CHENG 323 Chap 4 Sem II 2012-13 PDF

Dr.
Shaker Haji, University of Bahrain 4/30/2013
CHEMICAL REACTOR DESIGN

CHENG 323 Dr Shaker Haji
Lecture 20
Prepared by: Dr Shaker Haji - CHENG 323
CHENG 323 1
Dr. Shaker Haji, University of Bahrain 4/30/2013
4 Isothermal Reactor Design
In this Chapter
Chapters 1 & 2 discussed mole balances on reactors & the

manipulation of these balances to predict reactor sizes.
Chapter 3 discussed reactions, its rates, & stoichiometry.
In Chapter 4, we combine reactions and reactors to design various
types of reactors.
We divide the chapter into two parts: Part 1 "Mole Balances in
Terms of Conversion," and Part 2 "Mole Balances in Terms of
Concentrations & Molar Flow Rates"
In Part 1, we will concentrate on CSTRs & PFRs where X is the
preferred measure of a reaction's progress for single reactions.
We will also discuss batch reactors.
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In this Chapter
In Part 2, we will analyze membrane reactors, the startup of a

CSTR, semibatch reactors, & also liquid-phase rxns in batch reactor
which are most easily analyzed using Cj & Fj as the variables rather
than X.
We will again use mole balances in terms of these variables (Cj &
Fj) for multiple reactors (chap. 6 & end of 8).
Chap. 4 focuses attention on rxns that are operated isothermally.
In this chap., we achieve our learning objective through designing a
multi-reactor chemical plant that produces 200 million lb/y of
ethylene glycol from a feedstock of ethane.
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4.1 Design Structure for Isothermal Reactors
One of the primary goals of this chap. is to solve chemical

reaction engineering (CRE) problems by using logic rather
than memorizing which equation applies where.
This logical procedure is summarized in the following five
steps:
1. Choosing the applicable mole balance.
2. Writing the correct rate law.
3. Utilizing the stoichiometry.
4. Combining all of the above.
5. Evaluating the parameters & equations.
We now will apply this procedure/algorithm to a specific

situation.
In the following Figure, we will see how the
procedure/algorithm is used to formulate the equation to
calculate the PFR volume for a first-order gas phase
reaction.
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PFR volume for a first-

order gas phase reaction
The algorithm for the CRE
design problem is:
1. Mole balance, choose
species A reacting in a PFR.
2. Rate law, choose the
irreversible first-order rxn.
3. Stoichiometry, choose the
gas-phase concentration.
4. Combine Steps 1,2, & 3 to
arrive at Equation A.
5. Evaluate. The resultant
equation can be evaluated
by different methods.
The algorithm for the CRE

design problem is:
1. Mole balance
2. Rate law
3. Stoichiometry
4. Combine
5. Evaluate. The combine step can be evaluated either:
a. Analytically (Appendix A1)
b. Graphically (Counting the unit areas under the curve)
c. Numerically (Appendix A4), or
d. Using software (Polymath, MATLAB)
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Notes:
Unless the parameter values are zero or facilitates
manipulation, we typically don't substitute numerical
values for parameters in the combine step until the very
end.
In the majority of situations, analytical solutions to the
ordinary differential equations appearing in the
combine step are not possible.
4.2 Batch Reactors for Labs & Plants
One of the jobs in which chemical engineers are Involved is

the scale-up of laboratory experiments to pilot-plant
operation or to full-scale production.
In this section, we discuss more about the use of batch reactors
in laboratories & plants, and conduct calculations for cases
where X is the preferred variable.
In Part 2 of this Chap. we show how to analyze a laboratory-
scale batch reactor to determine the specific rxn rate, k, which
can be used in the design of a full-scale flow reactor.
Here, calculations are conducted for cases where Cj is the
preferred variable (e.g. liquid-phase rxn).
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4.2.1 Batch Operation
Batch reactors are usually analyzed with a constant-volume

assumption (V=V0), why?
Liquid-phase rxn with negligible density change.
Gas-phase in a constant-volume, sealed reactor.
Write a mole balance for A in a constant-volume batch reactor.
Manipulate the obtained equation to obtain the time necessary

to achieve a given conversion X for the irreversible second-
order reaction A B.
The time calculated from the batch reactor design equation is the
reaction time (i.e., tR) needed to achieve a given X for a given rxn in
a batch reactor with a given V.
It could be in the order of seconds, minutes, or hours.
The total cycle time in any batch operation is considerably longer
than the rxn time, tR. Why?
The total time to process a batch includes the time necessary to:
fill the reactor
heat and/or pressurize the reactor
carry out the reaction
clean the reactor between batches.
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In some cases, the rxn time may be only a small fraction of the total
cycle time.
Typical cycle times for a batch polymerization process vary from 3 to
6 hours excluding the rxn time; the rxn time may vary between 5 and
60 hours.
As mentioned earlier, the rxn time in a batch reactor could be in the
order of seconds, minutes, or hours.
Usually, flow reactors are used for rxns with characteristic rxn times,
tR, of minutes or less.
However, there are cases where flow reactor are used to carry out
rxns with longer tR (e.g. heterogeneous rxns with mass transfer
limitations or of refractory reactants).
In the following examples, we will describe the various reactors needed

to produce 200 million lb/year of ethylene glycol from a feedstock
of ethane. (lost)
Example 4-3: PFR

(lost)
Example 4-6: PBR
(lost)
Example 4-2: CSTR
Example 4-1:
Batch
(kinetics)
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Timeout with Damkhler number
Gerhard Damkhler (1908-1944) was a professor at the

University of Gttingen, Germany, between 1936 and 1944.
He was one of the founders of Chemical Reaction Engineering.
Damkhler number, which is a dimensionless number, was named
after him.
Damkhler number (Da), is a quick estimate of the degree of
conversion that can be achieved in continuous flow reactors.
The Damkhler number, is the ratio of the rate of rxn of A to the

rate of convective transport of A at the entrance to the reactor.
Reaction Rate of A
Da
Convection Rate of A reactor enterance
Rate of rxn at enterance -rA0V

Da
Entering flow rate of A FA0
The Da for a first-order irreversible rxn is: Da =
For a second-order irreversible rxn, the Da =
Or of nth-order irreversible rxn, Da = k(CA0)n -1
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Time-out with Damkhler number
It is important to know what values of the Damkhler number,

Da, give high and low conversion in continuous-flow reactors.
The rule of thumb is:
Week 6 - Lecture 21
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Design Problem 1:
(lost)
PFR
(lost)
(lost)
4.4 Tubular Reactors
What is the tubular reactor typically used for?

gas-phase rxn.
Under which assumptions we can model the tubular reactor as a
plug-flow reactor?
no axial dispersion
no radial gradients in either T, velocity, or concentration (turbulent flow)
Laminar reactors are discussed in Chap. 13 and dispersion effects in

Chap. 14.
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4.4 Tubular Reactors
Write the differential form of the PFR design equation in terms of X

dX
FA0 - rA
dV
In the absence of P drop and heat exchanging, we evaluate the

integral form of the PFR design equation to obtain V:
X
F dX
dV A0 dX V FA0
- rA 0
-rA
Consider the second order rxn, A B, with -rA kC A2 to take

place as a:
1st case: liquid-phase rxn
2nd case: gas-phase rxn
FA0
Liquid Phase case: =0 -rA kC A2 dV
-rA
dX
Evaluate the reactor volume for an isothermal operation.
Find the X = f(Da2), where Da2 is the Da for a second-order rxn
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FA0
Gas Phase case: 0 -rA kC A2 dV
-rA
dX
Evaluate the reactor volume for an isothermal operation with

negligible pressure drop for unknown values of yA0
Plot X along the length (volume) of the reactor for different values
of . Assume:
yA0 = 1
0/kCA0 = 2 L
Gas Phase case: 0

- rA kCA2
yA0 1
yA0
X increases as decreases, why?
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Gas Phase case:

-rA = kCA2, T=T0, P=P0
For a given V, higher X is
achieved for lower , why?
= 0 (1+ X)
= A.u
When < 0 ( < 0),

decreases as rxn
progresses, thus,
residence time
increases and ,
therefore, X
increases
Gas Phase case:

-rA = kCA2, T=T0, P=P0
= 0 (1+ X)
CA = FA /
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Example 4-3. Producing 300 MM Pounds per Year of ethylene

in a PFR: Design of a Full-Scale Tubular Reactor
Ethylene ranks 4th in the United States in total pounds of chemicals

produced each year, and it is the number one organic chemical
produced each year. Over 50 billion pounds were produced in 2000,
and it sold for $0.27 per pound (225 fils/kg).
PFR
(lost)

Approximately 90% of ethylene is used to produce the following four

products:
Ethylene Glycol
Vinyl Chloride Ethylene Dichloride Ethylene Oxide
Polyethylene Ethylbenzene Styrene
Main industrial uses of ethylene [Ref: wikipedia.org].
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Determine the PFR volume necessary to produce 300 million

pounds of ethylene a year from cracking a feed stream of pure
ethane. The rxn is irreversible and fallows an elementary rate
law.
We want to achieve 8O% conversion of ethane, operating the
reactor isothermally at 1100 K at a pressure of 6 atm.
Data from literature:
k = 0.072 s-1 at 1000 K.
Activation energy, Ea = 82 kcal/gmol
Solution:
m B 300 106 lb/y, X 0.8, T 1100K, P 6 atm
Data from literature: k = 0.072 s-1 at 1000 K, Ea = 82 kcal/gmol
The algorithm for the CRE design problem is:
1. Mole balance
2. Rate law
3. Stoichiometry
4. Combine
5. Evaluate
Answer: V = 80.7 ft3
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Answer: V = 80.7 ft3
If we use 2-in. schedule 80 pipe

(AC=0.0205 ft2):
L = 80.7/0.0205 = 4,000 ft
Is this reasonable configuration?
Suggested length 40 ft.
No. of parallel tubes needed =
4,000/40 = 100 tubes
Fig. Representative Pipe Sizes from

the Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) system.
Ref: James O. Wilkes, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical
Engineers, Prentice Hall PTR, NJ, 1999.
The concentration and conversion profiles down any one of the pipes
are shown above.
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Submit Homework
#5
one week from today
Design Problem 2:
(lost)
(lost)
PBR
(lost)
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4.5 Pressure Drop in Reactors
For the purpose of sizing reactors:

Do we have to account for the effects of P drop in liquid-phase rxns?
In liquid-phase rxns, the Ci is insignificantly affected by even relatively

large changes in the total pressure.
Consequently, we can totally ignore the effect of P drop on the rate of
reaction when sizing liquid-phase chemical reactors.
Do we have to account for the effects of P drop in gas-phase rxns?
In gas-phase reactions, the Ci are proportional to the total pressure.
Consequently, proper accounting for the effects of P drop on the rxn

system can, in many instances, be a key factor in the success or failure
of the reactor design & operation.
This fact is especially true in micro-reactors packed with solid catalyst.
Here the channels are so small that P drop can limit the throughput and
conversion for gas-phase reactions.
4.5.1 Pressure Drop and the Rate Law
Consider the gas-phase second order rxn that is to be carried out

in an isothermal packed-bed reactor:
2A B + C
Write the differential form of the design equation in terms of
catalyst weight. dX
FA0 - rA'
dW
The rate law is: -r ' kC A2

A
From stoichiometry, for gas-phase flow reactive systems, CA is:
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dX
FA0 - rA' -rA' kC A2
dW
What is the effect of the pressure drop on the reaction rate?

The larger the pressure drop from frictional losses, the smaller the
reaction rate!
Combine the above equations:
dX
Which implies that for isothermal operation: F1 (X , P )
dW
In order to find X = f(W), we first need to find P = f(W)

dP
In other words, we need to find: F2 (X , P )
dW
4.5.2 Flow Through a Packed Bed
The majority of gas-phase rxns are catalyzed by passing the

reactants through a packed bed of catalyst particles.
The equation used most to calculate pressure drop in a packed

porous bed is the Ergun equation:
Term 1 is dominant for laminar flow, while Term 2 is dominant for

turbulent flow.
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Term 1 is dominant for laminar flow, while Term 2 is dominant for turbulent flow.
Fig. Ergun Equation.

Ref: James O. Wilkes, Fluid Mechanics for
Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall PTR, NJ, 1999.
= equivalent spherical diameter of the particle defined by
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In calculating the P drop, the only parameter that varies

significantly with P on the RHS of the Ergun Eq. is:
the gas density, .
Find = f(P).
From the continuity eq. From ideal gas law
(conservation of mass)
FT RT P
m m0 FT 0 T 0 P
0 FT 0 RT 0 P 0 0
00 FT T P0
0 FT 0 T 0 P
Substitute in Ergun Eq.
0 0 FT T P0

Simplifying yields
where 0 is a constant that depends only on the properties of the

packed bed and the entrance conditions.
But are we interested in dP/dZ ? Or are we interested in dP/dW?

Then, find the relationship between dW and dZ.
W V b ( b is bulk density =m catalyst / V bed )
W V (1 - ) c ( c is density of solid catalyst particles)
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W V (1 - ) c ( c is density of solid catalyst particles)
W Ac Z (1 - ) c or dW Ac (1 - ) c dZ
Further simplifying yields
where
Let y=P/P0 , then
When is this Eq. used?

When there is P in multiple reactions or membrane reactor
systems.
However, for single rxns in packed-bed reactors, it is more
convenient to express the Ergun Eq. in terms of X.
How shall we do that?
From the stoichiometric table:
Therefore,
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Upon substitution:
Notes:
when is -ve, the P will be less than that for =0.
when is +ve, the P will be greater than when =0.
For isothermal operation, the above Eq. is only f(X,P):

dP
F2 (X , P )
dW
From the combined mole balance, rate law, and
stoichiometry: dX
F1 (X , P )
dW
dX dP
F1 (X , P ) F2 (X , P )
dW dW
So, we have two coupled first-order differential equations

that must be solved simultaneously.
How do we solve them?
A variety of software packages and numerical integration
schemes are available for this purpose.
Conclusion: Where y=P/P0
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Analytical Solution
If = 0, or if we can neglect X with respect to 1.0 (i.e. 1X),

we can obtain an analytical solution to the above Eq. for
isothermal operation.
For isothermal operation with = 0, the pressure drop
differential Eq. becomes:
Rearranging:
Taking y inside the derivative:
Integrating from y = 1 (P=P0) at W =0
Be sure not to use this equation if 0, or the rxn is not carried

out isothermally.
This Eq. can be used to substitute for the P in the rate law in which
case the mole balance can be written solely as a function of
conversion and catalyst weight.
dX dX
F1 (X , P ) F1 (X ,W )
dW dW
The resulting equation can readily be solved either analytically or
numerically.
Furthermore, If we wish to express P(Z), we can use the W-Z
relationship, W (1 - ) c Ac Z , and manipulate the above Eq.:
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Example 4-4 Calculating the Pressure Drop in a Packed Bed
Plot the pressure drop in a 60 ft length of 1 -in. schedule 40 pipe

packed with catalyst spherical particles. There is a 104.4 lbm/h
of gas passing through the bed.
The temperature is constant along the length of pipe at 260C. The
void fraction is 45% and the properties of the gas are similar to
those of air at this temperature. The entering pressure is 10 atm.
Additional Data:
1 -in. schedule 40 pipe has OD of 1.9 in & wall thickness of 0.145 in
Dp= in = 0.0208 ft
For air at 260oC & 10 atm,
Solution
L = 60 ft
.
m = 104.4 lbm/h T = 260C.
Pipe ID =1.61 in = 0.45 P0 = 10 atm.
Ac = 0.01414 ft2
.
G = m/Ac = 7383.3 lbm/h.ft2
Dp= in = 0.0208 ft gc = 4.17 x 108 lbm.ft/lbf.h2 For air (260oC & 10 atm)
What should be
the units of 0 ?
Turbulent Flow term is dominant
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P0
P P0 1 - 0.0155 z 0
0.5
Example 4-4 Calculating the Pressure Drop in a Packed Bed
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4.5.4 Analytical Solution for Reaction with Pressure Drop
First, lets examine the effect of the pressure drop on the rxn:
No P
Second, lets discuss how the pressure drop affect our CRE algorithm.
Consider the 2nd order isothermal The algorithm for the CRE
design problem is:
gas phase rxn: A B, occurring in a PBR.
1. Mole balance, Design Eq.
Design Equation: 2. Rate Law
3. Stoichiometry (to find Ci)
Rate Law:
4. Combine (all of the above)
5. Evaluate
Stoichiometry:
where y for isothermal & = 0 rxn is
Combine:
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Combine:
Evaluate: upon separation of var. & integration
solving for X gives:
solving for W gives:
Isothermal PBR with P for 2nd order rxn with = 0
Example 4-5 Effect of Pressure Drop on the Conversion Profile
Reconsider the packed bed in Example 4-4 for the case where a second-order rxn,
2A B + C, is taking place in 20 meters of a 1 schedule 40 pipe packed with catalyst.
The flow and packed-bed conditions in the example remain the same except that they are
converted to metric units; that is:
P0 = 10 atm = 1013 kPa, T = T0 = 260oC, k = 12 m6/(kmol.kgcat.h)
CA0 = 0.1 kmol/m3, 0 = 7.15 m3/h, P parameter: 0 = 25.8 kPa/m
Reactor length: L = 20 m, Cross-sectional area of the pipe: Ac = 0.0013 m2
Cat. particle size: Dp = 0.006 m, Solid catalyst density: c = 1923 kg/m3
(a) First, calculate X in the absence of pressure drop.

(b) Next, calculate X accounting for pressure drop.
(c) Finally, determine how your answer to (b) would change if the catalyst particle diameter
were doubled. Assume that the specific rxn, k, is unaffected by particle size, an assumption
we know from Chap. 12 is valid only for small panicles.
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2A B + C
(a) First, calculate X in the absence of pressure drop.
Solution
By substitution:
X = 0.82
2A B + C
(a) First, calculate X in the absence of pressure drop. X = 0.82

(b) Next, calculate X accounting for pressure drop.
Solution
For isothermal PBR with P for 2nd order rxn with = 0 :
By substitution:
X = 0.693
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P parameters: 0 = 25.8 kPa/m,
(b) Next, calculate X accounting for pressure drop. X = 0.693

(c) Finally, determine how your answer to (b) would change if the catalyst particle
diameter were doubled. Assume that the rate constant, k, is unaffected by particle
size, an assumption we know from Chap. 12 is valid only for small particles.
Solution
, Since DP,2 = 2DP,1

By substitution:
0,2 = 0,1
X = 0.774
0,2 = 0,1 = 0.0185 kg-1
By increasing the catalyst particle size (doubling: DP,2 = 2DP,1),

conversion (X) increased from 0.69 to 0.77
Why X increased by increasing the particle size?

Increasing the DP decreased the P and thus -rA & X increased.
However, Chapters 10 & 12 explain that when diffusion effects are
important in the catalyst pellet, this increase in X with increasing
particle size will not always be the case.
For larger particles, it takes a longer time for a given number of
reactant and product molecules to diffuse in and out of the catalyst
particle where they undergo reaction.
Consequently, k decreases with increasing
particle size (k~1/DP), which in turn
decreases X.
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Insight into the steps involved in a catalytic reaction:

Transport & Kinetic Processes in Catalytic Reactions
external diffusion of A
bulk gas phase

Reactant A
hydrodynamic
boundary
layer
porous catalyst particle
Courtesy of Prof. David Rockstraw, New Mexico State University.
internal diffusion of A
bulk gas phase
hydrodynamic
boundary
layer
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internal diffusion of A
adsorption of A
A + S AS bulk gas phase
hydrodynamic
boundary
layer
S catalyst adsorption site

internal diffusion of A reaction of A to B

AS BS
adsorption of A
A + S AS bulk gas phase
hydrodynamic
boundary
layer
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internal diffusion of A reaction of A to B

AS BS
adsorption of A desorption of B
A + S AS bulk gas phase BS B + S
hydrodynamic
boundary
layer
internal diffusion of A reaction of A to B internal diffusion of B

AS BS
hydrodynamic
boundary
layer
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external diffusion of A external diffusion of B

AS BS
hydrodynamic
boundary
layer
external diffusion of A external diffusion of B

AS BS
A + S AS BS B + S
One of these seven transport and kinetic processes occurs the

slowest. We say that step is rate-limiting
It is necessary to determine the rate-limiting step to analyze
the kinetics.
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Insight into the steps involved in a catalytic reaction:

1. Reactants External Diffusion: Mass transfer (diffusion) of reactants from the bulk
fluid to the external surface of the catalyst pellet.
2. Reactants Internal Diffusion: Diffusion of reactants from the pore mouth through
the catalyst pores to the immediate vicinity of the internal catalytic surface.
3. Reactants Adsorption: Adsorption of reactant(s) onto the catalyst surface.
4. Reaction: Reaction on the surface of the catalyst (e.g., A B)
5. Products Desorption: Desorption of the products from the surface.
6. Products Internal Diffusion: Diffusion of
the products from the interior of the pellet
to the pore mouth at the external surface
7. Products External Diffusion: Mass
transfer of the products from the external
pellet surface to the bulk fluid.
Active site
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At small particle diameters, k is large, and at its maximum value, but

P is also large, resulting in a low rate of rxn & conversion.
At small particle diameters, k is large, and at its maximum value, but

P is also large, resulting in a low rate of rxn & conversion.
At large particle diameters, the P is small, but so is the overall rate
constant, kr , and the rate of rxn, resulting in low X.
Thus, we see a low X at both large and small particle diameters with
an optimum in between.
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Would you do anything just to reduce P?

if P is to be minimized, why not pack the catalyst into a larger
diameter tube to decrease the mass flux, G, thereby reducing P?
There are two reasons for not increasing the tube diameter:
(1) there is an increased chance the gas could channel and bypass
most of the catalyst, resulting in little X.
(2) the ratio of the heat transfer surface area to reactor volume
(catalyst weight) will be decreased, thereby making heat
transfer more difficult for highly exothermic and endothermic
rxns.
We now proceed to combine P with rxn in a PBR when we have
volume change with rxn & therefore cannot obtain an analytical
solution.
Design Problem 2:
(lost)
(lost)
PBR
(lost)
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Example 4-6 Calculating X in a Reactor with Pressure Drop
Approximately 7 billion pounds of ethylene oxide were produced in

USA in 1997. The 1997 selling price was $0.58 a pound (480
fils/kg)*, amounting to a commercial value of $4.0 billion. Over
60% of the ethylene oxide produced is used to make ethylene
glycol. The major end uses of ethylene oxide are antifreeze (30%),
polyester (30%), surfactants (10%), and solvents (5%).
*Compare to ethylene price: 225 fils/kg.
We want to calculate the catalyst weight necessary to achieve 60% conversion

when ethylene oxide is to be made by the vapor-phase catalytic oxidation of
ethylene with air.
Ethylene and oxygen are fed in stoichiometric proportions to a PBR operated

isothermally at 260oC. Ethylene is fed at a rate of 0.30 Ibmol/s at a total
feed pressure of 10 atm. It is proposed to use 10 banks of 1-in.-diameter
schedule 40 tubes packed with catalyst with 100 tubes per bank.
Consequently, the ethylene molar flow rate to each tube is to be 3 X 10 -4
Ibmol/s. The properties of the reacting fluid are to be considered identical to
those of air at this T & P. The density of the -in. catalyst particles is 120
Ibm/ft3 and the bed void fraction is 0.45.
The rate law is -rA' k PA1/3 PB2/3 lbmol/(lbmcat h)
with k 0.0141 lbmol/(lbmcat h atm) at 260oC
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X=0.6, T = 260oC, P0 = 10 atm, FA0 = 3 X 10-4 Ibmol/s = 1.08 lbmol/h
Reactor: 1-in.-diameter schedule 40 tube packed with catalyst, Ac = 0.01414 ft2
Dp = 0.0208 ft, c = 120 lbm/ft3, = 0.45
-rA' k PA1/3 PB2/3 lbmol/(lbmcat h)
k 0.0141 lbmol/(lbmcat h atm) at 260oC
Solution:
Design Equation:
Rate Law: -rA' kRT C A1/3 C B2/3
Stoichiometry:
Combine:
Combine:
Evaluate:
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Combine:
Evaluate:
Yeah ho! We already have 0

(from example 4-4)
From Example 4-4, 0 = 0.0775 atm/ft; & Example 4-5, = 0.0166 lbm-1
Evaluate:
Use any ordinary differential equation

(ODE) solver software packages to solve the
two ODEs simultaneously.
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60% conversion is achieved with 44.5-Ib catalyst in each tube.

Its easier to increase the X by one point in the beginning of the reactor
compared to its end.
If we neglect P, 60% X can be achieved with only 35.3 Ib of catalyst.
Therefore, if we had used this catalyst weight (35.5 lb) in our reactor we
would have had insufficient X (only 53%).
4.5.5 Spherical Packed-Bed Reactor
Let's consider carrying out this rxn in a spherical reactor

In a spherical reactor, the Ac varies as we move through the reactor & is
greater than in a normal packed-bed reactor.
Therefore, the superficial velocity (mass flux, G) will
be smaller.
The smaller value of G will give a smaller P and
thus a greater X.
If 40,000 lb of catalyst in the PBR in Example 4-6
had been used in spherical reactor, 67% X would
have been achieved instead of 60%.
The equations for calculating X in spherical reactor
is given in the CD-ROM.
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4.5.3 Pressure Drop in Pipes
Which one is more significant, P due to flow through empty

pipes or through packed-beds?
Normally, P for gases flowing through pipes without packing can
be neglected.
For flow in pipes, the pressure drop along the length of the pipe
is given by
where,
What is the friction

factor, f, function of?
Its a function of the
Reynolds number and
pipe roughness.
Fig. Fanning friction factor

for flow in pipes.
Ref: James O. Wilkes, Fluid Mechanics
for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall
PTR, NJ, 1999.
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Is the mass velocity (mass flux), G, constant along the length of the
pipe?
Yes. Why?
How can I reduce the No. of variables in the above equation?
du G d
By replacing u with G/ and du/dL with - 2
dL dL
By substitution:
2
dP G d 2fG 2
-
dL dL D
The pressure drop along the length of the pipe
The simplest case of P in flow in pipes: FT = FT0 & T = T0
2
F T P dP G d 2fG 2
0 T 0 0 -
FT T P0 dL dL D
For the case of constant T & FT, 0 P P0

By substitution:
Multiplying by dL and integrating with limits P = P0 when L = 0 &

assuming f does not vary, we have
CHENG 323 44
The simplest case of P in flow in pipes: FT = FT0 & T = T0
Recall Example 4-4 with 60 ft PBR where FT = FT0 & T = T0, the
calculated P was 73.5% (P0=10P=2.65 atm).
For the same flow conditions given in Example 4-4 for an unpacked
pipe with a length of up to 1000 ft, the P is less than 10%.
Hence, normally P for gases flowing through pipes without
packing can be neglected.
However, for high volumetric flow rates through microreactors, the
P may be significant.
Week 8 - Lecture 29
CHENG 323 45
Design Problem 3:
(lost)
(lost)
(lost)
CSTR
4.3 Design of Continuous Stirred Tank

Reactors (CSTRs)
What is the CSTR typically used for?
Liquid-phase rxn.
FA0
Write the design equation for CSTR. V X
-rA
exit
Derive the space time, , required to achieve a X in a CSTR.
C A0
X

-rA exit
This equation applies to a single CSTR or to the first reactor
of CSTRs connected in series.
CHENG 323 46
4.3.1 A single CSTR
Consider the elementary liquid-phase rxn: A B; -rA = kCA.

Express X(), for the rxn if it is to be carried out in a single
CSTR:
FA0 C A0
V X X
-rA
exit -rA exit
Then, express X(Da):
Finally, express CA():
This exercise is to show that starting from the design eq. we can
write: V = f(X), X = f(, k, CA0), V = f(Da), & CA = f( , k, CA0)
4.3.2 CSTRs in Series
A liquid-phase, first-order rxn is to be carried out in two CSTRs

placed in series:
Find CA1(Da) &

CA2(Da)
Do this at home; SKIP
CHENG 323 47
CA1():
CA2():
If both reactors are of equal size (1= 2) and operate at the

same T (k1= k2), then
If instead of two CSTRs in series we had n equal-sized CSTRs

connected in series operating at the same T, the CA leaving the
last reactor would be
For n equal-sized CSTRs connected in series operating at the

same T, the CA leaving the last reactor is
Find -rAn for such case.
Find X(Da) in such case.
CHENG 323 48
4.3.2 CSTRs in Series
You know how to

find the X at the
end of each
reactor, right?
Plot X at the end

of each reactor
for different , k,
& CA0 (i.e diff. Da)
Fig. Conversion as a function of the number of CSTRs in series for

different Damkhler numbers for a first-order rxn with constant .
4.3.3 CSTRs in Parallel
X
FA0
VS.
- rAi
- rA
One Large CSTR CSTRs in Parallel
CHENG 323 49
4.3.3 CSTRs in Parallel
We now consider the case in which equal-

sized reactors are placed in parallel:
The feed is distributed equally among each

of the reactors:
Will the X be the same for each reactor?
Will the rA be the same in each reactor?
Yes: X1 =X2 = =Xi =Xn
Yes: rA1 = rA2 = = rAi = rAn
if Vi, FA0i, 0i, CA0i, & Ti are the same
Compare Xi to X & rAi to rA.

Approach 1:
Since the reaction rate is an
intensive property, rAi = rA.
From the design eq.:
or . Compare to
Since rAi = rA, therefore Xi = X
CHENG 323 50
Compare Xi to X & rAi to rA.

Approach 2:
From the design eq.:
or
Just to clarify the point, assume 1st order

liquid phase rxn:
X Xi
V FA0 i FA0
-rA i ki CA0i (1 - X i )
FA0 Xi
V
kCA0 1- Xi
FA0 Xi
V
kCA0 1- Xi
Compare to the single large reactor D. Eq.:
FA0 X
V
kCA0 1 - X
This proves that Xi =X.

For given T, rA(X) only, therefore, rAi = rA
What does Xi =X mean?
The X achieved in any one of the reactors in
parallel is identical to what would be achieved
if the reactant were fed in one stream to one
large reactor of volume V.
CHENG 323 51
4.3.4 A Second-Order Reaction in a CSTR
For a second-order liquid-phase rxn being carried out in a

CSTR, the combination of the rate law and the design equation,
with manipulation, yields:
Recall that for irreversible second-order rxn, Da = k CA0
Fig. X = f(Da) for a second-order rxn with constant .
Note that at high X (say 67%) a 10-fold increase in Da (e.g. by

increasing V or k) will increase the X only to 88%. Why?
Because CSTR operates under the condition of the lowest value of
the CA , and consequently the smallest value of the rA.
CHENG 323 52
Design Problem 3:
(lost)
(lost)
(lost)
CSTR
Example 4-2. Producing 200 MM Pounds per Year EG in a CSTR
Close to 12.2 billion metric tons of ethylene glycol (EG) were

produced in 2000, which ranked it the 26th most produced
chemical in USA that year on a total pound basis.
About one-half of the ethylene glycol is used for antifreeze while the
other half is used in the manufacture of polyesters [e.g. PET:
poly(ethylene terephthalate)]. In the polyester category, 88% was
used for fibers and 12% for the manufacture of bottles and films.
The 2004 selling price for ethylene glycol was $0.28 per pound
(233 fils/kg).
Structure formula of PET:
Wikipedia.org
CHENG 323 53
It is desired to produce 200 million pounds per year of EG. The reactor
is to be operated isothermally. A 1 lbmol/ft3 solution of ethylene
oxide (EO) in water is fed to the reactor together with an equal
volumetric solution of water containing 0.9 wt% of the catalyst
H2SO2. The specific rxn rate constant is 0.311 min-1 (will be
determined later in Example 4-1). The rate law is rA = kCA.
(a) If 81.5% X is to be achieved, determine the necessary CSTR volume.

(b) If two 800-gal reactors were arranged in parallel, what is the
corresponding X?
(c) If two 800-gal reactors were arranged in series, what is the
corresponding X?
Extract useful Data:
It is desired to produce 200 million pounds per year of EG. The reactor is to be
operated isothermally. A 1 lbmol/ft3 solution of ethylene oxide (EO) in water is fed
to the reactor together with an equal volumetric solution of water containing 0.9 wt%
of the catalyst H2SO2. The specific rxn rate constant is 0.311 min-1 while the rate law
is rA = kCA.
C A01 1 lbmol/ft 3 C A02 0 lbmol/ft 3

01 02 01
CA0
0.5 lbmol/ft 3
CHENG 323 54
Extract useful Data:
It is desired to produce 200 million pounds per year of EG. The reactor is to be
operated isothermally. A 1 lbmol/ft3 solution of ethylene oxide (EO) in water is fed
to the reactor together with an equal volumetric solution of water containing 0.9 wt%
of the catalyst H2SO2. The specific rxn rate constant is 0.311 min-1 while the rate law
is rA = kCA.
- rA kCA
mC 200 106 lb/year
MM C 62 lb/lbmol
The algorithm for the CRE design problem is:
T Constant
1. Mole balance, Design Equation
C A01 1 lbmol/ft 3
2. Write Rate law
C A0 0.5 lbmol/ft 3 3. Stoichiometry (to find Cj)
4. Combine (all of the above)
FC 6.137 lbmol/min
5. Evaluate
(a) If 81.5 % X is to be achieved, determine the necessary CSTR volume.

C A 0 0.5 lbmol/ft 3
FC 6.137 lbmol/min
FA 0 7.530 lbmol/min
V 213.3 ft 3 1596 gal 1600 gal
CHENG 323 55
(b) If two 800-gal (106.7-ft3) reactors were arranged in parallel, what

is the corresponding X ?
Consider the same feed characteristic: FA0 = 7.53 lbmol/min, CA0 = 0.5
lbmol/ft3
FA0 = 7.53 lbmol/min

CA0 = 0.5 lbmol/ft3
X 0.815
(c) If two 800-gal (106.7-ft3) reactors were arranged in series, what are
the corresponding Xs?
Consider the same feed characteristic: FA0 = 7.53 lbmol/min, CA0 = 0.5
lbmol/ft3
FA0 = 7.53 lbmol/min

CA0 = 0.5 lbmol/ft3
X 1 0.688
X 2 0.903
CHENG 323 56
FA0 = 7.53 lbmol/min FA0 = 7.53 lbmol/min

CA0 = 0.5 lbmol/ft3 CA0 = 0.5 lbmol/ft3
X 1 0.688
X 2 0.903
X 0.815
1600-gal Singe-CSTR
FA0 = 7.53 lbmol/min FA0 = 7.53 lbmol/min

CA0 = 0.5 lbmol/ft3 CA0 = 0.5 lbmol/ft3
X 1 0.688
X 2 0.903
X 0.815
800-gal 2nd-CSTR
1600-gal Singe-CSTR
800-gal 1st-CSTR
CHENG 323 57
4.6 Synthesizing the Design of a Chemical Plant
The three reactors designed in examples 4-2, 4-3, & 4-6 can be
arranged to form a chemical plant to produce 200 MM lbm/year of
ethylene glycol from a feedstock of 402 MM lbm/year of ethane.
Read at Home
(lost)
Example 4-3: PFR

(lost)
Example 4-6: PBR
(lost)
Example 4-2: CSTR
CHENG 323 58
(lost)
(lost)
(lost)
How is the profit calculated?

The profit from a chemical plant will be the difference between
income from sales and the cost to produce the chemicals.
An approximate formula might be:
Profit = Sales Revenue Cost of Reactants Operating Cost
The operating costs include such costs as energy, labor, overhead, &
depreciation of equipment.
You will learn more about these costs & the process economics in
Chemical Plant Design course (CHENG 422).
CHENG 323 59
Profit = Sales Revenue Cost of Reactants Operating Cost
Let's conservatively estimate the operating and other

expenses to be $8 MM/year.
The prices of ethane, sulfuric acid, & ethylene glycol are
$0.04, $0.042, & $0.38 per pound, respectively.
See www.chemweek.com for current prices.
The profit is around $52 million.
Submit Homework
#6
one week from today
CHENG 323 60
Play the Quiz#4

tic-tac-toe 7-10 days
game from today
Concepts: Interaction of the
Ergun, Arrhenius, and
Van't Hoff equations and
other considerations in
isothermal reactor design.
CHENG 323 61
4.7 Mole Balances on CSTRs, PFRs, PBRs, and

Batch Reactors
There are many instances when it is much more convenient to work in
terms of number of moles (Nj), concentrations (Ci), or molar flow rates
(Fj) rather than X.
Can you give examples?
Membrane Reactors Multiple Reactions
Ci or Fi
Unsteady State Liquid Phase Reactions

Operation
4.7 Mole Balances on CSTRs, PFRs, PBRs, and

Batch Reactors
Unsteady state operation in batch or semibatch reactors, membrane

reactors, and multiple reactions are common examples of such cases.
We now modify our algorithm by using Cj for liquids & Fj for gases as
our dependent variables.
The main difference between the conversion algorithm and the molar
flow rate/concentration algorithm is that:
in the X algorithm, we needed to write a mole balance on only one specie,
whereas in the Fj & Cj algorithm we must write a mole balance on each and
every species.
CHENG 323 62
A + 2B C
Isothermal reaction design

algorithm:
1. Mole balance
2. Rate law (3)
a)
3. Stoichiometry
b)
4. Combine
5. Evaluate
c)
d)
(4)
&
(5)
4.7.1 Liquid Phase
For liquid-phase rxns in which there is no volume change,

concentration is the preferred variable.
The mole balances for the
generic rxn
where -rA k AC AC B
are shown in this table:
Where are these equations
coming from?
CHENG 323 63
They are coming from the mole balances:
(lost)
Design Problem 4:
(lost)
(lost)
Scale-Up of Liquid-Phase Batch Reactor Data to the Design

of a CSTR
CHENG 323 64
Determining k from batch data
Example 4-1
It is desired to design a CSTR to produce 200 million pounds of
ethylene glycol per year by hydrolyzing ethylene oxide. However,
before the design can be carried out, it is necessary to perform and
analyze a batch reactor experiment to determine the specific rxn
rate constant, k.
Because the reaction will be carried out isothermally, k will need to be
determined only at the rxn T of the CSTR. At high temperatures
there is a significant by-product formation, while at temperatures
below 40C the rxn does not proceed at a significant rate;
consequently, a temperature of 55C has been chosen.
Example 4-1, continued

The rxn is as follows:
Because water is usually present in excess, its concentration may

be considered constant during the course of the reaction. The
rxn is first-order in ethylene oxide.
In the laboratory experiment, 500 mL of a 2 M solution of
ethylene oxide in water was mixed with 500 mL of water
containing 0.9 wt% sulfuric acid, which is a catalyst.
The T was maintained at 55oC. The concentration of ethylene
glycol was recorded as a function of time.
CHENG 323 65
Determining k from batch data
Example 4-1, continued

t , min C C , M
Using the data in the given
0 0
table, determine the
specific reaction rate at
0.5 0.165
55C. 1 0.250
1.5 0.395
2 0.464
3 0.590
4 0.700
6 0.873
10 0.952
Example 4-1, Solution

C
ln A0 k t
CA
FYI only
t , min C C , M C A , M C A0 /C A ln (C A0 /C A) X
0 0 1 1 0 0.000
0.5 0.165 0.835 1.198 0.180 0.165
1 0.250 0.750 1.333 0.288 0.250
1.5 0.395 0.605 1.653 0.503 0.395
2 0.464 0.536 1.866 0.624 0.464
3 0.590 0.410 2.439 0.892 0.590
4 0.700 0.300 3.333 1.204 0.700
6 0.873 0.127 7.874 2.064 0.873
10 0.952 0.048 20.833 3.037 0.952
C A0 = 1 M
CHENG 323 66

C
k = 0.311 min-1 ln A0 k t
CA

C C
k = 0.311 min-1 ln A0 k t A0 e k t
CA CA
Practical guidelines for reactor scale-up were recently given by Mukesh

and by Warsteel (see textbook for references)
CHENG 323 67
Week 10 - Lecture 33
4.7.2 Gas Phase
For gas-phase rxns, it is preferred to express the mole balance

equations in terms of number of moles (Nj) or molar flow rates (Fj).
As an example, lets design a PBR for the rxn
1. Mole balance F T
Ci CT 0 i 0 y
dFi FT T
ri ' For each species (X4)
dW FT Fi
2. Rate law -rA' k AC AC B
3. Stoichiometry
-rA' -rB' rC' rD' 4. Combine
3 Eqns
a b c d 5. Evaluate
CHENG 323 68
CHENG 323 69
4.8 Microreactors (Micro Process Engineering)
Microreactors are emerging as a new technology in CRE known as

Micro Process Engineering.
Microreactors are characterized by their high surface area-to-volume
ratios in their microstructured regions that contain tubes or channels.
Fig: Glass Microreactor.

Channels Dipth X Width: 150m X150m.
Ref: www.wikipedia.com,
CHENG 323 70
A typical channel width might be 100 m with a length of 20,000 m

(2 cm).
The resulting high surface area-to-volume ratio (~10,000 m2/m3)
reduces or even eliminates heat and mass transfer resistances often
found in larger reactors.
Consequently, surface catalyzed rxns can be greatly facilitated, hot
spots in highly exothermic reactions can be eliminated, and in many
cases highly exothermic reactions can be carried out isothermally.
Other advantages include shorter residence times and narrower
residence time distributions.
Fig: Microreactors: All-in-One Extractor

Ref: web.mit.edu
CHENG 323 71
Fig: Microreactors.
Ref: www.carbogen-amcis.com
Fig: Microplant with reactors, valves, and

mixers.
Fig: Microreactor with Heat Exchanger.

Courtesy of Ehrfeld, Hessel, & Lowe. Microreactors: New Technology for Modern Chemistry (Wiley-VCH. 2000).
Production in microreactor systems can be increased simply by adding

more units in parallel.
For example, the catalyzed reaction
required only 32 microreaction systems in parallel to produce 2000

tons/yr of acetate!
Microreactors are also used for the production of specialty chemicals,
combinatorial chemical screening, lab-on-a-chip, & chemical sensors.
In modeling microreactors, we will assume they are either in plug flow
(dFj/dV = rj) or in laminar flow (segregation model Chap. 13)
CHENG 323 72
Example 4-7 Gas-Phase Reaction in a Microreactor -

Molar Flow Rates
The gas-phase reaction which follows an elementary rate law

2NOCl 2NO + Cl2
is carried out at 425C & 1641 kPa (16.2 atm) in a microreactor
system using a bank of ten microreactors in parallel. Each
microreactor has 100 channels. Each channel has a cross-sectional
area of 0.2 mm2 & a length of 50 mm (volume of 10-5 L).
In this system, 85% conversion is achieved and 20 tons of NO per year
is produced by processing 0.0226 mol/s of pure NOCl, or 2.26X10-5
mol/s per channel. The rate constant is: k = 0.29 L/mol.s at 500 K
with E = 24 kcal/mol.
Plot the Fj = f(V) down the length of the reactor.
Example 4-7 Gas-Phase Reaction in a Microreactor - Molar Flow Rates
Solution:
2NOCl 2NO + Cl2
2A 2B + C
T = 425C P = 1641 kPa yNOCl,0 or yA0 = 1

-rA = kCA2 k = 0.29 L/mol.s at 500 K with E = 25 kcal/mol
Each channel:
Ac = 0.2 mm2 Z = 50 mm V = 10-5 L
CHENG 323 73
Solution: 2NOCl 2NO + Cl2

2A 2B + C
1. Mole balance
2. Rate law
-rA = kCA2
k = 0.29*exp[-E/R(1/T-1/500)] where E = 24x103 cal/mol
3. Stoichiometry
Gas phase with T = T0 and P = P0
Relative Rates
Concentrations
Total Flow Rates
4. Combine
Using Polymath
5. Evaluate
CHENG 323 74
2NOCl 2NO + Cl2

2A 2B + C
4.9 Membrane Reactors
The term membrane reactor describes a number of different

types of reactor configurations that contain a membrane.
CHENG 323 75
List 3 reasons for using membrane reactors.

To increase X when the rxn is thermodynamically limited
CH4 + H2 O 3H2 + CO
To increase the selectivity when multiple rxns are occurring

CH4 + 0.5 O2 2H2 + CO
CH4 + 2O2 2H2 O + CO2
To obtain pure products.
Thermodynamically limited rxns are rxns where the equilibrium lies

far to the left (i.e.. reactant side) and there is little X.
Before illustrating the usefulness of the membrane reactors for
thermodynamically limited rxns, lets discuss the following:
What will happen if T is increased during an exothermic rev. rxn?
Increasing T will only drive the rxn further to the left (lower the X)
So should I carry out the rxn at low T? What could happen?
Decreasing T will result in a slow reaction rate and, therefore, low X.
CHENG 323 76
Is it favorable to run an endothermic rev. rxn under high T?

Yes, increasing T will move the rxn to the right to favor a higher X.
Are there any drawback for increasing the T excessively?
Yes, for many rxns, these higher T induce undesired side rxns and cause the
catalyst to become deactivated.
The membrane reactor is a technique for driving reversible rxns to the
right toward completion in order to achieve very high X.
This can be achieved by having one of the rxn products diffuse out of
a semipermeable membrane surrounding the rxn mixture.
As a result, the reverse rxn will not be able to take place, and the rxn
will continue to proceed to the right toward completion.
Mention the main types of the membrane reactors.

Inert Membrane Reactor (IMR): the reactor is packed with catalyst while the
membrane serves as a barrier to the reactants & some of the products.
Catalytic Membrane Reactor (CMR): the catalyst is deposited directly on the
membrane, and only specific rxn products are able to permeate through the
membrane.
Inert Membrane Reactor
Catalytic Membrane Reactor (CMR)
CHENG 323 77
CRE Algorithm for MRs
We use similar algorithm, but

with slight modification.
We use the reactor volume
instead of the catalyst weight.
Write hydrogen mole balance
for the shown segment of the
membrane reactor.
CHENG 323 78
How do we quantify RB?

Through molar flux of B:
Where kC is the overall mass transfer coefficient in m/s and CBS is

the concentration of B in the sweep gas channel (mol/L).
The kC accounts for all resistances to transport:
the tube side resistance of the membrane
the membrane itself
the shell (sweep gas) side resistance.
Membrane Reactors
Why we dont use X when analyzing membrane reactors?

Are the following definitions valid for membrane reactors?
FA0 - FA B
X A C
FA0
FB FA0 B B X
A C
B
CHENG 323 79
Example 4-8 Membrane Reactor
According to the US Department of Energy (DOE), an energy saving of 10 trillion BTU

per year could result from the use of catalytic membrane reactors as replacements
for conventional reactors for dehydrogenation reactions such as the
dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene to styrene:
and of butane to butene:
The dehydrogenation of propane is another reaction that has proven successful with a
membrane reactor:
All the preceding dehydrogenation reactions above can be represented symbolically

as:
and could take place on the catalyst side of an IMR or inside a CMR.
Consider the following dehydrogenation reaction :

which is to be carried out in a catalytic membrane reactor (CMR). The equilibrium
constant for this reaction is quite small at 227C (Kc = 0.05 mol/l). The
membrane is permeable to B which is H2 but not to A and C. Pure gaseous
A enters the reactor at 8.2 atm and 227C at a rate of 10 mol/min.
Consider the rate of diffusion of B out of the reactor per unit volume of reactor, RB ,
to be proportional to the concentration of B (i.e.. RB = kc.CB , where kc represents
the overall mass transfer coefficient). The reactor volume is 400 liters. The
specific reaction rate, k, and the transport coefficient, kc, are k = 0.7 min-1 and
kc = 0.2 min-1, respectively.
(a) Perform differential mole balances on A, B, and C to arrive at a set of coupled
differential equations to solve.
(b) Plot the molar flow rates of each species as a function of the reactor volume.
(c) Calculate the conversion at the exit of the reactor.
(d) What would be the achieved conversion if the reaction was carried out in a
conventional PFR.
(e) Compare the conversions in both cases and explain the obtained results.
CHENG 323 80
CMR
X = 0.567
FA FC
FA
FC
FB
FB
CHENG 323 81
PFR
X = Xeq = 0.447
FA
FB & F C
Week 11 - Lecture 37
CHENG 323 82
Unsteady-State Operations
4.10 Unsteady-State Operations of Stirred

Reactors
Situations, studied in this chapter, where we have unsteady state
operation include:
Batch Reactor: CA vs. t
Startup of a CSTR: to determine t necessary to reach steady-state operation.
Semibatch Reactor: CA or X vs. t
analytical solutions to the differential equations, arising from the mole

balances in the above situations, can be obtained only for zero- and
first-order rxns.
ODE solvers must be used for other rxn orders.
CHENG 323 83
4.10.1 Startup of a CSTR
If a CSTR is to be started up by introducing the feed & without having

an overflow stream (no output), then this is a semibatch operation.
The startup of a fixed volume CSTR, initially filled with pure solvent,
under isothermal conditions is rare, but does occur occasionally.
We can, however, carry out an analysis to estimate the time
necessary to reach steady-state operation.
AB
Feed AB Feed Product
CA0 CA0 CA & CB
Startup of a CSTR in semibatch mode Startup of a constant volume CSTR
Consider the liquid phase reactive system shown below where:

The reactor is well-mixed (no spatial variation in rA)
= 0 & V = Vi (where Vi is the initial volume)
Assume the reactor is initially filled with the solvent only.
Write a general mole balance

equation for the given system. AB
Feed Product
0, CA0, FA0 , FA, FB,
CA, CB
Startup of a constant volume CSTR
CHENG 323 84
The general mole balance equation for the given system is:
dN A
FA0 - FA rAV
dt
Conversion does not have any meaning in startup because one cannot
distinguish between the NA present due to unreacted A molecules &
these due to accumulation within the CSTR due to introduction of A.
Rewrite the balance equation in terms of concentration.
dC A AB
C A0 - C A rA Feed Product
dt 0, CA0 , CA & CB
For most 1st-order systems (not necessarily
1st-order rxn), steady state is achieved in 4
to 5 times the systems time constant.
Startup of a constant volume CSTR

Example: Startup of a Constant Volume CSTR
Consider the first order liquid phase reaction that is carried out in a well-mixed reactor initially
filled with the solvent only. Assume the density of the reaction mixture remains constant during the
course of the reaction, i.e. = 0 & V = Vi.
Additional information: k = 0.311 min-1, V = 213.3 L, CA0 = 0.500 mol/L, 0 = 15.34 L/min.
1. For the startup period, perform mole balances on A and B in terms of CA, CB, & other constants.
2. Use the derived ordinary differential equations to plot the concentrations of A & B as a function
of time.
3. Calculate the steady state values of CA, XA, and CB. Do both CA and CB achieve their steady state
values at the same time?
4. Determine the system order for both species by examining the obtained differential equations
and concentration profiles.
5. For the first order system(s), if any, determine:
I. the time constant, the steady-state gain, and the input (forcing function). Hint: rewrite the
differential mole balance in the standard form of a first-order system.
II. the time necessary for the concentration to achieve 99% of its steady state value. Compare
that time with the time constant; is it reasonable for a first order system?
CHENG 323 85
4.10.2 Semibatch Reactors
Besides the startup of a CSTR in semibatch mode prior to achieving

constant V, there are two basic types of semibatch operations:
Removal of a product (reactive distillation)
Addition of a reactant
A+BC+D
Feed
CA0 & CB0
Startup of a CSTR in semibatch mode
A+BC+D
4.10.2 Semibatch Reactors A+BC+D
The first type of semibatch reactor is reactive distillation.

Here reactants A and B are initially charged together and one of the
products is vaporized and withdrawn continuously.
What are the benefits of removing one of the products (e.g. C) in this
manner?
1. For an equilibrium rxn, this will shift the equilibrium toward the right,
increasing the final X.
2. This will further concentrates the reactants, and
thereby producing an increased rate of rxn & &
decreased processing time.
CHENG 323 86
Examples of rxns carried out in this type of rxn include acetylation

rxns & esterification rxns in which water is removed.
E.g. (1): Salicylic acid is acetylated to form aspirin (acetyl functional

group )
E.g. (2): Esterification of acetic acid in excess

ethanol to form ethyl acetate (ester)
Rxns from: www.wikipedia.com
4.10.2 Semibatch Reactors A+BC+D
In the second type of the semibatch operation, one of the reactants

(e.g. B) is slowly fed to a reactor containing the other reactant (e.g. A),
which has already been charged to the reactor.
When this type of reactor is generally used?
when unwanted side reactions occur at high CB
when the reaction is highly exothermic/indothermic
In some rxns, the reactant B is a gas and is bubbled continuously

through liquid reactant A.
Examples of rxns used in this type of
semibatch reactor operation include:
Ammonolysis hydrolysis
chlorination
CHENG 323 87
4.10.2 Semibatch Reactors A+BD+U
One of the best reasons to use semibatch reactors is to enhance

selectivity in liquid-phase reactions.
For example, consider the following two simultaneous rxns:
Desired rxn:
Undesired rxn:
The instantaneous selectivity SD/U is defined as the ratio of the

relative rates:
How can we produce the most of our desired product and the least of
our undesired product?
By keeping the CA high and the CB low.
How can this achieved?
This can be achieved through the use of the semibatch reactor, which
is charged with pure A and to which B is fed slowly to A in the vat.
CHENG 323 88
Commercial Break
Now you are ready
to read this article:
Published in Chemical
Engineering Progress, An
AIChE Publication, CEP:
Mar 2001.
Available on Black Board.
consider the elementary liquid-phase reaction

A+BC
that is to be carried out in the shown semibatch reactor with a
constant molar feed of B.
Write a mole balance on species A.
Three variables can be used to formulate and

solve semibatch reactor problems:
the concentrations, Cj
the number of moles, Nj
the conversion, X.
CHENG 323 89
4.10.3 Writing the Semibatch Reactor Equations in Terms

of Concentrations
For the considered reaction, rewrite the mole balance equations for
species A & B in terms of concentration.
Also find V(t)
A+BC
Remember, @ t = 0, CA=CAi & CB = 0

If the rxn order is other than zero- or first-order, or
if the rxn is non-isothermal, we must use numerical
techniques to solve the above Eqs.
Problem 4-23 production of ethylene glycol from ethylene chlorohydrin
The production of ethylene glycol from ethylene chlorohydrin and sodium

bicarbonate
is carried out in a semibatch reactor. A 1.5 molar solution of ethylene
chlorohydrin is fed at a rate of 30 mole/min to 1500 liters of a 0.75 molar
solution of sodium bicarbonate. The reaction is elementary and carried out
isothermally at 30oC where the specific reaction rate is 5.1 L/mol.h. The
reactor can hold a maximum of 2500 liters of liquid. Assume constant
density. A conversion of 96% of sodium bicarbonate is desired.
1. Perform mole balances on the reactants.
2. Calculate the time required to achieve the desired conversion.
3. Is it possible to achieve the desired conversion with the given reactor and
conditions? Why? If not, then what is the maximum possible conversion.
4. Plot the concentration of reactants, the reaction rate, and the conversion as
a function of time. (Fig. 1: CA, CB, & X vs t; Fig. 2: -rB vs. t)
CHENG 323 90
CHENG 323 91
Example Hydrolysis of acetic anhydride in a semibatch reactor
The kinetics of hydrolysis of acetic anhydride was studied by Haji &

Erkey* using in-situ FTIR spectroscopy.
O O O
C C + H2O 2 C
H3C O CH3 H3C OH
In part of the study, acetic anhydride

was hydrolyzed in a semibatch
operation as shown in the figure.
*Haji, Shaker; Erkey, Can. AN EXPERIMENT FOR UNDERGRADUATE LABORATORY KINETICS OF HYDROLYSIS OF ACETIC ANHYDRIDE BY IN-
SITU FTIR SPECTROSCOPY. Chemical Engineering Education, winter 2005.
In the semibatch experiment, 150 ml of distilled water (W) was

initially charged to the reactor while pure acetic anhydride (A) was
continuously added to the reactor at a rate of 3.55 ml/min over a
period of 8.17 minutes. The reaction was carried out isothermally at
35oC. Water was present in excess, therefore, it concentration was
assumed to be constant during the course of the rxn. Hence the rxn
was considered to be first-order in acetic anhydride.
Additional information:
k = 0.2752 min-1, MMA = 102.09 g/mol, A = 1.082 g/ml
Assume a constant-density system
Solve for the concentration of acetic anhydride and the rate of

reaction as a function of time.
CHENG 323 92
4.10.4 Writing the Semibatch Reactor Equations in Terms

of Conversion
Consider the reversible elementary reaction: A + B C + D in which

B is fed, at constant rate, to a vat containing only A initially.
Write an integral mole balance on A, B, C, & D.
NA - NA0 = - NA0X NB-NBi = FB0dt - NA0X or NB = FB0.t - NA0X

NC = + NA0X ND = + NA0X
A+BC+D
Then, write the rate law:
Then, use the stoichiometry
Finally, combine & evaluate
Finding the Equilibrium Conversion: A + B C + D
For reversible rxns carried out in a semibatch reactor, the maximum

attainable X (i.e., the equilibrium X) will change as the rxn proceeds.
Why?
Because more reactant is continuously added to the reactor.
This addition shifts the equilibrium continually to the right toward more
product.
The Xe could be calculated as follows at equilibrium:
where
CHENG 323 93
Therefore,
Solving for t:
Solving for Xe:
Closure
Heat Effects
Isothermal Design
Combine & Evaluate
Stoichiometry
Rate Laws
Mole Balance
CHENG 323 94
Submit Homework
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CHENG 323 95
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Dr.

Shaker Haji, University of Bahrain 4/30/2013

CHEMICAL REACTOR DESIGN

Prepared by: Dr Shaker Haji - CHENG 323

4 Isothermal Reactor Design

Chapters 1 & 2 discussed mole balances on reactors & the

In Part 2, we will analyze membrane reactors, the startup of a

4 Isothermal Reactor Design

4.1 Design Structure for Isothermal Reactors

One of the primary goals of this chap. is to solve chemical

4.1 Design Structure for Isothermal Reactors

We now will apply this procedure/algorithm to a specific

PFR volume for a first-

4.1 Design Structure for Isothermal Reactors

The algorithm for the CRE

4.1 Design Structure for Isothermal Reactors

4.2 Batch Reactors for Labs & Plants

One of the jobs in which chemical engineers are Involved is

4.2.1 Batch Operation

Batch reactors are usually analyzed with a constant-volume

Manipulate the obtained equation to obtain the time necessary

4.2.1 Batch Operation

heat and/or pressurize the reactor

carry out the reaction

clean the reactor between batches.

4.2.1 Batch Operation

In the following examples, we will describe the various reactors needed

Example 4-3: PFR

Example 4-6: PBR

Example 4-2: CSTR

Timeout with Damkhler number

Gerhard Damkhler (1908-1944) was a professor at the

The Damkhler number, is the ratio of the rate of rxn of A to the

Rate of rxn at enterance -rA0V

The Da for a first-order irreversible rxn is: Da =

For a second-order irreversible rxn, the Da =

Or of nth-order irreversible rxn, Da = k(CA0)n -1

Time-out with Damkhler number

It is important to know what values of the Damkhler number,

The rule of thumb is:

Prepared by: Dr Shaker Haji - CHENG 323

4.4 Tubular Reactors

What is the tubular reactor typically used for?

Laminar reactors are discussed in Chap. 13 and dispersion effects in

4.4 Tubular Reactors

Write the differential form of the PFR design equation in terms of X

In the absence of P drop and heat exchanging, we evaluate the

Consider the second order rxn, A B, with -rA kC A2 to take

Evaluate the reactor volume for an isothermal operation.

Find the X = f(Da2), where Da2 is the Da for a second-order rxn

Evaluate the reactor volume for an isothermal operation with

Gas Phase case: 0

X increases as decreases, why?

Gas Phase case:

When < 0 ( < 0),

Gas Phase case:

Example 4-3. Producing 300 MM Pounds per Year of ethylene

Ethylene ranks 4th in the United States in total pounds of chemicals

Example 4-3. Producing 300 MM Pounds per Year of ethylene

Approximately 90% of ethylene is used to produce the following four

Polyethylene Ethylbenzene Styrene

Main industrial uses of ethylene [Ref: wikipedia.org].

Example 4-3. Producing 300 MM Pounds per Year of ethylene