~

Base
----
'llch~a~ankS-------------------------------

d on methods of actuation
k-:::::;i manual operation
-
-
~2~!l.7
.

2 1 11, Valve symbolS d ving and expl:lOation of pneumatic sYSt er

, , to simplify the ra~ ellis Gen
Symbols are used . stems The various symbols used to des . ~
way as electroruc sy . cnbc
in much the same . nd hydraulic systems are as follows: ~utton
the valves in the pneumallc II Symbol
I
a=[
Description
r ~operated
Bosed on junctions
. . . represented by
Each valve switching posItion IS
j
0 It
a square.
to the
~nt operated
p
The
number of squares corresponds
CD ~t pedal operated
number of switching positions.
!=[
Lines indicute the now path and a1l01VS

represl!l1ts the direction of Ilow. The vertical

down arrow indicates the fluid nows into the
in it
rn ~oller operated
0=[
Idle return, roller
valve and the inclined arrow indicates the fluid
flows out of the vall'e.
g[
Spring operated
Shut-off positions are identified in the boxes by
lines drawn lit right angles.
[i] JW
an Solenoid operated
The inverted
exhaust port,
trianglc symbol denotes
V cz[
The connections (inlet and outlet ports) are
shown by lines on the outside of the box. In
Direct pneumatic

Indirect pneumatic
actuation

actuation (piloted)
-r
this figure, the valve has four ports. The ports
-t>L[
are labelled by a number or feller according to
their function as given below: (j The poppet valve described previous section (in Figure 2.7) has IWI'I posuions.
Pressure supply or input port lor P
Output port (i) closed and (ii) open and two port (i) inlet port and (ii) outlet port. Therefore it is
2 or 5 or B or A
Hydraulic return port also called 2f2 valve, In 2/2 valve the first number represents number aJ /'01 IS lind the
30rT
Pneumatic exhaust port second number represents number oJ switchillg positions. FI'\IIll the ubovc sYlllbol
3 or 5 or R or G
description. poppet valve has two blocks or squares: one for open position and other
 ."r~~_---------------------------- _J2~.J~9
figure 2 . 12 showS a simple example of an application of valves . 4/'7.J spoo I'( va ve
~ . A.

2.18 ..,., valve is actWlv:rl by push butto ",umalic system. This valve has four pons and three positions. One port
. figure 2.S. PoPy- n
~ JbOwnn iJI a.~s pressurized fluid from the pump, and one routes fluid back to the reservoir

:::~-
.'
,ecc:1 the atmosphere in pneumatic systems). The other two pons are generally
~ (Of to to
rred as work ports a nd route fl UIid to or from the actuator. In this case. one
rere rt routes fluid to or from the rod end of the cylinder, the other routes fluid to
work po
the cap end.
Figure 2.8 Symbol/or poppel volw (2/2valve) or frOm
The valve represented in Figure 2.12 call be shifted to any of three discrete
d ribed in previous section (Figure 2.5) has
.' the sliding spool valve esc .' s As shown, in the neutral position, all pons are blocked, so no fluid will
SJlllJlarly f .' a]/2 valve. IIis represented as shown i pOsItion. . "
three porlSand rwo positions. There ore II IS n fthe valve is shifted to the TIght, fluid from the pump flows to the rod end of
RoW. I
Figure 2.9. 2(A) 2(A)
the cylinder and causing its piston rod to retract. As the piston rod retracts, fluid from
the cylinder's cap end flows to the reservoir. If the valve is shifted to the left, fluid
rzG \ 1/ fJW
1(P)3(R)
{J IT\]w T
l(P) 3(R)
RowS (rom the pump to the cap end of the cylinder, causing the piston rod to extend.
AS this occurs, fluid from the rod end of the cylinder flows to the reservoir.
(a) Nrmna"y open (b) Normally closed
Returning the valve spool to the center position again blocks all flow.
Figure 2.9 Symbols/or sliding solenoid valve (3/2va/ve)

The symbol for 4/2 valve is shown in Figure 2.10. This valve has four ports and

two positions.

- l(P) 3(R)

Figure 2.10 SymlJolslor 412valve

The symbol for 512 valve is shown in Figure 2.11. This valve has five ports and
two positions.

ah\ 1Ii1'~
SIR) l/P)3(S)
Figure 2.12 Application of valves 4/3 valve in a pneumatic system
Figure 1.11 SymlJolsfor 512 valve
 2.20 :..now on or off. Three port valves are
. Iy turn au II

alves are used to sunp ilot signal, [0 control smgle acting

Two port v air 10 create a P
leclor valves to route . rt valves are used to control dOUble
used as se . (unctiOns. F.ve po
ake: log.c
cylinders or 10 rn
acling cylinders. Figure 2.14 Directional or Non-return valve

P'Iot-operated Valves
2.1.12. , . trol large valves as the size of the pressure control Valves
s are essential to con 21.14.
Pilo/operated valve actual valve would be bigger. Sometimes, for . e Regulating Valves
. d as compared to the ,)p,essu~
solenoid requlfe th ~ e required to move the spool or POppet (. .ma ry function of the pressure regulating valve is to match the flow of fluid
aI operated valves, e ore Pn
solenoid or manu I iJOI fluid supply for moving the main spOOl the regulator to the demand for fluid placed upon the system. If the load flow
h'gh Therefore, an eJ(tema P . lhrough
may be 100 . f the main valve. FIgure 2.13 shows the then the regulator flow must decrease also. If the load flow increases, then
.' d ed through pressure port 0 . . decreases,
rs mtro uc ted b ilot valves. The dashed line in the diagram lator flow must increase in order to keep the controlled pressure from
schemalicof 513 valve opera y pi the regu
. The ilot valves are generally small and can be operated
indicatespilot pressure line. P decreasing due to a shortage of fluid in the pressure system.
manuallyor by a solenoid.

, J> ~;
: 5 13 ;
~-- .. : 2(A) 5/3 valve ,.... : 2(A) Loadingspring

9 !T IT\ fw
Pilotvalve I(P) 3(R)
rzj tTl
Pilotvalve
T\
I(P) 3(R)
fw
Diaphragm
Figure 2.13 Pilot operated 5/3 valve -1~ I;:::::===~~=:J_Inlel
Poppetreturn spring

.13. Directional Valve or Non-Return Valve or Check Valves Figure 2.15 Pressure regulating valves
The directional or non-return valves allow the flow in one direction and in the
In the regulating valve shown in Figure 2.15, a diaphragm is used with a poppet
'f direction the flow is not allowed. The ball and seat arrangement of a non-return
valve to regulate pressure, As pressure in the upper chamber increases, the
e is shown in Figure 2. 14 (a) and corresponding symbol of the valve is shown
diaphragm is pushed upward, causing the poppet to reduce flow, bringing the
re 2.14 (b).
pressure back down, By adjusting the top screw, the downward pre 'sur' 011 the

--.
 },tJfr(JII";'\:__" ----~------

z.n ~
e valve divertlllhc fluid to a MCCOlld ' . 2.2.1
'. sed re(uilln!! more pressure in the upper churnbcr 10
scqllCflC . ,. actu(ltor or 1))OIOr
dinphragm can be IIIcrcasc. I ... ,.' . the SYlilem. Fluid is free 10 flow into . I' 10 do work in another
, Ih' oullel pressure 01 Ihc regulnlol IS I.:onlrolled art 0 f , cy Inder A, The fi .
maintain equilibrium, In !Ills way. e ., ' P . Ihe pllssllge of fluid until the piKton " rSI scqucncc valve I
blockS In cyllllder A mov
Allhis time, sequence valve I opens all ' es 10 the end of its
(ii) Pressu,", Umiting Va/IIBS . stroke, . Owmg fluid 10 enter c I' '.
, (b) 'how the cons[fuclion of pressure sequence valve nnd Ihe
.1
FIgure 2.16 (a) ano S . , contiJlues until all three pistons complete th ' Y inder B. Ihis
ctively The pressure relief valve IS mounted at the preSSure acllofl . cu sLrokes.
symbol of the va Ive respe, , . CylinderC
side of Ihe hydraulic syslem. Its function is to lim It the pressure III the system on an
facr a pressure relief valve has the same construction as a spring
accepta bl e va Iue. In
operated directional or non-return check valve. When the system gets overloaded the
pressure relief valve will open and the pump flow will be leaded directly into the
hydraulic reservoir. The pressure in the system remains on the value determined by
the spring on the pressure relief valve and hence the system is safeguarded against

excessive pressure.

Pressure setting p
spring T

L :
1. 1 To return

(a) (b)

Figure 2.17 Pressure sequence valves

(a) {bl

Figure 2.16 Pressure limiting valves

2.1.15. Process Control Valves
(iii) Pressure sequence valves
The process control valves are used to control the rate of fluid flow of a process
Figure 2.17 (a) and (b) show the arrangement of pressure sequence valves in
control system, for example, controlling the rate of fluid flow into a tank The
pneumatic system and the symbol of the valves respectively. Pressure sequence
valves corsrol the sequence of operation between two branches in a circuit. They Operation is based on a variable resistance to the flow of t1uid by altering the cro '-
enable one unit to automatically set another unit into motion. This valve is sectionof the pipe through which the fluid flows. pJQCC$S control \ I e con . ts f
similar to a relief valve except that, after [he set pressure has been reached. the an actuator and valve. The actuator regulates the pressure of the stem \ here as tbe
~~ . ('
COntrols the flow of fluid into or out of the system The most common torm or
J!rocessCOntrol valve actuator is pneumatic diaphragm actuator.
 ;Ictl/otion Sy~
'h~~-------------~~---------------- ~~l~
~
2.24

Pneumatic diaphragm actuator .' . _

. d'aphragm aCIU.110r ISshown In FIgure L.18
A simple constructicn of pneumatIC I . .
f bber with t.heinput pressure supply acting on
It consists of 3 diaphragm. rnade 0 ru. , pneumatic actuator
'I' g on the other side.
one side and !he amlOsphenepressure ac m

Figure 2.19 Process control valve - Diaphragm actuated

rocess control valves

(a) when tile pressure is low (b) when the pressure is high
Figure 2.18 Pneumatic diaphragm actuator
Figure 2.18 (a) shows the condition when the input pressure from the controller
is low. In this state. the spring maintains the diaphragm and the connected stem in the
upper position. When the input pressure from the controller is increased the
d~phragm moves down against the spring force and hence the stem as well, as
shown in Figure 2.18 (b). The pressure and spring force are directly proportional and
the compression of a spring is linearly related to the force acting on the diaphragm.
ConrtructWn and Working principle of Process control valve
Figure 2.19 shows a simple construction of typical control valve using a
pneumatic diaphragm actuator attached to drive the stem which is used to control the
flow. The operation of pneumatic diaphragm actuator is explained in the previous
section. The operation (up and down movement) of diaphragm actuator moves the
inner-valve plug attached to the stem within the valve body. The size of the opening
between the plug and seat varies when the stem and plugs moves up and down. The
rhape of the plu.; determines the amount of actual opening of the valve.
Types P
Classification of process control valves are based on the valve body andpillg,
Valve bodies
The valve may be single seated (contains one plug with one seating surface) or
doubleseated. Figure 2.20 shows different forms of valve bodies.
Single seated valves, as shown in Figure 2.20 (a), have only one plug and the
fluidflows through one path in the valve. These types of valves are recommended if
the valve is required to close tightly. Double seated valves as shown in Figure
2.20(b) have two plugs and hence the fluid entering into the valve splits into two
streams.These types of valves have an advantage of less force required to operate the
valvewith an accurate positioning.
Plugs
The relationship between the stem movement and the effect on the flow rate is
determined by the shape of the plug. There are 3 basic types of control valve plugs as
shownin Figure 2.21 .
 Y
_~~ ----------------------------------~A~C~I~lIt~"~iQ~ 'Ifflll/C, 2
~.26 ~ .27
"toured plug valve!
').earct1
(b) I' . type the flow rate varies linearly with sterr ..
In thiS ' . I POsition. Here, the valve
mines the pressure drop. Therefore the change In n
deter . ow rate :: K )( (change
alone d'splncemcnt) where K IS the constant. The relationship bet n
. tern I . e ween ow rate
In s ition may be expressed as
andstern pos
_g_=~
QmDl S"",x

Where
Q == flow rate m m s
. 3,
QnrLl == maximum flow rate in m31s
S == Stem position in m
s_, = maximum stem position in m

(c)EqUJJIpercentage plug valves .

In this type of plug, for a given percentage of changes in stem position an
Normally open :ype Normally closed type
(b) Double-seated valve body equivalentchange in flow rate occurs. In normal situations, this type of valve does
notshut-off the flow completely and the minimum flow which occurs when the stem
Figure 2.20 Different forms of valve bodies
travelsin its limit.
Let R be rangeability between the maximum and minimum now

tr ~ ~
(a) Quick opening plug

(a) Quick opening plug valves

(b) Linear contoured plug

Figure 2.2/ Different plug shapes

(C) Equal percentage plug

where Sand S".u are stem positions in m.

Characteristic of these valves based on the stem position and flow rate are shown
These (ypes of valves are used for large change in flow rate with a small inFigure 2.22.
n,ovemem of the valve stem and act as an on/off control of flow rate.
 2.29
hI11f'l)";CS
,III d problems on Process Control Valves
16. solve
~.1.

pro
",e,"
1
on loured plug process control valve is used to control the fluid flow
lintor c
,4 tall/(. rile pneumatic diapl,mgm actuator used in Ih~ system has a stem
;11 f}te 0/ 50 mOl oJ ils full travel. TI,e valve element has a minimum and
l
",0",,,,ttl fl ,..rale 0/0 and 0.301J./s respectively. Calculate the raie of flow when
jtfIu'" 0
dJaJ emenl is (i) 15mm and (ii) 25 mm.
the st
e'" ",ov
GiI'eTl dola: .
. urn stem displacement. Sma.r = 50 111m
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Maxim
~asfracliOl10f - . um flow rate, Qmo.r = 0.3 IIIJ/S
~mum displaCement MaXJl1l
. 2'" Fla c/uutlCltrisliCS o/VIllves/ordif/erenl plug positions
Minimum flow rate, = 0 mJ/s o.;
FIgure _'" r . II'

solutiOtl:
ConlTVlvolve siDng For the linear contoured plug process control valve. the relationship bet, ee.n
The term control valve sizing refers to rhe correct size of the valve body. The

following equation is used to specify !he size of a valve in terms of its capacity to flow rate and stem position may be expressed as

provide flow when fully open. L=_!_

a; s.:
Q=O.75xI0-6K,/
(i) Rate offlow when the stem movement is l Smm
Q = flow rate in mJ/sec, IlP = Pressure drop in kPa
S = specific gravity of the fluid, K; = Valve flow coefficient _!L=_!_
Typical value of valve size for the corresponding valve flow coefficient is given
Q""", s.:
in Table 2.1. Q 15
-=-
0.3 50
Table 2.1 Valve flow coefficient and Valve sizes
(ii) Rate offlow when the stem movement is 25mm
alve flow coefficient, K,

Valve Size (mm)

Q
-=-
25
0.3 50
a JeJ'hlJlfll"Irtl 2 11
~
18. Linea' Actuator
2. 1'
It iA a device thilt t!evc:l.,p" linear f(,,'v: lind Blle:.f fllA,q',n. flt)m all uvail .. hle
hydrauliC or pneumatk; eJltrsy M)U(Cc.

A linear aeiuator provide .. a rt(:tilinear nx,veruem realized by me lrokc of a rod

cOnnected to a plston sliding inside the cylinder. The linear aciuetors evsennally ha e
a cylinder barrel and a movable pi ton with piston rod. 1 here arc rnamly t \NO t ype~ of

Ilntar actuators based on ih operauon: single act ing and double acting cylinder ..., The
. gle acting cylinder only permit the fluid on one surface of the puton and therefore
5III
the pressure of is exerted in single direction. It has a single work stroke: the retract
stroke is made by means of the a helical spring incorporated with the actuator inside
a chamber. The double acting cylinders permit both strokes, so that the fluid act
alternately on both sides of the piston, generating both the advance and retract
strokes.
(0) Single acting cylinders
Figure 2.23 shows a simple construction of a single acting cylinder. In ingle
acting cylinders, the fluid enters and leaves in one side of the piston and the other
side is vented to atmosphere. Therefore, a single acting cylinder can produce work in
one direction. The spring is used to return the piston to its initial position.

\ \\t::::= ::=::=
I
Input/output
port ~ _'-- __ ~ Cylinder Symbol

Figure 2.23 Single acting cylinder

(b) Double acting cylinders

A simple double acting cylinder linear actuator is shown in Figure _.24. til
double acting cylinders, the fluid enters and leaves in both sides of the pr-ton and
 tronics_---------- _
2~~ ------------------------------~A~C~/I~la~/~io~StP~ ,
~.34 ~
..) Rack and pillionactuators are essen!' II . 2.35
. . ded There are two ports used alternately on II ia y linear act
there is no return sprmg IS nee . . .' e fOr connected to translate the linear fo uators mechanically
_1. t of air When the fluid/air enters the cylinder from u rce to prodUce an
supply and other for e"1I3US . PPer rotational movement. This type of a tu output torque aOO
. t: d to move down. At the same time. the fluid/air which' c ators are capabl
port, the piston IS rorce IS output motion of one revolution or more b . e of providing an
, ut not continUous.
already below the piston returns to the reservoir. When the fluid/air enters the
II types give bi-directionaloutput motion and
cylinder from lower port, the piston is forced to move up and the fluid/air which is A .' most produce same tor ue .
seTlSes. Also output torque
IS generally constant thr ho q In
already above the piston the piston returns to the reservoir. The procedure is repeated bO th . oug ut the stroke. The
rtant advantage of rotary actuators IS direct rot
again and again to perform the continuous movement. il1lpo .,. . ary output from a compact
uric device With elimination of linkages and I .
hy<If a osr motion associated with
'nder/crank rod arrangements. The use of anyone type' b d .
cy II . ". IS ase on four pnmarv
'teria' (i) workmg torque, (It) bearing load (iii) kinetic .'
ell . 'energy, and (IV) the
working environment.
I II :
I I (i) Vane actuators
Symbol The cOTlStruction of a simple single vane actuator is shown in Figure 2.25 (a). It
consists of:
Figure 2.24 Double acting cylinder (a) the housing with inlet and outlet ports,
(b) the vane with central output shaft rigidly attached with. and
2.1.19. Rotary Actuators (c) the internal barrier or shoe located inside the actuator and is fixed to the

A rotary actuator is a device that develops rotary motion, from an available housing.

hydraulic or pneumatic energy source. In construction terms, rotary actuators are The barrier, shaft and vane partition the inner space of the actuator into two
identical to rotary pumps. Therefore gear, vane, lube and rack and pinion type pumps working chambers. The vane swings and rotates in a normal and reverse direction
are available. Obviously. the operating principle is the opposite of pumps. In pumps when the fluid/air pressure acts on it and hence the torque is transmitted to the output

the external energy either electrical or mechanical is supplied to generate the shaft attached with the vane. Single vane actuators are limited in rotation and most

hydraulic/pneumatic pressure where as in actuators hydraulic/pneumatic pressure is do not exceed 280. These actuators are made with different rotating angles, the most

supplied to generate the mechanical work. Rotary actuators produce a high torque common being 90, 180, and 270. Vane actuators provide high torque-to-size

output and have a limited rotary movement. relationship.

Rotary actuators can be divided into two major groups: It is possible to modify the design to have two vanes fixed to the output shan

i) V, 180 apart, and two fixed barriers or shoes in the housing pl'tlvidins two ~\lllf~lle
nne actuators where the torque and motion all produced in a rotary sense. . .' '\:' 1"1 (b) Each half of
operatmg halves each WIth two chambers lIS shOWII III 1!J.1I1'i: .-. .
The construction limits the rotation to less than one.
 v
~,J"Ch~alroniCS 2 37
.
2.36 . th t they operate in parallel. This g' k and pinion actuators
!he supply so a IVes (II..) /lac ck is a straight set of gear teeth attached 10 the cyli d' .
for the same pressure supply.

-:;..
is connecled (0 The ra '. In er s piston as shown
lhe actuator . Ie vane actuator
ut of a slOg 17 The rack pushed linearly as the piston m Th
twice the lorque oulp Barrier . figUre 2 .~' IS
oves. e rac k 's teeth
10 'th the circular gear teeth of the piston forcing it to rotate Th .,
/"~:. meshWI
bock to I
" ' ,

"
, , " '
'ts onglOal position when fluid/air pressure IS supplied to the 0
e plOlon rotates
ite sid f
PPOSI e SI e 0
'nder, The malomum rotation of a rack and pinion actuator is limited by its
the cy II " I

shaft
, racticc, the maximum angle of rotation is not more than 720,
0(
Size, In p

(b) Two vane actuator

(.) Singl' vane actualo(
Figure 2.15 Vane actuator

. I . ed is more than 3600 then a vane motor can be used

If the rouuon ang e requu .
. f motor is shown in Figure 2.26. A vane motor consists of
The cOllSlrUcuon 0 Vl!1C .
. I aded vanes slotted into a driven rotor. Spring loaded vane lips are
number0 f sprrng 0
held againsr the housing lind the rotor is offset within the housing. The vanes are
containedby cam rings as they cross inlet and outlet ports. When the fluid is supplied
throughthe inlet port the vane rotates and hence the rotor produces the required Figure 2,27 Rack and pinion actuator
output motion.
Comparison between Vane actuator and Rack and pinion actuator
Vaneactuator Rack and pinion actuator
The vane swings and rotates in a The rack moves back and forth when
nonnal and reverse direction when the fluid/air pressure acts on the external
fluid/air pressure acts on it and hence side of the piston in a cylinder and
the torque is transmitted to the output hence the torque is transmitted to the
shaft attached with the vane, output shaft via pinion,
Vane actuators are limited in rotation These types of actuators are capable of

Spring controlled vanes and most do not exceed 280, providing one revolution or more.
Figure 2.26 Vane motor Less expensive than rack and pinion More expensive,
actuators,
Less maintenance required, More maintenance required,
 ___ ----------~A~C(~II~a~(i~ ,,,lfollicS
~ 2.39
2.38 '
, less torque to slzc.
MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
High IOrquc-losizc. Zero backlash is not possible. 2.2 ~A chanica I actuation systems consisn of va '. .
lY.e . . mechanIcal flOUS clements such a
Zero backlash i.~possible. s cams, gear trams, rack and pinion chains beL d .
More accuracy. Iinl'age , , ., t fives, ratchet and pawl
High loads are possible to apply. . s etc. These elements often used in mcchat . '
High loads arc not possIble to PP y.
beanog. romcs systems to perform the
ing primary functions:
foUow
AdvanJlIgtl of rolllry acluaJors .'
'des uniform torque in both dlrecllons. 1. Transformation of a rotary motion into a translau
. .
mg motion as In the case
II proVI
2 The design is simple. of a cam and follower mechanism where rotational motion of the cam is
II is available in wide range of sizes. changed into translational movement of the follower.
4 High torque-to-size ratio.
2. Transformation of rotary motion for a long distance, which is not possible
5 It has more efficient operation
by using gears. as in the case of belt drives.
6 Less maintenance is required.
7 II can also perform urder the most adverse ambient conditions. 3. Transformation of rotary motion for a medium distance without slipping.
8 Good load holding capability with zero drift. which is not possible by using belt drives, as in the case of belt drives.
9 Optional cushions can stop inertial loads.
4. Transformation of linear motion into rotational motion as in the else of
10 Rotation can be specified to fit exact application needs.
rack and pinion mechanism.
11 It will support radial lIS well as thrust loads.
5. Locking of rotating elements as in the case ratchet and pawl me hanisrn.

6. Transformation of a motion in one direction into a motion in 11 direcrion at

right angles. as in the case of a bevel gear and worm gear drives,

7. Changing the direction of rotational speed by increasing r decreasin; of

one drive to another, as in the case of gear trains,
8. Guiding the rotating and translating elements with minimum fricti n - in
the case of bearings.

The construction. working principles. ty-pes. dv: mages and disadvantages of the
.
vanous mechanical. actuation systems such as c ms, gear I lUI'. s, rate'heI and. mwl,
r

.
belt drives. chain drive and bearings
~ are dis .ussed here \.!! sylh\\ u, point of \ iew,