Class 6

Fundamentals of Optics

Ray, Wavefronts, & Diffraction

Optical Metrics
Telescope Designs

Ref: IOMA Text

Chapter 2

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 Optical Design Codes

Major commercial codes

CodeV: older, more complete code. More expensive.
Zemax: newer, more popular code. Less expensive.
Other codes: Fred, Oslo,

Used for design of optical systems

Tolerance studies of design variables
Determine behavior of nominal design
Their environmental analysis is very limited (no elasticity)

To get true environmental performance

Use finite element codes for thermal/structural/dynamic effects
Use this course ( & SigFit) to pass effects to optical codes
Integrated approach = STOP = Structural-Thermal-Optical-Performance

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 Refractive Index & Wavelength
Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave
electric and magnetic fields vary perpendicular to direction of propagation

Index of refraction, n
ratio of the speed of light, c, in a vacuum to the speed of light in a material
visible materials n = 1.5 to 2; IR materials n = 1.5 to 4

Wavelength, is the distance light travels in one cycle

visible spectrum 0.45 to 0.70 m
common IR sensor wavelengths 2-13 m
Electromagnetic Spectrum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum

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 Refraction & Reflection
Rays refract at a surface according to Snell's Law
Bend toward the surface normal when passing into a higher index medium
Refractive
Surface Surface
Normal Snell' s Law
' n sin n' sin '
n n' > n

Reflection: angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection

Surface ' Reflective

Surface
Normal

Light
Ray

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 Optical Path Difference = OPD
Optical Path Length (OPL)
b
OPL ns ds
index times the physical distance traveled by the ray
Optical path difference (OPD) a
change or difference in optical path length (OPL)
e.g. between a perturbed and unperturbed system OPD OPL2 OPL1
typically given in units of wavelengths
due to optical shape change and/or index change 2
OPD
Optical Phase ()
OPD may be expressed as a phase change in radians, degrees, or fraction of wave
e.g. waves out-of-phase by a quarter wavelength are out-of-phase by 90-degrees

Two Electromagnetic Waves Out-of-Phase

Amplitude

Ray Direction

Distance

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 Rays, Wavefronts, and Imaging
A wavefront represents points of constant phase
Each wavefront is separated by a wavelength
A ray represents the direction of the wavefront for a given point
An ideal optical system imaging a point source produces a converging spherical wavefront
that ends in a perfect point (paraxial optics / Gaussian imagery)

Image Formation

Image Point

Point
Source
Diverging Converging
Spherical Wavefronts Optical Spherical Wavefronts
System

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 Wavefront Error = WFE Actual
Wavefront
Wavefront error (WFE) is a measure of the departure of a wavefront from a
reference wavefront in terms of optical path difference
measured normal to the reference wavefront
Reference
Peak-to-Valley (P-V) is the difference between the maximum OPD Spherical
and the minimum OPD of a given wavefront Wavefront

The RMS quantifies the variability of the OPD across the wavefront
more meaningful measure of performance = Spatial RMS

Wavefront error often described using polynomials

wave aberration polynomials or Zernike polynomials Peak-To-Valley
OPD

Diverging
Actual Converging
Object Spherical
Wavefront Spherical
Plane Wavefront
Wavefront
Paraxial
Image Plane

Image
On-axis Point
Object Optical Reference
Point System Spherical Wavefront

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 Optical Path Difference due to Surface Deformations

Surface deformations create changes in the optical path length of a

wavefront or OPD errors

Optical Surface Deformations Creating Wavefront

no no
OPD1 = (no-1)(L1-L1)
OPL1 = noL1
L1 L1
OPL3 = noL3 OPD3 = (no-1)(L3-L3)
L3 L3

L5 OPL5 = noL5 OPD5 = (no-1)(L5-L5)

L5

OPD = (n 1) * Surface Deformation (for lens in air)

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 Optical Path Difference due to Index Variations

OPD Errors Created by Temperature and Stress Variations

T1, 1 n1 OPL1 = n1L1 OPD1 = (n1-no)L1

L1

T3, 3 n3 OPD3 = (n3-no)L3

L3 OPL3 = n3L3

T5, 5
n5 L5 OPL5 = n5L5 OPD5 = (n5-no)L5

OPD = n*Distance

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 Image Position & Image Quality
Image Position
Concerned with the change in position of the
image
not concerned with image quality
Pointing / Boresight / Line-of-sight error
on-axis chief ray; aka gut ray
Image Quality
Characterizing the performance of an optical
system often done by characterizing the image
of an object point
Geometric Based Image Evaluations
excludes the effects of diffraction
Diffraction Based Image Evaluation
includes the effects of diffraction
Physical size of the image of an object point is
known as the blur diameter
the larger the blur diameter the worse the image
quality

Image Point on
Detector Array

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 Pointing Error = Boresight or Line-of-Sight Error

Pointing error is the angular error between the desired direction and the actual
pointing direction of the on-axis ray
Also measured as a translational displacement (offset of the ideal image position from
the actual image position) of the on-axis or gutray of the optical system

Image Point on
Detector Array
Created by fabrication, alignment, mechanical and environmental influences
that create deviations in the ideal position and shape of the optical elements

Modeling methods to compute LOS error due to mechanical and

environmental effects are discussed in the Dynamics section

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 Image Quality

A perfect optical system images an object point into

a perfect image point
Due to the effects of diffraction, an optical system
can never create a perfect image point
Actual image of a point is a smeared or blurred point of finite extent
physical extent is called the blur diameter
the closer the blur diameter approximates an infinitesimal point, the greater the image
quality

Image quality is often defined by the size of the image of an object point
e.g. spot diagrams, encircled energy, Strehl ratio

D
D - blur diameter

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 Diffraction
Diffraction is a consequence of waves bending around apertures or objects within the beam path (e.g.
secondary spider structure / support vanes)
limits image quality of an otherwise perfect optical system
For an optical system with a circular aperture imaging a point object, the Airy Disk is the bright central
spot of the diffraction image
84% of the energy is contained in the first central lobe
represents the minimum size of the image or blur diameter produced by the optical system

A diffraction-limited optical system means the effects of diffraction dictate the image quality
impact of geometrical/lens aberrations is small
Airy Disk Diameter, D 2.44 ( f /# )
Aperture
Image Plane

Diffraction
Incident Pattern
Focusing Image Diffraction Pattern
Wavefront
Lens

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Diffraction & Mechanical Obscurations
Mechanical support structures often present obscurations to the light path
telescope metering structures / secondary support vane

Apertures and physical objects in light path causes light to

diffract and degrades image quality
e.g. Cassegrain telescope

Example Obscurations and Resulting Point Spread Function

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 Image Quality - Spot Diagram
Plot of ray intersections of a grid of rays traveling from an object point onto the image surface
(diffraction ignored)
tells how image is spread on the detector
RMS Spot Size: Diameter that contains 68% of the energy
shape of the spot diagram can often tell what type of aberrations are present in the image

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 Image Quality - Point Spread Function (PSF)
Image of an object point diffraction and all aberrations included
Effects of aberrations on the PSF are to spread energy out into the surrounding rings and
decrease the energy in the central lobe or Airy Disk
PSF for Aberration Free System

Peak Intensity = 1.0

Airy Disk

PSF with Coma Error

Peak Intensity < 1.0

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 Image Quality - Strehl Ratio
Strehl Ratio is the ratio of the peak intensity at the center of an aberrated PSF to that of a
perfect system (i.e. diffraction-limited)
Common measure of performance for systems concerned with power such as laser communications (also radar
systems)
2
WFE 2RMS
Strehl Ratio e 4 1 4 2 WFE 2RMS (for WFERMS < 0.1 waves RMS)

PSF for Aberration Free System

Peak Intensity = 1.0

Airy Disk

Aberrated PSF (coma error)

Peak Intensity < 1.0

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Image Quality - Encircled Energy / Ensquared Energy
Encircled Energy:
Encircled energy % of Total Energy in Fixed Diameters

Another measure of the energy 100% Aberration Free

distribution of the image of a point
object 84 %

Percentage of energy on detector

Encircled Energy
Aberrated
plotted versus fixed radius or diameter Optical System:
(enclosed in circle) Coma Error

Ensquared energy
Measure of the amount of energy
of the image of an object point in
a detector or pixel element Airy Disk Diameter of Circle
Diameter
(enclosed in square element)
Common metric for point objects
or targets

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 Encircled Energy vs. Telescope Spider Design
Encircled Energy Approximation Mechanical design variables related to
arbitrary aperture shapes optical performance thru the Ratio R
uniform illumination R - ratio of the obscuration perimeter to
f the aperture transmitting area
Encircled Energy 1 R
2 r
2 perimeter of the obscuration dictates the
amount of energy diffracted
f - optical system effective focal length;
r - radial coordinate on focal plane area of the obscuration limits the total
R - perimeter / transmitted area amount of energy transmitted

Equal Transmitted Area

(A) (B)

(C) (D) (E) [Ref. 8]

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 Linear Systems
Linear systems theory may be used to describe the response of a broad category of physical systems
including mechanical and optical systems
Response may be computed as the superposition of impulse responses
Duhamel, Superposition, or Convolution Integral
Response may be computed in frequency domain
physical systems act as frequency filters / input frequencies may be passed, modulated, or cut-off

Mechanical System

f(t) A
x(t)
Fourier
k c Transform
t
t cycles/sec
m Frequency
x(t) Forcing Function:
Unit Impulse Function Impulse Response Mechanical Transfer Function
f(t)

Optical System
Aperture Image Plane
A
Fourier
Transform
PSF
D
Frequency cycles/mm
Image
Incident Intensity PSF Optical Transfer Function
Focusing
Wavefront
Lens
Profile Impulse Response

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Image Formation
Representing an Object in Spatial & Frequency Domain
Periodic rectangle function decompsed using a Fourier Series representation

Spatial Extent Spatial Frequency

of Object Content of Object
f(x) F()
A 2A 1 1 1
A f
1 f ( x) cos 2fx cos 2 (3 f ) x cos 2 (5 f ) x cos 2 (7 f ) x ...
T 2 3 5 7
... ...
T
x - spatial
frequency

A/2 2A/
+ - 2A/3
+ 2A/5 - 2A/7

X X X X X

f(x) f(x) f(x) f(x) f(x)

A/2

X X X X ... ... X

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 Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
MTF is a measure of the ability of an optical system to resolve objects
of varying spatial frequency
I max I min where Imax = maximum image intensity
MTF Modulation
I max I min Imin = minimum image intensity

Object Image MTF

1 1
Intensity

Optical

Intensity
Min = 0.1
System Max = 0.9 0.8
0 0
Position Position

1 1
Intensity

Intensity
Optical Min = 0.3
System Max = 0.7 0.4
0 0
Position Position

1 1 Min = 0.45
Intensity

Optical
Intensity

System Max = 0.55

0.1
0 0
Position Position

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 Modulation Transfer Function Curve
An optical system acts as a spatial filter - cutting off or modulating the frequencies
describing the object i.e. the image will not be made of the same spatial frequencies as
the object; image quality is compromised
The MTF dictates the spatial frequencies passed by the optical system
mid and low-end spatial frequencies important to image sharpness/resolution
Bar Chart

B
a
r

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 Mechanical Response
Time Domain

x(t)
f(t)
x(t)
** t =
time, t time, t
Impulse Response
Arbitrary Forcing Function System Response

* * - convolution operation
Frequency Domain

Response in the Frequency Domain

Input Transfer Function

Response
A
Force

x =
cycles/sec
Frequency (cycles/sec) Frequency Frequency (cycles/sec)

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 Image Formation
Spatial Domain

Nominal
System
... ...
**
... ...
Object Image
Ideal PSF

Perturbed
System
... ... ** ... ...
Object Image
Distorted PSF

Frequency Domain

MTF

*


- spatial frequency - spatial frequency
(cycles/mm) (cycles/mm)
Spatial Frequency
Spatial Frequency MTF Overlaying Content of Image
Content of Object Frequency Content of Object

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 Depth-of-Focus
There is a range of focus positions in which the image size is equal to or
smaller than the acceptable blur

Diffraction-limited optical system

wavefront error < 0.25 P-V (0.07 rms)
known as the Rayleigh quarter-wave rule

The diffraction limited depth-of-focus is the amount of defocus produced by a

quarter-wave of OPD

Depth-of-focus 2 f /# 2

Focus Error

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 Resolving Capability of an Optical System
Ability to distinguish two point sources as two instead of one

Overlap of
two images

Intensity distribution
Two distant
of two distant stars
stars
Decreasing the Blur Diameter Increases Resolution
for diffraction-limited systems: increase aperture diameter, decrease focal length, decrease
wavelength

Combined diffraction pattern

Diameter of Airy Disk
D 2.44 ( f /# )

Unresolved Just resolved Clearly resolved

Decreasing blur diameter

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 Refractive vs. Reflective Optical Systems
Refractive Systems Reflective Systems
Advantages Advantages
No obscurations No chromatic aberration (good for multi-
No loss in image quality spectral applications)
No loss in energy Create athermal design (same material for
mounts and mirrors)
Faster f/#'s and larger fields of view than
possible with mirror systems using many Are often shorter than corresponding
surfaces refractive systems
Disadvantages Often cheaper than corresponding
refractive systems
Usually longer than mirror systems
Heavier than mirror systems
Disadvantages
Central obscuration degrades image quality
Chromatic aberration
Off-axis designs are larger
Requires extra elements to correct
Small FOVs and high f/#'s
Optical materials can be expensive (especially
in IR) Typically require aspheric surfaces
Athermalization can be a problem

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 Conic Surfaces ellipse
Reflective telescope commonly use conic surfaces of revolution circle
benefits include limiting aberrations and ease of testing
Conics have two foci with the property that a ray going through one conic parabola hyperbola
focus, F, passes thru the other focus, F'
point at one focus is perfectly imaged onto the other focus with no
aberration (stigmatism)
Equation of a conic surface defined using the saq equation
A conic section is the
Sag Equation intersection of a plane and a cone
cr 2
Surface k
z Sphere 0

1 1 1 k c 2 r 2
Paraboloid -1
Ellipsoid -1 < k < 0
Hyperboloid k < -1

Circle Ellipse Parabola Hyperbola

F' F F'
F, F' F F'

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 Typical Telescope Mirror Surfaces

Spherical Surface = pure sphere (k=0)

sag
Aspheric Surface = deviates from sphere
Departure usually very small (mechanically)
r
Departure significant (optically)

Vertex RoC = RoC on optical axis (r = 0) z

RoC = radius of curvature

Curvature c = 1/RoC

Sag = z = distance from reference plane to surface

Z

cr 2
z a jr j
1 1 1 k c 2 r 2 j

Conic term + Aspheric polynomials

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 Telescope Design Forms Newtonian PM Cassegrain
PM
On-axis design forms
Newtonian: Single parabolic mirror w/fold
SM
Cassegrain: Parabolic primary mirror (PM)
and hyperbolic secondary mirror (SM)
Ritchey-Chretien Cassegrain: Hyperbolic
primary and secondary mirrors Gregorian Schmidt

Gregorian: Parabolic PM; Elliptical SM

Schmidt: Spherical PM & aspheric corrector
Schmidt-Cassegrain

Three mirror off-axis design forms

Advantages:
Larger field of view Three-Mirror
Anistigmat
Better stray light rejection
No central obscuration & eliminate SM support issues
Disadvantages: PM

Three mirrors
Nonrotationally symmetric aspheric surfaces difficult to
manufacture, test, & costly SM
TM
Heavier than two-axis designs

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Telescopes
JWST: Three-Mirror Anastigmat SOFIA: Cassegrain
Hubble: R-C Cassegrain (R-C Cassegrain Front End)

Mt. Palomar Samuel Oschin Schmidt Spitzer: R-C Cassegrain Keck: R-C Cassegrain

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 Interferograms
Interferometry is used to measure the deviation of an optical surface from its prescribed
shape
wavefront of a perfect reference flat interferes with the wavefront of optical surface
under test producing an interferogram
topographical map with each contour level or fringe representing a half wavelength
of surface error
Interferograms commonly represented using Zernike polynomials or uniform grid of
data

Twyman-Green Interferometer Interferogram Example

Reference Flat

Laser

Optical Element
Under Test
Detector

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References

1) Smith, Warren J., Modern Optical Engineering, Optical and Electro-Optical Engineering Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1990.

2) Fischer, Robert E., Tadic-Galb, Biljana, Optical System Design, SPIE Press / McGraw-Hill, 2000.

3) Hecht, Eugene, Optics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1988.

4) Gaskill, Jack D., Linear Systems, Fourier Transforms, and Optics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1978.

5) Miller, J.L., Principles of Infrared Technology, Chapman and Hall, New Yprk, 1994.

6) Born, M. and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, Pergamon Press, New York, 1964.

7) Bely, Pierre Y., The Design and Construction of Large Optical Telescopes, Springer, 2003.

8) Clark, P. D., Howard, J. W., Freniere, E. R., Asymptotic Approximation to the Encircled Energy Function for Arbitrary
Aperture Shapes 15 Jan. 1984 Vol. 23, No. 2 Applied Optics.

9) http:/eo1.usgs.gov, http://spaceplace.nasa/, http:/eo1.gsfc.nasa.gov/

10) Doyle, K. B., 1995. Optimal Structural Design of the Airborne Infrared Imager, (with V. J. Cerrati, S. E. Forman, and J.
A. Sultana) Proc. SPIE, Vol. 2542, San Diego.

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