https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Academic_degree

Emergence of the doctors and masters degrees and the licentiate

The doctorate (Latin: doceo I teach) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach (Latin: licentia
docendi) at a medieval university.[2]Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor"
referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted
the Bible.[2] The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the church which required the
applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of
1179 guaranteed the access now largely free of charge of all able applicants, who were, however,
still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. [3] This right remained a bone of contention between
the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the Pope to
the University of Paris in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi).
[3]
However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree
(Baccalaureus), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of
which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching. [3]
At the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild.[4] The traditional term of study
before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts", seven years, was the same as the
term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were
synonymous,[5] but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than
the master degree.
Today the terms "master", "doctor" (from the Latin meaning literally: "teacher") and "professor" signify
different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university they were equivalent terms, the
use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university. (Most universities conferred
the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor
of Theology/Divinity depending on the place).
The earliest doctoral degrees (theology Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), law Legum Doctor (LL.D., later
D.C.L.) and medicine Medicin Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all higher
University study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside
theology, and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used
more often for earned degrees. Studies outside theology, law, and medicine were then called
"philosophy", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical
observation. The degree title of Doctor of Philosophy is of a much later time, and was not introduced in
England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified
as sciences and humanities.
The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to
confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in
other subjects, including medicine.[6]
The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by
the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St
Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh.

Emergence of the bachelor's degree[edit]

In the medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in
the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and
the quadrivium (mathematics, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts, and
who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree
of Bachelor of Arts, from the Latin baccalaureus, a term previously used of a squire (i.e., apprentice) to
a knight. Further study, and in particular successful participation in and then moderating
of disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from the Latin magister, "master" (typically
indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Master of Arts were eligible to enter study
under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelor's and then master
or doctor's degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully
qualified master hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin gradus ("step").

The evolution of the terminology of degrees[edit]

1
The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties
of arts or grammar became known as "master", but those in theology, medicine, and law were known as
"doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as
theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master degree. This
led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a
degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German
universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the
term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.
The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalaurat (cf.
"bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary
education and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are
awarded licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to
teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had a similar structure: the
term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known
as "Bachillerato". The standard Spanish university 5-years degree was "Licenciado", (although there
were a few 3-years associate degrees called "diplomaturas", from where the "diplomados" could move
to study a related licenciatura). The highest level was "Doctor".

Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities[edit]

In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather
than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Great Britain, Lambeth
Degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury.[7] The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to
grant degrees is derived from Peter's Pence Act of 1533 which empowered the Archbishop to grant
dispensations previously granted by the Pope.[8]
Among educational institutions, St David's College, Lampeter was granted limited degree awarding
powers by royal charter in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. University College
North Staffordshire was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not
becoming a university (as the University of Keele) until 1962. Following the Education Reform Act 1988,
many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree awarding powers,
including higher education colleges and colleges of the University of London (many of which are now
effectively universities in their own right). [9]

Academic dress[edit]
Main article: Academic dress
In most countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress
particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them.

Indicating earned degrees[edit]

Depending on culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title, post-
nominal letters, a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-
nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many
northern European countries.
Depending on the culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees,
or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may also be shown, and it might be specified if a
degree was at honours level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the
ordinary bachelor's degree. [10]
For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities, there is a standard list of
abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, but in practice
many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those
used by the universities concerned. [11] For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin
abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge respectively,[12]
[13]
in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage,
[14]
particularly in order to distinguish the Oxbridge MA from an earned MA.[15] Other Latin abbreviations
commonly used include 'Cantuar' for Lambeth degrees (awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury),
[14]
'Dunelm' for Durham University,[16][17] 'Ebor' for the University of York[18]and 'Exon' for the University of
Exeter.[19] The Ancient universities of Scotland and the University of London have abbreviations that are

2
the same in English and Latin. (See Universities in the United Kingdom Post-nominal
abbreviations for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.)
Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the University of York in the UK
and York University in Canada, or Newcastle University in the UK and the University of Newcastle in
Australia. In this case, the convention is to include a country abbreviation with the university's name.
For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to
denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists, [20] and institution
names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. [11]
Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates Master of
Science in the US and places following American usage, but Master of Surgery in the UK and most
Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common
abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and Master of Arts, BS/BSc and MS/MSc
for Bachelor and Master of Science, MD for Doctor of Medicine, and PhD for Doctor of Philosophy.[21][22]

Online degree[edit]
Main article: Online degree
An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes
high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely
through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional
campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the
need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have
led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral
degrees.[23]

Degree systems by regions[edit]

Asia[edit]
Bangladesh, India and Pakistan[edit]
Bangladesh, India and Pakistan mostly follow the colonial era British system for classification of
degrees. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, have the corresponding degrees:
Bachelor of Arts (BA) and the Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'Arts'
but is nowadays considered a major new stream, Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and
Master Of Business Administration (MBA). Science referring to the basic sciences and natural science
(Biology, Physics, Chemistry etc.) the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) and its
master is called Master of Science (M.Sc.). Another new set of Information Technology degree
conferred specially in the field of computer science, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
(B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degrees in India
follow two common patterns. Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) both
representing a bachelor's degree in engineering and Pakistan Engineering Degrees are Bachelor of
Engineering (B.E.) and B.Sc. Engineering both are same in curriculum, duration and pattern. where as
B. Tech. Degree holders in Pakistan are not considered as Engineers as per Pakistan Engineering
Council criteria for engineers they are considered as technologist in Pakistan. Medical Degree
Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS), Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS),(BCA)-
Bachelor of Computer Application and (MCA)-Master of Computer Application.
Sri Lanka[edit]
Sri Lanka as many other commonwealth countries follow the British system with its own distinctions.
Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission.

Africa[edit]
Tunisia[edit]
Grading in Tunisia is done on a scale of 0-20. The passing grade is 10 out of 20 which is 50% of the
complete mark; 20. This grading system is used from middle-school up to university level. A PhD thesis
is even graded out of 20.

3
To get ahead on the academic ladder, one is strictly assessed numerically. That is; if you are a BA
holder applying for an MA program you will be admitted according to how high your grades were during
your undergraduate years.

Europe[edit]
Main articles: Bologna process, European Higher Education Area, and European Qualifications
Framework
Since the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the
European Region in 1997 and the Bologna declaration in 1999, higher education systems in Europe are
being harmonised through the Bologna process, based on a three-cycle hierarchy of
degrees: Bachelor's/Licence Master's Doctorate, with the later addition of a "short cycle (within the
first cycle)" to cover sub-bachelor's qualifications. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage
system previously used in some countries, and is combined with other elements such as the European
Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and the use of Diploma Supplements to make
comparisons between qualifications easier.
The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was formally established in 2010 and as of September
2016 has 50 members.[24] Implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies. Twenty-four
countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a
framework but have not yet certified it against the overarching framework; in 38 countries ECTS
credits are used for all higher education programmes; 31 countries have fully implemented diploma
supplements; and only 11 countries have included all the major points of the Lisbon Recognition
Convention in national legislation.[25]
From 2008, the European Union has been developing the European Qualifications Framework (EQF).
This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national
qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to higher education, the top four levels (58)
correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle and third cycle of the EHEA. [26][27]
Austria[edit]
In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:

the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/Diplom followed by the Doctorate, and

the three-cycle system of Bachelor, Master and Doctorate as defined by the Bologna process.

With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010. [28] Some of the
established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-
Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.
Czech Republic[edit]
The Czech Republic implemented Bologna process so there are basically three degrees: Bachelor (3
years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (3 years after Master).
There are also voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e. g. RNDr. for natural sciences,
PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) achieved after rigorosum exam. Medical students don't get
bachelor's or master's degrees, instead they study six years and after obligatory rigorosum exam they
get title MUDr. (equivalent to MDdegree)[clarification needed] or MDDr. for dentists or MVDr. for veterinary
physicians. They can also get "big doctorate" (Ph.D.) after another three years of studies.
Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of shortcuts (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...)
are listed before name of person, Doctor degree (Ph.D.) is listed after name (e. g. MUDr. Jan Novk,
Ph.D.). Czechs are very proud of their academic degrees and titles therefore its omission is considered
disrespectful.
Denmark[edit]
See also: Bologna process
Before the adaptation to international standards, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at
universities in Denmark was equivalent to a master's degree (Kandidat/cand.mag). Denmark has two
forms of master's degrees; candidate and master.
Officially, bachelor's degrees have always been obtained after 3 years' university studies.

4
Various medium-length (24 years) professional degrees have been adapted so they now have status
as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length, and opposed to academic bachelor's degrees
they are considered to be "applied" degrees.
The degrees available are: pb. (professional bachelor's degree = 2-3 years), b. (bachelor's = 3-3
years), cand. (candidate = 5-5 years), M (master's = any of the former degrees plus 2 years), Ph.D
(professional experience required plus minimum year of lectures and minimum 23 years of studying
for a dissertation no less than 200 pages). .[29]
Finland[edit]
Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current
system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and
the polytechnics, many of whom refer to themselves as Universities of Applied Sciences (UAS)
[http://www.okm.fi/OPM/Koulutus/yliopistokoulutus/?lang=en, http://www.okm.fi/OPM/Koulutus/ammattik
orkeakoulutus/?lang=en]. With the exception of few fields such as Medicine and Dentistry, the Finnish
system of Higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award
bachelor's degrees (kandidaatti / kandidat), Master's degrees (maisteri / magister) and Doctoral
degrees (lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen and tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen). In most fields the
system of doctoral degrees is two-tier, the degree of Licentiate is an independent academic degree but
completing the degree of Doctor does not require completion of a Licentiate degree. The Polytechnics
(Universities of Applied Sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees, the degree
titles of are distinct from the titles used for university degrees.
In general, students who are admitted to bachelor studies at a university have the right to continue to
studies at master level. At polytechnics, the right to continue to master-level studies has to be applied
for separately, and there is also a work experience requirement. The majority of master's degree
holders have graduated from university.
The degrees awarded by the universities and polytechnics are at par by law, but the content and
orientation of studies is different. A master's degree obtained at a polytechnic gives the same academic
right to continue studies at Doctoral level as a master's degree obtained at a university.
France[edit]

Degre
Diploma
e

Docto
Doctorate's Diploma
rate

Maste Universities coles suprieures

r

Publi Veterin
Gene Accou Busine Engineeri Militar c ary
Medical and Paramedical Art
ral nting ss ng y Affair Scienc
s e

Mast diplme de formation diplm Architect Diplom Engineer' Diplom Diplo diplme
er's approfondie (Medicine, Mid e State as of s degree a of ma of dtude
Diplo wifery, Odontology, Pharma supri Diploma[3 the uni diplme the co an Ins s
1]
ma cy) eur de versit de le titut fondam
dipl compt diplme Paris- managem spcial d'tud entales
me abilit national Dauphi ent et e es vtrina
d'tu et de suprieu ne[36] contrle militair politiq ires[40]
des gestio r d'arts du trafic e de ues
appr plastique Diplom arien an Saint-
5
 s[32]
Diploma
of
the cole
nationale
ofond suprieur
ies e des
dipl arts
me dcoratif d diplme
d'tu s[33] dingnier
des diplme ie des
supr national systmes
ieure suprieu as of lectroniq
s r some ues de la
spci d'expres Busine scurit
n[30] Cyr[39]
alis sion ss arienne
es plastique[ School of
(both 34]
s[37] the cole
diplom Graduate nationale
as diplomas de
phase of l'aviation
d out
and no
the cons civile[38]
longer ervatoire
deliver national
ed) suprieur
de
musique
et de
danse de
Paris[35]

diplme
dtudes
en
architect
ure[44]
Undergra Diplom
diplme de formation diplm
duate a of
gnrale (Medicine, Midwife e de
Licenci diplomas the co
ry, Odontology, Pharmacy) compt
Licen ate's of le
[41]
abilit
ce Diplom Nurse State Diploma the cons militair
et de
a Ergotherapist State ervatoire e
gestio
Diploma[42] national interar
n[43]
suprieur mes[45]
de
musique
et de
danse de
Paris

Bacca
laurea Bachelor's Diploma
te

The French national education system makes a distinction between a diplme national ("national
degree") and diplme universitaire ("university degree"). The former, which are considered higher
6
status, are controlled by the state and issued by universities on behalf of the responsible ministry; the
latter are controlled and granted by the universities themselves. [46] Additionally, private providers may be
recognised by the state and then, after five years of recognition, have their degrees validated by the
state, the validation having to be renewed every six years. [47] Historically, academic degrees were
orientated towards research and the vocational education system awarded only diplomas. Since the
implementation of the Bologna Process in France, things are going towards a simplification: schools
continue to deliver their own diplomas, but the State recognition and degree awarding is far more
ranged than before. Diploma courses such as the Technological University Diploma (diplme
universitaire de technologie; DUT) and the Technologist's Certificate (brevet de technician suprieur;
BTS) are now recognised as "short cycle" qualifications worth 120 ECTS credits, allowing progression
from these to academic qualifications. [48] Nonetheless, there are diplomas in France with no degree
recognition, e.g. specific diplomas designed by various institutions with no recognition from the Ministry
of Education, such as the mastre spcialis[49] or the Sciences Po Bachelor.
The recognised degrees fall in three levels, following the Qualifications Framework of the European
Higher Education Area. These are the licence (first cycle), master (second cycle) and doctorat (third
cycle). All licence degrees are 3 years (180 ECTS credits) in length and all master's degrees are 2
years (120 ECTS credits) in length. There are also 5 year (300 ECTS credits) engineer's degrees,
which are master's degree. In addition to the doctorate, which is always a research degree,
the Diplme d'Etat de docteur en mdicine and the Diplme d'Etat de docteur vtrinaire are also
considered third cycle qualifications. [50]
Germany[edit]
Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four to six years either with a Magister degree
in Social Sciences, Humanities, Linguistics and the Arts or with a Diplom degree in Natural
Sciences, Economics, Business Administration, Political
Science, Sociology, Theology and Engineering. Those degrees were the first and at the same time
highest non-PhD/Doctorate-title in many disciplines before its gradual replacement by other, Anglo-
Saxon-inspired master's and bachelor's degrees under the. Bologna process.
The Magister and Diplom awarded by universities, both of which require a final thesis, are considered
equivalent to a master's degree, although the Diplom awarded by a Fachhochschule (university of
applied sciences) is at bachelor's degree level. [51]
A special kind of examination is the Staatsexamen (State Examination). It is not an academic degree
but a government licensing examination that future doctors, dentists, teachers, lawyers (solicitors),
judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys, and pharmacists have to pass in order to be eligible to
work in their profession. Students usually study at university for three to six year, depending on the
field, before they take the first Staatsexamen. While this. is normally at master's level, a few courses
(e.g. primary and lower secondary level teaching), which have a standard study period of three years,
are assigned to bachelor's level. [52] After the first Staatsexamen, teachers and lawyers go through a form
of pupillage, the Vorbereitungsdienst, for two years, before they are able to take the second
Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs. [51] At some institutions pharmacists and
jurists can choose whether to be awarded the first Staatsexamen or a master's degree (or formerly
the Diplom).
Since 1999, the traditional degrees have been replaced by bachelor's (Bachelor) and master's (Master)
degrees as part of the Bologna process. The main reasons for this change are to make degrees
internationally comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to
complete (German students typically took five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some
universities were initially resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition
for the pure sake of globalization. However, universities had to fulfill the new standard by the end of
2007. Enrollment into Diplom and Magister programs is no longer possible. However, programs leading
to Staatsexamen did usually not make the transition to Bologna degrees.
Doctorates are issued with various designations, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der
Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law);
Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a
few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in
German-speaking countries. A Diplom, Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a
doctorate. Well qualified bachelor's graduates can also enrol directly into PhD programs after a
procedure to determine their aptitude administered by the admitting university.[53] The doctoral degree
(e.g., Dr. rer. nat., Dr. phil. and others) is the highest academic degree in Germany and generally a
7
research degree. The degree Dr. med. for medical doctors has to be viewed differently; medical
students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any
previous conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write
a Diplom, Magister or Master's thesis.[citation needed] Higher doctorates, such as the D.Sc. degree in the UK,
are not present in the German system.
However, sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation is a higher academic
qualification in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland that allows further teaching and research
endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or
presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic. The exact requirements for
satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated to represent
that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification
for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (Senior Lecturer) in an academic
professorship. Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may
still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields.
Ireland[edit]
Ireland operates under a National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school leaving qualification
attained by students is called the Leaving Certificate. It is considered Level 4-5 on the framework. This
qualification is the traditional route of entry into third level education. There are also Level 5
qualifications in certain vocational subjects (e.g. Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations) awarded
by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC). Advanced Certificates at level 6 are
also awarded by FETAC.
The Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) award the following: A higher certificate at
Level 6; An ordinary bachelor's degree at Level 7; An honours bachelor's degree or higher diploma at
Level 8; A master's degree or postgraduate diploma at Level 9; A doctoral degree or higher doctorate at
level 10.[54] These are completed in institutes of technology or universities.
Italy[edit]
See also: Higher education in Italy
In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the Diploma di Maturit at 19 years of age,
following 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. liceo
classico focused on classical subjects, including ancient Greek and Latin; liceo scientifico focused on
scientific subjects such as Maths, Chemistry and Physics but also including ancient Latin and Italian
Literature; liceo linguistico focused on Foreign Languages and Literature; istituto tecnico focused on
practical and theoretical subjects such as Mechanics, Electronics and Economy).
After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine,
chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university
curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests.
In 2011, Italy introduced a qualifications framework, known as the Quadro dei Titoli Italiani (QTI), tied to
the three cycles of the Bologna Process. This tied together in a three-level system both the new
qualifications introduced as part of the Bologna process and the older, pre-Bologna qualifications, and
covers qualifications from university institutions and higher education institutions for fine arts, music and
dance (AFAM institutions).[55] In addition to academic degrees, many professional qualifications are tied
to the QTI at the different levels.[56]
The first level, tied to the first cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the laurea (bachelor's degree) in
universities, and the Diploma accademico di primo livello in AFAM institutions.[57] The older qualifications
mapped to this level are the Diploma universitario and the Diploma di scuole dirette a fini speciali
(SDAFS) from universities, and the Diploma di Conservatorio, Diploma di Istituto Musicale
Pareggiato, Diploma dell'Accademia di Belle Arti, Diploma dell'Istituto Superiore delle Industrie
Artistiche (ISIA), Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Danza and Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di
Arte Drammatica from AFAM institutions.[58] The laurea is obtained after three years of study (180 ECTS
credits), and gives the academic title of dottore;[57] the older university qualifications at this level took two
to three years, with three year courses granting the title of dottore.[58]
The second level, tied to the second cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the Laurea magistrale and
the laurea specialistica in university institutions and the Diploma accademico di secondo livello in AFAM
institutions.[57] The old Diploma di laurea is mapped to this level.[58] The Laurea magistrale and the laurea
specialistica are obtained after two further years of study (120 ECTS credits), and give the academic
8
title of dottore magistrale.[57] The old Diploma di laurea took four to six years but was accessed directly
from school, with a possible reduction by one year for those with a related diploma, and also granted
the title of dottore magistrale.[58]
The third level, tied to the third cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the Dottorato di ricerca in
university institutions and the Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca in AFAM institutions.[57] The
old Dottorato di ricerca and Diploma di specializzazione are tied to this level.[58] The Dottorato di ricerca,
under both new and old systems, takes a minimum of three years after the laurea
magistralie/specialistica and gives the academic titles of Dottore di Ricerca (Dott. Ric.) and PhD.[57]
[58]
The old Diploma di specializzazione took two to six years and gave the academic title of Specialista.
[58]

Universities in Italy offer a number of other qualifications including the Master universitario di primo
livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 2nd cycle qualification) and the Master universitario di secondo livello (1
year/60 ECTS credits, 3rd cycle qualification), following on from the laurea and the laurea
magistrale/specialistica respectively. These do not give access to the PhD. The Diploma di
specializzazione, which is offered in a few specific professions, takes two to six years and gives the title
of specialista. The Diploma di perfezionamento is a university certificate, aimed at professional training
or in specific study fields, which usually takes one year; it is not allocated a level on the framework. [59]
AFAM institutions may offer Diploma di perfezionamento o Master and Diploma accademico di
specializzazione. These are one year and two year qualifications respectively and may be offered at
second cycle or third cycle level, distinguished by adding (I) or (II) after the qualification name. Higher
Schools for Language Mediators offer the Diploma di mediatore linguistico, a first cycle degree taking
three years (180 ECTS credits), which gives access to the laurea specialistica. Specialisation
Institutes/Schools in Psychoterapy offer the Diploma di specializzazione in psicoterapia, a third cycle
qualification taking at least four years and requiring a laurea magistrale/specialistica in either
Psychology or Medicine and Surgery, along with professional registration. [59]
Netherlands[edit]
See also: Education in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982 when the
"Tweefasenstructuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Wim
Deetman. With this two phase structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies
and structure them to an identical timetable. Additional effect was that students would be persuaded
stringently to produce results within a preset time-frame, or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two
phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the Bologna process.
Admission[edit]
In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, the student must complete a six-
year pre-university secondary education called "voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs" (vwo).
There are other routes possible, but only if the end level of the applicant is comparable to the two levels
is access to university education is granted. For some studies, specific end levels or disciplines are
required, e.g., graduating without physics, biology, and chemistry will make it impossible to
study medicine. People 21 years old or older who do not have the required entrance diplomas may opt
for an entrance exam for being admitted to a higher education curriculum. In this exam, they have to
prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After September 1,
2002 they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum.
For some studies[60][61] in the Netherlands, a governmental determined limited access is in place
(although under political review for abolishment, February 2011). [62] This is a limitation of the number of
applicants to a specific study, thus trying to control the eventual number of graduates. The most
renowned studies for their numerus clausus are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of
the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start
such a numerus clausus study and who can not.
Almost all Dutch universities are government supported universities, with only very few privately owned
universities in existence (i.e. one in business, and all others in theology). Leiden University is the oldest,
founded in 1575.
Pre-Bologna phases[edit]
Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands
had the same length of four years and had two phases:
9
 The "propedeutische fase" (12 years): After finishing this phase a student can follow another
two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (Bachelor of Science), BA
(Bachelor of Arts) or LLB (Bachelor of Laws).
The "doctorale fase" (34 years): Completing the first phase successfully gives the student
access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation.
This phase is concluded with the "doctoraal examen" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type
of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of PhD title. Successful completion
however does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "doctorandus", ir. ("ingenieur"
engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" - master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been
largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (Master of Science), MA (Master of Arts), and LLM
(Master of Laws), depending on the area of study.

For medical students the "doctorandus" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon
postgraduate research degree in medicine of MD (Medical Doctor). Besides the title doctorandus, the
graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title arts (physician). The doctorandus in medicine
title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is
granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc
degree according to the Bologna process, and can be compared with the MBBS in the UK degree
system, and the North American MD, but not the UK MD degree, which is a research degree. One-on-
one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However,
officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch
physician who completed his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctor (PhD-like) study is
"drs." (e.g. drs. Jansen, arts) and not "dr." in medicine, as often used incorrectly. However, like in the
United Kingdom, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy. In the
Netherlands, there is the informal title dokter for physicians, but not doctor (dr.), unless they also earn
such degree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the "doctorandus" degree does not give a
medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years additional study (internships)
is required. After obtaining a Medical Board registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two
to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly
are only granted access to surgeon training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD)
successfully. In recent years, the six-year (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles
doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three-year (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+
followed by a three-year (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already begun their old-style
Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six-year study (nominal time).
A doctorandus in law uses the title "meester" (master, abbreviated as mr. Jansen) instead of drs., and
some studies like for example technique and agriculture grant the title "ingenieur" (engineer, noted as ir.
Jansen) instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to an LL.M (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.),
and if got before September 1, 2002 from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from
Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch shortcuts before one's name. Since
September 1, 2002, Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or
LLM studies, thus integrating into and merging with the international scientific community, offering
lectures, other classes, seminars, or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their
field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names, MA graduates may use drs.
before their name and LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such
degrees from recognized Dutch universities.
Not uncommonly, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is
perceived as a person who has a PhD in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree MPhil is
not legally recognised.
After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir.", or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a
promotion study (informally called PhD) to eventually obtain a doctorate, and subsequently the title
"doctor". Promotion studies are structured ideally according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years,
during which the student has to be mentored by at least one professor. The promotion study has to be
concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in
practice the Board of the Faculty with guest professors from other faculties and/or universities added.
More and more common, and in some disciplines even mandatory, is that the student writes and
submits scientific publications to peer-reviewed journals, which eventually need to be accepted for
publication. The number of publications is often debated and varies considerably between the various

10
disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation or
thesis in book form.
Bachelor/master structure[edit]
All current Dutch academic education programs are offered in the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master
structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelor's degree and another one or two years to earn a
master's degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc, and LLB) and three official
master titles (MA, MSc, and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government.
Academic title bearing[edit]
After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter
D following their name, but not both simultaneously.[63] There is no specific notation of the discipline in
which the doctorate is obtained.
Stacking of the titles as seen in countries such as Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber) is highly
uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctor titles
may use dr.mult. before their name, but this is seldomly seen in practice. [63] The honoris cause doctors
may use dr.h.c. before their name.[63] Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines,
is allowed however (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir.
Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a HBO, vocational (or
professional) engineering degree together with an academic engineering degree. [64] What is not allowed
is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead.
A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number
of international professional titles.[64] Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch title, or use
the shortcut provided by the law following one's name (since September 1, 2002 it is the other way
around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts
before their names).[64][65] Hence, formal use of the Anglo-Saxon PhD following one's name is not legal,
as it is not a Dutch degree. However, its use is commonly used for clarity towards international readers,
for example English publications. The law provides the option of using the shortcut D following one's
name instead of dr. before one's name.
"Doctors" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "universitair docent" (UD assistant professor).
With time, experience, and/ or achievement, this can evolve to a position as "universitair hoofddocent"
(UHD associate professor). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "hoogleraar", the
head of the department and commonly a professor. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that
a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement, and expertise. The
position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university, and equivalent to the
US "full" professor. The Dutch professor's title, noted as prof. Jansen or professor Jansen, is connected
to one's employment. This means that, should the professor leave the university, he or she also loses
the privilege to use the title of professor. Retired professors are an exception, and may continue to note
the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a
non-university job lose their professor title, and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation.
Unlike some other European countries such as Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside
academia, hold no value in everyday life, and typically are not listed on official documentation (e.g.
passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles however are legally
protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is
considered a misdemeanor and subject to legal prosecution. [66][67] Holders of foreign degrees therefore
need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their
own foreign title (untranslated).[68][69][70][71] In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal
use of a protected title (in the Netherlands applies the principle of opportunity, so some known crimes
are not prosecuted).[72]
Norway[edit]
Prior to 1980, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs within the
Norwegian higher education system. Degrees had titles that included the gender based Latin
term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding
to the profession or training. For example, Cand.Mag. (Candidatus Magisterii) required 4 to 5 years,
Cand.Real.[73] (Candidatus Realium) required 6 years of study and a scientific thesis in a select set of
scientific disciplines (realia). Over the years these were replaced gradually with degrees that were more
and more internationally comparable programs and corresponding titles. For example, the degree
11
Cand. Scient. replaced Cand. Real. in the period 1985 to 2003. These degrees were all retired in 2003
in favour of an international system.
The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the
Norwegian Parliament, the Storting, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It
introduced standard periods of study and the titles master and bachelor (baccalaureus).
The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology. The
latter corresponds to the former sivilingenir degree (not to be confused with a degree in civil
engineering, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title sivilingenir, which is still in use for
new graduates who can choose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were
replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written philosophi doctor (instead of the
traditional doctor philosophi). The title dr. philos. is a substantially higher degree than the PhD[citation
needed]
, and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized
doctoral degree program.
Poland[edit]
See also: Bologna_process Poland
In Poland the system is similar to the German one.

licencjat title given by a university; the equivalent of Bachelor of Arts degree or Bachelor of
Science degree (depending on academic major); granted after at least 3 years of study.
inynier (in.) title Engineer's degree given by a technical university; granted after at least 3.5
to 4 years of study.
magister (mgr) or magister inynier (mgr in.) title the equivalent of a Master of Arts or Master
of Science degree, granted after 56 years of study, or 1.52 years of additional study by holders of
a bachelor degree with classification of Honours Degree.
doktor (dr) degree the equivalent of Doctor of Philosophy.
doktor habilitowany (dr hab.) degree Polish Habilitation degree, requires approval by an
external ministerial body.
profesor (prof.) degree the highest title, officially conferred by the President of Poland.

Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics[edit]

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Since 1992, Russian higher education has introduced a multilevel system, enabling higher education
institutions to award and issue Bachelor of Science and Master of Science Degrees. [74]
In Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics educational degrees are awarded after
finishing college education. There are several levels of education one must choose between 2nd and
3rd year usually on the 3rd year of study.[75]

1. Bachelor degree usually takes 4 years of college. (minimum level to be recognized as having
Higher Education)
2. Specialist degree is awarded after 5 years of college. (4 + 1)
3. Master's (Magister) degree is awarded after 6 years of college. (4 + 2) [76]

(But Specialist degree can appear equivalent to Magister degree by reason of equivalence of amount of
educational time). Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporates bachelor's degree in them, but
only high-level degree is stated in final diploma. Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final
state exams and written work on practical application of studied skills or research thesis (usually 70-100
pages) and is roughly equivalent to Master's degree.[77]
The first level academic degree is called "Kandidat nauk" (that could be translated verbatim as a
"Candidate of Sciences"). This degree requires extensive research efforts, taking some classes,
publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (not less than 5 publications in Ukraine or 3
publications in Russia), taking 3 or more exams (one or more in their speciality, one in a foreign

12
language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and writing and defending an in-depth
thesis (80-200 pages) called a "dissertation".
Finally, there is a "Doktor Nauk" (that could be translated verbatim as a "Doctor of Sciences") degree in
Russia and some former USSR academic environment. This degree is granted for contributions in a
certain field (formally who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of
new phenomenon, or development of new theory, or essential development of new direction, etc. There
is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in US academic system. It is roughly equivalent
to Habilitation in Germany, France, Austria, and some other European countries.
In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be
considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral
degree, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree.
According to Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries [78] In countries
with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for
recognition at the level of the second doctoral degree. In countries in which only one doctoral degree
exists, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of this degree.
According to International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) UNESCO 2011,[79] par.262 for
purposes of international educational statistics

1. DPhil to Kandidat Nauk/Philosophy,

2. D.Lit to Kandidat Nauk in Literature,
3. D.Sc to Kandidat Nauk of Natural Science,
4. LL.D to Kandidat Nauk of Legal Science.

Spain[edit]
Spain's higher-education legal framework includes: Official and accredited education, and Non-official
education.
1.1 Official and accredited education.
In Spain, accreditation of official university study programmes is regulated by law and monitored by
governmental agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and
accreditation.
Official professional study programmes lead to degree qualifications (Ttulos) with full academic and
professional effects, and the degrees awarded in accordance with the latest higher-education system
are:
1. Bachelors Degree (Grado) 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years.
2. Masters Degree (Master Universitario) 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 12 years.
3. Doctoral Degree PhD (Doctorado) in 34 years.
Accredited bachelor's degrees and master's degrees qualifications will always be described as "Grado"
and "Master Universitario". These qualifications comply with the European Higher Education Area
(EHEA)[80] framework. Officially approved and accredited university study programmes must implement
this framework by law in order to attain and retain accreditation in Spain.

Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02

13
1.2 Non-official education.
Not all EHEA compliant study programmes in Spain are officially approved and/or accredited by
government agencies. Some universities offer proprietary study programmes as an alternative to
accredited study programmes for a variety of reasons: attending the continuing education market for
individual self-advancement and also providing higher education to individuals that have failed to
acquire bachelor's degree qualifications. The main reason for offering this alternative studies, though, is
the heavy bureaucratic process that needs to be accomplished to receive the approval of specific titles,
in particular when it refers to new studies or studies about matters that do not fit with the official studies.
For historical reasons, the academic system has been very much under the control of the State, and
private universities are still regarded with as a threat to the State system.
These programmes fall within the category of "Non officially approved and accredited" or "Estudios no
oficiales" and they have no academic or professional effects. This means that they do not entitle the
bearer to claim to have any specific academic or professional qualifications, as far as the Spanish
authorities are concerned. However, there may be private agreements to recognize the titles.

Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 01

Universities offering non-official study programmes are legally bound to clearly differentiate between
officially approved and non-officially approved qualifications when naming their offer of non-official
qualifications. Non-accredited master's degrees will be described as "Master" on its own, without the
term "Universitario".
Certain non-officially approved and accredited study programmes may acquire a well deserved
reputation. However, neither Professional Association, Government Agencies, Judiciary Authorities, nor
Universities -other than the study programme provider- are obliged to recognize non-official
qualifications in any way.
2. Accreditation System
University taught study programmes accreditation is granted through the ANECA, [81] a government
dependent quality assurance and accreditation provider for the Spanish Higher Education System and
ensures that the data held in the RUCT,[82] a national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct
and up to date. All study programmes must be accredited by ANECA[81] prior to their inclusion in the
RUCT.[82] The RUCT[82] records all officially approved Universities and their bachelor's degrees, Master's
Degrees and PhDs, and each and every one of the officially approved and accredited study
programmes and universities are assigned a specific number Code (Cdigo) by the RUCT. The same
study programme may acquire different codes as it progresses through various stages of official
approval by local government and central government.
Prospective students should check the RUCT[82] Code awarded to the study programme of their interest
at every stage of their enquiries concerning degrees in Spain.
ANECA makes recommendations regarding procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources
available to students, and continuity or loss of accreditation and the ANECA Registry [83] records all
events in the life of an officially approved and accredited study programme or a university. The ANECA
Registry Search Facility[84] may be the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all officially
approved and accredited study programmes in Spain.
It is also possible to track qualifications by using the search facility that several Autonomous
Communities own accreditation agencies offer. These agencies work within the ANECA framework, and

14
generally show more detailed information about the study programmes available in each territory (i.e.:
Catalonia, Madrid, etc.)
3. Qualifications framework for Higher Education.
The qualifications framework for higher education MECES is the reference framework adopted in Spain
in order to structure degree levels.
Not all universities offer degrees named exactly the same, even if they have similar academic and
professional effects. Each university may present proposals for the study programme considered to
meet professional and academic demand. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study
programme being considered and the proposed qualification to be awarded. This report will be
assessed by ANECA and sent for the Consejo de Universidades Espaolas. [85] If the Consejo agrees
with ANECAs approval, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA registries. 4. Spanish qualifications
and their professional effects.
All bachelor's and master's degrees accredited by ANECA enjoy full academic and professional effects
in accordance with new and previous laws. Professional practice law in Spain is currently under
revision.
Sweden[edit]
See also: Bologna process Sweden

This section needs

expansion. You can help
by adding to it. (May 2008)

Switzerland[edit]
Before the Bologna Process after 4 or 5 years of study the academic degree of a Licentiate was
reached.[86] Depending on the official language of the university it was
called Lizentiat (German) Licence (French) or licenza (Italian) and is today considered equivalent[87] to
the Master's degree according to the Bologna reform. A Licentiate with a predefined qualification gave
access to the last stage of further two or more years of studies (depending on the field) for a Doctoral's
degree.
Apart from this most universities offered a Postgraduate Diploma with up to two years of study. French-
speaking universities called them diplme d'tudes approfondies DEA or DESS, the Italian-speaking
University post laurea and German-speaking universities mostly Nachdiplomstudium (NDS). Today the
federal legislation defines these postgraduate diplomas (60 ECTS credits) as Master of Advanced
Studies (MAS) or Executive Master of Business Administration (EMBA) degree. Universities may also
offer the possibility to gain a Diploma of Advanced Studies (DAS), less than 60 ECTS credits). [88] These
degrees do not normally give access to the doctorate study.
United Kingdom[edit]
England, Wales and Northern Ireland[edit]

The newly conferred bachelor's degree holders after graduation at King's College London, one of the founding
colleges of the University of London
The title 'degree' is protected under UK law. All valid UK degrees are awarded by universities or other
degree-awarding bodies whose powers to do so are recognised by the UK government; hence they are
known as 'recognised bodies'.[89]

15
The standard first degree in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the Bachelor's degree conferred
with honours. Usually this is a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree. Other
variants exist, for example Bachelor of Education. It usually takes three years to read for a bachelor's
degree.
The honours are usually categorised into four classes:

First class honours (1st)

Second class honours, divided into:
Upper division, or upper second (2:1)
Lower division, or lower second (2:2)
Third class honours (3rd)

Candidates who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without
honours to the 'ordinary' Bachelor's degree if they have met the required standard for this lesser
qualification (also referred to as a 'pass degree'). Standard levels for each of these classes are 70%+
for a first, 60-69% for a 2:1, 50-59% for a 2:2, 40-49% for a 3rd and 30%+ for a pass degree, although
this can vary by institution (e.g the Open University).[90]
The foundation degree[91] is a qualification at lower than Bachelor's level awarded following a two-year
programme of study that is usually vocational in nature. The foundation degree can be awarded by a
university or college of higher education that has been granted foundation degree awarding powers by
the UK government. This degree is comparable to an associate degree in the United States.
The universities of Oxford and Cambridge award honorary Master of Arts (MA) degrees to graduates of
their Bachelor's programmes, following a specified period of time. This is comparable to the practice of
the ancient universities in Scotland of awarding an MA for a first degree, and arguably reflects the
rigorous standards expected of their graduates.
Master's degrees[92] such as Master of Arts or Master of Science are typically awarded to students who
have undertaken at least a year of full-time postgraduate study, which may be taught or, in many cases,
involve an element of research. Degrees such as Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of
Letters/Literature (MLitt) are likely to be awarded for postgraduate degrees involving original research.
A student undertaking a Master's would normally be expected to already hold an honours degree in a
relevant subject, hence the possibility of reaching Master's level in one year.
Some universities award a Master's as a first degree following an integrated programme of study (an
'integrated master's degree'). These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as Master of
Engineering for engineering, Master of Physics for physics, Master of Mathematics for mathematics,
and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with
honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering
at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering.
The Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree is highly valued by those seeking to advance in
business as managers and decision makers.
Doctoral degrees or doctorates,[93] such as the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD or DPhil) or Doctor of
Education (EdD or DEd) are awarded following a programme of original research that contributes new
knowledge within the context of the student's discipline. Doctoral degrees usually take three years full-
time. Therefore, in the UK it may only take seven years to progress from undergraduate to doctoral
level in some cases six, since having a Master's is not always a precondition for embarking on a
Doctoral degree. This contrasts with nine years in the United States, reflecting differences in the
educational systems.
Some doctorates, such as the Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) qualification, confirm
competence to practice in particular professions. There are also higher doctorates Doctor of Science
(DSc) and Doctor of Letters/Literature (DLitt) that are typically awarded to experienced academics who
have demonstrated a high level of achievement in their academic career; for example they may have
published widely on their subject or become professors in their field.
UK post-secondary qualifications are defined at different levels, with levels 1-3 denoting further
education and levels 4-8 denoting higher education. Within this structure, a foundation degree is at level
5; a Bachelor's at level 6; at Master's at level 7; and a Doctoral degree at level 8. [94] Full information

16
about the expectations for different types of UK degree is published by the Quality Assurance Agency
for Higher Education.[95]
See also graduate certificate, graduate diploma, postgraduate certificate, postgraduate
diploma and British degree abbreviations.
Scotland[edit]
The standard first degree for students studying arts or humanities in Scotland is either a Bachelor of
Arts or a Master of Arts (the latter traditionally awarded by the Ancient Universities of Scotland for a first
degree in an arts/humanities subject). The standard undergraduate degree for natural and social
science subjects is the Bachelor of Science.[96]
Students can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary
degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons)
takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a
range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be
called a general degree; if a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that
named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in
which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied, and then two years of study at honours
level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.).
This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of Scottish secondary education, where
traditionally five Highers are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh A-Levels. The
Higher is a one-year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish
honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. Advanced Highers add an optional final
year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts students
with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish
universities.
Honours for MA or bachelor's degrees are classified into three classes:

First class honours

Second class honours, divided into:
Division one (2:1) [Upper Second Class Honours]
Division two (2:2) [Lower Second Class Honours]
Third class honours

Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but do not receive sufficient merit
to be awarded third-class honours may be awarded a Special Degree (ordinary degree bachelor's
level SCQF Level 9).
In most respects, the criteria for awarding qualifications at honours level and above are the same as in
the rest of the UK (see above under England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Postgraduate qualifications
are not designated Master of Arts as in the rest of the UK, as this is an undergraduate degree.
Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated Master of Letters (M.Litt)
or, in natural and social sciences, Master of Science (M.Sc). Non-doctoral postgraduate research
degrees are usually designated Master of Philosophy (M.Phil) or Master of Research (M.Res). The
postgraduate teaching qualification is the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE).
Postgraduate qualifications are classified into four classes:

Distinction
Credit
Merit
Pass

North America[edit]
Canada[edit]
In Canada, education is the responsibility of the provinces and territories, rather than the federal
government. However, all of Canada follows the three level bachelor'smaster'sdoctorate system

17
common to the Anglophone world, with a few variations. A common framework for degrees was agreed
between the provinces and territories in 2007. [97]
Bachelor's degrees are normally three to four years in duration, although more commonly three years in
Quebec (where they follow on from college courses rather than directly from secondary education).
Master's degrees take one to three years, again with the exception of Quebec where they take one and
a half to two years, and doctorates take a minimum of three years. Alone among Canadian provinces
and territories, British Columbia offers two year associate degrees, allowing credit to be transferred into
a four-year bachelor's program. [98] Three year bachelor's degrees are normally ordinary degrees, while
four year degrees are honours degrees; an honours degree is normally needed for further study at
master's level.[99]
In Canada, first professional degrees such as DDS, MD, PharmD and LLB or JD are considered
bachelor's level qualifications, despite their often being named as if they were doctorates. [97][100][101][102][103][104]
Quebec[edit]
In the province of Quebec, the majority of students must attend college prior to entering university.
Upon completion of a two-year pre-university program, such as in Sciences or Humanities, or a three-
year technical program, such as Nursing or Computer Science, college graduates obtain a college
diploma, which is a prerequisite access for university-level studies. Although the previously mentioned
college programs are typical, they are not offered in every institution in the province. Moreover, while a
few other pre-university programs with various concentrations exist, many other technical/career
programs are available depending on the college of choice. For example, Dawson
College in Montreal has nearly sixty different programs leading to a college diploma. Special programs,
such as physical rehabilitation therapy, are offered in some colleges as well. These programs are
particularly interesting because they allow students to enter professional university programs, such
as physiotherapy (which consists of an integrated Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy and Master of
Physical Therapy), without having to meet the usual grade and course prerequisites required from
students holding a pre-university science diploma. A similar option is offered for college nursing
graduates as they can pursue their studies in university to obtain a Bachelor of Nursing in two years
(rather than the usual three or four years, depending on whether the student has completed a college
diploma in Quebec). Additionally, whereas aspiring medical students are usually required to complete
an undergraduate degree before applying to medical schools, Quebec college graduates have the
option to enter:

a "medical preparatory" year at McGill University and Universit de Montral and then pursue
medical studies for the four following years or
simply directly into the undergraduate medical education program at Universit Laval (4 to 5
years in duration) or Universit de Sherbrooke (4 years in duration).

Mexico[edit]
Education in Mexico follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. The pre-
university academic level is the bachillerato (also called preparatoria), similar to high school. Students
typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a
specific academic area (a carrera).
After high school, students progress to university, where they study for a Tcnico Superior
universitario (Associate degree)[105] or a licenciatura (Bachelor), then a maestra (Master), then
a doctorado(doctorate).
Once in university, students begin the carrera, the study of a precise academic branch like economics,
business administration, sciences, law, engineering, or medicine. Students will be in university for 8-10
semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 45 years. Upon graduation, students receive
a licenciatura in their chosen subject area, which is equivalent to an American Bachelor's degree. They
can also get the degree of "ingenieria" or "medico" that refers to an engineer or MD respectively.
Several Mexican universities offer students the possibility of obtaining an equivalent to an Associate
degree, called in Mexico Tcnico Superior universitario (TSU), studying only half of the licenciatura,
with the possibility of finishing a full bachelor's degree later.[106] This is done mainly in field's like
engineering and computer sciences.

18
After receiving the licenciatura, students may take extra courses called diplomados (similar to
a Certification but issued by a university). These courses last 412 months and are a means to further
study without continuing to the next degree level, usually studied to demonstrate that the student still
updated in his field. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the maestra,
equivalent to the Master's degree. Study at the maestra level takes 13 years and mandates
completion of a thesis. Post-graduate students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few
years in the workforce and often continue working while studying.
Traditionally, students who have completed the maestria may continue on to the doctorado, or
the doctorate. Doctoral study typically lasts 34 years. In last years this schemes has become flexible
such that in some PhD programmes, students are accepted before, or not completing at all a Master
course.
United States[edit]
In the United States, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and
doctor has been in place, but has evolved into a slightly different pattern from the European equivalent.
The U.S. Department of Education now classifies degrees in six categories: associate
degrees, bachelor's degrees, first professional degrees, master's degrees, intermediate graduate
qualifications, and research doctorates.[107]
The standard academic progression remains bachelor'smaster's(research) doctorate. Most
standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree, most often Bachelor of
Arts (B.A.), or Bachelor of Science (B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of
Arts (M.A.), or Master of Science (M.S.); either of these programs might be as long as three years in
length), and a further two to five years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive"
examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a
dissertation for the doctorate, for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which
is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate,
however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years
or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In
addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next
level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time-limit on the
accumulation of academic degrees.
By far the most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), comprising 98.1% of
research doctorates in 2014. The Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) made up 1.1% (not including Ed.D.s
classified as professional degrees rather than research doctorates), and all other research doctorates
were less than 1% in total.[108][109][110]
Some schools, mostly junior colleges and community colleges and some four-year schools, offer
an associate degree for two full years of study. These may be in professional or academic fields, and
the most common awards are the Associate of Arts (A.A.) and Associate of Science (A.S.)
degrees. Articulation agreements may allow credit earned on an associate degree to be counted toward
completion of a bachelor's degree. [111]
The "first professional degree" is a graduate level degree program designed to prepare graduates for
professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship and research. First professional
degrees require a minimum of two years prior college-level education to enter the program, and a
minimum of six years total college-level education (including that undertaken prior to entry) to complete
the program.[112] Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission, and
many require seven or eight years of total study. Many first professional degrees,
e.g. M.D., J.D. or D.O. are named as doctorates but should not be confused with research doctorates
such as the Ph.D., which are the highest degrees offered in the United States. [113][114] First professional
degrees should also not be confused with professional master's degrees such as
the M.Arch. and M.B.A., which are classified as master's degrees,[115] or with intermediate graduate
qualifications that also bear the title of doctor, such as D.Min. or D.Psy.[116]
Intermediate graduate qualifications lie between master's level and the doctorate. They include awards
such as Advanced Certificates, Advanced Graduate Certificates, Graduate Diplomas, Professional
Engineer status and Professional Diplomas, as well as specialist degrees such as Education
Specialist, Doctor of Ministry, Doctor of Psychology and the Licentiate in Sacred Theology.[116]

19
In 21 US jurisdictions, religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel.
expt. etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight. [117]Such degrees are used primarily to
attain church-related employment.[118]
Current levels of attainment of degrees[edit]
Traditionally more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A
milestone was reached in the United States according to results of the 2010 census, as women
surpassed men in attaining master's degrees, for the first time. [119] The U.S. census reports that 10.5
million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that
women surpassed men in earning bachelor's degrees was in 1996. [120]
Perceptions of the value of a degree in the US[edit]
Students, the media, and the general public have shown much concern over the value of getting a
higher degree in the US ever since the Great Recession of 2007. A 2015 survey of 2,000 adults (900 of
which were graduates), implemented by an education technology company called Greenwood Hall,
reported that more than half of the graduates surveyed believe those getting their degree now will be
receiving a lower return on their investment than their counterparts 1015 years ago. [121] Media coverage
of the rising costs of higher education and increased student debt have also affected the publics
perceptions of whether higher degrees are still worthwhile. Statistics citing that college graduates make
around $1 million more in their lifetimes than those who didnt attend college, and living longer, healthier
lives work in favor of those who argue the continued value of higher degrees. [121] Studies like the 2011
Learning Gains study by Arum and Roksa, on the other hand, reported that only 55% of students had
any learning gains during their first two years of college, which favors the argument that investing in
higher education may not still be worth it.[122] As academics continue researching and dissecting these
arguments, education remains a hot topic in the US as shown by President Obama recently setting a
national goal for the US to once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world by
2020.[123]

Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
Main article: Australian Qualifications Framework
The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) covers 10 levels, of which 6 10 correspond to
academic degrees. These are the associate degree (level 6), which normally takes 2 years,
the bachelor degree (level 7), which normally takes 3 years, the bachelor honours degree (level 8),
which normally takes 4 years, the master degree (level 9), which normally takes 1 2 years for
"research" or "coursework" degrees and 3 4 years for an "extended" degree and follows on from
either a bachelor or honours degree, and the doctoral degree (level 10), which normally takes 3 4
years following on from a master's degree. Also included within the higher education system
are graduate certificates and graduate diplomas, both of which are at level 8 (honours degree level), as
well as advanced diplomas, at level 6 (associate degree level) and diplomas at level 5 (first year of a
degree course).[124][125] In Australia, most degrees are issued ungraded, with bachelor's degrees with
honours being the exception. [citation needed]
Doctorates in Australia may be research doctorates (normally titled PhDs) or professional doctorates
(normally titled to tefer to the field of practice, e.g. Doctor of Engineering. Professional doctorates still
require research leading to "a significant and original contribution to knowledge in the context of
professional practice" and should not be confused with extended master's degrees that bear similar
names for historical reasons: the Juris Doctor and Doctors of Medical Practice, Physiotherapy, Dentistry
and Optometry. Despite their names, these extended master's degrees may not be described as
doctoral degrees nor do they confer the right to use the title of doctor on their recipients. [125]
Some bachelor's degrees (e.g. Bachelor of Engineering or Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery)
may take longer than three years to complete, and double bachelor's degrees (i.e. completing two
bachelor's degrees simultaneously in four to five years) are common. [citation needed]
New Zealand[edit]
Main article: Tertiary education in New Zealand
Like Australia, New Zealand has a 10-level qualifications framework (the New Zealand Qualifications
Framework; NZQF), and a referencing exercise has found a one-to-one correspondence between the
levels of the two frameworks.[126] However, the names given to qualifications at different levels are not
20
the same and New Zealand does not have associate degrees, thus only levels 7 10 correspond to
academic degrees. These are the bachelor's degree (level 7), bachelor honours degree (level
8), master's degree (level 9) and the doctoral degree (level 10). In addition to these, the NZQF has
certificates across levels 1 6, diplomas at levels 5 and 6, graduate certificates and graduate
diplomas at level 7 (bachelor's), and postgraduate certificates and postgraduate diplomas at level 8
(honours).[127] Another referencing exercise, comparing the NZQF to the 10-level Irish National
Framework for Qualifications found that degrees were comparable but that further work was needed to
improve compatibility for the sub-degree levels (1 6). Non-degree qualifications at levels 7 9 were
not included in the study.[128] In New Zealand, master's degrees may be awarded with classified honours
(1st, 2:1, 2:2, 3rd), or with distinction or merit.[129]

South America[edit]
Argentina[edit]
Main article: Education in Argentina
Brazil[edit]
Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities graduate either with a bachelor's degree, a Licentiate
degree or a Technologist degree.
Bachelor degrees in Brazil normally takes four or five years of full-time study to complete, with the
exception of the human medicine course which requires six years.
Licentiate degree, normally takes four-years length degrees, available for students who want to qualify
as school teachers. Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities, and natural
sciences.
Technologist degree is available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three
years. These degrees are turned to fast entry the industry.
Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that
the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular. Contrary to what happens
in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the
Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within
the universities as transferncia interna), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula
tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's
major.
Individuals who hold either a bachelor's degree, Licentiate or Technologist are eligible for admission
into graduate courses leading to advanced master's or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into
master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance
exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of
recommendation, and possibly oral interviews. In most cases, however, especially for the doctorate, the
candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her
supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program; The exception are the Natural
Sciences post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research
prospects with sometimes the prospect is given in promptu during the interview, preferring to let the
students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies.
There are two types of post-graduate programs, lato sensu (specialization and MBAs) and strictu sensu
(Professional Masters, Master and Doctorate):
Specializations or MBAs are courses that include taking a minimum number (minimum 360 hours) of
graduate classes but with no need to do research nor defend a thesis, only present a final work
showing the knowledge. It's a professional level where theory and practice are focused in a broad
sense.
Professional Master's or master's degrees usually takes one to two years of full-time study.
Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced
graduate classes (typically between five and eight)and submitting a research thesis which is examined
orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one
external member who must be from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis
must be in adding some value to the academic knowledge, but not necessarily in being original.

21
Doctor's degrees normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete. Requirements for
obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying
exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original
contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with
master's thesis, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required
to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral
dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of So
Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one
or two external examiners from another university or research institute.
Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of So
Paulo still award the title of Livre-Docente (free docent), which is of higher standing than a doctorate
and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation, by the submission of a second (original or
cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docncia examination that includes giving a public lecture
before a panel of full professors.
See also Universities and Higher Education in Brazil
Colombia[edit]
In Colombia, the system of academic degrees is based in the British model been similar to the U.S.
model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The
first one is called a "Profesional" (professional career), which is similar to a bachelor's degree requiring
from four to 6 years of study according to the chosen program. The other option is called a "Tcnico"
(technician); this degree consists in two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical
or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a Tecnlogo (equivalent to associate degree),
and consist of 3 years of study.
After this, students, now called "profesional" (professionals), Tecnlogos (associates) or "tcnicos"
(technicians), can opt for higher degrees. Formal education after the bachelor's degree is the master's
degree with the title of "Maestro", and Doctorate's degree known as "Doctorado" (doctorate). The
master's degree normally consists of two years.
Students also can take an specialization course, "Especializacin", equivalent to a graduate certificate
degree, after their bachelor's degree. These programs, like in the U.S. are very popular, because it
requires only one to two years of study.
A similar situation in Colombia, when compared to the U.S. system, is that the students may not go
directly to the "Doctorado" without having the "Master" degree first.
Chile[edit]
In Chile, the system in a nutshell is as follows: Quite similar to the case described for Colombia,
students may opt to be "Profesionales"(Professionals) or "Tcnicos"(Technicians). After completion of
high school, students may follow professional or technical studies at Universities or Technical schools.
Only Universities and the Academies of the Armed Forces can give Academic Degrees. In general,
traditional professions require an Academic Degree, but there are many professions that not require the
degree because they were conceived as strictly "professional" not academic. The degrees are as
follows:
"Licenciado" it is similar to the Bachelor, but to get it is necessary to complete at least eight semesters
of study on the subjects which are part of the Major. This degree is enough to continue developing an
academic career, however, to get a professional title -which is not academic, but allows you to get a
professional practice, you have to continue one or two additional years of study. (For example, to be an
engineer it is necessary to study four years to get a Licentiate in Engineering Sciences, and two
additional years to get a Professional Title and become an engineer. Sometimes it is possible to take
additional subjects and get a "Magister" degree besides the professional title.)
"Magister" is the equivalent to the master's degree in English speaking countries.
"Doctorado" is the equivalent to the Doctorate or Phd. There is no separate classification for
Professional Doctorates.
In particular, the engineering profession may be complicated for the foreigner since there are two types
of engineers: those who got an Academic Degree such as Civil Engineers or Armed Forced
Politechnical Engineers, and those who are "Ingenieros en Ejecucin" (Professional Engineers) which

22
are considered terrain Engineer more focused to apply the engineering in the field and completed only
four years of study. They are not able, by law, to authorise plans or drawings like engineers with a
degree or architects.
Venezuela[edit]
Titles in Venezuela start with the Certificado de Educacin Bsica (Certificate of Basic Education),
awarded upon completing 9th grade. The next title is earned upon completing 11th grade, and may
be Bachiller en Ciencias (Bachelor of the Sciences), Bachiller en Humanidades (Bachelor of
Humanities), or Tcnico en Ciencias (Technician of the Sciences). The reason for this diversity is
because some schools provide vocational education as part of their high school curriculum (thereby
allowing them to hand out "Technician" titles) while elsewhere, the student is required to decide whether
to study Sciences or Humanities for the last two years of secondary school.
Titles at the higher education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical
schools award the student with the title of Tcnico Superior Universitario (University Higher Technician,
to distinguish from Technicians of the Sciences). Universities award the student with the title
of Ingeniero (Engineer) or with the title Licenciado (Licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The
Engineer have more physics subjects than the Licenciate, but both are five-year careers. Some higher
education institutions may award Diplomados (Diploma) but the time necessary to obtain one varies.
Medical Doctors are awarded the title "Mdico Cirujano" after completing a 6 year-career.
Post-graduate education follows conventions of the United States (being named "Master's" and
"Doctorate" after the programmes there)

Pontifical Universities[edit]
Pontifical universities around the world such as the Pontifical University, St Patrick's College, Maynooth
in Ireland, the Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas in Manila,[130] The Catholic University of
America, the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum in Rome, the Universit
catholique de Louvain in Belgium, and the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru depend for their status
as pontifical universities and for the nature of their academic degrees on the Pope through
the Congregation for Catholic Education. The nature of academic degrees from ecclesiastical
institutions of education is outlined in the apostolic constitution Sapientia Christiana,[131]
In distinction to secular or Catholic universities, which are academic institutions for the study and
teaching of a broad range of disciplines, Ecclesiastical or Pontifical universities "are usually composed
of three principal ecclesiastical faculties, theology, philosophy, and canon law, and at least one other
faculty. A Pontifical university specifically addresses Christian revelation and disciplines correlative to
the evangelical mission of the Church as set out in the apostolic constitution Sapientia christiana."[131][132]
There are three cycles of degrees that constitute the core of degrees granted by pontifical universities:
the first cycle leading to the baccalaureate degree; the second cycle leading to the licentiate degree;
the third cycle leading to the doctorate. From this core pontifical universities confer degrees including:
Theology:

Baccalaureate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureatus (S.T.B.)

Licentiate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Licentiatus (S.T.L.)
Doctorate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Doctoratus (S.T.D.)

Philosophy:

Baccalaureate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Baccalaureatus (Ph.B.)

Licentiate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Licentiatus (Ph.L.)
Doctorate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Doctoratus (Ph.D.)

Canon Law:

Baccalaureate in Canon Law, Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus (J.C.B.)

Licentiate in Canon Law, Iuris Canonici Licentiatus (J.C.L.)
Doctorate in Canon Law, Iuris Canonici Doctoratus (J.C.D.)

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