362 Chapter 10 » Filtration 10.4.3 Dual-Media Filters Another solution to the problem of reverse gradation is the dual-media filter. Typical dual- media filters utilize anthracite coal and quartz sand as filter media. The anthracite with a specific gravity of 1.55, is lighter than the sand. which has a specific gravity of 2.65. Therefore, a larger anthracite grain has the same settling velocity as a much smaller sand grain. This characteristic allews coal grains to be placed on top of smaller sand grains to create a gradation, as shown in Figure 10-5(b). Typical design values for dual-media filters are listed in Table 10-1.55° Dual- media filters behave very much like two single-medium filters in series, each with a different grain size, The larger anthracite grains remove the larger particles as well as some smaller ones; the sand, in its tun, captures the smaller particles. As a result, more depth of the filter is utilized for solids removal than in the stratified single-medium filter. Depts sone (b) (c) Figure 10-5 Gradation versus depth. (Reprinted from Reference 4, with permission from Tech- nomic Publishing Co., inc., copyright 1999.) (a) Single-medium filter. (b) Dua-media fitter. (c) Mixed-media filter.Filter Components 363 10.4.4 Mixed-Media Filters Mixed-media filters are similar to dual-media fiters, except that several materials are used. Typically, three materials are used: anthracite with a specific gravity of 1.55, sand with a specific gravity of 2.65, and garnet with a specific gravity of 4,05. The media are placed in the filter bed with the specific gravity of the media increasing and the size of the media decreasing with depth in the filter bed, to create a grain size distribution as shown on Figure 10-S(c). The typical design values for mixed-media filters are provided in Table 10-1.”8 Mixed-media filters are basically improved dual-media fikers, with increased filter run times and water quality. The cost of mixed-media filters is much higher than that of dual-media filters, because gamet is quite ekpensive. The improved performance of mixed-media filters often cannot justify the additional cost. 10.4.5 Filter Media Selection Filter efficiency is a function of certain physical characteristics of the filter bed that include the porosity of the media and the ratio of the media depth to media grain diameter. The determination of the appropriate media depth and size of media particles is the basic task of the design engineer. Currently, there are two ways to determine the depth and size of filter media: (1) pilot testing, and (2) experience from past studies, Pilot studies require significant time and capital expenditures. There are many combinations of filter media depth and size. Kawamura developed a relationship between depth of the filter media (J) and the effective size of the media (d,) from many filter designs in operation.”°-!° This relationship for many filter designs is sum- marized in Table 10-2 and shown in Figure 10-6. The ratio of /d, is nearly constant. It may be noted that the average W/d, ratio in Table 10-2 is around 1920 and is based on the actual value of J and d,; whereas that in Figure 10-6 is 980 and is based on total combined depth and weighted average of d, for dual- or multi-media bed. 10.5 Filter Components Filter systems used in water treatment plants vary from simple to complex in design. Most designs utilize multiple filter units, A typical filter system employs a minimum of two, as many as thirty or more, individual filter cells operated in parallel. A system of filter boxes, pipe mani- folds, and valves is utilized to distribute water to and from the individual filter units. Figure 10-7(a) illustrates a typical filter system using four filter cells. Following is a brief description of each part of the system, 10.5.1 Filter Box A typical filter box is shown in Figure 10-2(a) and Figure 10-7(b). Water typically enters the fil- ter on top and flows down through the filter media, the gravel support, and the underdrain. The underdrain system conveys the water to a central flume referred to as the gullet. Water flows out of the gullet into the effluent pipe.g Chapter 10 + Filtration Table 10-2 The Ratio of the Depth of the Media (/) to the Effective Size of the Media (d,) Effective Media FiterType Material Size(d,), Depth (p, _nlrormity Id, mm cm ‘Small dualmedia”Anthrecte 1.00 308 TS To16 Sand 0.50 24 13 Intermediate Anthracite. «1.48 76.2 15 1023 a — 075 38.1 12 Large dual-media Anthracite 2.00 101.6 13 1016 os 1.00 508 13 Mixed-media Anthracite 1.00 45.7 Ee) 1306 Sand 0.42 ne 1s Gamet 0.25 16 13 Mono-medium ——Anthr 1.00 101.6 \4 1016 After running for a period of time, the filter media will become clogged with accumulated solids removed from the water. The filter must then be cleaned or backwashed to remove the accumulated solids. This operation involves closing the influent and effluent valves and opening the washwater and waste washwater valves (Figure 10-6(b)). This results in water flowing into the gullet and through the underdrain system toward the gravel support layer. Water flows upward through the gravel bed and into the filter media. As it flows through the filter media, the bed is expanded and the water picks up the deposited solids and carries them into the washwater trough and waste piping. The dirty washwater is then treated separately to recover water for recycling. The residuals are handled by one of a number of methods, as discussed in Chapter 14. 10.5.2. Influent Piping The influent piping conveys water from the sedimentation units to the individual filter boxes Each filter box has an influent valve that is used to stop the flow of water into the fiter. The influent pipe typically is connected at the top of the filter unit, just below the water surface. 10.5.3 Effluent Piping The effluent piping conveys filtered water from the individual filter boxes to the next treatment process. Each filter box has an individual effluent valve that is used to stop the flow of water out of the filter. The effluent pipe for an individual filter is usually connected to the gullet at the bot- tom of the filter. Immediately after a filter is backwashed and set into operation, the turbidity of filtered water is generally quite high. Several methods can be used to control the turbidity. One com-‘Fitter Components 388 Approximate Average Media Grain Size, d,—mm. 0 as 10 us 20 rsx iol -1 50x 10 a 3 5 i 00 3s Effective Size of M fia Grain, 4, -mm © Sand file for Woler=Toestmant Plant A RwvareeGraded Flr for Woter= sheet Plo Feros of Bas Figure 10-6 Relationship between depth of media and size of media weighted average to be used for dual- or multi-media bed. (Reprinted from Journal AWWA, vol. 67, no. 10 (October 1975), by permission. Copyright® 1975, American Water Works Association.) monly used method is to install a waste-to-drain connection; the initially filtered water is wasted. This is called a rinse cycle. Methods to control initial turbidity spikes are further discussed in | Section 10.87. 10.5.4 Washwater Piping The washwater piping conveys clean water to the bottom of the filter for the backwash operation. Water flows from the washwater pipe into the gullet and through the underdrain sys- tem and the media. A valve is installed properly to stop flow into the filter box.() Figure 10-7 Fier controls and piping system. (Reprinted from Reference 4, with permission from Technomic Publishing Co., Inc., copyright 1999.) (a) Typical arrangement of four fiers and piping, (b) Filter operation,Fitter System Operation 367 10.5.5 Waste Backwash Water Piping The waste backwash water is collected on top of the filter and directed to the waste back- wash water pipe. The waste backwash water pipe also has a valve to stop flow into the waste drain during nommtal filtration operation, 10.6 Filter System Operation 10.6.1 Declining-Rate and Constant-Rate Filters The flow of water through the filter system typically remains constant, although the flow through the individual filter units (boxes) may or may not be constant. Some filters are designed so that the fiow rate through the individual filter units decreases (declines) as solids accumulate in the media bed. Such a filter is referred to as a declining-rate filter. Figures 10-8 (a) and (b) illustrate the relationship of a typical four-unit declining-rate filter system. Other filter units use an external control called a flow controller to maintain a constant flow through the individual filters regardiess of the amount of solids accumulated. Such filters are called constant-rate filters. Figure 10-8 (c) compares the flow rate and time relationship of declining-rate and constant-rate filter systems. 10.6.2, Variable-Level and Constant-Level Some filter systems are designed to allow the water Jevel in the filter influent channel or box to vary considerably as the filter media become clogged. Such systems are termed variable- level ot influent-controlied filters. Other filter units are designed to maintain a relatively constant influent ievel regardless of the amount of solid deposition in the media. The difference in head loss is compensated for by an effluent rate-of-flow contro} valve. Such systems are called con- stant-level ot effluent-consrolled filters. Figure 10-9 illustrates the head loss versus filtration time relationships for influent- and effiuent-controlled filter operations, 10.6.3 Comparison of Filter Operation Systems Declining-rate and constant-rate filter systems can both be either influent-controlled or effluent-controlled. Table 10-3 compares the four basic control systems, and each is discussed further in the following paragraphs.'! Figures 10-9 and 10-10 schematically illustrate each sys- tem. The Effluent-Controlled Constant-Rate Filter In an effluent-controlled constant- rate filter, the total flow is divided equally among the filter units, and each unit has an equivalent influent head that remains relatively constant. The flow rate is controlled by an effluent rate-of- flow controller installed at each filter unit. These flow controllers are composed of a flow meter and a modulating valve. These devices adjust the head loss through the individual filtec to mai tain a constant flow rate. The head loss and filter run-time relationship is shown in Figure 10-9(a).(a) = (RS cS Flow fate. 1.000 m*/4 Figure 10-8 Declining-rate filtration and comparison of filter systems. (a) Declining-rate filtration. (Showing filtration rate, water level, and head losses for one filter run in a plant having four filters.) (b) Relationship between filter flow rate and filter run time for a bank of four fitter cells. (c) Rela- tionship between filter flow rate and filter run time for an individual filter cell.3 System Operation 389 se ane 1 Figure 10-9 Comparison of influent- and effluent-controlled constant-rate filter operations. (a) Efluent-controlled fiter. (b) Infiuent-controlled fier. The Influent-Controlled Deelining-Rate Filter Table 10-3 Characteristics of Filter Operation Systems Constant-Rate Declining-Rate Design Parameter Effluent- Influent- Effluent- Influent- Controlled Controlled Controlled Controlled Relative cost ‘High ‘Medium ‘Medium Tow Simplicity of operation Complex Simple Moderate Simple Length of filter run Short Short Long Long Depth of filter bed used ‘Small Small Large Large Consistency in effluent quality Good Good Good Good The control systems required for effluent-controlled constant-rate systems are rather com- plex (Figure 10-10(a)). The master controller senses changes in the influent hydraulic gradient and adjusts the effluent rate-of-flow controllers to maintain a constant influent water level. If the head loss through the filter increases, all valves are opened slightly. Likewise, all valves are closed slightly if the head loss decreases. Simultaneously, the flow through each filter is com- pared with that of the other filters. If one filter has a higher (or lower) flow than the other filters, its valve closes (or opens) slightly to equalize the filter output. Despite their complexity, efflu- ent-controlled constant-rate filters are common in medium to large treatment plants. Their wide- spread use is attributed to their operational flexibility and to the general familiarity of operations personnel with the operating techniques of these systems. The Influent-Controlled Constant-Rate Filter Influent-controlled —_constant-rate filters do not require such complex control systems as effluent-controlled filters do. The flow is divided into filters by a flow-splitting device, usually an overflow weir. The water surface in the individual filter units varies, depending on head loss. As a filter unit becomes clogged, its water370 Chapter 10 + Filtration surface rises to offset the head loss encountered. A disadvantage of the influent-controlled filter is the tendency for floc breakup at the influent weir; this often results in poorer finished water quality, Influent-controlled constant-rate filters are common in smaller treatment facilities. Their simplicity and relatively low construction cost make them well suited for such application. The head loss and filter run-time relationship is shown in Figure 10-9(b), and filter control systems are shown in Figure 10-10(b). The Influent-Controlled Declining-Rate Filter The influent-controlled declining- rate filter systems are the simplest of all filter systems. No rate-of-flow controllers or flow-split- ting devices are required. The hydraulic gradient is allowed to vary throughout the filter run to adjust for the increase in head loss through the filter system. When the hydraulic gradient becomes too high, one filter unit is backwashed. An overflow weir is usually placed in the filter effluent structure to maintain positive pressure in the filter bed at all times (Figure 10-10 (c)). ‘The influent-controlled declining-rate filter systems are able to tolerate large hydraulic gradient variation in the influent of the filter system, For this reason, this type of filter system usually cannot be used in converting a constant-rate system to a declining-rate system. The sim- plicity of an influent-controlled declining-rate system, however, makes it ideal for small treat- ment plants, where construction and operation budgets are limited. The Effluent-Controlled Declining-Rate Filter The efiluent-controlied declining- rate filter systems are similar to effluent-controlled constant-rate systems in that a constant hydraulic gradient is applied to all filters; however, in declining-rate systems, the rate-of-flow controller for each individual filter unit is not required. Instead, a single rate-of-flow controller is installed in the effluent piping. The flow tate through each individual filter unit is determined by the head loss through that unit, Therefore, the distiest filter has the lowest flow rate, and the cleanest filter has the highest flow rate. In some cases, a simple flow-limiting device, such as an orifice plate, is installed in the effluent piping of the individual filter units, to prevent excessive flow rates through a recently cleaned filter. The filter control systems are shown in Figure 10-10(¢). The declining-rate filter systems utilize the solids-holding capacity of the filter bed more efficiently than do constant-rate systems. Studies have shown that declining-rate filters produce a more constant and better quality effluent than constant-rate filters, and that filter runs for declining-rate filters are significantly longer than those for constant-rate systems.” However, unless the initial filtration rates are limited, excessive turbidities may be experienced immedi- ately after backwash. 10.7 Filter Hydraulics The hydraulic design of filters is complex and not fully understood. Several empirical equations are available to predict the head loss through a clean filter bed. Likewise, numerous methods of estimating the head loss through clogged filters are also available. The most depend-sun FGisen iter Eeicaet — fa) CS] i (c) NS SY Valves (d) Figure 10-10 Filter control systems. (a) Effiuent-controlled constant-rate filter. (b) Influent-con- trolled constant-rate filter. (c) Influent-controlled declining-rate filter. (d) Effluent-controlied declic- ing-rate, filter, an372 Chapter 10 + Filtration able method of estimating the hydraulic characteristics of a filter system is a pilot study utilizing the water to be treated. 10.7.1 Head Loss in Clean Filter Over the years, much research has been done on the hydraulics of sand filters. Numerous empirical and semi-empirical equations have been developed, which are used to predict clean fil- ter performance. Some of the more commonly used equations are provided in Table 10-4,16!! Each of these equations requires an estimate of either the porosity of the bed or the relative com- pactness of the media. To estimate these parameters, the size, shape, and uniformity coefficient of the media must be known. Typical values of some parameters for commonly used media are provided in Table 10-1. The application of some of these equations in filter head loss calcula- tions is shown in the Design Examples. 10.7.2 Head loss in Clogged Filter ‘Throughout a filter run, solid particles are deposited in the pores of the filter bed and cause a decrease in the porosity and a corresponding increase in the head loss through the filter bed. ‘The design engineer must predict the head loss through the filter bed at the end of the filter run, The terminal head loss through a filter bed can be calculated by use of any of the equations listed in Table 10-4, if the porosity at the end of the filter run can be determined. The average change in porosity can be estimated by assuming that the volume of the particles removed equals the reduction in pore volume.!? This method, however, is extremely inaccurate in predicting the change in porosity of various layers of filter media, Typically, filters have produced satisfactory turbidity levels during their entire run until the maximum head loss of 2 to 3 m is reached. More stringent water quality requirements in the future may require backwashing of the filters before these head loss values are reached or turbidity breakthrough occurs. More accurate estimates of ‘maximum head loss values can be determine from pilot plant studies. With pilot plant studies, the variables in the Carmen-Kozeny equation (Eq, (10.1)) can be calibrated to yield more accu- rate solutions. Another method of predicting clogged filter head loss is proposed by Tchobanoglous.* This method considers the total filter bed as being composed of several individual filter beds (of small depth) in series, The increase in head loss for each layer is related to the amount of solids deposited in that layer. By considering each layer of the filter bed separately, a more realistic hydraulic model of the filter is obtained. Extensive pilot testing data must be developed to cali- brate the model to yield reliable results. 10.7.3 Miscellaneous Head losses The hydraulic design of a filter system must consider not only the energy losses through the media but also the energy losses through the appurtenant systems, including (1) piping sys- tems, (2) gravel beds, (3) underdrain system, and (4) wash water collection landersFitter Hyeraulies 373 Piping Systems The piping systems include the influent, effluent, and wash water piping valves and flow rate controllers. These piping systems often include complex piping manifolds with numerous fittings and specials. The head losses through such systems are best calculated by use of the Darcy-Weisbach equation (Eq. (7.13)) or the Hazen—Williams equation (Eq, (7.14). Losses through fittings can be expressed by Eq. (7.13). The application of these equations to typical filter piping is illustrated in the Design Example. Gravel Beds The head loss through the supporting gravel bed is calculated from equa- tions listed in Table 10-4. The procedure is the same as that for clean filter media. A gravel bed must also be considered as made up of several layers arranged in a series, to account for the vari- ability in gravel media. Underdrain System The underdrain system usually has numerous orifices. The hydraulic characteristics of these proprietary systems vary greatly. The designer should consult the manufacturers of the specified system to determine its hydraulic characteristics. Table 10-4 _ Empirical Equations Used to Calculate Head Loss Through Clean Filter Beds Equation Equation Ruane Carmen-Kozeny, - A= flzeLy (10.1) oe dg Fair-Hatch (ek 2, a(1-ey Ly hy = PyS=2) <2 10.2 L 2 £8 (10.2) Rose (10.3) Hazen (10.4) Friction factor (10.5) Reynolds number (10:6) Coefficient of| ‘efficient of drag c,= A+ .+034 © 40.7) Na JNe ‘Source: Adapted in part from References I, 6 and 11378 Chapter 10 » Filtration where = coefficient of compactness (600-1200) coefficient of drag media grain diameter, m dio = media effective size, mm € = porosity ratio (usually 0.4 to 0.5) ‘f= friction factor (See Eq, (10.5),) g= acceleration due to gravity (9.81 mvs?) thy = head loss, m (ft) ‘k= filtration constant L= media depth, m (ft) N= Reynolds number = shape factor (6.010 8.5) T= temperature °F v= filtration velocity, m/s 11 = absolute viscosity, N-s/m? (kg/m-s) v= kinematic viscosity, m/s Pw = density of water, kg/m? ‘$= particle shape factor (usually 0.85 to 1.0) Washwater Collection Launders Washwater collection launders carry waste back- wash water to the drain. These Jaunders function like open channels with spatially-varied flow conditions. The design of these launders is similar to that of the effluent launder troughs of a sedimentation basin. The design procedure for these troughs was presented in Chapter 9, 10.8 Filter Cleaning or Backwashing A filter cell must be cleaned when either (1) the head loss through the filter exceeds the design value, (2) turbidity breakthrough causes the effluent quality to be less than a minimum acceptable level, or (3) a pre-selected maximum filter rua time has passed since it was last cleaned. Filter units are cleaned by backwashing. This involves passing water upward through the filter media at a velocity sufficient to expand the bed and wash out the accumulated solids. During backwash, the filter media is expanded or fluidized. The particles become sepa- rated and the space between them becomes greater, increasing the porosity. In this state, the ver- tical velocity of the water is approximately equal to the settling velocity of the media and causes, the media to be partially supported by the water. This allows the smaller floc particles that have a lower settling velocity to be removed and washed out of the bed. To ensure proper operation of the filter, the design engineer must consider (1) the settling velocity of the media, (2) the back- wash flow rate, (3) the head loss during backwash, (4) the duration of the backwash cycle, and (5) the quantity of water required to backwash each filter.Filter Cleaning or Backwashing 378 10.8.1 Settling Velocity of Filter Media ‘The settling velocity of the filter media can be calculated from Newton's or Stoke's equa- tions (Eqs. (9.1) ot (9.6)). These equations assume spherical particles settling discretely, a valid assumption for most sand and garnet media. Anthracite media tend to be more irregular in shape and may have an actual settling velocity slightly lower than that calculated by these equations. This error, however, is small and insignificant. In order for the backwash system to operate without washing out of the filter media, it is important, particularly for dual- and mixed-media filters, that the system be designed so that the entire filter bed has apptoximately the same settling velocity. Therefore, the size of the various layers of the filter media must be carefully selected. The following equation can be used to cal- culate the size of the media grains with different specific gravities and equal setling velocities. - 1s a(@ :) (108) 62 where dy = effective size of the media with a specific gravity of Sa, mm (in) d= effective size of the media with a specific gravity of S,1, mm (in) ‘The normal design procedure is to select the sand medium that would yield acceptable fin- ished water effluent quality. Then, by use of Eq, (10.8), select the effective size of the anthracite and/or garnet media. 10.8.2 Backwash Flow Rate The purpose of backwashing the filter bed is to remove deposited floc without washing out the media; therefore, the vertical velocity of the water during the backwash must be greater than the settling velocity of the floc, but less than the settling velocity of the media. The settling velocity of the floc has been found to range between 2.5 and 25 m/min. (1 and 10 inch/min.), and a minimum backwash rise rate should be 30 cnv/min (12 inch/min.).'> The setiing velocity of the filter media can be calculated by Newton's equation (Eq. (9.1)).” For water at 20°C (68°F), Eq, (9.1) reduces to Eq, (10.9) for sand with specific gravity of 2.61, and Eq, (10.10) for anthra- cite with specific gravity of 1.5, respectively.?!9 = 10de (sand)P (10.9) = 41dey (anthracite) (10.10) where v, = terminal settling velocity of the media m/min (F/min) dep = size ofthe standard sieve opening that will pass 60 percent by weight of the media, mm. (deo = dq ® uniformity coefficient (Section 10.4.1).)376 Chapter 10 + Filtration Studies show that the most effective backwash rates equal approximately 10 percent of the media terminal settling velocities. Therefore, for sand and anthracite coal, respectively, the back- wash rates at 20°C are calculated from Eqs. (10.11) and (10.12) Uy = dey (sand) (10.11) U, = 047 deg (anthracite) (10.12) U,,= backwash rate, m/min The backwash rate should be adjusted for colder or warmer water by using Eq. (10.13) wa Upp = UpayX Mp (10.13) where Ugp= backwash rate at temperature T°C, m/min (fmin) Upgo = backwash rate at 20°C, m/min (fvmin) Ur = absolute viscosity at temperature T°C, (N-s/m? or kg/m-s) ‘The proper combination of common filter media for a different backwash rate at 20°C are provided in Figure 10-11.9104 10.8.3 Head Loss during Backwash ‘The head loss due to water flowing through a fluidized bed is equal to the weight of the supported media. It is generally expressed by Eq. (10.14). hy = volume of media grains x (density of media grains — density of water) (10.14) Eq. (10.14) can also be mathematically expressed as Eq. (10.15).9!% hy = L(1-e)(S,-1) (10.15) b. Kawamura used the modified equation proposed by Allen: 2 21/3 0.018(9,-P,) 8) erie 2 Py ‘Substituting p, = 2.61, p,, = 1.0, = 9.81 mvs? and p = 10° kg/ms (20°C), 1, = 165 d% where diet. m and v%, is in ns. From this relationship, v, = mn, where v, isin m/min and d is inFilter Cleaning or Backwashing 377 Backwash Rate, m/min Backwash rate, in./min 002 04 06 08 VO 12 14 16 18 20 50 Per (etecti t Weight Particle Size, mm Size Uniformity Coefficient) Figure 10-11. Proper combinations of common filter media for different backwash rates at 20°C. (Reprinted from Journal AWWA, vol. 67, no. 10 (October 1875), by permission. Copyright 1975, American Water Works Association.) where ‘hy, = head loss through the media bed during backwash, m (ht) ¢ = porosity of the clean stratified bed at rest (not fluidized) L= depth of the stratified bed at rest, m (ft) S, ', = specific gravity of the media The gravel bed does not fluidize, so the head loss through it is computed in the same man- ner as for head loss calculations through clean filter media. Many of the equations listed in Table 10-4 are used for this calculation, 10.8.4 Duration of the Backwash Cycle ‘The backwash cycle should extend long enough to clean the media bed. The time required to accomplish this depends on (1) the nature of the floc, (2) whether air-scour (or surface wash) is used, and (3) the geometry of the filter bed and the washwater troughs. Usually the entire backwash cycle lasts from 8 to 15 minutes,!!.1516378 (Chapter 10 * Filtration 10.8.5 Quantity of Water Required for Backwashing The quantity of washwater depends on the washwater flow rate and the duration of the backwash cycle. If the washwater flow rate has cyclic variation, then the total quantity of wash- water required is the area under the curve representing the flow rate versus time. The quantity of water required to operate the surface wash systems must also be included if these devices are uti- lized. 10.8.6 Auxiliary Cleaning Systems Backwash alone does not always thoroughly clean clogged filter beds. Additional agita- tion of the filter media is often necessary to remove accumulated floc material. Surface wash and air-scour are two systems that have proven to be successful in providing supplemental cleaning of clogged filters. Surface Wash Surface wash systems have become widely used throughout the United States. Many proprietary systems are available. The purpose of the surface wash system is to provide maximum agitation at the top of the filter bed, where the greatest accumulation of floc may be expected. This is done by spraying water through nozzles located on either fixed piping manifolds or rotating arms. Examples of both types of systems are given in Figure 10-12. The high-pressure spray from the nozzles provides added turbulence without increasing the vertical velocity of the backwash water, thereby preventing media from being washed out during back- wash. The turbulence created by surface wash systems can be determined by Eq. (10.16). _ (488 Pw)? Gry =( iat. ) (10.16) where G,= velocity gradient given by water-jet-type surface wash, 1/s v, = surface backwash rate, m/s ‘Ak = head applied to the media by surface wash system, m = coefficient 0.25 for surface wash, 0.5 for dual-arm surface or subsurface wash, L, = depth of expanded bed, m |= absolute viscosity of water, N-s/m? (or ke/m-s) Surface wash systems typically are proprietary units. They usually consist of 2.4-3. 1-mm- diameter openings spaced along a fixed or rotating pipe at from 5 to 8.6 cm apart. Rotating pipe systems discharge from 1.2 to 2.4 m°/m*h; fixed arm systems discharge from 5 to 10 m2/m?-h. Typical operating heads are 350 to 520 kPa. The nozzles are placed at from 2.5 to 5 cm below the media bed at rest. They may also be placed just above the sand/anthracite interface in dual- media filters. They are started 1 to 3 min before the start of the backwash cycle and stopped 5 to cc. Lmiimsh = 3.28 £0/f0-h or 0.409 gpm?Filter Cleaning or Backwashing a9 10 min before the end of the backwash cycle.'> Camp found that the velocity gradient at the top of a filter bed at the end of a filter backwash cycle is around 1000/s. Typically, surface wash velocity gradients are in the range of 1100 to 1300/s to remove tough compacted floc.” If dual- media filters are used, the heaviest concentration of floc often occurs at the interface between the sand and the anthracite. In these instances, a subsurface wash system located at the interface is utilized to apply the maximus turbulence at the interface. Surface wash systems work best in filters where there is little penetration of floc into the media bed or on media beds with relatively shallow depths. seal (b) Figure 10-12 Surface wash systems. (a) Rotating arm. (b) Fixed manifold. Air-Scour Air-scour systems have been used widely in Europe; and their use has become more common in the United States in recent years. In these systems, air is released from a manifold system located in specially designed undesdrain systems. The rising air bubbles increase turbulence throughout the bed and clean the media grains by means of a scouring action," A617 The typical air flow values for single-medium filters with small media sizes (0.5 mm effective size) are from 18 to 36 m°/m”h, followed by water alone at from12 to 20 m?/m”-h. For dual-media filters in the U.S. (effective size sand 0.5 mm and anthracite 1.0 mm), a high air flow rate of from $5 to 91 m°/m*h is commonly used, followed by water backwash at from 37 to 49380 ‘Chapter 10 + Filtration m°/m*-h. If air-scour and backwash are used simultaneously to clean larger sands (1.0 mm effec- tive size), air flow rates of from 37 to 73 m?/m?-h are commonly used with a water flow rate of 15 m°/m*-h.'* For proper media bed stratification, it is essential in all cases for the air supply to be tumed off several minutes prior to the stopping of the water backwash; this will allow stratifi- cation of the media. Air-scour systems apply the turbulence throughout the bed; therefore, they are of greatest advantage in filter beds with an even accumulation of floc throughout the bed. If air-scour is used, specially designed underdrain systems and launder trough arrangements are necessary. Designers should consult manufacturers of proprietary systems before proceeding with detailed designs. 10.8.7. Controlling Turbidity Spikes After Backwashing Immediately after backwashing, filter effluent will experience high wrbidities. The authors have observed that, in some cases, this phenomenon is quite detrimental to the finished water quality of the plant. A typical turbidity spike after filter backwash is illustrated in Figure 10-13. These turbidity spikes must be controlled to meet the more stringent turbidity requirements of the Surface Water Treatment Rules.'*! There are several strategies commonly used to control these spikes. Among these are (1) to install a waste-to-drain connection, (2) to ripen filtration rate or to use a reduced filtration rate for the first few minutes after the filter is placed back in operation, and (3) to precondition the filter by introducing a coagulant in the backwash water during the last few minutes of backwash.!3 Figure 10-13 Example of a turbidity spike after backwashing, Waste-To-Drain Waste-to-drain strategy is the least desirable alternative for contro!- ling turbidity spikes. This concept involves rinsing the filters by connecting the filter effluentfliter Cleaning or Backwasring 381 piping to the waste backwash drain system. Immediately after backwashing, the valve on this connection is opened and the high-turbidity rinse water from the filter effluent is wasted to the drain system. After the turbidity has been reduced, the valve is closed, and the filter is placed back into normal operation, This results in a large quantity of relatively clean water going to waste. There are other more desirable alternatives, so its use is becoming less common. Ripening Filtration Rates This concept involves placing the filter on line at reduced filtration rates immediately after backwash, This allows the filter media and any remaining floc ta settle and limits the amount of suspended material in the effluent. This process is known as fil= ter ripening. This is a simple process to control, it can be implemented at litle or no cost, it usu ally is quite effective. It involves either changing to a manual backwash procedure or modifying the control logic of the automatic backwash system, Preconditioning Filters Filter preconditioning involves introducing a coagulant, either a metal salt (such as ferric sulfate, ferrous sulfate, ferric chloride, or aluminum sulfate {alum)), or a polymer to the backwash water, just before the end of the backwash cycle.!? The objective is to destabilize any restabilized suspended material remaining in the filter bed at the end of the backwash cycle. These destabilized solids are typically the source of post-backwash turbidity spikes. Adding a coagulant will restabilize this material so that it can be captured in the filter media instead of being released through the filter. To achieve this objective, a coagulant is added to the backwash water feed near the end of the backwash cycle and then stopped. The tim- ing is such that the coagulant just begins to flow out of the washwater troughs while no coagu- lant rerneins in the gravel support, underdrain system, and bottom five cm of the lower media. The entire preconditioning process must carefully control the timing of the coagulant feed, If the timing is incorrect, several problems may develop: (1) coagulant may be wasted, (2) the treat- ment may be ineffective, or (3) effluent turbidities may increase because of coagulant in the underdrain systems. 10.8.8 Washwater Collection To ensure that the filter beds are effectively cleaned, the flow of the backwash water (washwater) should be as nearly vertical as possible. In most filter installations, washwater col- lection troughs are utilized to ensure vertical flow. Typical arrangements of washwater collection troughs are illustrated in Figures 10-14(a) and 10-14(b), These troughs should be designed hydraulically to ensure free weir flow over the lip of the trough, The flow through the trough is considered spatially varied flow. Hydraulic calculations for such flow conditions are discussed in Chapter 9, The spacing and the elevation of washwater troughs is an important consideration. If the troughs are spaced too far apart, the suspended floc will not be effectively removed during back- wash, If the troughs are too low, filter media may be washed out. In general, itis better for the troughs to be closely spaced and set high above the expanded media. Eq. (10.17) can be utilized to determine a ratio of spacing to height.!°aa (Chapter 10 + Filtration TH Sc 10.17 u,b (10.17) where settling velocity of the floc, m/s (fs) U,, = backwash rise rate including surface wash rate, m°/m?s (f°/fC-s) S = center-to-center spacing of the troughs, m (ft) D = distance between top of the fluidized bed and water surface, m (£1) Operating experience has indicated that the spacing of washwater trough (S) greater than 1.5 and less than 2 times Ho yields satisfactory results in filter washing, The term Hg is the verti- cal distance from the lip of the launder trough to the top of the media bed at rest. Typical values for Hg range from 0,66 to 1.0 m (2 to 3 ft). The distance from the bottom of the trough to the top of the media should also be at least 0.2 m (8 in). Washwater troughs that are shallow, wide, and spaced closely together can create overly-high rise velocities that wash out anthracite coal dur- ing backwash. If the washwater trough covers more than half the area of the filter box, narrower and deeper troughs covering less surface area may be needed. The cross section of the troughs is typically as shown in Figures 10-14(c) or (4). Both cross sections work effectively, but the section shown in Figure 10-14(d) is easier to construct, therefore is often slightly less expensive. The cross section shown in Figure 10-14(c) is often used for manufactured troughs constructed of fiberglass or other material. 10.8.9 Backwash Water Storage A sufficient quantity of treated water must be stored at the treatment plant site to provide water for backwashing of the filters. The quantity to be stored should equal the maximum amount needed to backwash each filter once during a 24-hour period. In larger plants, where suf- ficient operating experience is available, the backwash can be reduced to the maximum amount of water required for backwashing two or three filters. 10.8.10 Backwash Water Return Systems ‘The amount of backwash water is quite large. This water must be disposed of by some means. One efficient means of disposing of waste backwash water is to return it to the head of the plant. Such a system has the following advantages: (1) the majority of the backwash water is, reused, to reduce raw water cost, (2) the floc contained in the waste backwash water can provide nucleous in the flocculation process, thereby reducing the quantity of chemicals required, and (3) the amount of water to be disposed of is reduced. The major concern with backwash return water, however, is return and concentration of protozoan cysts in the system. Suggestions have been made to install a cyst-destruction system, such as ozonation or UV radiation, for recovered backwash water. Design considerations for backwash recovery systems are discussed in Chapter 14.leaning or Backwashing 383 (o) (a) Figure 10-14 Typical backwash water (washwater) trough arrangements. (a) Canter manifold, (b) Side manifold. (c) Typical U-shaped cross section. (d) Typical V-shaped cross section, 10.8.1 Backwash Water Delivery System In most treatment plants, the clear water storage tanks are located at a hydraulic grade that is below the filter system. Therefore, the backwash water must be pumped to provide the hydraulic gradient required for backwash. A number of different types of systems are used to provide this gradient. Among these are (1) a high-capacity pump to deliver the entire backwash flow directly to the manifold, (2) an elevated storage tank, and lower capacity pumps to fill the tank, (3) pres- sure from the high-service pumps, and (4) the hydraulic gradient of the filtered water flume. The first type of system usually has a lower capital cost, but, because of higher power requirements, may have a higher operating cost. The second system usually requires a higher capital cost due to the cost of the elevated tank, but it provides a more nearly constant power demand and, in many cases, a lower power cost. For the third system to be efficient, the head304 Chapter 10 + Filtration requirements of the backwash system and the high-service pumps should be compatible. The fourth type of system is employed by some proprietary systems. They require careful consider- ation of the head losses during backwash and proper selection of the elevation of the washwater collection trough. Typical schematic diagrams of these four types of backwash water system are shown in Figure 10-15. sah seen etic (a) Figure 10-15 Typical backwash water systems. (a} Direct pumping. (b) Elevated storage.(c) High-service connection. (d) Filter system effluent connection. 10.9 Filter Media Support System A porous support system for the filter media must be provided. In addition to providing structural support, this system must evenly distribute backwash water and collect filtered waterFilter instrumentation Systems 385, across the entire filter cross section. Typically, the support system comprises two elements: (1) the gravel layer and (2) the underdrain system. 10.9.1 Gravel Layer ‘The gravel layer is located immediately below the filter media. Its purpose is to separate the filter media from the underdrain system, to prevent media particles from clogging the under- drain orifices, and to dissipate the backwash water jets from the orifices of the underdrain sys- tem. Gravel layers are typically 400-600 cm (150-240 in) deep and are made up of several layers of different-sized gravel grains. The gradation and depth of the gravel layer should be designed to match the hydraulic characteristics of the filter underdrain system, Design engineers should consult potential underdrain suppliers to select the most appropriate gravel support sys tem. Some manufacturers have developed a thin (2 to 3 cm) proprietary porous plate that is a substitute for gravel support systems. The plates are designed to support the media. They take up much less depth than gravel systems and distribute backwash flows as evenly as gravel. ‘There- fore, they are particularly beneficial in filter renovations where filter cell depth is limited. Designers should consult with the manufacturers and their representatives for information on porous-plate systems, 10.9.2 Underdrain System ‘The underdrain system provides structural support for the entire filter system, It must have the structural strength to support the weight of the gravel and media layers and to resist the hydrau- tic pressures of the backwash water low. The latter is an upward pressure requiring strong anchors to resist uplift, Several proprietary underdrain systems are available. Readers are referred to Appendix C for a list of manufacturers of proprietary systems. 10.10 Filter Instrumentation Systems Instrumentation systems for water treatment systems are discussed in detail in Chapter 16. Because of their special needs, some instrumentation requirements for filter units are also dis cussed in this section, To meet the more stringent turbidity requirements specified under the Sur- face Water Treatment Rules, filter operation will be the heart of the treatment process. AS a result, many important process control parameters such as head 10s, effluent turbidity, and flow rates must be closely monitored and strictly controlled. These parameters are briefly discussed next. 10.10.1 Head Loss Instruments Many existing filter units have loss-of-head-indicating instrumentation consisting of pressure taps at the filter influent and effluent. These taps are connected to pressure gauges, a manometer, ot differential pressure instruments. Monk proposed a more elaborate loss-of-head instrumenta-386 Chapter 10 + Filtration tion system, which is composed of several pressure taps spaced throughout the filter media bed.'3 These taps are connected to pressure instruments that can plot the pressure profile through the filter on a computer monitor. The shape of this plot will provide the operator a tool to closely monitor the filter operation and performance of the coagulation process. Figure 10-16 provides a visual indication of typical filter pressure monitors in a filter. If the head loss is occur- ring toward the top of the filter, either the floc is too large or too tough or both, the filter media are too fine (or need scalping), or the rate of filtration is too slow (Figure 10-16(a)). If the head loss curve is steeper, the floc is being carried well into the sand layer and may be the cause of premature turbidity breakthrough (Figure 10-16(b)). If the head loss gradually increases in both media, as shown in Figure 10-16(c), the floc is satisfactory. (a) (b) (c) Figure 10-16 Typical indications from filter pressure monitors. (a) Floc too large or strong. (b) Floc too weak. (c) Satisfactory floc. 10.10.2 Filter Turbidity Monitoring In the past, most of the filter operations focused on head loss and filter cycle time as indi- cators for backwashing. The more stringent turbidity requirements of the Surface Water Treat- ment Rules will necessitate the use of individual turbidity monitors or turbidimeters on the effluent of each filter unit.!? The new rules leave operators with less margin to operate; there- fore, turbidity breakthrough will also become an important consideration in deciding when to backwash a filter. Placing turbidimeters on each filter effiuent will give the operator a tool to monitor the performance of each filter and to make informed decisions regarding filter back- wash. 10.10.3 Flow Measurement It is desirable to have some form of flow measurement device installed at each filter unit. Some types of control schemes, such as efiluent-controlled constant-rate filters, require flow measurement. Most other control schemes do not necessarily have an individual flow meter for individual filter, although individual meters are desirable. Individual flow meters provide theManufacturers of Filtration Equipment sail operators the capability to measure the flow distribution between the filters and ensure that a sin- gle filter is not overloaded. 10.11 Manufacturers of Filtration Equipment A list of manufacturers and suppliers of filter media, surface wash systems, filter underd- rains, and filter washwater troughs is provided in Appendix C. Information such as the charac- teristics and volume of the water to be treated, the size and geometry of the proposed units, and the basic design parameters for the equipment are required in order to make equipment selec- tions. The manufacturers can assist the designer in selecting the proper equipment for the pro- posed application. Readers are referred to Appendix C for a more complete discussion of selecting and specifying equipment for specific water treatment processes. 10.12 Information Checkiist for Design of Filtration System The following information must be obtained and necessary decisions made before the design engineer can begin to develop the design of a filtration facility. 1. Information to be obtained from pre-design studies: a. design flows; b filtration rate; ©. backwash rate; 4. filter cycle time; e. surface wash rates and durations; £. influent and effluent water qualities. 2. Information to be obtained from the preliminary design repost. As part of the facility plan, the design engineer develops design information that may gen- erally include the following: a. number of proposed units; b. preliminary hydraulic profile, illustrating the head loss parameters proposed for the units being designed; ¢. type of filter media; 4. type of underdrain system; type of surface wash system, f. type of washwater pressure system; g. method of handling and disposing of waste streams.388 Chapter 10 + Filtration 3. Information to be obtained from the plant owner and operator: a. any particular preference with regard to equipment type and manufacturers; b. any particular preference with regard to the design of other plants in operation. 4. Information to be obtained from research by the design engineer: a. minimum design parameters established by the regulatory authorities; b. types, sizes, and limitations of available equipment. 10.13 Design Example 10.13.1 Design Criteria Used The following criteria are used in the design example. 1. Flow rates a. Maximum day flow = 113,500 m°/d (30 mgd) b. Average day flow = 57,900 m?/d (15.3 mgd) 2. Design parameters a, Filtration rate (hydraulic loading): 10 m*/m?-h (4.1 gpm/ft?) . Backwash rate: 10 percent of the settling velocity of the media or a minimum of 37 m°/mh (15 gpm/ft?), which is higher c. Surface wash rate: 0.061 m*/m?-min (1.52 gpm/ft?) 4. Minimum filtration cycle: 24h ¢. Provision for applying filter aid at the designed capacity of the treatment plant. 3. General design guidelines a. Filters: A total of eight filter cells are provided. The capacity of each filter cell is one-seventh of the total plant capacity. This allows one unit to be out of service for backwashing or under maintenance, while maintaining the design filtration rate at full plant capacity. b. Filter media: The filters are of dual-media type, utilizing anthracite coal and quartz sand. The effective size of the sand is 0.50 mm. The effective size of the anthracite coat is such as to yield a settling velocity equal to the average settling velocity of the sand, The uniformity coefficient, specific gravity, and porosity ratio for the anthra- cite coal and sand are 1.6 and 1.4, 1.55 and 2.65, and 0.48 and 0.40, respectively. c. Underdrain: A perforated clay tile underdrain system is used.Design Example 369 d. Surface wash: A rotating-arm type surface wash system utilizing 0.061 m°/m?-min (1.52 gpm/ft?) of water at a minimum pressure of 690 kPa (100 psi) is installed. e. Backwash water system: Backwash water is supplied by an elevated tank having the capacity to hold the quantity of water sufficient to backwash two filters. Three back- wash water pumps are provided to fill the elevated tank. £. Disposal of backwash water: The backwash water will be discharged into a surge or equalization basin. The backwash water will then be released at a constant-rate into a recovery basin, The supernatant from the recovery basin will be returned to the rapid mix, and the sludge will be pumped into the sludge thicketing system. The design details for the backwash water disposal system are presented in Chapter 14. g, Filter control system: Each filter has an effluent-controlled constant-rate system. 4. Unit artangement and layout a. Unit arrangement: Eight individual filter units are provided. Selection of the number of filter units is based on reducing the impact of backwashing a filter unit while also attempting to limit cost and the work load of the operators. Increasing the number of filter units has less effect upon the hydraulic loading on remaining filter units when one is taken out of service. Therefore, the size of the individual units is reduced, As an example, if only two units are provided, the loading on the other filtes would increase 100 per- cent if one filter is taken out of service. This will require twice the area of each filter. In the Design Example, with eight units, the loading rate and filter area are increased by only 14 percent, a more acceptable value, Increasing the number of filter units results in less total filter area to offset the loss of capacity during backwashing, but also increases construction cost and operator work load. More filter units, while occupying slightly less area, require more walls, piping, valves, and equipment. Fur- thermore, each additional filter unit must be cleaned and monitored by the operator. Considerable experience in design operation and economics is needed to properly select the umber of filters for a specific application. In the judgement of the authors, eight filters is a good number for the size of treat- ‘ment plant used in the Design Example, Smaller treatment plants would certainly require fewer units, larger plants more; however, a minimum of four units should be provided, even for small-or medium-sized treatment plants. b. Unit layout: ‘The filter units are laid out as illustrated in Figure 10-17. The overall arrangement provides two banks of four filter units, with each bank divided by the administration and control building. Each bank of filters is further divided into two banks of two fil- ter units with, a pipe gallery in the middle. Provision for eight additional filters, for future expansion, is also made. This arrangement provides the operator easy access300 (Chapter 10 » Filtration to the filter units to monitor backwash operations. It also allows efficient layout of the filter piping. The filter-complex plan is illustrated in Figure 10-18. This layout features an influ- ent header that extends the length of the filter unit and the administration building complex. Water from the sedimentation basins is fed into the header at each end of the pipe gallery. Each filter output is measured by a flow meter in the effluent pipe. An effluent header also extends along the length of the pipe gallery and connects to a filtered water pipeline in the basement of the administration building. The pipeline carries the filtered water to a filter back pressure weir common bay before the chlo- rine contact channels. The third header is the backwash water header. This pipe car- ries backwash water to each individual filter unit. The waste backwash water piping is located around the perimeter and extends to a surge storage tank of the backwash ‘water recovery system. 10.13.2 Design Calculations Step A: Filter Unit Design 1. Unit dimensions ‘The filter units are designed at an average loading rate of 10 m3/m*h (4.1 gpmv/ft2), Under maximum day flow conditions, the flow is distributed among seven filter units assuming that one is out of service for backwashing. a. Calculate the required area for each filter unit. Maximum design flow = 113,500 m?/d = 16214 mid 3 Design flow foreach basin = Hears = 676 m°Mh= 0.188 m*/s Ata filtration rate of 10 m3/m-h (per Design Criteria), calculate the required unit area as follows: 676 m'fh 10 m’/m*-d b. Calculate dimensional requirements. A = req = 67.6 m? ‘Using square filter units, the required dimensions are: Length (L) = Width (W)= (67.6 m?)! = 8.22 meonyrg conan Jog vounies som | ines ao ‘Figure 10-17 Layout of filter units and backwash water system. (Showing filter units, control and administration building, and backwash water system. 991erred Figure 10-18 Filter-compiex plan. (Left side showing ground floor and right side showing lower level.) 392Design Example 393 Provide dimensions of L ce W= 8.25 m se 8.25 m, The surface area of each filter unit is therefore Ar = 68.1 m? Detailed design dimensions of filter units are shown in Figure 10-19. Saenege te | Gp. ot Bam) Figure 10-19 Plan view of fier units No. 5 and 6 in the Design Example, (Section views of A-A and B-B are shown in Figure 9-20.) 2. Process design and media selection a. Select media size. ‘The procedure here used for media design and selection is one proposed by Kawa- mura.? This procedure is generally used to estimate the initial values for use in pilot plant tests. In many larger plants, media selection is based on extensive pilot testing to identify the optimum media design. Such testing is not always justified for small or medium-size plants, so experience and judgement must be used, In this design example, the media selection procedure is based on the authors’ judgement, and the procedure is typical of many dual-media filters. The top media layer is anthracite coal of an undetermined size. The second media layer is quartz sand with an effective size dy = 0.5 mm, The upper anthracite layer must have a settling velocity compatible with that of the sand layer, to ensure effec- tive backwashing. Eq. (10. 8) is used to select the media on the basis of the values given as the design criteria, Erom S,1 = 1.55 (anthracite), Sgp = 2.65 (sand), and d; 0.5 mm (sand), the effective size of anthracite grains with the same settling velocity as the sand layer is calculated from Eq. (10.8):‘Chapter 10 + Filtration 23 d, = 0.5 mmx = 1.04 mm or 1.0m b. Determine the depth of filter bed, Assume that the anthracite is 2/3 of the total bed depth and sand is the remaining 1/3. This ratio is also based on the judgement of the authors, and is typical for duai- media filters. i. Calculate the weighted average of the media size. 2 Weighted average media size = 1.0x3+0.5 x is 0.83 mm Weighted average porosity ratio = 0.48 x 2 +0.40x i = 0.45 ii. Determine the total bed depth. The total bed depth is calculated from Figure 10-6 by using the average media size, 0.83 mm, and the average porosity ratio, 0.45. = 75x 10 mm or 75 cm (29.5 in) ii. Calculate the depth of each media layer, he 15 emx3 = 50cm (19.7 in) Sand depth i, = 75 emx = 25cm (9.8 in) The media details are summarized in Table 10-5. The total filter media depth is 0.75 m, as shown in Figure 10-20(a). 3. Head losses and hydraulic profile. In this section, the hydraulic calculations are conducted for the head losses from the begin- ning of the filter influent header inside the filter piping gallery (point A in Figure 10-21) to the chlorine contact channels. These channels are an integral part of the clearwell/pump station complex. (See Figure 10-17.) The head losses through the 91-cm diameter pipe between the sedimentation basin box and the filter influent header are calculated in Chap- ter 15, where a hydraulic profile through the plant is prepared. a. Caleulate the head losses through the influent piping system. Although the filter system is composed of eight filters configured in two symmetric banks of four filters each, the head loss calculations are based on one filter's being out of service under maximum day flow condition. The worst-case scenario is when one of four outside filters (i.c., filter units No. 1, 3, 6 or 8) is taken out of service. Iti lev, 97.20. Grav 25 4 Effluent eager @ ier Unit Operating Pena Ettuent crtuaet —\—seckwosh Infuent Header Flow Meter Confyel Valve (b) Figure 10-20 Section views of filter units in Design Example. (Locations of section A-A and B-B are shown in Figure 9-19.) (a) Section A-A. (Showing filter media, gravel support, underdrain, and backwash water collection launders and gullet.) (b) Section B-B. (Showing piping arrangement in Piping gallery.) 395,a Chapter 10 + Filtration Table 10-5 Summary of Filter Media Design Layer Matefal Shesmm cm Coettcent Gravy POS! paige Top Anthracite 10 50 16 a 0.48 500 Bottom Sand 0.5 25 14 2.65 0.40 500 ‘Total depth of filter media layer 75cmor Total Lid, ratio 1000 075m Teepe Lo = SOE = oe is assumed that the flows in two pipes from the sedimentation basins are equal, and Filter No. 8 is closed. Under this condition, the flow distribution in the influent pip- ing system at maximum day flow is shown in Figure 10-21(a). A transfer of flow (0.094 m?/s) from the right bank to the left bank of filters will occur. The control route for head loss calculations is therefore from Point A (the entering point of right influent header) co Point B (the entering of filter unit No. 2). The piping details and fittings are shown in Figure 10-21(b). The calculation procedures and results are shown in Table 10-6. The total head loss through the influent piping is 0.41 m. b. Calculate head losses through the filter media. i. Calculate head losses through the clean filter media. The Carmen-Kozeny equation (Eq. (10.1) is used to estimate the head loss through the clean filter media that consist of two layers: 0.5 m anthracite layer on top of 0.25 m sand layer. (See Section 10.13.2, Step A, 2a and Figure 10-20(a) for filter media design details.) The head loss through each layer is calculated from Eqs. (10.1), (10.5) and (10.6) by using the following data: Velocity v= 10 m/h = 0.0028 m/s (Section 10.13.1) Density of water at 5° C (p,,) = 1000 kg/m3 Viscosity of water at °C (u) = 1.518 co 103 N-s/m? (or kg/m:s) Shape factor 9 = 1.0 ‘The head loss calculations are listed in Table 10-7. Total head loss through the clean filter media is 0.46 m. ii, Determine media terminal head loss and effluent monitoring. 4. It should be noted that this calculation procedure may aot represent the actual head loss in the influent piping, The influent pipes from two sedimentation basins ae interconnected outside the filter units, as shown in Figure 10-17. When one filter is closed, the transfer of flow from one bank to another bank of filters occurs not only through the pipe header Segment I, but also through the outer connecting pipe: however, the procedure pre~ sented ahove does offer simplified calculations and gives a slightly conservative desiga,(b) Figure 10-21 Filter influent piping layout for hydraulic calculations. (a) Flow distribution. (b) Seg- ment assignment and dimensions. 397308 ‘Chapter 10 + Filtration Table 10-6 Calculations of Head Losses through Filter Infiuent Piping System. Fiow Head Appurtenancet "uation — ate, Sizo,m Lens VelOcIY. gg, ms Ss m ———— —— Segment Eq), 0.657 O91 3725 Tor 0.006 c= 120 Isolation valve in Eq, (7.12), 0.657 ot NA 101 0.0528 Segment I K=10 Cross (run-to-run) Eq, (7.12). 0.657 0.91 NIA 1.01 0.031 between SegmentsI K=0.60 and Segment IT Eq. (7.14), 0.469% 091 8.55 0.721 0.005 c=120 Cross (run-to-run) Eq. (7.12), 0.469 ost NA 0.721 0.016 between Segments I K=0.60 and I Segment III Eq.(7.14), 0.0948 091 3985 0.144 0.001 c= 120 Isolation valvein —-Eq.(7.12), 0.094 091 NA 0.144 0,001 Segment II K=10 Cross (run-t0- Eq (712, 0.188 O91 045 NA 118 0128 branch) between K=18 ‘Segments III and IV ‘Segment IV Eq, (7.14), 0.188 0.45 4.80 118 0.016 c=120 Butterfly valvein —-Eq.(7.12), 0.188 04s, NA 118 0.085 Segment IV K=12 Exit Eq. (7.12), 0.188 0.45 NIA 118 0.071 K=10 Total head loss through filter influent piping system oa a See Figure 10-21 for segment numbering (Segmens LIV) and flow distribution bow ncch pipe fom edinenton ins = 12500 9657 Pipe from sedimentation basins = HAIR TT = 0.657 mls 1.01 ms\!85 5.725 chy = 681 x! x= = 0.006 m. 4 120 ost! 2 dh, = LOGOUT ~ 0.052 m. 2x981 © Flow in Segment If = Flow in Segment I- Flow to Filter No. 6 = 0,657 m'¥s-~ 0.188 m/s = 0.469 m/s. £ Flow in Segment III = Flow in Segment I~ Flow to Filters No. 5 & 7 = 0.469 m/s ~2 <° 0,188 m/s = 0.004 mis. & Flow in Segment IV = Flow to Filter No. 2= 0.188 m¥/s,