impacts such as tool drops, etc. Specifically for
margin which necessitated complete redesigns of the organic matrix composites, service induced damage
wing structure of the aircraft. should be considered (e.g., low velocity impact
For background on composites, see Composite damage, maintenance and handling damage, etc.) and
Structures/Materials Certification Background under the potential effect on repair, maintenance, and
Requirement Lessons Learned for 5.5.2.16. function must be developed. It should be
demonstrated that damage not readily visible on the
B.5.7.1 FATIGUE surface will not result in subsequent degradation of the
CRACKING/DELAMINATION part, impair function, or require maintenance actions.
DAMAGE Visible damage is defined as damage that is visible to
the unaided eye from a distance of 5 feet (dent depths
For one lifetime when the landing gear and backup of 0.10 inch). The intent is to ensure that costly
structure is subjected to the environment and service maintenance will not be incurred due to service
usage specified in 5.5.2.14 except where it is desired exposure. The structure and potential service and
to meet the special life provisions of 5.5.7.5, the maintenance environment should be reviewed to
landing gear and backup structure shall be free of develop typical damage sources. To accomplish this
cracking, delaminations, disbonds, deformations, or goal, the structure is to be divided into two types of
defects which: regions. The first type is one where there is a
relatively high likelihood of damage from
a. Require repair, replacement, inspection to maintenance or other sources. The second type of
maintain structural integrity, or undue inspection region is one where there is a relatively low
burden for ship based aircraft. probability of the structure being damaged in service.
The specific requirements for these two areas are
b. Cause interference with the mechanical operation given in table I. There are two other threats to the
of the aircraft. structure that may cause an economic burden. These
threats are hail damage to the aircraft when parked and
c. Affect the aircraft aerodynamic characteristics. runway debris damage to the aircraft from ground
operations. The hailstone size for which the structure
d. Cause functional impairment must be hardened was chosen such that this size or
smaller were representative of 90 percent of the
e. Result in sustained growth of cracks/ hailstorms. The runway debris size was also chosen to
delaminations resulting from steady-state level include most of the potentially damaging objects
fight or ground handling conditions. found in ground operations. The velocity of these
objects is dependent on the weapon system. The
f. Result in water intrusion details of the hail and runway debris requirements are
shown in table II.
196
The structure should be designed such that the above MIL-STD-1568 should serve as a baseline approach to
sources will not incur damage of sufficient magnitude addressing corrosion control and prevention and
to require inspection or repair throughout two times of should be deviated from only with appropriate
design service life usage at the critical environmental supporting engineering justification.
condition. The loading spectrum and environmental
conditioning for the testing associated with the table I The protection of the aircraft and its component parts
and table II requirements will be the same as that from corrosion should be in accordance with MIL-F-
described for the durability tests. 7179 and NAVMAT-P-4855-2. The corrosion
protection requirements and concepts should be
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED applied during system definition, design, development,
and production. Emphasis should be placed on
None. correcting historically corrosion prone areas (e.g.,
bushed flight control surface hinges/structural
B.5.7.2 CORROSION PREVENTION AND attachments) during system definition, design,
CONTROL development, and production. The design of the
airframe, systems, and the subsystems should preclude
The landing gear and backup structure shall operate in the intrusion and retention of fluids. Sharp corners
corrosion producing environments and conditions of and recesses should be avoided so that moisture and
5.5.2.16. Corrosion (including pitting, stress corrosion solid matter cannot accumulate to initiate localized
cracking, crevice, galvanic, filiform, and exfoliation) attack. Adequate ventilation should be provided in all
which effects the operational readiness of the airframe areas to prevent moisture retention and buildup.
through initiation of flaws which are unacceptable Cleaning, surface treatment, and inorganic coatings for
from a durability, damage tolerance, and residual metallic materials should be in accordance with MIL-
strength viewpoint shall not occur during the service S-5002. Sulfur dioxide salt spray/fog testing should
life and usage of 5.5.2.14. Corrosion prevention be conducted in accordance with ASTM G85.A4 and
systems shall remain effective during the service life for a minimum period of 500 hours. Fasteners should
and usage of 5.5.2.14 in the environments and under be wet installed with sealant or non water-bourne
the conditions of 5.5.2.15 for the periods indicated primer.
below. Specific corrosion prevention and control Use of dissimilar metals (as defined by MIL-
measures, procedures, and processes must be STD-889) in contact should be limited to applications
identified and established commensurate with the where similar metals cannot be used due to peculiar
operational and maintenance capability required of the design requirements. When it is necessary to use
airframe. Finishes shall also comply and be dissimilar metals in contact, the metals should be
compatible with the requirements of 5.5.2.17. The adequately protected against galvanic corrosion as per
following additional requirements apply: MIL-STD-889. Metals such as aluminum alloys that
are prone to galvanic attack in contact with graphite
a. Structure which is difficult to inspect, repair, or composites should also be protected as per MIL-STD-
replace, or places an undue economic burden on 889 with either coatings and sealants and/or barrier
the user, must comply with the requirements of materials such as occurred fiberglass or scrim cloth,
5.5.2.14 for the service life of the landing gear. whichever is appropriate. Aluminum fasteners,
stainless steel fasteners, and cadmium plated fasteners
b. Other structure for the period of should not be used in contact with graphite
______________. composites. Items electrically bonded or used for
electromagnetic interference hardening should be
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE sealed to prevent moisture intrusion. Frequently
removed items or items that are not practical to seal
Corrosion prevention systems must be effective for should be of similar materials. Emphasis should be
minimum periods of service usage to minimize the life placed on using fasteners versus bare metal to metal
cycle costs associated with corrosion damage contact to achieve bonding. During the structural
inspection and repair. A systematic and disciplined design and material/process selection, consideration
approach for addressing corrosion prevention and should be given to various design alternatives which
control must be established early in the development preclude the traditional galvanic corrosion problems
life cycle. created by dissimilar metal bushings (e.g., beryllium
copper, aluminum bronze) installed in aluminum
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE structure. Consideration should be given to the
avoidance of using removable graphite composite
Define the periods of usage which other structure must doors/panels fastened to aluminum alloy substructure,
withstand without incurring corrosion damage. A particularly on upper surfaces where moisture/salt
period of time less than the airframe service life may spray can potentially migrate through the fastener
be specified, such as a percentage of the service life holes and cause corrosion of the aluminum
requirements of 5.5.2.14 or a period of time equivalent substructure.
to regularly scheduled airframe inspections, field
maintenance activities, or programmed depot All designs should include provisions for the
maintenance intervals. prevention of water, condensation, and other unwanted
fluid accumulation and entrapment. Actual aircraft
197
configuration and attitude should be considered in practices and considerations. Corrosion prevention
addition to component design. All metal sections and control must be addressed early in the
should preferably be open sections to permit drainage, development process to insure that optimum materials
inspection, cleaning, and refinishing of section and protection systems are incorporated and that all
surfaces. Closed sections, where used, should include disciplines involved in airframe design development
provisions for drain holes to allow free drainage of production and maintenance are addressed.
accumulated fluids which can enter by various
methods. Drain holes should be located to effect Several cases of corrosion damage occurring on in-
maximum drainage of unwanted fluids. All drainage service aircraft where fasteners were not wet installed
should be through meniscus free drain holes. Unless with sealant or primer at the manufacturer. The
otherwise specified, struts and welded tube structures corrosion was initiated by water and salt
should provide for airtight closure by welding, anti- contamination intrusion around panel retaining
corrosion treatment, and subsequent positive sealing. fasteners. The lack of wet installation with sealant or
This is particularly applicable to steel struts and tube primer has resulted in corrosion damage.
structures which should be welded easily. Mere Aircraft with beryllium copper or aluminum bronze
convenience of fabrication is insufficient reason for bushings installed in aluminum structure has resulted
not sealing steel tubes. Tubes or struts that cannot be in galvanic corrosion.
closed readily by welding, should be left open in a
manner to provide for free drainage, ventilation, Several magnesium components have been replaced
inspection, and refinish. End fittings used with open with aluminum components due to the high scrap rates
tubing should not form pockets which may collect caused by corrosion.
moisture. Cork seals, dams, and metal end plugs
machined to fit, should not be used. B.5.7.3 THERMAL PROTECTION
ASSURANCE
All crevices in exterior locations and faying surfaces
with edges leading to an exterior surface should be Thermal protection systems shall remain effective
filled or sealed with MIL-S-81733 sealant. during the service life and usage of 5.5.2.14 in the
environments and under the conditions of 5.5.2.15 for
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED the periods indicated below. Finishes shall also
comply and be compatible with the requirements of
Corrosion costs are extremely high. This problem can 5.5.2.17 and 5.5.7.2.
be primarily attributed to poor material choices during
the development stages and faulty design and a. Structure which is difficult to inspect, repair, or
manufacturing processes. An example of a poor replace for the service life of the landing gear
material choice is the corrosion prone 7075-T6 used in system.
some aircraft, which has resulted in maintenance
problems. Stress corrosion cracking and galvanic b. Other structure for the period of
corrosion are two severe problems which often stem _______________.
from manufacturing processes and they may not show
up until late into the service life of the system. REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
In the future, aircraft will be forced to fly more hours
than initially expected. In addition, funds available for Thermal protection systems must be designed to be
corrosion maintenance will be reduced. These factors effective for minimum periods of service usage to
give added significance to the corrosion problem. prevent excessive maintenance and repair costs over
the life of the air vehicle.
Methods of corrosion control shown to be effective
include proper materials selection (specifically the use REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
of age stabilized aluminum alloys to preclude
exfoliation corrosion and stress corrosion cracking), Define the time periods of usage which other
manufacturing processes to preclude built-in stresses structures must withstand without incurring damage.
during fabrication and assembly operations and those A lifetime less than the airframe service life may be
which inhibit rust, use of high quality corrosion specified, such as a percentage of the service life
protection systems selected on the basis of the requirements of 5.5.2.14 or a period equivalent to that
anticipated environments, and the frequent use of for regularly scheduled airframe inspections or
corrosion inspection techniques. A ground attack, an replacement of parts.
air supremacy fighter, an air superiority fighter, and
some transports which have been overseen by REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
corrosion boards, have had significant decreases in None.
required corrosion maintenance compared to other
systems not overseen by corrosion boards. B.5.7.4 WEAR AND EROSION
MIL-STD-1568 provides corrosion prevention and
The function of structural components, elements, and
control guidance on materials and processes selection
major bearing surfaces shall not be degraded by wear
criteria, material systems and processes performance
under the service life and usage of 5.5.2.14 for the
data, standard design practices, repair/maintenance
periods indicated below. Bearings shall also comply
198
and be compatible with the requirements of 5.5.3.13 surfaces exposed to particle impingement during take-
and 5.5.7.2. offs and landings.
a. Structural surfaces which move for _________. Lubrication. Provisions should be made for
lubrication of all parts subject to wear. Flight control
b. Structural and maintenance access panels and system servocylinder attachment bearings should not
other removable parts for ________. require lubrication during the life of the aircraft except
for the leading edge flap transmission. The selection
c. Gear doors for ________. of lubricants (oil, greases, solid film coatings, anti-
seize compounds, heat transfer fluids, coolants, and
d. Other structure for ________. hydraulic fluids) should be in accordance with MIL-
HDBK-275 as specified in MIL-STD-838. The fire
resistant synthetic hydrocarbon hydraulic fluid, MIL-
H-83282, should be used as the aircraft hydraulic
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE fluid. The number of different lubricants required
should be kept to a minimum by using multipurpose
Structural components which are subjected to wear lubricants such as the wide temperature general
under normal operating conditions must be designed purpose grease, MIL-G-81322 whenever possible,
to withstand this environment for minimum periods of without compromising aircraft performance and
usage. reliability. All lubrication fittings should be readily
accessible. Components in highly loaded/dynamic
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE and potentially corrosive applications (e.g., landing
gear, arresting gear) should make maximum use of
Define the time periods of usage which functional lubrication fittings, vice other forms of lubricant.
structures must withstand without incurring wear Parts subject to immersion in sea water should be
damage. A lifetime less than the airframe service life designed so as to exclude sea water from bearings.
may be specified, such as a percentage of the service
life requirement of 5.5.2.14 or a period equivalent to REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
that for regularly scheduled airframe inspections or
replacement of parts. Accessibility to areas that may be subject to wear
should be a primary development consideration
The design and manufacture of aircraft should include because wear is difficult to predict and may only be
practices to minimize damage by wear and erosion. identified after extended periods of actual service
Wear and erosion prevention practices should be usage. In Desert Storm, fixed wing and helicopter
followed on applicable surfaces of metals, polymers, rotorblade leading edge polyurethane and brush on
elastomers, ceramics, glasses, carbon fabrics, fibers, coatings do not provide adequate protection from sand
and combinations or composites of these materials. erosion. More durable erosion resistant coatings
Provision should be made to eliminate or minimize should be developed without compromising
combinations of erosive, corrosive, and thermal effects performance characteristics. In addition, the fine sand
on structure near heater and engine bleed air, engine caused severe crazing of aircraft canopies during
exhaust, rocket and missile exhaust, and in the wake storage and fleet use. High sunlight/heat was
of such exhaust gases. In no case should there be damaging components in the cockpit interior.
direct flame impingement from missiles and rockets
on aircraft surfaces unless such surfaces are suitably High failure rates of helicopter tail rotor
protected by a coating or device. counterweight arm bearings were experienced due to
the fine sand intrusions. In the past, helicopter main
Wear. Wear prevention practices should be landing gear skids were not designed for hard landings
applied to all load bearing and load transfer interfaces. in the sand.
These areas include fastened, riveted, bolted, and
keyed joints; bearings, races, gears, and splines; B.5.7.5 SPECIAL LIFE REQUIREMENT
contact surface of access doors and panels, hinges and STRUCTURE
latches; contact point of cables, ropes, and wires as
well as contact areas between metallic and polymeric The following structural components shall comply
strands; interference fits; friction clamps, contact with 5.5.7.1 and 5.5.7.2 for the periods indicated:
points of springs; sliding racks and pulley surfaces;
and other surfaces subject to wear damage. Materials, a. Limited life structure ___________.
surface properties, system friction and wear
characteristics, liquid and solid lubrication systems, b. Extra life structure __________.
surface treatments and coating, contact geometry,
load, relative motion, and service environment should REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
be fully substantiated and documented.
Any structural component whose performance can be
Erosion. Erosion prevention practices should be degraded under the expected operational usage must
applied to all surface areas including leading edges, be able to withstand the expected environment for
radomes, housings, and other protrusions as well as to minimum periods of usage.
199
weight impact. This policy is now routinely applied at initial cracks need not be assumed along the crack
all major airframe companies. growth path. Initial flaw sizes are specified in terms
of specific flaw shapes, such as through the thickness
For background on composites, see Composite or corner flaws at holes and semi-elliptical surface
Structures/Materials Certification Background under flaws or through the thickness flaws at locations other
Requirement Lessons Learned for 5.5.6.1. than holes.
B.5.8.1 FLAW SIZES Specified initial flaw sizes presume the inspection of
100 percent of all fracture critical regions of all
The landing gear and backup structure shall have structural components as required by the fracture
adequate residual strength in the presence of flaws for control provisions of 5.5.8.1. This inspection should
specified periods of service usage. These flaws shall include as a minimum a close visual inspection of all
be assumed to exist initially in the structure as a result holes and cutouts, and conventional ultrasonic,
of the manufacturing process, normal usage, and penetrant or magnetic particle inspection of the
maintenance, and after an in-service inspection. The fracture critical regions. Where the use of automatic
specific flaw size requirements are detailed in hole preparation and fastener installation equipment
___________. preclude close visual and dimensional inspection of
100 percent of the holes in the fracture critical regions
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE of the structure, a plan to qualify and monitor hole
preparation and fastener installation should be
The establishment of realistic initial flaw size prepared and implemented by the contractor. Where
assumptions is necessary to insure that the airframe special nondestructive inspection procedures have
will have adequate residual strength capability demonstrated a detection capability better than
throughout its service life. indicated by the flaw sizes specified in a, below, and
the resulting smaller assumed flaw sizes are used in
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE the design of the structure, these special inspection
procedures must be used in the aircraft manufacturing
METALLIC STRUCTURES quality control. In all situations indicated below, if
development test data indicates that more severe flaw
Tables XII, XIII, and XIV should be referenced in the shapes than assumed are probable, worst case
blank and included in the specification. Additional assumptions should prevail.
guidance follows.
Smaller initial flaw sizes than those specified may be
Initial flaw assumptions. Initial flaws are assumed to assumed subsequent to a demonstration, described in
exist as a result of material and structure 5.6.8.1. Smaller initial flaw sizes may also be
manufacturing and processing operations. Small assumed if proof test inspection is used. In this case,
imperfections equivalent to an .005 inch radius corner the minimum assumed initial flaw size shall be the
flaw resulting from these operations are assumed to calculated critical size at the proof test stress level and
exist in each hole of each element in the structure and temperature using acquisition activity approved upper
provide the basis for the requirements in paragraphs d, bound of the material fracture toughness data.
e, and f, below. If the contractor has developed initial
quality data on fastener holes (e.g., by fractographic a. Slow crack growth structure
studies, which provides a sound basis for determining
At holes and cutouts, the assumed initial flaw is a .05
equivalent initial flaw sizes), these data may be
inch through the thickness flaw at one side of the hole
considered and serve as a basis for negotiating a size
when the material thickness is equal to or less than .05
different than the specified .005 inch radius corner
inch. For material thicknesses greater than .05 inch,
flaw. In addition, it is assumed that initial flaws of the
the assumed initial flaw is a .05 inch radius corner
size specified in paragraphs a and b can exist in any
flaw at one side of the hole.
separate element of the structure. Each element of the
structure should be surveyed to determine the most At locations other than holes, the assumed initial flaw
critical location for the assumed initial flaws is through the thickness flaw of .25 inch length when
considering such features as edges, fillets, holes, and the material thickness is equal to or less than .125
other potentially high stressed areas. Only one initial inch. For material thicknesses greater than .125 inch,
flaw in the most critical hole and one initial flaw at a the assumed initial flaw is a semicircular surface flaw
location other than a hole need be assumed to exist in with a length (2c) equal to .25 inch and a depth (a)
any structural element. Interaction between these equal to .125 inch. Other possible surface flaw shapes
assumed initial flaws need not be considered. For with the same initial stress intensity factor (K) can be
multiple and adjacent elements; the initial flaws need considered as appropriate; for example, corner flaws at
not be situated at the same location (e.g., chordwise edges of structural elements and longer and shallower
plan in wing structures, except for structural elements surface flaws in plates which are subjected to high
where fabrication and assembly operations are bending stresses. For welded structure, flaws should
conducted such that flaws in two or more elements can be assumed in both the weld and the heat affected
exist at the same location). The most common zone in the parent material. For embedded defects, the
example of such an operation is the assembly drilling initial flaw size assumption should be based on an
of attachment holes. Except as noted in paragraphs d, assessment of the capability of the NDI procedure.
e, and f, below, more than one source of common
202
b. Fail safe structure (primary element) (1) When the primary damage and growth
At holes and cutouts the assumed initial flaw is a .05 originates in a fastener hole and terminates
inch through the thickness flaw at one side of the hole prior to member or element failure, continuing
when the material thickness is equal to or less than .05 damage should be an .005 inch radius corner
inch. For material thicknesses greater than .05 inch, flaw plus the amount of growth (a) which
the assumed initial flaw is a .05 inch radius corner occurs prior to primary element failure
flaw at one side of the hole. emanating from the diametrically opposite side
of the fastener hole at which the initial flaw
At locations other than holes, the assumed initial flaw was assumed to exist.
is a through the thickness flaw .25 inch in length when
the material thickness is equal to or less than .125 (2) When the primary damage terminates due to a
inch. For material thicknesses greater than .125 inch, member or element failure, the continuing
the assumed initial flaw is a semicircular surface flaw damage should be an .005 inch radius corner
with a length (2c) equal to .25 inch and a depth (a) flaw in the most critical location of the
equal to .125 inch. Other possible surface flaw shapes remaining element or remaining structure or a
with the same initial stress intensity factor (K) shall be surface flaw having 2c = .02 inch and a = .01
considered as appropriate. For embedded defects, the inch, where, a is measured in the direction of
initial flaw size assumption should be based on an crack growth plus the amount of growth (a)
assessment of the capability of the NDI procedure. which occurs prior to element failure.
c. Fail safe multi-load path (adjacent structure) (3) When the crack growth from the assumed
initial flaw enters into and terminates at a
The damage assumed to exist in the adjacent load path
fastener hole, continuing damage should be an
at the location of primary failure in fail safe multiple
load path structure at the time of failure of a primary .005 inch radius corner flaw + a emanating
load path should be as follows: from the diametrically opposite side of the
fastener hole at which the primary damage
initiated or terminated, whichever is more
(1) Multiple load path dependent structure. The critical.
same as specified in paragraph b, above, plus
the amount of growth (+a) which occurs f. In-service inspection flaw assumptions
prior to primary load path failure.
The smallest damage which is presumed to exist in the
(2) Multiple load path independent structure. structure after completion of a depot or base level
The same as paragraph e.(2) plus the amount inspection should be as follows unless specific NDI
of growth (+a) which occurs prior to primary procedures have been developed and the detection
load path failure. capability quantified.
(1) Where NDI techniques such as penetrant,
d. Fail safe crack arrest structure (adjacent magnetic particle, eddy current, or ultrasonics are
structure) applied without component or fastener removal,
For structure classified as fail safe crack arrest, the the minimum assumed flaw size at holes and
primary damage assumed to exist in the structure cutouts should be a through the thickness crack
following arrest of a rapidly propagating crack emanating from one side of the hole having a
depends upon the particular geometry. In 0.25 inch uncovered length when the material
conventional skin stringer (or frame) construction, this thickness is equal to or less than 0.25 inch. For
should be assumed as two panels (bays) of cracked material thicknesses greater than 0.25 inch, the
skin plus the broken central stringer (or frame). assumed initial flaw should be a quarter-circular
Where tear straps are provided between stringers (or corner crack emanating from one side of the hole
frames), this damage should be assumed as cracked having a 0.25 inch uncovered length. The
skin between tear straps plus the broken central minimum assumed flaw size at locations other
stringer (or frame). For other configurations, assume than holes should be a through the thickness
equivalent damage as mutually agreed upon by the crack of length 0.50 inch when the material
contractor and the acquisition activity. The damage thickness is equal to or less than 0.25 inch. For
assumed to exist in the structure adjacent to the material thicknesses greater than 0.25 inch, the
primary damage should be as specified in e.(2) or assumed initial flaw should be a semicircular
e.(3), below. surface flaw with length (2c) equal to 0.50 inch
and depth (a) equal to 0.25 inch. Other possible
e. Continuing damage surface flaw shapes with the same initial stress
intensity factor (K) can be considered as
Cyclic growth behavior of assumed initial flaws may
appropriate such as corner flaws at edges of
be influenced by the particular geometry and
structural members and longer and shallower
arrangement of elements of the structure being
surface flaws in plates which are subjected to
qualified. The following assumptions of continuing
high bending stresses. While X-ray inspection
crack growth should be considered for those cases
may be used to supplement one or more of the
where the primary crack terminates due to structural
other NDI techniques, it by itself, cannot be
discontinuities or element failure.
203
considered capable of reliably detecting tight usage and battle damage. The initial flaw/damage
subcritical cracks. assumptions are described in table XV for
manufacturing initial flaws and in-service damage.
(2) If the component is to be removed from the The 100 ft-lb of energy required to cause a dent 0.10
aircraft and completely inspected with an NDI inch deep may be reduced if the structure is not
technique, the minimum assumed damage is that exposed to the external impact or maintenance damage
detectable flaw that the NDI technique can threats and the part is thoroughly inspected before
demonstrate with an 90 percent probability and a closing up. To qualify the structure under this reduced
95 percent confidence level. impact energy criteria, the proposed impact energy of
_______ shall be approved by the procuring agency
(3) Where accessibility allows close visual
and the damage resulting from the impact which will
inspection (using visual aid as necessary), an
grow to critical sizes in two lifetimes of spectrum
opening through the thickness crack having at
loadings shall be detectable by industry standards or
least two inches of uncovered length should be
special demonstrated NDI techniques. The design
the minimum assumed damage size.
development tests to demonstrate that the structure can
(4) Where accessibility, paint, sealant, or other tolerate these defects for its design life without in-
factors preclude close visual inspection or the use service inspections shall utilize the unclipped upper
of NDI techniques such as described in (2) above, bound spectrum loading and the environmental
slow crack growth structure should be considered conditioning developed for the durability tests. These
to be noninspectable and fail safe structure two lifetime tests must show with high confidence that
should be considered to be inspectable only for the flawed structure meets the residual strength
major damage such as a load path failure or requirements in table XVI. These residual strength
arrested unstable crack growth. requirements are the same for the metallic structures
except the Pxx is not limited to 1.2 times the
g. Fastener policy for damage tolerance maximum load in one lifetime. To obtain the desired
To maximize safety of flight and to minimize the high confidence in the composite components it is
impact of potential manufacturing errors, it should be necessary to show that either the growth of the initial
a goal to achieve compliance with the damage flaws arrests and is insignificant, or the damage/flaw
tolerance requirements of this specification without will not grow to critical size in two design lifetimes by
considering the beneficial effects of specific joint analysis and the analysis methods could be verified by
design and assembly procedures such as interference component testing. As for the durability tests there
fasteners, cold expanded holes, or joint clamp-up. In shall be a program to assess the sensitivity to changes
general, this goal should be considered as a policy but in the baseline design usage spectrum.
exceptions can be considered on an individual basis. OTHER MATERIAL SYSTEMS
The limits of the beneficial effects to be used in design
should be no greater than the benefit derived by While the specifics of the above guidance apply to
assuming a .005 inch radius corner flaw at one side of metallic and composite structures, any structural
an as-manufactured, non-expanded hole containing a material system and design approach must comply
neat fit fastener in a non-clamped-up joint. A situation with the intent of the requirement. Initial flaw size
that might be considered an exception would be one assumptions should be established after an assessment
involving a localized area of the structure involving a of the design, manufacturing procedures, and
small number of fasteners. In any exception, the inspection method capabilities. Specifically, for
burden of proof of compliance by analysis, inspection, organic matrix composites, flaws which are induced in
and test is the responsibility of the contractor. service (foreign object damage, handling damage, etc.)
must be considered when the structure is categorized,
SPECIAL COMPONENTS the degree of inspectability is defined, and the initial
In lieu of more specific data, the flaw size assumptions flaw size assumptions are established. The size of
listed herein are applicable. Generally, individual damage of concern from these low energy impact
components can be inspected to a higher level than a sources is that size which would not be readily
large general area and smaller initial flaw size detectable in a routine visual inspection. The impact
assumptions might be developed. energy level to be assumed in design for each area of
the structure should be that level which produces
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES barely perceptible front face damage in the structure.
The composite structure must also be designed to be Because the amount of energy necessary to achieve
easily repairable for expected in-service damage. this level of damage is usually a function of the
Further, the design usage must be carefully identified. thickness of the structure, an upper bound energy level
The design missions must be adequately defined such cutoff should be established for various zones on the
that the potentially damaging high load cases are structure dependent on the possible sources of
properly represented. damage. In general, it will be necessary for the
contractor to conduct this initial flaw size assessment
In addition to the threats described above, the safety of as part of the contract when the design, manufacturing
flight structure must be designed to meet other damage methods, and inspection techniques are sufficiently
threats. These threats are those associated with defined.
manufacturing and in-service damage from adverse
204
Two different approaches have been employed in the Residual strength requirements must be established to
past to establish initial flaw size assumptions for use insure the safety of flight of the structure at every
in design. In a fighter development, MIL-A-83444 point in time during its service life.
flaw sizes were used in general with exceptions taken
at specific locations with NDI demonstrated values. To account for the fact that any individual aircraft may
In a bomber development, an extensive NDI capability encounter loads considerably in excess of the average
assessment was performed and smaller than spec size during its life, the required residual strength must be
initial flaws were assumed. While both approaches equal to or larger than the maximum load expected
were successful, they both have their advantages and during a given interval between inspections.
disadvantages, and the technique to be employed
should be evaluated on a system by system basis. In order to insure the safety of flight of the structure, it
must be able to sustain the planned service usage for a
B.5.8.2 RESIDUAL STRENGTH AND period that is longer than required to account for
DAMAGE GROWTH LIMITS variablity in material properties, manufacturing
quality, and inspection reliability.
The minimum required residual strength is specified in
terms of the internal member load which the airframe Fail-safe structure must be designed to withstand a
must be able to sustain with damage present for the specified period of service usage after a primary load
specified period of unrepaired service usage. The path failure. This period of usage depends on the type
magnitude of this load shall be based on the overall and frequency of the inspections for the particular
degree of inspectability of the structure and is intended structure.
to represent the maximum load the internal member
might encounter during a specified inspection interval In order to insure that the structures residual strength
or during a life time for noninspectable structure. This is not degraded, with the presence of cracking or a
load (PXX ) is defined as a function of the specific failed member, the structure must withstand a period
degree of inspectability in ___________. of service usage longer than the planned inspection
interval.
a. Airframe loading spectrum. The airframe
loading spectrum shall reflect required missions REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
wherein the mission mix and the loads in each
mission segment represent service usage. This requirement applies to all safety of flight
The required residual strength in terms of a structure including doors, and door and ramp
maximum load must be greater than the mechanisms (see 5.5.3.1) if applicable. Table XVI is
maximum load expected during a given interval to be referenced in the blank and included in the
between inspections. specification.
b. Fail-safe structure. For fail-safe structure, a In order to achieve the goal that the required residual
minimum load (PYY) shall be sustained by the strength must be equal to or larger than the maximum
remaining structure at the instant of load path load expected during a given interval between
failure of the primary member. This load, inspections, the inspection interval is magnified. For
defined in 5.5.8.2, shall be sustained by the example, the PXX load for ground evident damage is
secondary member at any time during the the maximum load that could be expected once in 100
inspection interval defined in 5.5.8.2. The flights (see Table XVI).
magnitude of this load shall be the product of a
dynamic load factor and the internal member load For metallic structure, the minimum acceptable period
at design limit load whichever is greater. The of unrepaired service usage for slow crack growth
dynamic factor shall be ___________. structure is two service usage lifetimes i.e., the time
for a flaw to propagate to failure from some initial
c. Safety of flight structure. All safety of flight damage must ve in excess of two service usage
structure shall maintain the required residual lifetimes. For non-metallic structure, the minimum
strength in the presence of damage for a specific acceptable period of unrepaired service usage is also
period or unrepaired service usage as a function two service usage lifetimes. To achieve this
of design concept and degree of inspectability. requirement, the following criteria should be satisfied
Periods of unrepaired service usage shall be as for non-metallic structure:
defined below.
a. Manufacturing induced flaws: No growth or
(1) Periods of unrepaired service usage are positive crack arrestment in two service usage
shown in _____________. lifetimes from the flaw sizes established in
5.5.8.1.
function of the degree of inspectability of the depends on the type and frequency of the inspections
primary element and shall be as shown in for the particular structure.
____________.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
b. Subsequent inspection intervals. The subsequent
inspection intervals and residual strength Specific guidance for the various levels of
requirements are also based on the degree of inspectability is contained in subsequent
inspectability of the primary element and shall be subparagraphs.
as shown in __________.
Reference table XVII in the blank and include the
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE table in the specification. The type and extent of the
primary damage is a function of the particular
Fail-safe structure must be designed to withstand a geometry and is defined in 5.5.8.1 under initial flaw
specified period of service usage after a primary load sizes for fail-safe crack arrest structures. Residual
path failure. This period of usage depends on the type strength requirements are as indicated in 5.5.8.2.
and frequency of the inspections for the particular
structure. The initial inspection interval should not be greater
than one half of the time to primary damage (see
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE below) plus one half of the remaining time to failure
of the adjacent structure from the flaw size specified
Specific guidance for various levels of inspectability is in 5.5.8.1 for adjacent structure at the time of primary
contained in the subsequent subparagraph. The damage in fail-safe crack arrest structure. The time to
definition of the correct level of inspectability for each primary damage is determined by assuming an initial
structural element is extremely important and it must flow (the same flow size as is specified in 5.5.8.1 for
take into consideration such factors as accessibility, the primary element in fail-safe structure) in the
the influence of paint or other coatings, and the critical element in the primary damage area. The
loading on the structure when the inspection is individual flaws in other elements of the primary
performed. Doors and door and ramp mechanisms damage area with the sizes specified in 5.5.8.1 for fail-
should be qualified under this category (see 5.5.3.1) safe multiple load path adjacent structure are allowed
when applicable. to propagate to element failure until all elements of the
primary damage area have failed. Load redistribution
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED effects as each element fails must be taken into
account in the growth of the flaws in the remaining
There are currently no aircraft in the U. S. Air Force elements.
inventory which have been designed and qualified as
fail-safe multiple load path structure under Air Force Reference table XVIII in the blank and include the
criteria. However, selected components of three table in the specification.
aircraft are being managed as fail-safe structure as a
result of durability and damage tolerance assessments. REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
B.5.8.2.3 FAIL-SAFE CRACK ARREST There are currently no aircraft is the U. S. Air Force
STRUCTURE inventory which have been qualified as fail-safe crack
arrest structure under U. S. Air Force criteria.
The degrees of inspectability applicable to fail-safe
crack arrest structure are the same as for fail-safe B.5.9 DURABILITY AND DAMAGE
multiple load path structures defined in 5.5.8.2.2. TOLERANCE CONTROL
a. Initial inspection interval. The initial inspection A durability and damage tolerance control process
interval and residual strength requirements are shall be developed and maintained to ensure that
dependent on the particular geometry and the maintenance and fatigue/fracture critical parts meet
degree of inspectability and shall be as the requirements of 5.5.7 and 5.5.8.
shown in _________.
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
b. Subsequent inspection intervals. The subsequent
intervals and residual strength requirements are The process shall identify and define all of the tasks
also based on the degree of inspectability of the necessary to ensure compliance with the durability and
primary damage and shall be as shown in damage tolerance requirement.
____________.
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
The disciplines of fracture mechanics, fatigue,
Fail-safe crack arrest structure must be able to materials selection and processes, environmental
withstand a specified period of service usage after a protection, corrosion prevention and control, design,
primary load path failure. This period of usage manufacturing, quality control, and nondestructive
inspection are involved in damage tolerance and
207
durability control. The MIL-STD-1568 or equivalent h. Durability analyses, damage tolerance analyses,
documents should be used as a guide in the development testing, and full scale testing should
development of corrosion prevention and control be performed in accordance with this
process. specification.
The durability and damage tolerance control process i. Complete nondestructive inspection
should include as a minimum the following tasks: requirements, process control requirements, and
quality control requirements for maintenance,
a. A disciplined procedure for durability design fatigue/fracture critical parts should be
should be implemented to minimize the established by the contractor and should require
possibility of incorporating adverse residual approval by the procuring agency. MIL-I-6870
stresses, local design details, materials, should be used as a guide in the development of
processing, and fabrication practices into the Nondestructive Inspection procedures. This task
problems (i.e., to find these problems which should include the proposed plan for certifying
otherwise have historically been found during and monitoring subcontractor, vendor, and
durability testing or early in service usage). supplier controls.
b. Basic data (i.e., initial quality distribution, fatigue j. The durability and damage tolerance control
allowables, KIC, KC, KISCC, da/dn, etc.) process should include any special nondestructive
utilized in the initial trade studies and the final inspection demonstration programs conducted in
design and analyses should be obtained from accordance with the requirements of this
existing sources or developed as part of the specification.
contract.
k. Traceability requirements should be defined and
c. A criteria for identifying and tracing maintenance imposed by the contractor on those fatigue and
critical parts should be established by the fracture critical parts that receive prime
contractor and should require approval by the contractor or subcontractor in-house processing
procuring agency. It is envisioned that and fabrication operations which could degrade
maintenance critical parts will be expensive, non- the design material properties.
economical-to-replace parts. A maintenance
critical parts list should be established by the l. For all fracture critical parts that are designed for
contractor and should be kept current as the a degree of inspectability other than in-service
design of the airframe progresses. non-inspectable, the contractor should define the
necessary inspection procedures for field use for
d. A criteria for identifying and tracing each appropriate degree of inspectability as
fatigue/fracture critical parts should be specified in the specification.
established by the contractor and should require
approval by the procuring agency. It is The durability and damage tolerance control process is
envisioned that fatigue/fracture critical parts will similar to what is normally accomplished in most
be expensive or safety of flight structural parts. companies during system development and
A fatigue/fracture critical parts list should be manufacturing. It does, however, represent a
established by the contractor and should be kept significantly more rigorous application of controls and
current as the design of the airframe progresses. a directed interdisciplinary effort among the
company's functional organizations. To accomplish
e. Design drawings for the maintenance critical this task, a Durability and Damage Tolerance Control
parts and fatigue/fracture critical parts should Board or Team should be established to oversee the
identify critical locations, special processing control process. The control process should establish
(e.g., shot peenings), and inspection the criteria for critical part selection and the control of
requirements. the critical parts. The selection of critical parts starts
as system design requirements are translated into a
f. Material procurement and manufacturing process
design and analyses are accomplished. Trade studies
specifications should be developed and updated
are performed to determine the most cost effective,
as necessary to ensure that initial quality and
lowest weight design. After a design is finalized,
fracture toughness properties of the critical parts
durability, fatigue/fracture critical parts are chosen,
exceed the design value.
according to a set of predetermined criteria.
g. Experimental determination sufficient to estimate Additional design trade studies may result in parts
initial quality by microscopic or fractographic being added to or deleted from the critical parts list.
examination should be required for those Critical parts can also be selected by engineering
structural areas where cracks occur during full judgment. These parts, although not critical according
scale durability testing. The findings should be to predetermined criteria, may be deemed critical
used in the full scale test data interpretation and because of economic consequences of failure (e.g.,
evaluation task as specified in 5.6.6.11 and, as expensive to repair or replace), or by the aircraft not
appropriate, in the development of the force being mission capable, etc. Those parts that do not
structural maintenance plan as specified in make the list are subject to normal controls.
5.6.6.14.
208
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED data which can be used to support the force
management systems/ program.
Without proper durability and damage tolerance
control process, the structural integrity cannot be REQUIREMENT RATIONALE
maintained and the cost/weight within the
performance requirements cannot be achieved. The Developing an airframe with adequate strength,
control process should be coordinated with all the rigidity, durability, and damage tolerance and
disciplines and the parts selected for control should be maintaining these qualities depends on knowledge of
passed through detailed critical parts selection process. individual operational usage. The Force Management
The same control process should be implemented in program utilizes flight and landing usage data
the supply vendors. collected from the operation aircraft to determine
cumulative fatigue damage, estimate fatigue life
B.5.10 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS remaining, update structural maintenance and
modification schedules, and provide design criteria for
In service landing gear and backup structural life and future aircraft modifications and replacement aircraft
life cycle cost shall not be significantly degraded by acquisition programs. Actual aircraft usage has
small variations in weight, maneuverability, usage, historically varied substantially from development
and _______. missions and mixes. Airborne flight data recorders
(FDR) are needed to record individual aircraft usage
and substantiate changes in operational mission usage.
Airborne flight data recorders and the force
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE management program are necessary to maximize the
service life available based on each aircraft's
In-service airframe structural life can be significantly individual usage, minimize impacts to operational
degraded by small variations in design parameters readiness and structurally related maintenance costs
such as weight, maneuverability, etc. A sensitivity and ensure acceptable levels of structural flight safety
analysis is performed to evaluate the effects of throughout the service life of the aircraft. Airborne
variations of these design parameters on airframe flight data recorders are essential to ensure the
structural life and its impact on life cycle cost. successful life management of fleet airframe
resources. Early involvement will help ensure a
workable program.
The sensitivity analysis task encompasses those efforts Force management consists of collecting, storing,
required to apply the existing theoretical, processing, and disseminating operational usage data
experimental, applied research, and operational throughout an aircraft's service life. The development
experience to specific criteria for materials selection of a force management system/program requires
and structural design for the airplane. The objective is integration of airborne hardware and software, ground
to ensure that the appropriate criteria and planned support hardware and software, and a fatigue life
usage are applied to an airplane design so that the analysis or a crack growth analyses methodology and
specific operational requirements will be met. This software with the aircraft structural development
task begins as early as possible in the conceptual program. The contractor is normally responsible for
phase and is finalized in subsequent phases of the development of the force management
airplane life cycle. The analysis should document the system/program, but it is to be developed jointly by
impact of variations of design parameters such as: a the contractor and the procuring activity. A parallel
10% increase in mission weight, a 5% increase in engine management program should be integrated
spectrum severity, etc on structural service life, testing with the force management program to the extent
requirements, and operational life cycle cost. compatible with the engine monitoring requirements.
Additional information with respect to the airborne
REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED data acquisition system, ground/data handling and data
processing can be found in AFFDL-TR-78-183,
Sensitivity analysis can provide valuable information AFWAL-TR-81-3079, and ASD-TR-82-5012.
for the Program Office to make program decisions.
The results will provide the justification of the REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
selection of robust design vs. marginal design and the
consequence of the design selection. None.
interface with air vehicle systems and record the b. The system should be able to accept in-coming
required data within required accuracies. signals from other aircraft systems which
measure appropriate flight parameters, but should
a. The data acquisition system shall meet the measure the parameter independently if it is not
requirements of _____________. otherwise available. For instance, if pressure
altitude readings are required but are not
b. The data acquisition system shall be installed in available from another aircraft system, the FDR
_________. hardware should include the capability to
measure this parameter independently.
c. Ground/Data Handling ___________.
c. The system should be capable of sampling the
REQUIREMENT RATIONALE various aircraft parameter input signals at a rate,
determined through analysis, such that the peak
In order to monitor aircraft operational usage and values of each signal can be recorded. All system
flight/landing parameters, record structurally sensors should have a range of measurement
significant loading events, and derive loads sufficient to cover the aircraft's complete flight
environment and stress spectra (L/ESS), an airborne envelope.
flight data recorder (FDR) is required. d. The system should be capable of identifying the
real-time sequence, vice relative time sequence,
Aircraft must be instrumented with data acquisition of all recorded data using either an internal real-
system equipment to obtain individual aircraft time clock or any other real-time clock signal
operational usage and loading data. from other aircraft systems.
As a system, the airborne data acquisition hardware is e. The system should have a memory of sufficient
virtually useless unless recorded data can be size to store all of the FDR recorded aircraft
successfully downloaded and transferred to the parameters and usage events such that transfer of
procuring activities central processing facility and the data from the airborne FDR hardware will not
subsequently processed to generate fatigue or crack need to occur more frequently than once per
growth life values for individual aircraft. The month.
contractor must give proper consideration and f. The system should have a self-diagnostic
significant thought to design/interface/integration capability and a method of indicating system
details with the ground based support equipment to be failures or malfunctions which would require a
used by the procuring activity to download/transfer maintenance action.
recorded data or to the design/interface/integration of
the software/hardware to be used to convert this g. The system should store recorded data in non-
recorded data into fatigue damage or crack growth life volatile memory such that there are no system
values. power requirements to maintain previously
recorded usage data in the FDR memory while
REQUIREMENT GUIDANCE that aircraft is not flying.
h. The FDR should have the capability to measure
This blank should be filled by reference to plans and
direct strain readings for use in calculating
specifications for FDR hardware, new or to-be-
fatigue damage, crack growth, or verifying
developed, and the documentation needed to integrate
structural response to changes in aircraft
new or existing FDR equipment into fleet aircraft. In
configuration, flight control systems, missions, or
addition, the contractor should also reference
weights. Strain sensors should also be capable of
specifications and other documentation to describe
recording unanticipated structural responses.
how the FDR hardware and the data it records
interfaces with the ground support equipment, i. Strain sensor locations should be chosen in
maintenance concepts, and data processing facilities of uniform or low-gradient strain fields which
the procuring activity. remain elastic under all load conditions up to
115% of limit load. Locations should also be
The FDR should continuously monitor appropriate
chosen considering the accessibility of an area for
flight parameters and strains, and record significant
routine sensor inspection and replacement, and
damaging loading events necessary to determine the
should be protected from the normal service
nominal strain history at each fatigue critical location.
environment. Strain sensors should have a back-
The following system capabilities should be
up sensor at all chosen sensor locations. The
considered when designing/selecting the airborne data
FDR system should indicate in the recorded data
acquisition system:
which strain sensor, primary or back-up, is
a. The system should measure, record, and store operating at each sensor location. Each strain
vertical accelerations, airspeed, altitude, fuel sensor location, primary and back-up, should
weight, total gross weight, real event time, and have a reference output level defined by a full-
other aircraft parameters necessary to reconstruct scale test and verified by a flight demonstration
that aircraft's usage history on a flight-by-flight program. The sensor should be mounted on a
basis. structural component or member such that the
slope of the strain to load relationship for each
210
sensor can be calibrated on the ground using The contractor should provide reference plans and
simple testing procedures or in-flight using a documentation for the data processing procedures and
reliable calibration flight maneuver. analysis methods necessary to (1) determine the
amount of missing or invalid aircraft usage data and
j. The FDR system should be automated as much as replace/substitute for data gaps, (2) convert recorded
possible with consideration given to aircraft usage data to local strains/stresses at each
multifunction capability, i.e., the same recording critical location,, (3) perform a "rain flow count" of
system could serve the structural recording and the resulting variations of local stress/strain, and (4)
engine monitoring functions. Programmable, compute and accumulate the fatigue damage or crack
microprocessor computers with solid state growth caused by each stress/strain cycle extracted by
memory should be given particular consideration. the rain flow. The fatigue analysis methods should be
Historically, microprocessor based systems based on a local strain approach. For structures
require less maintenance and data reformatting subject to random loadings, and where localized
than the previously used magnetic tape or plasticity occurs at the critical location, the method
mechanical recorders. selected should account for sequence effects and their
The use of flight logs and other data gathering impact on changing local residual stresses and the
techniques may be applicable and should be included final damage computed. The analysis method should
in the requirements as necessary. be correlated to the full scale and/or component
fatigue/damage tolerance test such that lives calculated
All fleet aircraft must be instrumented with data at critical locations correspond to test
acquisition system equipment to obtain individual results/experience.
aircraft operational usage and loading data. The flight
loads test aircraft must be instrumented to allow REQUIREMENT LESSONS LEARNED
correlation of the loads and stresses derived from the
airborne recorded parameters to those recorded during Some current FDR systems record or transfer usage
flight tests. Analysis methods and computer programs data on magnetic tape. This requires extensive ground
must be developed to record the initial and later phase processing of data such as reformatting, transcribing,
of operational environment. In addition, all other and data compression before useful engineering data
flight test aircraft must be instrumented so that can be analyzed. Also, this system is subject to
structural damage accumulated during air vehicle test extensive delays in equipment maintenance because of
and demonstration can be accounted for. The data the delays in processing data tapes. Other FDR
acquisition system selected to accomplish the programs using programmable, solid state
loads/environment spectra survey (L/ESS) task should microprocessors have eliminated the inherent
be capable to capture at least 50% of the flight problems with tape drive mechanisms. These
operational data before downloading. microprocessor based systems have been used to
perform multiple functions/duties (i.e. record
This blank should be filled by reference to plans and structural usage, engine health/usage, and avionics
specifications for ground support equipment to be performance data with data compression).
used to download and transfer usage data recorded by Strain sensors, although providing direct measurement
the airborne data acquisition system. In addition, the and retention of an aircraft's local strain history, do
contractor should also reference specifications and require periodic maintenance as a result of sensor
other documentation (including structural analysis failures, mechanical damage, or environmental
methods and reports, ground test reports, and flight degradation. Strain sensors are also sensitive to
test reports) to describe how the data recorded is location/alignment and there are also times where a
converted from engineering units to local strain "single sensor solution" for the structurally critical
history and subsequently calculated cumulative fatigue area is not always practical. The use of aircraft flight
damage or crack growth at each critical structural parameters and advanced regression analysis tools,
location. such as neural networks, can yield local strain history
The contractor should provide the functional results with the same accuracy as direct strain
description of aircraft ground support equipment measurements. There are at least two significant
required to download the data recorded by the airborne advantages to the multiparameter recorder vice strain
acquisition system, diagnose airborne acquisition sensor recorder: (1) generally improved data recovery
system maintenance requirements and reconfigure since several channels of the multiple parameter data
airborne acquisition systems, as appropriate. The would have to be lost before data reconstruction
contractor should provide the functional description of becomes unreliable; however, if the strain data is lost,
any pre-processing requirements of the ground support most information needed to determine the local area
equipment including procedures for merging flight log strain history is lost and (2) if the critical structural
data (e.g. logbook hours, number/type of landings, areas change or if new tracking locations are added
mission use codes, etc.) with the recorded aircraft through service experience, all previously
flight usage data. The contractor should describe step- recorded/stored flight usage data can be reused to
by-step procedures to download usage data, diagnose assess damage in these local areas; however, the strain
airborne system health and reconfigure, as applicable, data recorded/stored for discrete locations is generally
the airborne system for a specific aircraft installation. valid only for the areas local to the strain sensor.
211
The ability of the structural design criteria to enable VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
the airframe to meet the structural design requirements
must be verified. This verification is achieved by None.
reviewing the documentation that substantiates the
selection of each specific design criterion to ensure B.6.1.4 STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
that the design requirements are being met, that the
criterion reflects past experience and lessons learned, The requirements of 5.5.1.3 shall be met by analysis,
and that the criterion has been modified to address inspection, demonstration and test.
circumstances outside the historical data base.
B.6.1.4.1 PARTS CLASSIFICATION
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
The requirements of 5.5.1.3.1 shall be met by analysis,
The substantiation of the applicability of the structural documentation, inspection.
design criteria to the particular aircraft being designed
is accomplished by documenting that each criterion is B.6.1.4.2 FATIGUE/FRACTURE CRITICAL
supported by applicable past experience, appropriate PARTS
analyses and trade studies, or design development
tests. As each criterion is being selected, the overall The requirements of 5.5.1.3.2 shall be met by analysis,
structural design philosophy embodied by the criterion documentation, inspection, and test.
as well as the specific numeric values contained in the
criterion must be reviewed to determine if it will meet B.6.1.4.3 MAINTENANCE CRITICAL
the applicable structural design requirements. Special PARTS
attention should be given to the selection of criteria
which will be used in circumstances outside the The requirements of 5.5.1.3.3 shall be met by analysis,
historical data base. These circumstances include new documentation, and inspection.
design approaches, new materials, new fabrication
methods, unusual aircraft configurations, unusual B.6.1.4.4 MISSION CRITICAL PARTS
usage, and new aircraft maintenance methods.
The requirements of 5.5.1.3.4 shall be met by
examination, analysis, documentation, and inspection.
214
None.
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
(5.6.1.3 through 5.6.1.3.5) None.
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED The analyses, tests, and inspections required by this
(5.6.1.3 through 5.6.1.3.5) specification shall be sufficient to show that the
airframe adequately supports and reacts to all of the
None. loads and motions of the equipment defined in 5.5.2.2.
Analyses, tests, and inspections shall be in compliance Verification of the airframe ability to react all loads
with the following subparagraphs to show that the and motion is necessary to ensure that the operational
landing gear and backup structure meets the mission needs can be achieved by the air vehicle.
operational and maintenance capabilities required in
5.5.2. VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
Many of the general parameter requirements can be The analyses, tests, and inspections required by this
verified by those inspections, analyses, and tests specification shall be sufficient to show that the
needed to verify that the discipline requirements have airframe has the ability to support and react to all of
been met. Integrated verification tasks that can verify the loads and motions of the payload defined in
several requirements at once are to be encouraged. 5.5.2.3.
None.
215
Weight distributions shall be verified by analyses. The center of gravity position of the weights in 5.5.2.5
The following weight distributions shall also be shall be verified by actual weighing of an empty
verified by test: _____________. aircraft, fuel calibration, and analysis.
Verification of the weight distributions is needed to Determination of the applicable center of gravities
assure that errors do not invalidate flight or ground analytically is needed to establish the aircraft's
performance established for the vehicle, for example, characteristics, including flight characteristics,
external loads, which rely on the weight distributions performance, etc., as well as the airframe structural
of the air vehicle being established and actually characteristics. However, these analytical values of
known. center of gravities may or may not represent the actual
hardware. Actual weightings of selected weight
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE configurations are needed to verify the center of
gravity values or to indicate where discrepancies exist
Weight distributions can be established using so that the analytical results can be corrected to agree
analytical techniques. These numbers can normally be with actual measurements.
used with confidence. Weightings, ground vibration
tests, and tests run to determine moments of inertia VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
can be used to verify weight distributions. Insert in
the blank those weight distributions to be verified by Identify and list those weights of 5.5.2.5 and the
test. applicable center of gravities of weight distributions of
5.5.2.4 which are to be verified by actual weighings.
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED The weights and weight distributions selected for
verification of center of gravity positions should be
None. included among those required in 5.6.2.5 so as to be
cost effective.
B.6.2.5 WEIGHTS
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
The weight shall be assessed throughout the
development program and validated by actual Limiting actual weighing of aircraft to the empty
weighing. weight configuration has proven satisfactory on a
large number of transport aircraft. Actual weighings
VERIFICATION RATIONALE and inertia measurements of external stores and
internal payloads to be used in development flight test
Verification of the analytical weight values by is recommended as these test stores and payloads have
weighing is needed to confirm that this parameter proven in the past to be unrepresentative of
(weight) is as expected because it so greatly influences operationally configured stores and payloads.
the structural capability of the airframe.
B.6.2.6.1 LATERAL CENTER OF GRAVITY
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE POSITION
Verification shall be a continuing task through all The lateral center of gravity position of the weights in
phases of the program (estimated, calculated, and 5.5.2.5 shall be verified by actual weighing of an
actual). Pieces and parts shall be verified by empty aircraft, fuel calibration, and analysis.
calculation as drawings are released and actual
weighing when parts are available. Each aircraft will VERIFICATION RATIONALE
be weighed in a completely assembled and dry
condition in accordance with MIL-W-25140. None.
Corrections and analysis will be performed to verify
each of the weights in this paragraph and the VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
specifications. "Manufacturing Variation" shall be
investigated to ascertain the cause and to control the None.
aircraft mass properties.
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
None.
None.
216
The altitudes of 5.5.2.8 shall be demonstrated to be The ground loading parameters of 5.5.2.10 reflect
attainable by the air vehicle by analyses and tests. The required operational capability of the air vehicle. The
following altitudes shall be shown to be attainable by capability of the airframe will be developed by other
the air vehicle by the indicated analyses/tests: technical disciplines such as loads, strength, durability
________________. and damage tolerance, handling qualities,
performance, etc. Most of the verification of these
VERIFICATION RATIONALE parameters can be achieved by coupling their
verification with applicable verification requirements
While maneuvering flight may not be attainable at all specified for other technical disciplines.
desired altitudes by the flight test vehicles, engine
changes may be incorporated in the future that will VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
make it possible.
None.
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
B.6.2.11 LIMIT LOADS
Identify and list those altitudes of 5.5.2.8 which are to
be verified by analyses, those to be verified by tests, The limit loads shall be verified by inspection of
and those to be verified by both analyses and tests. strength analyses and tests.
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
Ultimate loads reflect the strength needed in the
airframe. None.
include: stabilized material and/or material processes, management process should be tracked through
demonstrated producibility, fully characterized periodic reporting (reference NAS 411 for guidance).
mechanical properties and design allowables, The following information should be provided:
predictability of structural performance and
supportability. Refer to a paper entitled "Structural a. Overview of the process, participants, objectives,
Technology Transition to New Aircraft", Dr. John W. and accomplishments.
Lincoln, ASC/ENFS, as well as other documents b. Pollution prevention initiatives and
identified in Section 20 of this handbook for additional status/performance against pre-established
guidance. criteria.
Second source for materials and processes. When c. Assessment of new/proposed regulatory
industrial base or program requirements dictate a initiatives (if applicable).
second source for a material system or process, second
source equivalency should be established based on d. A hazardous materials, processes, and waste list
demonstrated and documented capability for process with justification for use.
compliance and control. Material system and/or e. Vendors, suppliers, and subcontractor
process equivalency should also be determined progress/issues.
through appropriate mechanical, chemical,
environmental, and nondestructive testing/inspection. f. Identification of regulatory permits required by
the government for the operation and support of
a. Hazardous Materials Management Program Plan. the aircraft at the government location.
The contractor should plan, develop, implement,
monitor, and maintain an effective Hazardous g. Trade-off study results/progress.
Materials Management Program in accordance
Demilitarization and Disposal Plan. The contractor
with National Aerospace Standard 411. The
should prepare a Demilitarization and Disposal Plan in
purpose of this program is to eliminate or reduce
accordance with DODINST 5000.2, DOD 4160.21-M-
(where elimination is not feasible) hazardous and
1 (Defense Demilitarization Manual), and
environmentally unacceptable materials. The
NAVAIRINST 4500.11 (Policy and Procedures for
primary emphasis shall be on eliminating or
Aircraft, Aircraft Engines, and Related Aeronautical
reducing those hazardous materials and processes
Items Reclamation and Disposal Program).
that are used or generated during the operation
and support of the aircraft. The secondary
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
emphasis shall be on eliminating or reducing
those hazardous materials and processes that
None.
must ultimately be disposed of when the aircraft
has reached the end of its life cycle. The
B.6.2.16.1 MATERIALS
documentation should address how the
contractor's Hazardous Materials Management
The materials used in the landing gear and backup
Program will reduce the environmental impact of
structure and their properties shall be validated by
the systems operations, maintenance, repair,
inspections, analyses, and tests to verify that they are
demilitarization, and disposal requirements
in compliance with the requirements of 5.5.2.16.1.
during systems definition, design, engineering
Standardized test methods used to establish metallic
development, production, and deployment
and composite material systems properties shall be
phases, which are consistent with the design life
used when available. When such standardized
of the system. Information that should be
methods are not available, a program shall be
considered for inclusion in a description of a
undertaken to explore and develop standardized test
pollution prevention process includes:
methods. All test methods used in establishing
b. Identify methods and procedures for meeting material system performance shall be documented and
pollution prevention requirements. submitted for the procuring activity review.
c. The methodology for identification of hazardous VERIFICATION RATIONALE
materials, processes, and waste; including
justification for use/substitution and associated The early characterization and selection of materials
cost/benefit analysis. helps keep the weight and cost of the airframe down
d. Identify the process for ensuring that all vendors, while meeting operational and maintenance
suppliers, and subcontractors provide all performance requirements.
necessary information to meet Hazardous
Materials Management Program requirements. VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
e. Identification of the methodologies for above to Materials Systems Testing Data. MIL-HDBK-5
be executed including the role of a joint provides uniform data for metallic
contractor/government Environmental Process materials/components and minimizes the necessity of
Action Team. referring to numerous materials handbooks and
Hazardous Materials Management Program Progress. bulletins to obtain the allowable stresses and other
Progress in the prime contractors hazardous materials related properties of materials and structural elements.
220
results should be confirmed with predicted results or Statistical Process Control (SPC) for Composites.
results generated from destructive test and evaluation Composite processing should pay strict attention to
of critical composite structure. The composite process control to ensure the full development of
structures process verification tests should be engineering properties. Materials allowables
provided. A composite process verification plan development must accurately model actual
should be provided. manufacturing conditions including layup, cutting,
drilling, machining, and curing. SPC should ensure
First part process verification. All primary, significant process optimization and control through in-process
secondary or process critical composite laminates monitoring and recording. SPC should take into
should undergo destructive test and evaluation. Tests account all process variables which influence the final
should include nondestructive inspection, dimensional composite product including receiving inspection,
measurements, photomicrographic test analysis of handling, environmental controls, dimensional
process sensitive areas, glass transition temperature controls, processing, machining, etc. The plan to
measurement of potential areas of under and over establish SPC for composites should be developed and
cure, and mechanical tests of local specimens to provided.
ensure that resin and fiber/resin dominant design
properties are developed during cure. These tests Fluid Resistance/Durability of Composites. A detailed
should validate the composite laminating and curing fluid resistance/durability test program should be
process, as well as, ensure that producibility and conducted and documented to include a description of
process verification is accounted for in design. fluid resistance and weathering characteristics for
Composite first part process verification should exposure conditions and measurement of mechanical
incorporate the following criteria: and physical properties and diffusion characteristics.
a. Selection of destructive test articles: One each of Shot peening. Parts that are designed with the intent
the primary composite parts should be to employ the fatigue benefits of shot peening must
destructively tested. Each part should be of the validate the reliability of this process through AMS
same configuration as EMD/production parts and 2432A. In addition to the development of internal
be produced using the same tooling and procedures, this specification required continuous,
procedures. If significant design modifications, built-in classification systems on shot peening
tooling changes or changes in fabrication machinery to remove broken particles in the process,
processes/procedures are made, additional specific Almen intensity verification locations to be
articles should be destructively tested to verify shown on the drawing, computer monitoring of shot
the change for each part affected. The following flow, movement of part and movement of peening
exceptions apply: shot stream. Each of these parameters must be
continuously monitored by computer with automatic
(1) If it can be demonstrated that the left and right shutdown should any of the prescribed fall out of
hand parts are mirror images (identical details, tolerance.
layups, tooling, and fabrication procedures),
then either a left or right hand article will VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
satisfy the requirements for both parts.
None.
(2) Discrepant parts may be used if part
discrepancies are considered to be sufficiently
B.6.2.17 FINISHES
minor as to not interfere with the evaluation.
Parts with large areas of delaminations,
Analyses and tests shall verify that the landing gear
porosity or other defects indicating a major
and backup structure finishes are in compliance with
process anomaly should not be used.
the requirements of 5.5.2.17.
b. Scheduling of destructive tests: Although it is
preferred that destructive testing be conducted VERIFICATION RATIONALE
on the first part fabricated, any one of the first
five parts may be selected for destructive testing Verification that the finishes meet the requirements of
with the following restrictions: 5.5.2.17 needs to be accomplished to assure that the
operational capability of the air vehicle is adequate
(1) No more than five of each type of part may be and not degraded because of finish breakdowns and
produced prior to completion of destructive failures.
testing and evaluation.
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
(2) No assembly of composite primary structural
elements may be performed prior to the Finishes can be verified as meeting the requirements
completion of the destructive test and of 5.5.2.17 by laboratory, ground, and flight testing.
evaluation of those parts, unless the structure Compatibility of the finishes with the material
can be easily disassembled. underneath may be accomplished by empirical
The plan should describe those efforts to verify analysis and inspections derived from previous
manufacturing and assembly processes as well as experience with the finish and material underneath. A
tooling concepts.
222
finish specification should be prepared using MIL-F- Materials and processes for repairing should
7179 and MIL-S-5002 as a source of guidance. demonstrate the same capabilities.
The demonstration of integrity of adhesive bonds will
usually consist of process control records and
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED nondestructive inspection for delaminations. In
exceptional cases where separation of the coating must
None. be absolutely precluded for every installed coating, the
verification should include a proof load test of some
B.6.2.18 NON-STRUCTURAL COATINGS, kind. Low test loads can be developed by vacuum
FILMS, AND LAYERS cups or pressure sensitive adhesive tape. More
elaborate procedures would be needed to prove high
Analyses and tests shall verify that the landing gear bond strength of an installed coating.
system and backup structure non-structural coatings
are in compliance with the requirements of 5.5.2.18. VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
Inspection and repair methods for the coatings, films,
and layers shall be provided. Further, methods of None.
nondestructive inspection shall be provided for
inspecting the structure behind or beneath the B.6.2.19 SYSTEM FAILURES
coatings, films, and layers for cracks, failures,
damage, corrosion, and other structural integrity Analyses and tests shall verify that the landing gear
anomalies. In particular, if the inspections of and backup structure complies with the failure
5.6.11.1.2.2.d and 5.6.12.1 are applicable to the requirements of 5.5.2.19.
structure behind or beneath the coatings, films, and
layers, the coatings, films, and layers shall not VERIFICATION RATIONALE
preclude or impede the performance of the durability
and damage tolerance inspections. If the coatings, Verification of the adequacy of the airframe to
films or layers are attached by adhesive bonding, a withstand successfully system failures of 5.5.2.19 is
positive bond control system shall be used to minimize needed to assure that adequate structural integrity
the probability of occurrence of a very-low- strength exists in the airframe, particularly for expected
bond and adequate In-process controls during failures, so that safety of the crew and recovery of the
fabrication and final non- destructive inspection air vehicle is optimized.
techniques shall be established to minimize the
probability of bond failure. VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
The analyses and tests must be adequate for the type VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
of structural material being used. In most cases
verification that the surface resistivity is within None.
approved design limits will be adequate demonstration
that this requirement has been met. In other cases, VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
laboratory and flight tests may be needed.
None.
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
B.6.2.22 PRODUCIBILITY
Lightning testing may not be required if previous test
data is available and applicable. For example, 0.080 It must be demonstrated that manufacturing is an
inch of painted aluminum structure has been shown by integral part of the design process. Producibility
test to be sufficient to prevent puncture by lightning. demonstrations are required for new or unproven
However, testing may be necessary to show that the design, construction, or manufacturing concepts to
component material thickness equals or exceeds the minimize the production risk. Maintainability should
required thickness. Comparable data for composite be a factor in structural design trade studies.
structures is not available. Most new composite
structural materials and joints require testing. Testing VERIFICATION RATIONALE
is also required if different manufacturing techniques
are used such as different types of fasteners on None.
structural joints.
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
Some amount of testing is usually required. For
instance, the fasteners used in joints have a significant None.
impact on the capability of the joints to conduct the
lightning currents. Different companies use different VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
fasteners and installation techniques, therefore,
previous test data from one contractor may not be None.
directly applicable to the design of another contractor.
None.
B.6.2.24 SUPPORTABILITY
None. None.
both must be accomplished with care. Showing by B.6.3.2 TAIL BUMPER (____)
test that the airframe can satisfactorily withstand the
occurrences of all potential and likely failures from Analyses and tests shall verify that the tail bumper has
which recovery is expected could be very expensive, the capability to perform as required by 5.5.3.2.
hence the verification would probably be primarily by
analyses. Similarly, not verifying the capability of the VERIFICATION RATIONALE
arresting hook by test could also be very expensive
and testing probably would be the primary means of Verification that the tail bumper performs as required
verification. Each verification task needs to be by 5.5.3.2 is needed to show that the air vehicle will
determined and established on the merits of the not be damaged by conditions of 5.5.3.2 capability, up
requirements. to which the tail bumper must be able to satisfactorily
perform.
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
None.
None.
Preliminary and final drawings shall contain sufficient During normal carrier operations, aircraft with aft c.g.
detail to show that all doors are fully useable for all tip back angles of less than 200 have exhibited
applicable operational and maintenance conditions in unacceptable ship compatibility.
compliance with the requirements of 5.5.3.1. Tests
shall show compliance with the clearance B.6.3.3 TAIL HOOK (____)
requirements of 5.5.3.1. Damage tolerance analyses
and tests shall verify that the damage tolerance Dynamic analyses shall show that the tail hook will
requirements of 5.5.3.1 are met. function as required by 5.5.3.3. Tests shall verify that
the tail hook will engage the arrestment cable, perform
VERIFICATION RATIONALE as required, and meet the requirements of 5.5.3.3.
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED For carrier based aircraft, the arresting hook
verification test requirements are per paragraph 5.5.20,
None. Carrier suitability demonstration tests, and table 6 of
MIL-D-8708B plus the requirements of BIS (Board of
B.6.3.1.3 ACCESS DOORS AND Inspection and Survey).
COMPONENTS (____)
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
Analyses and tests shall verify that access doors and
components meet the requirements of 5.5.3.1.1. None.
VERIFICATION RATIONALE B.6.3.4 DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR SHIP-
BASED SUITABILITY (____)
Verification that all access doors and components
perform as required by 5.5.3.1.1 is needed to ensure
that the air vehicle can safely perform its operational B.6.3.4.1 LANDING GEAR SHIP-BASED
missions as intended. SUITABILITY REQUIREMENTS
(____)
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
Barricade requirements shall be demonstrated by test.
None. Otherwise requirements shall be verified through the
design review process early in the engineering
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED development process.
None.
226
Retrofit of the above requirements would be very See Requirement Lessons Learned under 5.5.3.4.3
costly and schedule disruptive. The design which is applicable to both 5.5.3.4.3 and 5.6.3.4.
requirements in 5.5.3.4.1 must be addressed during
early aircraft configuration studies. B.6.4 STRUCTURAL LOADING
CONDITIONS
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
The loading conditions and criteria of 5.5.4 shall be
Testing shall be in accordance with MIL-D-8708. detailed and included in the detailed structural criteria
of 5.5.1.1. Analyses and tests shall verify that the
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED landing gear and backup structure can operate in the
flight and ground environment associated with the
None. operational use as required by 5.5.4.
for flight loads and ground loads analyses shall be gages and pressure transducers are provided in ASD-
completed by specifying the applicable flight loading TR-80-5038.
conditions of 5.5.4.1 and ground loading conditions of
5.5.4.2. For aerodynamic heating and other analyses, The load carrying capability of landing gear for the
define the applicable loading conditions. The wind taxi mode of operation has generally been determined
tunnel tests shall be performed over a wide enough by the 2.0g or 3.0g specified load criteria depending
range to insure coverage of the design operating on whether the main gear or nose gear design is being
environment specified in 5.5.2 and 5.5.4. For force considered. Drop testing of the landing gear strut
model, pressure model, aeroelastic model, and other verifies the energy absorption capability of the strut
model tests, define the proposed test configurations and provides for the validation of its load/deflection or
and conditions. Flight and ground tests shall be airspring curve. It has then been assumed that the
extensive enough to substantiate the design loads strut, for purposes of analysis and operation, will
analyses and to demonstrate aircraft structural behave in accordance with the manufacturers plotted
integrity for the critical loading conditions. For flight airspring curve if the strut has been serviced in
loads, ground loads, temperature, and other accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
measurement tests, define the proposed test Recent flight test programs with transport aircraft
configurations, conditions, instrumentation, and performing taxi and braking tests on low bump
calibration procedures. AFFDL-TR-76-23, Volumes amplitude AM-2 metal repair mats has demonstrated
I-VII; AFWAL-TR-80-3036, Volumes I-III; FTD- conclusively that documented drop test strut data
MT-64-269; AGARD Report 113; AGARD-AG-160, cannot be relied upon to accurately predict landing
Volume 7; NACA TN 1178; NACA TN 1140 and gear taxi loads and strut deflections. These tests
ASD-TR-80-5038 provide some insight in applying demonstrated that cycling of the struts due to surface
the loads analyses and verification requirements. roughness resulted in degraded strut damping
performance, and in some instances resulted in
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED bottoming of the struts thereby providing the potential
for tire, strut, or airframe damage in spite of the fact
A comprehensive flight and ground test program that pre-test and post-test examination showed the
which detailed the requirements for aircraft structural struts to be properly serviced. Strut performance
integrity flight and ground evaluation and degradation was attributable to air/oil mixing in the
demonstration was previously specified in MIL-A- landing gear struts. This same test program revealed
8871A. The overall value of strict adherence to these unexpectedly high lateral and fore and aft
requirements has been demonstrated on numerous test accelerations of an outboard engine pylon, attributable
programs. On more than one occasion, new critical to excitation provided by wing bending and anti-skid
loading conditions were identified early in the cycling respectively. The identification of previously
program as a result of this comprehensive approach. unknown critical conditions was the result of a
These critical loading conditions were then included in comprehensive loads program utilizing thoroughly
subsequent full scale static test programs. instrumented aircraft.
Several aircraft have required extensive redesign of B.6.4.1 FLIGHT LOADING CONDITIONS
major components to assure compliance with the
structural design requirements. Wing tip mounted Analyses and tests shall be of sufficient scope to
missiles were lost from an air superiority fighter on determine and verify the loads resulting from and
two occasions when jet wakes were encountered. The commensurate with the flight loading conditions of
causes were identified as high wing tip accelerations 5.5.4.1.
in combination with substandard cast fittings used to
attach the launchers to the wing tips. The horizontal VERIFICATION RATIONALE
tail carry-through structure of a bomber failed during
low level operations. Failure was attributed to This verification task is required to assure that the
asymmetric loads exceeding the strength established flight loading conditions are appropriately determined
by the arbitrary 150-50 distribution of the then current and formally established to assure that the airframe
specification. has adequate structural integrity for its required
service usage.
Calibrated strain gage systems and pressure transducer
systems have been used successfully to measure flight VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
loads. However, data processing to determine net
loads from aerodynamic pressure measurements have Aircraft flight loads and dynamic response analyses
been very expensive and time consuming. Because of and tests shall be conducted to determine the adequacy
data processing requirements, this approach to load of the design loads analyses and verify the structural
measurement is not very amenable to inflight real time integrity of the aircraft. The flight and dynamic
monitoring. If the use of aerodynamic pressure response tests shall be sufficient in scope to assure that
measurements is the preferred or required method, the all critical design loads are established. These tests
addition of some calibrated strain gages to provide real shall consist of measuring static and dynamic loads on
time monitoring of major component total loads has an instrumented and calibrated test aircraft for flight
been found useful. Additional details comparing flight loading conditions such as those associated with pilot
load measurements obtained from calibrated strain induced maneuvers, loss of control maneuvers, release
228
or ejection of stores, aerial delivery of cargo, and verification of all nontested aircraft configurations.
turbulence. Further guidance on aircraft ground tests can be found
in the Verification Guidance of 4.4. General guidance
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED on shimmy testing is presented in WADC TR-56-197.
B.6.4.2 GROUND LOADING CONDITIONS Dynamic taxi analyses have been performed for
continuous runway profiles, discrete bumps, and 1-
Analyses and tests shall be of sufficient scope to cosine bumps and dips of wavelengths tuned to
determine and verify the loads resulting from and produce maximum aircraft loads. These analyses have
commensurate with the ground loading conditions of resulted in limit loads throughout the airframe and are
5.5.4.2. Dynamic analyses and tests are also required considered very necessary to the early establishment
to verify that the landing gear and backup structure is of confidence in the structural integrity of the
free from dynamic instabilities which could impact airframe. The dynamic taxi analyses should be used to
ground/ship based operations. investigate the effects of realistic bomb damage
repaired airfield surface profiles in which the
VERIFICATION RATIONALE structural integrity of the airframe air vehicle is
expected to operate in a hostile environment.
This verification task is required so that the ground Dynamic taxi analyses must account for pitch,
loading conditions are appropriately determined and translation, and roll rigid body modes and all
formally established to assure that the airframe has significant flexible modes. The gear's complete
adequate structural integrity for its required service nonlinear air spring and hydraulic damping of the oleo
usage. It is also required to verify that the air vehicle and tire must be included. Aerodynamic lift and
is free from dynamic instability problems which could engine thrust shall be included and all combinations of
cause significant impacts on program cost and gross weight, fuel weight, taxi speed, and c.g.
schedule as well as overall aircraft integrity and consistent with planned usage shall be considered.
performance.
When using the power spectral density method of
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE evaluating aircraft response, the assumptions of a
stationary, Gaussian random process and a linear
Aircraft ground and dynamic response analyses and system are seldom justified. Nevertheless, the method
tests which reflect ground/ship based operations must is useful in estimating repeated loads effects since it
be conducted to determine the adequacy of the design yields the average or root mean square value of the
loads analyses and verify the structural integrity of the response. For a better estimation of peak loads and to
aircraft. The ground and dynamic response tests better account for the non-linearities of a landing gear
should be sufficient in scope to assure that all critical system, air vehicle taxi model may be excited by a
design loads are established. These tests will consist runway unevenness profile generated from the
of measuring loads and dynamic responses on an specified runway roughness PSD. Many profiles can
instrumented and calibrated test aircraft during ground be generated which exhibit the roughness
operations such as taxi, takeoff, landing, and towing. characteristics of the specified roughness PSD,
resulting in some variation in peak load conditions. It
Prior to the tests, the dynamic stability of the test is, therefore, necessary to study the results of several
aircraft shall be verified to insure that the air vehicle is profiles to be confident that a reasonable estimate of
free from shimmy, divergence, and other related gear expected peak load is obtained.
instabilities for all attainable combinations of
configurations, speeds, loadings, and tire pressures. Dynamic taxi analyses performed for a strategic
Verification shall consist of taxiing the test aircraft aircraft over continuous runway profiles and 1-cosine
over various bump configurations. These bumps bumps and dips predicted loads less than those
should be angled with respect to the forward direction predicted for the 2.0 g static taxi condition.
of the aircraft to maximize the likelihood of breakout Quasi-static analyses, using empirical values for
from torsional binding friction. Instrumentation on the vertical and lateral load factors, have proven to yield
landing gear will be required to measure the amount of suitable limit load levels on a number of transport
torque supplied to the gear during bump encounter. aircraft, including those operating from semiprepared
The bump configurations are defined by bump fields. Rational dynamic analyses have generally
spacings and bump heights. Bump spacings are resulted in loads which were lower in magnitude on
determined by dividing the aircraft's constant forward most components and hence may be unnecessary for
speed by the frequency obtained from the shimmy unbraked turns.
analysis. Bump heights are determined analytically by
the amount of torque required to assure breakout from A quasi-static analysis or pivoting is considered
torsional binding friction of the landing gear. entirely satisfactory since the very low rates of aircraft
Maximum bump heights used should not exceed the rotation do not introduce significant dynamic effects.
landing gear and backup structural design capability. Braking loads on past transport aircraft have been
The results of the dynamic stability test are required to based on quasi-static analyses using empirical factors
update the shimmy analysis which will be used for defined in previous specification or elsewhere. The
229
resulting loads have proven adequate for these aircraft. However in a few cases these loadings interact such as
More recent efforts such as the CX proposal have used to require design and verification analyses and tests to
rational dynamic analyses and have generally yielded include them simultaneously.
loads equal to or less than those derived by the
previous methodology. However, recent aircraft taxi VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
test programs have shown that the landing gear struts
are likely to bottom if the aircraft is operated on bomb Evaluate the need for simultaneous application of
damage repaired or unprepared rough surfaces. The structural, aeroacoustic, and vibration loadings.
degradation in strut capability is due to air/oil mixing
for those struts where air and oil are in contact with VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
each other. Because of this condition, it was
determined that braking was a critical operating A large bomber aircraft developed cracks in a
condition due to degraded strut performance and the structural deck due to the simultaneous application of
increased loads imposed on the nose gear during flight loads, thermal loads, and aeroacoustic loads.
braking. A rationale dynamic analysis should account Very extensive combined loading analyses combined
for the occurrence of strut bottoming. with laboratory tests were conducted to develop a
design change to eliminate the problem. The problem
The frequency defined by the bump spacing used in a was exacerbated by the extreme difficulty in
dynamic stability test should be established by measuring and reproducing the complete environment.
shimmy sensitivity studies which will determine the The design change was a costly retrofit of large
frequency most likely to excite the landing gear. sections of major structure. If the original design had
During dynamic stability testing of a large cargo been properly based on the combined environments
aircraft, the bump spacing was fixed throughout the the problem could have been avoided with very little
test. Since the excitation frequency of the landing weight, or cost impact and no schedule impact.
gear is established by the aircraft forward velocity and
the spacing between adjacent bumps, use of a fixed B.6.4.4 AEROACOUSTIC DURABILITY
bump spacing did not generate the established
excitation frequency. However, during subsequent Analyses and tests shall verify that the landing gear
flight testing conducted later in the program, recurrent and backup structure can operate in the aeroacoustic
shimmy problems occurred on all main landing gears. environment associated with operational use as
Therefore, the results of the dynamic stability test did required by 5.5.4.4.
not satisfy the shimmy verification requirement.
Failure to identify these shimmy problems early in the VERIFICATION RATIONALE
program resulted in the elimination of more desirable
design alternatives. These recurrent problems were The sources and criteria form the basis of the
simply resolved by use of velocity squared shimmy aeroacoustic durability of the airframe.
dampers.
During dynamic response testing, should breakout VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
from torsional binding friction not occur within the
range of allowable bump heights, one method which Check predicted durations, spatial distributions, and
may facilitate landing gear frictional breakout is to use frequency distributions of the aeroacoustic loads from
a less frictional lubricant on critical landing gear each applicable source identified in 5.5.4.4. Update
components. This method of facilitating breakout was parameters when changed usage or configuration
accidentally encountered on a large cargo aircraft modifications cause them to change. Replace
which recently underwent a new weight off wheels predictions with measured data when it becomes
greasing procedure on the main landing gears. available.
However, it should be noted that this approach is
suggested only for test purposes. If change in landing VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
gear greasing lubricants are likely to occur as a normal
servicing procedure, a sensitivity study should be Few air vehicle programs end with the initial
conducted to assess the impact on landing gear configuration. Subsequent modifications or additions
stability. of structure or equipment require the application of the
best available criteria for aeroacoustic durability. Up-
B.6.4.3 VIBRATION to-date criteria forestalls costly retrofit changes.
VERIFICATION RATIONALE Analyses and tests shall verify that the structure meets
the requirements of 5.5.4.4.1.
In most instances, structural, aeroacoustic, and
vibration loadings are effectively evaluated separately.
230
Near field aeroacoustic loads shall be predicted for the B.6.4.4.1.2.1 FATIGUE TESTS
landing gear and backup structure for the service life
and usage of 5.5.2.14 and the sources listed in 5.5.4.4. Aeroacoustic fatigue tests shall be performed utilizing
Model tests are required where reliable predictions of the uncertainty factors on sound pressure level and
the environment cannot be made. Analytical duration specified in 5.5.4.4.1. Other simulated
predictions of the fatigue life shall be made for all environments (such as temperature and pressure
structure exposed to aeroacoustic loads. differential) combined with the sonic environment
shall be imposed when applicable.
VERIFICATION RATIONALE
B.6.4.4.1.2.1.1 COMPONENT TESTS
Determining the magnitude of the various aeroacoustic
sources allows placing priorities and discovering Aeroacoustic fatigue tests of structural components are
which sources are insignificant and which need to be required to verify the aeroacoustic fatigue analyses of
emphasized. Wind tunnel or jet models are sometimes components including those structures where fatigue
necessary to define acoustic levels in cases where life cannot be adequately predicted, such as new
prediction methods are inadequate. Accurate fatigue materials or structures of unusual configuration.
life predictions are needed to design a durable
lightweight structure without weight penalties from VERIFICATION RATIONALE
conservative design compromises, and provide a basis
to determine which components are candidates for Component tests are necessary to demonstrate that the
acoustic testing. structure does meet life requirements in the
aeroacoustic environment. In many cases, theoretical
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE analyses are not sufficiently accurate to risk
proceeding directly to production without testing. It is
The environment due to all applicable sources should estimated that the accuracy of prediction techniques is
be analyzed and predicted. Wind tunnel model tests no better than three to five decibels.
may be useful in defining aeroacoustic loads resulting
from cavities, separated airflow due to protuberances, VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
etc. Jet models may be used to predict acoustic loads
from propulsion systems. The accuracy of the Tests should be performed on fatigue critical structural
aeroacoustic loading is of great importance to fatigue components and candidate structural designs where
life estimation as well as internal noise and vibration basic data such as S-N curves, fatigue data, or
environment. The external environment provides the experience with the structural configuration do not
basis for internal noise predictions. exist.
If the measurements of 5.6.4.4.1.2.2 and 5.6.4.4.1.2.3 VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
indicate that predicted levels are too low, it will be
necessary to revise these analyses using the measured Experience has shown that analyses alone are not
data. sufficiently accurate to provide fatigue resistant
structure. Structural deficiencies discovered by testing
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED can be economically corrected early in the program.
Experience with bomber aircraft weapon bays has B.6.4.4.1.2.1.2 FULL-SCALE TESTS (____)
shown that wind tunnel testing is very useful,
particularly in regard to studying means of Tests of the landing gear and backup structure are
suppressing acoustic disturbances. required to verify the aeroacoustic durability for the
Acoustic levels measured or predicted without the environments based on the flight and ground surveys
presence of the aircraft, must be increased to account of 5.6.4.4.1.2.2.
for surface effects. For normal incidence
impingement, this increment would be 6 decibels (dB)
to account for the presence of structure. During
ground operations ground reflections must also be VERIFICATION RATIONALE
accounted for.
Full scale tests have been shown to be useful for the
Failures in secondary structure have been found to be following reasons:
the most common type of structural failure, e.g., skin
panels, skin supports, stiffeners, rivets, etc. Primary a. The acoustical field is reproduced for the takeoff
structures, designed for large magnitude loading, condition and all critical effects are accounted
seldom suffer aeroacoustic fatigue failures. for realistically. In many cases this aeroacoustic
field is the most critical and should be full scale
Spikes (or pure tones) should be evaluated separately. tested.
Spikes in spectra with low overall sound pressure
levels have caused sonic fatigue failures.
231
VERIFICATION RATIONALE that was much less severe than was actually
experienced.
Carrier based aircraft will experience these
vibroacoustic and thermal environments prior to and B.6.5.2 TESTS
during catapult.
B.6.5.2.1 DEVELOPMENT TESTS
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
Development tests are required for structures which
This requirement is applicable for carrier based cannot be adequately analysed.
aircraft.
VERIFICATION RATIONALE
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
Component tests are needed to verify analytical
A high performance afterburning fighter in catapult fatigue life predictions and demonstrate that the
position, produced the highest thermal and acoustic components will meet service usage requirements in
environments on forward portions of aircraft aft of the the vibration environment. In many cases, analyses
JBD. are not sufficiently accurate to risk proceeding directly
to production without some testing. This requirement
B.6.5 VIBRATION is contained in MIL-A-8870(ASG), MIL-A-8892,
MIL-A-8870B(AS), and MIL-A-8870C(AS).
Analyses and tests shall verify that the landing gear
and backup structure can operate in the vibration VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
environments of operational use as required by 5.5.5.
Tests should be performed on safety-of-flight
structural components and candidate structures where
B.6.5.1 ANALYSES basic data such as S-N curves, fatigue data, or
experience with the structural configurations do not
Vibration levels shall be predicted for the landing gear exist.
and backup structure based on the sources of 5.5.5 and
the service life and usage of 5.5.2.14. VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
VERIFICATION RATIONALE Experience has shown that analyses alone are not
sufficiently accurate to verify fatigue resistant
Estimates of vibration environments are needed to structure.
support structural design and test requirements, as the
basis for requirements in equipment procurements,
and to determine the necessity for and means of
vibration control measures. This need was recognized B.6.5.2.2 GROUND VIBRATION TESTS
in MIL-A-8870(ASG), MIL-A-8892, and MIL-STD-
1530. Ground vibration tests of a complete airframe in
accordance with 5.6.5.2.5 shall include determination
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE of natural frequencies, mode shapes, and damping of
vibration of the airframe components supportive of the
Perform analyses to predict vibration levels for the requirements of 5.5.4.4 and 5.5.5.
airframe using existing data bases. These analyses
should be performed early in the development process
and revised as measured vibration and acoustic data
are obtained. VERIFICATION RATIONALE
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED This test effort provides the vibration modal
characteristics of the airframe and its components.
It is necessary in most procurements that The requirement was derived from MIL-A-
subcontractors be on contract before environmental 8870(ASG), MIL-A-008870A(USAF), MIL-A-8892,
measurements are available in order to meet delivery MIL-A-8870B(AS), and MIL-A-8870C(AS).
schedules. Structural response predictions are
frequently inadequate due to uncertainties in the VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
critical parameters and inaccuracies in the analytical
models used in the prediction process. Inadequate or Measurements need to be obtained as early as possible
inaccurate vibration predictions result in both under to allow making any needed changes and keep retrofits
and over design, retest, and retrofit. to a minimum. These tests are to be coordinated with
the ground vibration tests.
In a bomber aircraft program, extensive redesign of
equipment mounting structure was needed to reduce Propulsion system. Mode shapes and frequencies of
the vibration levels to the equipment. The equipment power plant (engine and gearbox) installations should
had been designed and built to meet an environment be obtained when (1) these components are supported
233
by resilient mountings (vibrations or shock isolators), the basis of equipment environmental requirements.
(2) unit flexible modes are low enough in frequency to The need for or effectiveness of vibration control
couple with airframe flexible modes, or (3) separate measures will also be determined. This requirement
units are coupled by shafting (turbine driving a was a part of MIL-A-8870(ASG), MIL-A-8892, MIL-
propeller gearrbox, engine driving a propeller through A-8870B(AS), and MIL-A-8870C(AS).
an extended shaft, power takeoff shaft driving a
separate machine or gearbox, etc). Natural VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
frequencies and mode shapes of the sprung mass of
each unit should be obtained for the six fundamental Measurements are needed during flight and ground
rigid body modes of motion (three translational and conditions to define vibrations of the airframe.
three rotational modes). These data should also be Sufficient instrumentation is required to define the
acquired for the coupled system as well as for each responses of the structure and equipment. The
unit. Where multiple units are mounted in measurement programs are to be coordinated with
significantly different locations (inboard and outboard similar efforts of 5.6.4.4.
on a wing, wing and aft fuselage, etc.), acquire the
data for each location. Ground and flight vibration tests should include
ground engine runup to maximum thrust, taxi, takeoff,
Identify other components for which frequency and climb, level flight with at least five speed increments
mode data measurements are needed such as weapon at two altitudes, approach glide, and landing. The
bay doors, wheel well doors, etc. flight altitudes and speeds should be selected to
include normal cruise conditions, maximum
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED permissible transonic flight dynamic pressure,
maximum dynamic pressure at maximum Mach
One of the resonances of the weapon bay doors of a number, and maximum dynamic pressure as
large aircraft coincided with a cavity resonance, applicable to each of the following listed flight
causing large amplitude motions of the doors when the operations, conditions, and maneuvers.
weapon bay was opened in flight. A vibration test of
these doors was not done and, hence, the problem not a. Operating afterburners with and without any
detected until flight tests. takeoff assist units.
During ground vibration test of a large transport b. Varying wing sweep angles through the
aircraft, it was discovered that the first horizontal tail permissible range.
pitch mode, an internal resonance in a pitch stability c. During VTOL and transition conditions of
augmentation system component, and a resonance of V/STOL airplanes.
the shelf on which the component was mounted were
all at the same frequency. The result was that once the d. During gunfire.
tail pitch mode was excited the vibration was self e. While opening and with open weapon bays.
sustaining. This would probably have resulted in
violent and dangerous oscillations in flight. The f. Flight near stalling speeds.
problem was eliminated prior to first flight by
g. Deflecting speed brakes.
detuning the shelf and component resonances.
h. Lowering landing gears and operating high-lift
devices, flaps, etc., during the approach glide and
landing.
fuselage; outer and inner wing; empennage; landing B.6.5.2.4 LABORATORY TESTS
gear cavity; engine compartments; and nacelles and
pylons). Measurements should be made at several a. Component ground vibration tests. (____)
locations in each zone. Emphasis should be placed on
locations where high amplitudes of vibration are b. Component stiffness tests (____)
expected or where failures could be critical with
respect to flight safety. Measurements should include, c. Damper qualification tests (____)
but not be limited to, the following locations:
VERIFICATION RATIONALE
a. Electronic and mechanical equipment areas.
b. Areas where a failure or malfunction might a. These tests are required as necessary, to validate
result in loss of or significant damage to the air the analyses of 5.6.5.1. All major components of
vehicle. the landing gear and backup structure should be
included as mounted on the ground vibration test
c. Fuselage sidewall in the region of propellers. test article. Ground vibration tests of critical
d. Passenger and cargo compartments. components can often be used to check criteria
compliance at a stage in the program sufficiently
e. Mounts, bearing supports and gear boxes at early to permit corrective action without seriously
engines, transmissions, rotating mechanical jeopardizing the overall program schedule.
equipment, and drive shafts.
b. These tests are required, as necessary, to validate
f. Cavities. the analyses of 5.6.5.1. All major components of
the landing gear and backup structure should be
g. Gun locations. Equipment and structure located
included. Component stiffness tests verify that
within a minimum radius of 6 feet of the gun
the required stiffness is maintained throughout
mountings and muzzles should be instrumented.
the envelope of design loads.
Wherever possible, vibration transducers should
be internally mounted in surrounding equipment c. These tests are required to ensure the integrity of
(particularly shock mounted equipment). the damper installation and effectiveness in the
Equipment mounting point vibration should be frequency range of the modes for which damping
recorded. is required.
h. Inlets.
i. On external stores and structures near ejectable VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
stores.
Component Ground Vibration Tests. If these tests are
j. Crew and passenger seats (longitudinal, lateral,
required, define or list the tests required in the blank.
and vertical).
Vibration modal characteristics, i.e., resonant
k. Rudder pedal (longitudinal).
frequencies, mode shapes, and structural damping
l. Rudder heel troughs (vertical). should be measured, if practical on key components
prior to vehicle assembly. Often these tests can be
m. Handle at terminal of primary flight control combined with other tests, e.g., the control simulator
system (longitudinal and lateral). test or the structural loads tests. Control surface
n. Navigator's table and other work tables damper compliance tests require a special set-up and
(longitudinal, vertical, and lateral). must be carefully conducted under laboratory
conditions.
o. Primary longitudinal structural members in
fuselage (vertical and lateral at the approximate Component Stiffness Tests. Define or list the test
position of crew seat attachment points). required in the blank. Candidate components for test
include external store pylon, engine pylons, control
surfaces, and other flutter critical components.
VERIFICATION LESSON LEARNED
Judgment is required in selecting those components
Analyses are not complete or accurate enough to requiring a stiffness test. Tests should be carried out to
provide the information to define vibration responses 1.2 times limit load. Nonlinearities in deflection with
to the degree necessary. Experience has shown that respect to load, as may be caused by buckling, are
many problems arise in flight that were not suspected characteristics to measure. Based upon results, some
or adequately scoped previously. aeroelastic stability analyses may need to be repeated.
Some programs profited from instrumented missiles It is often convenient to conduct the stiffness test in
devoted solely to measuring vibration, loads, parallel with the structural proof tests. Care should be
temperatures, and aeroacoustic loads. taken that the loading conditions include significant
torsion as well as bending.
and if the damper is a part of a new air vehicle design random using a single point input, or random using
or a new application. multipoint, uncorrelated inputs. Sinusoidal has the
advantage of permitting on-line examination of the
If dampers are used, experimental verification tests modes, easy linearity evaluation of each mode, and
should be performed on the damper and supporting minimum reliance upon complex data reduction
structure to ensure that components will not fail under computing programs. Random testing has the
static or repeated loads, that the dampers will not lose advantage of reducing test time in that the complete
their effectiveness under airplane service conditions set of measurements need not be repeated for each
including operation at high temperatures, and that mode and reliance is placed upon the data reduction
proper maintenance and inspection under service method in obtaining orthogonal modes rather than on
conditions can be readily accomplished. In addition, the skill of the vibration test engineer. Random testing
free-play measurements should be performed to may not provide adequate data for all cases, for
substantiate that the free play is within the prescribed example nonlinear systems.
limits.
In obtaining free-free modes, careful consideration of
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED the vehicle supporting system is required. A support
such that rigid body frequencies are less than one-third
None. the frequency of the lowest vehicle structural mode is
usually accepted as justifying the use of measured
B.6.5.2.5 AIR VEHICLE GROUND TESTS modes as free-free modes. However, if this is not
practicable, then the dynamic mathematical model
Ground tests shall be performed to obtain data to shall be formulated to represent the air vehicle on its
validate, and revise if required, the dynamic test support system for correlation analyses.
mathematical models which are used in structural
dynamic analyses. Complete air vehicle ground Test configurations should include the no-fuel
vibration modal tests shall be performed of the first configuration and other fuel configurations deemed to
Engineering/Manufacturing Development (EMD) be flutter critical or dynamically significant by
aircraft prior to its first flight and on the EMD aircraft analyses. Fuel may be simulated by a suitable liquid.
to be used for flight flutter tests (if the first EMD On variable geometry aircraft, tests shall be performed
aircraft is not used for this testing) prior to its first for appropriate positions to cover the important range
flight. These tests shall be repeated on the last EMD of geometric variation.
aircraft (____).
For air vehicles carrying external stores, judgment and
analyses should be used to select a sufficient number
VERIFICATION RATIONALE of store configurations for ground vibration testing to
cover the probable range of frequencies that will be
These tests are required to obtain frequencies, mode encountered.
shapes, and structural damping on the assembled air The air vehicle configurations tested should be
vehicle to validate the analysis of 5.6.5.1. equipped with all items having appreciable mass, such
Results from a ground vibration test provide the first as engines and other subsystems, tip tanks, external
opportunity to verify by test the structural dynamic stores, guns and similar items.
mathematical model of the complete airplane as used In addition to the test on the complete air vehicle,
in dynamic landing analyses. In some cases the results vibration modal tests should also be performed on
may be the sole source of information for determining components attached to the air vehicle. These
the normal modes of vibration as required for the components include such items as control surfaces,
above cited analyses. tabs, flaps, landing gear, landing gear doors, weapon
It is the exception rather than the rule that the bay doors, turboprop propeller plane, and other
computed modes agree completely with the test auxiliary components attached to the vehicle.
modes. Thus the test results provide a basis for The dynamic mathematical model representation of
correcting the stiffness and mass distribution data such the air vehicle structure should be verified by
that analyses only are needed for determining the correlating the modal analyses with ground vibration
modes of other or subsequent configurations. tests.
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
These tests are required if the air vehicle is a new air In conducting the ground vibration test, care must be
vehicle or if changes occur which affect the structural taken in orienting the sensitive axis of the pickup.
dynamic characteristics of an existing air vehicle. Corrections are required when the sensitive pickup
The objective of the ground vibration test is to axis is not normal to the reference plane. This
measure the structural modes of vibration. The test is correction is especially needed when there is cross
accomplished by exciting the structure with a axis motion as may occur on the horizontal stabilizer
vibratory force and measuring the response. of T-tail arrangement.
Excitation may be sinusoidal, using several shakers, or
236
As pure planar motion is seldom excited at all points place and cover all of the structures disciplines
on the structure, quadrature acceleration response verifications.
should be used for modal definition. Angular motions
of lifting surface tips are most important and because VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
of the reduced chord are often the most difficult to
measure accurately. Check to see that all strength related material
properties requirements are included in 5.6.2.16.1.
AIAA Paper No. 78-505 documents a representative
case of a complete airplane ground vibration test using VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
transient testing techniques. AFWAL-TR-80-3056
documents a research effort evaluating various ground None.
vibration test techniques.
B.6.6.2 MATERIAL PROCESSES
B.6.6 STRENGTH
Strength related material processing verification
Inspections, analyses, and tests shall be performed requirements are contained in 5.6.2.16.2.
which encompass all critical airframe loading
conditions to verify that: VERIFICATION RATIONALE
a. Detrimental airframe structural deformations This requirement references the basic material
including delaminations do not occur at or below processes verification requirements which are in one
115 percent of design limit load. place and cover all of the structures disciplines
verifications.
b. Rupture or collapsing failures of the airframe
structure do not occur at or below ultimate Loads. VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
VERIFICATION RATIONALE Check to see that all strength related material
processes verification requirements are included in
Inspections, analytical strength calculations, and tests 5.6.2.16.2.
are needed to show that the airframe structure can
withstand the loads expected in service usage. In most VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
cases ultimate load tests and associated test data can
only be attained through ground tests under laboratory None.
conditions.
B.6.6.3 INTERNAL LOADS
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
Validity of the internal loads and configurations of
In addition to the analytical strength calculations, it efficient load paths required in 5.5.6.3 shall be verified
has been conventional to conduct strength proof tests by inspections, analyses, and tests.
to determine if detrimental deformations will occur in
the airframe. Static tests are typically employed to VERIFICATION RATIONALE
verify that the airframe will sustain ultimate loads
without failure. Internal loads must be verified to assure structural
As for metal structures, the strength analyses for integrity of the airframe.
composites are inexorably linked to the design
development tests. For support of these analyses it is VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
recommended that the design development testing
consist of "building blocks" ranging from coupons to The validity of internal loads are conventionally
elements, to subcomponents and finally components. verified by applicable laboratory tests of 5.6.6.5 and
subparagraphs, thereof. The efficiency of load path
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED configurations may initially be determined by
reviewing assembly drawings, installation drawings,
None. and the structural description report; however,
laboratory tests provide final verification.
B.6.6.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
Strength related material property verification
requirements are contained in 5.6.2.16.1. None.
This requirement references the basic material Validity of stresses and strains in airframe structural
properties verification requirements which are in one members complying with the requirements of 5.5.6.4
shall be verified by inspections, analyses, and tests.
237
None. None.
with the load applications on airframe where complete when the failure modes have been identified,
operational environments impose significant thermal the critical failure modes in the component tests are
effects. judged to be not significantly affected by the
nonrepresentative portion of the test structure and the
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED structural sizing is judged to be adequate to meet the
design requirements. For static test components, this
See 5.5.6.5 Lessons Learned. judgment is based on adjusting the failure loads to the
B basis environmentally conditioned allowable.
B.6.6.5.1 DEVELOPMENT TESTS
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
The contractor shall conduct development tests as
defined herein. These tests are for the purpose of Lack of timely and comprehensive development test
establishing design concepts, providing design programs for some aircraft has caused very late
information, establishing design allowables, and discovery of significant strength and durability
providing early design validation. These tests are problems. This has led to extremely costly retrofit
critical in reducing and managing the design risk such programs.
that the program goes into full scale static test with a
reasonable chance of success. B.6.6.5.1.3 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT TESTS
Development tests are necessary for obtaining early a. Element Test (Coupons/Elements). These tests
substantiation of newer, metallic or nonmetallic are typically run with sufficient sample Size to
materials allowables, which will be used in the determine a statistical compensated allowable.
strength analyses for verifying design sizing.
Development tests are also necessary for obtaining (1) Material selection properties including
early strength validations of unique design structural design allowables.
configurations. These tests aid a manufacturer in
determining if specific structural features, material (2) Environmental effects including
systems, manufacturing techniques, etc., adequately temperature, mositure, fuel immersion,
meet the static strength, durability, and damage chemicals, etc.
tolerance requirements for the airframe.
(3) Fastener systems, fastener allowables, and
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE bonding evaluation.
Examples of design development tests are tests of (4) Process evaluation including all corners of
coupons, small elements, splices and joints, panels of the allowable processing window.
basic sections, and those with cutouts or
discontinuities, fittings, and operating mechanisms. b. Structural Configuration Development Tests
These tests should be followed by tests of long lead (Subcomponents/Components). These tests are
time critical components such as wing carry-throughs, typically run with a smaller sample size and as
horizontal tail spindles, wing pivots, etc. The such the results are used to validate the analytical
development tests must be orderly and timely in order procedures and establish design allowables.
to correct deficiencies prior to production and, Actual material properties and dimensions should
particularly, to incorporate as many changes as be used when determining correction factors, and
necessary in the full scale test program. the lower range of test results used for design
allowables compatible with the statistical
The strength for composites are linked to the requirements of 5.5.2.16.1.
development tests. In support of these analyses it is
recommended that the development testing consist of (1) Splices and joints.
"building blocks" ranging from coupons to elements,
to subcomponents, and finally components. These (2) Panels (basic section).
building block tests must include room temperature
dry laminates. Also, if the effects of the environment (3) Panels with cutouts.
are significant, then environmentally conditioned tests
must be performed at each level in the building block (4) Fittings.
process. The test articles are to be strain gaged
adequately to obtain data on potentially critical (5) Critical structural areas which are difficult to
locations and for correlation with the full scale static analyze due to complexity of design.
test, and in addition, the test program is to be formed
so that environmentally induced failure modes (if any)
are discovered. The design development tests are
240
(7) Composite failure modes and strain levels. B.6.6.5.2 STATIC TESTS COMPLETE
AIRFRAME
(8) Environmental effects on composite failure
modes and failure strain levels. Static tests, which include tests to design ultimate
load, shall be performed on the complete, full scale
c. Large Component Development Tests. These airframe to verify the ultimate strength capability of
tests are to allow early verification of the static the landing gear and backup structure. This
strength capability and producibility of final or requirement shall be considered complied with, if
near final structural designs of critical areas. The specifically approved by the acquisition activity, on
actual number and types of tests will depend the airframe or components thereof, for which it can
upon considerations involving structural risk, be shown that:
schedule, and cost. The large component tests
should be of large assemblies or full scale a. The airframe and its loadings are essentially the
components landing gear support, complex same as that of a previous airframe Which was
composites, large structural castings, or any verified by full scale tests; or
unique design features with design unknowns in:
b. The strength margins, particularly for stability
(1) Splices and joints critical structures, have been demonstrated by
major component tests; or
(2) Fittings
c. The components have been designed to the
(3) Panels factors of uncertainty of _______, as verified by
strength analysis and data, and the design
(4) Stability critical end or edge effects allowables for critical features (such as stability
critical structure, complex or new design
(5) Out of plane effects in composites concepts, etc.) have been demonstrated by large
component tests. This method does not constitute
(6) Post buckled structure completion of an ultimate static test in meeting
the requirements of 5.6.6.5.3, 5.6.6.5.4,
(7) Environmental effects on composite failure 5.6.6.5.5, 5.6.6.5.7, and 5.6.6.5.8.
modes and failure strain levels
VERIFICATION RATIONALE
d. Design Development Testing Approach for
Composites. A building block approach to Static tests up to and including ultimate loads are
design development testing is essential for necessary for verifying the structural strength of the
composite structural concepts, because of the airframe. The airframe's factor of uncertainty is
mechanical properties variability exhibited by verified by successfully completing the ultimate load
composite materials, the inherent sensitivity of tests. Satisfactory demonstration of the ultimate
composite structure to out of plane loads, their strength capability is needed before releasing the air
multiplicity of potential failure modes, and the vehicle to operate up to 100 percent limit loads.
significant environmental effects on failure mode Complete airframe, or equivalent, static tests are the
and allowable. Special attention to development only way that the strength of the structure can be
testing is required if the composite parts ultimate demonstrated in areas of complex interactions between
strength is to be certified with a room major components. The use of a 1.875 factor of
temperature/lab air static test. Sufficient uncertainty in blank c., above, is equivalent to
development testing must be done with an maintaining a minimum margin of safety of 0.25 when
appropriately sized component to validate the a factor of uncertainty equal to 1.50 is used. This
failure mode and failure strain levels for the allows airplane operation to 100 percent of design
critical design cases with critical temperature and limit load, while retaining the same level of safety as
end of life moisture. the conventional, 80 percent limit load flight
restriction, however this level of safety is not
VERIFICATION RATIONALE considered acceptable for a fleet of aircraft, but may
be acceptable for a small number of flight test
None. vehicles.
conditions are selected for substantiating the strength temperature/lab air. Development testing must
envelope for each component of the airframe. The also validate the statistically compensated knock
internal loads and stresses are commonly used to down factor. It is recognized for hybrid structure
determine the most critical load conditions. It is (metallic and composite) that failure may occur
recommended that the blank in 5.6.6.5.2.c., above, be prior to achieving the environmentally
completed by inserting a minimum value of 1.875. A compensated load level. If the environmental
larger factor of safety might be justified whenever knock down is greater that 10 percent, this
unconventional aircraft components exist, when approach requires the approval of the procuring
unusual dynamic loading might occur, or where agency.
manufacturing critical parts are being tested.
VERIFICATION RATIONALE
Full scale testing is an essential element of ASIP. The
full scale static test is essential for the verification of The test article configuration must be as structurally
the composite structure. This test is, of course, also identical to the operational article as practical, in order
essential for the verification of the metallic structure. that close simulations of operational loads and
This test to ultimate may be performed without resulting stresses may be attained during the static
environmental conditioning only if the design tests.
development tests demonstrate that a critical failure
mode is not introduced by the environmental VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
conditioning. To provide assurance that the
component static tests are representative of the Insert in the blank an identification of the test article
component tests, these articles must be extensively such as an early FSD airframe or a Research
strain gaged. A test of the structure to failure is a Development Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) airframe
program option. If the failure mode criterion cannot or major components of the airframe that may be used
be met, then the static test article must be to satisfy the static test verification requirements.
environmentally conditioned.
Test articles are fabricated to be structurally identical
For metals and nonmetals, the "B" basis allowable to the structure of the flight articles, except that:
divided by the mean strength of the coupons used for
the "B" basis allowable calculation is the fraction of a. Items such as fixed equipment non-structural
the strength allowed when interpreting the results of fairings and useful loads and their support
single complex component tests unless the specific structures may be omitted from the test structure,
mean strength of the failure location can be provided the omission of these parts does not
determined. significantly affect the load, stress or thermal
distributions and the structural characteristics of
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED the parts of the structure to be tested, and
provided the omitted parts are qualified by
During testing up to ultimate loads, it is found that separate tests.
static tested airplanes experience substantial failure
occurrence rates. Designing to a 1.875 factor of b. Substitute parts may be used, provided they
uncertainty in conjunction with a proof test was produce the effects of the parts for which they are
successfully applied to two prototype fighter airplanes. substituted and provided the structural integrity
of the parts for which substitutions are made are
B.6.6.5.2.1 STATIC TESTING OF demonstrated in a manner that is satisfactory.
COMPOSITES c. Power plants and accessories are replaced by
design-and-fabricated test fixtures that properly
To establish the test demonstrated strength level, and transmit the power plant loads to the engine
account for the degradation of material properties due mounts, vibration isolators, or both, as applicable.
to combined temperature and moisture effects, in order The means for applying the loads to these fixtures
of preference, one of the following methods shall be (such as loading rods through the fuselage or
applied to the testing of composites: engine nacelle structure) are determined. All
structural modifications necessary to
a. Environmentally precondition the test article for accommodate the loading devices should be
the worst case combination of temperature- designed in such a manner so as to ensure that the
moisture condition and test under these structural characteristics of the modified structure
conditions to 150 percent design limit load. will be equivalent to those of the actual structure.
b. Test the composite article at room temperature d. Paint or other finishes that do not affect the
with lab air to a load level in excess of ultimate to structural performance may be omitted from the
demonstrate the environmental knock down test structures. When the structural test includes
factors for temperature and moisture. The strains simulation of chemical or thermal environment,
measured at 150 percent design limit load in the the test articles include the associated
critical location of the composite structure must environmental protection systems under the
be less that the failure strains in the durability requirements of 5.5.7.
environmentally conditioned and room
242
interaction of the separate loadings does not affect the will be tested, by defining which flight air vehicles or
critical design loading on any portion of the structure. test articles will be used to conduct each test and by
defining what load levels, expressed as a percentage of
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED limit loads, to which the tests will be performed.
The demonstration of the correct functioning of flight- The normal requirement is to perform the functional
critical structural systems, mechanisms, and proof tests on all flight air vehicles since they are
components is required prior to their first flight use. intended to ensure that the article-to-article variations
This correct functioning is demonstrated through that occur during fabrication do not cause loss of
structural tests of the actual flight air vehicles or control or loss of the vehicle. It may be possible to
approved representative test articles. In all cases conduct representative tests on a single flight air
where the demonstration testing is not done on all vehicle, a static test article, or a large component test
flight air vehicles, the applicability of the limited article and show through analyses and measurements
testing to all flight air vehicles must be demonstrated. of tolerances that the test results are applicable to the
other flight air vehicles. Special attention to the
One of the primary reasons for conducting these tests proposed test methods is needed to ensure that a test of
is to demonstrate that the deformation requirements of a single air vehicle can be shown to be representative
5.5.2.13 are met so as to preclude loss of control of the of all flight air vehicles. If all flight air vehicles will
air vehicle through bindings or interferences between not be tested, the document which substantiates the
movable components and adjacent structures or due to adequacy of the proposed alternative test methods is
excessive deflections of the movable components. To identified in the second blank.
ensure that these requirements are met, the tests
should include the introduction of load, thermal, or The load level to which the functional proof test is
other induced deformations into the critical normally performed is 100 percent of the limit loads.
components as well as into the adjacent structural A value above 100 percent may be necessary where
members to which it is attached and any other the functional test is to be representative of other flight
structural members whose deflections may introduce air vehicles. A value below 100 percent is not
binding, interference, or chaffing. Consideration recommended.
should also be given to other subsystems, such as It is important to distinguish between the requirements
electrical or hydraulic, whose installation may cause for a functional proof test and a strength proof test for
interference when the overall airframe deforms under control surfaces, drive mechanisms, etc. The limit
load. loads on such components may occur within the flight
The first blank is completed by listing the flight- envelope and usually cannot be effectively restricted
critical systems, mechanisms, and components which by establishing vehicle maneuver limitations. The
functional proof test is intended to demonstrate proper
244
be included in the strength proof testing, insert N/A in accomplished to determine whether extrapolated,
this blank. ultimate internal stresses are above predicted values to
the extent that airframe structural flight restrictions or
The value inserted in the first blank in subparagraph b modifications are required.
is typically 100. This value should be increased in
cases where the maximum pressure differentials are VERIFICATION RATIONALE
difficult to control especially where the potential for
rapid internal pressure change exists. The value Results of the proof tested article must necessarily be
inserted in the second blank is typically 1.00. Again, inspected and analyzed to ensure safe operational
this value should be increased where additional usage of the airframe. A visual examination may not
uncertainty exists in the ability to control the detect test induced damages, while extensive
maximum pressure differential levels. examinations of the airframe and instrumentation data
Special attention should be given to the determination may indicate the necessity of incorporating structural
of the strength proof test requirements for control modifications or applying flight restrictions.
systems: control surfaces, drive mechanisms, control
sticks, cables, rods, pulleys, etc. In many cases, the VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
maximum loads on these components do not occur at
the edges of the design flight maneuver envelope. In Stresses, reduced from instrumentation data
such cases, meeting the requirements of 5.6.6.7 by recordings, and deflection measurements are
establishing flight restrictions to limit these correlated with applied test load values. Examinations
component loads may be difficult to achieve without of the reduced data and tested structure are made to
unreasonably restricting the air vehicle. Such determine if detrimental deformations have occurred.
restrictions may also be difficult to implement when Proof test stresses are extrapolated to ultimate levels
limits on control system loads during the recovery and compared with predicted stress analyses values.
from upsets or following the system failures of Structural modifications may be required for reproof
5.5.2.19 are to be determined. Strength proof testing testing of larger, flight measured loads.
of the control systems may be desirable to prevent
having to unreasonably restrict the use of these VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
systems.
None.
Similar special attention should be given to the
determination of the strength proof test requirements B.6.6.5.6 FAILING LOAD TESTS (____)
for structural components which are significantly
affected by thermal loads. If it is impractical to When ultimate load tests are completed, failing load
develop interim strength flight limits per 5.6.6.7, due tests shall be conducted to fail the test article by
to complexities of the actual combinations of flight increasing the test loads of the most severe test
conditions, length of exposure, use of influencing loading condition.
subsystems, etc. which determine the actual thermal
loads, conducting a thermal strength proof test would VERIFICATION RATIONALE
be necessary prior to flights where thermal loads are
significant. However, such thermal tests, when Failing load tests may reflect unneeded overstrength;
combined with mechanical loads or where thermal however, these destruction tests do determine the
load distributions are widely varying, may be difficult actual strength of the airframe for substantiating
to implement on actual flight air vehicles. It may be special capabilities such as growth potential or
easier to conduct ultimate thermal static tests on large emergency operations. Failure load tests demonstrate
components instead of proof tests on flight air the weakest link in the structure, for which inspections
vehicles. or special considerations may be required during
service. Sufficient overstrength may be demonstrated
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED overall, or by beefing up the weak points such that
growth for increased range or payload may be
None. possible.
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
fuselage. A careful post failure inspection and lift forces shall be applied. The cockpit shall be
analysis should be utilized to determine the initial instrumented to measure accelerations which would be
failure sites and failure modes. Failing load tests are experienced by the crew to assure that excessive
normally specified in the contract unless other uses of accelerations are not experienced. Coefficients of
the article are specified in the contract. friction developed in drop tests shall be representative
of those occurring in landings on paved runways and
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED carrier decks. Drop tests to maximum design sinking
speeds shall be performed at the gross weights and
There has, almost invariably, never been a U. S. Air weight distributions specified and also with alternate
Force aircraft which has not had some growth combinations of internal and external loads for which
requirements imposed or desired, regardless of any provisions are required in flight articles, that may be
words to the contrary within the initial contract. structurally critical by virtue of transient effects or
Demonstrated static overstrength has often led to otherwise. For these specified and alternate
satisfying increased performance demands without combinations of loads, the mass, center of gravity
expensive redesign and retrofit programs. Significant position, and method of support of internal and
overstrength, however, is not necessarily an indicator external equipment and stores of appreciable mass, as
of satisfactory durability design and caution must be well as the dynamic motions of fuel or other fluid
exercised in this respect. pressure effects that are structurally significant, shall
be accurately simulated. Residual stresses shall be
B.6.6.6 DYNAMIC STRENGTH measured at critical landing gear locations both before
and after testing to design sink speeds.
Prior to release for flight verification testing,
component or total airframe laboratory testing shall be Landing gear servicing tests. Tire inflation pressures,
conducted to demonstrate energy absorption strut fluid volume, strut air pressure, and extreme
compliance and to validate design loads analysis. For values of other factors that can be varied to thereby
land-based aircraft with maximum limit sink rates less influence shock absorption and rebound characteristics
than or equal to 10 feet per second (fps), system shall be such as to attain the most favorable and
functions may be demonstrated by component landing alternately the least favorable shock absorption and
gear jig drops which demonstrate both design rebound characteristics consistent with specified
conditions and the required reserve energy conditions. design requirements. Each of the tests shall be
For shipboard aircraft, drop tests of the complete performed twice in the symmetrical attitudes which
airframe shall be conducted. have been shown by prior drop tests to be critical for
the main and, alternately, critical for the nose gear.
VERIFICATION RATIONALE During these tests, it shall be demonstrated, in
successive drops not more than 5 minutes apart, that
This requirement establishes certification of landing the shock strut fully recovers its shock absorption
gear load stroke characteristics during dynamic events abilities. Upon completion of the symmetrical drops,
and validates the energy absorption requirements. In tires shall be deflated, fluid shall be removed, and
addition, for shipboard aircraft this requirement also other changes and adjustments possible in normal
provides certification of the shock environment of operations shall be made. The landing gear shall then
installed mass items (avionics equipment, hydraulic be readjusted and serviced by normal, planned fleet
systems, engines, stores, etc. as well as providing maintenance procedures. It shall be demonstrated that
confidence that no interference of adjacent each dry deflated strut can be serviced and be ready
structure/components occur, i.e. deflection. for full shock absorption in not more than 30 minutes.
These tests may be done during landing gear jig drop
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE tests. Data shall be submitted.
modification; and performing limit load, strength associated with correcting wear and corrosion
demonstration proof tests on significantly modified, durability problems. The goal of providing maximum
primary structures. accessibility to all structural components and systems
should be emphasized. Problems with system and
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED structural interfaces such as fuel or hydraulic lines and
brackets have resulted primarily from a lack of
None. attention during development. It should be
emphasized in the detailed structural criteria that these
B.6.6.10 MAJOR REPAIRS, REWORKS, interfaces should be considered a part of, not added
REFURBISHMENT, onto, the structure.
REMANUFACTURE
The impact of increases in the aircraft's Basic Flight
The major repairs, extensive reworks, extensive Design Gross Weight (BFDGW) on the ability of the
refurbishment, or remanufacture of an existing landing airframe to achieve the durability requirements should
gear and/or backup structure shall be documented and be considered when proposed aircraft modifications
the structure verified by analysis, inspections, and increase the BFDGW. The increased BFDGW
tests. The contractor shall review, update, and resulting from changes such as design improvements,
reestablish the technical database on each landing new avionics, and new engines may significantly
gear/backup structure as required to verify the landing decrease airframe durability unless structural
gear/backup structure structural integrity and to modifications are incorporated. Durability analyses
support the intended usage and capability. Testing is should be updated to reflect BFDGW changes so that
required to reestablish the technical database as areas requiring modification can be identified and the
analysis alone is insufficient to reestablish this required changes incorporated and evaluated.
technical database. Proof testing of each landing
gear/backup structure may be the option of choice. B.6.6.11.1 FATIGUE CRACING /
DELAMINATION DAMAGE
VERIFICATION RATIONALE
None. The durability analyses and tests shall be of sufficient
scope to demonstrate that the landing gear/backup
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE structure meets the requirements of 5.5.7.
(5) Critical structural areas which are difficult to Design development tests should progress from basic
analyze due to complexity of design. material property tests through a series of test
specimens with increasing levels of geometry and
(6) Manufacturing methods evaluation including loading complexity. These tests are intended to
all acceptable variations such as gaps, provide more information than just indicating whether
pulldowns, shimming, etc. a given structural detail will likely meet the minimum
requirements. In order to verify an analytical failure
(7) Composite failure modes and strain levels prediction, both the predicted time to failure and the
predicted failure mode must be verified. This implies
(8) Environmental effects on composite failure that at least some of the development tests, with a
modes and failure strain levels. sufficient level of loading and geometry complexity to
accurately simulate the full scale structure, must be
c. Large component development tests. These tests tested to failure. The same applies to testing to
are to allow early verification of the durability determine stress level, spectrum, and environmental
capability and producability of final or near final sensitivities and the failure modes.
structural designs of critical areas. The actual
The scope of the testing is directly dependent upon the
number and types of tests will depend upon
available data base for the materials and structural
considerations involving structural risk, schedule,
details of interest.
and cost. The large component tests should be of
large assemblies or full scale components such as Other areas that should be considered in the
landing gear support, complex composites, large development testing are environmental effects and the
structural castings, or any unique design features influence of manufacturing tolerances. Additional
with design unknowns in: guidance can be found in 5.6.6.5.1.
(1) Splices and joints For composite structures, the effect of repeated low
level impacts on the durability of the structure should
(2) Fittings be investigated. Hail impact, tool droppage, or the
damage caused by walking on the structure may not be
(3) Panels apparent but the repeated impact over a given area
may affect the durability of the structure. The
(4) Stability critical end or edge fixates structure should be zoned according to the likely types
of damage that can be incurred and the sensitivity of
(5) Out of plane effects in composites the durability of the area to these damage sources
should be assessed in the development test program.
(6) Post buckled structure The magnitude and frequency of the impacts to be
evaluated should be based on the consideration of the
(7) Environmental effects on composite air vehicle over its service life. Additional guidance
failure modes and failure strain levels can be found in 5.5.7.1. If the durability of an area
proves to be sensitive to a repeated damage source,
d. Design development testing approach for consideration should be given to simulating the
composites. A building block approach to design damage on the full scale test article to verify the
development testing is essential for composite effects of the damage.
structural concepts, because of the mechanical The durability analyses for composites are linked to
properties variability exhibited by composite the development tests. In support of these analyses, it
materials, the inherent sensitivity of composite is recommended that the development testing consist
structure to out of plane loads, their multiplicity of "building blocks" ranging from coupons to
of potential failure modes, and the significant elements, subcomponents, and finally components.
environmental effects on failure modes and These building block tests must include room
allowables. Sufficient development testing must temperature dry laminates. Also, if the effects of the
be done with an appropriately sized component to environment are significant, then environmentally
validate the failure mode and failure strain levels conditioned tests must be performed at each level in
for the critical design cases with critical the building block process. The test articles are to be
temperature and end of life moisture. strain gaged adequately to obtain data on potentially
critical locations and for correlation with the full scale
static test, and in addition, the test program is to be
VERIFICATION RATIONALE performed so that environmentally induced failure
modes (if any) are discovered. The design
Sufficient development test data must be available to development tests are complete when the failures
substantiate the criteria and assumptions used in the modes have been identified, the critical failure modes
durability analysis, including an evaluation of the in the component tests are judged to be not
sensitivity of the analysis to these assumptions. significantly affected by the nonrepresentative portion
of the test structure and the structural sizing is judged
252
to be adequate to meet the design requirements. It is selected component to show that the requirements
evident from the approach described above that of 5.5.7 are met for the operational airframe.
separate tests may be required for the metallic, and
mixed metallic and composite structural parts. b. Test schedule.
For durability test of composite components, the (1) The airframe durability test shall be
success criteria is somewhat more complicated by the performed such that one lifetime of
relatively large scatter in fatigue test results and the durability testing plus an inspection of
potential of fatigue damage from large spectrum loads. critical structural areas in accordance with
It has been demonstrated, however, that the durability 5.6.6.11.1.2.2.e shall be completed in time
performance of composites is generally excellent to support __________.
when the structure is adequate to meet its strength
requirements. Therefore, the thrust of the durability (2) Two lifetimes of durability testing plus an
test must be to locate detrimental stress concentration inspection of critical structural areas in
areas that were not found in the static tests. An Accordance with 5.6.6.11.1.2.2.e shall be
approach to achieve this goal is to test the durability completed in time to support _______.
components to two lifetimes with a spectrum whose
severity accommodates these concerns. When the c. Test evaluation. All test anomalies which occur
effects are judged to be significant, durability tests for within the duration specified in 5.6.6.11.1.2.2.f,
design development shall be moisture conditioned. to include areas which have initiated cracking or
delimitation as determined by post test teardown
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED inspection, shall be evaluated for production and
retrofit modifications, particularly with respect to
In past programs durability development testing of those anomalies which would impose undue
coupons, small elements, structural design concepts, inspection burden for carrier based aircraft. Test
and critical components included test lives in excess of anomaly analyses must be correlated to test
the number required in the full-scale durability test results, and the adjusted analyses must show that
(i.e., in excess of four lifetimes for a swing wing the test anomalies meet the durability
bomber and air supremacy fighter and two lifetimes requirements of 5.5.7 and the damage tolerance
for an air superiority fighter). Tests were designed to requirements of 5.5.8 (if applicable.
insure that meaningful data on cracking and failure Modifications shall also be shown to satisfy
modes could be obtained. There has been a recent durability and damage tolerance requirements
tendency to cut short the test lives for durability either by test or analysis at the discretion of the
development tests to two lifetimes followed by acquisition activity.
deliberate preflawing and continuing as damage
tolerance tests. In many cases, limiting the durability d. Test spectrum. The test spectrum shall be
test can restrict the amount of development data derived from and be consistent with 5.5.2.14.6
obtained from the test. In most cases, the location of and 5.7.7. Truncation, elimination, or
cracking and extent of cracking is of more value than substitution of load cycles is allowed subject to
the data obtained from deliberately placed flaws. approval by the acquisition activity.
Some specimens have failed to produce any cracking
in two lifetimes and no growth of deliberately placed e. Inspections. Inspections shall be performed as an
flaws in one lifetime. Such tests have failed to meet integral part of the durability tests and at the
their objectives. For this reason, test planning should completion of testing. These inspections shall
include clear test objectives with the goal to test until consist of design inspections, special-inspections,
natural cracking occurs. and post-test complete teardown inspection after
test completion.
B.6.6.11.1.6.2 DURABILITY TESTS
f. Duration. A minimum of two lifetimes of
A complete airframe or approved alternatives shall be durability testing except as noted below is
durability tested to show that the landing gear/backup required to certify the airframe structure. A third
structure meets the required service life specified in lifetime testing shall be performed to support
5.5.2.14. Critical structural areas, not previously damage tolerance requirements, repair/
identified by analyses or development tests, shall be modification changes, usage changes, and life
identified. Any special inspection and modification extension potential.
requirements for the service airframe shall be derived
from these tests. (1) Ship-based aircraft nose landing gear and
backup structure shall have ________
a. Test article. The test airframe shall be lifetimes of durability testing.
structurally identical to the operational airframe.
Any differences, including material or (2) Ship-based aircraft main landing gear and
manufacturing process changes will be assessed backup structure shall have ________
for durability impact. Significant differences will Lifetimes of durability testing.
require separate tests of a production article or
253
The timing of the durability test, as indicated in If the durability analysis is confirmed by the full scale
5.6.6.11.1.2.2.b, usually necessitates the fabrication of test, no structural anomalies will occur and, therefore,
the test airframe prior to the final production drawing no specific actions (e.g. inspections, modifications) to
release. To minimize differences between the test achieve full service life are required. However,
airframe and the production airframe structure, careful structural anomalies identified during the two lifetime
attention must be paid to coordinating the timing of test, or determined to have initiated during that period
the development tests, production drawing releases, as part of the subsequent teardown inspection, must be
and test article fabrication. Differences which are evaluated with respect to safety, operational and
deemed significant must be demonstrated to be in economic impacts. All findings which raise concern
compliance with the requirements of this specification for safety, functional impairment or inspection
by analysis and test as approved by the procuring difficulty/implementation, particularly for carrier
agency. based aircraft, are the responsibility of the
manufacturer and require modification or repair in
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED order that fleet airframes achieve full service with
(Paragraph 5.6.6.11.1.2.2.a) minimum impact to operations, cost, and planned
inventory. All other findings should be documented
Generally, components such as landing gear, some and evaluated with regard to disposition (i.e. no
empennage structure, or pylons can be successfully action, inspection, modification) with implementation
tested as components. It is usually necessary, and subject to the discretion of the procuring agency.
most cost effective, to test the wing and fuselage as an
assembly to insure that the effects of interface When findings occur during test, it is clear that the
loadings are accounted for properly. durability analysis must be corrected such that the
analytical prediction will correlate to the test finding.
The corrected analysis must show compliance with the
durability requirements of 5.5.7 and the damage
254
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
(Paragraph 5.6.6.11.1.2.2.e)
(2) Ship-based aircraft main landing gear and implemented a two lifetime requirement as a function
backup structure shall have _____ lifetimes of the spectrum severity and less catastrophic
of durability testing. implications of failure. Land-based aircraft landing
gears have previously implemented a four lifetime
(3) Land based aircraft nose and main landing requirement as a result of spectrum severity, material
gear shall have _____ lifetimes of damage tolerance, or analysis considerations. A test
durability testing. duration of less than four lifetimes may be
programmed if test spectrum is more severe than
(4) High strength parts analyzed by fatigue design spectrum. (Reference Lincoln, "Assessment of
analysis shall have _____ lifetimes of Structural Reliability from Durability Testing", ICAF
durability testing. Conference 1993.) Gear tests may be conducted either
Others: __________. on fixtures or the full scale test article, and may also
be the same gear used for the drop test program, with
VERIFICATION RATIONALE credit accounted for the number and severity of drop
(Paragraph 5.6.6.11.1.2.2.f) test landing events.
It is necessary to plan, budget, and test beyond the VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
required service life to provide a margin against (Paragraph 5.6.6.11.1.2.2l.f)
normal variations in manufacturing, material,
properties, loads, and usage characteristics. The use of the durability test article for the continued
durability combined with damage tolerance
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE verification testing has proven to be the best option for
(Paragraph 5.6.6.11.1.2.2.f) continued testing. Besides the obvious cost
advantages, additional durability information is
A minimum of two lifetimes of full scale durability obtained and naturally developed cracks can provide
testing must be conducted to identify the hot spots and significant information to aid in the damage tolerance
damage tolerance critical locations. However, three evaluation. A large aircraft full scale durability test
lifetimes of the test program shall be planned, program was planned to have two lifetimes of
budgeted, and included in the proposal. The third durability testing followed by one lifetime of damage
lifetime of testing shall be evaluated on the following tolerance testing on the same test article. The
options: contractor did not submit a third lifetime testing
proposal in the original proposal. However, the third
a. Continued durability combined with damage lifetime of full scale durability testing was
tolerance testing. recommended late and tremendous time and effort had
to be spent to accomplish the required task. If a third
b. Continued durability testing for the purpose of
lifetime of testing was planned and budgeted in the
life extension and/or modification verifications.
original proposal, the implementation would have
c. Residual strength testing to failure. been much easier and cost effective.
d. Damage tolerance testing, fail-safe testing, and B.6.6.11.2 CORROSION PREVENTION AND
battle damage tolerance testing. CONTROL
e. Usage spectrum sensitivity testing.
Corrosion prevention and control measures including
At the conclusion of the full scale durability testing, the following elements shall be established and
the final teardown inspection shall be conducted. implemented in accordance with the following to
To compensate for the complexity of the different verify that the requirements of 5.5.7.2 are met.
aircraft systems such as bomber, fighter, and trainer,
the test duration requirements may vary from system a. The criteria for the selection of corrosion
to system. For landing gear, landing gear back-up resistant materials and their subsequent
structure, high strength structure, and special structure, treatments shall be defined. The specific
the specified test factor on design life shall be between corrosion control and prevention measures shall
2.0 and 4.0 as a function of spectrum severity, be defined and established as an integral part of
consequence of failure, material damage tolerance airframe structures design, manufacture, test, and
characteristics, weight/cost trades, etc, subject to the usage, and support activities.
approval of the procuring activity. For example, the
single point failure mode and catastrophic b. Organic and inorganic coatings for all airframe
consequences of failure during the catapult evolution structural components and parts, and their
of ship based operations mandates additional safety associated selection criteria shall be defined.
margin in both the nose landing gear and the
corresponding airframe back-up structure have a four c. Procedures for requiring drawings to be reviewed
lifetime durability testing requirement to a spectrum by and signed off by materials and processes
which includes catapults, landing and related ground personnel shall be defined.
events. Carrier-based aircraft main landing gear and
back-up structure, however, have previously d. Finishes for the landing gear and backup
structure shall be defined. General guidelines
256
The following tests and analyses shall be performed to The durability of any structural component whose
verify that the thermal protection systems of the function may be degraded in service usage needs to be
airframe meet the requirements of.5.7.3: substantiated by analyses and tests.
________________.
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
VERIFICATION RATIONALE
Specify the type and duration of the analyses and
It is necessary to validate the durability of thermal testing necessary to validate the durability
protection systems to prevent the occurrence of costly requirements of 5.5.7.5. Also see Verification
maintenance problems. guidance (5.5.7.5).
257
To account for scatter factor used in the analysis and Analysis and test shall be performed to verify that the
to maintain the acceptable structural reliability, high landing gear/backup structure meets the damage
strength structures have been tested for four lifetimes tolerance requirements of 5.5.8 through5.5.8.2.3.
of the average spectrum. Beneficial effects of life enhancement processes must
be approved by the procuring activity. The damage
B.6.6.11.6 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING tolerance requirements shall be detailed and included
AND INSPECTION (NDT/I) in the structural criteria of5.5.1.1.
MIL-I-6870 describes the detail necessary for the The specific tasks required to verify that the
system NDT/I plan which provides the necessary requirements of 5.5.7.6 are met are contained in the
documentation for the engineering efforts. The sections that follow.
individual process control documents, either
government, industry, or company, describe the detail VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
required for documentation of the application efforts,
including records. As demonstrated by both a fighter and a bomber
development program, the key to achieving a damage
NDT/I Manuals. Delivery of the first system into tolerant structure is the selection of proper materials
service must be accompanied with manuals that detail and paying attention to structural details. Because
when, how often, and how the system is to be materials and detail structural concepts are selected
inspected for service induced damage. The manuals very early in the development phase, damage tolerance
should include NDT/I methods and their applications requirements must be addressed as basic structural
as appropriate. As an example, structure subject to criteria.
impact damage such as leading edges and leading gear
should be addressed in the manual. The primary B.6.6.12.1 FLAW SIZES
inspection method should be visual for evidence of
damage. Determination of the actual presence and/or Production inspections shall be performed on 100
extent of damage should then be accomplished with percent of all fracture critical regions of all landing
the appropriate NDT/I procedures as described in the gear/backup structure and related structural
manuals. As the system ages, the manuals shall be components. These inspections shall include, as a
upgraded to contain procedures for the detection of minimum, close visual inspections of all holes and
damage found to be appropriate for that system. cutouts and conventional ultrasonic, penetrant, or
NDT/I Advisory Board. An NDT/I Advisory Board magnetic particle inspection of the remainder of the
containing government and contractor personnel with fracture critical region. When automatic hole
the appropriate technical skills can provide a very preparation equipment is used, acquisition activity
effective way of bringing corporate government approved demonstration to quality and statistically
knowledge to the contractor for use in the system monitor hole preparation and fastener installation may
design, testing, and production functions. They can be established and implemented to satisfy this
also provide excellent means for tracking the progress requirement.
of NDT/I engineering efforts on the program by both
contractor and government program management a. Special nondestructive inspections.
personnel.
(1) Where initial flaw assumptions for safety of
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED flight structures are less than those of
5.5.8.1, a nondestructive inspection
None. demonstration shall be performed. This
demonstration shall verify that all flaws
equal to or greater than the assumed flaw
size will be detected with a statistical
confidence of ____________.
258
All fracture critical regions need to be identified. The A decision to employ proof-testing must take the
required inspections need to comply with the following factors into consideration:
requirements of MIL-I-6870. The types of inspections a. The loading that is applied must accurately
to be performed must be consistent with the initial simulate the peak stresses and stress
flaw size assumptions established for the particular distributions in the area being evaluated.
area of interest. A formal procedure should also be
established to document and provide disposition b. The effects of the proof-test loading on other
criteria for anomalies found during the inspections. areas of the structure must be thoroughly
evaluated.
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
Local plasticity effects must be taken into account in
determining the maximum possible initial flaw size
None.
after test and in determining subsequent flaw growth.
testing of a fighter's speed brake was less than component, used by other structures disciplines.
successful because the proof-test loading did not See 5.5.2.16.1.
accurately load the portion of the structure which
eventually experienced problems in service. VERIFICATION RATIONALE
Analyses and tests shall be conducted to verify that the The development of a validated analysis methodology
landing gear/backup structure meets the damage for each fracture critical component of the structure is
tolerance requirements of 5.5.8. of primary importance. The ability to predict the
crack growth behavior of a flaw in any component
a. Analyses. Damage tolerance analyses consisting over the entire range of expected crack sizes and
of crack growth and residual strength analyses shapes, possible usage variations, and operating
shall be performed. The analyses shall assume environments is critical to the management of fleet
the presence of flaws placed in the most airframe resources throughout the service life of the
unfavorable location and orientation with respect air vehicle.
to the applied stresses and material properties.
The crack growth analyses shall predict the
growth behavior of these flaws in the chemical,
thermal, and sustained and cyclic stress
environments to which that portion of the VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
component shall be subjected in service. The (Paragraph 5.6.6.12.2.a)
flaw sizes to be used in the analysis are those
defined in 5.5.8.1. The analyses shall demonstrate Crack growth and residual strength analyses should be
that cracks growing from the flaw sizes of 5.5.8.1 conducted for each critical location of each fracture
will not result in sustained crack growth under critical component to demonstrate compliance with the
the maximum steady flight and ground loads of requirements under the indicated assumptions. The
the usage of 5.5.2.14 as modified by 5.5.7.5.a. validity of the analytical methods should be
demonstrated by correlation with the testing indicated
b. Tests, development (___) and full scale (___) in paragraph b. below. The analysis methods should
damage tolerance tests are required to be updated, corrected, or modified as necessary as test
demonstrate that the landing gear/backup results become available to obtain the best predictive
structure meets the requirements of 5.5.8. The capability possible.
material properties derived from development
tests shall be consistent and congruent with those The test data and analysis should be thoroughly
properties of the same material, in the same studied to identify any trends in the correlation with
260
regard to such factors as initial flaw size, shape, predicted time to failure and the predicted failure
structural geometry, or environment which may isolate mode must be verified. This implies that at least some
analysis deficiencies. An analysis method should not of the development tests, with a sufficient level of
be considered acceptable based on the fact that it has loading and geometry complexity which accurately
been demonstrated to be overly conservative in all test simulate the full scale structure, must be tested to
correlations. This can have serious repercussions if failure. The same applies to testing to determine stress
under some future usage variation the method predicts level, spectrum, and environmental sensitivities. Both
an unrealistically short life. the time to failure and the failure modes must be
verified.
As for metal structures, the damage tolerance analyses
for composites are inexorably linked to the design The damage tolerance analyses for composites are
development tests. For support of these analyses it is linked to the development tests. In support of these
recommended that the design development testing analyses it is recommended that the development
consist of "building blocks" ranging from coupons to testing consist of "building blocks" ranging from
elements, to subcomponents, and finally to coupons to elements, to subcomponents, and finally to
components. components. These building block tests must include
room temperature dry laminates. Also, if the effects
VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED of the environment are significant, then
(Paragraph 5.6.6.12.2.a) environmentally conditioned tests must be performed
at each level in the building block process. The test
None. articles are to be strain gaged adequately to obtain data
on potentially critical locations and for correlation
VERIFICATION RATIONALE with the full scale static test, and in addition, the test
(Paragraph 5.6.6.12.2.b) program is to be performed so that environmentally
induced failure modes (if any) are discovered. The
Extensive development and full-scale damage design development tests are complete when the
tolerance tests are required to verify the analytical failure modes have been identified, the critical failure
predictions and to support force management of the air modes in the component tests are judged to be not
vehicles. significantly affected by the non-representative
portion of the test structure and the structural sizing is
VERIFICATION GUIDANCE judged to be adequate to meet the design
(Paragraph 5.6.6.12.2.b) requirements. For static test components, this
judgment is based on adjusting the failure loads to the
Indicate the testing that is applicable. Test "B" basis environmentally conditioned allowable.
requirements should be defined according to the
following guidance: Damage tolerance tests: A complete airframe or
approved alternatives should be damage tolerance
Damage tolerance development tests: Development tested to demonstrate compliance with the
testing should be conducted to provide data for the requirements. See 5.6.6.5. 2.1 through 5.6.6.5.2.4 for
following areas: additional guidance for full-scale testing.
a. Material properties a. Test article. The test airframe or components
should be as structurally identical to the
b. Analytical procedure verification of crack growth operational airframe as production practicalities
rates and residual strength will permit. Any differences, including material
c. Stress level effects or manufacturing process changes, should be
assessed for impact. The assessment should
d. Spectrum effects include additional component testing if the
e. Early validation of the damage tolerance critical changes are significant. The test articles should
components include artificially induced damage by the
techniques developed in development testing.
In addition, data should be generated to validate the The sharp fatigue cracks introduced should be of
methods to be used in introducing artificial damage the appropriate size and shape consistent with
(sharp fatigue cracks) in the full-scale test airframe. If the initial flaw size assumptions for the
early testing indicates that the design spectrum does component. It is recommended that the full-
not adequately mark the fracture surfaces for use in scale durability test article be employed for this
fractographic analysis, a scheme to artificially mark testing at the completion of the required
the fracture surfaces at periodic intervals should be durability testing (see 5.6.6.11.1.2.2). This
developed. Development testing should consist of a approach has several advantages. First, any
progression from basic material property tests through naturally developed fatigue cracks will be
a series of test specimens with increasing levels of present, eliminating the need to artificially
geometry and loading complexity. These tests are induce damage. Second, additional durability
intended to provide more information than just information is developed. Third, a cost savings
indicating whether a given structural detail will likely can be realized by not having to fabricate a
meet the minimum structural requirements. In order second test article. The amount of artificial
to verify an analytical failure prediction, both the damage that is introduced into the test article is a
261
function of the number of identified fracture limited number of metallic joints, may fall into
critical locations, the number of naturally this category. Normally, the durability and
developed cracks if the durability article is used, damage tolerance capability of the composite
and practical limitations caused by the particular structure can be verified by the design
structure. Extensive tear-down of a structure to development tests.
introduce damage at an isolated location is
usually not warranted unless the analysis and VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
development testing indicate that proper internal (Paragraph 5.6.6.12.2.b)
member loading can only be simulated in the
full-scale article. None.
b. Test requirements
B.6.6.13 DURABILITY AND DAMAGE
(1) The airframe or component damage tolerance TOLERANCE CONTROL
tests should be performed in accordance with the
guidance provided below. The durability and damage tolerance control process
shall be properly documented and implemented to
(2) If the crack growth rates demonstrated during the ensure that maintenance and fatigue/fracture critical
full-scale testing are different than expected from parts meet the requirements 5.5.7 and 5.5.8.
analysis or development testing, additional
analysis and testing should be conducted to VERIFICATION RATIONALE
substantiate the full-scale test results.
The process identifies the management approach to
c. Test spectrum. ensure the contractor's coordinated interdisciplinary
(1) A flight-by-flight test spectrum should be derived functions to design and produce a fatigue resistant and
from the service loads and chemical and thermal damage tolerant aircraft.
environment spectra of 5.5.2. The effects of
chemical and thermal environmental spectra VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
should be thoroughly evaluated during the
development testing, and these spectra should be Durability and damage tolerance process control needs
included in the full-scale testing only if the to be established to identify the maintenance,
development testing results indicate that it is fatigue/fracture critical parts selection, and critical
necessary. parts control. The control of critical parts is
administered by the Durability and Damage Tolerance
(2) High and low load truncation, elimination, or Control Board. The board is comprised of a broad
substitution of load cycles should be range of people that represent different functional
substantiated by development testing. areas within the company - engineering,
manufacturing, quality assurance, etc. The board is
d. Inspections. Major inspections should be responsible for establishing and overseeing the
performed as an integral part of the damage administration of the specific controls that will be
tolerance testing. Proposed in-service inspection applied to the critical parts.
techniques will be evaluated during the tests.
Surface crack length measurements should be VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
recorded during the tests. Evaluate surface
crack length . The end-of-test inspection should Durability and Damage Tolerance Controls have been
include a structural teardown, a removal of developed and used successfully on recent
cracked areas, and fractographic analysis of all development programs. Contractors have found
significant fracture surfaces. durability and damage tolerance control to be a sound
e. Duration. The duration of the tests should be and reasonable approach to ensuring structural
sufficient to verify crack growth rate predictions. integrity. The number of critical parts selected should
The test may need to run for one lifetime, but be adequate without overloading the manufacturing
sufficient information might be derived in a process.
shorter period.
B.6.6.14 SENSITIVITY ANALYSES
f. Composite structures. Full scale testing is an
esstential element of ASIP. There is normally a Verification of 5.5.10 shall be accomplished by
full scale durability and damage tolerance test in sensitivity analyses to evaluate the proposed
the development of a weapon system, however, structures optimum design and to identify the
these tests are generally for the verification of performance, and cost impacts of more robust design
the metal structure. In those cases where the options. The analysis shall include variation of
metallic structure durability and damage parameters such as projected weight growth after IOC,
tolerance tests capability can be confidently performance and utilization severity in the selection of
established in the design development tests, the detailed structural configurations.
full scale durability and damage tolerance tests
may not be required. For example, a structure
that is primarily composite, but contains a
262
Verification at the aircraft structures level verifies that accomplished at the appropriate aircraft
the contractor has established a disciplined approach structure/subtier level.
with a process development strategy that (1) includes
pre-planned process improvement and evolutionary VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
strategies, (2) provides for the identification and risk
abatement of high risk production identification and The following incremental verifications should be
control of key processes, (4) ensures consistency accomplished early in a program such as prior to the
between process performance, product performance, System Functional Review (SFR). Examine and
can cost, (5) defines quality assurance requirements analyze documentation to verify that the contractor
consistent with product performance and cost has a process documented and in place that (1)
requirements, (6) flows these requirements to the establishes a process technology development strategy
subtier contractors, and (7) is consistent with the including pre-planned process improvement and
approach at the weapon system level. evolutionary strategies, (2) identifies, as part of the
overall program risk management process, high risk
Key product characteristics are those measurable production processes and risk abatement activities, (3)
design details that have the greatest influence on the provides for the early identification of key product
product meeting its requirements (form, fit, function, characteristics, key processes, and their key
cost, service life, etc.) and are documented in a characteristics, (4) assesses key process technology
manner processes within the program's overall risk performance, availability, and suitability, (5)
management process, (3) includes the determined by establishes process capability requirements (Cpk), (6)
the contractor on the drawings and supporting verifies actual process capabilities, (7) establishes and
Technical Data Packages in the "Build-To" and implements process controls with minimal inspections,
"Support" Packages. Key production processes follow (8) flows down requirements to all subtier levels, and
logically from the identification of key product (9) is consistent with the overall weapon system level
characteristics and the selection of production requirements and approach. This verifies the
processes. Key production processes are those contractor's readiness for the next phase or
processes associated with controlling those key engineering effort by ensuring that the contractor has a
product characteristics. The identification of the key working process in place to identify, develop, and
process requirement is accomplished through the control key manufacturing processes.
system engineering process and design trade studies to
establish a cost effective design. Early identification of critical manufacturing process
technology performance, availability, and suitability,
In general, production cost risk can be controlled by with the implementation of an appropriate strategy,
demonstrating the key process requirements which reduces production risks by allowing the
include the establishment of design limits and process manufacturing processes to be developed and matured
capabilities. Process capability is typically defined in prior to full-scale production.
terms of the statistical probability of non-
conformance, such as defects per million or Cp, which The following incremental verifications should be
is the ratio of design limits to the process variation. accomplished prior to 20% drawing releases or
Once process capability requirements are established Preliminary Design Review (PDR). Examine and
and the capability of the key processes verified, the analyze documentation and design trade study reports
process controls are established for use during to confirm the following have been accomplished at
production. the appropriate aircraft structure/subtier levels: (1)
manufacturing feasibility assessment, (2)
The identification of key product characteristics and identification of key product characteristics and the
key processes, and the establishment of process documentation of those characteristics on drawings
capability and process control requirements occur at including appropriate geometric tolerancing and
the aircraft structure and subtier levels. Tasks datum control, (3) identification of key processes, (4)
essential to accomplishing this are (1) identification of establishment of process capability requirements,
high risk production processes with appropriated risk which include both the design limits and process
abatement activities, (2) identification and capabilities (Cpk. defects per million, etc.), (5)
documentation of key product characteristics, (3) evaluation of key process capabilities, (6) flow down
identification of key production processes and their of key process requirements, and (7) assessment of
key process characteristics, (4) establishing the risk abatement status on high risk production
process requirements, which include both the design processes and appropriate action taken is needed. This
limits and the process capability, (5) determination of verification ensures that an appropriate manufacturing
the actual process capability, (6) establishing the process has been developed and the preliminary
process control requirements, and (7) flow down of design to address manufacturing processes has been
these requirements to the suppliers whose products confirmed to be complete, correct, and adequate.
will have an effect on the system's attainment of
performance requirements. Therefore, verification at Usually, the fidelity of the design at PDR is such that
the aircraft structure level confirms compliance with all key product characteristics and key production
requirements at the aircraft structure level, that processes are not yet identified. However, based on
appropriate requirements are flowed down to the historical data and the existing level of design, an
subtier level, and that essential tasks have been initial identification and assessment of key production
processes can be accomplished and initial capability
264
requirements should be established. In addition, correct, adequate and stable, and ensures the system is
sufficient information exists to assess the progress of ready for the production phase.
risk abatement activities for high risk production
processes. The fidelity and stability of the design at SVR is such
that all key product characteristics and key production
The following incremental verifications should be processes are identified, capability requirements
accomplished prior to 80% drawing release or Critical established, process capabilities verified, process
Design Review (CDR). Examine and analyze control plans completed, and contractor build-to
documentation and design trade study reports to package completed. Risk abatement activities should
confirm the following have been accomplished at the have lowered key production process risk to an
appropriate aircraft structure/subtier levels (1) more acceptable level for start of production.
reined effort of the verification done at PDR to reflect
expected design maturity at CDR, (2) completion of The following incremental verifications should be
preliminary specifications for key processes, (3) accomplished prior to Physical Configuration Audit
completion of preliminary process control plans, (4) (PCA). Examine documentation to confirm that the
documentation of rationale to support the detailed adequacy and completeness of the build-to
design (product/special tooling/special test documentation was verified at the aircraft structure
equipment/support equipment) including key product and subtier level. This verification requirement is to
characteristic's design limit sensitivity to off nominal determine the completeness, correctness, and
production (details to include the results of key adequacy of the final build-to documentation.
suppliers' efforts), (5) documentation of rationale to
support selection of production processes, including VERIFICATION LESSONS LEARNED
comparison of required process capabilities to
documented capabilities and selection of process None.
control criteria with the associated process control
plan for achieving required product quality, and (6) B.6.6.17 ENGINEERING DATA
definition of verification requirement for key REQUIREMENTS VERIFICATION
processes including facility capabilities. This
verification ensures that manufacturing process Data requirements content and format for studies,
development and the detail design to address analyses, and test requirements shall be selected from
manufacturing processes has occurred and has been the DOD Authorized Data List and shall be reflected
confirmed to be complete, correct, and adequate. in the contractor data requirements list attached to the
request for proposal, invitation for bids, and the
Usually the fidelity of the design at CDR is such that contract as appropriate. Documentation and submittal
all key product characteristics and key production of data and on-site review requirements shall be in
processes are identified, capability requirements accordance with and supportive of the activities
established, process capabilities verified, and identified in 5.6.0. and shall be subject to approval of
preliminary process control plans completed. In the procuring activity. The documentation of the data
addition, sufficient information exists to assess the shall also be compatible with generation and support
progress of risk abatement activities including the of technical orders and maintenance plans, and allow
demonstration of process capability for high risk the using command a database to support and manage
production processes. the aircraft throughout its life.
The following incremental verifications should be VERIFICATION RATIONALE
accomplished prior to System Verification Review
(SVR). Examine and analyze documentation and Documentation of engineering data in a uniform and
design trade study reports to confirm the following timely manner is necessary to ensure that requirements
have been accomplished at the appropriate aircraft are met. It is essential that the data be compatible with
structure/subtier levels (1) identification of all key generation and support of technical orders, and allow
product characteristics and the documentation of those the using command a database to support and manage
characteristics on drawings including appropriate the aircraft throughout its life.
geometric tolerancing and datum control, (2)
establishment of process capability requirements, VERIFICATION GUIDANCE
which include both the design limits and process
capabilities, (3) verification of key process capabilities When this specification is used in an acquisition which
complete including validated process control plans, (4) incorporated a DD Form 1423, Contract Data
completion of final process control plans, (5) proof of Requirements List (CDRL), the data requirements
final manufacturing feasibility including facility identified below shall be developed as specified by an
capability, (6) completion of final specifications for all approved Data Item Description (DD Form 1664) and
key production processes, and (7) completion of delivered in accordance with the approved CDRL
contractor build-to documentation. This verification incorporated into the contract. When the provisions of
requirement ensures that manufacturing process DAR 7-104.9(n)(2) are invoked and the DD Form
development, detail design to address manufacturing 1423 is not used, the data specified below shall be
processes, and contractor build-to documentation has delivered by the contractor in accordance with the
occurred and has been confirmed to be compete, contract or purchase order requirements. Deliverable
265
directly in characteristics which make the flight crew characterized by a rapid increase in the number of
immediately and unmistakably aware that significant damage locations or repair costs as a function of cyclic
damage has occurred and that the mission should not test time.
be continued.
B.7.18 FACTOR OF UNCERTAINTY.
B.7.13.3 IN-SERVICE NON-INSPECTABLE The ratio of the load that would cause failure of a
STRUCTURE. member or structure, to the load that is imposed upon
Structure is in-service non-inspectable if either it in service. For design purposes, it is the value by
damage size or accessibility preclude detection during which limit loads are multiplied to derive ultimate
one or more of the above inspections. loads. The factor of uncertainty has in the past been
referred to as the factor of safety.
B.7.13.4 GROUND EVIDENT INSPECTABLE.
Structure is ground evident inspectable if the nature B.7.19 FAIL-SAFE CRACK ARREST
and extent of damage will be readily and unmistakably STRUCTURE.
obvious to ground personnel without specifically Crack arrest fail-safe structure is structure designed
inspecting the structure for damage. and fabricated such that unstable rapid propagation
will be stopped within a continuous area of the
B.7.13.5 SPECIAL VISUAL INSPECTABLE. structure prior to complete failure. Safety is assured
Structure is special visual inspectable if the nature and through slow crack growth of the remaining structure
extent of damage is unlikely to be overlooked by and detection of the damage at subsequent inspections.
personnel conducting a detailed visual inspection of Strength of the remaining undamaged structure will
the aircraft for the purpose of finding damaged not be degraded below a specified level for the
structure. The procedures may include removal of specified period of unrepaired service usage.
access panels and doors, and may permit simple visual
aids such as mirrors and magnifying glasses. Removal B.7.20 CRITICAL PARTS.
of paint, sealant, etc. and use of NDI techniques such A critical part is defined as one, the single failure of
as penetrant, X-ray, etc., are not part of a special which during any operating condition could cause loss
visual inspection. of the aircraft or one of its major components, loss of
control, unintentional release of or inability to release
B.7.13.6 WALKAROUND INSPECTABLE. any armament store, failure of weapon installation
Structure is walkaround inspectable if the nature and components, or which may cause significant injury to
extent of damage is unlikely to be overlooked by occupants of the aircraft or result in major economic
personnel conducting a visual inspection of the impact on the aircraft, or a significant increase in
structure. This inspection normally shall be a visual vulnerability, or a failure to meet critical mission
look at the exterior of the structure from ground level requirements.
without removal of access panels or doors without
special inspection aids. B.7.20.1 FATIGUE/FRACTURE CRITICAL
PARTS.
B.7.14 DISCIPLINE. Fatigue/fracture critical parts are primary structural
A technical area, for example, aeroelasticity, loads, components that are designed by durability and/or
durability, strength, etc.. damage tolerance requirements, the single failure of
B.7.15 DIVERGENCE. which could lead to the loss of the aircraft, aircrew, or
Divergence is a static aeroelastic instability of a lifting inadvertent stores release (pylons, racks, launchers,
surface that occurs when the structural restoring etc.). These parts generally call for special
moment of the surface is exceeded by the aerodynamic fatigue/fracture toughness controls, quality control
torsional moment. procedures, NDT/I practices, and analytical
requirements.
B.7.16 DURABILITY.
The ability of the airframe to resist cracking (including B.7.20.2 FATIGUE/FRACTURE CRITICAL
stress corrosion and hydrogen induced cracking), TRACEABLE PARTS.
corrosion, thermal degradation, delamination, wear, Fatigue/fracture critical traceable parts are
and the effects of foreign object damage for a fatigue/fracture critical parts, the single failure of
specified period of time. which could lead to immediate loss of the aircraft,
aircrew, or inadvertent stores release (pylons, racks,
B.7.17 DURABILITY SERVICE LIFE. launchers, etc.). These parts generally call for the
That operational life indicated by the results of the fatigue/fracture critical parts requirements as well as,
durability tests and as available with the incorporation serialization and traceability from starting stock to tail
of approved and committed production or retrofit number and reverse.
changes and supporting application of the force
structural maintenance plan. In general, production or B.7.20.3 MAINTENANCE CRITICAL PARTS.
retrofit changes will be incorporated to correct local Maintenance critical parts are structural components
design and manufacturing deficiencies disclosed by that are designed by durability requirements. The
test. It will be assumed that the life of the test article failure of the part may result in functional impairment
has been attained with the occurrence of widespread of, or major economic impact on an aircraft or
damage which is uneconomical to repair and, if not subsystem performance. The failure of the part
repaired, could cause functional problems affecting requires costly maintenance and/or part repair or
operational readiness. This can generally be replacement, which if not performed would
267
difference is greater than 3 dB, the level to be reported equals EAS times the square root of the sea level to
shall be obtained by subtracting 3 dB from the altitude density ratio.
maximum level. The peak sound pressure level
means impulsive noise (bursts) as defined in American B.7.40 STORE.
National Standard ANSI SI 13-1971 (R1976) Any device intended for internal or external carriage
"Methods for the Measurement of Sound Pressure and mounted on aircraft suspension and release
Levels." equipment, whether or not the item is intended to be
separated in flight from the aircraft. Stores include
B.7.35 SAFETY OF FLIGHT STRUCTURE. missiles, rockets, bombs, nuclear weapons, mines,
That structure whose failure would cause direct loss of torpedoes, pyrotechnic devices, detachable fuel and
the air vehicle or whose failure, if it remained spray tanks, dispensers, pods (refueling, thrust
undetected, would result in loss of the air vehicle. augmentation, gun electronic-counter measures, etc.),
targets, cargo drop containers, and drones.
B.7.36 SLOW CRACK GROWTH
STRUCTURE. B.7.40.1 EMPLOYMENT.
Slow crack growth structure consists of those design The use of a store for the purpose and in the manner
concepts where flaws or defects are not allowed to for which it was designed, such as releasing a bomb,
attain the critical size required for unstable rapid crack launching a missile, firing a gun, or dispensing
propagation. Safety is assured through slow crack submunitions.
growth for specified periods of usage depending upon
the degree of inspectability. The strength of slow B.7.40.2 SUSPENSION EQUIPMENT.
crack growth structure with subcritical damage present All airborne devices used for carriage, suspension,
shall not be degraded below a specified limit for the employment, and jettision of stores, such as racks,
period of unrepaired service usage. adapters, launchers and pylons.
f Applied stress
F Allowable stress
FCAS Flight control augmentation system
270
20 10
18 9
16 8
14 7
Semi-prepared surfaces
Height of depth (in)
12 6
10 5
Prepared surfaces
8 4
6 3
4 2
2 1
0 0
FIGURE 1. Discrete (1-cos ) bumps and (cos -1) dips for slow speeds up to 50 knots -- single and double excitations.
20 10
18 Semi-prepared surfaces 9
Single excitation
16 8
14 7
Height of depth (in)
12 6
10 Prepared Surfaes 5
Single excitation
Semi-prepared surfaces 4
8
Double excitation
6 3
4 Prepared surfaces
2
Double excitation
2 1
0 0
FIGURE 2. Discrete (1-cos ) bumps and (cos -1) dips for high speeds above 50 knots -- single and double excitations.
273
1
High Probability * 0.5 in. dia. solid Impact energy smaller of * no functional impairment or structural
of Impact impactor 6 ft-lbs or visible damage repair required for two design lifetimes and
(0.1 in. deep) with min. no water intrusion
* low velocity of 4 ft-lbs.
* no visible damage from a single 4 ft-lb
* normal to surface impact
2
Low Probability Same as Zone 1 Impact energy smaller of * no functional impairment after two
of Impact 6 ft-lbs or visible damage design lifetimes and no water intrusion
(0.1 in. deep) after field repair if damage is visible
All vertical and Hail: Uniform density 0.8 * no functional impairment or structural
upward facing * 0.8 in. dia. in. on center repair required for two design lifetimes
horizontal surfaces * sp. Gr. = 0.9
* 90 ft/sec * no visible damage
* normal to
horizontal surfaces
* 45 deg. angle to
vertical surfaces
Structure in path of Runway debris: N/A * no functional impairment after two design
debris * 0.5 in. dia. lifetimes and no water intrusion after field
* sp. Gr. = 3.0 repair if damage is visible
* velocity
appropriate to
system
Delamination Interply delamination equivalent to a 2.0" diameter circle with dimensions most critical
to its location
Impact Damage Damage from a 1.0" diameter hemispherical impactor with 100 ft-lbs of kinetic energy
or with that kinetic energy required to cause a dent 0.10" deep, whichever is less.
274
(1) PXX = Maximum average internal member load (without clipping) that will occur once in M times the inspection
interval. Where PDM or PLT is determined to be less than the design limit load, the design limit load should be the
required residual strength load level. PXX need not be greater than 1.2 times the maximum load in one lifetime, if
PXX is greater than the design limit load.
(2) Most damaging design mission.
(3) See 5.5.8.2.a.
Percent of Ultimate Load Number of Failures Cumulative Number of Failures Cumulative Percent of
Failures
45 1 1 2
50 1 2 5
55 2 5
60 2 5
65 2 4 9
70 1 5 12
75 1 6 14
80 5 11 26
85 5 16 37
90 10 26 60
94 9 35 81
98 6 41 95
100 2 43 100
TABLE VI. WPAFB static tests first failure of major components, 1940 through 1948.
Number of Failures Cumulative Number of Failures Cumulative Percent of
Percent Ultimate Load Failures
Low High Low High Low High
35 1 1 1 1 .2 .2
40 13 6 14 7 3.2 1.6
42 1 1 15 8 3.5 1.9
50 5 3 20 11 4.6 2.6
51 1 1 21 12 4.9 2.8
53 2 2 23 14 5.3 3.2
55 5 4 28 18 6.5 4.2
58.5 1 1 29 19 6.7 4.4
60 13 14 42 33 9.7 7.7
62 1 1 43 34 10.0 7.9
65 2 2 45 36 10.4 8.4
67 3 3 48 39 11.1 9.0
68 1 1 49 40 11.4 9.3
70 11 11 60 51 13.9 11.8
75 4 4 64 55 14.8 12.8
77 2 2 66 57 15.3 13.2
78 1 1 67 58 15.6 13.5
80 30 37 97 95 22.5 22.0
85 4 3 101 98 23.4 22.7
87 1 1 102 99 23.7 23.0
90 27 26 133 129 30.9 29.9
93 1 1 134 130 31.1 30.2
95 15 14 149 144 34.6 33.4
96 1 1 150 145 34.8 33.6
98 7 7 157 152 36.4 35.3
100 274(1) 279(1) 431 431 100.0 100.0
NOTE: First failure in major components, i.e. landing gear, fuselage, wing, horizontal tail and vertical tail.
(1). No failure.
276
TABLE VII. WPAFB static test first failure of airplane, 1940 through 1948.
Number of Failures Cumulative Number of Cumulative Percent of
Percent Ultimate Load Failures Failures
Low High Low High Low High
35 1 1 1 1 .9 .9
40 12 6 13 7 11.3 6.1
45 1 1 14 8 12.2 7.0
50 4 3 18 11 15.7 10.0
55 8 7 26 18 22.6 15.7
58.5 1 1 27 19 23.5 16.7
60 4 7 31 26 26.9 22.6
65 3 3 34 29 29.6 25.2
70 8 8 42 37 36.5 32.2
75 3 3 45 40 39.1 34.8
80 14 18 59 58 51.3 50.4
85 2 1 61 59 53.0 51.3
90 11 12 72 71 62.6 61.7
95 9 8 81 79 70.4 68.7
<100 7 7 88 86 76.5 74.8
100 27(1) 29(1) 115 115 100.0 100.0
NOTE: Landing gear, fuselage, wing, horizontal tail, and vertical tail test results used.
(1). No failure.
277
TABLE VIII. WPAFB static tests first failure of major components, 1950 through 1976.
Number of Failures Cumulative Number of Failures Cumulative Percent of
Percent Ultimate Load Failures
Low High Low High Low High
40 3 1 3 1 2.9 1.0
45 1 0 4 1 3.9 1.0
50 0 1 4 2 3.9 1.9
53 1 1 5 3 4.9 2.9
60 3 4 8 7 7.8 6.8
65 1 1 9 8 8.7 7.8
67 1 1 10 9 9.7 8.7
70 4 1 14 10 13.6 9.7
75 0 3 14 13 13.6 12.6
76 1 1 15 14 14.6 13.6
80 9 6 24 20 23.3 19.4
85 2 3 26 23 25.2 22.3
88 1 1 27 24 26.2 23.3
90 6 9 33 33 32.0 32.0
91 1 1 34 34 33.0 33.0
94 1 1 35 35 34.0 34.0
95 4 3 39 38 37.9 36.9
97 1 1 40 39 38.8 37.9
100 63(1) 64(1) 103 103 100.0 100.0
NOTE: First failure in major components, i.e. landing gear, fuselage, wing, horizontal tail and vertical tail.
(1). No failure.
278
TABLE IX. WPAFB static test first failure of airplane, 1950 through 1976.
Number of Failures Cumulative Number of Cumulative Percent of
Percent Ultimate Load Failures Failures
Low High Low High Low High
40 2 1 2 1 9.1 4.5
60 3 4 5 5 22.7 22.7
65 1 0 6 5 27.3 22.7
67 1 1 7 6 31.8 27.3
70 2 1 9 7 40.9 31.8
75 0 2 9 9 40.9 40.9
76 1 1 10 10 45.5 45.5
80 4 1 14 11 63.6 50.0
85 0 1 14 12 63.6 54.5
90 3 5 17 17 77.3 77.3
95 2 2 19 19 86.4 86.4
<100 - - 19 19 86.4 86.4
100 3(1) 3(1) 22 22 100.0 100.0
NOTE: Landing gear, fuselage, wing, horizontal tail, and vertical tail test results used.
(1). No failure.
TABLE X. WPAFB static tests first failure of control system structural components.
Number of Failures Cumulative Number of Cumulative Percent of
Percent Ultimate Load Failures Failures
Low High Low High Low High
20 1 1 1 1 6.7 6.7
40 1 0 2 1 13.3 6.7
47 1 1 3 2 20.0 13.3
50 1 2 4 4 26.7 26.7
60 3 2 7 6 46.7 40.0
67 1 2 8 8 53.3 53.3
100 7(1) 7(1) 15 15 100.0 100.0
TABLE XI. WPAFB static tests first failure of secondary structure (other).
Number of Failures Cumulative Number of Cumulative Percent of
Percent Ultimate Load Failures Failures
Low High Low High Low High
30 1 1 1 1 4.8 4.8
50 2 2 3 3 14.3 14.3
60 4 4 7 7 33.3 33.3
67 2 2 9 9 42.9 42.9
70 1 1 10 10 47.6 47.6
80 3 3 13 13 61.9 61.9
85 1 0 14 13 66.7 61.9
90 1 2 15 15 71.4 71.4
95 1 1 16 16 76.2 76.2
100 5(1) 5(1) 21 21 100.0 100.0
Slow Crack Growth and Hole, Cutouts, etc. For thickness .05", .05" long through thickness flaw
Fail Safe Primary For thickness .05", .05" radius corner flaw
Element Other For thickness .125", .25" long through thickness flaw
For thickness > .125", .125" deep x .25" long surface flaw
Welds TBD
Embedded TBD
Defects
Metallic Structure
Fail-safe Adjacent Holes, cutouts, For thickness .05", .05" long through thickness flaw +
Structure etc. For thickness > .05", .05" radius corner flaw +
For thickness .125", .25" long through thickness flaw +
Multiple Load Path Other For thickness > .125", .125" deep x .25" long surface flaw +
Dependent
Multiple Load Path Holes, cutouts, .005" radius corner flaw +
Independent and Crack etc.
Arrest .01" deep x .02" long surface flaw +
Other
Other Material Systems TBD TBD
(3)
Fastener hole, Cutout, etc. Diametrically opposite side of hole .005" radius corner flaw +
where damage terminated
Other Diametrically opposite side of hole .005" radius corner flaw +
where damage initiated
Complete element or Critical location in adjacent structure .005" radius corner flaw +
member failure or
.01" deep x .02" long surface flaw(4) +
(1) Applicable to metallic structures only, requirements for other material systems are TBD.
(2) Flaw oriented in most criticial direction.
(3)
(4) Other flaw shapes and sizes can be assumed based on an equivalent stress intensity.
Damage from a 1.0" diameter hemispherical impactor with 100 ft-lbs of kinetic
Impact Damage energy or with that kinetic energy required to cause a dent 0.10" deep, whichever is
less.
(1) PXX = Maximum average internal member load (without clipping) that will occur once in M times the inspection
interval. Where PDM or PLT is determined to be less than the design limit load, the design limit load should be the
required residual strength load level. PXX need not be greater than 1.2 times the maximum load in one lifetime, if
PXX is greater than the design limit load.
(2) Most damaging design mission.
(3) See 3.12.2.a.
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8. Author(s)/Editor(s) 9. Date
Multiple February 2002
10. Authors/Editors Address 11. Pages
Multiple 300
12. Distribution Statement There are no restrictions on the distribution of this document.
Information about the availability of this and other RTO
unclassified publications is given on the back cover.
13. Keywords/Descriptors
14. Abstract
This RTO Task Group reviewed the requirements which regular flight and manoeuvring will put
as design loads on the structure of future NATO aircraft, addressing also safety aspects,
structural weight, elastic effects and influence of the control system. Treated are: load critical
flight manoeuvres as well as external loads such as induced by turbulence. Existing
specifications are reviewed and procedures for establishing design loads are presented. Metal
and composite structures are treated, and the analysis pertains to main structures as well as
critical subassemblies. Under operational aspects the monitoring of loads and of structural
fatigue are treated and some actual failure cases are analysed. The request for NATO
agreements on relevant design criteria is mentioned.
This page has been deliberately left blank
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