Radio Handbook 18 1970

radio
handbook
eighteenth edition
William I. Orr, W6SAI
EDITORS and ENGINEERS, LTD.

New Augusta. Indiana
Eli
www.americanradiohistory.com
EIGHTEENTH EDITION
FIRST PRINTING - 1970
RADIO HANDBOOK
Copyright ^c, 1970 by Editors and Engineers, Ltd., New Augusta,

Indiana. Printed in the United States of America.
All rights reserved. Reproduction or use, without express

permission, of editorial or pictorial content, in any manner,
is prohibited. No patent liability is assumed with respect to
the use of the information contained herein.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 40 -33904
"Radio Handbook" is also available on special order in Spanish.
PREFACE
The publishers are pleased to present this new, revised eighteenth edition of the
RADIO HANDBOOK. Growing from a slim paperback volume first printed in 1935,
the RADIO HANDBOOK has reached its present position as an authority in the field
of high- frequency and vhf radio communication. This edition continues as the leading
handbook in radio communications in a period when high- frequency and vhf techniques
and practices are in a state of rapid change and development.
During the present decade, single sideband has been accepted as the favored mode
for high- frequency communication and solid -state techniques are rapidly replacing the
vacuum tube in receiving and low -power transmitting equipment. Compact trans-
ceivers, desk -top linear amplifiers, and solid -state power supplies are commonplace in the
modern amateur station. Coming into widespread popularity are radioteletype and the
use of frequency modulation on the very-high frequencies. Amplitude modulation has
been eclipsed on the high- frequency bands and seemingly will be replacd by frequency
modulation for improved performance on the bands above 50 MHz. Triband beam
antennas have largely replaced monoband arrays and dipoles on the higher frequencies,
and the new log -periodic yagi antenna shows great promise for vhf work.
The author is pleased to note that the RADIO HANDBOOK has been a leader in
advancing the state of the art of these varied radio amateur developments, many of
which are reflected in this new edition of the Handbook. A feature of interest to all
amateurs is the solid- state, high- frequency receiver,designed for SSB and c -w service,
utilizing field -effect transistors and integrated circuitry. Advanced SSB linear amplifier
designs and low -noise vhf converters are other up- to-date items featured in this edition.
This new edition typifies the modern trend in amateur radio toward more advanced
and sophisticated equipment. To those individuals and organizations whose unselfish
assistance and valued support made the compilation and publication of this Handbook
an interesting and inspired task, I extend my thanks and appreciation.
WILLIAM I. ORR, W6SAI
Acknowledgements
W. W. Eitel, B.A. Ontiveros, W6FFF Robert Welborn, W9PBW
W6UF /WA7LRU Ken L. Pierce, W6SLQ Paul Wilson, W4HHK
Mike Goldstein, VE3GFN Raymond Rinaudo, W6ZO Eimac division of Varian
Robert Grace, W6VQV Mike Staal, K6MYC J. W. Miller Co.
Wm. S. Grenfell, W4GF Robert Stein, WA6QIC Northern Engineering
John Holmbeck, W9KZO Robert Sutherland, W6UOV Laboratories
Ozzie Jaeger, W3EB /6 Robert Walton, W6CYL Stancor Electronics, Inc.
J. McCullough, W6CHE Triad Transformer Co.
Contents
Glossary of Terms 11
Chapter One. INTRODUCTION TO RADIO 13

1 -1 Amateur Radio 13
1 -2 Station and Operator Licenses 14
1 -3 The Amateur Bands 16
1 -4 Starting Your Study 18
Chapter Two. DIRECT- CURRENT CIRCUITS 26

2 -1 The Atom 26
2 -2 Fundamental Electrical Units and Relationships 27
2 -3 Electrostatics and Capacitors 36
2 -4 Magnetism and Electromagnetism 42
2 -5 RC and RL Transients 47
Chapter Three. ALTERNATING -CURRENT CIRCUITS 50

3 -1 Alternating Current 50
3 -2 Resonant Circuits 64
3 -3 Nonsinusoidal Waves and Transients 70
3 -4 Transformers 73
3 -5 Electric Filters 76
3 -6 - Low -Pass Filter Nomogrophs 78
Chapter Four. VACUUM -TUBE PRINCIPLES 83

4 -1 Thermionic Emission 83
4 -2 The Diode 88
4 -3 The Triode 89
4 -4 Tetrode or Screen -Grid Tubes 94
4 -5 Mixer and Converter Tubes 97
4 -6 Electron Tubes at Very -High Frequencies 98
4 -7 Special Microwave Electron Tubes 99
4 -8 The Cathode -Ray Tube 102
4 -9 Gas Tubes 105
4 -10 Miscellaneous Tube Types 107
Chapter Five. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 108

5 -1 Atomic Structure of Germanium and Silicon 108
5 -2 Mechanism of Conduction 109
5 -3 The PN Junction 110
5 -4 The Transistor 116
5 -5 Transistor Characteristics 120
5 -6 Transistor Circuitry 124
5 -7 The Field- Effect Transistor 133
5 -8 Integrated Circuits 135
5 -9 Silicon Power Transistors 136
Chapter Six. VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 142

6 -1 Vacuum -Tube Parameters 142
6 -2 Classes and Types of Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers 143
6 -3 Biosing Methods 144
6 -4 Distortion in Amplifiers 145
6 -5 Resistance -Capacitance Coupled Audio- Frequency Amplifiers 145
6 -6 Video -Frequency Amplifiers 149
6 -7 Other Interstage Coupling Methods 149
6 -8 Phase Inverters 152
6 -9 D -C Amplifiers 154
6 -10 Single -Ended Triode Amplifiers 154
6 -11 Single -Ended Pentode Amplifiers 157
6 -12 Push -Pull Audio Amplifiers 158
6 -13 Class -B Audio -Frequency Power Amplifiers 160
6 -14 Cathode -Follower Power Amplifiers 165
6 -15 Feedback Amplifiers 166
Chapter Seven. RADIO- FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 169

7 -1 Class -C Power Amplifiers
R -F 169
7 -2 Constant- Current Curves 173
7 -3 Class -C Amplifier Calculations 175
7 -4 Class -B Radio- Frequency Power Amplifiers 180
7 -5 Grounded -Grid and Cathode -Follower R -F Power Amplifier Circuits 183
7 -6 Class -AB, Radio -Frequency Power Amplifiers 187
7 -7 Grounded -Grid Linear Amplifiers 190
7 -8 Intermodulation Distortion .. 193
Chapter Eight. THE OSCILLOSCOPE 195

8 -1 A Modern Oscilloscope 195
8 -2 Display of Waveforms 199
8 -3 Lissajous Figures 201
8 -4 Monitoring Transmitter Performance with the Oscilloscope 204
8 -5 Receiver I -F Alignment with an Oscilloscope 205
8 -6 Single -Sideband Applications 208
Chapter Nine. SPECIAL CIRCUITRY FOR VACUUM TUBES

AND SEMICONDUCTORS 211
9 -1 Limiting Circuits 211
9 -2 Clamping Circuits 214
9 -3 Multivibrators 214
9 -4 The Blocking Oscillator 216
9 -5 Counting Circuits 216
9 -6 Resistance -Capacitance Oscillators 217
9 -7 Feedback 218
Chapter Ten. RADIO RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 220
10 -1 Detection or Demodulation 220
10 -2 Superheterodyne Receivers 222
10 -3 Noise and Spurious Products 226
10 -4 Plate- Circuit Considerations 228
10 -5 R -F Stages 230
10 -6 Signal- Frequency Tuned Circuits 233
10 -7 I -F Circuits 236
10 -8 Detector, Audio, and Control Circuits 243
10 -9 Noise Suppression 246
10 -10 Special Considerations in UHF Receiver Design 250
10 -11 Receiver Adjustment 254
10 -12 Receiving Accessories 256
Chapter Eleven. GENERATION OF RADIO -FREQUENCY ENERGY 258

11 -1 Self- Controlled Oscillators 258
11 -2 Quartz -Crystal Oscillators 264
11 -3 Crystal Oscillator Circuits 265
11 -4 Radio- Frequency Amplifiers 273
11 -5 Neutralization of R -F Ampliers 274
11 -6 Neutralizing Procedures 277
11 -7 Grounded -Grid Amplifiers 281
11 -8 Frequency Multipliers Y81
11 -9 Tank -Circuit Capacitances 284
11 -10 L- and Pi- Matching Networks 288
11 -11 Grid Bias 292
11 -12 Protective Circuits for Tetrode Transmitting Tubes 294
11 -13 Interstage Coupling 296
11 -14 Radio- Frequency Chokes 497
11 -15 Parallel and Push -Pull Tube Circuits 298
11 -16 Cooling Transmitting Tubes 299
Chapter Twelve. R -F FEEDBACK 301

12 -1 R -FFeedback Circuits 301
12 -2 Feedback and Neutralization of a Two -Stage R -F Amplifier 304
12 -3 Neutralization Procedure in Feedback -Type Amplifiers 306
Chapter Thirteen. AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 309

13 -1 Sidebands 309
13 -2 Mechanics of Modulation 310
13 -3 Systems of Amplitude Modulation 312
13 -4 Input Modulation Systems 318
13 -5 Cathode Modulation 323
13 -6 The Doherty and Terman- Woodyard Modulated Amplifiers 323
13 -7 Speech Clipping 325
13 -8 Speech Compression 330
Chapter Fourteen. FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION 334

14 -1 Frequency Modulation 334
14 -2 Direct F -M Circuits 339
14 -3 Phase Modulation 342
14 -3 Reception of F -M Signals 345
Chapter Fifteen. RADIOTELETYPE SYSTEMS 353
15 -1 Radioteletype Systems 353
15 -2 RTTY Reception 354
15 -3 Frequency -Shift Keying 356
Chapter Sixteen. SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 359

16 -1 The SSB System 359
16 -2 A Basic Single -Sideband Transmitter 367
16 -3 The Balanced Modulator 368
16 -4 The Sideband Filter 370
16 -5 The Phasing Type SSB Exciter 372
16 -6 Single -Sideband Frequency Conversion 377
16 -7 Distortion Products Due to Nonlinearity of Amplifiers 382
16 -8 Automatic Load Control and Speech Compression 383
16 -9 Basic SSB Exciters 386
16 -10 SSB Reception 391
16 -11 The SSB Transceiver 394
Chapter Seventeen. EQUIPMENT DESIGN 396

17 -1 Resistors 396
17 -2 Capacitors 398
17 -3 Wire and Inductors 400
17 -4 Grounds 402
17 -5 Holes, Leads, and Shafts .. 403
17 -6 Parasitic Resonances 404
17 -7 Parasitic Oscillation in R -F Amplifiers 405
17 -8 Elimination of VHF Parasitic Oscillations 407
17 -9 Checking for Parasitic Oscillations 409
17 -10 Forced -Air Cooling 411
Chapter Eighteen. RADIO INTERFERENCE 412

18 -1 Types of Television Interference 412
18 -2 Harmonic Radiation 414
18 -3 Low -Pass Filters 416
18 -4 Broadcast Interference 421
18 -5 Miscellaneous Interference 425
Chapter Nineteen. STATION ASSEMBLY AND CONTROL . 427

19 -1 Station Layout 427
19 -2 Transmitter Control Methods 432
19 -3 Safety Precautions 434
19 -4 Transmitter Keying 437
19 -5 Cathode Keying 438
19 -6 Grid -Circuit Keying 439
19 -7 Screen -Grid Keying 440
19 -8 Differential Keying Circuits 442
19 -9 VOX Circuitry 444
Chapter Twenty. RADIATION, PROPAGATION, AND TRANSMISSION LINES 447

20 -1 Radiation from an Antenna 447
20 -2 General Characteristics of Antennas 448
20 -3 Radiation Resistance and Feed -Point Impedance 452
20 -4 Antenna Directivity 455
20 -5 Bandwidth 458
20 -6 Progagotion of Radio Waves 458
20 -7 Ground -Wave Communication 459
20 -8 Ionospheric Propagation 462
20 -9 Transmission Lines 466
20 -10 Nonresonant Transmission Lines 467
20 -11 Tuned or Resonant Lines 470
20 -12 Line Discontinuities 471
20 -13 A Broadband 50 -Ohm Balun 472
Chapter Twenty -One. ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA MATCHING 473

21 -1 End -Fed Half -Wave Horizontal Antennas 473
21 -2 Center -Fed Half -Wave Horizontal Antennas 474
21 -3 The Half -Wave Vertical Antenna 477
21 -4 The Ground -Plane Antenna 478
21 -5 The Marconi Antenna 479
21 -6 Space- Conserving Antennas 481
21 -7 Multiband Antennas 483
21 -8 Matching Nonresonant Lines to the Antenna 493
21 -9 Antenna Supports 499
21 -10 Coupling to the Antenna System 502
21 -11 Antenna Couplers 505
21 -12 A Single-Wire Antenna Tuner 507
21 -13 A Tuner for Center -Fed Antenna Systems 509
Chapter Twenty -Two. HIGH -FREQUENCY DIRECTIVE ANTENNAS 512

22 -1 Directive Antennas 512
22-2 Long -Wire Radiators 514
22 -3 The V Antenna 515
22 -4 The Rhombic Antenna 517
22 -5 Stacked -Dipole Arrays 519
22 -6 Broadside Arrays 521
22 -7 The Cubical Quad Beam 526
22 -8 End -Fire Directivity 528
22 -9 Combination End -Fire and Broadside Arrays 529
Chapter Twenty -Three VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 532

23 -1 Antenna Requirements 532
23 -2 Simple Horizontally Polarized Antennas 535
23 -3 Simple Vertical -Polarized Antennas 536
23 -4 The Discone Antenna 539
23 -5 Helical Beam Antennas 540
23 -6 The Corner - Reflector and Horn -Type Antennas 542
23 -7 VHF Horizontal Rhombic Antenna 544
23 -8 The Log- Periodic Antenna 545
23 -9 VHF Yogi Beam Antennas 548
Chapter Twenty -Four. HIGH -FREQUENCY ROTARY -BEAM ANTENNAS 555

24 -1 Unidirectional Parasitic End -Fire Arrays (Yogi Type) 555
24 -2 The Three- Element Array 557
24 -3 Feed Systems for Parasitic (Yogi) Arrays 559
24 -4 Unidirectional Driven Arrays 565
24 -5 Construction of Rotatable Arrays 568
24 -6 Tuning the Array 569
24 -7 Indication of Direction 571
24 -8 Three -Band Beams 572
24 -9 Llumped Baluns for Beam Antennas 573
Chapter Twenty -Five. MOBILE EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION 575

25 -1 Mobile Converters 575
25 -2 Mobile Power Sources 577
25 -3 Transistor Supplies 580
25 -4 Antennas for Mobile Work 585
25 -5 Construction of Mobile Equipment 589
25 -6 Vehicular Noise Suppression 591
25 -7 A Printed- Circuit SSB Transceiver 593
25 -8 A 200 -Watt 3 -Band Sideband Transceiver 601
Chapter Twenty -Six. RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS 613

26 -1 A General- Purpose High -Frequency Converter 614
26 -2 A Low -Noise MOSFET Converter for 2 Meters 619
26 -3 An FET Converter for 144 MHz 624
26 -4 An FET Converter and R -F Amplifier for 432 MHz 629
26 -5 A Solid -State Amateur Band Receiver 634
26 -6 A Single -Band SSB Transceiver 645
Chapter Twenty -Seven. EXCITERS AND STATION ACCESSORIES 657

27 -1 A General- Purpose Exciter For 6 Meters 657
27 -2 A 40 -Watt Broadband Exciter For 2 Meters .. 661
27 -3 A 2 -Meter SSB Transverter 667
27 -4 A 150 -Watt PEP Linear Amplifier For 2 Meters 675
27 -5 A Triple /Amplifier For 432 MHz 680
27 -6 A 175 -Watt SSB Exciter 683
27 -7 Audio Filters For SSB and C -W Reception 693
Chapter Twenty -Eight. H -F AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIERS 696

28 -1 Triade Amplifier Design 697
28 -2 Tetrode Amplifier Design 701
28 -3 Cathode- Driven Amplifier Design 709
28 -4 -kW Economy Linear Amplifier
1 714
28 -5 The KW -1 All Band Linear Amplifier Using Two 4CX300A's _ 719
28 -6 The 500Z 2 -kW PEP Linear Amplifier for 10 thru 80 Meters 725
28 -7 The Triband KW -2 Linear Amplifier For 20, 15, and 10
Meters 734
28 -8 A Two -Stage High -Gain Amplifier Using The 3 -1000Z 740
28 -9 A Kilowatt Linear Amplifier for Six Meters 747
Chapter Twenty -Nine. SPEECH AND AMPLITUDE -MODULATION

EQUIPMENT 753
29 -1 Modulation 753
29 -2 General- Purpose Tetrode Modulators 756
29 -3 General- Purpose Triode Class -B Modulator 758
29 -4 A 15 -Watt Clipper -Amplifier 760
29 -5 Auxiliary Clipper -Amplifiers 761
Chapter Thirty- POWER SUPPLIES 763

30 -1 Power -Supply Requirements 763
30 -2 Power -Supply Components ... _. _ 767
30 -3 Rectification Circuits 768
30 -4 The Silicon Rectifier 775
30 -5 Series Diode Operation 777
30 -6 Silicon Supplies for SSB 778
30 -7 A 1- Kilowatt IVS Power Supply 783
30 -8 A 2- Kilowatt PEP Supply for SSB 784
30 -9 IVS Bridge- Rectifier Supplies 784
30 -10 Regulated Power Supplies 787
30 -11 General- Purpose Power Supplies 790
Chapter Thirty -One. ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 797

31 -1 Voltage and Current 797
31 -2 The Vacuum -Tube Voltmeter 800
31 -3 Solid -State Voltmeters _
805
31 -4 Power Measurements 806
31 -5 Measurement of Circuit Constants 808
31 -6 Measurements with a Bridge 809
31 -7 R -F Bridges 811
31 -8 Antenna and Transmission -Line Instrumentation 812
31 -9 Practical SWR Instruments 816
31 -10 Frequency and Time Measurements 821
31 -11 Instruments for Shop and Station 842
Chapter Thirty -Two. WARKSHOP PRACTICE 829

32 -1 Tools 829
32 -2 The Material 831
32 -3 TVI -Proof Inclosures 833
32 -4 Inclosure Openings 833
32 -5 Summation of the Problem 834
32 -6 Construction Practice 834
32 -7 Printed Circuits 838
32 -8 Coaxial Cable Terminations 839
32 -9 Shop Layout 840
32 -10 Components and Hardware 841
Chapter Thirty- Three. RADIO MATHEMATICS AND CALCULATIONS

873
Appendix 885
Index
889
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Symbol Notation Symbol Notation
A Amperes (a -c, rms, or d -c) fil Filament

A Amplifier voltage gain G Giga (10")
a Amperes (peak) g, g,, g., etc. Grid (number to identify,
oc, a-c, a.c. Alternating current starting from cathode)
a-m, o.m. Amplitude modulation Grids having common pin
C Capacitance connection
c.f.m. Cubic feet per minute GHz Gigahertz (10" cycles per
C.; Capacitance grid to ground second)
C,., C,,., etc. Tube capacitance between G.,, or S.., Transconductance
indicated electrodes (arid- plate)
Input capacitance H Henry
C. Capacitance between Hz Hertz
cathode and ground Peak current
cm Centimeter Current (a -c, rms, or d -c)
C. Neutralizing capacitance Average d -c plate current
Output capacitance Peak signal d -c plate
C,,,_ Capacitance, plate to screen current
cw, C.W. or c-w Continuous wave I.. Instantaneous plate current
dB or db Decibel i Peak plate current
dc, d.c., d-c Direct current 1,,,, Idling plate current
E Voltage (a -c, rms, or d -c) I. Average d -c grid current
e Peak voltage current
E, Average plate voltage Instantaneous a -c plate
e,, Instantaneous plate voltage current referred to I,,
Peak plate voltage Peak a -c plate current
Minimum instantaneous referred to lb
plate voltage referenced i, etc. Fundamental component of
to ground r -f plate current
e,. ,,,, Maximum positive grid Peak fundamental component
voltage of r -f plate current
Cutoff -bias voltage 1, Single tone d -c plate current
E., Average grid #1 voltage 1, etc. Two -tone, etc., d -c plate
Average grid #2 voltage current
E.,. Average grid #3 voltage 1 ,. etc. Average grid #1, #2, etc.
e,., Instantaneous grid #1 current
Filament current
i
voltage
e, . Instantaneous grid # 2 i ,_ etc. Instantontous grid current
voltage etc.
,,,,,,, Peak grid current
e, Instantaneous grid #3 1. Average cathode current
voltage i. Instantaneous cathode
Er Filament voltage current
e. Rms value cf Peak cathode current
exciting voltage K Cathode
e Instantaneous plate voltage k Kilo(10')
(o.c.) referenced to B. kHz Kilohertz
Peak a -c plate voltage kV Peak kilovolts
referenced to E,, kVac A -c kilovolts
Applied signal voltage (d -c) kVdc D -c kilovolts
Applied signal voltoe (a -c) kW Kilowatts
Instantaneous cathode Wavelength
voltage M Mutual inductance
Peak cathode voltage M Mega (10")
F Farad m Meter
Frequency (in Hertz) m One thousandth
11
Symbol Notation Symbol Notation
mm Millimeter R,, Resistance in series with
mA or ma Milliamperes plate
Meg or meg Megohm r Dynamic internal plate
resistance
mH Millihenry
MHz Megahertz S. or G. Conversion transconductance
Mu or Amplification factor S or G Transconductance
mV or my Millivolts SSB Single sideband
MW Megawatts SWR Standing -wave ratio
mW Milliwatts T Temperature ( C)
NF Noise figure Time (seconds)
N. Efficiency b Conduction angle
p Pico (10-") Micro (10-) or amplification
P,, Average drive power factor
p., Peak drive power Amplification Factor
P Average feedthrough power A Microampere
p" Peak feedthrough power pmho Micromho
pF or pf Picofarad F or pfd Microfarad
PEP Peak envelope power pH Microhenry
P_ P_., etc. Power dissipation of s Microsecond
respective grids pV Microvolt
P Power input (average) _ Grid -screen amplification
P. Peak power input factor
P Power output (average) V Volt(s), (a -c, rms, or d -c)
P.. Peak power output or d.c.)
P,. Plate dissipation y Peak volts
Q Figure of merit Vac A -c volts
Q, Loaded Q Vdc D -c volts
R Resistance VSWR Voltage standing -wave
Reflector ratio
rf, r.f. or r-f Radio frequency W Watts
R, Resistance in series with Z Impedance
the grid. Z, Grid impedance
Dynamic internal grid Z, Input impedance
resistance Z,, Cathode impedance
Resistance in series with Z. Load impedance
the cathode Z., Output impedance
R, Load resistance Z Impedance in plate circuit
rms Root mean square Z, Screen bypass impedance
12
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Radio
The field of radio is a division of the available spectrum, it becomes necessary to

much larger field of electronics. Radio itself delve more deeply into the basic principles
is such a broad study that it is still further underlying radio communication, both from
broken down into a number of smaller fields the standpoint of equipment design and
of which only short -wave or high- frequency operation and from the standpoint of signal
radio is covered in this book. Specifically the propagation. Hence, it will be found that
field of communication on frequencies from this edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK
1.8 to 450 MHz is taken as the subject mat- has been devoted in greater proportion to
ter for this work. the teaching of the principles of equipment
The largest group of persons interested in design and signal propagation. It is in re-
the subject of high- frequency communica- sponse to requests from schools and agencies
tion is the more than 450,000 radio ama- of the Department of Defense, in addition
teurs located in nearly all countries of the to persistent requests from the amateur
world. Strictly speaking, a radio amateur is radio fraternity, that coverage of these
anyone noncommercially interested in radio, principles has been expanded.
but the term is ordinarily applied only to
those hobbyists possessing transmitting 1 -1 Amateur Radio
equipment and a license to operate from the
Government.
It was for the radio amateur, and particu- Amateur radio is a fascinating hobby with
larly for the serious and more advanced ama- many facets. So strong is the fascination of-
teur, that most of the equipment described fered by this hobby that many executives,
in this book was developed. However, in engineers, and military and commercial
each equipment group, simple items also are operators enjoy amateur radio as an avoca-
shown for the student or beginner. The de- tion, even though they are also engaged in
sign principles behind the equipment for the radio field commercially. It captures and
high- frequency radio communication are of holds the interest of many people in all
course the same whether the equipment is to walks of life, and in all countries of the
be used for commercial, military, or ama- world where amateur activities are permitted
teur purposes. The principal differences lie in by law.
construction practices, and in the tolerances Amateurs have rendered much public
and safety factors placed on components. service through furnishing communications
With the increasing complexity of high- to and from the outside world in cases
frequency communication, resulting pri- where disaster has isolated an area by sever-
mirily from increased utilization of the ing all wire communications. Amateurs have
14 Introduction to Radio RADIO
a proud record of heroism and service on and is not renewable. The examination may
such occasions. Many expeditions to remote be taken only by mail, under the direct su-
places have been kept in touch with home pervision of an amateur holding a General
by communication with amateur stations on Class license or higher, or a commercial
the high frequencies. The amateur's fine radiotelegraph licensee. The examination con-
record of performance with the "wireless" sists of a code test in sending and receiving
equipment of World War I has been sur- at a speed off words per minute, plus a writ-
passed by his outstanding service in World ten examination on the rules and regulations
War II. essential to beginner's operation, including
By the time peace came in the Pacific in sufficient elementary radio theory for the
the summer of 1945, many thousand ama- understanding of these rules. Restricted c -w
teur operators were serving in the Allied privileges in segments of the 80 -, 40 -, and
Armed Forces. They had supplied the Army, 15 -meter amateur bands are currently avail-
Navy, Marines, Coast Guard, Merchant Ma- able to the Novice licensee, whose trans-
rine, Civil Service, war plants, and civilian mitter is limited to crystal -controlled oper-
defense organizations with trained personnel ation with an input power not exceeding 75
for radio, radar, wire, and visual communi- watts.
cations and for teaching. Even now, at the The receiving code test for the Novice
time of this writing, amateurs are being Class license requires correct copy of 25
called back into the expanded defense forces, words of text counting 5 letters per word.
are returning to defense plants where their No punctuation marks or numerals are in-
skills are critically needed, and are being cluded.
organized into communication units as an Technician Class -The Technician Class
adjunct to civil- defense groups. exists for the purpose of encouraging
a greater interest in experimentation and
1 -2 Station and development of the higher frequencies

among experimenters and would-be radio
Operator Licenses amateurs. This Class of license is available
to any U.S. Citizen or national. The exami-
Every radio transmitting station in the nation is similar to that given for the Gen-
United States no matter how low its power eral Class license, except that the code test
must have a license from the Federal Govern- in sending and receiving is at a speed of 5
ment before being operated; some classes of words per minute.
stations must have a permit from the gov- The holder of a Technician Class license is
ernment even before being constructed. And accorded all authorized amateur privileges in
every operator of a transmitting station all amateur bands above 220 MHz, and in
must have an operator's license before oper- portions of the 144 -MHz and 50 -MHz
ating a transmitter. There are no exceptions. bands. This class of license may be taken
Similar laws apply in practically every major only by mail, under the direct supervision
country. of an amateur holding a General Class
license or higher, or a commercial radiotele-
Classes of Amateur There are at present five graph licensee. The license is valid for a
Operator Licenses classes of amateur oper- period of five years, and may be renewed
ator licenses in the United on proper application.
States authorized by the Federal Communi- General Class-The General Class license
cations Commission. These classes differ in is the standard radio amateur license and is
many important respects, so each will be available to any U.S. Citizen or national.
discussed briefly. The license is valid for a period of five years
Novice Class-The Novice Class license and is renewable on proper application. Ap-
is available to any U.S. citizen or national plicants for the General Class license must
who has not previously held an amateur take the examination before an FCC rep-
license of any class issued by any agency of resentative (with certain exceptions dis-
the U.S. Government, military or civilian. cussed under the Conditional Class license).
The license is valid for a period of two years The examination consists of a code test
HANDBOOK Station and Operator Licenses 15
in sending and receiving at a code speed of of five years and is renewable. Applicants
13 words per minute, plus a written exami- for the Amateur Extra Class license must
nation in basic theory and regulations. It take the examination before an FCC repre-
conveys all amateur privileges, with the sentative. The examination consists of a code
exceptions noted for the Advanced and test in sending and receiving at a speed of
Extra Class licenses. 20 words per minute, a standard written
examination in theory and regulations
Conditional Class-The Conditional Class
license is equivalent to the General Class
(credit will be given to holders of General
and Advanced Class licenses for this require-
license in the privileges accorded by its use.
This license is issued to an applicant who: (1)
ment), and a written examination based on
advanced radio theory and operation as
lives more than 175 miles airline distance
applicable to modern amateur techniques, in-
from the nearest point at which the FCC
cluding, but not limited to, radiotelephony,
conducts examinations twice yearly, or of- radiotelegraphy, and transmissions of energy
tener; (2) is unable to appear for examina-
for measurements and observations applied
tion because of physical disability to travel;
to propagation, for the radio control of
(3) is unable to appear for examination
remote objects, and for similar experimental
because of military service; (4) is temporari-
purposes. An applicant for the Amateur
ly resident outside the United States, its
territories, or possessions for a year or more.
Extra Class license will be given credit for
The Conditional Class license may be taken that portion of the examination covered by
the General and Advanced Class licenses, if
only by mail and is renewable.
a valid license of either grade is held at the
Advanced Class-The Advanced Class li- time of examination.
cense is equivalent to the old Class -A The Amateur Extra Class license accords
license and is available to any U.S. Citizen certain radiotelephone and radiotelegraph
or national. The license is valid for a period of privileges in the amateur bands between 80
five years and is renewable on proper applica- and 6 meters, unavailable to holders of
tion. Applicants for the Advanced Class lower -grade licenses. In addition, the holder
license must take the examination before of an Amateur Extra Class license, licensed
an FCC representative. The examination for 25 years or longer by the FCC prior to
consists of a general code test at 13 words the date of the Amateur Extra Class license
per minute, questions covering general am- may request a two -letter call sign, in lieu of
ateur practice and regulations involving a three -letter call sign.
radio operation, and technical questions cov-
ering intermediate -level radio theory and The Amateur The station license author -
operation as applicable to modern amateur Station License izes the radio apparatus of
techniques, including, but not limited to, the radio amateur for a par-
radiotelephony and radiotelegraphy. An ap- ticular address and designates the official
plicant for the Advanced Class license will call sign to be used. The license is a portion
be given credit for that portion of the of the combined station- operator license
examination and the code test covered by normally issued to the radio amateur. Au-
the General Class license, if a valid license of thorization is included for portable or mobile
that grade is held at the time of examination. operation within the continental limits of the
The Advanced Class license accords cer- United States, its territories or possessions, on
tain radiotelephone privileges in the amateur any amateur frequency authorized to the
bands between 80 and 6 meters, which are class of license granted the operator. If por-
unavailable to holders of lower -grade ama- table or mobile operation for a period of
teur licenses. greater than 48 hours is contemplated, ad-
Amateur Extra Class -The Amateur Ex- vance notice must be given to the FCC
tra Class license is the highest -grade amateur district in which operation will be con-
license issued by the FCC and the recipient, ducted. The station license must be modified
on request, may receive a special diploma -type on a permanent change in address. The sta-
certificate from the District FCC Engineer- tion license is customarily renewed with the
in- Charge. The license is valid for a period operator license. Applications filed for ama-
teur radio licenses (except that of a Novice the 40 -meter amateur band is used legally
Class) require a filing fee. (and illegally) for short -wave broadcasting
by many countries in Europe, Africa and
International The domestic regulatory pat- Asia. Parts of the 80 -meter band are used
Regulations tern of the United States for short distance marine work in Europe,
agrees with the international and for broadcasting in South America. The
agreements established by the International amateur bands available to United States
Telecommunications Union and to which the radio amateurs are:
United States is a signatory power. The fre-
quency bands reserved for the Amateur Radio 160 Meters The 160 -meter band
Service are included in the ITU frequency (1800 kHz-2000 kHz) is divided into 25-
allocations table, as one of the services to kHz segments on a
which frequencies are made available. In the regional basis, with day and night power
lower- frequency amateur bands, the inter- limitations, and is available for amateur use
national allocations provide for joint use provided no interference is caused to the
of the bands by several services in addition Loran (Long Range Navigation) stations
to the amateur service in various areas of operating in this band. This band is least
the world. affected by the 11 -year solar sunspot cycle.
Article i of the ITU Radio Regulations The maximum usable frequency (MUF)
defines the amateur service as: "A service even during the years of decreased sunspot
of self -training, intercommunication, and activity does not usually drop below 4 MHz,
technical investigations carried on by ama- therefore this band is not subject to the
teurs, that is, bl duly authorized persons violent fluctuations found on the higher -
interested in radio technique solely with a frequency bands. DX contacts on this band
personal aim and without a pecuniary inter- are limited by the ionospheric absorption of
est." Within this concept, the U. S. radio radio signals, which is quite high. During
regulations governing radio amateur licensing winter nighttime hours the absorption is
and regulation are formulated. often of a low enough value to permit trans-
By reciprocal treaty, the United States oceanic contacts on this band. On rare oc-
now has a number of agreements with other casions, contacts up to 10,000 miles have
countries permitting amateurs of one coun- been made. As a usual rule, however, 160 -
try to operate in the other. On the other meter amateur operation is confined to
hand, by international agreement, notifica- ground -wave contacts or single -skip con-
tion to the ITU may forbid international tacts of 1000 miles or less. Popular before
communications with radio amateurs of cer- World War II, the 160 -meter band is now
tain countries. only sparsely occupied since many areas of
A comprehensive coverage of United
the country are blanketed by the megawatt
States licensing procedure for radio amateurs pulses of the Loran chains.
and applicable rules and regulations may be
found in "The Radio Amateur's License 80 Meters The 80 -meter band
Manual," published by the American Radio (3500 kHz -4000 kHz) is the most popular
Relay League, Newington, Conn. 06111. amateur band in
the continental United States for local "rag
chewing" and traffic nets. During the years
1 -3 The Amateur Bands of minimum sunspot activity the iono-
spheric absorption on this band may be
Certain small segments of the radio -fre- quite low, and long distance DX contacts
quency spectrum between 1500 kHz and are possible during the winter night hours.
10,000 MHz are reserved for operation of Daytime operation, in general, is limited to
amateur radio stations. These segments are contacts of 500 miles or less. During the
in general agreement throughout the world, summer months, local static and high iono-
although certain parts of different amateur spheric absorption limit long distance con-
bands may be used for other purposes in tacts on this band. As the sunspot cycle ad-
various geographic regions. In particular, vances and the MUF rises, increased iono-
HANDBOOK Amateur Bands 17
spheric absorption will tend to degrade the paths other than the Great Circle route.
long distance possibilities of this band. At Signals can be heard via the "long path," 180
the peak of the sunspot cycle, the 80 -meter degrees opposite the Great Circle path. Dur-
band becomes useful only for short -haul ing daylight hours, absorption may become
communication. apparent on the 20 -meter band, and all
signals except very short skip may disappear.
40 Meters The 40 -meter band On the other hand, the band will be open
(7000 kHz -7300 kHz) is high enough in for worldwide DX contacts all night long.
frequency to be se- The 20 -meter band is very susceptible to
verely affected by the 11 -year sunspot cycle. "fadeouts" caused by solar disturbances, and
During years of minimum solar activity, all except local signals may completely dis-
the MUF may drop below 7 MHz, and the appear for periods of a few hours to a day
band will become very erratic, with signals or so.
dropping completely out during the night
hours. Ionospheric absorption of signals is 15 Meters This is a rela-
not as large a problem on this band as it is (21,000 kHz -21,450 kHz) tively new band
on 80 and 160 meters. As the MUF grad- for radio ama-
ually rises, the skip distance will increase on teurs since it has only been available for
40 meters, especially during the winter amateur operation since 1952. It has charac-
months. At the peak of the solar cycle, the teristics similar to both the 20- and 10-
daylight skip distance on 40 meters will be meter amateur bands. During a period of
quite long, and stations within a distance of low sunspot activity, the MUF will rarely
500 miles or so of each other will not be rise as high as 15 meters, so this band will
able to hold communication. DX operation be "dead" for a large part of the sunspot
on the 40 -meter band is considerably ham- cycle. During the next few years, 1S -meter
pered by broadcasting stations, propaganda activity should be excellent, and the band
stations, and jamming transmitters. In should support extremely long DX con-
Europe and Asia the band is in a chaotic tacts. The band will remain open 24 hours
state, and amateur operation in this region a day in Equatorial areas of the world.
is severely hampered. Fifteen -meter operation may be hampered
in some cases when neighbors possess older -
20 meters At the present
(14,000 kHz- 14,350 model TV receivers having a 21 -MHz i -f
kHz) time, the 20 -me- channel, which falls directly in the 15-meter
ter band is by band. The interference problem may be al-
far the most popular band for long- distance leviated by retuning the i -f system to a
contacts. High enough in frequency to be frequency outside the amateur assignment.
almost obliterated at the bottom of the
solar cycle, the band nevertheless provides 10 Meters During the peak
good DX contacts during years of minimal (28,000 kHz- 29,700 kHz) of the sunspot
sunspot activity. At the present time, the cycle, the 10-
band is open to almost all parts of the world meter band is without doubt the most pop-
at some time during the year. During the ular amateur band. The combination of
summer months, the band is active until the long skip and low ionospheric absorption
late evening hours, but during the winter make reliable DX contacts with low -powered
months the band is only good for a few equipment possible. The great width of the
hours during daylight. Extreme DX contacts band (1700 kHz) provides room for a
are usually erratic, but the 20 -meter band is large number of amateurs. The long skip
the only band available for DX operation (1500 miles or so) prevents nearby amateurs
the year around during the bottom of the from hearing each other, thus dropping the
sunspot cycle. As the sunspot count increases interference level. During the winter
and the MUF rises, the 20 -meter band will months, sporadic -E (short -skip) signals up
become open for longer hours during the to 1200 miles or so will be heard. The 10-
winter. The maximum skip distance in- meter band is poorest in the summer months,
creases, and DX contacts are possible over even during a sunspot maximum. Extreme-
ly long daylight skip is common on this moon- earth) transmissions and for repeater -
band, and in years of high MUF the 10- satellite experiments (Project Oscar) . The
meter band will support intercontinental vhf bands hold great promise for serious
DX contacts during daylight hours. experimenters as radio amateurs forge into
The second harmonic of stations operating the microwave region.
in the 10 -meter band falls directly into
television channel 2, and the higher har- 1 -4 Starting Your Study
monics of 10 -meter transmitters fall into
the higher TV channels. This harmonic When you start to prepare yourself for
problem seriously curtailed amateur 10 -meter the amateur examination you will find that
operation during the late 40's. However, the circuit diagrams, tube characteristic
with new circuit techniques and the TVI curves, and formulas appear confusing and
precautionary measures stressed in this Hand- difficult to understand. But after a few
book, 10 -meter operation should cause little study sessions one becomes sufficiently fa-
or no interference to nearby television re- miliar with the notation of the diagrams
ceivers of modern design. and the basic concepts of theory and opera-
Six Meters At the peak of the sun - tion so that the acquisition of further
(50 MHz -54 MHz) spot cycle, the MUF knowledge becomes easier and even fascinat-
occasionally rises high ing.
enough to permit DX contacts up to 10,000 Since it takes a considerable time to be-
miles or so on 6 meters. Activity on this come proficient in sending and receiving
band during such a period is often quite high. code, it is a good idea to intersperse techni-
Interest in this band wanes during a period cal study sessions with periods of code prac-
of lesser solar activity, since contacts, as a tice. Many short code-practice sessions ben -
rule, are restricted to short -skip work. The fit one more than a small number of longer
proximity of the 6 -meter band to television sessions. Alternating between one study and
channel 2 often causes interference prob- the other keeps the student from getting
lems to amateurs located in areas where "stale" since each type of study serves as a
channel 2 is active. As the sunspot cycle sort of respite from the other.
increases, activity on the 6 -meter band will When you have practiced the code long
increase. enough you will be able to follow the gist of
the slower -sending stations. Many stations
The VHF Bands The vhf bands are send very slowly when working other sta-
(Two Meters and "Up ") the least affected by tions at great distances. Stations repeat their
the vagaries of the calls many times when calling other stations
sunspot cycle and Heaviside layer. Their before contact is established, and one need
predominant use is for reliable communica- not have achieved much code proficiency to
tion over distances of 150 miles or less. make out their calls and thus determine
These bands are sparsely occupied in the their location.
rural sections of the United States, but are
quite heavily congested in the urban areas The Code The applicant for any class of
of high population. amateur operator license must be
In recent years it has been found that able to send and receive the Continental
vhf signals are propagated by other means Code (sometimes called the International
than by line -of -sight transmission. "Scatter Morse Code). The speed required for the
signals," Aurora reflection, and air -mass sending and receiving test may be either 5,
boundary bending are responsible for vhf 13, or 20 words per minute, depending on
communication up to 1200 miles or so. the class of license assuming an average of
Weather conditions will often affect long - five characters to the word in each case.
distance communication on the 2 -meter The sending and receiving tests run for
band, and all the vhf bands are particularly five minutes, and one minute of errorless
sensitive to this condition. transmission or reception must be accom-
In recent years the vhf bands have been plished within the five -minute interval.
used for experimental "moonbounce" (earth- If the code test is failed, the applicant
G
H
A
6
C
p
E
F
.
HANDBOOK
=1,
e e.
.es
imp.=
...
Q
S
T
U
N
R
e
e es
ees
---
am
es
3
4
I
5
6
7
8
...
es
es es es es
eses.
MII MO/
imp es
sm.
.
Starting Your Study 19
I
eea. V 9 IMO GM MD
e ea
J IMP es W esMID 0
K X 0 MEANS ZERO, AND IS WRITTEN IN THIS
L y es.eses WAY TO DISTINGUISH IT FROM THE LETTER
IT OFTEN IS TRANSMITTED INSTEAD AS ONE
b"
M eses Z ese.. LONG DASH (EQUIVALENT TO 5 DOTS)
PERIOD (.)
COMMA (,)
INTERROGATION ( 7 )
esesese
es
WAIT SIGN (AS)
DOUBLE DASH (BREAK)
ERROR (ERASE SIGN)
ees
QUOTATION MARK
COLON ( )
SEMICOLON
:
(;)
(") es
es es es
es IMP ese
FRACTION BAR (/)
END OF MESSAGE (AR)
END OF TRANSMISSION (SK)
ees
MP
eses
IMP
PARENTHESIS O e es es INTERNAT. DISTRESS SIG. (SOS) IMP eses

Figure 1
The Continental (or International Morse) Code is used for substantially all non -automatic radio
communication. DO NOT memorize from the printed page; code is a language of SOUND, and
must not be learned visually; learn by listening as explained in the text.
must wait at least one month before he Since code reading requires that individual
may again appear for another test. Approxi- letters be recognized instantly, any memor-
mately 30% of amateur applicants fail to izing scheme which depends on orderly se-
pass the test. It should be expected that quence, such as learning all "dah" letters and
nervousness and excitement will, at least to all "dit" letters in separate groups, is to he
some degree, temporarily lower the appli- discouraged. Before beginning with a code
cant's code ability. The best insurance practice set it is necessary to memorize the
against this is to master the code at a little whole alphabet perfectly. A good plan is to
greater than the required speed under ordi- study only two or three letters a day and
nary conditions. Then if you slow down a to drill with those letters until they become
little due to nervousness during a test the part of your consciousness. Mentally trans-
result will not prove fatal. late each day's letters into their sound equiv-
Memorizing There is no shortcut to code alent wherever they are seen, on signs, in
the Code proficiency. To memorize the papers, indoors and outdoors. Tackle two
alphabet entails but a few eve- additional letters in the code chart each day,
nings of diligent application, but consider- at the same time reviewing the characters
able time is required to build up speed. The already learned.
exact time required depends on the individ- Avoid memorizing by routine. Be able
ual's ability and the regularity of practice. to sound out any letter immediately with-
While the speed of learning will naturally out so much as hestitating to think about
vary greatly with different individuals, about the letters preceding or following the one
70 hours of practice (no practice period to in question. Know C, for example, apart
be over 30 minutes) will usually suffice to from the sequence ABC. Skip about among
bring a speed of about 13 w.p.m.; 16 w.p.m. all the characters learned, and before very
requires about 120 hours; 20 w.p.m., 175 long sufficient letters will have been acquired
hours. to enable you to spell out simple words to
a MI While various automatic code machines,
5or =1
as
an
im
phonograph records, etc., will give you prac-
tice, by far the best practice is to obtain a
study companion who is also interested in
ch learning the code. When you have both
memorized the alphabet you can start send-
.MDI=1 IMD ing to each other. Practice with a key and
o am al.
fimb oscillator or key and buzzer generally proves
superior to all automatic equipment. Two
such sets operated between two rooms are
Figure 2 fine-or between your house and his will
These code characters are used in languages be just that much better. Avoid talking to
other than English. They may occasionally your partner while practicing. If you must
be encountered so it is well to know them .
ask him a question, do it in code. It makes
more interesting practice than confining
yourself to random practice material.
yourself in "dit dabs." This is interesting When two co- learners have memorized
exercise, and for that reason it is good to the code and are ready to start sending to
memorize all the vowels first and the most each other for practice, it is a good idea to
common consonants next. enlist the aid of an experienced operator for
Actual code practice should start only the first practice session or two so that they
when the entire alphabet, the numerals, will get an idea of how properly formed
period, comma, and question mark have been characters sound.
memorized so thoroughly that any one can During the first practice period the speed
be sounded without the slightest hesitation. should be such that substantially solid copy
Do not bother with other punctuation or can be made without strain. Never mind if
miscellaneous signals until later. this is only two or three words per minute.
Sound - Each letter and figure must be

Not Sight memorized by its sound rather
In the next period the speed should be in-
creased slightly to a point where nearly all
of the characters can be caught only through
than its appearance. Code is a conscious effort. When the student becomes
system of sound communication, the same proficient at this new speed, another slight
as is the spoken word. The letter A, for ex- increase may be made, progressing in this
ample, is one short and one long sound in manner until a speed of about 16 words
combination sounding like dit dab, and it per minute is attained if the object is to pass
must be remembered as such, and not as the amateur 13 -word per minute code test.
"dot dash." The margin of 3 w.p.m. is recommended to
overcome a possible excitement factor at
PracticeTime, patience, and regularity are examination time. Then when you take the
required to learn the code properly. test you don't have to worry about the
Do not expect to accomplish it within a few "jitters" or an "off day."
days. Speed should not be increased to a new
Don't practice too long at one stretch; it level until the student finally makes solid
does more harm than good. Thirty minutes copy with ease for at least a five -minute
at a time should be the limit. period at the old level. How frequently in-
Lack of regularity in practice is the creases of speed can be made depends on in-
most common cause of lack of progress. dividual ability and the amount of practice.
Irregular practice is very little better than Each increase is apt to prove disconcerting,
no practice at all. Write down what you but remember "you are never learning when
have heard; then forget it; do not look back. you are comfortable."
If your mind dwells even for an instant on A number of amateurs are sending code
a signal about which you have doubt, you practice on the air on schedule once or
will miss the next few characters while your twice each week; excellent practice can be
attention is diverted. obtained after you have bought or con-
HANDBOOK Starting Your Study 21
structed your receiver by taking advantage you can send evenly and accurately, your
of these sessions. sending speed will automatically increase.
If you live in a medium -size or large city, Remember to try to see how evenly you can
the chances are that there is an amateur - send, and how fast you can receive. Con-
radio club in your vicinity which offers centrate on making signals properly with
free code -practice lessons periodically. your key. Perfect formation of characters
is paramount to everything else. Make every
Skill When you listen to someone speaking signal right no matter if you have to prac-
you do not consciously think how his tice it hundreds or thousands of times.
words are spelled. This is also true when you Never allow yourself to vary the slightest
read. In code you must train your ears to from perfect formation once you have
read code just as your eyes were trained in learned it.
school to read printed matter. With enough If possible, get a good operator to listen
practice you acquire skill, and from skill, to your sending for a short time, asking him
speed. In other words, it becomes a habit, to criticize even the slightest imperfections.
something which can be done without con-
scious effort. Conscious effort is fatal to Timing It is of the utmost importance to
speed; we can't think rapidly enough; a maintain uniform spacing in charac-
speed of 25 words a minute, which is a com- ters and combinations of characters. Lack of
mon one in commercial operations, means uniformity at this point probably causes be-
125 characters per minute or more than two ginners more trouble than any other single
per second, which leaves no time for con- factor. Every dot, every dash, and every
scious thinking. space must be correctly timed. In other
words, accurate timing is absolutely essen-
Perfect Formation When transmitting on the tial to intelligibility, and timing of the
of Characters code practice set to your spaces between the dots and dashes is just as
partner, concentrate on the important as the lengths of the dots and
quality of your sending, not on your speed. dashes themselves.
Your partner will appreciate it and he could The characters are timed with the dot as
not copy you if you speeded up anyhow. a "yardstick." A standard dash is three times
If you want to get a reputation as hav- as long as a dot. The spacing between parts
ing an excellent "fist" on the air, just re- of the same letter is equal to one dot, the
member that speed alone won't do the space between letters is equal to three dots,
trick. Proper execution of your letters and and that between words equal to five dots.
spacing will make much more of an im- The rule for spacing between letters and
pression. Fortunately, as you get so that words is not strictly observed when sending
slower than about 10 words per minute for
the benefit of someone learning the code
and desiring receiving practice. When send-
bocio6oi76d boocicicoci5q ing at, say, S w.p.m., the individual letters
should be made the same as if the sending
m!r rate were about 10 w.p.m., except that the
C
spacing between letters and words is greatly
exaggerated. The reason for this is obvious.
The letter L, for instance, will then sound
N exactly the same at 10 w.p.m. as at S
w.p.m., and when the speed is increased
3
above S w.p.m. the student will not have
Diagram illustrating relative lengths of to become familiar with what may seem
dashes and spaces referred to the duration to him like a new sound, although it is in
of a dot. A dash is exactly equal in duration
to three dots; spaces between parts of a reality only a faster combination of dots and
letter equal one dot; those between letters, dashes. At the greater speed he will merely
three dots; space between words, five dots.
Note that a slight increase between two parts have to learn the identification of the same
of a letter will make it sound like two letters. sound without taking as long to do so.
Be particularly careful of letters like B.

Many beginners seem to have a tendency to
leave a longer space after the dash than
that which they place between succeeding
dots, thus making it sound like TS. Simi-
larly, make sure that you do not leave
a longer space after the first dot in the
letter C than you do between other parts
of the same letter: otherwise it will sound
like NN.
Sending vs. Once you have memorized the
Receiving code thoroughly you should con-
centrate on increasing your re- Figure 4
ceiving speed. True, if you have to practice
with another newcomer who is learning the PROPER POSITION OF THE FINGERS FOR
code with you, you will both have to do OPERATING A TELEGRAPH KEY
some sending. But don't attempt to prac-
The fingers hold the knob and act as a cush-
tice sending just for the sake of increasing ion. The hand lightly on the key. The
your sending speed. muscles of the forearm provide the power,
When transmitting code to your partner the wrist acting as the fulcrum. The power
should not come from the fingers, but rather
so that he can practice, concentrate on from the forearm muscles.
the quality of your sending, not on your
speed.
Because it is comparatively easy to learn hinder the circulation of the blood and
to send rapidly, especially when no particu- weaken the ulnar nerve at a point where it
lar care is given to the quality of sending, is close to the surface, which in turn will
many operators who have just received their tend to increase fatigue considerably.
licenses get on the air and send mediocre (or The knob of the key is grasped lightly
worse) code at 20 w.p.m. when they can with the thumb along the edge; the index
barely receive good code at 13. Most old - and third fingers rest on the top towards
timers remember their own period of initia- the front or far edge. The hand moves with
tion and are only too glad to be patient and a free up and down motion, the wrist acting
considerate if you tell them that you are as a fulcrum. The power must come entirely
a newcomer. But the surest way to incur from the arm muscles. The third and index
their scorn is to try to impress them with fingers will bend slightly during the sending
your "lightning speed," and then to re- but not because of deliberate effort to ma-
quest them to send more slowly when they nipulate the finger muscles. Keep your finger
come back at you at the same speed. muscles just tight enough to act as a cushion
Stress your copying ability; never stress for the arm motion and let the slight move-
your sending ability. It should be obvious ment of the fingers take care of itself. The
that if you try to send faster than you can key's spring is adjusted to the individual
receive, your ear will not recognize any wrist and should be neither too stiff nor too
mistakes which your hand may make. loose. Use a moderately stiff tension at first
and gradually lighten it as you become more
Using the Key Figure 4 shows the proper po- proficient. The separation between the con-
sition of the hand, fingers and tacts must be the proper amount for the
wrist when manipulating a telegraph or desired speed, being somewhat under 1/16
radio key. The forearm should rest naturally inch for slow speeds and slightly closer to-
on the desk. It is preferable that the key be gether (about 1/32 inch) for faster speeds.
placed far enough back from the edge of Avoid extremes in either direction.
the table (about 18 inches) that the elbow Do not allow the muscles of arm, wrist or
can rest on the table. Otherwise, pressure of fingers to become tense. Send with a full,
the table edge on the arm will tend to free arm movement. Avoid like the plague
any finger motion other than the slight these letters predominate and practice them,
cushioning effect mentioned above. both sending and receiving until they no
Stick to the regular handkey for learning longer give you trouble. Stop everything else
code. No other key is satisfactory for this and stick to them. So long as these characters
purpose. Not until you have thoroughly give you trouble you are not ready for any-
mastered both sending and receiving at the thing else.
maximum speed in which you are interested Follow the same procedure with letters
should you tackle any form of automatic or which you may tend to confuse such as F
semiautomatic key such as the Vihrohlev and L, which are often confused by begin-
( "bug ") or an electronic key. ners. Keep at it until you always get them
right without having to stop even an instant
Difficulties Should you experience difficulty to think about it.
in increasing your code speed If you do not instantly recognize the
after you have once memorized the charac- sound of any character, you have not
ters, there is no reason to become discour- learned it; go back and practice your alpha-
aged. It is more difficult for some people to bet further. You should never have to omit
learn code than for others, but there is no writing down every signal you hear except
justification for the contention sometimes when the transmission is too fast for you.
made that "some people just can't learn the Write down what you hear, not what you
code." It is not a matter of intelligence; so think it should be. It is surprising how often
don't feel ashamed if you seem to : xperience the word which you guess will be wrong.
a little more than the usual difficulty in Copying Behind All good operators copy sev-
learning code. Your reaction time may be eral words behind, that is,
a little slower or your coordination not so
while one word is being received, they are
good. If this is the case, remember you Barr writing down or typing, say the fourth or
still learn the code. You may never learn to fifth previous word. At first this is very
send and receive at 40 w.p.m., but you difficult, but after sufficient practice it will
can learn sufficient speed for all noncom- be found actually to be easier than copying
mercial purposes (and even for most com- close up. It also results in more accurate
mercial purposes) if you have patience, and copy and enables the receiving operator to
refuse to be discouraged by the fact that capitalize and punctuate copy as he goes
others seem to pick it up more rapidly. along. It is not recommended that the be-
When the sending operator is sending just ginner attempt to do this. until he can send
a bit too fast for you (the best speed for and receive accurately and with ease at a
practice), you will occasionally miss a sig- speed of at least 12 words a minute.
nal or a small group of them. When you do, It requires a considerable amount of train-
leave a blank space; do not spend time fu- ing to disassociate the action of the subcon-
tilely trying to recall it; dismiss it, and scious mind from the direction of the con-
center attention on the next letter; other- scious mind. It may help some in obtaining
wise you'll miss more. Do not ask the sender this training to write down two columns of
any questions until the transmission is fin- short words. Spell the first word in the first
ished. column out loud while writing down the
To prevent guessing and get equal prac- first word in the second column. At first
tice on the less common letters, depart oc- this will be a bit awkward, but you will
casionally from plain language material and rapidly gain facility with practice. Do the
use a jumble of letters in which the usually same with all the words, and then reverse
less commonly used letters predominate. columns.
As mentioned before, many students put Next try speaking aloud the words in the
a greater space after the dash in the letter one column while writing those in the
B, than between other parts of the same other column; then reverse columns.
letter so it sounds like TS. C, F, Q,V, X, Y, After the foregoing can be done easily,
and Z often give similar trouble. Make a list try sending with your key the words in one
of words or arbitrary combinations in which column while spelling those in the other.
Figure 5
THE SIMPLEST CODE PRACTICE

INEXPENSIVE SOD- SET CONSISTS OF A KEY AND
OM.' POTENTIOMETER
VOLUME CONTROL A BUZZER
1.5 TO 4.5 voLTs
OF BATTERY
PHONES. The b is adjusted to give a
t TO 4
PAIR
steady, high-pitched whine. If de-
sired, the phones may be omitted,
l el/ in which case the b hould be
HEY THESE PARTS REQUIRED
ONLY IF HEADPHONE
mounted firmly on a sounding board.
OPERATION IS DESIRED Crystal, magnetic, or dynamic ear-
phones may be used. Additional
sets of phones should be ted
in parallel, not in series.
It won't be easy at first, but it is well worth try staying two words behind; keep this up
keeping after if you intend to develop any until it is easy. Then try three words, four
real code proficiency. Do not attempt to words, and five words. The more you prac-
catch up. There is a natural tendency to tice keeping received material in mind, the
close up the gap, and you must train your- easier it will be to stay behind. It will he
self to overcome this. found easier at first to copy material with
Next have your code companion send you which one is fairly familiar, then gradually
a word either from a list or from straight switch to less familiar material.
text; do not write it down yet. Now have
him send the next word; after receiving this Automatic Code The two practice sets which
second word, write down the first word. Machines are described in this chapter
After receiving the third word, write the are of most value when you
second word; and so on. Never mind how have someone with whom to practice. Auto-
slowly you must go, even if it is only two matic code machines are not recommended
or three words per minute. Stay behind. to anyone who can possibly obtain a com-
It will probably take quite a number of panion with whom to practice, someone who
practice sessions before you can do this with is also interested in learning the code. If
any facility. After it is relatively easy. then you are unable to enlist a code partner and
have to practice by yourself, the best way
to get receiving practice is by the use of
GE-2 2N406. a tape machine (automatic code -sending
2N106,oR 2N2614 machine) with several practice tapes. Or you
E C
can use a set of phonograph code -practice
records. The records are of use only if you
have a phonograph whose turntable speed is
2000 n
PHONES readily adjustable. The tape machine can
be rented by the month for a reasonable fee.
10 Once you can copy about 10 w.p.m. you
O.SW
can also get receiving practice by listening
1.BV. to slow-sending stations on your receiver.
Many amateur stations send slowly par-
Figure 6 ticularly when working far distant stations.
SIMPLE TRANSISTOR CODE When receiving conditions are particularly
PRACTICE OSCILLATOR poor many commercial stations also send
slowly, sometimes repeating every word. Un-
An inexpensive entertainment -type PNP ger-
manium transistor requires only a single 1.5- til you can copy around 10 w.p.m. your
volt flashlight battery for power. The induc- receiver isn't much use, and either another
tance of the phone windings forms part of the operator or a machine or records is neces-
oscillator circuit. The pitch of the note may be
changed by varying the value of the two ca- sary for getting receiving practice after you
pacitors across the earphones. have once memorized the code.
9V.
100 K
UIIIU --cs KEY
GE-3, 2N2148,
OR 2N2869
PM
SPEAKER
.04
Figure 8
CODE- PRACTICE OSCILLATOR SUITABLE

FOR SPEAKER OPERATION.
The key should be rugged and have

fairly heavy contacts. Not only will the
key stand up better, but such a key will
contribute to the "heavy" type of sending
so desirable for radio work. Morse (tele-
graph) operators use a "light" style of
sending and can send somewhat faster when
using this light touch. But, in radio work
static and interference are often present,
and a slightly heavier dot is desirable. If
you use a husky key, you will find yourself
Figure 7 automatically sending in this manner.
The circuit of Figure 6 Is used In this To generate a tone simulating a code
miniature transistorized code practice oscil- signal as heard on a receiver, either a me-
lator. Components are mounted in a small
plastic case. The transistor is attached to a chanical buzzer or an audio oscillator may
three terminal phenolic mounting strip. Sub- be used. Figure S shows a simple code -prac-
miniature jacks are used for the key and tice set using a buzzer which may be used
phones connections. A hearing aid earphone
may also be used, as shown. The phone Is directly simply by mounting the buzzer on
stored in the plastic case when not in use. a sounding board, or the buzzer may be
used to feed from one to four pairs of con-
ventional high -impedance phones.
An example of the audio-oscillator type
of code -practice set is illustrated in figures 6
Code Practice If you don't feel too foolish and 7. An inexpensive entertainment -type
Sets doing it, you can secure a transistor is used in place of the more ex-
measure of code practice with pensive, power- consuming vacuum tube. A
the help of a partner by sending "dit -dah" single "penlite" 11/2-volt cell powers the
messages to each other while riding to work, unit. The coils of the earphones form the
eating lunch, etc. It is better, however, to inductive portion of the resonant circuit.
use a buzzer or code -practice oscillator in 'Phones having an impedance of 2000 ohms
conjunction with a regular telegraph key. or higher should be used. Surplus type R -14
As a good key may be considered an in- earphones also work well with this circuit.
vestment it is wise t make a well -made key A code -practice oscillator that will drive
your first purchase. Regardless of what type a loudspeaker to good room volume is shown
code- practice set you use, you will need a in figure 8. Inexpensive entertainment -type
key, and later on you will need one to key transistors are used and any size permanent
your transmitter. If you get a good key to magnet speaker may be used. Mount the
begin with, you won't have to buy another speaker on a large sounding board for best
one later. volume.
CHAPTER TWO
Direct -Current Circuits
All naturally occurring matter (exclud- elliptical orbits at an incredible rate of

ing artifically produced radioactive sub- speed, are called orbital electrons.
stances) is made up of 92 fundamental con- It is on the behavior of these orbital
stituents called elements. These elements can electrons when freed from the atom, that
exist either in the free state such as iron, depends the study of electricity and radio, as
oxygen, carbon, copper, tungsten, and alu- well as allied sciences. Actually it is pos-
minum, or in chemical unions commonly sible to subdivide the nucleus of the atom
called compounds. The smallest unit which into a dozen or so different particles, but
still retains all the original characteristics of this further subdivision can be left to
an element is the atom. quantum mechanics and atomic physics. As
Combinations of atoms, or subdivisions of far as the study of electronics is concerned
compounds, result in another fundamental it is only necessary for the reader to think
unit, the molecule. The molecule is the small- of the normal atom as being composed of a
est unit of any compound. All reactive ele- nucleus having a net positive charge that is
ments when in the gaseous state also exist in exactly neutralized by the one or more
the molecular form, made up of two or orbital electrons surrounding it.
more atoms. The nonreactive gaseous ele- The atoms of different elements differ in
ments helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, respect to the charge on the positive nucleus
and radon are the only gaseous elements and in the number of electrons revolving
that ever exist in a stable monatomic state around this charge. They range all the way
at ordinary temperatures. from hydrogen, having a net charge of one
on the nucleus and one orbital electron, to
uranium with a net charge of 92 on the
2 -1 The Atom nucleus and 92 orbital electrons. The number
of orbital electrons is called the atomic
An atom is an extremely small unit of number of the element.
matter-there are literally billions of them
making up so small a piece of material as a Action of the From the foregoing it must
speck of dust. To understand the basic Electrons not be thought that the elec-
theory of electricity and hence of radio, we trons revolve in a haphazard
must go further and divide the atom into manner around the nucleus. Rather, the
its main components, a positively charged electrons in an element having a large
nucleus and a cloud of negatively charged atomic number are grouped into rings hav-
particles that surround the nucleus. These ing a definite number of electrons. The only
particles, swirling around the nucleus in atoms in which these rings are completely
HANDBOOK The Electric Current 27
filled are those of the inert gases mentioned As will be explained later, there is an ex-
before; all other elements have one or more cess of electrons at the negative terminal of
uncompleted rings of electrons. If the un- a battery and a deficiency of electrons at the
completed ring is nearly empty, the element positive terminal, due to chemical action.
ismetallic in character, being most metallic When the battery is connected to the wire,
when there is only one electron in the outer the deficient atoms at the positive terminal
ring. If the incomplete ring lacks only one attract free electrons from the wire in order
or two electrons, the element is usually non- for the positive terminal to become neutral.
metallic. Elements with a ring about half The attracting of electrons continues
completed will exhibit both nonmetallic and through the wire, and finally the excess elec-
metallic characteristics; carbon, silicon, trons at the negative terminal of the battery
germanium, and arsenic are examples. Such are attracted by the positively charged atoms
elements are called semiconductors. at the end of the wire. Other sources of
In metallic elements these outer ring elec- electrical potential (in addition to a bat-
trons are rather loosely held. Consequently, tery) are: an electrical generator (dynamo),
there is a continuous helter -skelter move- a thermocouple, an electrostatic generator
ment of these electrons and a continual (static machine), a photoelectric cell, and
shifting from one atom to another. The a crystal or piezoelectric generator.
electrons which move about in a substance
Thus it is seen that a potential dif-
are called free electrons, and it is the ability
ference is the result of a difference in the
of these electrons to drift from atom to number of electrons between the two (or
atom which makes possible the electric cur- more) points in question. The force or pres-
rent. sure due to a potential difference is termed
the electromotive force, usually abbreviated
Conductors, Semiconductors, If the free elec- e.m.f. or E.M.F. It is expressed in units
and Insulators trons are num- called volts (abbreviated E or V).
erous and loosely It should be noted that for there to be a
held, the element is a good conductor. On the potential difference between two bodies or
other hand, if there are few free electrons points it is not necessary that one have a
(as is the case when the electrons in an outer positive charge and the other a negative
ring are tightly held), the element is a poor charge. If two bodies each have a negative
conductor. If there are virtually no free charge, but one more negative than the
electrons, the element is a good insulator. other, the one with the lesser negative
Materials having few free electrons are charge will act as though it were positively
classed as semiconductors and exhibit con- charged with respect to the other body. It
ductivity approximately midway between is the algebraic potential difference that
that of good conductors and good insulators. determines the force with which electrons
are attracted or repulsed, the potential of
the earth being taken as the zero reference
2 -2 Fundamental Electrical point.
Units and Relationships
The Electric The flow of electric charges,
Electromotive Force: The free electrons in a Current either electrons, holes (see
Potential Difference conductor move con- Chapter Five) , or ions consti-
stantly about and tutes an electric current. The flow may be
change their position in a haphazard man- induced by the application of an electromo-
ner. To produce a drift of electrons, or elec- tive force. This flow, or drift, is in addi-
tric current, along a wire it is necessary that tion to the irregular movements of the elec-
there be a difference in "pressure" or poten- trons. However, it must not be thought
tial between the two ends of the wire. This that each free electron travels from one
potential difference can be produced by con- end of the circuit to the other. On the
necting a source of electrical potential to contrary, each free electron travels only a
the ends of the wire. short distance before colliding with an atom;
28 Direct -Current Circuits RADIO
this collision generally knocks off one or electrons, or else has an excess of one or
more electrons from the atom, which in more electrons.)
turn move a short distance and collide with In radio work the terms "electron flow"
other atoms, knocking off other electrons. and "current" are becoming accepted as
Thus, in the general drift of electrons along being synonymous, but the older terminology
a wire carrying an electric current, each is still accepted in the electrical (industrial)
electron travels only a short distance and field. Because of the confusion this some-
the excess of electrons at one end and the times causes, it is often safer to refer to the
deficiency at the other are balanced by the direction of electron flow rather than to the
source of the e.m.f. When this source is direction of the "current." Since electron
removed the state of normalcy returns; flow consists actually of a passage of nega-
there is still the rapid interchange of free tive charges, current flow and algebraic
electrons between atoms, but there is no electron flow do pass in the same direction.
general trend or "net movement" in either
one direction or the other -in other words,
no current flows. Resistance The flow of current in a materi-
al depends on the ease with
Ampere and There are two units of meas- which electrons can be detached from the
Coulomb urement associated with cur- atoms of the material and on its molec-
rent, and they are often con- ular structure. In other words, the easier
fused. The rate of flow of electricity is it is to detach electrons from the atoms the
stated in amperes. The unit of quantity is more free electrons there will be to contrib-
the coulomb (q) . A coulomb is equal to 6.28 ute to the flow of current, and the fewer
X 10" electrons, and when this quantity of collisions that occur between free electrons
electrons flows by a given point in every and atoms the greater will be the total
second, a current of one ampere is said to electron flow.
be flowing. An ampere (I) is equal to one The opposition to a steady electron flow
coulomb per second; a coulomb is, converse- is called the resistance (R) of a material,
ly, equal to one ampere- second. Thus we and is one of its physical properties.
see that coulomb indicates amount and The unit of resistance is the ohm. Every
ampere indicates rate of flow of electric substance has a specific resistance, usually
current. expressed as ohms per mil -foot, which is de-
For convenience, two smaller units milli- termined by the material's molecular struc-
ampere (Ywoo ampere) and microampere ture and temperature. A mil -foot is a piece
(t/i.000.000) are also used in electronic ter- of material one circular mil in area and one
minology. foot long. Another measure of resistivity
frequently used is expressed in the units
Current and Older textbooks speak of cur - microhms per centimeter cube. The resist-
Electron Flow rent flow as being from the ance of a uniform length of a given sub-
positive terminal of the e.m.f. stance is directly proportional to its length
source through the conductor to the nega- and specific resistance, and inversely pro-
tive terminal. Nevertheless, it has long been portional to its cross -sectional area. A wire
an established fact that the current flow with a certain resistance for a given length
in a metallic conductor is the electron drift will have twice as much resistance if the
from the negative terminal of the source length of the wire is doubled. For a given
of voltage through the conductor to the length, doubling the cross -sectional area of
positive terminal. The only exceptions to the wire will halve the resistance, while
the electronic direction of flow occur in doubling the diameter will reduce the re-
gaseous and electrolytic conductors where sistance to one fourth. This is true since
the flow of positive ions toward the cathode, the cross -sectional area of a wire varies as
or negative electrode, constitutes a positive the square of the diameter. The relationship
flow in the opposite direction to the elec- between the resistance and the linear dimen-
tron flow. (An ion is an atom, molecule, or sions of a conductor may be expressed by
particle which either lacks one or more the following equation:
HANDBOOK Ohm's Law 29
rl
R TABLE 1. TABLE OF RESISTIVITY
Resistivity in
where, Ohms per Temp. Coeff. of
Circular resistance per C.
R equals resistance in ohms, Material Mil -Foot at 20 C.
r equals resistivity in ohms per mil -foot,
Aluminum 17 0.0049
I equals length of conductor in feet, Brass 45 0.003 to 0.007
A equals cross -sectional area in circular Cadmium 46 0.0038
mils. Chromium 16 0.00
Copper 10.4 0.0039
For convenience, two larger units the Iron 59 0.006
kilohm (1000 ohms) and the megohm Silver 9.8 0.004
(1,000,000 ohms) are often used. Zinc 36 0.0035
Nichrome 650 0.0002
The resistance also depends on tempera- Constantin 295 0.00001
ture, rising with an increase in tempera- Manganin 290 0.00001
ture for most substances (including mosi Monet 255 0.0019
metals), due to increased electron accelera-
tion and hence a greater number of impacts
between electrons and atoms. However, in The fundamental unit of current, or rate
the case of some substances such as carbon of flow of electricity is the ampere. A cur-
and glass the temperature coefficient is nega- rent of one ampere will deposit silver from
tive and the resistance decreases as the tem- a specified solution of silver nitrate at a
perature increases. This is also true of elec- rate of 1.118 milligrams per second.
trolytes. The temperature may be raised by The international standard for the ohm is
the external application of heat, or by the the resistance offered by a uniform column
flow of the current itself. In the latter case, of mercury at 0 C., 14.4521 grams in mass,
the temperature is raised by the heat gen- of constant cross -sectional area and 106.300
erated when the electrons and atoms collide. centimeters in length. The expression meg-
ohm (1,000,000 ohms) is also sometimes
Conductors and
used when speaking of very large values of
In the molecular structure resistance.
Insulators of many materials such as A volt is the e.m.f. that will produce a
glass, porcelain, and mica all
current of one ampere through a resistance
electrons are tightly held within their orbits
of one ohm. The standard of electromotive
and there are comparatively few free elec-
force is the Weston cell which at 20 C.
trons. This type of substance will conduct
has a potential of 1.0183 volts across its
an electric current only with great difficulty
terminals. This cell is used only for reference
and is known as an insulator. An insulator
purposes in a bridge circuit, since only an
is said to have a high electrical resistance.
infinitesimal amount of current may be
On the other hand, materials that have a
large number of free electrons are known as drawn from it without disturbing its char-
conductors. Most metals (those elements acteristics.
which have only one or two electrons in Ohm's Law The relationship between the
their outer ring) are good conductors. Silver, electromotive force (voltage),
copper, and aluminum, in that order, are the flow of current (amperes), and the re-
the best of the common metals used as con- sistance which impedes the flow of current
ductors and are said to have the greatest (ohms), is very clearly expressed in a simple
conductii it', or lowest resistance to the flow but highly valuable law known as Ohm's
of an electric current.
Law. This law states that the current in am-
peres is equal to the voltage in volts divided
Fundamental These units are the t'oli, the by the resistance in ohms. Expressed as an
Electrical Unitsampere, and the ohm. They equation:
were mentioned in the pre-
ceding paragraphs, but were not completely
defined in terms of fixed, known quantities.
I =
11111111111
OMB
ffiremer. .
Figure 1
TYPICAL RESISTORS
Shown above are various types of resistors used in electronic circuits. The larger
units are power resistors. On the left is a variable power resistor. Three precision -
type resistors are shown in the center with two small composition resistors beneath
them. At the right is a composition -type potentiometer, used for audio circuitry.
If the voltage (E) and resistance (R) equations are all secured from the original
are known, the current (I) can be readily by simple transposition. The expressions are
found. If the voltage and current are here repeated for quick reference:
known, and the resistance is unknown, the
R
resistance (R) is equal to I When the
where,
1= R= I IR
voltage is the unknown quantity, it can be 1 is the current in amperes,
-
found by multiplying I X R. These three R is the resistance in ohms,
F is the electromotive force in volts.
RESISTANCE RI + RZ
MW
A
CONDUCTORS- -
Figure 3
BATTERY
SIMPLE PARALLEL
CIRCUIT
Figure 2 The two resistors R, and R, are said to be in

parallel since the flow of current is offered
SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUITS two parallel paths. An electron leaving point
A will pass either through R, or R, but not
At (A) the battery is in series with a single through both, to reach the positive terminal
resistor. At (8) the battery is in series with of the battery. if a large number of electrons
two resistors, the resistors themselves being are considered, the greater number will pass
in series. The arrows indicate the direction of through whichever of the two resistors has
electron Row. the lower resistance.
HANDBOOK Resistance 31
be a potential difference between the two

Figure 4 ends of the circuit element in question. This
SERIES- PARALLEL drop in voltage is equal to the product of
CIRCUIT the current and the resistance hence it is
B
called the IR drop.
In this type of circuit the resistors are ar- Internal
ranged in series groups, and these groups are The source of voltage has an in-
then placed In parallel. Resistance ternal resistance, and when con-
nected into a circuit so that
current flows, there will be an IR drop
Conductance Instead of speaking of the in the source just as in every other part
resistance of a circuit, the of the circuit. Thus, if the terminal voltage
conductance may be referred to as a measure of the source could be measured in a way
of the ease of current flow. Conductance is that would cause no current to flow, it
the reciprocal of resistance and is measured would be found to be more than the voltage
in mhos (ohms spelled backwards) and is measured when a current flows by the
designated by the letter G. amount of the IR drop in the source. The
The relation between resistance and con- voltage measured with no current flowing
ductance is: is termed the no load voltage; that measured
G =R,R= -G or I =EG with current flowing is the load voltage.

It is apparent that a voltage source having
a low internal resistance is most desirable.
In electronics work, a small unit of con-
ductance, which is equal to one -millionth Resistances
of a mho, frequently is used. It is called The current flowing in a series
in Series circuit is equal to the voltage
a micromho.
impressed divided by the total
Application of All electrical circuits fall into resistance across which the voltage is im-
Ohm's Low one of three classes: series pressed. Since the same current flows through
circuits, parallel circuits, and every part of the circuit, it is merely nec-
series- parallel circuits. A series circuit is essary to add all the individual resistances
one in which the current flows in a single to obtain the total resistance. Expressed as
continuous path and is of the same value at a formula:
every point in the circuit (figure 2). In a
parallel circuit there are two or more cur- R, +R, +R3 +... +R,.
RTte,=
rent paths between two points in the circuit, Of course, if the resistances happened to be
as shown in figure 3. Here the current di- all the same value, the total resistance would
vides at A, part going through R, and part be the resistance of one multiplied by the
through R_, and combines at B to return number of resistors in the circuit.
to the battery. Figure 4 shows a series -
parallel circuit. There are two paths between Resistances Consider two resistors, one of
points A and B as in the parallel circuit, and in Parallel 100 ohms and one of 10 ohms,
in addition there are two resistances in series connected in parallel as in fig-
in each branch of the parallel combination. ure 3, with a potential of 10 volts applied
Two other examples of series -parallel ar- across each resistor, so the current through
rangements appear in figure S. The way in each can be easily calculated.
which the current splits to flow through E
the parallel branches is shown by the arrows. 1 =
In every circuit, each of the parts has
E= 10 volts 10
some resistance: the batteries or generator,
R, = 100 ohms I' 100
= 0.1 ampere
the connecting conductors, and the appa-
ratus itself. Thus, if each part has some re- E = 10 volts 10
sistance, no matter how little, and a current
R_ = 10 ohms I" 10
= 1.0 ampere
is flowing through it, there will be a volt-
age drop across it. In other words, there will Total current = I, + 12 = 1.1 ampere
Until it divides at A, the entire current

A
of 1.1 amperes is flowing through the con-

ductor from the battery to A, and again
from B through the conductor to the bat-
tery. Since this is more current than flows
through the smaller resistor it is evident
that the resistance of the parallel combina-
tion must be less than 10 ohms, the re-
sistance of the smaller resistor. We can find
this value by applying Ohm's Law.
F.
RT = Figure 5
OTHER COMMON SERIES -PARALLEL

F = 10 volts
RT- 10
9.09 ohms CIRCUITS
I= 1.1 amperes 1.1
The resistance of the parallel combination The effective value of placing any num-
is 9.09 ohms. ber of unlike resistors in parallel can be
Mathematically, we can derive a simple determined from the above formula. How-
formula for finding the effective resistance ever, it is commonly used only when there
of two resistors connected in parallel. are three or more resistors under considera-
tion, since the simplified formula given
RT = R,XR,
R, -h R,
before is more convenient when only two
resistors are being used.
where, From the above, it also follows that when
RT is the unknown resistance, two or more resistors of the same value are
R, is the resistance of the first resistor, placed in parallel, the effective resistance of
R_ is the resistance of the second resistor. the paralleled resistors is equal to the value
of one of the resistors divided by the num-
If the effective value required is known, ber of resistors in parallel.
and it is desired to connect one unknown The effective value of resistance of two
resistor in parallel with one of known value, or more resistors connected in parallel is
the following transposition of the above always less than the value of the lowest re-
formula will simplify the problem of ob- sistance in the combination. It is well to
taining the unknown value: bear this simple rule in mind, as it will assist
R_ - R, X RT
R, -RT
greatly in approximating the value of paral-
leled resistors.
where, Resistors in To find the total resistance of

RT is the effective value required, Series- Parallel several resistors connected in
R, isthe known resistor, series -parallel, it is usually
R_ is the value of the unknown resistance easiest to apply either the formula for series
necessary to give RT when in parallel resistors or the parallel resistor formula first,
with R,. in order to reduce the original arrangement
to a simpler one. For instance, in figure 4
The resultant value of placing a number the series resistors should be added in each
of unlike resistors in parallel is equal to the branch, then there will be but two resistors
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of in parallel to be calculated. Similarly in
the various resistors. This can be expressed figure 6, although here there will be three
as: parallel resistors after adding the series re-
sistors in each branch. In figure 6B the par-
RT =
1
alleled resistors should be reduced to the
equivalent series value, and then the series
resistance value can be added.
HANDBOOK Voltage Dividers 33
The equation (E = 1 X R) gives the

proof: E = 500 X 0.1 = 50. At the point
R5
/R3
RB
of 250 ohms on the resistor, the voltage
Rz R Ri
will be one -fourth the total value, or 25
volts (E = 250 X 0.1 = 25). Continuing
Figure 6 with this process, a point can be found
ANOTHER TYPE OF
where the resistance measures exactly 1 ohm
SERIES- PARALLEL CIRCUIT
and where the voltage equals 0.1 volt. It
is, therefore, obvious that if the original
source of voltage and the resistance can be
Resistances in series -parallel can be solved
measured, it is a simple matter to predeter-
by combining the series and parallel formu-
mine the voltage at any point along the
las into one similar to the following (refer
resistor, provided that the current remains
to figure 6) :
constant, and provided that no current is
1 taken from the tap-on point unless this
RT = 1 1 1
current is taken into consideration.
R,+R_ R:, + R, R5 +R6 +R; Voltage- Divider Proper design of a voltage
Voltage Dividers A voltage divider is Calculations divider for any type of radio
exactly
what its name implies: a equipment is a relatively
resistor or a series of resistors connected simple matter. The first consideration is the
across a source of voltage from which amount of "bleeder current" to be drawn.
various lesser values of voltage may be ob- In addition, it is also necessary that the de-
tained by connection to various points along sired voltage and the exact current at each
the resistor. tap on the voltage divider be known.
A voltage divider serves a most useful Figure 7 illustrates the flow of current
purpose in a radio receiver, transmitter or in a simple voltage- divider and load circuit.
amplifier, because it offers a simple means of The light arrows indicate the flow of bleeder
obtaining plate, screen, and bias voltages of current, while the heavy arrows indicate the
different values from a common power sup- flow of the load current. The design of a
ply source. It may also be used to obtain combined bleeder resistor and voltage divid-
very low voltages of the order of .01 to .001 er, such as is commonly used in radio equip-
volt with a high degree of accuracy, even ment, is illustrated in the following example:
though a means of measuring such voltages A power supply delivers 300 volts and
is lacking. The procedure for making these is conservatively rated to supply all needed
measurements can best be given in the fol- current for the receiver and still allow a
lowing example. bleeder current of 10 milliamperes. The fol-
Assume that an accurately calibrated volt- lowing voltages are wanted: 75 volts at 2
meter reading from 0 to 150 volts is avail- milliamperes for the detector tube, 100
able, and that the source of voltage is
exactly 100 volts. This 100 volts is then
impressed through a resistance of exactly
1000 ohms. It will then be found that the
BLEEDER CURRENT
voltage along various points on the resistor, FLOWS BETWEEN
POINTS A AND B
with respect to the grounded end, is exactly
proportional to the resistance at that point.
From Ohm's Law, the current would be 0.1
ampere; this current remains unchanged
Figure 7
since the original value of resistance (1000
ohms) and the voltage source (100 volts) SIMPLE VOLTAGE- DIVIDER
are unchanged. Thus, at a 500 -ohm point CIRCUIT
on the resistor (half its entire resistance),
the voltage will likewise be halved or re- The arrows indicate the manner in which the
current flow divides between the voltage
duced to 50 volts. divider itself and the external load circuit.
10+2+5+20
50 VOLTS DROP
M t R.
0 20MA
ample, the voltages will remain constant at
the values shown as long as the current
remains a constant value.
+2 +5 MA
10
150 VOLTS DROP Disadvantages of One of the serious disad-
300 VOLTS Voltage Dividers vantages of the voltage
10+ 2 MA. divider becomes evident
25 VOLTS DROP
when the current drawn from one of the
BLEEDER CVRRENT.10 MA.
taps changes. It is obvious that the voltage
75 VOLTS DROP
drops are interdependent and, in turn, the
individual drops are in proportion to the
i
.+.
current which flows through the respective
-POWER SUPPLY- LOAD
sections of the divider resistor. The only
Figure 8 remedy lies in providing a heavy steady
bleeder current in order to make the indi-
MORE COMPLEX VOLTAGE DIVIDER vidual currents so small a part of the total
The method for computing the values of the current that any change in current will
resistors is di d in the accompanying text. result in only a slight change in voltage.
This can seldom be realized in practice be-
cause of the excessive values of bleeder cur-
volts at 5 milliamperes for the screens of rent which would be required.
the tubes, and 250 volts at 20 milliamperes
for the plates of the tubes. The required Kirchhoff's Laws Ohm's Law is all that is
voltage drop across R, is 75 volts, across necessary to calculate the
R_ 25 volts, across R:, 150 volts, and across values in simple circuits, such as the pre-
R, it is 50 volts. These values are shown in ceding examples; but in more complex prob-
the diagram of figure 8. The respective cur- lems, involving several loops, or more than
rent values are also indicated. Apply Ohm's one voltage in the same closed circuit, the
I.aw: use of Kirchhoff's laws will greatly simplify
the calculations. These laws are merely rules
R, = T=
E 75
.01
= 7500 ohms for applying Ohm's Law.
Kirchhoff's first law is concerned with net
E 25
current to a point in a circuit and states
R2 -= - 1 .012
= 2083 ohms that:
At any point in a circuit the current
150
R,- E
1 -_ .017
= 8823 ohms flowing toward the point is equal to
the current flowing away from the
E 50 point.
R'- -_ .037
= 1351 ohms
1 Stated in another way: if currents flowing to
the point are considered positive, and those
RTD,Bi = 7500 + 2083 + 8823 + flowing from the point are considered nega-
1351 = 19,757 ohms
A 20,000 -ohm resistor with three sliding
taps will be the approximately correct -
and away from the point
into account
-
tive, the sum of all currents flowing toward
taking signs
is equal to zero. Such a sum
size, and would ordinarily be used because is known as an algebraic suer; such that the
of the difficulty in securing four separate law can be stated thus: The algebraic sum
resistors of the exact odd values indicated, of all currents entering and leaving a point
and because no adjustment would be possible is zero.
to compensate for any slight error in esti- Figure 9 illustrates this first law. If
mating the probable currents through the the effective resistance of the network of
various taps. resistors is 5 ohms, it can be seen that 4
When the sliders on the resistor once are amperes flow toward point A, and 2 amperes
set to the proper point, as in the above ex- flow away through the two 5 -ohm resistors
HANDBOOK Kirchhoff's Laws 35
- AMPS
drops around each loop to zero. You will
- R1
need one equation for each unknown to be
-2 AMPS
determined. Then solve the equations for the
A
R2
SA,
unknown currents in the general manner
AMPS. indicated in figure 10. If the answer comes
- + out positive the direction of current flow
2O vnLTS
you originally assumed was correct. If the
answer comes out negative, the current flow
Figure 9
is in the opposite direction to the arrow
ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S which was drawn originally. This is illus-
FIRST LAW trated in the example of figure 10, where
The current flowing toward point "A" is equal the direction of ,flow of I, is opposite to the
to the current flowing away from point "A." direction assumed in the sketch.
Power in In order to cause electrons

in series. The remaining 2 amperes flow
away through the 10 -ohm resistor. Thus, Resistive Circuits to flow through a conduc-
there are 4 amperes flowing to point A tor, constituting a current
and 4 amperes flowing away from the flow, it is necessary to apply an electromotive
point. If RT is the effective resistance of force (voltage) across the circuit. Less pow-
the network (5 ohms) , R1 10 ohms, R. = er is expended in creating a small current
= f ohms, Ra =
5 ohms, and E 20 volts, = flow through a given resistance than in
we can set up the following equation: creating a large one; so it is necessary to
have a unit of power as a reference.
RT
E E
R, R_
E
+ R:,
- 0
20 20 20
S 10 S + S
OHMS
4 -2 -2 =0 2 OHMS
Kirchhoff's second law is concerned with I1

-SVOLTS
+ \ l2 j-- ]vOLTS
-
net voltage drop around a closed loop in a
circuit and states that: SET VOLTAGE DROPS AROUND EACH LOOP EQUAL TO ZERO
-12) +3i O (FIRST LOOP)

112(OHMS) +2 (11
In any closed path or loop in a circuit
the sum of the IR drops must equal -6+2 (12- 11)+312= 0 (SECOND LooP)
the sum of the applied e.m.f.'s. 2. SIMPLIFY
211+211-212+3=0 21z-2I1+31z-6=0
The second law also may be conveniently 411+3
[z
512-2I1-6=0
2 211+6
stated in terms of an algebraic sum as: The 5
Iz
algebraic sum of all voltage drops around a 3 EQUATE
closed path or loop in a circuit is zero. The 4I, +3 21,+6
applied e.m.f.'s (voltages) are considered 2 - 5
positive, while IR drops taken in the direc- 4. SIMPLIFY

tion of current flow (including the internal 201x+15= 411+12
drop of the sources of voltage) are consid- 1,-4 AMPERE
ered negative.
Figure 10 shows an example of the appli-
cation of Kirchhoff's laws to a comparative-
5.
12=
2-
RE- SUBSTITUTE
+ 3
-
2*
2
- 1
ly simple circuit consisting of three resistors Figure 10

and two batteries. First assume an arbitrary
direction of current flow in each closed loop ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S
of the circuit, drawing an arrow to indicate SECOND LAW
the assumed direction of current flow. Then The voltage drop around any closed loop in a
equate the sum of all IR drops plus battery network is equal to zero.
ance (R = 3331/3 ohms), and current being

the known factors, the solution is obtained
1 as follows: P = I2R = .0225 X 333.33 =
7.5. If only the voltage and resistance are
Figure 11
known, P = E2 /R = 2500/333.33 = 7.5
watts. It is seen that all three equations give
MATCHING OF the same results; the selection of the particu-
RESISTANCES lar equation depends only on the known
factors.
To deliver the greatest amount of power to
the load, the load resistance R, should be
equal to the internal resistance of the Power, Energy It is important to remember
battery R,. and Work that power (expressed in
watts, horsepower, etc.) , rep-
resents the rate of energy consumption or
The unit of electrical power is the watt, the rate of doing work. But when we pay
which is the rate of energy consumption
when an e.m.f. of 1 volt forces a current
our electric bill to the power company we
have purchased a specific amount of energy
of 1 ampere through a circuit. The power or work expressed in the common units of
in a resistive circuit is equal to the product
kilowatt- hours. Thus rate of energy con-
of the voltage applied across, and the cur-
sumption (watts or kilowatts) multiplied
rent flowing in, a given circuit. Hence: P by time (seconds, minutes, or hours) gives
(watts) = E (volts) X I (amperes). us total energy or work. Other units of
Since it is often convenient to express
energy are the watt -second, BTU, calorie,
power in terms of the resistance of the cir- erg, and joule.
cuit and the current flowing through it,
a substitution of IR for E (E = IR) in the Heating Effect Heat is generated when a
above formula gives: P = IR X I or P = source of voltage causes a
12R. In terms of voltage and resistance, P current to flow through a resistor (or, for
= E2/R. Here, I = E/R and when this is that matter, through any conductor) . As
substituted for I the original formula be- explained earlier, this is due to the fact
comes P = E X E /R, or P = E2 /R. To that heat is given off when free electrons
repeat these three expressions: collide with the atoms of the material. More
P = EI, P = 12R, and P = E2 /R heat is generated in high -resistance materials
than in those of low resistance, since the
where, free electrons must strike the atoms harder
P is the power in watts, to knock off other electrons. As the heating
E is the electromotive force in volts, and effect is a function of the current flowing
I is the current in amperes. and the resistance of the circuit, the power
expended in heat is given by the second
To apply the above equations to a typical formula: P = PR.
problem: The voltage drop across a cathode
resistor in a power amplifier stage is 50 2 -3 Electrostatics and
volts; the plate current flowing through the
resistor is 150 milliamperes. The number of
Capacitors
watts the resistor will be required to dissi- Electrical energy can be stored in an elec-
pate is found from the formula: P = EI, or trostatic field. A device capable of storing
50 X .150 = 7.5 watts (.150 ampere is energy in such a field is called a capacitor
equal to 150 milliamperes). From the fore- (in earlier usage the term condenser was
going it is seen that a 7.5 -watt resistor will frequently used but the IEEE standards call
safely carry the required current, yet a 10- for the use of capacitor instead of conden-
or 20 -watt resistor would ordinarily be used ser) and is said to have a certain capacitance.
to provide a safety factor. The energy stored in an electrostatic field
In another problem, the conditions being is expressed in joules (watt- seconds) and is
similar to those above, but with the resist- equal to CE2 /2, where C is the capacitance
HANDBOOK Capacitance and Capacitors 37
is always a tendency for the electrons to

move about in such a manner as to re- estab-
lish a state of balance. In the case of the
capacitor herein discussed, the surplus quan-
tity of electrons on one of the capacitor
plates cannot move to the other plate be-
cause the circuit has been broken; that is,
the battery or d -c potential was removed.
This leaves the capacitor in a charged con-
dition; the capacitor plate with the electron
deficiency is positively charged, the other
O It plate being negative.
In this condition, a considerable stress
exists in the insulating material (dielectric)
which separates the two capacitor plates,
due to the mutual attraction of two unlike
potentials on the plates. This stress is known
known as electrostatic energy, as contrasted
Figure 12
with electromagnetic energy in the case of
an inductor. This charge can also be called
TYPICAL CAPACITORS potential energy because it is capable of per-
forming work when the charge is released
The two large units are high value filter ca-
pacitors. Shown beneath these are various through an external circuit. The charge is
types of by -pass capacitors for r -f and audio proportional to the voltage but the energy
application. is proportional to the voltage squared, as
shown in the following analogy.
in farads (a unit of capacitance to be dis- The charge represents a definite amount of
cussed) and E is the potential in volts. The electricity, or a given number of electrons.
charge is equal to CE, the charge being ex- The potential energy possessed by these elec-
pressed in coulombs. trons depends not only on their number, but
also on their potential or voltage.
Capacitance and Two metallic plates sep- Compare the electrons to water, and two
Capacitors arated from each other by capacitors to standpipes, a 1 -td capacitor to
a thin layer of insulating a standpipe having a cross section of I
material (called a dielectric, in this case) square inch and a 2-pfd capacitor to a
becomes a capacitor. When a source of d -c
potential is momentarily applied across these
plates, they may be said to become charged. CLCCTROSTATIC
If the same two plates are then joined to- FIELO
SURVLUs
SHORTAGE
gether momentarily by means of a switch, OF ELECTRONS OF ELECTRONS
the capacitor will discharge.

When the potential was first applied,
electrons immediately flowed from one plate
to the other through the battery or such
source of d -c potential as was applied to
the capacitor plates. However, the circuit CHARGING CURRENT
from plate to plate in the capacitor was
incomplete (the two plates being separated Figure 13
by an insulator) and thus the electron flow
ceased, meanwhile establishing a shortage of SIMPLE CAPACITOR
electrons on one plate and a surplus of elec- Illustrating the imaginary lines of force repre-
trons on the other. senting the paths along which the repelling
force of the electrons would act on a free
Remember that when a deficiency of elec- electron located between the two capacitor
trons exists at one end of a conductor, there plates.
standpipe having a cross section of 2 square This latter phenomenon explains the dis-
inches. The charge will represent a given charge of a capacitor. The amount of stored
volume of water, as the "charge" simply energy in a charged capacitor is dependent
indicates a certain number of electrons. Sup- on the charging potential, as well as a factor
pose the quantity of water is equal to 5 which takes into account the size of the
gallons. plates, dielectric thickness, nature of the di-
Now the potential energy, or capacity for electric, and the number of plates. This
doing work, of the 5 gallons of water will be factor, which is determined by the fore-
twice as great when confined to the 1 sq. in. going, is called the capacitance of a capaci-
standpipe as when confined to the 2 sq. in. tor and is expressed in farads.
standpipe. Yet the volume of water or The farad is such a large unit of capaci-
"charge" is the same in either case. tance that it is rarely used in radio calcula-
Likewise a 1 -p.fd capacitor charged to tions, and the following more practical units
1000 volts possesses twice as much potential have, therefore, been chosen.
energy as does a 2-pfd capacitor charged to 1 nricrofarad = 1 /1,000,000 farad, or
500 volts, though the charge (expressed in .000001 farad, or 10 -" farad.
coulombs: Q = CE) is the same in either
case. 1 micromicrofarad or picofarad =
1/1,000,000 nricrofarad, or .000001
The Unit of Capac- If the external circuit of nricrofarad, or 10 -" microfarad.
itance: The Farad the two capacitor plates micronticrofarad or picofarad = one -
1
is completed by joining millionth of one- millionth of a farad, or
the terminals together with a piece of wire, 10 -'2 farad.
the electrons will rush immediately from
one plate to the other through the external If the capacitance is to be expressed in
circuit and establish a state of equilibrium. microfarads in the equation given for ener-
gy storage, the factor C would then have to
be divided by 1,000,000, thus:
TABLE. 2. TABLE OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
C X E2
Dielectric Power Softening Stored energy in joules = 2 X 1,000,000
Material Constant Factor Point
10 MHz 10 MHz Fahrenheit
Aniline-Formaldehyde This storage of energy in a capacitor is
Resin 3.4 0.004 260 one of its very important properties, par-
Barium Titianate 1200 1.0 - ticularly in those capacitors which are used
Castor Oil 4.67
Cellulose Acetate 3.7 0.04 180 in power- supply filter circuits.
Glass, Window 6 -8 Poor 2000
Glass, Pyrex 4.5 0.02 Dielectric Although any substance which has
Kel -F Fluorothene 2.5 0.6 - Materials the characteristics of a good in-
Methyl-Methacry late -
Lucite 2.6 0.007 160 sulator may be used as a dielectric
Mica 5.4 0.0003 material, commercially manufactured ca-
Mycalex Mykroy 7.0 0.002 650
Phenol -Formaldehyde,
pacitors make use of dielectric materials
Low-Loss Yellow 5.0 0.015 270 which have been selected because their char-
Phenol- Formaldehyde
Black Bakelite 5.5 0.03 350
acteristics are particularly suited to the job
Porcelain 7.0 0.005 2800 at hand. Air is a very good dielectric ma-
Polyethylene 2.25 0.0003 220 terial, but an air -spaced capacitor does not
Polystyrene 2.55 0.0002 175 have a high capacitance since the dielectric
Quartz, Fused 4.2 0.0002 2600
Rubber Hard -Ebonite 2.8 0.007 150
constant of air is only slightly greater than
Steatite 6.1 0.003 2700 one. A group of other commonly used di-
Sulfur 3.8 0.003 236 electric materials is listed in Table 2.
Teflon 2.1 .0006 - Certain materials, such as bakelite, lucite,
Titanium Dioxide 100-175 0.0006 2700
Transformer Oil 2.2 0.003
and other plastics dissipate considerable
Urea -Formaldehyde 5.0 0.05 260 energy when used as capacitor dielectrics.
Vinyl Resins 4.0 0.02 200 This energy loss is expressed in terms of the
Wood, Maple 4.4 Poor power factor of the capacitor, which repre-
sents the portion of the input volt -amperes CIRCULAR PLATE CAPACITORS
lost in the dielectric material. Other ma- t.
NW1 CAPACITANCE roe A GIVEN SPACING
terials including air, polystyrene and quartz
have a very low power factor. MM
The new ceramic dielectrics such as stea-
tite (talc) and titanium dioxide products
are especially suited for high- frequency and itiO
high- temperature operation. Ceramics based WM*.
on titanium dioxide have an unusually high
dielectric constant combined with a low
power factor. The temperature coefficient
with respect to capacitance of units made
",.MEN!
WMMII
with this material depends on the mixture
of oxides, and coefficients ranging from
zero to over -700 parts per million per
milMii
23
ii 6 6 6 6 6 6 tG 14
degree Centigrade may be obtained in com- CAPACITANCE IN PICOFARADS
mercial production. Figure 14

Mycalex is a composition of minute mica Through the use of this chart it is possible to
particles and lead- borate glass, mixed and determine the required plate diameter (with
fired at a relatively low temperature. It is the necessary spacing established by peak
voltage considerations for a circular -plate
hard and brittle, but can be drilled or ma- neutralizing capacitor. The capacitance given
chined when water is used as the cutting is for a dielectric of air and the spacing given
is between adjacent faces of the two plates.
lubricant.
Mica dielectric capacitors have a very low
power factor and extremely high voltage
breakdown per unit of thickness. A mica
and copperfoil "sandwich" is formed under cause ionization of the air dielectric causing
pressure to obtain the desired capacity value. an increase in power loss. Dielectric strength
The effect of temperature on the pressures may be increased by increasing the air pres-
in the "sandwich" causes the capacitance of sure, as is done in hermetically sealed radar
the usual mica capacitor to have large, non - units. In some units, dry nitrogen gas may
cyclic variations. If the copper electrodes be used in place of air to provide a higher
are plated directly on the mica sheets, the dielectric strength than that of air.
temperature coefficient can be stabilized at Likewise, the dielectric strength of an
about 20 parts per million per degree Centi- "air capacitor may be increased by placing
grade. A process of this type is used in the the unit in a vacuum chamber to prevent
manufacture of "silver mica" capacitors. ionization of the dielectric.
Paper dielectric capacitors consist of strips The temperature coefficient of a variable
of aluminum foil insulated from each other air -dielectric capacitor varies widely and is
by a thin layer of paper, the whole assembly often noncyclic. Such things as differential
being wrapped in a circular bundle. The expansion of various parts of the capacitor,
cost of such a capacitor is low, the capaci- changes in internal stresses, and different
tance is high in proportion to the size and temperature coefficients of various parts con-
weight, and the power factor is good. The tribute to these variances.
life of such a capacitor is dependent on the
moisture penetration of the paper dielectric, Dielectric The capacitance of a capacitor is
and on the level of the applied d -c voltage. Constant determined by the thickness and
Air- dielectric capacitors are used in trans- nature of the dielectric material
mitting and receiving circuits, principally between plates. Certain materials offer a
where a variable capacitor of high resetabil- greater capacitance than others, depending
ity is required. The dielectric strength is on their physical makeup and chemical con-
high, though somewhat less at radio fre- stitution. This property is expressed by a
quencies than at 60 Hz. In addition, constant K, called the dielectric constant.
corona discharge at high frequencies will (K = 1 for air.)
of the plates remains constant, and the

plate spacing is doubled the capacitance will
be reduced to half.
The above equation also shows that ca-
TCZ pacitance is directly proportional to the di-
PARALLEL CAPACITORS SERIES CAPACITORS electric constant of the spacing material.
An air -spaced capacitor that has a capaci-
i 1CI 1C3
tance of 100 pf in air would have a ca-
pacitance of 467 pf when immersed in castor
oil, because the dielectric constant of castor
oil is 4.67 times as great as the dielectric
z TC4 constant of air.
T T Where the area of the plate is definitely
CAPACITORS IN SERIES -PARALLEL set, when it is desired to know the spacing
needed to secure a required capacitance,
Figure 15
CAPACITORS IN SERIES, PARALLEL, t= AX0.2248XK

AND SERIES -PARALLEL C
where all units are expressed just as in the
Dielectric
preceding formula. This formula is not con-
If the charge becomes too great fined to capacitors having only square or
Breakdown for a given thickness of a cer- rectangular plates, but also applies when the
tain dielectric, the capacitor will plates are circular in shape. The only change
break down, i.e., the dielectric will puncture. will be the calculation of the area of such
It is for this reason that capacitors are circular plates; this area can be computed
rated in the manner of the amount of by squaring the radius of the plate, then
voltage they will safely withstand as well multiplying by 3.1416, or "pi." Expressed
as the capacitance in microfarads. This rat-
as an equation:
ing is commonly expressed as the d -c work-
ing voltage (DCWV). A = 3.1416 X r'
Calculation of The capacitance of two par - where,
Capacitance allel plates may be determined r equals radius in inches.
with good accuracy by the
following formula: The capacitance of a multiplate capacitor
can be calculated by taking the capacitance
of one section and multiplying this by the
A
C = 0.2248 X K X
t
number of dielectric spaces. In such cases,
however, the formula gives no consideration
where, to the effects of edge capacitance; so the
capacitance as calculated will not be en-
C equals capacitance in picofarads,
tirely accurate. These additional capacitances
K equals dielectric constant of spacing will be but a small part of the effective total
material, capacitance, particularly when the plates
A equals area of dielectric in square inches,
are reasonably large and thin, and the final
t equals thickness of dielectric in inches. result will, therefore, be within practical
limits of accuracy.
This formula indicates that the capaci-
tance is directly proportional to the area of
the plates and inversely proportional to the Capacitors in Equations for calculating ca-
thickness of the dielectric (spacing between Parallel and pacitances of capacitors in par-
the plates). This simply means that when in Series allel connections are the same
the area of the plate is doubled, the spacing as those for resistors in series.
between plates remaining constant, the ca-
pacitance will be doubled. Also, if the area CT-C,+C.:+...+C
Capacitors in series connection are cal- tor. This leakage current is usually quite
culated in the same manner as are resistors noticeable in most types of electrolytic ca-
in parallel connection. pacitors.
The formulas are repeated: (1) For two When an alternating current is applied to
or more capacitors of unequal capacitance a capacitor, the capacitor will charge and
in series: discharge a certain number of times per
second in accordance with the frequency of
CT - 1
+
1
1 1
the alternating voltage. The electron flow
in the charge and discharge of a capacitor
C2 C, when an a -c potential is applied constitutes
an alternating current, in effect. It is for
1 1
or,
1 1
this reason that a capacitor will pass an
CT G+ C_ + Ca alternating current yet offer practically in-
(2) Two capacitors of unequal capacitance finite opposition to a direct current. These
in series: two properties are repeatedly in evidence in
a radio circuit.
C, X C_
CT Voltage Rating
+ Any good paper -dielectric
of Capacitors filter capacitor has such a
(3) Three capacitors of equal capacitance in Series high internal resistance (in-
in series: dicating a good dielectric)
that the exact resistance will vary consider-
CT = 31
ably from capacitor to capacitor even though
they are made by the same manufacturer
where, and are of the same rating. Thus, when
1000 volts d. c. are connected across two 1-
C, is the common capacitance. cfd 500 -volt capacitors in series, the
(4) Three or more capacitors of equal ca- chances are that the voltage will divide un-
pacitance in series. evenly; one capacitor will receive more than
500 volts and the other less than 500 volts.
Value of common capacitance
CT = Number of capacitors in series Voltage Equalizing By connecting a half -
Resistors megohm 1 -watt carbon
(5) Six capacitors in series -parallel:
resistor across each ca-
pacitor, the voltage will be equalized be-
C, = 1 + 1 + 1
cause the resistors act as a voltage divider,
and the internal resistances of the capacitors
C, + C_ C3 + C, C:. + C,
are so much higher (many megohms) that
they have but little effect in disturbing the
Capacitors in A -C When a capacitor is con- voltage divider balance.
and D -C Circuits
nected into a direct -cur- Carbon resistors of the inexpensive type
rent circuit, it will block are not particularly accurate (not being de-
the d.c., or stop the flow of current. Beyond signed for precision service) ; therefore it is
the initial movement of electrons during the advisable to check several on an accurate
period when the capacitor is being charged, ohmmeter to find two that are as close as
there will be no flow of current because the possible in resistance. The exact resistance
circuit is effectively broken by the dielectric is unimportant, just so it is the same for
of the capacitor. the two resistors used.
Strictly speaking, a very small current
may actually flow because the dielectric of
the capacitor may not be a perfect insulator. Capacitors in When two capacitors are con -
This minute current flow is the leakage cur- Series on A.C. nected in series, alternating
rent previously referred to and is dependent voltage pays no heed to the
on the internal d -c resistance of the capaci- relatively high internal resistance of each
o the negative terminal of the capacitor con-

nects to the positive terminal of the next
EQUAL EQUAL capacitor in the series combination. The
CAPACITANCE RESISTANCE
method of connection for electrolytic ca-
pacitors in series is shown in figure 16. Elec-
o trolytic capacitors have very low cost per
microfarad of capacitance, but also have a
large power factor and high leakage; both
SHOWING THE USE OFVOLTAGE EQUAL- dependent on applied voltage, temperature,
IZING RESISTORS ACROSS CAPACITORS and the age of the capacitor. The modern
CONNECTED IN SERIES electrolytic capacitor uses a dry paste elec-
trolyte embedded in a gauze or paper dielec-
tric. Aluminum foil and the dielectric are
capacitor, but divides across the capacitors wrapped in a circular bundle and are
in inverse proportion to the capacitance. Be- mounted in a cardboard or metal box.
cause, in addition to the d -c voltage across Etched electrodes may be employed to in-
a capacitor in a filter or audio amplifier cir- crease the effective anode area, and the total
cuit there is usually an a -c or a -f voltage capacitance of the unit.
component, it is inadvisable to series- connect The capacitance of an electrolytic ca-
capacitors of unequal capacitance even if pacitor is affected by the applied voltage,
dividers are provided to keep the d -c volt- the usage of the capacitor, the temperature
ages within the ratings of the individual and the humidity of the environment. The
capacitors. capacitance usually drops with the aging
For instance, if a 500 -volt 1-pfd capaci- of the unit. The leakage current and power
tor is used in series with a 4 -4d 500 - factor increase with age. At high frequen-
volt capacitor across a 250 -volt a -c supply, cies the power factor becomes so poor that
the 1 -pfd capacitor will have 200 a -c volts the electrolytic capacitor acts as a series
across it and the 4-pfd capacitor only 50 resistance rather than as a capacitance.
volts. An equalizing divider, to do any good
in this case, would have to be of very low 2 -4 Magnetism
resistance because of the comparatively low
impedance of the capacitors to alternating and Electromagnetism
current. Such a divider would draw ex-
cessive current and be impracticable. The common bar or horseshoe magnet is
The safest rule to follow is to use only familiar to most people. The magnetic field
capacitors of the same capacitance and volt- which surrounds it causes the magnet to at-
age rating and to install matched high - tract other magnetic materials, such as iron
resistance proportioning resistors across the nails or tacks. Exactly the same kind of
various capacitors to equalize the d -c volt- magnetic field is set up around any conduc-
age drop across each capacitor. This holds
tor carrying a current, but the field exists
regardless of how many capacitors are series - only while the current is flowing.
connected. Magnetic Fields Before a potential, or volt-
age, is applied to a conduc-
ElectrolyticElectrolytic capacitors use a very tor there is no external field, because there
Capacitors thin film of oxide as the dielec- is no general movement of the electrons in
tric, and are polarized; that is, one direction. However, the electrons do
they have a positive and a negative terminal progressively move along the conductor
which must be properly connected in a cir- when an e.m.f. is applied, the direction of
cuit; otherwise, the oxide will break down motion depending on the polarity of the
and the capacitor will overheat. The unit e.m.f. Since each electron has an electric
then will no longer be of service. When elec- field about it, the flow of electrons causes
trolytic capacitors are connected in series, these fields to build up into a resultant
the positive terminal is always connected external field which acts in a plane at right
to the positive lead of the power supply; angles to the direction in which the cur-
HANDBOOK Magnetism 43
rent is flowing. This field is known as the through the coil which is concentrated
magnetic field. along the axis of the coil and behaves ex-
The magnetic field around a current -car- ternally in a way similar to the field of a
rying conductor is illustrated in figure 17. bar magnet.
The direction of this magnetic field depends If the left hand is held so that the thumb
entirely on the direction of electron drift or is outstretched and parallel to the axis of a
current flow in the conductor. When the coil, with the fingers curled to indicate the
flow is toward the observer, the field about direction of electron flow around the turns
the conductor is clockwise; when the flow of the coil, the thumb then points in the
is away from the observer, the field is direction of the north pole of the magnetic
counterclockwise. This is easily remembered field:
if the left hand is clenched, with the thumb
outstretched and pointing in the direction The Magnetic In the magnetic circuit, the
of electron flow. The fingers then indicate Circuit units which correspond to
the direction of the magnetic field around current, voltage, and resist-
the conductor. ance in the electrical circuit are flux, mag-
Each electron adds its field to the total netomotive force, and reluctance.
external magnetic field, so that the greater Flux; Flux As a current is made up of a drift
the number of electrons moving along the
Density of electrons, so is a magnetic
conductor, the stronger will be the resulting
field. field made up of lines of force,
One of the fundamental laws of magnet- and the total number of lines of force in a
ism is that like poles repel one another and given magnetic circuit is termed the flux.
unlike poles attract one another. This is The flux depends on the material, cross sec-
true of current- carrying conductors as well tion, and length of the magnetic circuit,
as of permanent magnets. Thus, if two and it varies directly as the current flowing
conductors are placed side by side and the in the circuit. The unit of flux is the max-
current in each is flowing in the same di- well, and the symbol is the Greek letter
rection, the magnetic fields will also be in (phi).
the same direction and will combine to form Flux density is the number of lines of
a larger and stronger field. If the current
force per unit area. It is expressed in gauss
flow in adjacent conductors is in opposite if the unit of area is the square centimeter
directions, the magnetic fields oppose each (1 gauss = 1 line of force per square cen-
other and tend to cancel. timeter), or in lines per square inch. The
The magnetic field around a conductor symbol for flux density is B if it is expressed
may be considerably increased in strength in gauss, or B if expressed in lines per sq. in.
by winding the wire into a coil. The field Mognetomotive The force which produces a
around each wire then combines with those Force flux in a magnetic circuit
of the adjacent turns to form a total field is called magneto mot ive
force. It is abbreviated m.m.f. and is desig-
nated by the letter F. The unit of magneto -
motive force is the gilbert, which is equiva-
lent to 1.26 X NI, where N is the number
of turns and I is the current flowing in the
ELECTRON DRIFT
circuit in amperes.
"--swITCN The m.m.f. necessary to produce a given
flux density is stated in gilberts per centi-
meter (oersteds) (H), or in ampere -turns
Figure 17 per inch (H).
LEFT -HAND RULE Reluctance Magnetic reluctance corresponds
Showing the direction of the magnetic lines of
to electrical resistance, and is
force produced around a conductor carrying the property of a material that opposes the
nn electric current. creation of a magnetic flux in the material.
It is expressed in refs, and the symbol is the These relations may also be stated as follows:
letter R. A material has a reluctance of 1 ref
when an m.m.f. of 1 ampere -turn (NI) gen-
erates a flux of 1 line of force in it. Com-
H= BorH =BandB =HorB =H
IA
binations of reluctances are treated the
same as resistances in finding the total ef-
It can be seen from the foregoing that
permeability is inversely proportional to the
fective reluctance. The specific reluctance of
specific reluctance of a material.
any substance is its reluctance per unit vol-
ume.
Saturation Permeability is similar to electric
Except for iron and its alloys, most com-
mon materials have a specific reluctance conductivity. This is, however,
very nearly the same as that of a vacuum, one important difference: the permeability
which, for all practical purposes, may be of magnetic materials is not independent of
the magnetic current (flux) flowing through
considered the same as the specific reluct-
it, although electrical conductivity is sub-
ance of air.
stantially independent of the electric cur-
rent in a wire. When the flux density of a
Ohm's Low for The relations between flux, magnetic conductor has been increased to
Magnetic Circuits magnetomotive force, and the saturation point, a further increase in
reluctance are exactly the the magnetizing force will not produce a
same as the relations between current, volt- corresponding increase in density.
age, and resistance in the electrical circuit.
These can be stated as follows: B-H Curve To simplify magnetic circuit
R= FR
=
calculations, a magnetization
curve may be drawn for a given unit of
material. Such a curve is termed a B -H
where, curve, and may be determined by experi-
ment. When the current in an iron -core
equals flux, F equals m.m.f., coil is first applied, the relation between the
R equals reluctance. winding current and the core flux is shown
at A -B in figure 18. If the current is then
Permeability Permeability expresses the ease reduced to zero, reversed, brought back
with which a magnetic field again to zero and reversed to the original
may be set up in a material as compared direction the flux passes through a typical
with the effort required in the case of air. hysteresis loop as shown.
Iron, for example, has a permeability of
around 2000 times that of air, which means
that a given amount of magnetizing effort
produced in an iron core by a current flow-
ing through a coil of wire will produce
uAGNETIZING FORCE
2000 times the flux density that the same H
magnetizing effect would produce in air. It
may be expressed by the ratio B/H or B /H.
In other words,
Figure 18
or
H TYPICAL HYSTERESIS LOOP
(B -H CURVE = A -B)
where is the permeability, B is the flux
density in gausses, B is the flux density in Showing relationship between the current In
the winding of an iron -core inductor and the
lines per square inch, H is the m.m.f. in core flux. A direct current flowing through the
gilberts per centimeter (oersteds), and H inductance brings the magnetic state of the
core to soma point on the hysteresis loop,
is the m.m.f. in ampere -turns per inch. such as C.
HANDBOOK Inductance 45
Residual Magnetism; The magnetism remaining the coil. The voltage so induced is
Retentivity ing in a material after known as a counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f.,
the magnetizing force and the effect is termed self-induction. When
is removed is called residual magnetism. Re- the applied voltage is building up, the
tentivity is the property which causes a counter e.m.f. opposes the rise; when the ap-
magnetic material to have residual magne- plied voltage is decreasing, the counter
tism after having been magnetized. e.m.f. is of the same polarity and tends to
maintain the current. Thus, it can be seen
Hysteresis; Hysteresis is the characteristic that self- inductance tends to prevent any
Coercive Force of a magnetic system which change in the current in the circuit.
causes a loss of power due to The storage of energy in a magnetic field
the fact that a negative magnetizing force is expressed in joules and is equal to (LI2) /2.
must be applied to reduce the residual mag- (A joule is equal to 1 watt -second. L is de-
netism to zero. This negative force is termed fined immediately following.)
coercive force. By "negative" magnetizing
force is meant one which is of the opposite The Unit of Inductance is usually denoted
polarity with respect to the original magne- Inductance: by the letter L, and is expressed
tizing force. Hysteresis loss is apparent in The Henry in henrys. A coil has an in-
transformers and chokes by the heating of ductance of 1 henry when a
the core. voltage of 1 volt is induced by a current
change of 1 ampere per second. The henry,
Inductance If the switch shown in figure 17 while commonly used in audio -frequency
is opened and closed, a pulsating circuits, is too large for reference to induct-
direct current will be produced. When it is ance coils, such as those used in radio -fre-
first closed, the current does not instanta- quency circuits; millihenry or microhenry
neously rise to its maximum value, but is more commonly used, in the following
builds up to it. While it is building up, the manner:
magnetic field is expanding around the con-
ductor. Of course, this happens in a small 1 henry = 1000 millibcnrys, or 10'
fraction of a second. If the switch is then nrillihenrys.
opened, the current stops and the magnetic
field contracts quickly. This expanding and 1 millihenry = 1 /1000 henry, .001
contracting field will induce a current in henry, or 10 -e henry.
any other conductor that is part of a contin- 1 microhenry = 1 /1,000,000 henry,
uous circuit which it cuts. Such a field can .000001 henry, or 10 -6 henry.
be obtained in the way just mentioned by
means of a vibrator interruptor, or by ap- 1 microhenry = 1/1000 millihenry,
plying a. c. to the circuit in place of the .001, or 10-3 millihenry.
battery. Varying the resistance of the circuit
will also produce the same effect. This in- 1000 ,nicrohenrys = 1 millihenry.
ducing of a current in a conductor due to
a varying current in another conductor not Mutual Inductance When one coil is near an-
in actual contact is called electromagnetic other, a varying current
induction. in one will produce a varying magnetic
field which cuts the turns of the other
Self- inductance If an alternating current coil, inducing a current in it. This induced
flows through a coil the current is also varying, and will therefore
varying magnetic field around each turn induce another current in the first coil. This
cuts itself and the adjacent turn and in- reaction between two coupled circuits is
duces a voltage in the coil of opposite po- called mutual inductance, and can be cal-
larity to the applied e.m.f. The amount of culated and expressed in henrys. The symbol
induced voltage depends on the number of for mutual inductance is M. Two circuits
turns in the coil, the current flowing in the thus joined are said to be inductively cou-
coil, and the number of lines of force thread- pled.
46 Direct -Current Curcuits RADIO
The magnitude of the mutual inductance 6i

depends on the shape and size of the two
circuits, their positions and distances apart,
and the permeability of the medium. The
extent to which two inductors are coupled Figure 19
is expressed by a relation known as coeffi-
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
cient of coupling (k). This is the ratio of
the mutual inductance actually present to The quantity M represents the mutual Indue.
the maximum possible value. tance between the two coils L, and L..
Thus, when k is 1, the coils have the
maximum quantity mutual induction. Core Material Ordinary magnetic cores can-
The mutual inductance of two coils can
be formulated in terms of the individual
not be used for radio frequen-
cies because the eddy current and hysteresis
inductances and the coefficient of coupling:
losses in the core material become enormous
M= k\IL,XL_ as the frequency is increased. The principal
use for conventional magnetic cores is in the
For example, the mutual inductance of audio- frequency range below approximately
two coils, each with an inductance of 10 1 5,000 Hertz, whereas at very low frequen-
henrys and a coupling coefficient of 0.8 is: cies (50 to 60 Hertz) their use is manda-
tory if an appreciable value of inductance
M = 0.8 10 X 10 = 0.8 X 10 = 8
isdesired.
The formula for mutual inductance is L An air -core inductor of only 1 henry in-
= L, + L_ + 2M when the coils are poled ductance would be quite large in size, yet
so that their fields add. When they are poled values as high as 500 henrys are commonly
so that their fields buck, then L = LI + available in small iron -core chokes. The in-
L, - 2M (figure 19). ductance of a coil with a magnetic core will
vary with the amount of current (both a -c
Inductors in Inductors in parallel are com- and d -c) which passes through the coil.
Parallel bined exactly as are resistors For this reason, iron -core chokes that are used
in parallel, provided that they in power supplies have a certain inductance
are far enough apart so that the mutual rating at a predetermined value of direct
inductance is entirely negligible. current.
The permeability of air does not change
Inductors in Inductors in series are additive, with flux density; so the inductance of iron -
-
Series just as are resistors in series, core coils often is made less dependent on
again provided that no mutual flux density by making part of the magnetic
inductance exists. In this case, the total in-
ductance L is:
s INDUCTANCE OF
L =L, +L, + ... ,etc. SINGLE -LAYER
SOLENOID COILS
Where mutual inductance does exist: R2 N2
MICROHENRYS
L= L, +L_ +2M 9R+ IOS
where, ONON TURNS
M is the mutual inductance. WHERE R

S
RADIUS OF COIL TO CENTER WIRE
LENGTH OF COIL
This latter expression assumes that the N NUMBER OF TURNS
coils are connected in such a way that all

flux linkages are in the same direction, i.e., Figure 20
additive. If this is not the case and the FORMULA FOR
mutual linkages subtract from the self -link- CALCULATING INDUCTANCE
ages, the following formula holds:
Through the use of the equation and the
L= L, +L_ -2M sketch shown above the inductance of single -
where, layer solenoid coils can be calculated with an
accuracy of about one p for the types
M is the mutual inductance. of coils normally used in the hf and vhf range.
HANDBOOK Time Constant 47
path air, instead of utilizing a closed loop of as capacitor voltage e approaches battery
iron. This incorporation of an air gap is voltage E. Actually, it will be found that
necessary in many applications of iron -core in any given interval a constant percentage
coils, particularly where the coil carries a of the remaining difference between e and E
considerable d -c component. Because the will be delivered to the capacitor as an in-
permeability of air is so much lower than crease in voltage. A voltage which changes
that of iron, the air gap need comprise only in this manner is said to increase logarithmi-
a small fraction of the magnetic circuit in cally, or follows an exponential curve.
order to provide a substantial proportion of
the total reluctance.
Time Constant A mathematical analysis of
Iron -Core Inductors Iron -core inductors may the charging of a capacitor
at Radio Frequencies be used at radio fre- in this manner would show that the relation-
quencies if the iron is ship between battery voltage E and the volt-
in a very finely divided form, as in the case age across the capacitor (e) could be ex-
of the powdered -iron cores used in some pressed in the following manner:
types of r -f coils and i -f transformers. These
cores are made of extremely small particles
e =E (1 - e_tinc)
of iron. The particles are treated with an in- where e,E,R, and C have the values discussed
sulating material so that each particle will above, e = 2.716 (the base of Naperian or
be insulated from the others, and the treated natural logarithms), and t represents the
powder is molded with a binder into cores. time which has elapsed since the closing of
Eddy current losses are greatly reduced,
with the result that these special iron cores
are entirely practical in circuits which op-
erate up to 100 MHz in frequency.
2 -5 RC and RL Transients
A voltage divider may be constructed as
shown in figure 21. Kirchhoff's and Ohm's
Laws hold for such a divider. This circuit
is known as an RC circuit.
Time Constant-
RC and RL
When switch S in figure 21
is placed in position 1, a 11,120
-__
E
AMIN
Circuits voltmeter across capacitor $

OTIMEt, IN TERMS Of TIME CONSTANT RCS
C will indicate the manner 100
in which the capacitor will become charged
through the resistor R from battery B. If f% EO
relatively large values are used for R and C, a s0
>e2
v.`_
and if a vacuum -tube voltmeter which
draws negligible current is used to measure
the voltage (e), the rate of charge of the
2 S
capacitor may actually be plotted with the 42.11 TIME L. IN TERMS Or TINE CONSTANT RC
aid of a stop watch. sN
Voltage Gradient Figure 21

It will be found that the
voltage (e) will begin to TIME CONSTANT OF AN RC CIRCUIT
rise rapidly from zero the instant the switch
Shown at (A! is the circuit upon which is
is closed. Then, as the capacitor begins to based the curves of (B) and (C B shows the
charge, the rate of change of voltage across rate at which capacitor C will charge from
the instant at which switch S is placed in
the capacitor will be found to decrease, the position 1. shows the discharge curve of
charging taking place more and more slowly capacitor C from the instant at which switch
S is placed in position 3.
YJI =
;
411116
J J
"...41(11.4-
Figure 22
TYPICAL INDUCTANCES
The large inductance is a 1000 -watt transmitting coil. To the right and left of this coil are
small r -f chokes. Several varieties of low power capability coils are shown below, along
with various types of r -f chokes intended for high-frequency operation.
the switch. With t expressed in seconds, R and megohms. The product RC is called the
and C may be expressed in farads and ohms, tinte constant of the circuit, and is expressed
or R and C may be expressed in microfarads in seconds. As an example, if R is one meg-
ohm and C is one microfarad, the time
constant RC will be equal to the product of
the two, or one second.
R (INCLUDING D-C RESISTANCE
OF INDUCTOR L) When the elapsed time (t) is equal to the
time constant of the RC network under
consideration, the exponent of r becomes
-1. Now e-' is equal to 1/r, or 1/2.716,
which is 0.368. The quantity (1- 0.368)
then is equal to 0.632. Expressed as percent-
100
age, the above means that the voltage across
U
eo
the capacitor will have increased to 63.2 per-
2 632
Z ar cent of the battery voltage in an interval
10 equal to the time constant or RC product
W ze
of the circuit. Then, during the next period
equal to the time constant of the RC com-
o
o 2 bination, the voltage across the capacitor
TIME t, IN TERMS OF TIME CONSTANT 11- will have risen to 63.2 per cent of the re-
maining difference in voltage, or 86.5 per
Figure 23 cent of the applied voltage (E).
TIME CONSTANT OF AN RL CIRCUIT Circuit In the case of
RL a series combina-
Note that the time constant for the increase tion of a resistor and an inductor,
in current through an R L circuit is identical as shown in figure 23, the current through
to the rate of increase in voltage across the
capacitor in an R C circuit. the combination follows a very similar law
HANDBOOK Time Constant 49
to that given above for the voltage appear- constant of the RL circuit is L 'R, with R
ing across the capacitor in an RC series cir- expressed in ohms and L expressed in henrys.
cuit. The equation for the current through
Voltage Decay When the switch in figure
the combination is:
21 is moved to position 3
E 1_F-t/RL) after the capacitor has been charged, the
! = R
\\
capacitor voltage will drop in the manner
shown in figure 21 -C. In this case the volt-
where i represents the current at any instant age across the capacitor will decrease to 36.8
through the series circuit, E represents the percent of the initial voltage (will make
applied voltage, and R represents the total 63.2 per cent of the total drop) in a period
resistance of the resistor and the d -c resist- of time equal to the time constant of the
ance of the inductor in series. Thus the time RC circuit.
Figure 24
TYPICAL IRON -CORE INDUCTANCES

At the right is an upright mounting filter choke intended for use in low- powered
transmitters and audio equipment. At the center is a hermetically sealed inductance
for use under poor environmental conditions. To the left is an inexpensive receiving -
type choke, with a small iron -core r -f choke directly in front of it.
CHAPTER THREE
Alternating- Current Circuits
The previous chapter has been devoted to Frequency Spectrum At present the usable
a discussion of circuits and circuit elements frequency range for al-
upon which is impressed a current consisting ternating electrical currents extends over
of a flow of electrons in one direction. This the electromagnetic spectrum from about
type of unidirectional current flow is called 1S cycles per second to perhaps 30,000,-
direct current (abbreviated d -c or d.c.). 000,000 cycles per second. It is obviously
Equally as important in radio and communi- cumbersome to use a frequency designation
cations work and power practice is a type of in c.p.s. for enormously high frequencies,
current whose direction of electron flow so three common units which are multiples
reverses periodically. The reversal of flow of one cycle per second were established and
may take place at a low rate, in the case of are still used by many engineers.
power systems, or it may take place millions
of times per second, in the case of communi-
cations frequencies. This type of current
flow is called alternating current (abbrevi- -I-
ated a -c or a.c.) .
CC
3 -1 Alternating Current
CC
V O TIME -+
DIRECT CURRENT
Frequency of an An alternating current is

Alternating Current one whose amplitude of 1 CYCLE
CYCLE
current flow periodically
rises from zero to a maximum in one direc- I-
tion, decreases to zero, changes its direction,
rises to maximum in the opposite direction,
ZI
W TIMO -y

and decreases to zero again. This complete ui
process, starting from zero, passing through
two maximums in opposite directions, and ALTERNATING CURRENT
returning to zero again, is called a cycle.
Figure 1
The number of times per second that a
current passes through the complete cycle ALTERNATING CURRENT
is called the frequency (f) of the current. AND DIRECT CURRENT
One and one -quarter cycles of an alternating Graphical comparison between unidirectional
current wave are illustrated diagrammati- (direct) current and alternating current as
cally in figure 1. plotted against time.
Alternating Current 51
These units have been: Frequency Classification Abbrei,.

(1) the kilocycle (kc) , 1000 c.p.s. 10to 30 kHz Very -low frequencies vlf
(2) The megacycle (Mc), 1,000,000 30 to 300 kHz Low frequencies if
c.p.s. or 1000 kc. 300 to 3000 kHz Medium frequencies mf
(3) the kilomegacycle (kMc) , 3 to 30 MHz High frequencies hf
1,000,000,000 c.p.s. or 1000 Mc. 30 to 300 MHz Very-high
Used for some time in other countries,
frequencies vhf
300 to 3000 MHz Ultrahigh frequencies uhf
and recently adopted by the U. S. National
3 to 30 GHz Superhi h frequencies shf
Bureau of Standards, IEEE, and many other
30 to 300 GHz Extremely high
American organizations, the Hertz is the
frequencies ehf
new unit of frequency measurement.
One Hertz is precisely defined as one cycle rent will flow in the conductor. He also dis-
per second and is not to be confused with covered that, when a conductor in a second
any other time base. Hertz is abbreviated as
closed circuit is brought near the first con-
Hz (no period). The standard metric pre- ductor and the current in the first one is
fixes for kilo, mega, giga, etc. are used with
varied, a current will flow in the second
the basic unit. Since "m" denotes "milli,"
conductor. This effect is known as induc-
capitalVis used for mega, and small "k" is tion, and the currents so generated are
kilo. Thus megacycle becomes megahertz induced currents. In the latter case it is the
(MHz), kilocycle is kilohertz (kHz). lines of force which are moving and cutting
These newer units will be used through-
the second conductor, due to the varying
out this Handbook. With easily handled units current strength in the first conductor.
such as these we can classify the entire us-
A current is induced in a conductor if
able frequency range into frequency bands.
there is a relative motion between the con-
The frequencies falling between about 15
and 20,000 hertz are called audio frequen-
ductor and a magnetic field, its direction of
flow depending on the direction of the rela-
cies (abbreviated a.f.), since these frequen-
tive motion between the conductor and the
cies are audible to the human ear when con-
field, and its strength depends on the in-
verted from electrical to acoustical signals
by a speaker or headphone. Frequencies in
tensity of the field, the rate of cutting lines
of force, and the number of turns in the
the vicinity of 60 Hz also are called power
frequencies, since they are commonly used conductor.
to distribute electrical power to the con- Alternators A machine that generates an al-
sumer.
The frequencies falling between 10,000 ternating current is called an
alternator or a -c generator. Such a machine
c.p.s. (10 kHz) and 30,000,000,000 c.p.s.
in its basic form is shown in figure 2. It
(30 GHz) are commonly called radio fre-
consists of two permanent magnets, the op-
quencies (abbreviated r.f.), since they are
posite poles of which face each other and are
commonly used in radio communication and
allied arts. The radio- frequency spectrum is
often arbitrarily classified into seven fre-
quency bands, each one of which is ten times
as high in frequency as the one just below
it in the spectrum (except for the vlf band
at the bottom end of the spectrum). The
present spectrum, with classifications, is
given in the following table.
Generation of Faraday discovered that Figuro 2

Alternating Current if a conductor which
forms part of a closed THE ALTERNATOR
circuit is moved through a magnetic field Semi schematic representation of the simplest
so as to cut across the lines of force, a cur- form of the alternator.
52 Alternating- Current Circuits RADIO
LINES Of FORCE
III 111111
11111
11111 If
A
-
11111 I I IB C D E
II III'1IliIli'III
11111
1101101111111111111111
.'IF+'
-- - TIME
LINES OF FORCE
(UNIFORM DENSITY)
Figure 3 1 CYCLE _
CYCLE=
OUTPUT OF THE ALTERNATOR
W HE RE F FREQUENCY IN CYCLES OR HERTZ
Graph showing sine -wave output current of
the alternator of figure 2. Figure 4
THE SINE WAVE

machined so that they have a common Illustrating one cycle of a sine wave. One
radius. Between these two poles (north and complete cycle of alternation is broken up
into 360 degrees. Then one -half cycle is 180
south) a substantially constant magnetic degrees, one- quarter cycle is 90 degrees, and
field exists. If a conductor in the form of so on down to the smallest division of the
wave. A cosine wave has a shape identical to
a loop (C) is suspended so that it can be
a sine wave but is shifted 90 degrees in phase
freely rotated between the two poles, and if - in other words the wave begins at full am-
the opposite ends of conductor C are brought plitude, the 90- degree point comes at zero
amplitude, the 180- degree point comes at full
to collector rings, there will be a flow of amplitude in the opposite direction of current
alternating current when conductor C is flow, etc.
rotated. This current flows out through the
collector rings (R) and brushes (B) to the a strictly pure sine curve, the departures are
external circuit (X -Y). usually so slight that the assumption can be
The field intensity between the two pole regarded as fact for most practical purposes.
pieces is substantially constant over the en- All that has been said in the foregoing para-
tire area of the pole face. However, when graphs concerning alternating current also
the conductor is moving parallel to the lines is applicable to alternating voltage.
of force at the top or bottom of the pole The rotating arrow to the left in figure
faces, no lines are being cut. As the con- 3 represents a conductor rotating in a con-
ductor moves on across the pole face it cuts stant magnetic field of uniform density. The
more and more lines of force for each unit arrow also can be taken as a vector repre-
distance of travel, until it is cutting the senting the strength of the magnetic field.
maximum number of lines when opposite This means that the length of the arrow is
the center of the pole. Therefore, zero cur- determined by the strength of the field
rent is induced in the conductor at the in- (number of lines of force), which is con-
stant it is midway between the two poles, stant. Now if the arrow is rotating at a
and maximum current is induced when it is constant rate (that is, with constant angu-
opposite the center of the pole face. After lar velocity), then the voltage developed
the conductor has rotated through 180 it across the conductor will be proportional to
can be seen that its position with respect to the rate at which it is cutting lines of force,
the pole pieces will be exactly opposite to which rate is proportional to the vertical
that when it started. Hence, the second distance between the tip of the arrow and
180 of rotation will produce an alternation the horizontal base line.
of current in the opposite direction to that If EO is taken as unity,or a voltage of 1,
of the first alternation. then the voltage (vertical distance from tip
The current does not increase directly as of arrow to the horizontal base line) at point
the angle of rotation, but rather as the sine C for instance may be determined simply by
of the angle; hence, such a current has the referring to a table of sines and looking up
mathematical form of a sine wave. Although the sine of the angle which the arrow makes
most electrical machinery does not produce with the horizontal.
HANDBOOK Alternating Current 53
When the arrow has traveled from point ing- current circuits. However, trigonometric
A to point E, it has traveled 90 degrees or tables are much more readily available in
one quarter cycle. The other three quadrants terms of degrees than radians, so the follow-
are not shown because their complementary ing simple conversions are useful.
or mirror relationship to the first quadrant
is obvious. 2r radians = 1 cycle = 360
It is important to note that time units are r radians = 1/2 cycle = 180
represented by degrees or quadrants. The
fact that AB, BC, CD, and DE are equal
chords (forming equal quadrants) simply
radians = 1/4 cycle = 90
2
means that the arrow (conductor or vector)
is traveling at a constant speed, because r radians = 1/6 cycle = 60
these points on the radius represent the pas-
sage of equal units of time.
The whole picture can be represented in
another way, and its derivation from the
foregoing is shown in figure 3. The time
44
radians = 1/8 cycle = 45
bise is represented by a straight line rather radian = 57.3

2rcycle=
1
than by angular rotation. Points A, B, C,

etc., represent the same units of time as be- When the conductor in the simple alter-
fore. When the voltage corresponding to nator of figure 2 has made one complete
each point is projected to the corresponding revolution it has generated one cycle and
time unit, the familiar sine curve is the re- has rotated through 2r radians. The expres-
sult. sion 2irf then represents the number of
The frequency of the generated voltage is radians in one cycle multiplied by the num-
proportional to the speed of rotation of the ber of cycles per second (the frequency) of
alternator, and to the number of magnetic the alternating voltage or current. The ex-
poles in the field. Alternators may be built pression then represents the number of ra-
to produce radio frequencies up to 30 kHz, dians per second through which the con-
and some such machines are still used for ductor has rotated. Hence 2rf represents the
low -frequency communication purposes. By angular velocity of the rotating conductor,
means of multiple windings, three -phase or of the rotating vector, which represents
output may be obtained from large in- any alternating current or voltage, expressed
dustrial alternators. in radians per second.
Radian Notation
In technical literature the expression 2rf
From figure 1 we see that is often replaced by w, the lower-case Greek
the value of an a -c wave letter omega. Velocity multiplied by time
varies continuously. It is often of impor- gives the distance travelled, so 2rft (or
tance to know the amplitude of the wave in (.,t) represents the angular distance through
terms of the total amplitude at any instant which the rotating conductor or the rotat-
or at any time within the cycle. To be able ing vector has travelled since the reference
to establish the instant in question we must time t = 0. In the case of a sine wave the
be able to divide the cycle into parts. We reference time t = 0 represents the instant
could divide the cycle into eighths, hun- when the voltage or the current, whichever
dredths, or any other ratio that suited our is under discussion, also is equal to zero.
fancy. However, it is much more convenient
mathematically to divide the cycle either Instantaneous Value The instantaneous volt-
into electrical degrees (360 represent one of Voltage or age or current is propor-
cycle) or into radians. A radian is an arc of Current tional to the sine of the
a circle equal to the radius of the circle; angle through which the
hence there are 2r radians per cycle-or per rotating vector has travelled since reference
circle (since there are r diameters per cir- time t = 0. Hence, when the peak value of
cumference, there are 2r radii). the a -c wave amplitude (either voltage or
Both radian notation and electrical -degree current amplitude) is known, and the angle
notation are used in discussions of alternat- through which the rotating vector has
when = 90
O
WNERE
e (THETA) = RNASE ANGLE' 2 71,7 sin O= 1.0

A =S RADIANS OR 90
'rr RADIANS OR 140 so e = Era:
0= RADIANS OR 2700
D' S!O
1
277 RADIANS OR
RADIAN' 57.324 DEGREES
when O = 1 radian
sin g= 0.8415
Figure 5
so e = 0.8415 Eta:
ILLUSTRATING RADIAN NOTATION Effective Value The instantaneous value
of an of an alternating cur-
The radian is a unit of phase angle, equal to
57.324 degrees. It is commonly used in math- Alternating Current rent or voltage varies
ematical relationships involving phase angles continuously throughout
since such relationships are simplified when
radian notation is used. the cycle, so some value of an a -c wave
must be chosen to establish a relationship
travelled is established, the amplitude of the between the effectiveness of an a -c and a
wave at this instant can be determined d -c voltage or current. The heating value
through use of the following expression: of an alternating current has been chosen
to establish the reference between the ef-
e = E,,,R; sin 27rf t fective values of a.c. and d.c. Thus an
where,
alternating current will have an effective
e equals the instantaneous voltage,
E. equals maximum peak value of
value of I ampere when it produces the
same heat in a resistor as does I ampere of
voltage, direct current.
f equals frequency in hertz, The effective value is derived by taking
t equals period of time which has elapsed the instantaneous values of current over a
since t = O (expressed as a fraction of cycle of alternating current, squaring these
one second) . values, taking an average of the squares,
The instantaneous current can be found and then taking the square root of the
from the same expression by substituting i average. By this procedure, the effective
for e and I,R for E,115,,. value becomes known as the root mean
It is often easier to visualize the process square, or rms, value. This is the value that
of determining the instantaneous amplitude is read on a -c voltmeters and a -c ammeters.
by ignoring the frequency and considering The rms value is 70.7 percent of the peak
only one cycle of the a -c wave. In this case, or maximum instantaneous value (for sine
for a sine wave, the expression becomes: waves only) and is expressed as follows:
e =E ,, sin g E,.11 or E, ,n = 0.707 X E ,,,,,,or
where O represents the angle through which 'pit or I,.., = 0.707 X 15517
the vector has rotated since time (and am-
plitude) were zero. As examples: The following relations are extremely use-
ful in radio and power work:
when 0 = 30
Erms = 0.707 X Em ,,, and
sin g =0.5
F ,x = 1.414 X E,,.
so e = 0.5 E,,,;,,
Rectified Alternating If an alternating cur-
when 0 = 60 Current or Pulsat- rent is passed through a
ing Direct Current rectifier, it emerges in
sin O = 0.866 the form of a current
so e= 0.866 Emax of varying amplitude which flows in one
direction only. Such a current is known as
HANDBOOK A -C Relationships 55
average = 0.9 X rms
rms = 1.11 X average
peak = 1.414 X rms
Figure 6 peak = 1.57 X average
FULL -WAVE RECTIFIED Applying Ohm's Law Ohm's Law applies

SINE WAVE to Alternating Current equally to direct or al-
Waveform obtained at the output of o full -

ternating current, pro-
wave rectifier being fed with a sine wove vided the circuits under consideration are
and hiving 100 per cent rectification effi- purely resistive, that is, circuits which have
ciency. Each pulse has the same shape as one -
half cycle of a sine wave. This type of cur- neither inductance (coils) nor capacitance
rent is known as pulsating direct current. (capacitors). Problems which involve tube
filaments, dropping resistors, electric lamps,
heaters or similar resistive devices can be
rectified a.c. or pulsating d.c. A typical
solved with Ohm's Law, regardless of wheth-
wave form of a pulsating direct current as
er the current is direct or alternating. When
would be obtained from the output of a
a capacitor or coil is made a part of the
full -wave rectifier is shown in figure 6.
circuit, a property common to either, called
Measuring instruments designed for d -c reactance, must be taken into consideration.
operation will not read the peak or instan- Ohm's Law still applies to a -c circuits con-
taneous maximum value of the pulsating
taining reactance, but additional considera-
d -c output from the rectifier; they will
tions are involved; these will be discussed in
read only the average value. This can be ex-
a later paragraph.
plained by assuming that it could be pos-
sible to cut off some of the peaks of the E
waves, using the cutoff portions to fill in

the spaces that are open, thereby obtaining
an average d -c value. A milliammeter and
voltmeter connected to the adjoining circuit, TIME -0.
or across the output of the rectifier, will
read this average value. It is related to peak
value by the following expression:
CURRENT LAGGING VOLTAGE BY 90
Eavg = 0.636 X E,,,,,,,
(CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE INDUCTANCE ONLY
It is thus seen that the average value is 63.6 Figure 7

percent of the peak value.
LAGGING PHASE ANGLE
Relationship Between To summarize the three Showing the manner in which the current lags
Peak, RMS, or most significant values the voltage in an a -c circuit containing pure
Effective, and of an a -c sine wave: the inductance only. The lag is equal to one -
Average Values peak value is equal to quarter cycle or 90 degrees.
1.41 times the rms or
effective, and the rms value is equal to Inductive stated in Chapter Two,
As was
0.707 times the peak value; the average Reactance changing current flows
when a
value of a full -wave rectified a -c wave is through an inductor a back- or
0.636 times the peak value, and the average counterelectromotive force is developed, op-
value of a rectified wave is equal to 0.9 posing any change in the initial current. This
times the rms value. property of an inductor causes it to offer
rms = 0.707 X peak opposition or impedance to a change in cur-
rent. The measure of impedance offered by
average = 0.636 X peak an inductor to an alternating current of a
given frequency is known as its inductive
reactance. This is expressed as X1, and is

shown in figure 7.
XT, = 27rfL
where,
T 1m 6 -y
X1, equals inductive reactance expressed
in ohms,
tr equals 3.1416 (27r = 6.283), so RI
f equals frequency in Hertz, CURRENT LEADING VOLTAGE BY 90

(CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE CAPACITANCE ONLY)
f. equals inductance in henrys.
Inductive Reactance It is very often neces- Figure 8

at Radio Frequencies sary to compute induc-
LEADING PHASE ANGLE
tive reactance at radio
frequencies. The same formula may be used, Showing the manner in which the current
leads the voltage in an a -c circuit containing
but to make it less cumbersome the induct- pure capacitance only. The lead is equal to
ance is expressed in millihenrys and the one -quarter cycle or 90 degrees.
frequency in kilohertz. For higher frequen-
cies and smaller values of inductance, fre-
quency is expressed in megahertz and induct- Capacitive It has been explained that induc-
ance in microhenrys. The basic equation Reactance tive reactance is the measure of
need not be changed, since the multiplying the ability of an inductor to of-
factors for inductance and frequency appear fer impedance to the flow of an alternating
in numerator and denominator, and hence current. Capacitors have a similar property
are cancelled out. However, it is not pos- although in this case the opposition is to
sible in the same equation to express L in any change in the voltage across the capaci-
millihenrys and f in Hertz without con- tor. This property is called capacitive react-
version factors. ance and is expressed as follows:
Table 1. Quantities, Units, and Symbols
Symbol Quantity Unit Abbreviation

/ Frequency hertz Hz
Wavelength meter M
XL Inductive Reactance ohm f2
Xo Capacitive Reactance ohm S2
reactance
Q Figure of merit
resistance
z Impedance ohm !?
= instantaneous value of voltage

= peak value of voltage
i = instantaneous value of current
= peak value of current
O = phase angle, expressed in degrees
E1rr or = effective or rms value of voltage
I,.tr or = effective or rms value of current
= vector operator (90 rotation)
HANDBOOK Reactance 57
Xe
1 lag the voltage by 90 . If the circuit con-
27rfC tains inductive reactance only, the current
will lag the voltage by 90 . If only capaci-
where, tive reactance is in the circuit, the current
Xe equals capacitive reactance in ohms, will lead the voltage by 90 .
a equals 3.1416,
Reactances Inductive and capacitive re-
f equals frequency in Hertz,
in Combination actance have exactly op-
equals capacitance in farads.
posite effects on the phase
Capacitive Re-
relation between current and voltage in a
Here again, as in the case
actance at circuit. Hence when they are used in com-
of inductive reactance, bination their effects tend to neutralize. The
Radio Frequencies the units of capacitance
combined effect of a capacitive and an in-
and frequency can be ductive reactance is often called the net re-
converted into smaller units for practical
actance of a circuit. The net reactance (X)
problems encountered in radio work. The
is found by subtracting the capacitive
equation may be written:
reactance from the inductive reactance
Xc _ 1,000,000
(X = X1. - Xe).
The result of such a combination of pure
27rfC
reactances may be either positive, in which
where, case the positive reactance is greater so that
f equals frequency in megahertz, the net reactance is inductive, or it may be
C equals capacitance in picofarads. negative in which case the capacitive react-
ance is greater so that the net reactance is
In the audio range it is often convenient to capacitive. The net reactance may also be
express frequency (f) in Hertz and capac- zero in which case the circuit is said to be
itance (C) in mirrofarads, in which event resonant. The condition of resonance will be
the same formula applies. discussed in a later section. Note that in-
ductive reactance is always taken as being
Phase When an alternating current flows positive while capacitive reactance is always
through a purely resistive circuit, it taken as being negative.
will be found that the current will go Impedance; Circuits Pure reactances intro -
through maximum and minimum in perfect Containing Reactance duce a phase angle of
step with the voltage. In this case the cur- and Resistance 90 between voltage
rent is said to be in step, or in phase with and current; pure re-
the voltage. For this reason, Ohm's Law will sistance introduces no phase shift between
apply equally well for a.c. or d.c. where voltage and current. Hence we cannot add
pure resistances are concerned, provided that a reactance and a resistance directly. When
the same values of the wave (either peak or a reactance and a resistance are used in
rms) for both voltage and current are used
in the calculations.
However, in calculations involving alter-
nating currents the voltage and current are (+A) n (- I)
VECTOR THROUGH
ROTATES
SO
not necessarily in phase. The current
MOT b
through the circuit may lag behind the
voltage, in which case the current is said to
X AXIS
have lagging phase. Lagging phase is caused
by inductive reactance. If the current
reaches its maximum value ahead of the
voltage (figure 8) the current is said to
have a leading phase. A leading phase angle
is caused by capacitive reactance. Figure 9
In an electrical circuit containing re- Operation on the vector (+A, by the quantity
( -1) causes vector to rotate through 180
actance only, the current will either lead or degrees.
combination the resulting phase angle of Polar Notation The second method of repre-
current flow with respect to the impressed senting an impedance is to
voltage lies somewhere between plus or specify its absolute magnitude and the phase
minus 90 and 0 depending on the relative angle of current with respect to voltage, in
magnitudes of the reactance and the resist- the form Z L O. Figure 11 shows graphically
ance. the relationship between the two common
The term impedance is a general term ways of representing an impedance.
which can be applied to any electrical entity The construction of figure 11 is called an
which impedes the flow of current. Hence impedance diagram. Through the use of
the term may be used to designate a resist- such a diagram we can add graphically a
ance, a pure reactance, or a complex com- resistance and a reactance to obtain a value
bination of both reactance and resistance. for the resulting impedance in the scalar
The designation for impedance is Z. An im- form. With zero at the origin, resistances
pedance must be defined in such a manner are plotted to the right, positive values of
that both its magnitude and its phase angle reactance (inductive) in the upward direc-
are established. The designation may be action, and negative values of reactance (ca-
complished in either of two ways -one of pacitive) in the downward direction.
which is convertible into the other by Note that the resistance and reactance are
simple mathematical operations. drawn as the two sides of a right triangle,
with the hypotenuse representing the result-
The j Operator The first method of des- ing impedance. Hence it is possible to deter-
ignating an impedance is mine mathematically the value of a result-
actually to specify both the resistive and the ant impedance through the familiar right -
reactive component in the form R + X. triangle relationship-the square of the
In this form R represents the resistive com- hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
ponent in ohms and X represents the re- squares of the other two sides:
active component. The j merely means that
the X component is reactive and thus can- Z2 = R2 + X2
not be added directly to the R component. or,
Plus jX means that the reactance is positive IZi = Rz + X2
or inductive, while if minus jX were given
it would mean that the reactive component Note also that the angle O included between
was negative or capacitive. R and Z can be determined from any of the
In figure 9 we have a vector ( +A) lying following trigonometric relationships:
along the positive X -axis of the usual X -Y
coordinate system. If this vector is multi- X
plied by the quantity ( -
1) , it becomes
sin O
74
( -A) and its position now lies along the
X -axis in the negative direction. The opera-
R
cos 9 =
tor ( -1) has caused the vector to rotate IZ!
through an angle of 180 degrees. Since X
(- 1) is equal to (V=71 X V=1) , the tan O = R
the vector with the operator

) . However if the vector is
(T
same result may be obtained by operating on
X
operated
One common problem is that of determining
the scalar magnitude of the impedance, IZ
and the phase angle B, when resistance and
on but once by the operator (11=i), it is reactance are known; hence, of converting
Thus the operator ( /i)
caused to rotate only 90 degrees (figure 10).
rotates a vector
by 90 degrees. For convenience, this opera-
from the Z = R + jX to the IZI L O form.
In this case we use two of the expressions
just given:
tor is called the j operator. In like fashion,
the operator ( -j)rotates the vector of IZI
=
R- + X-
figure 9 through an angle of 270 degrees,
so that the resulting vector ( -
jA) falls on tan O = R, (or B=tan' X
the ( -Y) axis of the coordinate system. R
HANDBOOK Impedance 59
Y-AXIS
ohm; hence, the ohm may be thought of as
(+A) X (1I ) ROTATES a unit of opposition to current flow, with-
y- VECTOR THROUGH 90
out reference to the relative phase angle be-
+JA b tween the applied voltage and the current
which flows.
X AXIS Further, since both capacitive and in-
ductive reactance are functions of fre-
quency, impedance will vary with fre-
quency. Figure 12 shows the manner in
which IZI will vary with frequency in an
RL series circuit and in an RC series circuit.
Figure 10
Series RLC Circuits In a series circuit con-
Cperation on the vector ( +A) by the quantity
(j) causes vector to rotate through 90 degrees. taining R, L, and C, the
impedance is determined as discussed before
The inverse problem, that of converting except that the reactive component in the
from the IZI L 8 to the R + jX form is expressions defines the net reactance -that
done with the following relationships, both is,the difference between X1, and X. Hence
of which are obtainable by simple division (XL -Xc) may be substituted for X in
from the trigonometric expressions just the equations. Thus:
given for determining the angle 8:
IZI = VR2 (XL - x02
R = IZI cos 9
O = tan -1 (XL - Xc)
jX = IZI j sin 0 R
By simple addition these two expressions A series RLC circuit thus may present
may be combined to give the relationship an impedance which is capacitively reactive
between the two most common methods of if the net reactance is capacitive, inductively
indicating an impedance: reactive if the net reactance is inductive, or
resistive if the capacitive and inductive re-
R +jX= IZI (cos B + j sin 0) actances are equal.
In the case of impedance, resistance, or re- Addition of The addition of complex
actance, the unit of measurement is the Complex Quantities quantities (for example,
impedances in series) is
quite simple if the quantities are in the rec-
tangular form. If they are in the polar form
a
they only can be added graphically, unless
they are converted to the rectangular form
by the relationships previously given. As an
Z. 4.1-J3 example of the addition of complex quanti-
aLte4., ties in the rectangular form, the equation
ti` t ae.u
IZI=
IZI= 5 ton ' 0.75

for the addition impedance is:
RESISTANCE -R
FRL
121 eer (R1 + jX1) + (R2 + jX_) =
'RaoHMS- (R, + R2) + j(X, + X2)
For example if we wish to add the imped-
Figure 11 ances (10 + j50) and (20
tain:
j30) we ob- -
THE IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE
!hawing the graphical construction of a tri-
angle for obtaining the net (scalar) impedance
(10 + j50) + (20 - j30)
resulting from the connection of a resistance
and a reactance in series. Shown also along-
_ (10 + 20) + j[50 + (-30)]
side is the alternative mathematical pro-
cedure for obtaining the values associated = 30 + j(50 -
30)
with the triangle.
= 30 + j20
Multiplication and It is often necessary in 12,I LB, IZtI

Division of (LB, -L92)
solving certain types of IZ.I L92 IZ_I
Complex Quantities circuits to multiply or
divide two complex For example, suppose that an impedance of
quantities. It is a much simpler mathemati- 1501 L67 is to be divided by an impedance
cal operation to multiply or divide complex of 1101 Z45. Then:
quantities if they are expressed in the polar 1501 467
form. Hence if they are given in the rec- 1f0I(L67 -L45 ) = 151(L22 )
1101 L45 1101
tangular form they should be converted to
the polar form before multiplication or Ohm's Law for The simple form of
division is begun. Then the multiplication is Complex Quantities Ohm's Law used for d -c
accomplished by multiplying the 121 terms
circuits may be stated in
together and adding algebraically the L O
a more general form for application to a -c
terms, as:
circuits involving either complex quantities
(IZ,I LB,) (IZ_I L02) _ or simple resistive elements. The form is:
12,11221 (Le, + Le,) E
For example, suppose that the two imped- I Z
ances 1201 L43 and 1321 L -23 are to be
multiplied. Then: in which, in the general case, I, E, and Z
are complex (vector) quantities. In the
(1201 Z43 ) (1321 L -23 ) =120'321 simple case where the impedance is a pure
(L43 + L -23 ) resistance with an a -c voltage applied, the
= 640 L20 equation simplifies to the familiar I = F. /R.
Division is accomplished by dividing the In any case the applied voltage may be ex-
denominator into the numerator, and sub- pressed either as peak, rms, or average; the
tracting the angle of the denominator from resulting current always will be in the same
that of the numerator, as: type used to define the voltage.
In the more general case vector algebra
must be used to solve the equation. And,
since either division or multiplication is in-
volved, the complex quantities should be
expressed in the polar form. As an example,
take the case of the series circuit shown in
figure 13 with 100 volts applied. The im-
pedance of the series circuit can best be ob-
tained first in the rectangular form, as:
200 + j(100 - 300) = 200 - j200
Now, to obtain the current we must con-
R
vert this impedance to the polar form.
o FREQUENCY
IZI = V 2002 + ( -200)2
Figure 12
= V 40,000 + 40,000
IMPEDANCE -FREQUENCY GRAPH
FOR RL AND RC CIRCUITS = 80,000
The impedance of an RC circuit approaches =282 S2
infinity as the frequency approaches zero
(d.c.), while the impedance of a series RL cir- -200
cuit approaches infinity as the frequency ap-
proaches infinity. The impedance of an RC cir-
O = tan-`
X
R
= tan -'
200
- tan -1(- 1)
cuit approaches the impedance of the series
resistor as the frequency approaches infinity,
while the impedance of a series RL circuit ap-
= - 45
proaches the resistance as the frequency ap-
proaches zero, Therefore, Z = 282 L -45
HANDBOOK Vector Algebra 61
200 fl
E = IXL
E = (0.354 L45 ) (100 L90 )
J 100
TJ 300
= 35.4 L135 volts
Similarly, the voltage drop across the capac-
Figure 13 itive reactance is:
SERIES RLC CIRCUIT E =IXc

E = (0.354 L45 ) (300 L -90 )
Note that in a series circuit the resulting = 106.2 L -45
impedance takes the sign of the largest re-
actance in the series combination. Note that the voltage drop across the ca-
Where a slide rule is being used to make pacitive reactance is greater than the supply
the computations, the impedance may be voltage. This condition often occurs in a
found without any addition or subtraction series RLC circuit, and is explained by the
operations by finding the angle O first, and fact that the drop across the capacitive re-
then using the trigonometric equation below actance is cancelled to a lesser or greater
for obtaining the impedance. Thus: extent by the drop across the inductive re-
actance.
X It is often desirable in a problem such as
O = tan-1 = tan-' tan-1(- 1)
200 the above to check the validity of the an-
swer by adding vectorially the voltage drops
= -45 . across the components of the series circuit
Then, Z equals
cos O
voltage -
to make sure that they add up to the supply
or to use the terminology of
Kirchhoff's Second Law, to make sure that
and cos -45 = 0.707 the voltage drops across all elements of the
circuit, including the source taken as nega-
= 200
0.707
- 282 ohms tive, is equal to zero.
In the general case of the addition of a
Since the applied voltage will be the refer-
number of voltage vectors in series it is best
ence for the currents and voltages within to resolve the voltages into their in -phase
the circuit, we may define it as having a and out -of -phase components with respect
zero phase angle: E = 100 L0 . Then: to the supply voltage. Then these compo-
nents may be added directly. Hence:
1= 100 LO
282 L -45
- 0.354L0 - ( -45 )
s0
= 0.354 L45 amperes
This same current must flow through all VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS
XI.. 35.4 Air DROP ACROSS RESISTOR.
three elements of the circuit, since they are Toe as
in series and the current through one must
already have passed through the other two. leo-
iI oNE VOLTAGE =too
Hence the voltage drop across the resistor

( whose phase angle of course is 0 ) is: DROP ACROSS XC =108 2/-41
E = IR (
NET DROP ACROSS XL A XC = TO 8/-,11.
E _ (0.354 L45 ) (200 L0 ) 90
= 70.8 L 45 volts Figure 14
The voltage drop across the inductive re- Graphical construction of the voltage drops
associated with the series RLC circuit of
actance is: figure 13.
ER = 70.8 L45 cuit is the same. But the voltage drops

across each of the components are, in gen-
= 70.8 (cos 45 + j sin 4S) eral, different from one another. Conversely,
= 70.8 (0.707 + j0.707) in a parallel RLC or RX circuit the voltage
is, obviously, the same across each of the
= 50 + jS0 elements. But the currents through each of
the elements are usually different.
E,, = 35.4 L 135 There are many ways of solving a prob-
lem involving paralleled resistance and re-
= 35.4 (cos 135 + j sin 135) actance; several of these ways will be de-
= 35.4 ( -0.707 + j0.707) scribed. In general, it may be said that the
impedance of a number of elements in par-
= -25 + j25 allel is solved using the same relations as are
used for solving resistors in parallel, except
Er = 106.2 L45 that complex quantities are employed. The
= 106.2 (cos -45 + j sin -45 ) basic relation is:
= 106.2 (0.707 - j0.707) 1
ZTotal
1
Zt Zg
1 1
Z:t
= 75 -j75
or when only two impedances are involved:
+ Er, +Ec= (50 +j50)
ER
+ -25 + j25) + (75 -j75)
(
ZTotal - Zt
Z, Z_
+ Z,
= (50 -25 + 75) + As an example, using the two -impedance
j(50 + 25 -75) relation, take the simple case, illustrated in
ER + Er, +Ec= 100 +j0 figure 15, of a resistance of 6 ohms in paral-
lel with a capacitive reactance of 4 ohms.
= 100 L0 , To simplify the first step in the computa-
which is equal to the supply voltage. tion it is best to put the impedances in the
polar form for the numerator, since multi-
Checking by It is frequently desirable plication is involved, and in the rectangular
Construction on the to check computations
form for the addition in the denominator.
Complex Plane involving complex quan-
tities by constructing (6 L0 ) (4 L -90 )
ZTotal
vectors representing the quantities on the 6-j4
complex plane. Fig. 14 shows such a con-
struction for the quantities of the problem 24 L-90
just completed. Note that the answer to 6 -j4
the problem may be checked by construct-
ing a parallelogram with the voltage drop
across the resistor as one side and the net
voltage drop across the capacitor plus. the
inductor (these may be added algebraically -J art.
as they are 180 out of phase) as the ad- 2.77A
jacent side. The vector sum of these two T
voltages, which is represented by the diag-
onal of the parallelogram, is equal to the PARALLEL EQUIVALENT SERIES
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
supply voltage of 100 volts at zero phase
angle.
Figure 15
Resistance and Re- In a series circuit, such THE EQUIVALENT SERIES CIRCUIT
actance in Parallel just discussed, the cur-
as
rent through all the ele- Showing a parallel RC circuit and the equiv-
alent series RC circuit which represents the
ments which go to make up the series cir- same net impedance as the parallel circuit.
HANDBOOK Vector Algebra 63
Then the denominator is changed to the

polar form for the division operation: Ill
7E 1
3.33 = 0.3 amp
O = tan -' -6 = tan -' - 0.667 = - 33.7 And the dissipation in the resistor will be:
W= IZR =0.32X 1.85
_
'zI _
cos -
6
33.7
6
0.832 - 7.21 ohms = 0.09 X 1.85
= 0.166 watts
6 -j4 = 7.21L -33.7
So we see that the equivalent series circuit
Then: checks exactly with the original parallel cir-
ZTtat =
24 - 90 - 3.33 L- 56.3
cuit.
-33.7
7.21 L
3.33 (cos - 56.3 +
Parallel RLC
= j sin - 56.3 ) Circuits
In solving a more complicated
circuit made up of more than
= 3.33 [0.5548 + j (- 0.832)] two impedances in parallel we
may elect to use either of two methods of
= 1.85 - j 2.77 solution. These methods are called the ad-
mittance method and the assumed- voltage
Equivalent Series Through the series of op- method. However, the two methods are
Circuit erations in the previous equivalent since both use the sum-of- recip-
paragraph we have con- rocals equation:
verted a circuit composed of two imped-
ances in parallel into an equivalent series cir- 1 1 1 1
cuit composed of impedances in series. An ZTota Z1 Z, Z,

equivalent series circuit is one which, as In the admittance method we use the rela-
far as the terminals are concerned, acts iden- tion Y = 1/Z, where Y = G + jB; Y is
tically to the original parallel circuit; the called the admittance, defined above, G is
current through the circuit and the power the conductance or R /Z2 and B is the sus -
dissipation of the resistive elements are the ceptance or -X /Z2. Then Ytotat = 1 /Ztotat
same for a given voltage at the specified
frequency.
= Y1 + YZ + Y3 ....
In the assumed -
voltage method we multiply both sides of
We can check the equivalent series the equation above by E, the assumed volt-
circuit of figure 15 with respect to the age, and add the currents, as:
original circuit by assuming that one volt
a -c (at the frequency where the capacitive E E+E+E...=1Z,+IZZ+Iz3...
reactance in the parallel circuit is 4 ohms) Z, Z_ 43
ZT,tat
is applied to the terminals of both the series
and parallel circuits. Then the impedance of the parallel com-
In the parallel circuit the current through bination may be determined from the rela-
the resistor will be 1.; ampere (0.166 amp) tion:
while the current through the capacitor will
be j 1/4 ampere (+ j 0.25 amp) . The total
ZTotaI = E/IZTotat
current will be the sum of these two cur-
rents, or 0.166 + j 0.25 amp. Adding these A -C Voltage Voltage dividers for use with
vectorially we obtain: Dividers alternating current are quite
similar to d -c voltage dividers.
= 0.1662 + 0.252 = 0.09 However, since capacitors and inductors as
= 0.3 amp. well as resistors oppose the flow of a -c cur-
rent, voltage dividers for alternating volt-
The dissipation in the resistor will be 12/6 ages may take any of the configurations
= 0.166 watts. shown in figure 16.
In the case of the equivalent series cir- Since the impedances within each divider
cuit the current will be: are of the same type, the output voltage is
3 -2 Resonant Circuits
A series circuit such as shown in figure 18
is saidto be in resonance when the applied
frequency is such that the capacitive react-
EzE, R,+Rx ExE, xCz
xC, +xcx
EzE, Li ance is exactly balanced by the inductive re-
Ci
ExE, C,+Cx
actance. At this frequency the two react-
ances will cancel in their effects, and the
O O impedance of the circuit will be at a mini-
mum so that maximum current will flow. In
Figure 16 fact, as shown in figure 19 the net imped-
ance of a series circuit at resonance is equal
SIMPLE A -C VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
to the resistance which remains in the cir-
cuit after the reactances have been can-
celled.
in phase with the input voltage. By using
combinations of different types of imped- Resonant Frequency Some resistance is always
ances, the phase angle of the output may be present in a circuit be-
shifted in relation to the input phase angle cause it is possessed in some degree by both
at the same time the amplitude is reduced. the inductor and the capacitor. If the fre-
Several dividers of this type are shown in quency of the alternator E is varied from
figure 17. Note that the ratio of output nearly zero to some high frequency, there
voltage is equal to the ratio of the output will be one particular frequency at which
impedance to the total divider impedance. the inductive reactance and capacitive re-
This relationship is true only if negligible actance will be equal. This is known as the
current is drawn by a load on the output resonant frequency, and in a series circuit
terminals. it is the frequency at which the circuit
current will be a maximum. Such series -
resonant circuits are chiefly used when it is
desirable to allow a certain frequency to pass
through the circuit (low impedance to this
frequency) , while at the same time the cir-
cuit is made to offer considerable opposition
to currents of other frequencies.
XL
E2-E1
Figure 18
SERIES -RESONANT CIRCUIT

xc
Ex E, X` EzE,
Xl -Xc Rx+ (xC-xclz
x
If the values of inductance and capaci-
QEaE,
R:+(xc-xc): tance both are fixed, there will be only one
EE, XL-xc resonant frequency.
Rx+ If both the inductance and capacitance
are made variable, the circuit may then
Figure 17 be changed or tuned, so that a number
of combinations of inductance and capaci-
COMPLEX A -C VOLTAGE DIVIDERS tance can resonate at the same frequency.
HANDBOOK Resonant Circuits 65
This can be more easily understood when where,

one considers that inductive reactance and f equals frequency in hertz,
capacitive reactance change in opposite direc- L equals inductance in henrys,
tions as the frequency is varied. For ex- C equals capacitance in farads.
ample, if the frequency were to remain
constant and the values of inductance and It is more convenient to express L and
capacitance were then changed, the follow- C in smaller units, especially in making
ing combinations would have equal react- radio- frequency calculations; f can also be
ance: expressed in MHz or kHz. A very useful
group of such formulas is:
Frequency is constant at 60 Hz.
L is expressed in henrys. f"
25,330
LC
or L = 25,330
f2C or C
- 25,330
f 2L
C is expressed in microfarads (.000001 where,
farad.)
L equals inductance in microhenrys,
L XL C X, f equals frequency in MHz,
C equals capacitance in picofarads.
.265 100 26.5 100
2.65 1000 2.65 1000 Impedance of Series The impedance across
2 6. 5 10,000 .265 10,000 Resonant Circuits
265.00 100,000 .0265 100,000 the terminals of a series -
2,650.00 1,000,000 .00265 1,000,000 resonant circuit (figure
18) is:
Frequency From the formula for reso- Z = Jr2 + (XL - Xc) 2
of Resonance nance, 271/. = 27rfC , the 1/ where,

resonant frequency is deter-
niin,i: Z equals impedance in ohms,
r equals resistance in ohms,
1 Xe equals capacitive reactance in ohms,
f - ,. VT
.C: XL equals inductive reactance in ohms.
From this equation, it can be seen that

the impedance is equal to the vector sum of
the circuit resistance and the difference be-
RESONANCr tween the two reactances. Since at the
resonant frequency XL equals Xe, the dif-
ference between them (figure 19) is zero,
X I
so that at resonance the impedance is sim-
ply equal to the resistance of the circuit;
FREQUENCY therefore, because the resistance of most
normal radio- frequency circuits is of a very
X low order, the impedance is also low.
At frequencies higher and lower than the
resonant frequency, the difference between
the reactances will be a definite quantity
Figure 19
and will add with the resistance to make the
impedance higher and higher as the circuit
IMPEDANCE OF A is tuned off the resonant frequency.
SERIES -RESONANT CIRCUIT If Xe should be greater than Xi., then the
Showing the variation in reactance of the
term (X1. - Xe) will give a negative num-
ber. However, when the difference is squared
separate elements and in the net impedance
of a series resonant circuit (such as figure 18) the product is always positive. This means
with changing Ir cy. The vertical line is
drawn at the point of resonance (X, -X,. = 0) that the smaller reactance is subtracted
in the series circuit. from the larger, regardless of whether it be
capacitive or inductive, and the difference is current against the frequency either side
squared. of resonance, the resultant curve becomes
Current and Voltage Formulas for calculat- what is known as a resonance curve. Such a
in Series- Resonant ing currents and volt- curve is shown in figure 20, the frequency
Circuits ages in a series - resonant being plotted against current in the series -
circuit are similar to resonant circuit.
those of Ohm's Law. Several factors will have an effect on the
shape of this resonance curve, of which re-
1= E =IZ sistance and L -to -C ratio are the important
Z considerations. The lower curves in figure
The complete equations are: 20 show the effect of adding increasing val-
ues of resistance to the circuit. It will be
E seen that the peaks become less and less
1
prominent as the resistance is increased;
V r2 + (XL - Xc) 2
thus, it can be said that the selectivity of
E = I \1 r2 + (XI, - Xc) 2
the circuit is thereby decreased. Selectivity
in this case can be defined as the ability of
Inspection of the above formulas will a circuit to discriminate against frequencies
show the following to apply to series -reso- adjacent to (both above and below) the
nant circuits: When the impedance is low, resonant frequency.
the current will be high; conversely, when
the impedance is high, the current will be Voltage Across Coil Because the a -c or r -f
low. and Capacitor in voltage across a coil and
Since it is known that the impedance will Series Circuit capacitor is proportional
be very low at the resonant frequency, it to the reactance (for a
follows that the current will be a maximum given current), the actual voltages across
at this point. If a graph is plotted of the the coil and across the capacitor may be
many times greater than the terminal volt-
age of the circuit. At resonance, the voltage
across the coil (or the capacitor) is Q
times the applied voltage. Since the O (or
merit factor) of a series circuit can be in
the neighborhood of 100 or more, the volt-
age across the capacitor, for example, may
S
be high enough to cause flashover, even
though the applied voltage is of a value con-
siderably below that at which the capacitor
J:
/
is rated.
?i.
`4 w
Circuit Q -Sharp-
ness of Resonance
An extremely important
property of a capacitor
i
2< or an inductor is its fac-
u2 tor-of-merit, more generally called its Q.
i;
WW
ra It is this factor, Q, which primarily deter-
FREQUENCY
mines the sharpness of resonance of a tuned
circuit. This factor can be expressed as the
Figure 20 ratio of the reactance to the resistance, as
RESONANCE CURVE follows:
owing the increase in impedance at reson- 2rfL

ance for a parallel- circuit, and Q R
similarly, the increase in t at resonance
for a series- resonant circuit. The sharpness of
resonance is determined by th. Q of the cir- where,
cuit, as illustrated by a comparison between
the three torus. R equals total resistance.
HANDBOOK Circuit Q 67
Skin Effect The actual resistance in a wire

or an inductor can be far greater
than the d -c value when the coil is used in a
radio- frequency circuit; this is because the
current does not travel through the entire
cross section of the conductor, but has a
tendency to travel closer and closer to the
surface of the wire as the frequency is in- Figure 21
creased. This is known as the skin effect.
The actual current carrying portion of the PARALLEL -RESONANT CIRCUIT
wire is decreased as a result of the skin The inductance L and capacitance C comprise
effect so that the ratio of a -c to d -c resist- the reactive elements of the parallel- resonant
(antiresonant) tank circuit, and the resistance
ance of the wire, called the resistance ratio, R indicates the sum of the r -f resistance of the
is increased. The resistance ratio of wires to coil and capacitor, plus the resistance cou-
be used at frequencies below about 500 kHz pled into the circuit from the external load.
In most cases the tuning capacitor has much
may be materially reduced through the use lower r -f resistance than the coil and can
of litz wire. Litz wire, of the type common- therefore be ignored in comparison with the
ly used to wind the coils of 455 - kHz i -f
transformers, may consist of 3 to 10 strands
coil resistance and the coupled -in resistance.
The instrument M. indicates the "line current"
which keeps the circuit in a state of oscilla-
of insulated wire, about No. 40 in size, with tion -this current is the same as the funda-
mental component of the plate current of a
the individual strands connected together class -C amplifier which might be feeding the
only at the ends of the coils. tank circuit. The instrument M indicates the
"tank current" which is equal to the line cur-
rent multiplied by the operating Q of the
Variation of Q Examination of the equation tank circuit.
with Frequency for determining Q might
give rise to the thought that transmitter circuit operation. A circuit is
even though the resistance of an inductor shown in figure 21.
increases with frequency, the inductive re-
actance does likewise, so that the Q might The "Tank" In this circuit, as contrasted
be a constant. Actually, however, it works Circuit with a circuit for series reso-
out in practice that the Q of an inductor nance, L (inductance) and C
will reach a relatively broad maximum at
(capacitance) are connected in parallel, yet
some particular frequency. Hence, coils nor-
the combination can be considered to be in
mally are designed in such a manner that the
series with the remainder of the circuit. This
peak in their curve of Q versus frequency
will occur at the normal operating frequen- combination of L and C, in conjunction
with R, the resistance which is principally
cy of the coil in the circuit for which it is
included in L, is sometimes called a tank
designed.
circuit because it effectively functions as a
The Q of a capacitor ordinarily is much
storage tank when incorporated in vacuum -
higher than that of the best coil. Therefore,
it usually is the merit of the coil that limits tube circuits.
the over -all Q of the circuit. Contrasted with series resonance, there
are two kinds of current which must be con-
At audio frequencies the core losses in an
iron -core inductor greatly reduce the Q sidered in a parallel- resonant circuit: (1)
from the value that would be obtained sim- the line current, as read on the indicating
ply by dividing the reactance by the resist- meter M,, (2) the circulating current which
flows within the parallel LCR portion of the
ance. Obviously the core losses also represent
circuit resistance, just as though the loss circuit. See figure 2L
occurred in the wire itself. At the resonant frequency, the line cur-
rent (as read on the meter M,) will drop to
Parallel In radio circuits, parallel reso- a very low value although the circulating
Resonance nance (more correctly termed current in the LC circuit may be quite large.
antiresonance) is more frequent- It is interesting to note that the parallel -
ly encountered than series resonance; in fact, resonant circuit acts in a distinctly opposite
it is the basic foundation of receiver and manner to that of a series - resonant circuit,
in which the current is at a maximum and maximum impedance. There are innumer-
the impedance is minimum at resonance. It able ratios of L and C that will have equal
is for this reason that in a parallel -resonant reactance, at a given resonant frequency,
circuit the principal consideration is one of exactly as in the case in a series- resonant
impedance rather than current. It is also sig- circuit.
nificant that the impedance curve for paral- In practice, where a certain value of in-
lel circuits is very nearly indentical to that ductance is tuned by a variable capacitance
of the current curve for series resonance. over a fairly wide range in frequency, the
The impedance at resonance is expressed as: L 'C ratio will be small at the lowest -fre-
(2rfL)2 quency end and large at the high- frequency
Z= R
end. The circuit, therefore, will have un-
equal gain and selectivity at the two ends
where, of the band of frequencies which is being
tuned. Increasing the Q of the circuit (low-
Z equals impedance in ohms,
ering the resistance) will obviously increase
L equals inductance in henrys,
both the selectivity and gain.
f equals frequency in hertz,
R equals resistance in ohms. Circulating Tank The Q of a circuit has
func- Current at Resonance a definite bearing on
Or, impedance can be expressed as a
tion of Q as: the circulating tank
current at resonance. This tank current is
Z = 2irfLQ very nearly the value of the line current
showing that the impedance of a circuit is multiplied by the effective circuit O. For
directly proportional to its effective Q at example: an r -f line current of 0.050 am-
resonance. pere, with a circuit Q of 100, will give a
The curves illustrated in figure 20 can be circulating tank current of approximately
applied to parallel resonance. Reference to S amperes. From this it can be seen that
the curve will show that the effect of adding both the inductor and the connecting wires
resistance to the circuit will result in both a in a circuit with a high Q must be of very
broadening out and lowering of the peak of low resistance, particularly in the case of
the curve. Since the voltage of the circuit high -power transmitters, if heat losses are
is directly proportional to the impedance,
to be held to a minimum.
and since it is this voltage that is applied to Because the voltage across the tank at
the grid of the vacuum tube in a detector resonance is determined by the Q, it is pos-
or amplifier circuit, the impedance curve sible to develop very high peak voltages
must have a sharp peak in order for the across a high -Q tank with but little line
circuit to be selective. If the curve is broad - current.
topped in shape, both the desired signal and
the interfering signals at close proximity to
resonance will give nearly equal voltages on Effect of Coupling If a parallel -resonant cir-
the grid of the tube, and the circuit will on Impedance cuit is coupled to another
then be nonselective ; that is , it will tune circuit, such as an anten-
broadly. na output circuit, the impedance and the
effective Q of the parallel circuit is decreased
Effect of L/C Ratio In order that the highest as the coupling becomes closer. The effect
in Parallel Circuits possible voltage can be of closer (tighter) coupling is the same as
developed across a paral- though an actual resistance were added in
lel- resonant circuit, the impedance of this series with the parallel tank circuit. The re-
circuit must be very high. The impedance sistance thus coupled into the tank circuit
will be greater with conventional coils of can be considered as being reflected from the
limited Q when the ratio of inductance to output or load circuit to the driver circuit.
capacitance is great, that is, when L is large The behavior of coupled circuits depends
as compared with C. When the resistance of largely on the amount of coupling, as shown
the circuit is very low, XT, will equal Xc at in figure 22. The coupled currrent in the
HANDBOOK Tank Circuits 69
LOOSE COUPLING u[DIUN COUPLING CPI TICAL COUPLING Ov[RCOUPLING

NIGH LIE DIUM O LOW p LOW O
r
I,
Figure 22
EFFECT OF COUPLING ON CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE AND Q
secondary circuit is small, varying with fre- across the tank circuit even though power
quency, being maximum at the resonant is supplied to the tank in short pulses or
frequency of the circuit. As the coupling spurts, so long as the spurts are evenly
is increased between the two circuits, the spaced with respect to time and have a fre-
secondary resonance curve becomes broader quency that is the same as the resonant fre-
and the resonant amplitude increases, until quency of the tank.
the reflected resistance is equal to the pri- Another way to visualize the action of
mary resistance. This point is called the the tank is to recall that a resonant tank
critical coupling point. With greater cou- with moderate Q will discriminate strongly
pling, the secondary resonance curve becomes against harmonics of the resonant frequency.
broader and develops double resonance The distorted plate current pulse in a class -
humps, which become more pronounced C amplifier contains not only the funda-
and farther apart in frequency as the cou- mental frequency (that of the grid excita-
pling between the two circuits is increased. tion voltage) but also higher harmonics. As
the tank offers low impedance to the har-
Tank -Circuit When the plate circuit of a monics and high impedance to the funda-
Flywheel Effect class -B or class -C operated
tube is connected to a par-
allel- resonant circuit tuned to the same fre-
the fundamental -
mental (being resonant to the latter), only
a sine -wave voltage
appears across the tank circuit in substantial
-
quency as the exciting voltage for the ampli- magnitude.
fier, the plate current serves to maintain this
L 'C circuit in a state of oscillation. Loaded and Confusion sometimes exists as
The plate current is supplied in short Unloaded Q to the relationship between
pulses which do not begin to resemble a sine the unloaded and the loaded
wave, even though the grid may be excited Q of the tank circuit in the plate of an r-f
by a sine -wave voltage. These spurts of power amplifier. In the normal case the
plate current are converted into a sine wave loaded Q of the tank circuit is determined
in the plate tank circuit by virtue of the by such factors as the operating conditions
Q or flywheel effect of the tank. of the amplifier, bandwidth of the signal to
If a tank did not have some resistance be emitted, permissible level of harmonic
losses, it would, when given a "kick" with a radiation, and such factors. The normal
single pulse, continue to oscillate indefinitely. value of loaded Q for an r-f amplifier used
With a moderate amount of resistance or for communications service is from perhaps
"friction" in the circuit the tank will still 6 to 20. The unloaded Q of the tank circuit
have inertia, and continue to oscillate with determines the efficiency of the output cir-
decreasing amplitude for a time after being cuit and is determined by the losses in the
given a "kick." With such a circuit, almost tank coil, its leads and plugs and jacks if
pure sine -wave voltage will be developed any, and by the losses in the tank capacitor
which ordinarily are very low. The unloaded

Q of a good quality large diameter tank coil FUNDAMENTAL SINE WAVE IA)
-FUNDAMENTAL PLUS
3RD HARMONIC ICI
in the high- frequency range may be as high
as 500 to 800, and values greater than 300 SQUARE WAVE
are quite common. 3REI HARMONIC IBI
Tank- Circuit Since the unloaded Q of a tank

Efficiency circuit is determined by the
minimum losses in the tank,
while the loaded Q is determined by useful
loading of the tank circuit from the external
load in addition to the internal losses in the Figure 23
tank circuit, the relationship between the
COMPOSITE WAVE- FUNDAMENTAL
two Q values determines the operating effi-
PLUS THIRD HARMONIC
ciency of the tank circuit. Expressed in the
form of an equation, the loaded efficiency of
a tank circuit is: FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD HARMONIC
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3R0 AND
Tank efficiency = (1 - -.)x 100

5TH HARMONICS IEI
3T1.1 HARMONIC IDI
where,
Q equals unloaded Q of the tank circuit,
QI equals loaded Q of the tank circuit.
As an example, if the unloaded Q of the
tank circuit for a class -C r-f power ampli- Figure 24
fier is 400, and the external load is coupled THIRD -HARMONIC WAVE PLUS
to the tank circuit by an amount such that FIFTH HARMONIC
the loaded Q is 20, the tank -circuit effi-
ciency will be: eff. = (1 -
20/400) X
100, or (1 -
0.05) X 100, or 95 per cent.
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD. STN.
AND 7TH HARMONICS 151
Hence 5 per cent of the power output of FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD AND
STH HARMONICS
SQUARE WAVE
the class -C amplifier will be lost as heat in 7TH HARMONIC IFI
the tank circuit and the remaining 95 per
cent will be delivered to the load.
3 -3 Nonsinusoidal Waves
and Transients
Figure 25
Pure sine waves, discussed previously, are
RESULTANT WAVE, COMPOSED OF
basic wave shapes. Waves of many different
FUNDAMENTAL, THIRD, FIFTH,
and complex shapes are used in electronics,
AND SEVENTH HARMONICS
particularly square waves, sawtooth waves,
and peaked waves.
called harmonics, and are always a whole
Wave Composition Any periodic wave (one number of times higher than the funda-
that repeats itself in defi- mental. For example, the frequency twice as
nite time intervals) is composed of sine high as the fundamental is called the second
waves of different frequencies and ampli- harmonic.
tudes, added together. The sine wave which
has the same frequency as the complex, peri-
The Square Wove Figure 23 compares a
square wave with a sine
odic wave is called the fundamental. The
wave (A) of the same frequency. If another
frequencies higher than the fundamental are
HANDBOOK Nonsinusoidal Waves 71
FUND. PLUS 2ND !RD. ATM,

FUND. PLUS AFC HARM.
AND STN HARMONICS
FUND. PLUS UND 3RD, AND
sine wave (B) of smaller amplitude, but
FUNDAMENTAL `TH
HARMONICS
three times the frequency of A, called the
2140 HARM. 'TM HARMONIC
third harmonic, is added to A, the resultant
wave (C) more nearly approaches the de-
PLUS 2N43RD
FUND. ATN,\ sired square wave.
AND !TH HARMONICS
FUND. PLUS AND AND
3RD HARMONICS
!TH
FUND. PLUS 2ND. 3RD, ATN,

This resultant curve (figure 24) is added
FUND. PLUS 2ND HARM.
3RD HARMONIC
AND STH HARMONICS
BATH HARMONIC to a fifth -harmonic curve (D), and the sides
of the resulting curve (E) are steeper than
before. This new curve is shown in figure
FUND. PLUS 2ND, 3RD, ATN, 25 after a 7th -harmonic component has been
TH. ATIM, AND 7TH HARMS\
F
3
ND
.A11-1.1.4.1)S
AND
1S
\STX ANDUITMNAYNICS'
added to it, making the sides of the com-
vTN HARMONIC TTH HARMONIC posite wave even steeper. Addition of more
higher odd harmonics will bring the result-
ant wave nearer and nearer to the desired
square -wave shape. The square wave will be
SAWTOOTH WAVE achieved if an infinite number of odd har-
monics are added to the original sine wave.
The Sawtooth Wave In the same fashion, a

sawtooth ware is made
Figure 26
up of different sine waves (figure 26). The
COMPOSITION OF A SAWTOOTH WAVE addition of all harmonics, odd and even,
produces the sawtooth waveform.
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS
3RD HARMONIC
FUNDAMENTAL The Peaked Wave Figure 27 shows the com-
3RD HARMONIC position of a peaked u at e.
I' \ Note how the addition of each successive
harmonic makes the peak of the resultant
higher, and the sides steeper.
Other Waveforms The three preceding ex-

amples show how a com-
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD
AND STH HARMONICS
plex periodic wave is composed of a funda-
mental wave and different harmonics. The
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD HARM.
TH HARMONIC
shape of the resultant wave depends on the
harmonics that are added, their relative am-
`.
plitudes, and relative phase relationships. In
general, the steeper the sides of the wave-
form, the more harmonics it contains.
A -C Transient CircuitsIf an a -c voltage is

FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD, STH, substituted for the d -c
ANO 7TH HARMONICS
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD
input voltage in the RC transient circuits
AND STH HARMONIC
discussed in Chapter 2, the same principles
7TH HARMONIC
may be applied in the analysis of the tran-
sient behavior. An RC coupling circuit is
designed to have a long time constant with
respect to the lowest frequency it must pass.
Such a circuit is shown in figure 28. If a
nonsinusoidal voltage is to be passed un-
changed through the coupling circuit, the
Figure 27 time constant must be long with respect
to the period of the lowest frequency con-
COMPOSITION OF A PEAKED WAVE tained in the voltage wave.
RC Differentiotor An RC voltage divider eE= INTEGRATOR OUTPUT

and Integrator that to distort
is designed
e 100V
(PEAK)
the input waveform is 1000NERTZ
eR= DIFFERENTIATOR OUTPUT
known as a differentiator or integrator, de-
pending on the locations of the output taps.
The output from a differentiator is taken - 100V
across the resistance, while the output from

OUTPUT WAVE FORM
e0
an integrator is taken across the capacitor. OF GENERATOR
Such circuits will change the shape of any

complex a -c waveform that is impressed on 100 V
them. This distortion is a function of the 125 V.

- - 5V.

value of the time constant of the circuit as
compared to the period of the waveform. OUTPUT OF
DIFFERENTIATOR (eR)
Neither a differentiator nor an integrator
can change the shape of a pure sine wave, -T5V.
they will merely shift the phase of the wave

(figure 29). The differentiator output is a ft5V.
ourwT a
sine wave leading the input wave, and the e0 INTGIR
ATO (ec)
integrator output is a sine wave which lags Figure 30
the input wave. The sum of the two out-
puts at any instant equals the instantaneous RC DIFFERENTIATOR AND
'
input voltage. INTEGRATOR ACTION ON
A SQUARE WAVE
100V
1000 HERTZ Square -Ware Input Ifsquare -wave voltage
a
is impressed on the cir-
R It C = 50000 ASECON05
cuit of figure 30, a square -wave voltage
PERIOD OF e: 1000 AI SECONDS output may be obtained across the integrat-
Figure 28 ing capacitor if the time constant of the
circuit allows the capacitor to become fully
RC COUPLING CIRCUIT WITH charged. In this particular case, the capacitor
LONG TIME CONSTANT never fully charges, and as a result the out-
put of the integrator has a smaller ampli-
.loo i tude than the input. The differentiator out-
-1--1
1 put has a maximum value greater than the
' ' T input amplitude, since the voltage left on
the capacitor from the previous half wave
eR -100V.
I '
' -i
W1
will add to the input voltage. Such a

10
O
OUT11
TIAl0
55 w 1 circuit, when used as a differentiator, is often
-! -4_'----I
1
called a peaker. Peaks of twice the input

O es o 1
I , I
T amplitude may be produced.

-500. -I- -
I
Sawtooth -Wave Input If a back -to -back saw-
'I
1 1 1
tooth voltage is applied
osso.-1-
r'Al 1
I
-" to an .RC circuit havingg a time constant
one -sixth the period of the input voltage,
1
the result is shown in figure 31. The capaci-

tor voltage will closely follow the input
OO voltage, if the time constant is short, and
Figure 29 the integrator output closely resembles the
input. The amplitude is slightly reduced
RC DIFFERENTIATOR AND and there is a slight phase lag. Since the
INTEGRATOR ACTION ON voltage across the capacitor is increasing at
A SINE WAVE a constant rate, the charging and discharg-
HANDBOOK Transformers 73
e=loov
ÌNTEGRATOR ing current is constant. The output voltage
1 OUTPUT (ec)
(PEAK) of the differentiator, therefore, is constant
1000 HERTZ DIFFERENTIATOR
OUTPUT (eR) during each half of the sawtooth input.
Miscellaneous Various voltage waveforms

Inputs other than those represented
OUTPUT WAVEFORM here may be applied to short -
OF GENERATOR
time- constant RC circuits for the purpose of
producing across the resistor an output volt-
-100 age with an amplitude proportional to the
rate of change of the input signal. The
pulO
e0 ERTUYQ
UU
OÎ(11 shorter the RC time constant is made with

respect to the period of the input wave, the
- - +90 more nearly the voltage across the capacitor
conforms to the input voltage. Thus, the
OUTPUT OF
INTEGRATOR (ec) differentiator output becomes of particular
importance in very short - time -constant RC
circuits. Differentiator outputs for various
Figure 31 types of input waves are shown in figure 32.
RC DIFFERENTIATOR AND
INTEGRATOR ACTION ON Square -Wave Test The application of a
A SAWTOOTH WAVE for Audio Equipment square -wave input sig-
nal to audio equipment,
and the observation of the reproduced out-
put signal on an oscilloscope will provide
a quick and accurate check of the over -all
PIN
operation of audio equipment.
0 Low -frequency and high- frequency re-
sponse, as well as transient response can be
O examined easily.
eouT If the amplifier is deficient in low -fre-
quency response, the flat top of the square
wave will be canted, as in figure 33. If the
PIN
high- frequency response is inferior, the rise
time of the output wave will be retarded
O
(figure 34).
e OUT An amplifier with a limited high- and
O
low- frequency response will turn the square
wave into the approximation of a sawtooth
wave (figure 35).
3 -4 Transformers
When two coils are placed in such induc-
tive relation to each other that the lines of
force from one cut across the turns of the
other inducing a current, the combination
can be called a transformer. The name is
Figu e 32
derived from the fact that energy is trans-
formed from one winding to another. The
Differentiator outputs of short -time- constant inductance in which the original flux is
RC circuits for various input voltage wave -
shapes. The output voltage is proportional to pioduced is called the primary; the induct-
the rate of change of the input voltage. ance which receives the induced current is
O O
Figure 33
Amplifier deficient in low -frequency response will distort square wave applied to the input
circuit, as shown. A 60 -Hz square wave may be used.
A: Drop in gain at low frequencies
B: Leading phase shift at low frequencies
C: Lagging phase shift at low frequencies
D: Accentuated low -frequency gain
Figure 34 Figure 35
Output waveshape of amplifier having defi- Output waveshape of amplifier having limited
ciency in high -frequency response. Tested low -frequency and high -frequency response.
with 10 -kHz square wave. Tested with I kHz s wave.
called the secondary. In a radio- receiver Types of Transformers are used in al-
power transformer, for example, the coil Transformers ternating- current circuits to
through which the 120 -volt a.c. passes is transfer power at one voltage
the primary, and the coil from which a and impedance to another circuit at another
higher or lower voltage than the a -c line voltage and impedance. There are three main
potential is obtained is the secondary. classifications of transformers: those made
Transformers can have either air or mag- for use in power- frequency circuits, those
netic cores, depending on the frequencies at made for audio - frequency applications, and
which they are to be operated. The reader those made for radio frequencies.
should thoroughly impress on his mind the
fact that current can be transferred from The Transformation In a perfect transformer
one circuit to another only if the primary Ratio all the magnetic flux
current is changing or alternating. From lines produced by the
this it can be seen that a power transformer primary winding link every turn of the
cannot possibly function as such when the secondary winding. For such a transformer,
primary is supplied with nonpulsating d -c. the ratio of the primary and secondary volt-
A power transformer usually has a mag- ages is exactly the same as the ratio of the
netic core which consists of laminations of number of turns in the two windings:
iron, built up into a square or rectangular
form, with a center opening or window. Np Ep
The secondary windings may be several in Ns E8
number, each perhaps delivering a different where,
voltage. The secondary voltages will be Np equals number of turns in the primary,
proportional to the turns ratio and the Ns equals number of turns in the sec-
primary voltage. ondary,
HANDBOOK Transformers 75
El. equals voltage across the primary,

Es equals voltage across the secondary.
In practice, the transformation ratio of a

transformer is somewhat less than the turns
+e
ratio, since unity coupling does not exist
between the primary and secondary wind- Figure 36
ings. IMPEDANCE -MATCHING TRANSFORMER
Ampere Turns (NI) The current that flows in The reflected impedance Z varies directly in
proportion to the secondary load Z. and
the secondary winding as directly in proportion to the square of the
a result of the induced voltage must pro- primary -to- secondary turns ratio.
duce a flux which exactly equals the primary
flux. The magnetizing force of a coil is ex- Thus any specific load connected to the
pressed as the product of the number of secondary terminals of the transformer will
turns in the coil times the current flowing be transformed to a different specific value
in it: appearing across the primary terminals of
Is the transformer. By the proper choice of
N,. X I,. = Ns X Is, or
turns ratio, any reasonable value of second-
N8 1r
where, ary load impedance may be "reflected" into
/I. equals primary current, the primary winding of the transformer to
1s equals secondary current. produce the desired transformer primary im-
pedance. The phase angle of the primary
It can be seen from this expression that "reflected" impedance will be the same as
when the voltage is stepped up, the current the phase angle of the load impedance. A
is stepped down, and vice versa. capacitive secondary load will be presented
to the transformer source as a capacitance,
Leakage Reactance Since unity coupling does a resistive load will present a resistive "re-
not exist in a practical flection" to the primary source. Thus the
transformer, part of the flux passing from primary source "sees" a transformer load
the primary circuit to the secondary circuit entirely dependent on the secondary load
follows a magnetic circuit acted on by the impedance and the turns ratio of the trans-
primary only. The same is true of the sec- former (figure 36).
ondary flux. These leakage fluxes cause leak- The Auto- The type of transformer in fig -
age reactance in the transformer, and tend transformerure 37, when wound with heavy
to cause the transformer to have poor volt-
wire over an iron core, is a com-
age regulation. To reduce such leakage re-
mon device in primary power circuits for
actance, the primary and secondary windings
should be in close proximity to each other.
The more expensive transformers have inter-
STE e -uP
leaved windings to reduce inherent leakage
reactance.
STE V -DOwN
INPUT OuTr'uT
VOLTAGE OLT.GE
Impedance In the ideal transformer, the
Transformation impedance of the secondary
load is reflected back into Figure 37
the primary winding in the following rela-
tionship: THE AUTOTRANSFORMER
Schematic diagram of an autotransformer
Zr = NZZs, or N = Zp /Zs showing the method of connecting it to the
line and to the load. When only a small
where, amount of step up or step down is required,
the autotransformer may be much smaller
Z,. equals reflected primary impedance, physically than would be a transformer with
N equals turns ratio of transformer, a separate secondary winding. Continuously
variable autotransformers (Variac and power -
Zs equals impedance of secondary load. stat) are widely used commercially.
ELEMENTARY FILTER SECTIONS

the purpose of increasing or decreasing the
line voltage. In effect, it is merely a con- L-SCCTIONS T'NETWORM
tinuous winding with taps taken at various

points along the winding, the input voltage
z. /-1--11z. }-. -{ z^ z!
being applied to the bottom and also to zs ze
one tap on the winding. If the output is T T

taken from this same tap, the voltage ratio
will be I to 1; i.e., the input voltage will be IN NETWORK
the same as the output voltage. On the other

hand, if the output tap is moved down to-
ward the common terminal, there will be
a stepdown in the turns ratio with a conse-
quent stepdown in voltage. The initial set-
ting of the middle input tap is chosen so Figure 38
that the number of turns will have sufficient
Complex filters may be made up from these
reactance to keep the no -load primary cur- basic filter sections.
rent at a reasonable low value.
illustrated in figure 38. A definite number of
3 -5 Electric Filters L sections may be combined into basic filter
sections, called T networks or r networks,
There are many applications where it is also shown in figure 38. Both the T and IT
desirable to pass a d -c component without networks may be divided in two to form
passing a superimposed a -c component, or half-sections.
to pass all frequencies above or below a
certain frequency while rejecting or attenu- Filter Sections The most common filter sec-
ating all others, or to pass only a certain tion is one in which the two
band or bands of frequencies while attenu- impedances ZA and ZB are so related that
ating all others. their arithmetical product is a constant: ZA
All of these things can be done by suit-
able combinations of inductance, capaci-
X ZR -k2 at all frequencies. This type of
filter section is called a constant -k section.
tance, and resistance. However, as whole A section having a sharper cutoff fre-
books have been devoted to nothing but quency than a constant -k section, but less
electric filters, it can be appreciated that it attenuation at frequencies far removed from
is possible only to touch on them superficial- cutoff is the m- derived section, so called
ly in a general- coverage book. because the shunt or series element is reso-
nated with a reactance of the opposite sign.
Filter Operation A filter acts by virtue of its
If the complementary reactance is added
property of offering very
to the series arm, the section is said to be
high impedance to the undesired frequencies, shunt derived; if added to the shunt arm,
while offering but little impedance to the series derived. Each impedance of the in-
desired frequencies. This will also apply to
derived section is related to a corresponding
d. c. with a superimposed a -c component, as
impedance in the constant -k section by some
d. c. can be considered as an alternating cur-
factor which is a function of the constant
rent of zero frequency so far as filter dis- in. In turn, m is a function of the ratio
cussion goes.
between the cutoff frequency and the fre-
Basic Filters Filters are divided into four quency of infinite attenuation, and will
classes, descriptive of the fre- have some value between zero and one. As
quency bands which they are designed to the value of m approaches zero, the sharp-
transmit: high -pass, low -pass, bandpass, and ness of cutoff increases, but the less will be
band -elimination. Each of these classes of fil- the attenuation at several times cutoff fre-
ters is made up of elementary filter sections quency. A value of 0.6 may be used for in
called L sections which consist of a series in most applications. The "notch" frequency
element (ZA) and a parallel element (Z) as is determined by the resonant frequency of
HANDBOOK Electric Filters 77
LOW-PASS SHUNT -DERIVED FILTER HIGH -PASS SERIES- DERIVED FILTER

(SERIES ARM RESONATED) (SHUNT ARM RESONATED)
L1 . . . .. 1 C1
2C, 2C,
T2
12 j4 14
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
R LOAD RESISTANCE R LOAD RESISTANCE

LI mLk CI
2
X Ck 4m
CI
C2. mCk
I Mn
-m x Ck
L2.
Lknf m/ 2/12 2
}4
C. n j2R
Lk
R
anti
m2 Ck
OnjIR
j2 CUTOFF FREQUENCY SC FREQUENCY OF

HIGH ATTENUATION
Si' CUTOFF FREQUENCY jqFREQUENCY OF
HIGH ATTENUATION
Figure 39
TYPICAL LOW -PASS AND HIGH -PASS FILTERS, ILLUSTRATING SHUNT AND SERIES
DERIVATIONS
the tuned filter element. The amount of Filter DesignElectric wave filters have long
attenuation obtained at the "notch" when Techniques been used in some amateur sta-
a derived section is used is determined by tions in the audio channel to
the effective Q of the resonant arm (fig- reduce the transmission of unwanted high
ure 39). frequencies and hence to reduce the band-
width occupied by a radiophone signal. The
effectiveness of a properly designed and
Filter Assembly Constant -k sections and in- properly used filter circuit in reducing QRM
derived sections may be cas- and sideband splatter should not be under-
caded to obtain the combined characteristics estimated.
of sharp cutoff and good remote frequency In recent years, high- frequency filters
attenuation. Such a filter is known as a have become commonplace in TVI reduction.
composite filter. The amount of attenuation High -pass type filters are placed before the
will depend on the number of filter sec- input stage of television receivers to reject
tions used, and the shape of the transmission the fundamental signal of low- frequency
curve depends on the type of filter sec- transmitters. Low -pass filters are used in the
tions used. All filters have some insertion output circuits of low -frequency transmit-
loss. This attenuation is usually uniform to ters to prevent harmonics of the transmitter
all frequencies within the passband. The from being radiated in the television chan-
insertion loss varies with the type of filter, nels.
the Q of the components, and the type of The chart of figure 40 gives design data
termination employed. and procedure on the 7 section type of
TT-SECTION FILTER DESIGN

CONSTANT k m =0.6 TERMINAI NG HALF-SECTIONS
R LOAD RESISTANCE
Lt I"
f2CUTOFF FREQUENCY C.---r OV 0 dDL+-+ 'C 1 I
I
L
!cc FREWENCY OF VERY
HIGH ATTENUATION
Ly n}2 R
o
;CT
Let,
T
t
;C2
o o
LI
jC2T
O.6LymLk
LI
T
3C2
oT I
; ;
W
I
; 2
I
Cy CI 0 267 Ck
,_ m2'k SAME N4LIlES AS m06
C2 4m
LOW PASS
C2 0.6 Ckn;
Cy
C
nf2R 1
..-- f4
O =
4
5 < m 0 6
(if:) SAME CURVE AS
m
a t2
l Q 2
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
RLOAD RESISTANCE Ct
LI I I I }Lt JLt
I t2
11'CUTOFF FREQUENCY
2C1 4 2C1
}Q FREQUENCY OF VERY - I
I
I
NIGH ATTENUATION
2L2 2L2 2LZ- - 2L2 2L2- I I 2L2
I O
4m2 I
R LI 3.75 Ly Li
Lk 4nit CICy I-m
%
L2 Ly
CI.
Ck Ch SAME VALUES AS mO6
.6 m
HIGHPASS
Ck 4n1fIR
LI 2
Lk Lny
2 ---}Q
O
SAME CURVE AS m 0 6
m1-/f4\2 .0.6 2 +
}I / W
ti 7i `
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
Figure 40
Through the use of the curves and equations which accompany the diagrams in the illustra-
tion obeve it is possible to determine the correct values of inductance and capacitance for
the usual types of pi- section Alters.
filter. The in- derived sections with an m of Filter Design by Geffe, published by John F.
0.6 will be found to be most satisfactory as Rider Publisher, Inc., New York.
the input section (or half- section) of the
usual filter since the input impedance of such
a section is most constant over the passband Low -Pass Filter
3 -6
of the filter section.
Simple filters may use either L, T, or 7r
Nomographs
sections. Since the 7r section is the more
commonly used type, figure 40 gives design The Constant -K The low -pass constant -k
data and characteristics for this type of Filter filter has a passband from
filter. d.c. to the cutoff fre-
The image- parameter technique of filter quency (fe). Beyond this frequency, the
design outlined in this section is being super - signal is attenuated as shown in figure 41.
ceded by modern network synthesis, which Pi and T configurations for constant -k
takes advantage of the digital computer as a filters are shown in the illustration, with ap-
tool for multisection filter design. Filters propriate design formulas. The nomograph
designed by this new technique provide su- ( #1 of figure 42) provides a graphical solu-
perior performance with less components tion to these equations. The values of L and
than equivalent filters designed by the image - C can be determined by aligning a straight-
parameter scheme. Design tables for synthesis edge from f
on the left -hand scale to
systems may be found in Simplified Modern R(L) or R(C), respectively, on the right-
CULL IT SECTION
Figure 41
CONSTANT -k FILTER AND
LOW- FREQUENCY BANDPASS CULL T SECTION
GOO
900
- 03
0.4
C
0.003
0.
0(C)
1000
900
NIL)
SO
800
05 0005 800
T00 06 0.006 700
600 0.8 0008

0.01
500
00 - 2 002
300 - 3 003
4 004
20C 5 0.05
6 0 06
e 0 0
0r
20 oz
90
f
100 30 0 3 -
S r00 100
90
BC 0 51 Vn so
T0
60 06 ? 70 -
6C - 80 08
60
50 -
40 200
300
300
30 -
00
500 5 400
600 6 So, aroterwana
20 - 800 e
nogner IL use IM
0llomng scale factors
500
100
600
1 R
C
10 L IW
1
- TOO
2e 20 000
900
E.ample Oeslgn o los aa e later soh Nomograph No I.f Teal, 1490ahms,
a CNall of lsN nna .e, mnatmg ,n 90 ohms In 3k f0 awes o L Ima and C 05.1e a 1000
Figure 42
NOMOGRAPH #1, CONSTANT -k FILTER
The filter termination value (R) is used on separate scales (right -hand) for determination of
C and L. An example is shown for R = 90 ohms.
Figure 43
SERIES m- DERIVED FILTER AND
LOW- FREQUENCY BANDPASS
hand scale. The values of L and C are The Series The low -pass, m- derived
found where the straightedge intersects the filter has a passband from
rn- Derived Filter
center scales. (Nomograph by Applebaum, d.c. to the cutoff frequen-
reprinted with permission from the March, cy, fc. Beyond this frequency, the signal is
1967 issue of EDN Magazine, Rogers Pub- attenuated considerably to f .,
as shown in
lishing Co., Englewood, Colo.) figure 43.
f 2
m= 1 -( foc)
ti
1 1 1 1 1 I I
O.I 0.3 04 03 06 07 08 0.9

02
Figure 44
NOMOGRAPH #2. FILTER CONSTANT m IS DETERMINED FROM f. and f
,IRI 300
mL,OR C61t
[61..1711 p'-r _ c,
9_200
BZ 0 9=
--l
7
l
-
o0 08 0,5
OE T ERM94IN4
6J OETEREUWN4
, o7106 L6 MC,
5 07 02
50
30 0.6
L- 025
3 20
-s-
--N-
03
CI 35
0.5
-
120
1 - 2- 1
-
IO
L,
045
f
4- -.- 5
/
0
-0.55
5
r`
-1- --0---
-/-
-I-
-1- -06
l
_
R3
L
.--/- _
03_
-Z.-- 65
0.6
09
L
j LtH 0.If-r-0.02
L
I
OR L61M) L, OR CAI
nR
Figure 45
NOMOGRAPH #3. L, AND C,I ARE DETERMINED USING L AND C (NOMOGRAPH #1)
AND m (NOMOGRAPH #2.) ALL NUMBERS ARE FOUND WITH LEFT SIDE OF SCALES.
L AND C., ARE DETERMINED IN THE SAME MANNER, USING RIGHT SIDE OF SCALES.
82 Alternating- Current Circuits
C, L,
.IOmN EOnN
L,mL
IS F.C,
FULL IT- SECTION L L=a
m
TO
AC,
C mC Ci 0
Figure 47
SERIES m- DERIVED FILTER DESIGNED FOR
fr -7 kHz, f,,. -
8 kHz AND R =
90 OHMS
NGLF11 SECTION
Figure 46
SHUNT m- DERIVED FILTER PI SECTIONS
graph by Applebaum, reprinted with per-
mission from the April, 1697 issue of EDN
magazine, Rogers Publishing Co., Engle-
The T section configuration used in series wood, Colo.)
m- derived filters is shown in the nomograph
of figure 43, with the appropriate design
formulas. The correct value of m is found The Shunt, The pi section for the
by the use of nomograph # 2 of figure 44. m- Derived Filter shunt, m- derived filter is
No units are given for f, and f x since shown in figure 46, using
any frequency may be used provided that the nomenclature shown. The values of
both scales use the same units. The value these components are found by using homo-
of m is determined by aligning a straightedge graphs #2 and #3 of figures 44 and 45,
from the value of f x on its scale through just as with the series, m- derived filter de-
the value of f, on its scale. The value of sign.
m is found where the straightedge inter- Example: Design a low -pass, series m-
sects the horizontal in scale. derived filter with a cutoff frequency of
The values of filter components LA, LB, 7 kHz, a maximum attenuation at 8 kHz,
and C are found with the aid of nomograph and terminating in 90 ohms. Using the
#3 of figure 45. Note that LA, and CA are nomograph of figure 44, in is determined to
found by using the left -hand scales, and be 0.485.
LB and CA are found by using the right - On the nomograph ( #1 of figure 41)
hand scales. using f, = 7 kHz and R = 90 on both
By extending a straightedge from either R(C) and R(L) scales, the value of L and
L or C to the value of m (as found in figure C are determined to be: L2 = 0.0042 henry
44) on their appropriate scales, LA, LB, and and C2 = 0.51 ofd. Therefore, on nomo-
CB are found where this line intersects the graph #3 of figure 45, LA = 0.002 henry
center scale. Any units may be used for (2 mH) , CB = 0.25 ofd and LB = 0.0017
L or C provided the same units are used henry (1.7 mH) . The final filter design is
for Cn or LA and LB, respectively. (Nomo- shown in figure 47.
CHAPTER FOUR
Vacuum -Tube Principles
'In the previous chapters we have seen the electrons which have been emitted. The
manner in which an electric current flows electron source is called the cathode, and the
through a metallic conductor as a result of electron collector is usually called the anode.
an electron drift. This drift, which takes Some external source of energy must be ap-
place when there is a difference in potential plied to the cathode in order to impart suffi-
between the ends of the metallic conductor, cient velocity to the electrons within the
is in addition to the normal random electron cathode material to enable them to overcome
motion between the molecules of the con- the surface forces and thus escape into the
ductor. surrounding medium. In the usual types of
The electron may be considered as a min- electron tubes the cathode energy is applied
ute negatively charged particle, having a in the form of heat; electron emission from
mass of 9 X 10-u gram, and a charge of a heated cathode is called thermionic emis-
1.59 X 10-18 coulomb. Electrons are always sion. In another common type of electron
identical, regardless of the source from tube, the photoelectric, cell, energy in the
which they are obtained. form of light is applied to the cathode to
An electric current can be caused to cause photoelectric emission.
flow through other media than a metallic
conductor. One such medium is an ionized
solution, such as the sulfuric acid electrolyte 4 -1 Thermionic Emission
in a storage battery. This type of current
flow is called electrolytic conduction. Fur- Electron Emission of electrons from the
ther, it was shown at about the turn of the Emission cathode of a thermionic electron
century that an electric current can be tube takes place when the cath-
carried by a stream of free electrons in an ode of the tube is heated to a tempera-
evacuated chamber. The flow of a current ture sufficiently high that the free elec-
in such a manner is said to take place by trons in the emitter have sufficient velocity
electronic conduction. The study of elec- to overcome the restraining forces at the
tron tubes (also called vacuum tubes, or surface of the material. These surface forces
valves) is actually the study of the control vary greatly with different materials. Hence
and use of electronic currents within an different types of cathodes must be raised
evacuated or partially evacuated chamber. to different temperatures to obtain adequate
Since the current flow in an electron tube quantities of electron emission. The several
takes place in an evacuated chamber, there types of emitters found in common types of
must be located within the enclosure both transmitting and receiving tubes will be
a source of electrons and a collector for the described in the following paragraphs.
84 Vacuum -Tube Principles RADIO
Figure 1
ELECTRON -TUBE TYPES
At the left are two Nuvistor

types intended for vhf op-
eration in TV tuners and
receivers up to 450 MHz or
so. Next is a typical mini-
ature glass receiving tube
alongside an old -style
metal, octal -based tube. At
the right are an octal -
based glass audio tube and
(at far right) a nine -pin
based sweep tube intended
for use in color television
receivers (type 6LQ6). This
i
type of tube is often used
as a linear amplifier in
`...i........i....... ,....,,...............,i.,......i.,..........,.,..i-..,.-i..,,1..*.ri...a.,.,.i amateur -type single -side-
band transmitting equip
ment.
Cathode Types The emitters or cathodes as tubes. Tungsten is not adversely affected by
used in present -day thermi- such bombardment.
onic electron tubes may be classified into
The Thoriated- In the course of experi-
two groups; the directly heated or fila-
Tungsten Filament ments made upon tung-
ment type and the indirectly heated or
heater- cathode type. Directly heated emit- sten emitters, it was found
ters may be further subdivided into three that filaments made from tungsten having a
important groups, all of which are common- small amount of thoria (thorium oxide) as
ly used in modern vacuum tubes. These an impurity had much greater emission than
classifications are: the pure- tungsten fila- those made from the pure metal. Subsequent
ment, the thoriated- tungsten filament, and development has resulted in the highly effi-
the oxide -coated filament. cient carburized thoriated- tungsten filament
as used in many medium-power trans-
The Pure -Tung- Pure -tungsten wire was used mitting tubes today.
sten Filament as the filament in nearly all Thoriated- tungsten emitters consist of a
the earlier transmitting and tungsten wire containing from 1% to 2%
receiving tubes. However, the thermionic thoria. The activation process varies between
efficiency of tungsten wire as an emitter different manufacturers of vacuum tubes,
(the number of milliamperes emission per but it is essentially as follows: (1) the tube
watt of filament -heating power) is quite is evacuated; (2) the filament is burned for
low; the filaments become fragile after use; a short period at about 2800 Kelvin to
their life is rather short, and they are sus- clean the surface and reduce some of the
ceptible to burnout at any time. Pure -tung- thoria within the filament to metallic thor-
sten filaments must be run at bright white ium; (3) the filament is burned for a longer
heat (about 2500 Kelvin). For these rea- period at about 2100 Kelvin to form a
sons, tungsten filaments have been replaced layer of thorium on the surface of the
in all applications where another type of tungsten; (4) the temperature is reduced
filament could be used. They are, however, to about 1600 Kelvin and some pure hy-
occasionally employed in large water -cooled drocarbon gas is admitted to form a layer
tubes and in certain large, high -power of tungsten carbide on the surface of the
air - cooled triodes where another filament tungsten. This layer of tungsten carbide re-
type would be unsuitable. Tungsten fila- duces the rate of thorium evaporation from
ments are the most satisfactory for high - the surface at the normal operating temper-
power, high -voltage tubes where the emitter ature of the filament and thus increases the
is subjected to positive ion bombardment operating life of the vacuum tube. Tho-
caused by the residual gas content of the rium evaporation from the surface is a natu-
HANDBOOK Types of Emitters 85
I.ll ll
ONE INCH
Figure 2
VHF and UHF TUBE TYPES

At the left is an 8058 nuvistor tetrode, rep- X -843 (fimac) planar triode designed to de-
resentative of the family of small vhf types liver over 100 watts at 2100 MHz The tube is
useful in receivers and low power transmitters. used in a grounded -grid cavity configuration.
The second type is an 6816 planar tetrode The tube to the right is a 7213 planar tetrode,
rated at 180 watts input to 1215 MHz. The rated at 2500 watts input to 1215 MHz. All of
third tube from the left is a 3CX100A5 planar these vhf /uhf negative -grid tubes make use
triode, an improved and ruggedized version of ceramic insulation for lowest envelope loss
of the 2C39A, and rated at 100 watts input to at the higher frequencies and the larger ones
2900 MHz. The fourth tube from the left is the have coaxial bases for use in resonant cavities.
ral consequence of the operation of the as a result of insufficient filament voltage, a

thoriated- tungsten filament. The carburized severe temporary overload, a less severe ex-
layer on the tungsten wire plays another tended overload, or even normal operation
role in acting as a reducing agent to produce may quite frequently be reactivated to their
new thorium from the thoria to replace that original characteristics by a process similar
lost by evaporation. This new thorium con- to that of the original activation. However,
tinually diffuses to the surface during the only filaments which have not approached
normal operation of the filament. too close to the end of their useful life may
The last process, (5) , in the activation of be successfully reactivated.
a thoriated- tungsten filament consists of re- The actual process of reactivation is rel-
evacuating the envelope and then burning or atively simple. The tube which has gone
aging the new filament for a considerable "flat" is placed in a socket to which only
period of time at the normal operating the two filament wires have been connected.
temperature of approximately 1900 K. The filament is then "flashed" for about 20
One thing to remember about any type of to 40 seconds at about 11r_ times normal
filament, particularly the thoriated type, is rated voltage. The filament will become ex-
that the emitter deteriorates practically as tremely bright during this time and, if
fast when "standing by" (no plate cur- there is still some thoria left in the tungsten
rent) as it does with any normal amount of and if the tube did not originally fail as a
emission load. Also, a thoriated filament may result of an air leak, some of this thoria
be either temporarily or permanently dam- will be reduced to metallic thorium. The
aged by a heavy overload which may strip filament is then burned at 15 to 25 percent
the surface layer of thorium from the fila- overvoltage for from 30 minutes to 3 to 4
ment. hours to bring this new thorium to the
surface.
Reactivating Thoriated- tungsten fila- The tube should then be tested to see if
Thoriated- Tungsten ments (and only thori- it shows signs of renewed life. If it does, but
Filaments ated- tungsten filaments) is still weak, the burning process should be
which have lost emission continued at about 10 to 15 percent over-
voltage for a few more hours. This should

bring it back almost to normal. If the tube 6C4
checks still very low after the first attempt
at reactivation, the complete process can AT
be repeated as a last effort.

The Oxide- The most efficient of all
Coated Filament modern filaments is the HEATER
oxide -coated type which HEATER
consists of a mixture of barium and stron-
tium oxides coated on a nickel alloy wire or
strip. This type of filament operates at a Figure 3
dull -red to orange -red temperature (1050 CUTAWAY DRAWING OF A 6C4 TRIODE
to 1170 K) at which temperature it will
emit large quantities of electrons. The oxide -
coated filament is somewhat more efficient would be destroyed in an exceedingly short
than the thoriated- tungsten type in small period of time.
sizes and it is considerably less expensive to The activation of oxide -coated filaments
manufacture. For this reason all receiving also varies with tube manufacturers but
tubes and quite a number of the low -pow- consists essentially in heating the wire which
ered transmitting tubes use the oxide- coated has been coated with a mixture of barium
and strontium carbonates to a temperature
filament. Another advantage of the oxide-
coated emitter is its extremely long life
the average tube can be expected to run
- of about 1500 Kelvin for a time and then
applying a potential of 100 to 200 volts
through a protective resistor to limit the
from 3000 to 5000 hours, and when loaded
very lightly, tubes of this type have been emission current. This process thermally
known to give 50,000 hours of life before reduces the carbonates to oxides, cleans the
their characteristics changed to any great filament surface of foreign materials, and
extent. activates the cathode surface.
Oxide filaments are unsatisfactory for use Reactivation of oxide-coated filaments is
at very high plate voltage because: (1) not possible since there is always more than
their activity is seriously impaired by the sufficient reduction of the oxides and diffu-
high temperature necessary to de -gas the sion of the metals to the surface of the
high -voltage tubes and, (2) the positive ion filament to meet the emission needs of the
bombardment which takes place even in the cathode.
best evacuated high -voltage tube causes de- The Heater The heater -type cathode was de-
struction of the oxide layer on the surface of Cathode veloped as a result of the re-
the filament. quirement for a type of emitter
Oxide- coated emitters have been found which could be operated from alternating
capable of emitting an enormously large current and yet would not introduce a -c
current pulse with a high applied voltage ripple modulation even when used in low -
for a very short period of time without level stages. It consists essentially of a small
damage. This characteristic has proved to nickel -alloy cylinder with a coating of
be of great value in radar work. For example, strontium and barium oxides on its surface
the relatively small cathode in a microwave similar to the coating used on the oxide -
magnetron may be called on to deliver 25 to coated filament. Inside the cylinder is an
50 amperes at an applied voltage of perhaps insulated heater element consisting usually
25,000 volts for a period in the order of one of a double spiral of tungsten wire. The
microsecond. After this large current pulse heater may operate on any voltage from 2
has been passed, plate voltage normally will to 117 volts, although 6.3 is the most com-
be removed for 1000 microseconds or more mon value. The heater is operated at quite
so that the cathode surface may recover s high temperature so that the cathode itself
in time for the next pulse of current. If the usually may be brought to operating tem-
cathode were to be subjected to a contin- perature in a matter of 15 to 30 seconds.
uous current drain of this magnitude, it Heat- coupling between the heater and the
HANDBOOK Thermionic Emission 87
Electron emission per unit area of emitting

surface is a function of the temperature (T)
in degrees Kelvin, the work function of
emitting surface b (which is a measure of
the surface forces of the material and hence
of the energy required of the electron be-
fore it may escape), and of the constant
(A) which also varies with the emitting
surface. The relationship between emission
current in amperes per square centimeter
(C) and the above quantities can be ex-
Figure 4 pressed as:
CUTAWAY DRAWING OF A 6CB6 PENTODE I = AT2e /T
Secondary The bombarding of most metals
Emission and a few insulators by electrons
cathode is mainly by radiation, although will result in the emission of other
there is some thermal conduction through electrons by a process called secondary emis-
the insulating coating on the heater wire, sion. The secondary electrons are literally
since this coating is also in contact with the knocked from the surface layers of the bom-
cathode thimble. barded material by the primary electrons
Indirectly heated cathodes are employed which strike the material. The number of
in all a -c operated tubes which are designed secondary electrons emitted per primary
to operate at a low level either for r -f or electron varies from a very small percent-
a -f use. However, some receiver power tubes
age to as high as to 10 secondary electrons
S
use heater cathodes (6L6, 6V6, 6F6, and per primary.
6K6 -GT) as do some of the low -power The phenomena of secondary emission is
transmitter tubes (802, 807, 8H, 3E29, undesirable for most thermionic electron
2E26, f763, 6146, etc.). Heater cathodes tubes. However, the process is used to ad-
are employed almost exclusively when a
vantage in certain types of electron tubes
number of tubes are to be operated in series such as the image orthicon (TV camera
as in an a -c /d -c receiver. A heater cathode
tube) and the electron -multiplier type of
is often called a unipotential cathode be-
photoelectric cell. In types of electron tubes
cause there is no voltage drop along its which make use of secondary emission, such
length as there is in the directly heated or as the type 931 photocell, the secondary-
filament cathode. electron emitting surfaces are specially
treated to provide a high ratio of secondary
to primary electrons. Thus a high degree of
The Emission The emission of electrons from current amplification in the electron- multi-
Equation a heated cathode is quite sim- plier section of the tube is obtained.
ilar to the evaporation of mole-
cules from the surface of a liquid. The mole-
cules which leave the surface are those The Space- As a cathode is heated so that
having sufficient kinetic (heat) energy to Charge Effect it begins to emit, those elec-
overcome the forces at the surface of the trons which have been dis-
liquid. As the temperature of the liquid is charged into the surrounding space form a
raised, the average velocity of the molecules negatively charged cloud in the immediate
is increased, and a greater number of mole- vicinity of the cathode. This cloud of elec-
cules will acquire sufficient energy to be trons around the cathode is called the space
evaporated. The evaporation of electrons charge. The electrons comprising the charge
from the surface of a thermionic emitter is are continuously changing, since those elec-
similarly a function of average electron ve- trons making up the original charge fall
locity, and hence is a function of the tem- back into the cathode and are replaced by
perature of the emitter. others emitted by it.
600
TYPE 6W4 -GT
Ei = 6 3 VOLTS
SIDE COATED
600 ,,ATED TUNGSTDN
Ul
// TUNGSTEN f AMENI
<400
POINT Of MAXIMUM SPACE -
J CHARGE -LIMITED EMISSION
200
J
Q.
PLATE VOLTAGE
20 30 40 So
Figure 6
DC PLATE VOLTS
MAXIMUM SPACE -CHARGE -LIMITED
Figure 5
EMISSION FOR DIFFERENT
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS TYPES OF EMITTERS
OF A POWER DIODE
The Three- Halves At moderate values of

Power Law plate voltage the cur-
rent flow from cath-
4 -2 The Diode ode to anode is limited by the space charge
of electrons around the cathode. Increased
If a cathode capable of being heated either values of plate voltage will tend to neutral-
indirectly or directly is placed in an evacu- ize a greater portion of the cathode space
ated envelope along with a plate, such a charge and hence will cause a greater cur-
two -clement vacuum tube is called a diode. rent to flow.
The diode is the simplest of all vacuum tubes Under these conditions, with plate cur-
and is the fundamental type from which all rent limited by the cathode space charge, the
the others are derived. plate current is not linear with plate voltage.
in fact it may be stated in general that the
plate- current flow in diode tubes does not
Characteristics When the cathode within a obey Ohm's Law. Rather, plate current in-
of the Diode diode is heated, it will be creases as the three -halves power of the
found that a few of the elec- plate voltage. The relationship between plate
trons leaving the cathode will leave with voltage, (E) and cathode current (I) can
sufficient velocity to reach the plate. If the be expressed as:
plate is electrically connected back to the
cathode, the electrons which have had suf- I-KE'i2
ficient velocity to arrive at the plate will
where,
flow back to the cathode through the ex-
ternal circuit. This small amount of initial K is a constant determined by the geome-
plate current is an effect found in all two - try of the element structure within the
element vacuum tubes. diode tube.
If a battery or other source of d -c voltage
is placed in the external circuit between the
Plate-Current As plate voltage is raised to
plate and cathode so that it places a posi- Saturation the potential where the
tive potential on the plate, the flow of cur- cathode space charge is neu-
rent from the cathode to plate will he in- tralized, all the electrons that the cathode is
creased. This is due to the strong attraction capable of emitting are being attracted to
offered by the positively charged plate for the plate. The electron tube is said then to
any negatively charged particles (figure 5). have reached saturation plate current.
HANDBOOK Triode Characteristics 89
emission with an oxide -coated emitter is

generally considered to result from a lower-
ing of the surface work function by the
field at the cathode resulting from the plate
potential.
Electron Energy The current flowing in the

Dissipation plate- cathode space of a con-
ducting electron tube repre-
Figure 7 sents the energy required to accelerate elec-
ACTION OF THE GRID IN A TRIODE trons from the zero potential of the cathode
space charge to the potential of the anode.
(A) shows the triode tube with cutoff bias on Then, when these accelerated electrons strike
the grid. Note that all the electrons emitted
by the cathode remain inside the grid mesh. the anode, the energy associated with their
(B) shows the same tube with an intermediate velocity is immediately released to the anode
value of bias on the grid. Note the medium structure. In normal electron tubes this
value of plate current and the fact that there
is a reserve of electrons remaining within the energy release appears as heating of the plate
grid mesh. (C) shows the operation with a or anode structure.
relatively small amount of bias which with
certain tube types will allow substantially all
the electrons emitted by the cathode to reach
the plate. Emission is said to be saturated in 4 -3 The Triode
this case. In a majority of tube types a high
value of positive grid voltage is required be-
fore plate- current saturation takes place. If an element consisting of a mesh or
spiral of wire is inserted concentric with the
plate and between the plate and the cathode,
such an element will be able to control by
Further increase in plate voltage will cause electrostatic action the cathode -to -plate cur-
only a relatively small increase in plate cur-
rent. The initial point of plate- current sat- rent of the tube. The new element is called
a grid, and a vacuum tube containing a cath-
uration is sometimes called the point of
ode, grid, and plate is commonly called a
Maximum Space -Charge- Limited Emission.
triode.
The degree of flattening in the plate -volt-
age plate- current curve after the limited - Action of If this new element through which
emission point will vary with different types the Grid the electrons must pass in their
of cathodes. This effect is shown in figure 6. course from cathode to plate is
The flattening is quite sharp with a pure made negative with respect to the cathode,
tungsten emitter. With thoriated tungsten the negative charge on this grid will effec-
the flattening is smoothed somewhat, while tively repel the negatively charged electrons
with an oxide- coated cathode the flattening (like charges repel; unlike charges attract)
is quite gradual. The gradual saturation in back into the space charge surrounding the
emission with an oxide -coated emitter is cathode. Hence, the number of electrons
generally considered to result from a lower- which are able to pass through the grid
ing of the surface work function by the mesh and reach the plate will be reduced,
field at the cathode resulting from the plate and the plate current will be reduced ac-
potential. cordingly. If the charge on the grid is made
The degree of flattening in the plate -volt- sufficiently negative, all the electrons leav-
age plate- current curve after the limited - ing the cathode will be repelled back to it
emission point will vary with different types and the plate current will be reduced to
of cathodes. This effect is shown in figure 6. zero. Any d -c voltage placed on a grid is
The flattening is quite sharp with a pure called a bias (especially so when speaking
tungsten emitter. With thoriated tungsten of a control grid). The smallest negative
the flattening is smoothed somewhat, while voltage which will cause cutoff of plate cur-
with an oxide- coated cathode the flattening rent at a particular plate voltage is called
is quite gradual. The gradual saturation in the value of cutoff bias (figure 7).
Amplification The amount of plate current where,

Factor in a triode is a result of the K is a constant determined by element
net field at the cathode from geometry within the triode.
interaction between the field caused by the
grid bias and that caused by the plate volt- Plate Resistance
age. Hence, both grid bias and plate voltage
The dynamic plate resist-
ance of a vacuum tube is
affect the plate current. In all normal tubes the ratio of a change in plate voltage to the
a small change in grid bias has a consider-
change in plate current which the change
ably greater effect than a similar change in in plate voltage produces. To be accurate,
plate voltage. The ratio between the change the changes should be very small with respect
in grid bias and the change in plate current to the operating values. Expressed as an
which will cause the same small change in equation:
plate current is called the amplification fac-
tor or of the electron tube. Expressed as
an equation: = Q
r5
= - The dynamic plate resistance can also be

determined by the experiment mentioned
with I,, constant (.1 represents a small incre- above. By noting the change in plate cur-
ment) . rent as it occurs when the plate voltage is
The can be determined experimentally changed (grid voltage held constant), and
by making a small change in grid bias, thus by dividing the latter by the former, the
slightly changing the plate current. The plate resistance can be determined. Plate
plate current is then returned to the original resistance is expressed in ohms.
value by making a change in the plate volt-
age. The ratio of the change in plate voltage Tronsconductanee The mutual conductance,
to the change in grid voltage is the of the also referred to as trans-
tube under the operating conditions chosen conductance, is the ratio of a change in the
for the test. The of modern triodes ranges plate current to the change in grid voltage
from f to 200. which brought about the plate- current
change, the plate voltage being held con-
Current Flow stant. Expressed as an equation:
In a diode it was shown that
in a Triode the electrostatic field at the
cathode was proportional to
the plate potential (E,,) and that the total
cathode current was proportional to the where,
three- halves power of the plate voltage.
Similarly, in a triode it can be shown that
E,, is held constant.
the field at the cathode space charge is pro- The transconductance is also numerically
portional to the equivalent voltage (E, + equal to the amplification factor divided by
E,, /), where the amplification factor () the plate resistance. Gm =
actually represents the relative effectiveness Transconductance is most commonly ex-
of grid potential and plate potential in pro- pressed in microreciprocal -ohms or micro -
ducing a field at the cathode. mhos. However, since transconductance ex-
It would then be expected that the cath- presses change in plate current as a function
ode current in a triode would be proportion- of a change in grid voltage, a tube is often
al to the three -halves power of (E, + said to have a transconductance of so many
E,, /). The cathode current of a triode can milliamperes per volt. If the transconduct-
be represented with fair accuracy by the ance in milliamperes per volt is multiplied
expression: by 1000 it will then be expressed in mi-
cathode current = K (E, + -

Eb .i:
cromhos. Thus the transconductance of a
6A3 could be called either 5.25 ma /volt or
5250 micromhos.
HANDBOOK
G
g
3
16
12
O
.
Im mamma
11,11,
mo
Alu =
mmuirmmomm
r/.,/lll1
M
dsmomim
MEfMWiEM
m
ri1MI11IIri1.I1
AMI/,II//MAIII/I
.,.,.
,...,.a1,..
o
mr
,.,..=a,
, mrimmimmimol,
/GIG!!ICmmCm2s/%
100 200
I
,.. ,
300
PLATE VOLTS (Et.)
TYPE
Er
..,
II...
6J5
6.3 VOLTS
400 300
W
J
O
>
w
1-
350
300
zso
200
'" .
-.,,.
,,,.,
\\ì
Triode Load Lines
01..,.
-20 -IS -0
GRID VOLTS
Figure 10
0
Eb)
+3 +10
91
'.",.E,
.13 .20
Figure 8
CONSTANT CURRENT (Eh vs. E,)
NEGATIVE -GRID CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS OF A
(I1, VS. E0 CURVES) OF A
TYPICAL TRIODE TUBE
TYPICAL TRIODE
This type of graphical rep tation Is used
Average plate characteristics of this form for class -C amplifier calculations since the
are most commonly used in determining the operating characteristic of a class -C amplifier
class -A operating characteristics of a triode is a straight line when drawn on a constant -
amplifier stage. current graph.
Characteristic Curves The operating charac- 9) and the E,, vs. Er. curve (figure 10).
of a Triode Tube teristics of a triode The plate resistance (re) of the tube may
tube may be summa- be observed from the th vs. Eh curve, the
rized in three sets of curves. The I,, vs. E,, transconductance (Gm) may be observed
curve (figure 8), the In vs. E, curve (figure from the 1,, vs. E. curve and the amplifica-
tion factor (ic) may be determined from the
E1, vs. Er curve.
430
The Load Line A load line is a graphical
400
representation of the voltage
330 on the plate of a vacuum tube and the cur-
300
rent passing through the plate circuit of the
.51
tube for various values of plate load resist-
230
ance and plate supply voltage. Figure 11
200 illustrates a triode tube with a resistive plate
load, and a supply voltage of 300 volts. The
130
voltage at the plate of the tube (eh) may be
10O expressed as:
30
0
-6ti-20 10 20 20 40 30 SO 0 20 90 100
e,, = E,, - (i1, X R1,)
GRID VOLTAGE (E,I
Figure 9 where,
POSITIVE -GRID CHARACTERISTICS E,, is the plate supply voltage,
(Ih vs. Er) OF A TYPICAL TRIODE is the plate current,
Plate characteristics of this type are most 111, is the load resistance in ohms.
commonly used in determining the pulse -
signal operating characteristics of a triode Assuming various values of ih flowing in
amplifier stage. Note the large emission cap- the circuit, controlled by the internal resist-
ability of the oxide -coated heater cathode In
tubes of the general type of the 6JS. ance of the tube (a function of the grid
6SN7
Ib (uA) eb
o 300
3 250
0 200 RL=eK
is 150
20 loo
25 so
30 0 - II - 11111111
Ec Et, 3oov.
Figure 12
STATIC LOAD LINE
FOR RL 10000 n TRIODE TUBE CONNECTED FOR DETER-
MINATION OF PLATE -CIRCUIT LOAD
LINE AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
OF THE CIRCUIT
.
eb
slope = .01 - .02
Figure 11 100 200 )
The static load line
with a
for a typical triode tube
plate load resistance of 10,000 ohms.
=- .0001 =- 1
10,000
The slope of the load line equal to is
bias), values of plate voltage may be plotted -voltage
/R1,. At point A on the load line, the
1
as shown for each value of plate current tube is zero. This would
across the
(i,,). The line connecting these points is be true for a perfect tube with zero inter-
called the load line for the particular value nal voltage drop, or if the tube is short -cir-
of plate load resistance used. The slope of cuited from cathode to plate. Point B on the
the load line is equal to the ratio of the load line corresponds to the cutoff point of
lengths of the vertical and horizontal pro- the tube, where no plate current is flowing.
jections of any segment of the load line. The operating range of the tube lies between
these two extremes. For additional informa-
For this example it is: tion regarding dynamic load lines, the reader
40
373
35
30 .04
OAO LIN!' lOOOD
J
u 23
1NSTANTANlOW'
pID SWING
< Figure 13
iL
a
.i
'bmaa +1W
W
20
I!
v ,4
.t.
{
APPLICATION OF l., vs. E,
CHARACTERISTICS OF
A VACUUM TUBE
' S
JG
10 -iMCL
Ib moo +7.5
3
1
0 Ice
x Zoo 300 00 500
N
PLATE VOLTS (Eb)
I-I
c c
a
Y Y
SA VOLT PLAT! SWING
HANDBOOK Polarity Inversion 93
- -,
D-C BiA5 LEVEL (EC)

CP-K
-e
T --
+ 11125 Figure 15
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
STEADY -]TATE
p +12.75 PLATE CURRENT D1 OF INTERELECTRODE
CAPACITANCE
+ 7.5
volts. The steady or quiescent operation of

o
T- the tube is determined by the intersection of
the load line with the -4
volt curve at
point Q. By projection from point Q
through the plate- current axis it is found
STEADY -STATE
PLATE VOLTAGE sED) that the value of plate current with no sig-
Ep nal applied to the grid is 12.75 milliamperes.
By projection from point Q through the
plate -voltage axis it is found that the quies-
cent plate voltage is 198 volts. This leaves
a drop of 102 volts across RI, which is
Figure 14 borne out by the relation 0.01275 X 8000
POLARITY REVERSAL BETWEEN GRID
102 volts.
AND PLATE VOLTAGES An alternating voltage of 4 volts maxi-
mum swing about the normal bias value of
-4 volts is applied now to the grid of the
is referred to the Radiotrog. Designer's triode amplifier. This signal swings robe grid
Handbook distributed by Radio Corporation in a positive direction to 0 volts, and in a
of America. negative direction to -8 volts, and estab-
lishes the operating region of the tube along
Application of Tube As an example of the the load line between points A and B. Thus
Characteristics application of tube char- the maxima and minima of the plate voltage
acteristics, the constants and plate current are established. By projec-
of the triode amplifier circuit shown in fig- tion from points A and B through the plate -
ure 12 may be considered. The plate supply current axis the maximum instantaneous
is 300 volts, and the plate load is 8000 ohms. plate current is found to be 18.25 milliam-
It the tube is considered to be an open cir- peres and the minimum is 7.5 milliamperes.
cuit no plate current will flow, and there is By projections from points A and B through
no voltage drop across the plate load re- the plate- voltage axis the minimum instan-
sistor (RI). The plate voltage on the tube taneous plate -voltage swing is found to be
is therefore 300 volts. If, on the other hand, 154 volts and the maximum is 240 volts.
the tube is considered to be a short circuit, By this graphical application of the 1I, vs.
maximum possible plate current flows and E,, characteristic of the 6SN7 triode the
the full 300 volt drop appears across RI,. operation of the circuit illustrated in figure
The plate voltage is zero, and the plate cur- 12 becomes apparent. A voltage variation of
8 volts (peak to peak) on the grid produces
rent is 300/1000, or 37.5 milliamperes.
These two extreme conditions define the a variation of 84 volts at the plate.
ends of the load line on the 11, vs. En char-
acteristic curve figure 13. Polarity Inversion
When the signal voltage
For this application. the grid of the tube applied to the grid has its
is returned to a steady biasing voltage of -4 maximum positive instantaneous value the
TYPE 6SK7
ec2 100 v.
ecs'ov.
100 200 300 a0C SOC 100 200 300 400 700
VOLTS (Ep VOLTS MO
Figure 16 Figure 17
TYPICAL I, vs. E, TETRODE TYPICAL I, vs. E, PENTODE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
plate current is also maximum. Reference to plate -to- cathode capacitance. The interelec-
figure 12 shows that this maximum plate trode capacitance, though very small, has a
current flows through plate -load resistor coupling effect, and often can cause un-
R(,, producing a maximum voltage drop balance in a particular circuit. At very -high
across it. The lower end of R1. is connected frequencies (vhf), interelectrode capaci-
to the plate supply, and is therefore held at tances become very objectionable and pre-
a constant potential of 300 volts. With max- vent the use of conventional tubes at these
imum voltage drop across the load resistor, frequencies. Special vhf tubes must be used
the upper end of R1. is at a minimum in- which are characterized by very small elec-
stantaneous voltage. The plate of the tube trodes and close internal spacing of the ele-
is connected to this end of R1. and is there- ments of the tube.
fore at the same minimum instantaneous
potential. 4 -4 Tetrode and
Thispolarity reversal between instantane-
ous grid and plate voltages is further clari-
Screen -Grid Tubes
fied by a consideration of Kirchhoff's law as
Many desirable characteristics can be ob-
it applies to series resistance. The sum of the tained in a vacuum tube by the use of more
IR drops around the plate circuit must at all than one grid. The most common multiele-
times equal the supply voltage of 300 volts. ment tube is the tetrode (four electrodes).
Thus when the instantaneous voltage drop Other tubes containing as many as eight
across RL is maximum, the voltage drop electrodes are available for special applica-
across the tube is minimum, and their sum tions.
must equal 300 volts. The variations of grid
voltage, plate current and plate voltage The Tetrode The quest for a simple and
about their steady -state values is illustrated easily usable method of elimi-
in figure 14. nating the effects of the grid -to-plate
capacitance of the triode led to the develop-
Interelectrode Capacitance always exists be- ment of the screen -grid tube, or tetrode.
Capacitance tween any two pieces of metal When another grid is added between the
separated by a dielectric. The grid and plate of a vacuum tube the tube is
exact amount of capacitance depends on the called a tetrode, and because the new grid
size of the metal pieces, the dielectric be- is called a screen, as a result of its screening
tween them, and the type of dielectric. The or shielding action, the tube is often called a
electrodes of a vacuum tube have a similar screen -grid tube. The interposed screen grid
characteristic known as interelectrode capac- acts as an electrostatic shield between the
itance, illustrated in figure 15. These direct grid and plate, with the consequence that
capacitances in a triode are: grid -to- cathode the grid -to -plate capacitance is reduced.
capacitance, grid -to-plate capacitance, and Although the screen grid is maintained at a
HANDBOOK Screen -Grid Tubes 95
positive voltage with respect to the cathode minimum plate voltage. The secondary elec-
of the tube, it is maintained at ground po- trons that would travel to the screen if
tential with respect to r.f. by means of a there were no suppressor are diverted back
bypass capacitor of very low reactance at to the plate. The plate current is, therefore,
the frequency of operation. not reduced and the amplification possibili-
In addition to the shielding effect, the ties are increased (figure 17).
screen grid serves another very useful pur- Pentodes for audio applications are de-
pose. Since the screen is maintained at a signed so that the suppressor increases the
positive potential, it serves to increase or limits to which the plate voltage may swing;
accelerate the flow of electrons to the plate. therefore the consequent power output and
There being large openings in the screen gain can be very great. Pentodes for radio -
mesh, most of the electrons pass through it frequency service function in such a man-
and on to the plate. Due also to the screen, ner that the suppressor allows high voltage
the plate current is largely independent of gain, at the same time permitting fairly
plate voltage, thus making for high ampli- high gain at low plate voltage. This holds
fication. When the screen voltage is held at true even if the plate voltage is the same or
a constant value, it is possible to make large slightly lower than the screen voltage.
changes in plate voltage without appreciably
affecting the plate current, (figure 16). Remote -Cutoff Remote -cutoff tubes (vari-
When the electrons from the cathode ap- Tubes able- ) are screen- grid
proach the plate with sufficient velocity, tubes in which the control
they dislodge electrons on striking the plate. grid structure has been physically modified
This effect of bombarding the plate with so as to cause the plate current of the tube
high-velocity electrons, with the consequent to drop off gradually, rather than to have a
dislodgement of other electrons from the well- defined cutoff point (figure 18). A non-
plate, gives rise to the condition of second- uniform control -grid structure is used, so
ary emission which has been discussed in a that the amplification factor is different for
previous paragraph. This effect can cause no different parts of the control grid.
particular difficulty in a triode because the Remote -cutoff tubes are used in circuits
secondary electrons so emitted are eventually where it is desired to control the amplifica-
attracted back to the plate. In the screen - tion by varying the control -grid bias. The
grid tube, however, the screen is close to the characteristic curve of an ordinary screen -
plate and is maintained at a positive poten- grid tube has considerable curvature near
tial. Thus, the screen will attract these elec- the plate- current cutoff point, while the
trons which have been knocked from the curve of a remote -cutoff tube is much more
plate, particularly when the plate voltage linear (figure 19). The remote -cutoff tube
falls to a lower value than the screen volt- minimizes cross -talk interference that would
age, with the result that the plate current is otherwise be produced. Examples of remote
lowered and the amplification is decreased. cutoff tubes are: 6BD6, 6BA6, 6SG7 and
In the application of tetrodes, it is neces- 6SK7.
sary to operate the plate at a high voltage in
relation to the screen in order to overcome
Beam -Power A beam -power tube makes use
Tubes of another method of suppres-
these effects of secondary emission.
sing secondary emission. In this
The Pentode The undesirable effects of sec- tube there are four electrodes: a cathode, a
ondary emission from the plate grid, a screen, and a plate, so spaced and
can be greatly reduced if yet another ele- placed that secondary emission from the
ment is added between the screen and plate. plate is suppressed without actual power loss.
This additional element is called a suppres- Because of the manner in which the elec-
sor, and tubes in which it is used are called trodes are spaced, the electrons which travel
pentodes. The suppressor grid is sometimes to the plate are slowed down when the plate
connected to the cathode within the tube; voltage is low, almost to zero velocity in a
sometimes it is brought out to a connecting certain region between screen and plate. For
pin on the tube base, but in any case it is this reason the electrons form a stationary
established negative with respect to the cloud, or space charge. The effect of this
- GRID
ATH001:
rAID
rCAf1100r
by various manufacturers for use in the
radio- frequency stages of transmitters. These
tubes feature extremely high power sensitiv-
-I.I ity (a very small amount of driving power
..I
'e. is required for a large output), good plate
'.I efficiency, and low grid -to -plate capacitance.
Examples of these tubes are 813, 4-250A,
4CX2 S 0B, etc.
REMOTE CUTOFF SHARP CUTOFF
GRID GR C
Grid -Screen The grid- screen factor
I
(g )
Figure 18 Mu Factor is analogous to the amplification
REMOTE -CUTOFF GRID STRUCTURE factor in a triode, except that
the screen of a pentode or tetrode is sub-
stituted for the plate of a triode. R denotes
space charge is to repel secondary electrons the ratio of a change in grid voltage to a
emitted from the plate and thus cause them change in screen voltage, each of which will
to return to the plate. In this way, secondary produce the same change in screen current.
emission is suppressed. Expressed as an equation?
Another feature of the beam -power tube
is the low current drawn by the screen. The
DE2
=
screen and the grid are spiral wires wound DEci
so that each turn in the screen is shaded where
from the cathode by a grid turn. This align- I,._ is held constant.
ment of the screen and the grid causes the
electrons to travel in sheets between the The grid -screen factor is important in
turns of the screen so that very few of them determining the operating bias of a tetrode
strike the screen itself. This formation of or pentode tube. The relationship between
the electron stream into sheets or beams in- control -grid potential and screen potential
creases the charge density in the screen -plate determines the plate current of the tube as
region and assists in the creation of the space well as the screen current since the plate
charge in this region. current is essentially independent of the
Because of the effective suppressor action plate voltage in tubes of this type. In other
provided by the space charge, and because of words, when the tube is operated at cutoff
the low current drawn by the screen, the bias as determined by the screen voltage and
beam -power tube has the advantages of high the grid -screen R factor (determined in
power output, high power sensitivity, and the same way as with a triode, by dividing
high efficiency. The 6AQS is such a beam - the operating voltage by the factor), the
power tube, designed for use in the power - plate current will be substantially at cutoff,
amplifier stages of receivers and speech am- as will be the screen current. The grid- screen
plifiers or modulators. Larger tubes employ- R factor is numerically equal to the am-
ing the beam -power principle are being made plification factor of the same tetrode or
pentode tube when it is triode connected.
Current Flow The following equation is the

in Tetrodes expression for total cathode
and Pentodes current in a triode tube. The
expression for the total cathode
current of a tetrode and a pentode tube is
the same, except that the screen -grid voltage
and the grid- screen , factor are used in
place of the plate voltage and of the
- GRID VOLTS o
triode.
Figure 19
ACTION OF A REMOTE -CUTOFF Cathode current = K (E01 }-
es h E, 8/2
GRID STRUCTURE R
HANDBOOK Mixer and Converter Tubes 97
Cathode current, of course, is the sum of

the screen and plate currents plus control - r
OSCILLATOR GRID
SCREEN GRID
PLATE
grid current in the event that the control

grid is positive with respect to the cathode.
It will be noted that total cathode current
is independent of plate voltage in a tetrode CATHODE P.-METAL SHELL
or pentode. Also, in the usual tetrode or

pentode the plate current is substantially
independent of plate voltage over the usual
operating range-which means simply that FILAMENT SUPPRESSOR AND SHELL
the effective plate resistance of such tubes SIGNAL GRID
is relatively high. However, when the plate Figure 20
voltage falls below the normal operating
range, the plate current falls sharply, while GRID STRUCTURE OF 6SA7
the screen current rises to such a value that CONVERTER TUBE
the total cathode current remains substan-
tially constant. Hence, the screen grid in a is usually very high, due to the relatively
tetrode or pentode will almost invariably high plate resistance of such tubes, but
be damaged by excessive dissipation if the bears little relationship to the stage gain
plate voltage is removed while the screen which actually will be obtained with such
voltage is still being applied from a low - tubes.
impedance source. On the other hand, the grid-plate trans -
conductance is the most important coeffi-
The Effect of The current equations show cient of pentode and tetrode tubes. Gain per
Grid Current how the total cathode current stage can be computed directly when the
in triodes, tetrodes, and pen- Gm is known. The grid -plate transconduct-
todes is a function of the potentials applied ance of a tetrode or pentode tube can be
to the various electrodes. If only one elec- calculated through use of the expression:
trode is positive with respect to the cathode
(such as would be the case in a triode acting = AE,
as a class -A amplifier) all the cathode cur-
rent goes to the plate. But when both screen with En and Eh constant.
and plate are positive in a tetrode or pentode, The plate resistance of such tubes is of
the cathode current divides between the two less importance than in the case of triodes,
elements. Hence the screen current is taken though it is often of value in determining
from the total cathode current, while the the amount of damping a tube will exert on
balance goes to the plate. Further, if the the impedance in its plate circuit. Plate re-
control grid in a tetrode or pentode is sistance is calculated from:
operated at a positive potential the total
cathode current is divided between all three
elements which have a positive potential. In
a tube which is receiving a large excitation
rp
with E,., and En constant.

=
I,Eh
h
voltage, it may be said that the control grid

robs electrons from the output electrode
during the period that the grid is positive, 4-5 Mixer and
making it always necessary to limit the peak - Converter Tubes
positive excursion of the control grid.
The superheterodyne receiver always in-
Coefficients of In general it may be stated cludes at least one stage for changing the
Tetrodes and that the amplification factor frequency of the incoming signal to the
Pentodes of tetrode and pentode tubes fixed frequency of the main intermediate -
is a coefficient which is not frequency amplifier in the receiver. This fre-
of much use to the designer. In fact the quency- changing process is accomplished by
amplification factor is seldom given on the selecting the beat -note difference frequency
design -data sheets of such tubes. Its value between a locally generated oscillation and
the incoming signal frequency. If the oscil-

lator signal is supplied by a separate tube,
the frequency changing tube is called a
mixer. Alternatively, the oscillation may be
generated by additional elements within the
frequency- changer tube. In this case the
frequency changer is commonly called a
converter tube.
Conversion The conversion conductance Figure 21

Conductance (G,.) is a coefficient of interest
in the case of mixer or con- SHOWING THE EFFECT OF CATHODE
verter tubes, or of conventional triodes, LEAD INDUCTANCE
tetrodes, or pentodes operating as frequency The degenerative action of cathode -lead in-
changers. The conversion conductance is ductance tends to reduce the effective grid -to-
the ratio of a change in the signal -grid volt- cathode voltage with respect to the voltage
available across the input tuned circuit. Cath-
age at the input frequency to a change in ode -lead inductance also introduces undesir-
the output current at the converted fre- able coupling between the input and the out-
quency. Hence G,. in a mixer is essentially put circuits.
the same as transconductance in an ampli-
fier, with the exception that the input signal mixer is about 0.7 as large as the cutoff
and the output current are on different fre- bias of the triode. Very little local -oscillator
quencies. The value of Ge in conventional power is required by a triode mixer.
mixer tubes is from 300 to 3000 micromhos.
Pentode Mixers and A common multigrid
The value of G. in an amplifier tube oper-
ated as a mixer is approximately 0.3 the G. Converter Tubes converter tube for
of the tube operated as an amplifier. The broadcast or shortwave
voltage gain of a mixer stage is equal to use the pentagrid converter, typified by
is
G. X RI, where Ri, is the impedance of the the 6BE6, 6BA7, and 6SA7 tubes (fig-
plate load into which the mixer tube oper- ure 20) . Operation of these converter tubes
ates. and pentode mixers will be covered in the
Receiver Fundamentals Chapter.
The Diode Mixer The simplest mixer tube is
the diode. The noise figure, 4 -6 Electron Tubes at Very -
or figure of merit, for a mixer of this type High Frequencies
is not as good as that obtained with other
more complex mixers; however, the diode As the frequency of operation of the usual
is useful as a mixer in uhf and vhf equip-
type of electron tube is increased above
ment where low interelectrode capacities are about 20 MHz, certain assumptions which
vital to circuit operation. Since the diode are valid for operation at lower frequencies
impedance is low, the local oscillator must
must be re- examined. First, we find that lead
furnish considerable power to the diode inductances from the socket connections to
mixer. A good diode mixer has an over -all the actual elements within the envelope no
longer are negligible. Second, we find that
gain of about 0.5.
electron transit time no longer may be ig-
nored; an appreciable fraction of a cycle of
The Triode Mixer A triode mixer has better input signal may be required for an elec-
gain and a better noise fig- tron to leave the cathode space charge, pass
ure than the diode mixer. At low frequencies, through the grid wires, and travel through
the gain and noise figure of a triode mixer the space between grid and plate.
closely approaches those figures obtained
when the tube is used as an amplifier. In the Effects of The effect of lead induct-
uhf and vhf range, the efficiency of the Lead Inductanceance is twofold. First, as
triode mixer deteriorates rapidly. The opti- shown in figure 21, the
mum local- oscillator voltage for a triode combination of grid -lead inductance, grid-
HANDBOOK The Klystron 99
cathode capacitance, and cathode -lead increased above the value where they become
ductance tends to reduce the effective grid - just appreciable. These effects may be re-
cathode signal voltage for a constant voltage duced by scaling down tube dimensions; a
at the tube terminals as the frequency is in- procedure which also reduces lead induct-
creased. Second, cathode -lead inductance ance. Further, transit -time effects may be
tends to introduce undesired coupling be- reduced by the obvious procedure of in-
tween the various elements within the tube. creasing electrode potentials so that electron
Tubes especially designed for vhf and velocity will be increased. However, due to
uhf use have had their lead inductances the law of electron motion in an electric
minimized. The usual procedures for reduc- field, transit time is increased only as the
ing lead inductance are: (1) using heavy square root of the ratio of operating poten-
lead conductors or several leads in parallel tial increase; therefore this expedient is of
(examples are the 6J4 and 6AK5), (2) limited value due to other limitations on
scaling down the tube in all dimensions to operating voltages of small electron tubes.
reduce both lead inductances and interelec-
trode capacitances (examples are the 6CW4,
6F4, and other nuvistor and miniature 4 -7 Special Microwave
tubes), and (3) the use of very low -in- Electron Tubes
ductance extensions of the elements them- Due primarily to the limitation imposed
selves as external connections (examples are by transit time, conventional negative-grid
lighthouse tubes such as the 2C40, planar electron tubes are capable of affording
tubes such as the 2C29, and many types of worthwhile amplification and power output
vhf transmitting tubes) . only up to a definite upper frequency. This
Effect of upper frequency limit varies from perhaps
When an electron tube is op-
Transit Time erated at a frequency high 100 MHz for conventional tube types to
about 4000 MHz for specialized types such
enough that electron transit as the lighthouse tube. Above the limiting
time between cathode and plate is an ap-
preciable fraction of a cycle at the input frequency, the conventional negative -grid
frequency, several undesirable effects take tube no longer is practicable and recourse
must be taken to totally different types of
place. First, the grid takes power from the
input signal even though the grid is negative electron tubes in which electron transit
time is not a limitation to operation. Three
at all times. This comes about since the grid
will have changed its potential during the of the most important of such microwave
time required for an electron to pass from tube types are the klystron, the magnetron,
and the traveling -wave tube.
cathode to plate. Due to interaction, and a
resulting phase difference between the field The Power Klystron The klystron is a type
associated with the grid and that associated of electron tube in which
with a moving electron, the grid presents a electron transit time is used to advantage.
resistance to an input signal in addition to Such tubes comprise, as shown in figure 22,
its normal "cold" capacitance. Further, as a cathode, a focusing electrode, a resonator
a result of this action, plate current no connected to a pair of grids which afford
longer is in phase with grid voltage. velocity modulation of the electron beam
An amplifier stage operating at a fre- (called the "buncher "), a drift space, and
quency high enough that transit time is another resonator connected to a pair of
appreciable: grids (called the "catcher "). A collector
(a) Is difficult to excite as a result of for the expended electrons may be included
grid loss from the equivalent input grid re- at the end of the tube, or the catcher may
sistance, also perform the function of electron col-
(b) Is capable of less output since trans - lection.
conductance is reduced and plate current is The tube operates in the following man-
not in phase with grid voltage. ner: The cathode emits a stream of electrons
The effects of transit time increase with which is focused into a beam by the focus-
the square of the operating frequency, and ing electrode. The stream passes through the
they increase rapidly as frequency is in- buncher where it is acted upon by any field
COLLECTOR PLATE
CATCHCA
cL,
Loon
FEEDBACK LIRE
OMIT SPACE 1100-2x0 r.
NOCHCA
CONTROL GAM
CATHOCC
NEATER '
Merge
Figure 22 "' ^ Figure 23
TWO-CAVITY KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR
A c tional two- cavity klystron is shown A c tional reflex klystron oscillator of
with a feedback loop c fed between the the type commonly used as a local oscillator
two cavities so that the tube may be used as in superheterodyne receivers operating above
an oscillator. about 2000 MHz is shown above. Frequency
modulation of the output frequency of the
oscillator, or afc operation in a receiver, may
be obtained by varying the negative voltage
existing between the two grids of the on the repeller electrode.
buncher cavity. When the potential between
the two grids is zero, the stream passes feedback loop connects the two cavities.
through without change in velocity. But Coupling to either buncher or catcher is
when the potential between the two grids of provided by small loops which enter the
the buncher is increasingly positive in the cavities by way of concentric lines.
direction of electron motion, the velocity of The klystron is an electron -coupled de-
the electrons in the beam is increased. Con- vice. When used as an oscillator, its output
versely, when the field becomes increasingly voltage is rich in harmonics. Klystron oscil-
negative in the direction of the beam (cor- lators of various types afford power outputs
responding to the other half -cycle of the ranging from less than 1 watt to many
exciting voltage from that which produced thousand watts. Operating efficiency varies
electron acceleration) the velocity of the between I and 50 percent. Frequency may
electrons in the beam is decreased. be shifted to some extent by varying the
When the velocity -modulated electron beam voltage. Tuning is carried on mechan-
beam reaches the drift space where there is ically in some klystrons by altering (by
no field, those electrons which have been means of knob settings) the shape of the
sped up on one half -cycle overtake those resonant cavity.
immediately ahead which were slowed down
on the other half -cycle. In this way, the The Reflex Klystron The multicavity kly-
beam electrons become bunched together. stron as described in the
As the bunched groups pass through the two preceding paragraphs is primarily used as a
grids of the catcher cavity, they impart transmitting device since quite reasonable
pulses of energy to these grids. The catcher - amounts of power are made available in its
grid space is charged to different voltage output circuit. However, for applications
--
levels by the passing electron bunches, and where a much smaller amount of power is
a corresponding oscillating field is set up in required power levels in the milliwatt
the catcher cavity. The catcher is designed range for low -power transmitters, re-
to resonate at the frequency of the velocity - ceiver local oscillators, etc., another type of
modulated beam, or at a harmonic of this klystron having only a single cavity is
frequency. more frequently used.
In the klystron amplifier, energy delivered The theory of operation of the single -
by the buncher to the catcher grids is greater cavity klystron is essentially the same as the
than that applied to the buncher cavity by multicavity type with the exception that the
the input signal. In the klystron oscillator a velocity- modulated electron beam, after hay-
HANDBOOK The Magnetron 101
MAGNET COIL
GRID ANODE ANODE
ANODE
TERMINAL TERMINAL GLASS
SEAL
CATHODE ANODE
GRID HEATER ANODE
FIL
FILAMENT
GLASS ENVELOPE
FILAMENT PLATE
EYELET VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
GLASS GETTER
SEAL
Figure 25
LEAD
TERMINAI EYELE TUEULATION
SIMPLE MAGNETRON OSCILLATOR
Figure 24 An external tank circuit is used with this type
of magnetron oscillator for operation in th
CUTAWAY VIEW OF lower uhf range.
WESTERN ELECTRIC 416 -816280
VHF PLANAR TRIODE TUBE
Bell Telephone
were developed for wartime use in radar
The 416 -B, designed by the
Laboratories is intended for amplifier or fre- equipment which had peak power capabili-
quency multiplier service in the 4000 MHz ties of several million watts (megawatts)
region. Employing grid wires having a diameter
equal to fifteen wavelengths of light, the 416 -B output at frequencies in the vicinity of
has a transconductance of 50,000. Spacing 3000 MHz. The normal duty cycle of oper-
between grid and cathode is .0005 ", to re- ation of these radar units was approximately
duce transit -time effects. Entire tube is gold
plated. 1/10 of one percent (the tube operated
about 1 /1000 of the time and rested for
ing left the buncher cavity is reflected the balance of the operating period) so that
back into the area of the buncher again by the average power output of these magne-
a repeller electrode as illustrated in figure
trons was in the vicinity of 1000 watts.
23. The potentials on the various electrodes In its simplest form the magnetron tube is
a filament -type diode with two half- cylin-
are adjusted to a value such that proper
bunching of the electron beam will take drical plates or anodes situated coaxially
place just as a particular portion of the
with respect to the filament. The construc-
tion is illustrated in figure 25A. The anodes
velocity -modulated beam re- enters the area
of the resonant cavity. Since this type of of the magnetron are connected to a reso-
klystron has only one circuit it can be used nant circuit as illustrated in figure 25B.
only as an oscillator and not as an amplifier. The tube is surrounded by an electromagnet
coil which, in turn, is connected to a low -
Effective modulation of the frequency of a
voltage d -c energizing source through a
single- cavity klystron for f -m work can be
obtained by modulating the repeller elec-
rheostat (R) for controlling the strength of
the magnetic field. The field coil is oriented
trode voltage.
so that the lines of magnetic force it sets up
The Magnetron The magnetron is a uhf are parallel to the axis of the electrodes.
oscillator tube normally em- Under the influence of the strong mag-
ployed where very -high values of peak power netic field, electrons leaving the filament
or moderate amounts of average power are are deflected from their normal paths and
required in the range from perhaps 700 move in circular orbits within the anode
MHz to 30,000 MHz. Special magnetrons cylinder. This effect results in a negative
EATNODE LEADS WAVEGU IDE WAVEGUI DE

INPUT OUTPUT
ELECTRON BEAM
PERMANENT
CATHODE MAGNET
NODE n III OUTPUT
Mw
NODIILOCA
III II
ANODE COLLECTOR
Figure 27
Figure 26
THE TRAVELING -WAVE TUBE
MODERN MULTICAVITY MAGNETRON Operation of this tube is the result of Inter-
action between the electron beam and wave
Illustrated is an external -anode strapped traveling along the helix.
magnetron of the type commonly used in
radar equipment for the 10 -cm. range. An
integral permanent magnet is shown in the
righthand portion of the drawing, with the helix wire at approximately the speed of
magnetron in place between the pole pieces of light. However, the signal velocity measured
the magnet. along the axis of the helix is considerably
lower. The electrons emitted by the cathode
resistance which sustains oscillations. The gun pass axially through the helix to the
oscillation frequency is very nearly the value collector, located at the output end of the
determined by L and C. In other magnetron helix. The average velocity of the electrons
circuits, the frequency may be governed by depends on the potential of the collector
the electron rotation, no external tuned cir- with respect to the cathode. When the
cuits being employed. Wavelengths of less average velocity of the electrons is greater
than 1 centimeter have been produced with than the velocity of the helix wave, the ele-
such circuits. trons become crowded together in the var-
More complex magnetron tubes employ no ious regions of retarded field, where they im-
external tuned circuit, but utilize instead part energy to the helix wave. A power gain
one or more resonant cavities which are in- of 100 or more may be produced by this
tegral with the anode structure. Figure 26 tube.
shows a magnetron of this type having a
multicellular anode of eight cavities. It will 4 -8 The Cathode -Ray Tube
be noted, also, that alternate cavities (which
would operate at the same polarity when the The cathode -ray tube is a special type of
tube is oscillating) are strapped together. electron tube which permits the visual obser-
Strapping was found to improve the effi- vation of electrical signals. It may be in-
ciency and stability of high -power radar corporated into an oscilloscope for use as a
magnetrons. In most radar applications of test instrument or it may be the display de-
magnetron oscillators, a powerful permanent vice for radar equipment or television.
magnet of controlled characteristics is em-
ployed to supply the magnetic field, rather Operation of A cathode-ray tube always in-
than the use of an electromagnet. the CRT eludes an electron gun for pro-
ducing a stream of electrons, a
The Traveling- The Traveling -Wave Tube grid for controlling the intensity of the elec-
Wave Tube (figure 27) consists of a tron beam, and a luminescent screen for con-
helix located within an evac- verting the impinging electron beam into
uated envelope. Input and output termina- visible light. Such a tube always operates in
tions are affixed to each end of the helix. An conjunction with either a built -in or an ex-
electron beam passes through the helix and ternal means for focusing the electron stream
interacts with a wave traveling along the into a narrow beam, and a means for deflect-
helix to produce broadband amplification at ing the electron beam in accordance with an
microwave frequencies. electrical signal.
When the input signal is applied to the The main electrical difference between
gun end of the helix, it travels along the types of cathode -ray tubes lies in the means
HANDBOOK The Cathode -Ray Tube 103
MORI ZONTAL DEFLECTION

PLATES ICI by the magnetic field and would burn an ion
spot in the center of the luminescent screen.
With electrostatic deflection the heavy ions
are deflected equally as well as the electrons
CONTROL ACCEL[MTI in the beam so that an ion spot is not
GRID (GI ANODE IAI
CATNOD[ (RI formed.
[RTICAL DEFLECTION
I!1
Construction of The construction of a typ-
Figure 28 Electrostatic CRT ical electrostatic -focus,
TYPICAL ELECTROSTATIC
electrostatic - deflection
cathode -ray tube is illustrated in the pic-
CATHODE -RAY TUBE
torial diagram of figure 28. The indirectly
heated cathode (K) releases free electrons
employed for focusing and deflecting the when heated by the enclosed filament. The
electron beam. The beam may be focused cathode is surrounded by a cylinder (G)
and /or deflected either electrostatically or which has a small hole in its front for the
magnetically, since a stream of electrons can passage of the electron steam. Although this
be acted on either by an electrostatic or a element is not a wire mesh as is the usual
magnetic field. In an electrostatic field the grid, it is known by the same name because
electron beam tends to be deflected toward its action is similar: it controls the electron
the positive termination of the field (figure stream when its negative potential is varied.
28) . In a magnetic field the stream tends to Next in order, is found the first acceler-
be deflected at right angles to the field. Fur- ating anode (H) which resembles another
ther, an electron beam tends to be deflected disk or cylinder with a small hole in its
so that it is normal (perpendicular) to the
equipotential lines of an electrostatic field
and it tends to be deflected so that it is par-
- center. This electrode is run at a high or
moderately high positive voltage, to accel-
erate the electrons toward the far end of
allel to the lines of force in a magnetic field. the tube.
Large cathode -ray tubes used as kinescopes 'The focusing electrode (F) is a sleeve
in television receivers usually are both which usually contains two small disks, each
focused and deflected magnetically. On the with a small hole.
other hand, the medium -size CR tubes used After leaving the focusing electrode, the
in oscilloscopes and small television receivers electrons pass through another accelerating
usually are both focused and deflected elec- anode (A) which is operated at a high pos-
trostatically. Cathode -ray tubes for special itive potential. In some tubes this electrode
applications may be focused magnetically is operated at a higher potential than the
and deflected electrostatically or vice versa. first accelerating electrode (H) while in
There are advantages and disadvantages to other tubes both accelerating electrodes are
both types of focusing and deflection. How- operated at the same potential.
ever, it may be stated that electrostatic The electrodes which have been described
deflection is much better than magnetic de- up to this point constitute the electron gun,
flection when high- frequency waves are to which produces the free electrons and fo-
be displayed on the screen; hence the al- cuses them into a slender, concentrated,
most universal use of this type of deflec- rapidly traveling stream for projecting onto
t ;on for oscillographic work. When a tube the viewing screen.
is operated at a high value of accelerating
Electrostatic To make the tube useful, means
potential so as to obtain a bright dis-
Deflection must be provided for deflecting
play on the face of the tube as for television
or radar work, the use of magnetic deflec- the electron beam along two
tion becomes desirable since it is relatively axes at right angles to each other. The more
easier to deflect a high- velocity electron common tubes employ electrostatic deflec-
beam magnetically than electrostatically tion plates, one pair to exert a force on the
An ion trap is required with magnetic de- beam in the vertical plane and one pair to
flection since the heavy negative ions emitted exert a force in the horizontal plane. These
by the cathode are not materially deflected plates are designated as B and C in figure 28.
plates. This is done for two reasons: First,

FOCUS COIL TERMINAL
DEFLECTION COILS
the amount of deflection voltage required
by the high- voltage tubes is so great that
a transmitting tube operating from a
high -voltage supply would be required to
attain this voltage without distortion. By
using push -pull deflection with two tubes
feeding the deflection plates, the necessary
plate -supply voltage for the deflection am-
Figure 29 plifier is halved. Second, a certain amount of
defocusing of the electron stream is always
TYPICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC
present on the extreme excursions in deflec-
CATHODE -RAY TUBE tion voltage when this voltage is applied
only to one deflecting plate. When the de-
Standard oscilloscope practice with small flecting voltage is fed in push -pull to both
cathode -ray tubes calls for connecting one deflecting plates in each plane, there is no
of the B plates and one of the C plates to- defocusing because the average voltage act-
gether and to the high-voltage accelerating ing on the electron stream is zero, even
anode. With the newer three -inch tubes and though the net voltage (which causes the
with five -inch tubes and larger, all four deflection) acting on the stream is twice
deflection plates are commonly used for that on either plate.
deflection. The positive high voltage is The fact that the beam is deflected by a
grounded, instead of the negative as is com- magnetic field is important even in an oscil-
mon practice in amplifiers, etc., in order to loscope which employs a tube using electro-
permit operation of the deflecting plates at static deflection, because it means that pre-
a d -c potential at or near ground. cautions must be taken to protect the tube
An Aquadag coating is applied to the in- from the transformer fields and sometimes
side of the envelope to attract any secondary even the earth's magnetic field. This nor-
electrons emitted by the fluorescent screen. mally is done by incorporating a magnetic
In the average electrostatic- deflection CR shield around the tube and by placing any
tube the spot will be fairly well centered if transformers as far from the tube as pos-
all four deflection plates are returned to the sible, oriented to the position which pro-
potential of the second anode (ground). duces minimum effect on the electron stream.
However, for accurate centering and to
permit moving the entire trace either hori- Construction of Elcctro- The electromagnetic
zontally or vertically to permit display of a magnetic CRT cathode -ray tube al-
particular waveform, horizontal- and verti- lows greater defini-
cal- centering controls usually are provided tion than does the electrostatic tube. Also,
on the front of the oscilloscope. electromagnetic definition has a number of
After the spot is once centered, it is nec- advantages when a rotating radial sweep is
essary only to apply a positive or negative required to give polar indications.
voltage (with respect to ground) to one of The production of the electron beam in
the ungrounded or "free" deflector plates an electromagnetic tube is essentially the
in order to move the spot. If the voltage is same as in the electrostatic tube. The grid
positive with respect to ground, the beam structure is similar, and controls the electron
will be attracted toward that deflector plate. beam in an identical manner. The elements
If it is negative, the beam and spot will of a typical electromagnetic tube are shown
be repulsed. The amount of deflection is in figure 29. The focus coil is wound on an
directly proportional to the voltage (with iron core which may be moved along the
respect to ground) that is applied to the neck of the tube to focus the electron beam.
free electrode. For final adjustment, the current flowing in
With the larger- screen higher-voltage tubes the coil may be varied. A second pair of
it becomes necessary to place deflecting volt- coils, the deflection coils, are mounted at
age on both horizontal and both vertical right angles to each other around the neck
HANDBOOK Gas Tubes 105
of the tube. In some cases, these coils can

rotate around the axis of the tube.
Two anodes are used for accelerating the
electrons from the cathode to the screen.
The second anode is a graphite coating
(Aquadag) on the inside of the glass enve-
lope. The function of this coating is to
attract any secondary electrons emitted by
the fluorescent screen, and also to shield
the electron beam.
In some types of electromagnetic tubes, a
first, or accelerating anode is also used in
addition to the Aquadag.
Figure 30
Electromagnetic A magnetic field will deflect
Deflection an electron beam in a direc- Two pairs of coils arranged for electromag-
netic deflection in two directions.
tion which is at right angles
to both the direction of the field and the
direction of motion of the beam. persistence, is used on television viewing
in the general case, two pairs of deflection tubes (Kinescopes). The P-5 and P -11 phos-
coils are used (figure 30). One pair is for phors, with blue fluorescence and very short
horizontal deflection, and the other pair is persistence, are used primarily in oscilloscopes
for vertical deflection. The two coils in a where photographic recording of the trace
pair are connected in series and are wound is to be obtained. The P -7 phosphor, which
in such directions that the magnetic field has a blue flash and a long -persistence green-
flows from one coil, through the electron ish- yellow persistence, is used primarily for
beam to the other coil. The force exerted radar displays where retention of the image
on the beam by the field moves it to any for several seconds after the initial signal
point on the screen by application of the display is required.
proper currents to these coils.
4 -9 Gas Tubes
The Trace The human eye retains an image
for about one -sixteenth second The space charge of electrons in the vi-
after viewing. In a CRT, the spot can be cinity of the cathode in a diode causes the
moved so quickly that a series of adjacent plate- to-cathode voltage drop to be a func-
spots can be made to appear as a line, if the tion of the current being carried between
beam is swept over the path fast enough. As the cathode and the plate. This voltage drop
long as the electron beam strikes in a given can be rather high when large currents are
place at least sixteen times a second, the being passed, causing a considerable amount
spot will appear to the human eye as a of energy loss which shows up as plate dissi-
source of continuous light with very little pation.
flicker. Action of The negative space charge can
ScreenMoteriols- At least five types of Positive Ions be neutralized by the presence
"Phosphors" luminescent screen mate- of the proper density of posi-
rials are commonly avail- tive ions in the space between the cathode
able on the various types of CR tubes com- and anode. The positive ions may be ob-
mercially available. These screen materials tained by the introduction of the proper
are called phosphors; each of the five phos- amount of gas or a small amount of mercury
phors is best suited to a particular type of into the envelope of the tube. When the
application. The P -1 phosphor, which has a voltage drop across the tube reaches the ion-
green fluorescence with medium persistence, ization potential of the gas or mercury
is almost invariably used for oscilloscope vapor, the gas molecules will become ionized
tubes for visual observation. The P -4 phos- to form positive ions. The positive ions then
phor, with white fluorescence and medium tend to neutralize the space charge in the
vicinity of the cathode. The voltage drop passing through the tube. This property
across the tube then remains constant at exists because the degree of ionization of
the ionization potential of the gas, up to a the gas in the tube varies with the amount
current drain equal to the maximum emis- of current passing through the tube. When
sion capability of the cathode. The voltage a large current is passed, the gas is highly
drop varies between 10 and 20 volts, depend- ionized and the internal impedance of the
ing on the particular gas employed, up to tube is low. When a small current is passed,
the maximum current rating of the tube. the gas is lightly ionized and the internal
impedance of the tube is high. Over the
Mercury -Vapor Mercury-vapor tubes, al- operating range of the tube, the product
Tubes though very widely used, (IR) of the current through the tube and
have the disadvantage that the internal impedance of the tube is very
they must be operated within a specific nearly constant. Examples of this type of
temperature range (25 to 70 C) in order tube are the OB2, OC2, and VR -150.
that the mercury -vapor pressure within the
tube shall be within the proper range. If Vacuum -Tube Vacuum tubes are grouped
the temperature is too low, the drop across Classification into three major classifica-
the tube becomes too high causing immediate tions: commercial, rugged -
overheating and possible damage to the ele- ized, and premium (or reliable). Any one
ments. If the temperature is too high, the of these three groups may also be further
vapor pressure is too high, and the voltage classified for military duty (MIL spec. or
at which the tube will "flash back" is low- JAN classification). To qualify for MIL
ered to the point where destruction of the classification, sample lots of the particular
tube may take place. Since the ambient tem- tube must have passed special qualification
perature range specified above is within the tests at the factory. It should not be con-
normal room temperature range, no trouble strued that a MIL -type tube is better than
will be encountered under normal operating a commercial tube, since some commercial
conditions. However, by the substitution of tests and specifications are more rigid than
xenon gas for mercury it is possible to pro- the corresponding MIL specifications. The
duce a rectifier with characteristics compar- MIL stamped tube has merely been accepted
able to those of the mercury -vapor tube ex- under a certain set of conditions for mili-
cept that the tube is capable of operating tary service.
over the range from approximately -70 Ruggedized or Radio tubes are being used
to +90 C. The 3B25 rectifier is an ex- Premium Tubes in increasing numbers for
ample of this type of tube. industrial applications, such
Thyratron If a grid is inserted between the as computing and control machinery, and
Tubes in aviation and marine equipment. When
cathode and plate of a mercury -
a tube fails in a home radio receiver, it is
vapor gaseous- conduction recti-
fier, a negative potential placed on the added merely inconvenient, but a tube failure in
element will increase the plate -to- cathode industrial applications may bring about stop-
voltage drop required before the tube will page of some vital process, resulting in fi-
ionize or "fire." The potential on the control nancial loss, or even danger to life.
grid will have no effect on the plate-to- To meet the demands of these industrial
cathode drop after the tube has ionized. applications, a series of tubes was evolved
However, the grid voltage may be adjusted incorporating many special features designed
to such a value that conduction will take to ensure a long and predetermined operat-
place only over the desired portion of the ing life, and uniform characteristics among
cycle of the a -c voltage being impressed on similar tubes. Such tubes are known as rug -
the plate of the rectifier. gedized or premium tubes. Early attempts to
select reliable specimens of tubes from ordi-
Voltage -Regulator In a glow- discharge gas nary stock tubes proved that in the long run
Tubes tube the voltage drop the selected tubes were no better than tubes
across the electrodes re- picked at random. Long life and ruggedness
mains constant over a wide range of current had to be built into the tubes by means of
HANDBOOK Miscellaneous Tube Types 107
700
6FG6 /EM -84
lb ' 2.5 MA.
47011 BO
CONTROL 6o
SIGNAL
NO MAX.
SIGNAL SIGNAL J) 40
$IM t20
20
Figure 31 I 0
o 10 20 30 40 50 GO
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION Eb VOLTS)
OF "MAGIC EYE" TUBE
Figure 32
proper choice and 100% inspection of all AMPLIFICATION FACTOR OF TYPICAL

materials used in the tube, by critical proc- STANDARD TUBE DROPS RAPIDLY AS
essing inspection and assembling, and by PLATE VOLTAGE IS DECREASED
conservative ratings of the tube. BELOW 20 VOLTS
Pure tungsten wire is used for heaters in
preference to alloys of lower tensile strength. that the deflection caused by the ray- control
Nickel tubing is employed around the heater electrodes, which prevents electrons from
wires at the junction to the stem wires to striking part of the anode, produces an elec-
reduce breakage at this point. Element struc- trical shadow on the fluorescent anode. The
tures are given extra supports and bracing. size of this shadow is determined by the
Finally, all tubes are given a 50 -hour test voltage on the ray electrodes. When these
run under full operating conditions to elimi- electrodes are at the same potential as the
nate early failures. W hen operated within fluorescent anode, the shadow disappears; if
their ratings, ruggedized or premium tubes the ray electrode is less positive than the
should provide a life weli in excess of 10,000 anode, a shadow appears, the length of which
hours. is proportional to the voltage on the ray
Ruggedized tubes will withstand severe electrodes.
impact shocks for short periods, and wil!
operate under conditions of vibration for Controlled Series heater strings are employed
many hours. The tubes may be identified in Warmup in a-c 'd-c radio receivers and
many cases by the fact that their nomen- Tubes television sets to reduce the cost,
clature includes a "W" in the type number, size, and weight of the equip-
as in 807W, 5U4W, etc. Some ruggedized ment. Voltage surges of great magnitude
tubes are included in the "5000" series occur in series- operated filaments because
nomenclature. The 5654 is a ruggedized of variations in the rate of warm -up of the
version of the 6AKS, the 5692 is a rugged- various tubes. As the tubes warm up, the
ized version of the 6SN7, etc. heater resistance changes. This change is not
the same between tubes of various types, or
4 -10 Miscellaneous even between tubes of the same type made
Tube Types by different manufacturers. Some 6 -volt
Electron - The electron -ray tube or magic tubes show an initial surge as high as 9 volts
Ray Tubes eye contains two sets of ele- during warm -up, while slow -heating tubes
ments, one of which is a triode such as the 25BQ6 are underheated during
amplifier and the other a cathode -ray indi- the voltage surge on the 6 -volt tubes.
cator. The plate of the triode section is Standardization of heater characteristics
connected to the ray -control electrodes (fig- in a new group of tubes designed for series
ure 31), so that as the plate voltage varies heater strings has eliminated this trouble.
in accordance with the applied signal, the The new tubes have either 600 ma or 400
voltage on the ray-control electrode also ma heaters, with a controlled warm -up time
varies. The electrons which strike the anode of approximately 11 seconds. The 5U8,
cause it to fluoresce, or give off light, so 6CG7, and 12BH7 -A are examples.
CHAPTER FIVE
Semiconductor Devices
One of the earliest detection devices used 5 -1 Atomic Structure of

in radio was the galena crystal, a crude ex-
ample of a semiconductor. More modern Germanium and Silicon
examples of semiconductors are the selenium
and silicon rectifiers, the germanium diode, Since the mechanism of conduction of a
and numerous varieties of the transistor. All semiconductor device is different from that
of these devices offer the interesting property of a vacuum tube, it is well to briefly
of greater resistance to the flow of electrical review the atomic structure of various ma-
current in one direction than in the opposite terials used in the manufacture of transistors
direction. Typical conduction curves for and diodes.
some semiconductors are shown in figure 1. It was stated in an earlier chapter that
The transistor, a three -terminal device, more- the electrons in an element having a large
over, offers current amplification and may atomic number are conveniently pictured as
be used for a wide variety of control func- being grouped into rings, each ring having a
tions including amplification, oscillation, and definite number of electrons. Atoms in
frequency conversion. which these rings are completely filled are
Semiconductors have important advan- termed inert gases, of which helium and
tages over other types of electron devices. argon are examples. All other elements have
They are very small, light and require no one or more incomplete rings of electrons.
filament voltage. In addition, they consume If the incomplete ring is loosely bound, the
very little power, are rugged, and can be electrons may be easily removed, the element
made impervious to many harsh environ- is called metallic, and is a conductor of
mental conditions. Transistors are capable electric current. Copper and iron are ex-
of usable amplification into the uhf region amples of conductors. If the incomplete
and provide hundreds of watts of power ring is tightly bound, with only a few elec-
capacity at the lower frequencies. trons missing, the element is called non-
Common transistors are current -operated metallic, and is an insulator (nonconductor)
devices whereas vacuum tubes are voltage - to electric current. A group of elements, of
operated devices so that direct comparisons which germanium, gallium, and silicon are
between the two may prove to be misleading, examples, fall between these two sharply
however economic competition exists be- defined groups and exhibit both metallic and
tween the two devices and the inexpensive nonmetallic characteristics. Pure germanium
and compact transistor is rapidly taking or silicon may be considered to be a good
over some of the functions previously re- insulator. The addition of certain impurities
served for the more expensive vacuum tube. in carefully controlled amounts to the pure
Mechanism of Conduction 109
SCHEMATIC R ERRESENTATION element will alter the conductivity of the

material. In addition, the choice of the im-
purity can change the direction of conduc
tivity through the element, some impurities
increasing conductivity to positive poten-
tials and others increasing conductivity to
negative potentials. Early transistors were
mainly made of germanium but most modern
1:0o transistors possessing power capability are
Band made of silicon. Experimental transistors
are being made of gallium arsenide which
1=1 ' rkea combines some of the desirable features of
1=1- Markad
both germanium and silicon.
ANODES CATHODES Both germanium and silicon may be
Colo, spot
"grown" in a diamond lattice crystal con-
figuration, the atoms being held together
Glana / by bonds involving a shared pair of electrons
(figure 2). Electrical conduction within the
crystal takes place when a bond is broken,
or when the lattice structure is altered to
Color Banda obtain an excess electron by the addition of
an impurity. When the impurity is added,
it may have more or less loosely held elec-
trons than the original atom, thus allowing
Marked
an electron to become available for conduc-
tion, or creating a vacancy, or bole, in the
shared electron bond. The presence of a hole
encourages the flow of electrons and may be
TUBE. GERMANIUM. SILICON
AND SELENIUM DIODES considered to have a positive charge, since
it represents the absence of an electron. The
hole behaves, then, as if it were an electron,
+60 but it does not exist outside the crystal.
+50
40
n
+30
SILICON
JUNCTION Mechanism of
1 +20 -
I
SCNOTTKY ' ' Conduction

BARRIER ~I
-J
Q +10 - DIODE !
J There exist in semiconductors both neg-
-0.1
0
atively charged electrons and absence of
electrons in the lattice (holes), which be-
-0
0.4
3
+2 +3
have as though they had a positive electrical
- 50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 +I
VOLTS charge equal in magnitude to the negative
charge on the electron. These electrons and
holes drift in an electrical field with a ve-
Figure 1 locity which is proportional to the field
itself:
DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND CODING
Vdh = hE
The semiconductor diode offers greater re-
sistance to the Row of current in one direction where,
than in the opposite direction. Note expansion
of negative current and positive voltage V,ih equals drift velocity of hole,
scales. Diode coding is shown above, with no- E equals magnitude of electric field,
tations usually placed on cathode (positive)
end of unit. /li, equals mobility of hole.
110 Semiconductor Devices RADIO
ATOM SNARED ELECTRON
/PAIR SONO
CJ
EXCESS
/ELECTRON
I I
I IMPURITY I IMPURITY VACANCY
0
I ATOM I ATOM (HOLE) I
Figure 2
SEMICONDUCTOR CRYSTAL LATTICE

Silicon and germanium lattice configuration made up of atoms held by
shared pair of electrons. Conduction takes place when bond is altered to
Iron (B) or to create electron vacancy or conducting "hole" (C).
In an electric field the holes will drift in a semiconducting crystal. The material is now
direction opposite to that of the electron said to be hole- conducting, or P (positive) -
and with about one -half the velocity, since type silicon. The impurities which create
the hole mobility is about one -half the elec- holes are called acceptors. P -type silicon has
tron mobility. A sample of a semiconductor, better conductivity than pure silicon in one
such as germanium or silicon, which is both direction. This direction is opposite to that
chemically pure and mechanically perfect of the N -type material. Either the N -type or
will contain in it approximately equal num- the P -type silicon is called extrinsic con-
bers of holes and electrons and is called an ducting type. The doped materials have
intrinsic semiconductor. The intrinsic resis- lower resistivities than the pure materials,
tivity of the semiconductor depends strongly and doped semiconductor material in the
on the temperature, being about 50 ohm /cm resistivity range of .01 to 10 ohm /cm is
for germanium at room temperature. The normally used in the production of tran-
intrinsic resistivity of silicon is about 65,000 sistors.
ehm /cm at the same temperature. The electrons and holes are called carriers;
If, in the growing of the semiconductor the electrons are termed majority carriers,
crystal, a small amount of an impurity, such and the holes are called minority carriers.
as phosphorous is included in the crystal,
each atom of the impurity contributes one
free electron. This electron is available for
conduction. The crystal is said to be doped 5 -3 The PN Junction
and has become electron- conducting in na-
ture and is called N (negative)-type silicon.
The impurities which contribute electrons
are called donors. N -type silicon has better The semiconductor diode is a PN junction,
conductivity than pure silicon in one direc- or junction diode having the general electri-
tion, and a continuous stream of electrons cal characteristic of figure 1 and the electri-
will flow through the crystal in this direc- cal configuration of figure 3. The anode of
tion as long as an external potential of the the junction diode is always positive -type
correct polarity is applied across the crystal. (P) material while the cathode is always
Other impurities, such as boron add one negative -type (N) material. Current flow
hole to the semiconducting crystal by ac- occurs when the P-anode is positive with
cepting one electron for each atom of im respect to the N- cathode. This state is
purity, thus creating additional holes in the termed f orucard bias. Blocking occurs when
HANDBOOK The PN Junction 111
ANODE -N CATHODE
(P- MATERIAL) JUNCTION
P
(N- MATERIAL) the equipment by means of a heat -sink to
remove excess heat from the small junction.
o o Silicon diode rectifiers exhibit a forward
o o voltage drop of 0.4 to 0.8 volts, depending
o
on the junction temperature and the impur-
HOLES ELECTRONS ity concentration of the junction. The for-
ELECTRON FLOW ward voltage drop is not constant, increasing
directly as the forward current increases.
Figure 3
Internal power loss in the diode increases as
PN JUNCTION DIODE the square of the current and thus increases
P -type and N -type materials form junction rapidly at high current and temperature
diode. Current flows when P anode is positive levels.
with respect to the N cathode (forward bias). After a period of conduction, a silicon
Electrons and holes are termed carriers, with
holes behaving as though they have a positive rectifier requires a finite time interval to
charge. elapse before it may return to the reverse-
bias condition. This reverse recovery time
the P -anode is negative with respect to the imposes an upper limit on the frequency at
N- cathode. This is termed reverse bias. which a silicon rectifier may be used. Opera-
When no external voltage is applied to the tion at a frequency above this limit results in
PN junction, the energy barrier created at overheating of the junction and possible
the junction prevents diffusion of carriers destruction of the diode because of the power
across the junction. Application of a positive loss during the period of recovery.
potential to the P -anode effectively reduces
the energy barrier, and application of a The Zener The zener diode (reference diode)
negative potential increases the energy Diode is a PN junction that can be used
barrier, limiting current flow through the as a constant -voltage reference, or
junction. as a control element. It is a silicon element
In the forward -bias region shown in figure operated in the reverse -bias avalanche break-
1, current rises rapidly as the voltage is in- down region (figure 4). The break from
creased, whereas in the reverse -bias region nonconductance to conductance is very
current is much lower. The junction, in sharp and at applied voltages greater than
other words is a high- resistance element in the breakdown point, the voltage drop across
the reverse -bias direction and a low- resist- the diode junction becomes essentially con-
ance element in the forward -bias direction.
Junction diodes are rated in terms of
average and peak- inverse voltage in a given 13
environment, much in the same manner as

thermionic rectifiers. Unlike the latter, how- - FORWARD
CHARACTERISTIC 3 10
ever, a small leakage current will flow in

the reverse- biased junction diode because of
1111111
.'
REVERSE VOLTAGE -
a few hole -electron pairs thermally gener-
-
I,
30 20 Io
ated in the junction. As the applied inverse 2CHER KNEE

0S 1S 20
AT S MA. VI (VOLTS)
voltage is increased, a potential will be
reached at which the leakage current rises
abruptly at an avalanche voltage point. An
increase in inverse voltage above this value
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
G
IM - MAX. 2ENER
i _
N
e
3
EC
a<
REVERSE
CHARACTERISTIC
CURRENT
can result in the flow of a large reverse cur- X1.5 AMP. IS
rent and the possible destruction of the

diode. Figure 4
Maximum permissible forward current in
ZENER -DIODE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
the junction diode is limited by the voltage
drop across the diode and the heat- dissipa- Between sever knee and point of maximum
nt, the oltage is essentially con-
tion capability of the diode structure. Power stant at 30 volts. Units are available with
diodes are often attached to the chassis of sever voltages from approximately 4 to 200.
IO V
scant for a relatively wide range of currents. DIODE
This is the zener control region. Zener diodes UNREG

2 VOLT
REG
are available in ratings to 50 watts, with VOLT VOLT
zener voltages ranging from approximately

4 volts to 200 volts.
Thermal dissipation is obtained by mount-
FIGURE 5
ing the zoner diode to a heat sink composed
A -2ENER DIODE ruNCTIONS AS
of a large area of metal having free access VOLTAGE REGULATOR OVER
RANGE OF CONSTANT VOLTAGE
to ambient air. PL ATEAU.
The zener diode has no ignition potential B -TWO 2ENER DIODES OF DIFFER-
as does a gas regulator tube, thus eliminating IN ti OUT ENT VOLTAGE CAN PROVIDE
SMALL REGULATED VOLTAGE.
C- OPPOSED ZENER DIODES CLIP
the problems of relaxation oscillation and BOTH VALVES OF CYCLE OF A -C
high firing potential, two ailments of the gas WAVE.
tube. Furthermore, the zener regulator or

combinations can be obtained for almost Figure 5
any voltage or power range, while the gas ZENER DIODES USED AS
tubes are limited to specific voltages and VOLTAGE REGULATORS
restricted current ranges. AND CLIPPERS
Zener Diode The zener diode may be em- circuits or as highly efficient frequency mul-
Applications ployed as a shunt regulator tipliers in solid -state vhf equipment, as
(figure SA) in the manner of described in the next section.
a gas regulator tube. Two zener diodes may The voltage -variable capacitor (Varactor
be used in the circuit of illustration B to or Varicap) is generally made of a silicon
supply very low values of regulated voltage. junction having a special impurity concen-
Two opposed zener diodes provide a -c clip- tration to enhance the capacitance variation
ping of both halves of the cycle (illustration and to minimize series resistance losses. A
C) and may be used as an audio clipper in typical frequency -control circuit employing
speech amplifiers. Zener diodes may also be a varicap junction capacitance is shown in
used to protect meter movements since they figure 8.
provide a very low resistance shunt across
the movement when the applied voltage ex- The Varactor The varactor is well suited
ceeds a certain critical value. The zener for harmonic generation and
diode can be used to regulate a.c. as well
as d.c. and so may be used to regulate fila-
ment voltage or to supply regulated bias for
audio or r -f amplifiers, providing stable bias
with a varying diode current (figure 6A).
The zener diode may also be used with
transistors (figure 6B), the diode replacing
the usual emitter resistor to provide con -.
trolled emitter bias. Sufficient current must
flow through the zener element to ensure
operation in the breakdown region.
Junction The PN junction possesses ca-

Capacitance pacitance as the result of op-
posite electric charges existing
on the sides of the barrier. Junction capaci- Figure 6
tance changes with applied voltage, as shown ZENER- REGULATED BIAS SUPPLY
in figure 7. Reverse- biased diodes may be
used as d -c voltage- controlled variable ca-
A- Zoner bias for class -B modulator providing
positive cathode bias. B- Zener diode for PNP
pacitors for frequency control of remote transistor providing negative emitter bias.
10
at the fundamental (driving) frequency
and the other is resonant at the harmonic
(output) frequency.
The tripler and quadrupler circuits are
similar to the doubler configuration with
the exception that an additional idler loop,
resonant with the varactor capacitance at
the second -harmonic frequency, is added in
shunt with the varactor. The idler loop
boosts conversion efficiency by producing
additional harmonic output from the beat-
ing action between the fundamental and
second harmonics. Doubling or tripling effi-
0 to 12 14 ciency of a typical vhf varactor multiplier
2 REVERSE BIAS
may run from 50 to 70 percent.
Figure 7 Varactors are capable of providing output
power of over 25 watts at 1 GHz, and several
JUNCTION CAPACITANCE VARIATION watts at S GHz. Experimental varactors have
WITH RESPECT TO REVERSE VOLTAGE been used for frequency multiplication to
over 20 GHz, with power capabilities in the
may be used as an r -f multiplication de- milliwatt region.
vice. Frequency multiplication in the vhf
and uhf regions makes use of varactors be- The Tunnel Diode The tunnel diode is a two -
cause high conversion efficiency and rela- terminal junction that ex-
tively large power -handling capability may hibits pronounced negative- resistance char-
be achieved at moderate cost with minimum acteristics over a portion of the operating
complexity. range. The proper combination of impuri-
Basic varactor circuits which can be used ties in the semiconductor material in this
for doubling, tripling, and quadrupling are device allows the diode to rest in a reverse -
shown in figure 9. The doubler consists of breakdown condition at a slight forward -bias
a varactor coupled to two high -Q, series - point. Thus, over a small voltage range, the
tuned circuits. The input circuit is resonant tunnel diode conducts heavily as the voltage
becomes more negative. The negative con-
ductance generates energy, and this action is
the basis of the resistance amplifier (or oscil-
lator) circuit making use of the tunnel
diode (figure 10).
001
Point Contact A rectifying junction may
and Other Diodes be made of a metal "whisk-
er" touching a very small
semiconductor die (plural, dice). When
properly assembled, the die injects electrons
VARICAP .001 into the metal. The contact areas exhibits
extremely low capacitance and point contact
diodes (such as the 1N21) are widely used
+90 V. as microwave mixers, having noise figures
0.1 M ranging up to S db at 3 GHz.
REMOTE FREQUENCY
CONTROL Step recovery and snap-off diodes exhibit
rapid recovery time and are used in pulse
Figure 8
operation or high -order harmonic generation.
VOLTAGE VARIABLE JUNCTION DIODE PIN diodes are special units having an in-
MAY BE USED FOR REMOTE FREQUENCY trinsic junction and are useful as charge -
CONTROL OF VARIABLE OSCILLATOR storage diodes for harmonic generation. Pho-
+
todiodes are light- sensitive junctions which 1 5 V.
pass forward current when illuminated, and

laser diodes emit visible or infrared light
when biased in the reverse direction.
SCR Devices The thyristor, or silicon con- FR.F OUT
trolled rectifier (SCR.) is a

three -terminal, three -junction semiconduc-
tor, which could be thought of as a solid -state Figure 10
thyratron. The SCR will conduct high cur-
rent in the forward direction with low volt- TUNNEL DIODE OSCILLATOR FOR 50 -MHz"
age drop, presenting a high impedance in MODULATION MAY BE APPLIED AT "M"
the reverse direction. The three terminals
(figure 11) of an SCR device are anode, current removed until anode current is re-
cathode and gate. Without gate current the duced below a critical value. At this point
SCR is an open switch in either direction. the SCR again blocks open. The SCR is
Sufficient gate current will close the switch therefore a high -speed unidirectional switch
in the forward direction only. Forward capable of being latched on in the forward
conduction will continue even with gate direction.
72 MHz 72 MHz. TRAP 144 MHz 744 MHz

n 12T.* 22, 3/8"11
35 0.751JH.
72 MHz
20 W. 8T. #18
ro
3/8' D.
47 K RCA
1 W. V -501
160
144 MHz TRAP

4T. 22, 1/4' D. 432 MHz 432 MHz
3T. *20, 1/4" D.
E432 MHz, 8W.

13
MA-4060A
m.10
288 MHz
IDLER LOOP
Figure 9
BASIC VARACTOR DOUBLING AND TRIPLING CIRCUITS

H "step- recovery" diode is used, idler loop may be omitted.
such as those commonly used in power tools.

Several power -control circuits using SCR
devices and triacs (bidirectional triode thy-
ristors) are shown in figure 12.
Thermal Considerations Semiconductor de-

for Semiconductors vices have ratings
which are based on
thermal considerations similar to other elec-
tronic devices. The majority of power lost
in semiconductors is lost internally and
within a very small volume of the device.
Heat generated by these losses must flow
outward to some form of heat exchanger
in order to hold junction temperature to a
reasonable degree. The largest amount of
heat flows out through the case and mount-
ing stud of the semiconductor and thence
Figure 11 through the heat exchanger into the air. The
THE SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER heat exchanger (or heat sink) must be in
intimate contact with the case or leads of
This three -terminal semiconductor is an open the semiconductor to achieve maximum uni-
switch until it is triggered in the forward
direction by the gate element. Conduction
form contact and maximum heat transfer.
will continue until anode current is reduced The matching surfaces are often lubricated
below a critical value. with a substance having good thermal con-
ductivity to reduce oxides or galvanic prod-
The gate signal used to trigger an SCR ucts from forming on the surfaces (Dow -
may be an a -c wave, and the SCR may be Corning Silicone Grease #200 is often used).
used for dimming lights or speed control of Care must be exercised in the contact
small a -c universal series -wound motors, between dissimilar metals when mounting
TO TO
SERIES SERIES
MOTOR MOTOR
ANODE ANODE -2
40455
GATE CATHODE GATE ANODE -I
O
Figure 12
SCR CIRCUITS FOR MOTOR OR LIGHT CONTROL
A- Half-wave control circuit for series motor or light. 8- Full -wave control circuit for series motor
or light. C-- Triac control light circuit. D- Symbols for SCR and Triac units.
semiconductor devices, otherwise electrolytic

action may take place at the joint, with sub-
CONTACT -s
CONTACT
/ DIFFUSED EMITTER
/EPITAXIAL BASE
COLLECTOR
sequent corrosion of one or more surfaces. SOLDER CASE
Many rectifiers come with plated finishes to

provide a nonactive material to be placed in Figure 13
contact with the heat sink.
When it is necessary to electrically insulate EPITAXIAL TRANSISTOR
the case of the semiconductor from the heat Epitaxial, dual- epitaxial and overlay transis-
tors are grown on semiconductor wafer in a
sink, a thin mica washer may be placed lattice structure. After fabrication, individual
between the device and the heat sink after transistors are separated from wafer and
lubricating the surfaces with a thermal lu- mounted on headers. Connector wires are
bonded to metalized regions and unit is sealed
bricant. in an inclosure.
5 -4 The Transistor
which are then sliced into individual wafers.
The decisive event in the creation of the Junction transistors may be subdivided into
modern semiconductor was the invention of grown junction, alloy junction, or drift field
the transistor in late 1947. In the last decade types. The latter type transistor is an alloy
semiconductor devices have grown prodig- junction device in which the impurity con-
iously in variety, complexity, power capa- centration is contained within a certain
region of the base in order to enhance the
bility, and speed of operation. The transistor
is a solid -state device having gain properties
high -frequency performance of the transis-
previously found only in vacuum tubes. tor.
The elements germanium and silicon are the Diffused Junction Transistor-This class
principal materials exhibiting the proper of semiconductor has enhanced frequency
semiconducting properties which permit their capability and the manufacturing process
has facilitated the use of silicon rather than
application in transistors. However, other
semiconducting materials, including the germanium, which aids the power capability
compounds indium, antimony, and lead sul- of the unit. Diffused junction transistors may
be subdivided into single diffused (home-
fide, have been used experimentally in the
production of transistors. taxial), double diffused, double diffused
planar and triple diffused planar types.
Epitaxial Transistors -These junction
Classes of Thousands of type numbers of transistors are grown on a semiconductor
Transistors transistors exist, belonging to wafer and photolithographic processes are
numerous families of construc- used to define emitter and base region dur-
tion and use. The large classes of transistors, ing growth. The units may be subdivided
based on manufacturing processes are: into epitaxial -base, epitaxial- layer, and over-
Point Contact Transistor-The original lay transistors. A representation of an epi-
transistor was of this class and consisted of taxial -layer transistor is shown in figure 13.
emitter and collector electrodes touching a Field -Effect Transistors-Developed in the
small block of germanium called the base. last decade from experiments conducted over
The base could be either N -type or P-type forty years ago, the field -effect (FET)
material and was about .05" square. Because transistor may be expected to replace many
of the difficulty in controlling the character- more common transistor types. This majority
istics of this fragile device, it is now con- carrier device is discussed in a later section
sidered obsolete. of this Handbook.
Grown Junction Transistor- Crystals Manufacturing techniques, transistor
made by this process are grown from molten end -use, and patent restrictions result in a
germanium or silicon in such a way as to multitude of transistors, most of which fall
have the closely spaced junctions imbedded into the broad groups discussed previously.
in the wafer. The impurity material is Transistors, moreover, may be grouped in
changed during the growth of the crystal families wherein each member of the family
to produce either PNP or NPN ingots, is a unique type, but subtile differences exist
HANDBOOK The Transistor 117
between members in the matter of end -use, type of transistor and use and the numbers
gain, capacitance, mounting, case, leads, indicating the sequential number in the
breakdown- voltage characteristics, etc. The particular classification. Japanese transistors
differences are important enough to warrant are usually identified by the code 2S, fol-
individual type identification of each mem- lowed by an identifying letter and sequen-
ber. In addition, the state of the art permits tial number. In addition to these generally
transistor parameters to be economically de- recognized codes, numerous codes adapted
signed to fit the various equipment, rather by individual manufacturers are also in use.
than designing the equipment around avail-
able transistor types. This situation results in The Junction The junction transistor is
a great many transistor types having nearly Transistor fabricated in many forms,
identical general characteristics. Finally, im- with the planar silicon type
proved manufacturing techniques may providing the majority of units. A pictorial
"obsolete" a whole family of transistors equivalent of a silicon planar power transis-
with a newer, less -expensive family. It is tor is shown in figure 14. In this type of
recommended, therefore, that the reader transistor the emitter and base junctions
refer to one of the various transistor substi- are often formed by a photolithographic
tution manuals for up -to-date guidance in process in selected areas of the silicon dice.
transistor classification and substitution. Many variations of this technique and de-
sign are in use.
Transistor Semiconductors are generally The transistor has three essential actions
Nomenclature divided into product groups which collectively are called transistor ac-
classified as "entertainment ", tion. These are: minority carrier injection,
"industrial," and "military." The latter transport, and collection. Fig. 15 shows a
classifications often call for multiple testing, simplified drawing of a PNP junction -type
tighter tolerances, and quality documenta- transistor, which can illustrate this collec-
tion; and transistors from the same pro- tive action. The PNP transistor consists
duction line having less rigorous specifica- of a piece of N -type silicon on opposite
tions often fall into the first, and least - sides of which a layer of P -type material
expensive, category. Semiconductors are type has been grown by the fusion process. Ter-
numbered by several systems. The oldest minals are connected to the two P- sections
standard is the JEDEC system. The first and to the N -type base. The transistor may
number of the identifier establishes the num- be considered as two PN junction rectifiers
ber of junctions (1 = diode, 2 = triode, placed in close juxtaposition with a semi -
3 = tetrode) : the letter N stands for a conduction crystal coupling the two recti-
semiconductor, followed by a sequential fiers together. The left -hand terminal is
number under which the device was regis- biased in the forward (or conducting) direc-
tered. tion and is called the emitter. The right -
European manufacturers employ an iden- hand terminal is biased in the back (or
tifier consisting of a type number composed
of two or three letters followed by two or
three numbers, the letters indicating the
Pe- Nb JUNCTION -, LN b-Pc JuNCTION
Nb
DIFFUSED SASE
CONTACT EMITTER
CONTACT Pe e o+
y
Pc e-
SILICON DIOXIDE
SOLDER
Figure 14
COLLECTOR
CASE LOW Z
-7
I
o
7+,)1I/_
NIGH Z
DIFFUSED JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Emitter and base junctions are diffused Into
same side of semiconductor wafer which Figure 15
serves as collector. Junction heat is dissipated
through solder joint between collector and PICTORIAL EQUIVALENT OF PNP
package. JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
reverse) direction and is called the collec- a

tor. The operating potentials are chosen
with respect to the base terminal, which
1 -a ib
may or may not be grounded. If an NPN

Values of beta run to 100 or so in inex-
transistor is used in place of the PNP, the pensive junction transistors. The static d -c
operating potentials are reversed. forward current gain of a transistor in the
The Pe-Nb junction on the left is biased common -emitter mode is termed the d -c
in the forward direction and holes from the
beta and may be designated F or hFE.
Peregion are injected into the Nb region, pro-
ducing therein a concentration of holes sub-
stantially greater than normally present in Cutoff Frequencies The alpha cutoff frequen-
the material. These holes travel across the cy (f brb) of a transistor
base region toward the collector, attracting is that frequency at which the grounded -
neighboring electrons, finally increasing the base current gain has decreased to 0.7 of the
available supply of conducting electrons in gain obtainable at 1 kHz. For audio transis-
the collector loop. As a result, the collector tors the alpha cutoff frequency is about 1
loop possesses lower resistance whenever the MHz. For r -f and switching transistors the
emitter circuit is in operation. In junction alpha cutoff frequency may be 50 MHz or
transistors this charge transport is by means higher. The upper frequency limit of opera-
of diffusion wherein the charges move from tion of the transistor is determined by the
a region of high concentration to a region small but finite time it takes the majority
of lower concentration at the collector. The carriers to move from one electrode to the
collector, biased in the opposite direction, other.
acts as a sink for these holes, and is said to The beta cutoff frequency (Are) is that
collect them. frequency at which the grounded -emitter
current gain has decreased to 0.7 of the
Alpha Itis known that any rectifier biased gain obtainable at 1 kHz. Transconductance
in the forward direction has a very cutoff frequency (f,,,) is that frequency at
_
low internal impedance, whereas one biased which the transconductance falls to 0.7 of
in the back direction has a very high internal that value obtainable at 1 kHz. The maxi-
impedance. Thus, current flows into the mum frequency of oscillation (f,,,ax) is that
transistor in a low- impedance circuit, and frequency at which the maximum power
appears at the output as current flowing in gain of the transistor drops to unity.
a high -impedance circuit. The ratio of a Various internal time constants and tran-
change in d -c collector current to a change sit times limit the high- frequency response
in emitter current is called the current of the transistor and these limitations are
amplification, or alpha: summarized in the gain -bandwidth product
o
i,.
(It), which is identified by the frequency at
IC
=
a
a
,.
50
where,
40
a equals current amplification, E DBP R OCTAVE
i,. equals change in collector current,

ie equals change in emitter current.
Values of alpha up to 3 or so may be ob-

tained in commercially available point -con-
z
Q
V
3
Z
'
11111uN\
iaiialaiaGicsys
tact transistors, and values of alpha up to
lo
about 0.999 are obtainable in junction
transistors. 0 0 i 0
F (16-1z)
10 ioo 1000
Beta The ratio of change in d -c collector Figure 16

current a change in base current(ib) GAIN -BANDWIDTH CHART FOR
is a measure of amplification, or beta: TYPICAL H -F TRANSISTOR
HANDBOOK The Transistor 119
which the beta current gain drops to unity. risk to determine if certain types of transis-
These various cutoff frequencies and the tors are open or shorted. On the low ranges,
gain- bandwidth products are shown in fig- however, an ohmmeter can supply over 250
ure 16. milliamperes into a low- resistance load. Many
small transistors are rated at a maximum
The Transition Region A useful rule common emitter current of 20 to 50 milliamperes
to both PNP and NPN and should be tested only in a transistor test
transistors is: moving the base potential to- set wherein currents and voltages are adjust-
ward the collector voltage point turns the able and limited. Don't solder transistor
transistor on, while moving the base poten- leads unless you can do it fast. Always use a
tial away from the collector voltage point low- wattage (20 watts or so) pencil iron
turns the transistor off. When fully on, the and a heat sink when soldering transistors
transistor is said to be saturated. When fully into or removing them from the circuit.
off, the transistor is said to be cut off. The Long -nose pliers grasping the lead between
region between these two extremes is termed iron and transistor body will help to prevent
the transition region. A transistor may be transistor chip temperature from becoming
used as a switch by simply biasing the base - excessive. Make the joint fast so that time
emitter circuit on and off. Adjusting the does not permit the chip to overheat.
base -emitter bias to some point in the tran- In- circuit precautions should also be
sition region will permit the transistor to observed. Certain transistors may be damaged
act as a signal amplifier. For such operation, by applying operating potential of reversed
base -emitter d -c bias will be about 0.3 volt polarity, applying an excessive surge of tran-
for many common germanium transistors, sient voltage, or subjecting the equipment to
and about 0.6 volt for silicon transistors. excessive heat. Dissipation of heat from
intermediate -size and power transistors is
Handling Used in the proper circuit under vital and such units should never be run
Transistors correct operating potentials the without an adequate heat -sink apparatus.
life of a transistor is practically Finally, a danger exists when operating a
unlimited. Unnecessary transistor failure transistor close to a high -powered trans-
often occurs because the user does not know mitter. The input circuit of the transis-
how to handle the unit or understand the torized equipment may be protected by
limitations imposed on the user by virtue of shunting it with two small diodes back to
the minute size of the transistor chip. Micro- back to limit input voltage excursions.
wave transistors, in particular, are subject
to damage due to improper handling. The Transistor The electrical symbols for com-
following simple rules will help the user Symbols mon three -terminal transistors
avoid unnecessary transistor failures: are shown in figure 17. The left
Know how to handle the transistor. Static drawing is of a PNP transistor. The symbol
discharges may damage microwave transis- for an NPN transistor is similar except that
tors or certain types of field -effect transis- the direction of the arrow of the emitter
tors because of small emitter areas in the points away from the base. This suggests
former and the thin active layer between that the arrow points toward the negative
the channel and the gate in the latter. The terminal of the power source, and the source
transistor should always be picked up by potentials are reversed when going from
the case and not by the leads. The FET, NPN to PNP transistors, or vice -versa. As
moreover, should be protected against static stated earlier, a useful rule -of -thumb com-
electricity by wrapping the leads with tin- mon to both NPN and PNP transistors con-
foil when it is not in use, or otherwise inter- cerns the base -emitter bias: Moving the base
connecting the leads when the unit is moved toward the collector voltage turns the tran-
about or stored. Finally, no transistor should sistor on, and moving the base away from
be inserted into or removed from a socket the collector voltage turns the transistor
when power is applied to the socket pins. off. As shown in the illustration, capital let-
Never use an ohmmeter for continuity ters are used for d -c voltages. The important
checks. An ohmmeter may be used at some d -c voltages existing in transistor circuitry
COLLECTOR COLLECTOR amplification. The characteristics of a tran-

BASE BASE
EMITTER EMITTER sistor biased in the active region may be
NPN SYMBOL PNP SYMBOL expressed in terms of electrode voltages and
currents as was done for vacuum tubes in
Chapter Four. The plot of VcE versus le
(collector- emitter voltage versus collector
current) shown in figure 18, for example,
should be compared with figure 17, Chapter
Four, the plot of I,, versus Er, (plate current
versus plate voltage) for a pentode tube.
Typical transistor graphs are discussed in
Figure 17
this chapter, and the use of similar vacuum -
TRANSISTOR SYMBOLS AND BIAS tube plots is discussed in Chapter Six.
Moving the base potential toward the collector
turns the transistor on. Moving the base po- Transistor Transistor behavior may be
tential away from the collector turns the
transistor off. Voltage notations are: Col- Analysis analyzed in terms of mathema-
lector-to-base voltage, V,.5; base -to- emitter tical equations which express the
voltage, V55; collector -to-emitter voltage, VL5. relationships among currents, voltages, resis-
tances, and reactances. These relationships
are: base- emitter voltage (VUE), collector - are termed hybrid parameters and define
emitter voltage (VCE), and collector -base instantaneous voltage and current values
voltage (Ve,1) . Signal and alternating volt- existing in the circuit under examination.
ages and currents are expressed by lower -case The parameters permit the prediction of
letters. the behavior of the particular circuit with-
'
out actually constructing the circuit.
cn
Equivalent circuits constructed from
parameter data allow formulas to be derived
9
Transistor
ca
5 -5
Characteristics
P,P.IPM
f:dPiIM
TARi
sa
The transistor produces results that may
ll
mow
Mi
be comparable to a vacuum tube, but there
is a basic difference between the two devices.
The vacuum tube is a voltage -controlled
device whereas the transistor is a current -
controlled device. A vacuum tube normally
sm%ii
\%mw/imei
1Ii\
l ` -6s
O'1/2P2ti/_i/
l,\'.èw
IIeig\w!-id
operates with its grid biased in the negative,
or high -resistance, direction, and its plate
biased in the positive, or low- resistance, di-
rection. The tube conducts only by means
pe!Gill=
Iom/m\ppm!-io
'"I:iimmi
!ise
!=1:._
I/I::C:Oi .
$s
m-
of electrons, and has its conducting counter-
lllo-- -
part in the form of the NPN transistor,
whose majority carriers are also electrons.
There is no vacuum -tube equivalent of the
/
,iii=,M:Es>=..
lliiill 6 6
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE (VcE)
10
sri
IL
6n.
PNP transistor, whose majority carriers are

holes. Figure 18
As discussed earlier, the transistor may be
CHARACTERISTIC PLOT OF
turned off and on by varying the bias on the JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
base electrode in relation to the emitter
potential. Adjusting the bias to some point Characteristics of junction transistor biased in
active region may be expressed in terms of
approximately midway between cutoff and plot of collector voltage versus collector cur-
saturation will place the transistor in the rent. Load line and limits of operation (points
A, C) are plotted, as well as operating point
active region of operation. When operated (B) in the manner shown in Chapter Six for
in this region the transistor is capable of vacuum -tube plots.
HANDBOOK Transistor Characteristics 121
for current gain, voltage gain, power gain,

and other important information necessary T
to establish proper transistor operation. A EM TTEI MILLI AMPS.

complete discussion of hybrid parameters and
transistor circuitry may be obtained in the
book Basic Theory and Application of Tran-
sistors, technical manual TM -11 -690, avail-
able from the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20402.
Some of the more useful parameters for
B
-1 i -0.5 O SS o IS 20 25
COLLECTOR VOLTS
transistor application are listed below:
The resistance gain of a transistor is ex- Figure 19
pressed as the ratio of output resistance to PLOT OF JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
input resistance. The input resistance of a RESEMBLES PENTODE TUBE
typical transistor is low, in the neighbor- Collector current is practically independent of
hood of 500 ohms, while the output resist- collector voltage. Nearly horizontal load line
indicates the high output impedance necessary
ance is relatively high, usually over 20,000 for maximum power transfer.
ohms. For a junction transistor, the resist-
ance gain is usually over 50.
The voltage gain of a transistor is the frequency small -signal performance of junc-
product of alpha times the resistance gain. tion transistors is shown in figure 20. rp,
A junction transistor which has a value of r11, and r, are dynamic resistances which can
alpha less than unity nevertheless has a be associated with the emitter, base, and
resistance gain of the order of 2000 because collector regions of the transistor. The cur-
of its extremely high output resistance, and rent generator ale, represents the transport
the resulting voltage gain is about 1800 or of charge from emitter to collector.
so. For this type of transistor the power gain
is the product of alpha squared times the Transistor There are three basic transis-
resistance gain and is of the order of 400 to Configurations tor configurations; grounded -
TOO. base connection, grounded -
The output characteristics of the junction emitter connection, and grounded -collector
transistor are of great interest. A typical connection. These correspond roughly
example is shown in figure 19. It is seen to grounded -grid, grounded -cathode, and
that the junction transistor has the charac-
teristics of an ideal pentode vacuum tube.
die
The collector current is practically inde-
pendent of the collector voltage. The range
of linear operation extends from a minimum EMITTER COLE.ECTaII
voltage of about 0.2 volts up to the maxi-

mum rated collector voltage. A typical load
line is shown, which illustrates the very high
load impedance that would be required for BASE
maximum power transfer. A common -emit- VALUES OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

rer circuit is usually used, since the output JUNCTION
PARAMETER
impedance is not as high as when a common - t I MA.. VC 31/.)
base circuit is used. re- EMITTER
RESISTANCE '.2b`
AR!
rb -BASE
RESISTANCE SODA
COLLECTOR METANM
Equivalent Circuit RES STANCE
As is known from net-
1
---.AMPLIFICATION
=URRENT 0.107
of a Transistor work theory, the small -
signal performance of Figure 20
any device in any network can be represented
LOW- FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT
by means of an equivalent circuit. The most (COMMON -BASE) CIRCUIT FOR
convenient equivalent circuit for the low- JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
grounded -plate circuits in vacuum -tube ter- may be used, with the bias resistor connected
minology (figure 21) . from base to collector. When the collector
The grounded -base circuit has a low input voltage is high, the base current is increased,
impedance and high output impedance, and moving the operating point of the transistor
no phase reversal of signal occurs from input down the load line. If the collector voltage
to output circuit. The grounded- emitter cir- is low, the operating point moves upward
cuit has a higher input impedance and a along the load line, thus providing auto-
lower output impedance than the grounded - matic control of the base bias voltage. This
base circuit, and a reversal of phase be- circuit is sensitive to changes in ambient
tween the input and output signal occurs. temperature, and may permit transistor fail-
This usually provides maximum voltage gain ure when the transistor is operated near
from a transistor. The grounded- collector maximum dissipation ratings.
circuit has relatively high input impedance, These circuits arc often used in small im-
low output impedance, and no phase reversal ported transistor radios and are not recom-
of signal from input to output circuit. mended for general use unless the bias resis-
Power and voltage gain are both low. tor is selected for the value of current gain
of the particular transistor in use. A better
bias system is shown in figure 22C, where
Bias Stabilization To establish the correct the base bias is obtained from a voltage
operating parameters of divider, (R R2), and the emitter is for-
the transistor, a bias voltage must be estab- ward- biased. To prevent signal degeneration,
lished between the emitter and the base. the emitter bias resistor is bypassed with a
Since transistors are temperature- sensitive large capacitance. A high degree of cir-
devices, and since some variation in charac- cuit stability is provided by this form of
teristics usually exists between transistors bias, providing the emitter capacitance is of
of a given type, attention must be given to the order of 50 ',id for audio- frequency
the bias system to overcome these difficulties. applications.
The simple self-bias system is shown in
figure 22A. The base is simply connected
to the power supply through a large resist- Output Characteristic Calculation of the
ance which supplies a fixed value of base Curves current, voltage and
current to the transistor. This bias system power gain of a com-
is extremely sensitive to the current- trans- mon- emitter amplifier may be accomplished
fer ratio of the transistor, and must be by using the common -emitter output static
adjusted for optimum results with each characteristic curves (figure 23) which plot
transistor. collector current against collector voltage
When the supply voltage is fairly high with the base current as a fixed value. In
and wide variations in ambient temperature this example, the collector voltage supply
do not occur, the bias system of figure 22B is 10 volts, the load resistance is 1500 ohms,
GROUNDED -EMITTER GROUNDED-COLLECTOR

GROUNDED- BASE CONNECTION
CONNECTION CONNECTION
Figure 21
COMPARISON OF BASIC VACUUM -TUBE AND TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
HANDBOOK Transistor Characteristics 123
-E
E
BIAS LOAD BIAS LOAD
RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR LOAD
RESISTOR RESISTOR
R2= Io Re
Re = soo- 1000 n
R2
Lr
t So
(REVERSE POLARITY
FOR NPN TRANSISTOR)
O
Figure 22
BIAS CONFIGURATIONS FOR TRANSISTORS
The voltage divider system of C is recommended for g I transistor use. Ratio of R1 /R,
establishes base bias, and emitter bias is provided by voltage drop
a R,. Battery polarity is reversed for NPN transistors.
the emitter resistance is 500 ohms, the peak - plotting the waveforms from each deviation
to -peak input current is 20 microamperes point along the load -line excursions between
and the operating point (X) is chosen at points M and N.
25 microamperes of base current and 4.8 Current gain (beta) in this configuration
volts on the collector. is the ratio of the change in collector cur-
The first step is to establish a load line rent to the change in base current:
on the characteristic curves representing
the voltage drop across the load resistor
-IC
(R2). When the collector current is zero, 1e-
o
the total collector supply voltage (10 volts)
:--
IR VcE Rz
equals the collector voltage, VCE. Point Z R VIBE
(one point of the load line) then is at the O
10 -volt mark on the collector voltage axis

(x- axis). When the collector current is zero,
the total collector supply voltage (10 volts)
is dropped across load resistor R2. The total
current (Ia) then is: INPUT
CURRENT
1,. -- =
_ -1500 0.0066 amp = 6.6 ma
Point Y (a second point of the load line )

then is at the 6.6 -ma mark on the collector.. _ -
current axis (y- axis). Connect points Y OUTPUT
CURRENT
and Z to establish the load line. The oper-
ating point is located at point X on the load - Is I lo
line. Since the peak -to -peak input current is I
'COLLECTOR VOLTAGE VcE
20 microamperes, the deviation is 10 micro-
I
OUTPUT VOLTA
amperes above the operating point (point
M) and 10 microamperes below the oper-
ating point (point N). Figure 23
The input current, output current, and CHARACTERISTIC CURVES AND LOAD LINE
output voltage waveforms may now be es- FOR COMMON -EMITTER CIRCUIT
tablished by extending lines from the oper- Calculation of t, voltage and power gain
ating point perpendicular to the load line of a common -emitter transistor amplifier can
and to the y and x axes respectively and be accomplished by using output characteristic
curves as discussed in the text.
resistor is selected so that its load line falls

A, - Ale
1,
Irlmnxi
10 (mnx) -111(min) in the area bounded by the vertical and
horizontal axes and the constant- power -dissi-
where, pation line. The dissipation line is determined
by selecting points of collector voltage and
A; is current gain,
current, the products of which are equal
1r is collector current,
to the maximum collector power rating of
In is base current,
the transistor. Any load line selected so that
equals a small increment.
it is tangent to the constant- power -dissipa-
Substituting known values in the formula: tion line will ensure maximum permissible
power gain of the transistor while operating
Current Gain (A,) = within the maximum collector power- dissi-
4.7-2.1 2.6 ma pation rating. This is important in the de-
= 130 sign and use of power amplifiers.
35 -15 20 pa
Voltage gain in this configuration is the

ratio of the change in collector voltage to 5 -6 Transistor
the change in base voltage: Circuitry
- Vriz - Vri:Unnx) - VCE(min) The transistor can be connected as either

A,.
AVM; VRE(nmxl - VitE(min) a common -base, common -collector, or com-
mon- emitter stage, as discussed previously.
where, Similar to the case for vacuum tubes, choice
voltage gain, of transistor circuit configuration depends
A, is
on the desired operating characteristics of
V,F; is collector to emitter voltage,
the stage. The over -all characteristics of
V1it: is base to emitter voltage.
(Note: The change in input voltage is s

the change in input current multiplied by CONSTANT POWER
DISSIPATION LINE
the input impedance. In this case the input
voltage is: 20 microamperes times 500 ohms,
or 0.01 volt).
Therefore:
s
EA
WI
-50
=40
- 6.7-2.7 =
Voltage Gain (A,)
0.01
400
203,E
Power gain voltage gain times current
%\`; to
,
is
gain:
Power gain = 130 X 400 = 52,000 2
MIMal
Power gain in decibels is:
ie'o (MA)
Gain = 10 log 52,000 = 10 X 4.7 LOAD LINE
= 47 decibels IO
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE VcE

Constant- Power- Each transistor has a maxi - Figure 24
Dissipation Line muni collector power that
CONSTANT POWER -DISSIPATION LINE
it can safely dissipate
without damage to the transistor. To ensure Constant power -dissipation line is placed on
output characteristic , with collector load
that the maximum collector dissipation rat- line positioned so it falls within area bounded
ing is not exceeded, a constant-pouer- dissi- by vertical and horizontal axes and constant
power-dissipation line. Load line tangent at
patio,: line (figure 24) is drawn on the (X) permits maximum power gain within
characteristic curves, and the collector load maximum collector dissipation rating.
HANDBOOK Transistor Circuitry 125
_OMMON EMITTER COMMON BASE COMMON COLLECTOR

signal is present. The class -B transistor am-
RL plifier can be biased either for collector cur-
MED. Z
LOAD
HIGH Z
LOAD
rent cutoff or for zero collector voltage. The
VERT
LOW Z HIGH Z
former configuration is most often used,
INPUT INPUT
LOW Z IRO.
PHASE
NO
PHASE
LOW since collector current flows only during
INPUT NO PHASE RL Z
SHIFT
}
SHIFT
f
SHIFTY Ou+ that half -cycle of the input signal voltage
that aids the forward bias. This bias tech-
INPUT Z 500 -I.511 30-150 LL 20 n -500 V nique is used because it results in the best
OUTPUT Z 30R -50k 300k -500V 5011-In power efficiency. Class -B transistor ampli-
VOLTAGEGAIN 300 -1000 50 -1500 LESS THAN
fiers must he operated in push -pull to avoid
CURRENT GAIN 25- 5O LESS THAN 25 -50
I
severe signal distortion. Class -AB transistor
Figure 25 amplifiers can be biased so that either collec-
tor current or voltage is zero for less than
THREE BASIC TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS half a cycle of the input signal, and the
Common -emitter circuits are used for high -gain above statements for class -B service also
amplification, common-base circuits are use- apply for the class -AB mode.
ful for oscillator circuits and common -collector
circuits are used for various impedance trans- A simple small- signal voltage amplifier
formations. is shown in figure 26A. Direct- current
stabilization is employed in the emitter cir-
cuit. Operating parameters for the amplifier
these three circuits are summarized in figure are given in the drawing. In this case, the
25. Common -emitter circuits are widely used input impedance of the amplifier is quite
for high -gain amplification, and common - low. When used with a high- impedance
base circuits are useful for oscillator circuits driving source such as a crystal microphone
and high- frequency operation, and common - a step -down input transformer should be
collector circuits are used for various im- employed as shown in figure 26B.
pedance transformation applications. Exam- The circuit of a two -stage resistance -
ples of these circuits will be given in this coupled amplifier is shown in figure 27A.
section. The input impedance is approximately 1100
ohms. Feedback may be placed around this
Audio As in the case of electron -tube amplifier from the emitter of the second
Circuitry amplifiers, transistor amplifiers can stage to the base of the first stage, as shown
be operated class A, class AB, in figure 27B. A direct- coupled version of
class B, or class C. The first three classes are the resistance- coupled amplifier is shown in
used in audio circuitry. The class -A tran- figure 27C. The input impedance is of the
sistor amplifier is biased so that collector order of 15,000 ohms, and an over -all voltage
current flows continuously during the com- gain of 80 may be obtained with a supply
plete electrical cycle, even when no drive potential of 12 volts.
-12 v
VOLTAGE GAIN = CO
/NPLIT IMPEDANCE'!" 1200 2
Figure 26
TRANSISTOR VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS
A- Resistance coupled class -A audio amplifier. For use with high -impedance microphone, a step -
down input transformer is required, as shown in I. For PNP transistors, battery and capacitor
polarities are sod.
.7K
GAIN i 1OLF
O O
Figure 27
TWO -STAGE TRANSISTOR AUDIO AMPLIFIER

The feedback loop of b may be added to the RC amplifier to reduce distortion, or to control
the audio response. A direct- coupled amplifier is shown in C.
It is possible to employ NPN and PNP smiller units provide power levels of a few
transistors in complementary- symmetry cir- milliwatts. The correct operating point is
cuits which have no equivalent in vacuum - chosen so that the output signal can swing
tube design. Figure 28A illustrates such a equally in the positive and negative direc-
circuit. A symmetrical push -pull circuit is tions, as shown in the collector curves of
shown in figure 28B. This circuit may be figure 29B.
used to directly drive a high -impedance The proper primary impedance of the out-
speaker, eliminating the output transformer. put transformer depends on the amount of
A direct- coupled three -stage amplifier hav- power to be delivered to the load:
ing a gain figure of 80 db is shown in figure
28C. The latter circuit should be used with r:1.=
caution since it results in a serious d -c drift
with temperature change. R" 2P
The transistor may also be used as a
class -A power amplifier as shown in figure The collector current bias is:
29.
Commercial transistors are available that
will provide five or six watts of audio power =
when operating from a 12 -volt supply. The
1,
T
2N169 2N169 2N324
NPN PNP NPN NPN PNP
+E
500n
SPEAKER
0 O O
Figure 28
COMPLEMENTARY- SYMMETRY AMPLIFIERS

NPN and PNP transistors may be combined in circuits which have no equivalent in
vacuum -tube design. Direct coupling between cascaded stages using a single
power- supply source may be employed, as in C. Impedance of power
supply should be extremely low.
Figure 29 2N404
I MAX
MAXIMUM COLLECTOR
TYPICAL CLASS -A DISSIPATION (IC X EC)
AUDIO POWER
TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT OPERATING POINT
The correct operating pnint

is chosen so that output
signal can swing equally in
a positive or negative di- Ec 2Ec
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
rection, without exceeding
maximum collector dissipa-
tion.
in a class -A output stage, the maximum where the collector voltage equals the sup-
a -c power output obtainable is limited to ply voltage. The collector -to- collector im-
0.5 the allowable dissipation of the transistor. pedance of the output transformer is:
The product 1rEr determines the maximum
collector dissipation, and a plot of these
values is shown in figure 29B. The load line Re -r - 2 Ere
P
shou!d always lie under the dissipation curve,
and should encompass the maximum possible In the class -B circuit, the maximum a -c
area between the axes of the graph for max- power input is approximately equal to three
imum output condition. In general, the load times the allowable collector dissipation of
line is tangent to the dissipation curve and each transistor. Power transistors, such as the
pass ^s through the supply -voltage point at 2N514 have collector dissipation ratings of
zero collector current. The d -c operating 80 watts and operate with class -B efficiency
point is thus approximately one -half the of about 67 percent. To achieve this level of
supply voltage. operation the heavy -duty transistor 'relies on
The circuit of a typical push -pull class -B efficient heat transfer from the transistor
transistor amplifier is shown in figure 30A. case to the chassis, using the large thermal
Push -pull operation is desirable for transistor capacity of the chassis as a heat sink. An in-
operation, since the even-order harmonics finite heat sink may be approximated by
are largely eliminated. This permits transis- mounting the transistor in the center of a
tors to be driven into high collector -current 6" X 6" copper or aluminum sheet. This
regions without distortion normally caused area may be part of a larger chassis.
by nonlinearity of the collector. Crossover The collector of most power transistors is
distortion is reduced to a minimum by pro- electrically connected to the case. For appli-
viding a slight forward base bias in addition cations where the collector is not grounded
to the normal emitter bias. The base bias a thin sheet of mica may be used between
is usually less than 0.5 volt in most cases. the case of the transistor and the chassis.
Excessive base bias will boost the quiescent Large, inexpensive power transistors such
collector current and thereby lower the as the 2N441 may be used as modulators
over -all efficiency of the stage. for medium power a -m mobile equipment.
The operating point of the class -B ampli- Such a modulator is shown in figure 31. It
fier is set on the 1c = O axis at the point is capable of a power output of about 35
Figure 30
CLASS -B AUDIO AMPLIFIER

CIRCUITRY
2N3428 /HEP -254
INPUT
Figure 32
Figure 31 HIGH INPUT IMPEDANCE
(BOOTSTRAP) AMPLIFIER
35 -WATT MODULATOR
High input impedance provided by simple
T,- 48 -ohm to 3/8/16 sec. use 3 -ohm tap
CT feedback circuit makes this amplifier attractive
as CT (Thordarson TR -611. 7 -6 -ohm CT to 6k
for use with crystal microphones and other
(Triad TY-66A . Transistors mounted on heat high -impedance devices. Input impedance may
sink with mica washers. run from 100K to 10 megohms.
watts and is capable of plate -modulating a R -F Circuitry Transistors having a high

70 -watt transmitter. value of beta and low internal
capacitance may be used in r -f circuits.
The "Bootstrap" The bipolar transistor in External feedback circuits are often used to
Circuit common -emitter configur- counteract the effects of internal transistor
ation presents a low input feedback and to provide more stable per-
impedance unsuitable for use with high - formance at high gain figures. Modern sili-
impedance driving sources such as a crystal con planar junction transistors are capable
microphone or a diode voltmeter probe. cf operation into the vhf region without
The boostrah circuit of figure 32 provides external neutralization when used in prop-
a very high input impedance for these spe- erly isolated circuits. Shown in figures 33
cial circuits. The low -impedance base -bias are two such r -f amplifiers. Illustration A
network is isolated from the input circuit by is of a common -emitter amplifier commonly
the 100K resistor. The signal is fed to the used as an r -f amplifier up to 200 MHz or
base of the transistor and the output signal, so. A coupling winding is used in the base
taken across the emitter resistor, is also circuit to match the relatively low input
coupled to the bottom of the 100K isolating impedance of the transistor to the high -
resistor via a capacitor. When a signal ap- impedance tuned input circuit. The com-
pears at the base, it also appears at the emit- mon -base circuit performs well at 432 MHz
ter in the same phase and almost the same with suitable transistors in a configuration
amplitude. Thus, nearly identical signal such as the one shown in figure 33B. Shown
voltages appear at the ends of the isola- in figure 34 is a common -base 432 -MHz
ting resistor and little or no signal cur- amplifier using a 2N3478 epitaxial planar
rent flows through it. The resistor then transistor which combines a low noise figure,
resembles an infinitely high impedance to low internal capacitance, and a high gain -
the signal current, thus effectively iso- bandwidth product. The amplifier requires
lating the base -bias resistors. Since the no neutralization and has a stage gain of
isolating resistor has no effect on the bias over 15 db with a noise figure of better than
level, the base bias remains unchanged. In s db at 432 MHz.
practice, the signal voltage at the emitter Transistor i -f amplifiers resemble the r -f
is slightly less than at the base, thus limiting circuitry previously discussed. Shown in fig-
the over -all effectiveness of the circuit. For ure 3SA is a typical i -f amplifier employing
example, if the emitter -follower voltage an NPN transistor. The collector current
gain is 0.99, and the value of the isolating is determined by a voltage divider in the
resistor is 100K, the effective resistance to base circuit and by a bias resistor in the
the a -c input signal is 100K raised to 10 emitter leg. Input and output are coupled
megohms, an increase in value by a factor of by means of tuned i -f transformers. Bypass
100 times. capacitors are placed across the bias resistors
40242
Figure 33
TRANSISTOR R -F AMPLIFIERS
A- Common- emitter amplifier used up to 200 MHz or so. B -Common -bass amplifier often used
at 432 MHz.
to prevent signal- frequency degeneration. to neutralize the circuit to obtain stability

The base is connected to a low -impedance (figure 35B).
untuned winding of the input transformer, The gain of a transistor i -f amplifier will
and the collector is connected to a tap on decrease as the emitter current is decreased.
the output transformer to provide proper This transistor property can be used to
matching, and also to make the performance control the gain of an i -f amplifier so that
of the stage relatively independent of varia- weak and strong signals will produce the
tions between transistors of the same type. same audio output. A special i -f strip incor-
With a rate -grown NPN transistor such as porating this automatic volume -control ac-
the 2N293, it is unnecessary to use neutral- tion is shown in figure 36.
ization to obtain circuit stability. When R -f transistors may be used as mixers or
PNP alloy transistors are used, it is necessary autodyne converters much in the same man-
L1 Cz L2 2N3478 L3
ANTENNA SHIELD
J, fig OUTPUT
J2
I.
2 76 6.8F
NOTE' ALL RESISTORS 0.25 WATT
UNLESS OTHERWISE
SPECIFIED.
CHASSIS LAYOUT
1FOLD UP
SHIELD
VIEWED FROM
INPUT SIDE.
r
- 9v. +
NOTE'. 1. ALL INDUCTORS VIEWED ON EDGE

2 ALL INDUCTORS MADE OF 1/4 /NCH WIDE
STRIPS OF /64 INCH THICKNESS FLASHING
7
COPPER
3. ADJACENT EDGES OF L2 & LS ARE 13/16
INCH APART.
4. SHIELD MADE OF 1/64 INCH THICKNESS
CONNECT BASE
LEAD HERE
J` _9_
L7s CONNECTS
FLASHING COPPER
t.
I
C HERE FOR S i- ARE BUTTON CAPACITORS(ERIE 29221

OUTPUT SY
CONNECT son
INPUT HERE CA LEAD
GOES HERE
O A O LS
Figure 34
SCHEMATIC AND LAYOUT FOR 432 -MHz R -F AMPLIFIER
C, C, C.-0.5- to 8 -pf piston trimmer capacitor. HD PC3S -H080 or equiv.
C.-3-0 ceramic capacitor. (see text)
RFC -7 turns #22 e., 1/4-inch long (Ohmite Z-460)
J , J.-INC c tor, chassis mounting. UG -6S7 /U or equiv.
Box-4" x 21/4" z 13/4" (Bud 3002A)
2N293 2N135 s
NPN
I F.
TO TO
O OUT.
MIMER MIXER
OR OR
CONVERTER CONVERTER
4. 7 N
-9V.
10N e2N
f9V
S
Figure 35 O
TRANSISTOR I -F AMPLIFIERS
Typical PNP transistor must be neutralised because of high collector capacitance.
Rate -grown NPN transistor doss not usually require external neutralising
circuit.
ner as vacuum tubes. The autodyne circuit in this stage anu the desired beat frequency
is shown in figure 37. Transformer T, feeds of 455 kHz is selected by i -f transformer
back a signal from the collector to the T., and passed to the next stage. Collector
emitter causing oscillation. Capacitor C, currents of 0.6 ma to 0.8 ma are common,
tunes the oscillator circuit to a frequency and the local -oscillator injection voltage at
455 kHz higher than that of the incoming the emitter is in the range of 0.15 to 0.25
signal. The local -oscillator signal is induc- volts, rms.
tively coupled into the emitter circuit of A receiver "front end" capable of opera-
the transistor. The incoming signal is reso- tion through the 10 -meter hand is shown
nated in T_ and coupled via a low- imped- in figure 38. The inexpensive RCA type
ance winding to the base circuit. Notice that 2N1177 or 2N1180 transistors are used. If
the base is biased by a voltage- divider cir- proper shielding is employed between the
cuit much the same as is used in audio -fre- tuned circuits of the r -f stage and the
quency operation. The two signals are mixed mixer, no neutralization of the r -f stage is
1ST I -F STAGE 2ND -F STAGE

I
295 2N169 295

1N
2N292
Alg NI
1N
TO MI1
ER
Co
.05 .02
5 .05 R2 2.2 10
470 330 4.7K K K 50 470 1.5K
A VC
t 3.3K
..
62K -T15
AUDIO OUT
-9 V.
Figure 36
AUTOMATIC- VOLUME -CONTROL CIRCUIT

An auxiliary diode AVC circuit Is used to shunt a portion of the signal to ground at high
signal levels. Diode Is back -biased by resistors R, and R,.
The oscillator operates on its third harmonic

to produce an intermediate frequency of 1.6
MHz.
Other r -f and i -f transistor circuitry is
discussed in Chapter 10, Radio Receiver
Fundamentals.
TO 1F Transistor Sufficient coupling between in-

AMPLIFIER
Oscillators put and output circuits of the
Ta
transistor amplifier via collector -
base capacitance or via external circuitry
will permit oscillation up to and slightly
above the alpha -cutoff frequency. Various
Figure 37 forms of transistor oscillators are shown
in figure 39. A simple grounded- emitter
THE AUTODYNE CONVERTER CIRCUIT
Hartley oscillator having positive feedback
USING A 2N168A AS A MIXER
between the base and the collector (39A) is
compared to a grounded -base Hartley oscil-
required. The complete assembly obtains lator (39B). In each case the resonant tank
power from a 3 -volt battery. The base of circuit is common to the input and output
the r -f transistor is link -coupled to the r -f circuits of the transistor. Self -bias of the
coil to achieve proper impedance match. transistor is employed in both these circuits.
14 MHz 2N1177 (R-F) 14 MHz 211177 (MI( ) 1.6 MHz
2N1177 ;osc.
Figure 38
RECEIVER "FRONT END" FOR USE UP TO 30 MHz
RFC
-3 M
RFC
Figure 39
TYPICAL TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS

A- Grounded -emitter Harley. !- Grounded -base Hartley. C -2N247 oscillator suitable for
50 -MHs operation.
A typical transistor crystal oscillator and transistor. An oscillator of this type may be
frequency- multiplier circuit are shown in used to drive a flip -flop circuit as a counter.
figure 40. The 2N707 NPN transistor op- An Eccles- Jordan bistable flip -flop circuit
erates at 25 MHz, driving a 2N2218 doubler employing surface -barrier transistors may be
to 50 MHz and a 2N2786 amplifier. Diode driven between "off" and "on" positions by
CR is for bias stabilization.
1 an exciting pulse as shown in figure 41D.
Shown in figures 41A and B are transistor The first pulse drives the "on" transistor into
versons cf a crystal- oscillator circuit and saturation. This transistor remains in a
an RC audio oscillator, both of which are highly conductive state until the second
comparable to their vacuum -tube counter- exciting pulse arrives. The transistor does
parts. Additional oscillator circuits are found not immediately return to the cutoff state,
in later chapters of this handbook. since a time lapse occurs before the output
Transistors are also widely used in count- waveform starts to decrease. This storage
ing circuits, multivibratcrs, and blocking time is caused by the transit lag of the
oscillators in a variety of instruments. Typi- minority carriers in the base of the transis-
cal industrial circuits are shown in figures tor. Proper circuit design can reduce the
41C and D. Illustration 41C shows a trans- effects of storage time to a minimum. Driv-
former- coupled blocking oscillator. The os- ing pulses may be coupled to the multivi-
cillator may be synchronized by coupling the brator through steering diodes as shown in
locking signal to the base circuit of the the illustration.
2N707 25 MHi 2N2218 60 MHz 2N2786 50 M11t
-II 50 $ 12 WATT
R-F OUTPUT
12V.
Figure 40
50 -MHz TRANSISTORIZED EXCITER
HANDBOOK The Field- Effect Transistor 133

Figure 41
TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS
A -NPN high -frequency transistor used in crystal oscillator. Ratio of C. to C. determines feed-
back. 8 -RC audio oscillator. Constants are shown for 1000 Hz. C- Transformer coupled blocking
oscillator. D- Eccles- Jordan bistable flip -flop circuit.
5 -7 The Field- Effect FET Types Field -effect transistors are di-
Transistor vided into two groups: junction -
gate and insulated -gate. The junction -gate
type is shown in figure 42.
The junction field -effect transistor (JFET),
or unipolar transistor, was first explored in
1928 but it was not until 1958 that the
first practical field -effect transistor was de- SOURCE GATE DRAIN
veloped. The field -effect transistor is an N- CHANNEL
or P- channel amplifying device which mod-
ulates the flow of current in a semiconductor
channel by establishing regions of depletion
(lack of current carriers: holes or electrons) lo1-'
between the electron source and the drain. + DEPLETION
REGION
Depletion control is exercised by a gate
consisting of a junction of opposite intrinsic
material sandwiching part of the conducting N- CHANNEL P- CHANNEL
path (figure 42) . Two basic types of field - D
effect transistors available today are the junc- 4 5
tion FET (JFET) and the metal-oxide semi- Figure 42

conductor FET (MOSFET) . The latter is
also referred to as the insulated -gate FET Depletion control is exercised by a "gate" of
opposite intrinsic material across the
(IGFET) . conducting path.
When external reverse bias is applied, the JFET IGFET

(DEPLETION TYPE) (ENHANCEMENT TYPE)
region of depletion extends into the con- N- CHANNEL N -CHANNEL N- CHANNEL
ducting path, thus restricting the carrier DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN
Flow through the channel. At maximum gate GATE GATE I 11--F -BODY GATE Y
bias, the depletion region is nearly com-

SOURCE SOURCE SOURCE
plete and the channel is pinched -of, or re-
duced. In effect, the conductive cross -section P- CHANNEL P- CHANNEL P- CHANNEL
of the channel is controlled by the bias sig- DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN
nal. This action is analogous to that of the
GATE BODY GATE
vacuum tube, where a potential on the grid Y
affects the plate current, but the charge SOURCE SOURCE SOURCE
carrying the signal does not flow in the
region between cathode and plate to any Figure 43
significant extent. SYMBOLS AND NOMENCLATURE FOR
The insulated -gate field -effect transistor FIELD- EFFECT TRANSISTORS
(IGFET) differs from the JFET in that
there is no junction between gate and chan- quite low, and the FET elements resemble
nel, the gate electrode being separated by an those of the vacuum tube (gate = grid,
insulating layer of silicon dioxide. The gate - drain = plate, source = cathode). In addi-
metal area is overlayed on the oxide and in tion, the FET features high stage gain and
conjunction with the insulating layer and low feedthrough capacitance. With these
the semiconductor channel forms a capacitor. characteristics, the FET is often considered
In both the FET and the JFET the regions as the solid -state equivalent of the vacuum
where current movement is restricted are tube and can be used in virtually identical
termed the depletion areas and areas of elec- circuits, provided power ratings are observed.
tron movement are termed enhancement One of the virtues of the IGFET is that
areas. it exhibits extremely low levels of cross
Depletion -mode FET's are normally modulation when used as an r-f amplifier and
turned on when no bias is applied between is superior to common bipolar transistors in
gate and source. In contrast to the JFET, this important respect.
however, the IGFET can be forward -biased The current -voltage characteristics of an
in the enhancement mode, or reverse -biased IGFET are similar to those of a vacuum
in the depletion mode as the back gate ele- tube. For example, the 3N128 uses positive
ment (or body) is brought out to a separate drain voltages and usually negative gate
terminal or is connected to the source. voltages, which are analogous to the plate
Symbols for typical IGFET's are shown in and grid voltages, respectively, of electron
figure 43.
The gate voltage of the JFET is limited
in the reverse direction by the avalanche
breakdown potential of the gate -to- source SOURCE AND SUBSTRATE GROUNDED
and gate -to -drain circuits. With the IGFET,

on the other hand, gate voltage limitation is a
the point of destructive breakdown of the vcs)-o
.moi 15 VOLT S
oxide dielectric under the gate. This break- To-
down must be avoided to prevent permanent Z <t"
damage to the oxide. Gate protection is often ID

cc
included within the device in the form of

Z
a zener diode on the chip between the gate
5

and body. CC
0 -S
-2
IO
DRAIN -TO SOURCE VOLTS (VD3)

FET CharacteristicsThe field -effect transis-
tor has been compared Figure 44
to a vacuum tube in that the input imped- TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC OF
ance is quite high, the output impedance IGFET TYPE 3N128
HANDBOOK Integrated Circuits 135
tubes. The transfer characteristic of the

3N128 is shown in figure 44.
FET Circuitry
Field- effect transistors are
most often used in the com-
mon- source circuit configuration shown in
figure 45. Common -gate or common -drain
circuits may be used, but these provide very
low gain, especially at the higher frequencies.
The FET type, however, may be used at +V DD
-VC -1
vhf in common -source or common -drain
circuitry for maximum stability. A cascode Figure 46
vhf FET circuit is shown in figure 46.
CASCODE IGFET AMPLIFIER
5 -8 Integrated Circuits
Using very small monolithic IC's makes
it possible to make thousands of circuits
The integrated circuit (IC) comprises a simultaneously. For example, several hun-
family in the field of microelectronics in
dred dice (plural of die) may be produced
which small, conventional components are
side by side from a single silicon slice in
combined in an orderly fashion in compact, the simultaneous processing of about a hun-
high- density assemblies (micromodules) . In-
dred slices. Each die contains a complete
tegrated circuits may be composed of passive circuit made up of ten to one hundred or
elements (resistors, capacitors, and intercon- more active and inactive components.
nections), and active elements such as diodes The silicon slice is prepared by an epitax-
and transistors. The IC family may be di- ial process, which is defined as "the place-
vided into monolithic and multichip, or
ment of materials on a surface." Epitaxy
hybrid, circuits. The former category con-
is used to grow thin layers of silicon on the
sists of an entire circuit function constructed
slice, the layer resistivity controlled by the
in a single semiconductor block. The latter
addition of N -type or P -type impurities
consists of two or more semiconductor
(diffusion) to the silicon atoms being de-
blocks, each containing active or passive
posited. When localized regions are diffused
elements interconnected to form a complete
into the base material (substrate), isolated
circuit and assembled in a single package.
circuits are achieved. Diffusion of additional
Integrated circuits offer relief in complex
P -type or N -type regions forms transistors.
systems by permitting a reduction in the
Once the die is prepared by successive
number of pieces and interconnections
making up the system, a reduction in over- diffusions, a photomasking and etching proc-
ess cuts accurately sized- and - located win-
all system size, better transistor matching
and potentially lower system cost. dows in the oxide surface, setting the circuit
element dimensions simultaneously on every
circuit in the slice. The wafer is then
3N128 coated with an insulating oxide layer which
can be opened in areas to permit metaliza-
tion and interconnection.
The metalization process follows next,
connecting circuit elements in the substrate.
Electrical isolation barriers (insulators) may
be provided in the form of reverse- biased
P -N junctions, or the resistance of the sub -
trate may be used. Dielectric insulation,
making use of a formed layer around a
sensitive region is also employed. Successive
Figure 45 diffusion processes produce transistors and
COMMON- SOURCE IGFET R -F AMPLIFIER circuit elements of microscopic size, ready
LEAD
OUTPUT OUTPUT EXTERNAL

it I *2 E REDUE NCI
COMPENSATION
INPUT INPUT GROUND LAG
N6 1
INVERTING
INPUT
NON INVERT ING

OUTPUT
INPUT
INPUT
s3
61,
INPUTS OUTPUT
SYMBOL
Figure 48
Figure 47 OPERATIONAL INTEGRATED -CIRCUIT
AMPLIFIER
DIFFERENTIAL INTEGRATED- CIRCUIT
AMPLIFIER
as a transistor. An operational amplifier is
to have external leads bonded to them, and a high -gain direct -coupled amplifier utilizing
suitable for encapsulation. frequency compensation (feedback) for
Typical IC dice range in size from less control of response characteristics (figure
than 0.02" square up to 0.08" X 0.2 ". 48) . The circuit symbol for these amplifiers
Many package configurations are used, the is a triangle, with the apex pointing in the
most popular being the multi -pin TO -5 direction of operation.
package, the dual in -line package, the flat Integrated circuits may be used in com-
package, and the inexpensive epoxy package. munication as replacements for discrete
components and are used at d -c, audio, and
radio frequencies. Some typical IC schema-
Digital and Integrated circuits may be clas- tics are shown in figure 49, and a printed -
Linear IC's sified in terms of their functional circuit regulator board using multiple IC's
end -use into two families: is shown in figure 50.
Digital-A family of circuits that oper-
ate effectively as "on-off" switches. These
circuits are most frequently used in com-
puters to count in accord with the ab- 5 -9 Silicon Power
sence or presence of a signal. Transistors
Linear (Analog) -A family of circuits
that operate on an electrical signal to change Most high -frequency power transistors
its shape, increase its amplitude, or modify are silicon, planar, diffused NPN structures
it for a specific use. having a high ratio of active to physical
The differential amplifier is a basic cir- area. Upwards of 200 watts average power
cuit configuration for IC's used in a wide at frequencies in the neighborhood of 800
variety of linear applications (figure 47). MHz may be handled by modern silicon
The circuit is basically a balanced amplifier power transistors of advanced design. In
in which the currents to the emitter -cou- the coming decade the efficiency, power
pled differential pair of transistors are sup- gain, and temperature stability of these
plied from a constant -current source, such devices will lead to their use in many
HANDBOOK Silicon Power Transistors 137
OUTPUT
Tr
-I 5v.
AO AUDIO AMPLIFIER R-F AMPLIFIER
Our
CO R -F MIXER -OSC OD AUDIO OSCILLATOR
Figure 49
IC R-F AND AUDIO AMPLIFIERS AND AUDIO OSCILLATOR
Integrated circuit combines functions of many transistors and associated components into one
small package.
r -f amplifier applications heretofore solely not appropriate for transistor circuits. This
reserved for electron tubes. variance in circuit considerations results
mainly because of the lower circuit imped-
Circuit The power output capability ances encountered in transistor circuits. The
Considerations of a transistor is determined most troublesome areas are power dissipa-
by current and voltage limi- tion and parasitic oscillation. In the case
tations at the frequency of operation. The of power dissipation, the levels reached
maximum current capacity is limited by under a given r -f power input are consider-
emitter area and layer resistivity, and the ably higher than equivalent levels achieved
voltage- handling capacity is limited by under d -c operating conditions, since the
maximum breakdown limits imposed by junction temperature is a complex function
layer resistivity and by the penetration of of device dissipation, which includes r -f
the junction. The high- frequency current losses introduced in the pellet mounting
gain figure of merit (IT) defines the fre- structure. The package, then, is an integral
quency at which the current gain is unity, part of the r-f power transistor having
and a high value of f T at high emitter or thermal, capacitive, and inductive proper-
collector current levels characterize a good ties. The most critical parasitic features of
r -f transistor. the package are the emitter and base lead
In many cases, components and construc- inductances. These undesired parameters
tion techniques used for vacuum tubes are can lead to parasitic oscillations, most of
Figure 50
I -C CIRCUIT BOARD PERFORMS AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Complicated circuitry is reduced to printed- circuit board, eight "in- line" IC's and ten TO -5
style IC's. Transistor version would occupy many times this volume and have hundreds of
discrete components. Final voltage regulator IC is at left with heat sink.
which occur at frequencies below the fre- be eliminated by placing small resistances
quency of operation because of the increased in series with the r -f choke, or by the use
gain of the transistor at lower frequencies. of low -Q chokes of the ferrite -bead variety.
Because transistor parameters change with Hysteresis- Hysteresis refers to discon-
power level, instabilities can be found in tinuous mode jumps in output power that
both common- emitter and common -base cir- occur when the input power or operating
cuits. Some of the more common difficulties frequency is increased or decreased. This is
are listed below: caused by dynamic detuning resulting from
Parametric Oscillation- Parametric in- nonlinear junction capacitance variation
stability results because the transistor col- with change in r -f voltage. The tuned cir-
lector-base capacitance is nonlinear and can cuit, in other words, will have a different
cause low- frequency modulation of the out- resonant frequency for a strong drive signal
put frequency. This effect can be suppressed than for a weak one. Usually, these difficul-
by careful selection of the bypass capacitors, ties can be eliminated or minimized by
and by the addition of a low- frequency by- careful choice of base bias, by proper choice
pass capacitor in addition to the high -fre- of ground connections, and by the use of
quency bypass capacitor (figure 52). transistors having minimum values of para-
Low Frequency Oscillation -With transis- sitic capacitance and inductance. Circuit
tor gain decreasing at about 6 decibels per wiring should be short and direct as possible
octave, any parasitic low- frequency circuit and all grounds should be concentrated in
can cause oscillation. Inadequate bypassing a small area to prevent chassis inductance
plus the use of high -Q, resonant r -f chokes from causing common -impedance gain de-
can lead to this difficulty. This effect can generation in the emitter circuit. In com-
Input Circuits Once the dynamic input

impedance has been deter-
mined from published data or from measure-
ments, the input circuit may be designed.
In practice, the input circuit must provide
a match between a source impedance that
is high compared to the input impedance of
the transistor, which may be of the order
of a few tenths of an ohm. Lumped LC
circuits are used in the high- frequency
region and air -line or strip -line circuits are
used in the vhf region, as shown in figure
53.
The reactive portion of the input circuit
is afunction of the transistor package induc-
tance and the chip capacitance; at the
lower frequencies the input impedance is
capacitive, and at the higher frequencies it
Figure 51 becomes inductive; at some discrete inter-
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY mediate frequency, it is entirely resistive.
This 36 -lead integrated circuit complex is The inductive reactance present at the
smaller than a postage stamp and includes higher frequencies may be tuned out by
285 gates fabricated on a single chip. it
is used for access to computer memory cir-
means of a line section presenting capaci-
cuits. (Fairchild TT1L 9035 ). tive reactance to the transistor. This advan-
tageously results in an appreciable increase
in over -all line length, as compared to the
more common quarter -wave matching trans-
mon -emitter circuits, stage gain is dependent former (figure 53D).
on series emitter impedance and small
amounts of degeneration can cause reduced Output Circuits In most transistor power
circuit gain at the higher frequencies and amplifiers, the lead imped-
permit unwanted feedback between output ance (RL) presented to the collector is
and input circuits. dictated by the required power output and
the allowable peak d -c collector voltage,
and thus is not made equal to the output
resistance of the transistor. The peak a -c
voltage is always less than the supply volt-
age and the collector load resistance may be
expressed as:
- (yew
V 2 X Pe
Figure 52
w here,
POWER -LEAD BYPASSING IN
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITRY Ver equals supply voltage,
Low -frequency oscillations can often be traced
P equals average power output.
to inadequate bypassing and inadequate iso-
lation of power leads or self -resonance of The nonlinear transfer characteristic of
r -f chokes. Ferrite -bead chokes, or low -Q the transistor and the large dynamic voltage
chokes are suggested. Collector choke may and current swings result in high -level har-
have low value of added series resistance
used to de -Q it. Collector bypass capacitor is monic currents being generated in the col-
of the feedthrough type having a very high lector circuit. These currents must be sup-
self- resonant frequency (C,) in parallel with
a high -capacitance unit to provide adequate
pressed by proper design of the output
bypassing at the lower frequencies (C ). coupling network, which offers a relatively
Figure 53
COMMON -EMITTER
INPUT CIRCUITRY
Gain of common -emitter circuit is
very dependent on emitter series
impedance which should be low.
Base input impedance is usually
less than one ohm and a match-
ing circuit must be provided from
a source impedance that is high
compared to input impedance.
A low- impedance Inductive circuit
(A) may be used, or various
tuned networks that combine im-
pedance transformation with re-
jection of harmonic f ices
(B). A linear pi network is shown
at C. If the input circuit is In-
ductive, the reactance may be
tuned out by means of a line
section (L,) that presents a ca-
pacitive reactance to the transis-
tor (D).
high impedance to the harmonic currents Single -sideband, linear operation calls for
and a low impedance to the fundamental class -AB transistor operation. Most high -
current (figure 54). Parallel- tuned, or pi. frequency power transistors are designed for
network circuitry may be used, with the on -off (class -C) operation and the forward
reactive component of the output admit- bias necessary to place them in a class -AB
tance tuned out by proper design of the mode leaves them susceptible to second
series choke (RFC,). At the lower frequen- breakdown, a destructive phenomenon
cies, the collector of the transistor may be characterized by localized heating within
tapped down the tank coil as shown in the transistor pellet, which leads to a regen-
the illustration. Capacitor C, provides tun- erative layer damage.
ing, and capacitor C_ provides load match- Second breakdown may be controlled by
ing. If the value of the inductor is properly the addition of emitter resistance of low
chosen, harmonic suppression may be ade- value. A compromise amount is usually
quate. A form of this circuit is shown in chosen as excessive emitter resistance can
figure 55, which provides better harmonic limit power gain and output. Developmental
suppression with proper collector -circuit transistors designed for linear amplifier serv-
loading. ice have emitter resistance in the chip, in
amounts of a fraction of an ohm. Other
Mode of Operation From the stability stand-
point, the common -emit-
ter configuration provides a more stable
circuit at the higher frequencies than does
the common -base circuit. Collector effici-
ency in either case is about the same. Gen-
erally speaking, breakdown voltages under
r-f conditions are considerably lower than
the normal d -c breakdown voltages, and
the capability of the r-f power transistor Figure 54
to work into loads having a high value of
SWR is limited. A well- designed circuit TRANSISTOR OUTPUT
operated at low supply voltage where power MATCHING CIRCUITRY
gain is not excessive is found to be less prone The reactive component of the output circuit
to SWR mismatch. High values of SWR of the transistor stage may be tuned out by
proper design of the collector r -f choke
mismatch lead to excessive r -f peak volt- (RFC,). Tuning is accomplished by capacitor
ages, poor efficiency, and instability. C, and load matching by capacitor C,.
RI C, L2
55B
INPUT CI LI
TO TEMPERATURE COMPENSATING
BASE BIAS CIRCUIT. VCC
xL2=Xc, Ct+ Rz
QLXC2
\
0
Figure 55 R -F DRIVE TO BASE CIRCUIT
TRANSISTOR OUTPUT
COUPLING NETWORK
This circuit provides proper collector loading
and suppresses collector harmonic currents.
The formulas for determination of constants
are given in the illustration.
transistor types may incorporate a zener

dicde on the chip to provide controlled,
positive base voltage. Figure 56
The forward bias must, in any event, be
maintained over a wide temperature range SSB LINEAR AMPLIFIER
to prevent an increase in idling current ac- A- Linear operation of transistor requires use
companied by a rise in chip temperature, of positive base bias for NPN silicon unit.
Class -AB bias must be maintained over a
which leads to a destructive runaway con- wide range of temperature to hold idling
dition under maximum output conditions current steady. External base bias compensat-
when transistor temperature is highest. ing circuit is often used, plus emitter bias.
Emitter resistor must be bypassed with low -
A typical transistor linear amplifier and impedance circuit to prevent spurious res-
temperature- compensating base -bias circuit onance effects. B- Temperature compensated
base bias system employing temperature com-
is shown in figure 56. Amplifiers of this pensated diodes. Control is derived from ecti-
configuration are capable of an output power fication of drive signal.
in excess of 100 watts PEP from a 28 -volt
power supply at frequencies as high as 30 and drives the transistor toward cIa s -C
MHz. The input impedance of the transis- operation, thus increasing the intermodula-
tor is of the order of 3 ohms at the oper- tion distortion. This effect increases with
ating frequency, and base bias is obtained chip temperature and power level. Additional
from an auxiliary r -f driven circuit which information on transistor linear amplifiers
compensates for the change in capacitance is contained in the RCA Silicon Power Cir-
in the base- emitter junction of the power cuits Manual (SP-S0), published by the
transistor under drive conditions. Any such Electronics and Devices Division, Radio
change alters the bias point of the circuit Corporation of America, Harrison, N.J.
CHAPTER SIX
Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers
6 -1 Vacuum -Tube Vacuum -Tube The relationships between cer-

Parameters Constants tain of the electrode potentials
and currents within a vacuum
The ability of the control grid of a vacu- tube are reasonably constant under specified
um tube to control large amounts of plate conditions of operation. These relationships
power with a small amount of grid energy are called vacuum -tube constants and are
allows the vacuum tube to be used as an listed in the data published by the manufac-
amplifier. It is this ability of vacuum tubes turers of vacuum tubes. The defining equa-
to amplify an extremely small amount of tions for the basic vacuum -tube constants
energy up to almost any level, without are given in Chapter Four.
change in anything except amplitude, which
makes the vacuum tube such an extremely
valuable adjunct to modern electronics and
Interelectrode The values of interelectrode
Capacitances and capacitance published in
communication.
Miller Effect vacuum -tube tables are the
Symbols for As an assistance in simplif y- static values measured, in
Vacuum-Tube ing and shortening expressions the case of triodes for example, as shown in
Parameters involving vacuum -tube pa- figure 1. The static capacitances are simply
rameters, the symbols used as shown in the drawing, but when a tube
throughout this book are shown in the Glo- is operating as amplifier there is another con-
ssary at the front of this book. sideration known as Miller Effect which
-r-
causes the dynamic input capacitance to be
CGP:T7.
r - -i
CGll:i:
L
1
Ti
_
I
CPM
CGPI-
C IN
r--
10.
.1 -COUT
different from the static value. The output
capacitance of an amplifier is essentially the
same as the static value given in the pub-
lished tube tables. The grid -to -plate capaci-
tance is also the same as the published static
L_I___ L_ value, but since CRP acts as a small ca-
pacitance coupling energy back from the
TRIODE PENTODE OR TETRODE
plate circuit to the grid circuit, the dynamic
input capacitance is equal to the static value
Figure 1 plus an amount (frequently much greater in
STATIC INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCES the case of a triode) determined by the gain
WITHIN A TRIODE, PENTODE, OR of the stage, the plate load impedance, and
TETRODE the Co feedback capacitance. The total
Vacuum -Tube Parameters 143
value for an audio -amplifier stage can be 6 -2 Classes and Types of

expressed in the following equation:
Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers
Cgk(dvu+uuic) - Cgk(static) + (A + 1) Cgp
Vacuum -tube amplifiers are grouped into
This expression assumes that the vacuum various classes and subclasses according to
tube is operating into a resistive load such the type of work they are intended to per-
as would be the case with an audio stage form. The difference between the various
working into a resistance plate load in the classes is determined primarily by the angle
middle audio range. of plate- current flow, the value of average
The more complete expression for the in- grid bias employed, and the maximum value
put admittance (vector sum of capacitance of the exciting signal to be impressed on
and resistance) of an amplifier operating into the grid.
any type of plate load is as follows:
Close -A A class -A amplifier is an amplifier
input capacitance = Cgk+ (1 + A cos 0) Cgp Amplifier biased and supplied with excitation
of such amplitude that plate cur-
rent flows continuously (360 of the excit-
input resistance = - (wCgp) ing voltage waveshape) and grid current
A'sin B does not flow at any time. Such an amplifier
is normally operated in the center of the
where,
grid -voltage plate- current transfer charac-
A'equals voltage amplification of the tube teristic and gives an output waveshape which
alone, is a substantial replica of the input wave -
Oequals angle of the plate -load impedance, shape.
positive for inductive loads, negative for
capacitive. Class -A operation is employed in most
small- signal applications such as in receivers
It can be seen from the above that if the and exciters. This mode of operation is char-
plate -load impedance of the stage is capaci- acterized by high gain, low distortion, and
tive or inductive, there will be a resistive low efficiency. Class -A mode may be further
component in the input admittance of the subdivided into A, and A2 operation signify-
stage. The resistive component of the input ing the degree of grid drive on the stage,
admittance will be positive (tending to load with the A, mode signifying grid drive ap-
the circuit feeding the grid) if the load proaching the class -AB, mode.
impedance of the plate is capacitive, or it
will be negative (tending to make the stage Class -AB, Class -AB, signifies an amplifier
oscillate) if the load impedance of the plate Amplifier operated under such conditions of
is inductive. grid bias and exciting voltage that
plate current flows for more than one -half
Neutralization Neutralization of the effects the input voltage cycle but for less than
of Interelectrode of interelectrode capacitance the complete cycle. In other words the
Capacitance is employed most frequently operating angle of plate current flow is ap-
in the case of radio -fre- preciably greater than 180 but less than
quency power amplifiers. Before the intro- 360 . The suffix , indicates that grid current
duction of the tetrode and pentode tube, does not flow over any portion of the input
triodes were employed as neutralized class -A cycle.
amplifiers in receivers. Except for vhf opera- Class-AB, operation is utilized in most high
tion of low -noise triodes, this practice has
quality, medium -power audio amplifiers and
been largely superseded through the use of linear r -f amplifiers. Gain is lower and dis-
tetrode and pentode tubes in which the C,;,, tortion higher than for class -A amplifiers.
or feedback capacitance has been reduced to
such a low value that neutralization of its Clou -AL A Class-AB, amplifier is operated
effects is not necessary to prevent oscillation Amplifier under essentially the same condi-
and instability. tions of grid bias as the class -AB,
144 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers RADIO
amplifier mentioned above, but the exciting follower since the plate circuit is effectively
voltage is of such amplitude that grid cur- at ground for the input and output signai
rent flows over an appreciable portion of voltages and the output voltage or power is
the input wave cycle. taken between cathode and plate. The third
type is called a cathode -driven or grounded -
grid amplifier since the grid is effectively at
Class -B A class -B amplifier is biased sub - ground potential for input and output sig-
Amplifier stantially to cutoff of plate cur- nals and output is taken between grid and
rent (without exciting voltage) so plate (see figure 19, chapter 5).
that plate current flows essentially over one -
half the input voltage cycle. The operating 6 -3 Biasing Methods
angle of plate- current flow is 180 . The
class -B amplifier is usually excited to the The difference in average potential be-
extent that grid current flows. tween grid and cathode is called the grid
bias of a vacuum tube. There are three gen-
eral methods of providing this bias voltage.
In each of these methods the purpose is to
Class -C A class -Camplifier is biased to a
Amplifier establish the grid at a potential with respect
value greater than the value re-
to the cathode which will place the tube in
quired for plate- current cutoff
the desired operating condition as determined
and is excited with a signal of such ampli-
by its characteristics.
tude that grid current flows over an appreci-
able period of the input -voltage waveshape.
Grid bias may be obtained from a source
of voltage specially provided for this pur-
The angle of plate- current flow in a class -C
pose, such as a battery or other d -c power
amplifier is appreciably less than 180 , or
supply. This method is illustrated in figure
in other words, plate current flows less than
2A, and is known as fixed bias.
one-half the time. Class -C amplifiers are not
A second biasing method is illustrated in
capable of linear amplification as their out-
figure 2B which utilizes a cathode resistor
put waveform is not a replica of the input
voltage for all signal amplitudes. across which an IR drop is developed as a
result of plate current flowing through it.
The cathode of the tube is held at a positive
Types of There are three general types of potential with respect to ground by the
Amplifiers amplifier circuits in use. These amount of the IR drop because the grid is
types are classified on the basis at ground potential. Since the biasing volt-
of the return for the input and output cir- age depends on the flow of plate current the
cuits. Conventional amplifiers are called tube cannot be held in a cutoff condition
grid -driven amplifiers, with the cathode ac- by means of the cathode bias voltage devel-
ting as the common return for both the in- oped across the cathode resistor. The value
put and output circuits. The second type is of this resistor is determined by the bias
known as a plate -return amplifier or cathode required and the plate current which flows
at this value of bias, as found from the
tube characteristic curves. A capacitor is
shunted across the bias resistor to provide a
low -impedance path to ground for the a -c
component of the plate current which re-
sults from an a -c input signal on the grid.
The third method of providing a biasing
voltage is shown in figure 2C, and is called
grid -resistor bias. During the portion of the
Figure 2 input cycle which causes the grid to be posi-
TYPES OF BIAS SYSTEMS
tive with respect to the cathode, grid cur-
rent flows from cathode to grid, charging
A - Grid bias capacitor C,.. When the grid draws current,
- Cathode bias
C - Grid resistor bias
the grid -to- cathode resistance of the tube
HANDBOOK Distortion in Amplifiers 145
drops from an infinite value to a very low

value (on the order of 1000 ohms or so) INPUT
SIGNAL
making the charging time constant of the
capacitor very short. This enables Cc to
charge up to essentially the full value of the
positive input voltage and results in the grid
(which is connected to the low -potential
plate of the capacitor) being held essentially
at ground potential. During the negative OUTPUT
SIGNAL
swing of the input signal no grid current
flows and the discharge path of Cc is through
the grid resistance which has a value of Figure 3
500,000 ohms or so. The discharge time con-
Illustration of the effect of phase distortion on
stant for Ce is, therefore, very long in com- input wave containing a third -harmonic signal
parison to the period of the input signal and
only a small part of the charge on Cc is lost.
Thus, the bias voltage developed by the dis- is passed through the same coupling circuit
charge of C, is substantially constant and each component frequency of the wave
the grid is not permitted to follow the posi- shape may be shifted in phase by a different
tive portion of the input signal. amount so that the output wave is not a
faithful reproduction of the input wave -
shape.
6 -4 Distortion in Amplifiers
Amplitude If a signal is passed through a
There are three main types of distortion Distortion vacuum tube that is operating
that may occur in amplifiers: frequency dis- on any nonlinear part of its
tortion, phase distortion and amplitude dis- characteristic, amplitude distortion will oc-
tortion. cur. In such a region, a change in grid
voltage does not result in a change in plate
Frequency Frequency distortion may occur current which is directly proportional to the
Distortion when some frequency compo- change in grid voltage. For example, if an
nents of a signal are amplified amplifier is excited with a signal that over-
more than others. Frequency distortion oc- drives the tubes, the resultant signal is dis-
curs at low frequencies if coupling capaci- torted in amplitude, since the tubes are then
tors between stages are too small, or it may operating over a nonlinear portion of their
occur at high frequencies as a result of the characteristic.
shunting effects of the distributed capacities
in the circuit. 6 -5 Resistance -
Phase In figure 3 an input signal con - Capacitance Coupled
Distortion sisting of a fundamental and a Audio- Frequency Amplifiers
third harmonic is passed through
a two -stage amplifier. Although the ampli- Present practice in the design of audio -
tudes of both components are amplified by frequency voltage amplifiers is almost ex-
identical ratios, the output waveshape is
considerably different from the input signal
because the phase of the third -harmonic
signal has been shifted with respect to the
fundamental signal. This phase shift is
known as phase distortion, and is caused
principally by the coupling circuits between
the stages of the amplifier. Most coupling Figure 4
circuits shift the phase of a sine wave, but STANDARD CIRCUIT FOR RESISTANCE -
this has no effect on the shape of the out- CAPACITANCE COUPLED TRIODE
put wave. However, when a complex wave AMPLIFIER STAGE
Al RL RG
G A
Rv (RL+Rc)+RL Ro
e= -w ec
MID-FREQUENCY RANGE
CGR
A NIGH FREQ. -
J )+
(DYNAMIC, A MID FREQ.
e= - e ec NEXT STAGE)
(REQ /XS)2
REO- RL
RL RL
HIGH- FREQUENCY RANGE 1+
RG + Rn
Xs
27TF (CvR+CCR (DYNAMIC)
A LOW FREQ.
G
e= -eec
A MID FREQ. J I+(XC/R)2
Xc - 2TTFCC
LOW- FREQUENCY RANGE
RL RP
R = Ra+ RL+ RP
Figure 5
Equivalent circuits and gain equations for a triode RC- coupled amplifier stage. In using these
equations, be sure the values of and RDare proper for the static t and voltages with
which the tube will operate. These values may be obtained from curves published in the RCA
Receiving Tube Manual (series RC).
clusively to use resistance- capacitance age (25 to 75 volts) is less than with a
coupling between the low -level stages. Both pentode tube.
triodes and pentodes are used; triode ampli-
fier stages will be discussed first. Voltage Gain The voltage gain per stage of
per Stage a resistance- capacitance cou-
RC- Coupled Figure 4 illustrates the stand - pled triode amplifier can be
Triode Stages and circuit for a resistance - calculated with the aid of the equivalent
capacitance coupled amplifier circuits and expressions for the mid -fre-
stage utilizing a triode tube with cathode quency, high- frequency, and low- frequency
bias. In conventional audio- frequency ampli- ranges given in figure 5.
fier design such stages are used at medium A triode RC- coupled amplifier stage is
voltage levels (from 0.01 to S volts peak on normally operated with values of cathode re-
the grid of the tube) and use medium -p. sistor and plate -load resistor such that the
triodes such as the 6C4 or high - triodes actual voltage on the tube is approximately
such as the 6B4 or 12AT7. Normal volt- one -half the d -c plate -supply voltage. To
age gain for a single stage of this type is assist the designer of such stages, data on
from 10 to 70, depending on the tube chosen operating conditions for commonly used
and its operating conditions. Triode tubes tubes is published in the RCA Receiving
are normally used in the last voltage- ampli- Tube Manual. It is assumed, in the case of
fier stage of an RC amplifier since their the gain equations of figure 5, that the cath-
harmonic distortion with large output volt- ode bypass capacitor (Ch) has a reactance
HANDBOOK RC- Coupled Audio Amplifiers 147
that is low with respect to the cathode re- dropping resistor Ra at the lowest frequency
sistor at the lowest frequency to be passed to be passed by the amplifier stage.
by the amplifier stage.
Cascaded Voltage When voltage -amplifier
Amplifier Stages stages are operated in such
a manner that the output
voltage of the first is fed to the grid of the
second, and so forth, such stages are said to
be cascaded. The total voltage gain of cas-
caded amplifier stages is obtained by taking
the product of the voltage gains of each of
the successive stages.
Figure 6
Sometimes the voltage gain of an amplifier
STANDARD CIRCUIT FOR RESISTANCE - stage is rated in decibels. Voltage gain is con-
CAPACITANCE COUPLED PENTODE verted into decibel gain through the use of
AMPLIFIER STAGE the following expression: db = 20 log, A,
where A is the voltage gain of the stage. Th?
total gain of cascaded voltage -amplifier
RC Coupled Figure 6 illustrates the stand - stages can be obtained by adding the number
Pentode Stages and circuit for a resistance - of db gain in each of the cascaded stages.
capacitance coupled pentode
amplifier stage. Cathode bias is used and the
RC Amplifier A typical frequency- response
screen voltage is supplied through a drop-
Response curve for an RC- coupled audio
ping resistor from the plate- voltage supply.
In conventional audio- frequency amplifier amplifier is shown in figure 8.
design such stages are normally used at low It is seen that the amplification is poor for
voltage levels (from 0.00001 to 0.1 volts the extreme high and low frequencies. The
peak on the grid of the tube) and use mode - reduced gain at the low frequencies is caused
rate-G,,, pentodes such as the 6AU6. Normal by the loss of voltage across the coupling
voltage gain for a stage of this type is from capacitor. In some cases, a low -value cou-
60 to 250, depending on the tube chosen and
pling capacitor is deliberately chosen to re-
its operating conditions. Pentode tubes are duce the response of the stage to hum, or to
crdinarily used in the first stage of an RC attenuate the lower voice frequencies for
amplifier, where the high gain which they communication purposes. For high -fidelity
afford is of greatest advantage, and where work the product of the grid resistor in
only a small voltage output is required from ohms times the coupling capacitor in micro -
the stage. farads should equal 25,000 (i.e.: 500,000
ohms X 0.05 fd = 25,000).
The voltage gain per stage of a resistance -
The amplification of high frequencies falls
capacitance coupled pentode amplifier can be
off because of the Miller effect of the sub-
calculated with the aid of the equivalent cir-
sequent stage, and the shunting effect of
cuits and expressions for the mid -frequency,
residual circuit capacities. Both of these ef-
high- frequency, and low- frequency ranges
fects may be minimized by the use of a low -
given in figure 7.
value plate -load resistor.
To assist the designer of such stages, data
on operating conditions for commonly used
types of tubes is published in the RCA Re- Grid -resistor Bias The correct operating
ceiving Tube Manual, RC- series. It is as- for High -Mu Triodes bias for a high -mu tri-
sumed, in the case of the gain equations of ode such as the 12AT7,
figure 7, that cathode bypass capacitor Ch is fairly critical, and will be found to be
his a reactance that is low with respect to highly variable from tube to tube because
the cathode resistor at the lowest frequency of minute variations in contact potential
to be pissed by the stage. It is additionally within the tube itself. A satisfactory bias
assumed that the reactance of screen byoasc method is to use grid- resistor bias, with a
capacitor C,1 is low with respect to screen resistor of one to ten megohms connected
'b=-I ,5E
A GMREQ
RG
REO RL
R
+RG
1
+Rp
Figure 7
MID -FREQUENCY RANGE
Equivalent circuits and
gain equations for a 'b=-9mFg
pentode RC- coupled am-
plifier stage. In using A HIGH CREO
these equations be sure A LOD CREO I 1$-(REQ /XS)2
to select the values of
g and which are
R,
REO' RL
proper for the static
currents and voltages RG +Re
w: h which the tube will HIGH FREQUENCY RANGE
Xs -
operate. These values 2 7T (CpN+ CGK (DYNAMIC)
may be obtained from
curves published in the
RCA Receiving Tube A LOw FREQ.
Manual Series RC.
L RG
A MID FRED. - VI
+(xC /R)2
xc 217, Cc
LOW -FREQUENCY RANGE RL RP
R. RG + RL + Re
directly between grid and cathode of the almost any desired range. For instance, such
tube with the cathode grounded. Grid cur- an amplifier can be built to provide a fairly
rent flows at all times, and the effective in-
put resistance is about one -half the resis-
tance value of the grid resistor. This circuit is
particularly well suited as a high -gain amp-
lifier following low- output devices, such as
crystal, or dynamic microphones.
RC Amplifier A resistance - capaci-
General Characteristics tance coupled ampli- -I AS = s -BIAS
fier can be designed

GMVI RL
to provide a good frequency response for MIO- REQUENCY GAIN =
HIGH- FREQUENCY GAIN GMVI 2 COUPLING NETWORK
C = COOT V, + CINV= + C DISTRIBUTED

100' I. RL. 500000 OHMS
2-RL. 100000 OHMS FOR COMPROMISE MIGNFREQUENC EQUALIZATION
3. RI.= 50 000 OHMS
%LL 0I XC AT rc
4 RL= 20000 OHMS
RL Xc AT f
WHERE f CUTOPF.FREQUENCY Or AMPLIFIER
Lc PEAKING INDUCTOR
z SO
FOR COMPROMISE LOW .EREQUENCT EQUALIZATION
u Rs RD (GM RL)
4
R Cs RACK
Co DS TO SO Aro IN WITH 001 MICA
Cs= CAPACITANCE FROM ABOVE WITH 001 MICA IN

0 TOO 1000 10000 100000 1000000
FREQUENCY (HC) Figure 9
SIMPLE COMPENSATED VIDEO
AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
Figure 8 Resistor R, in conjunction with coil
L, serves
to flatten the high- frequency response of the
The variation of stage gain with frequency in stage, while C. and R serve to equalize the
an RC- coupled pentode amplifier for various low -frequency response of this simple video
values of plate load resistance. amplifier stage.
HANDBOOK Video -Frequency Amplifiers 149
uniform amplification for frequencies in the of increasingly complex two-terminal inter -

audio range of about 100 to 20,000 Hz. stage coupling networks or through the use
Changes in the values of coupling capacitors of four -terminal coupling networks or filters
and load resistors can extend this frequency between successive stages. The reader is re-
range to cover the very wide range required ferred to Terman's "Radio Engineer's Hand-
for video service. However, extension of the book" for design data on such interstage
range can only be obtained at the cost of coupling networks.
reduced over -all amplification. Thus RC cou-
pling allows good frequency response with
minimum distortion, but low amplification. 6 -7 Other Interstage
Phase distortion is less with RC coupling Coupling Methods
than with other types, except direct coup-
ling. The RC amplifier may exhibit tenden-
cies to motorboat or oscillate if it is used Figure 10 illustrates, in addition to resist-
with a high -impedance plate supply. ance- capacitance interstage coupling, seven
additional methods in which coupling be-
6 -6 Video- Frequency tween two successive stages of an audio -
frequency amplifier may be accomplished.
Amplifiers Although RC coupling is most commonly
A video- frequency amplifier is one which
used, there are certain circuit conditions
has been designed to pass frequencies from
wherein coupling methods other than RC
the lower audio range (lower limit perhaps are more effective.
SO Hz) to the middle r -f range (upper
limit perhaps 4 to 6 MHz). Such amplifiers, Transformer Transformer coupling, as illus-
in addition to passing such an extremely Coupling trated in figure 10B, is seldom
wide frequency range, must be capable of used at the present time be-
amplifying this range with a minimum of tween two successive single -ended stages of
amplitude, phase, and frequency distortion. an audio amplifier. There are several reasons
Video amplifiers are commonly used in tele- why resistance coupling is favored over
vision, pulse communication, and radar transformer coupling between two successive
work. single -ended stages. These are: (1) a trans-
Tubes used in video amplifiers must have former having frequency characteristics
a high ratio of Gm to capacitance if a usable comparable with a properly designed RC
gain per stage is to be obtained. Commonly stage is very expensive; (2) transformers,
available tubes which have been designed unless they are very well shielded, will pick
for or are suitable for use in video amplifiers up inductive hum from nearby power and
are: 6AU6, 6AG5, 6AK5, 6CB6, 6BC5, filament transformers; (3) the phase charac-
6DE6, and 6AH6. Since, at the upper fre- teristics of step -up interstage transformers
quency limits of a video amplifier the input are poor, making very difficult the inclusion
and output shunting capacitances of the of a transformer of this type within a feed-
amplifier tubes have rather low values of re- back loop; and (4) transformers are heavy.
actance, low values of coupling resistance, However, there is one circuit application
along with peaking coils or other special in- where a step -up interstage transformer is of
terstage coupling impedances, are usually considerable assistance to the designer; this
used to flatten out the gain /frequency and is the case where it is desired to obtain a
hence the phase /frequency characteristic of large amount of voltage to excite the grid of
the amplifier. Recommended operating con- a cathode follower or of a high -power class -
ditions along with expressions for calcula- A amplifier from a tube operating at a
tion of gain and circuit values are given in moderate plate voltage. Under these condi-
figure 9. Only a simple two -terminal inter - tions it is possible to obtain a peak voltage
stage coupling network is shown in this on the secondary of the transformer of a
figure. value somewhat greater than the d -c plate -
The performance and gain per stage of a supply voltage of the tube supplying the
video amplifier can be improved by the use primary of the transformer.
Push -Pull Transformer Push-pull transformer Cathode The cathode -coupling arrangement
Interstage Coupling coupling between two Coupling of figure 10G has been widely used
stages is illustrated in only comparatively recently. One
figure IOC. This interstage coupling arrange- outstanding characteristic of such a circuit
ment is fairly commonly used. The system is that there is no phase reversal between the
is particularly effective when it is desired, as grid and the plate circuit. All other common
in the system just described, to obtain a types of interstage coupling are accompanied
rather high voltage to excite the grids of a by a 180 phase reversal between the grid
high -power audio stage. The arrangement is circuit and the plate circuit of the tube.
also very good when it is desired to apply Figure 11 gives the expressions for deter-
feedback to the grids of the push -pull stage mining the appropriate factors for an equiv-
by applying the feedback voltage to the low - alent triode obtained through the use of a
potential sides of the two push -pull second- pair of similar triodes connected in the cath-
aries. ode- coupled circuit shown. With these equiv-
alent triode factors it is possible to use the
Impedance Impedance coupling between two expressions shown in figure S to determine
Coupling stages is shown in figure 10D. the gain of the stage at different frequencies.
This circuit arrangement is sel- The input capacitance of such a stage is less
dom used, but it offers one strong advantage than that of one of the triodes, the effective
over RC interstage coupling. This advantage grid -to-plate capacitance is very much less
is the fact that the operating voltage on the (it is so much less that such a stage may be
tube with the impedance in the plate circuit used as an r -f amplifier without neutraliza-
is equal to the plate -supply voltage, and it is tion), and the output capacitance is approxi-
possible to obtain approximately twice the mately equal to the grid -to -plate capacitance
peak voltage output that is possible to ob- of one of the triode sections. This circuit is
tain with RC coupling. This is because, as particularly effective with tubes such as the
has been mentioned before, the d -c plate 6J6, 12AU7, and 12AT7, which have two
voltage on an RC stage is approximately one - similar triodes in one envelope. An appropri-
half the plate supply voltage. ate value of cathode resistor to use for such
Impedance- Transformer These two circuit ar- a stage is the value which would be used for
and Resistance -Trans- the cathode resistor of a conventional ampli-
rangements, illus-
former Coupling
fier using one of the same type tubes with
trated in figures 10E the values of plate voltage and load resist-
and 10F, are em-
ance to be used for the cathode- coupled
ployed when it is desired to use transformer
stage.
coupling for the reasons cited above, but Inspection of the equations in figure 11
where it is desired that the d -c plate current
shows that as the cathode resistor is made
of the amplifier stage be isolated from the
smaller to approach zero, G,,, approaches
primary of the coupling transformer. With zero, the plate resistance approaches the Rp
most types of high -permeability wide re-
of one tube, and the ,u approaches zero.
sponse transformers it is necessary that there
Since the cathode resistor is made very large
be no d -c flow through the windings of the
the G. approaches one -half that of a single
transformer. The impedance-transformer ar-
tube of the same type, the plate resistance
rangement of figure 10E will give a higher
voltage output from the stage but is not approaches twice that of one tube, and the
p. approaches the same value as one tube.
often used since the plate coupling imped-
But since the G,,, of each tube decreases as
ance (choke) must have very high induc-
tance and very low distributed capacitance the cathode resistor is made larger (the plate
in order not to restrict the range of the current will decrease on each tube) the
transformer which it and its associated tube optimum value of cathode resistor will be
feed. The resistance- transformer arrange-
found to be in the vicinity of the value
mentioned in the previous paragraph.
ment of figure 10F is ordinarily satis-
factory where it is desired to feed a trans-
former from a voltage -amplifier stage with Direct Coupling Direct coupling between suc-
no direct current in the transformer primary. cessive amplifier stages (plate
HANDBOOK Interstage Coupling Methods 151
pA RESISTANCE- CAPACITANCE COUPLING

VICr
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
PUSH -PULL TRANSFORMER COUPLING IMPEDANCE COUPLING
IMPEDANCE- TRANSFORMER COUPLING ICI RESISTANCE- TRANSFORMER COUPLING
4S
GO CATHODE COUPLING HO DIRECT COUPLING
Figure 10
INTERSTAGE COUPLING METHODS FOR AUDIO -FREQUENCY VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS
of first stage connected directly to the grid and the grid of the succeeding stage can be
of the succeeding stage) is complicated by used. Figure 10H illustrates an application
the fact that the grid of an amplifier stage of this principle in the coupling of a pen-
must be operated at an average negative po- tode amplifier stage to the grid of a hot -
tential with respect to the cathode of that cathode phase inverter. In this arrangement
stage. However, if the cathode of the sec- the values of cathode, screen, and plate re-
ond amplifier stage can be operated at a po- sistors in the pentode stage are chosen so
tential more positive than the plate of the that the plate of the pentode is at approxi-
preceding stage by the amount of the grid mately one -third of the plate supply poten-
bias on the second amplifier stage, this direct tial. The succeeding phase-inverter stage then
connection between the plate of one stage operates with conventional values of cathode
across the cathode bias resistor are in phase,

is used for phase- inversion purposes.
"Hot- Cathode" Figure 12A illustrates the

Phase Inverter hot -cathode type of phase
inverter. This phase inverter
is the simplest of the three types since it
G= RI( Ge (i + )
requires only one tube and a minimum of
RK = CATHODE RESISTOR
circuit components. It is particularly sim-
RP' _ Ge = Ge OF EACH TUBE ple when directly coupled from the plate
L = LI OF EACH TUBE of a pentode amplifier stage as shown in
RP = RP OF EACH TUBE figure 10H. The circuit does, however, pos-
EQUIVALENT FACTORS INDICATED ABOVE BY I')
ARE sess the following two disadvantages: (1)
THOSE OBTAINED BY USING AN AMPLIFIER WITH A PAIR
OF SIMILAR TUBE TYPES IN CIRCUIT SHOWN ABOVE. the cathode of the tube must run at a po-
tential of approximately one -third the plate
Figure 11 supply voltage above the heater when a
grounded common heater winding is used
Equivalent factors for a pair of similar triodes
operating as a cathode -coupled audio- for this tube as well as the other heater -
frequency voltage amplifier. cathode tubes in a receiver or amplifier; (2)
the circuit actually has a loss in voltage
and plate resistor (same value of resistance) from its input to either of the output grids
in its normal manner. This type of phase in-
-about 0.9 times the input voltage will be
verter is described in more detail in the sec- applied to each of these grids. This does
tion to follow. represent a voltage gain of about 1.8 in total
voltage output with respect to input (grid -
6 -8 Phase Inverters to -grid output voltage) but it is still small
with respect to the other two phase- inverter
In order to excite the grids of a push -pull circuits shown.
stage it is necessary that voltages equal in Recommended component values for use
amplitude and opposite in polarity be applied with a 6C4 tube in this circuit are shown in
to the two grids. These voltages may be ob- figure 12A. If it is desired to use another
tained through the use of a push -pull input tube in this circuit, appropriate values for
transformer such as is shown in figure IOC. the operation of that tube as a conventional
It is possible also, without the attendant amplifier can be obtained from manufactur-
bulk and expense of a push -pull input trans- er's tube data. The designated value of RI.
former, to obtain voltages of the proper po- should be divided by two, and this new
larity and phase through the use of a so- value of resistance placed in the circuit as
called phase- inverter stage. There are a large RL. The value of Rk from tube -manual
number of phase -inversion circuits which tables should then be used as RkI in this cir-
have been developed and applied but the cuit, and the total of Rk, and Rk_ should be
three shown in figure 12 have been found equal to RL.
over a period of time to be the most satis-
factory from the point of view of the num- "Floating Paraphase" An alternate type of
ber of components required and from the Phase Inverter phase inverter some-
standpoint of the accuracy with which the times called the float-
two out -of -phase voltages are held to the ing paraphase is illustrated in figure 12B.
same amplitude with variations in supply This circuit is quite often used with a
voltage and changes in tubes. 12AU7 tube, and appropriate values for this
All of these vacuum -tube phase inverters tube in a typical inverter circuit are shown.
are based on the fact that a 180 phase Using the component values given will pro-
shift occurs within a vacuum tube between vide a voltage gain of approximately 12
the grid input voltage and the plate output from the input grid to each of the grids of
voltage. In certain circuits, the fact that the the succeeding stage. It is capable of approx-
grid input voltage and the voltage appearing imately 70 volts peak output to each grid.
HANDBOOK Phase Inverters 153
AO HOT- CATHODE'S PHASE INVERTER

Figure 13
VOLTAGE- DIVIDER PHASE

INVERTER
output grids. The phase characteristics are

such that the circuit is commonly used in
deriving push -pull deflection voltage for a
"FLOATING PARAPHASE" PHASE INVERTER cathode -ray tube from a single -ended input
signal.
IZAU7
The first section of the 12AU7 is used as
an amplifier to increase the amplitude of the
RL CC .02 RG
47 H 220 H applied signal to the desired level. The sec-
ond section of the 12AU7 is used as an in-
G=
Cc .02 220 H verter and amplifier to produce a signal of
the same amplitude but of opposite polarity.
eUFD. Since the common cathode resistor (RI;) is
+B 300 V.
not bypassed the voltage across it is the alge-
CATHODE- COUPLED PHASE INVERTER braic sum of the two plate currents and has
the same shape and polarity as the voltage ap-
Figure 12 plied to the input grid of the first half of
the 12AU7. When a signal (e) is applied to
THREE TYPICAL PHASE-INVERTER CIR- the input circuit, the effective grid -cathode
CUITS WITH RECOMMENDED VALUES voltage of the first section is Ae /2, when A
FOR CIRCUIT COMPONENTS is the gain of the first section. Since the grid
of the second section of the 12AU7 is
The circuit inherently has a small unbal- grounded, the effect of the signal voltage
ance in output voltage. This unbalance can across Rk (equal to e/2 if Rk is the proper
be eliminated, if it is required for some value) is the same as though a signal of the
special application, by making the resistor same amplitude but of opposite polarity were
Rg, a few percent lower in resistance value applied to the grid. The output of the sec-
than R. ond section is equal to -Ae /2 if the plate
load resistors are the same for both tube
Cathode -Coupled The circuit shown in fig - sections.
Phase Inverter ure 12C gives approxi-
mately one half the voltage Voltage- Divider A commonly used phase in-
gain from the input grid to either of the Phase Inverter verter is shown in figure 13.
grids of the succeeding stage that would be The input section (V,) is
obtained from a single tube of the same type connected as a conventional amplifier. The
operating as a conventional RC amplifier output voltage from V, is impressed on the
stage. Thus, with a 12AU7 tube as shown voltage divider The values of R and ,
(two 6C4's in one envelope) the voltage RI; are in such a ratio that the voltage im-
gain from the input grid to either of the pressed on the grid of V_ is 1 /A times the
output grids will be approximately 7-the output voltage of V1, where A is the ampli -
gain is, of course, 14 from the input to both fication factor of V,. The output of V_ is
Figure 14
DIRECT-COUPLED D -C AMPLIFIER
Figure 15
LOFTIN -WHITE D-C AMPLIFIER

then of the same amplitude as the output of
V,, but of opposite phase.
balanced out. The use of negative feedback
can also greatly reduce drift problems.
6 -9 D -C Amplifiers
The "Loftin- White" Two d -c amplifier stages
Direct -current amplifiers are special types Circuit may be arranged, so that
used where amplification of very slow varia- their plate supplies are
tions in voltage, or of d -c voltages is desired. effectively in series, as illustrated in figure
A simple d -c amplifier consists of a single 15. This is known as a Loftin -White ampli-
tube with a grid resistor across the input fier. All plate and grid voltages may be ob-
terminals, and the load in the plate circuit. tained from one master power supply instead
of separate grid and plate supplies. A push -
Basic D -C A simple d -c amplifier cir- pull version of this amplifier (figure 16) can
Amplifier Circuit cuit is shown in figure 14, be used to balance out the effects of slow
wherein the grid of one variations in the supply voltage.
tube is connected directly to the plate of the
preceding tube in such a manner that volt- 6 -10 Single -Ended Triode
age changes on the grid of the first tube will Amplifiers
be amplified by the system. The voltage drop
across the plate coupling resistor is impressed Figure 17 illustrates five circuits for the
directly on the grid of the second tube, operation of class -A triode amplifier stages.
which is provided with enough negative grid Since the cathode current of a triode class -
bias to balance out the excessive voltage drop A (no grid current) amplifier stage is con-
across the coupling resistor. The grid of the stant with and without excitation, it is com-
second tube is thus maintained in a slightly mon practice to operate the tube with cath-
negative position. ode bias. Recommended operating conditions
The d -c amplifier will provide good low - in regard to plate voltage, grid bias, and load
frequency response, with negligible phase impedance for conventional triode amplifier
distortion. High- frequency response is lim- stages are given in the RCA Receiving Tube
ited by the shunting effect of the tube ca- Manuals.
pacitances, as in the normal resistance -
coupled amplifier. Extended Class -A It is possible, under certain
A common fault with d -c amplifiers of all Operation conditions, to operate sin-
types is static instability. Small changes in gle-ended triode amplifier
the filament, plate, or grid voltages cannot stages (and pentode and tetrode stages as
be distinguished from the exciting voltage. well) with grid excitation of sufficient
Regulated power supplies and special balanc- amplitude that grid current is taken by the
ing circuits have been devised to reduce the tube on peaks. This type of operation is
effects of supply variations on these ampli- called class -A2 and is characterized by in-
fiers. A successful system is to apply the creased plate- circuit efficiency over straight
plate potential in phase to two tubes, and to class -A amplification without grid current.
apply the exciting signal to a push -pull grid - The normal class -A amplifier power stage
circuit configuration. If the two tubes are will operate with a plate- circuit efficiency of
identical, any change in electrode voltage is from 20 percent to perhaps 35 percent.
HANDBOOK Single -Ended Triode Amplifiers 155
BALANCE
CONTROL
QA IMPEDANCE COUPLING
Figure 16
PUSH -PULL D -C AMPLIFIER

WITH EITHER SINGLE -ENDED
OR PUSH -PULL INPUT
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
Through the use of class -A1 operation it is

possible to increase this plate- circuit effi-
ciency to approximately 38 to 45 percent.
However, such operation requires careful
choice of the value of plate load impedance,
a grid -bias supply with good regulation +5
(since the tube draws grid current on peaks IMPEDANCE -TRANSFORMER COUPLING
although the plate current does not change
with signal), and a driver tube with moder- O
O
ate power capability to excite the grid of the ZP2 OZSz RL
class A tube.
Figures 17D and 17E illustrate two meth-
ods of connection for such stages. Tubes
such as the 845, 450TL, and 304TL are -BIAS = +B
pD TRANSFORMER COUPLING FOR A2 OPERATION
suitable for these circuits. In each case the
grid bias is approximately the same as would
be used for a class -A amplifier using the AUTO -
TRANSFORMER
same tube, and as mentioned before, fixed
bias must be used along with an audio driver
of good regulation -preferably a triode stage TO CLASS-C
-BIAS a +B LOAD
with a 1:1 or step -down driver transformer.
In each case it will be found that the cor- CLASS A=MODULATOR WITH
FORMER COUPLING
AUTOTRANS-
rect value of plate load impedance will be Figure 17

increased about 40 percent over the value
Output coupling arrangements for single -ended
recommended by the tube manufacturer for class -A triodo audio-frequency power
class -A operation of the tube. amplifiers.
Operation Character- A class -A power am-

istics of o Triode plifier operates in such amplification factor, high plate dissipation,
Power Amplifier and relatively high filament emission.
a way as to amplify as
The operating characteristics of a class -A
faithfullypossible
as
triode amplifier employing an output- trans-
the waveform applied to the grid of the
former coupled load may be calculated from
tube. Large power output is of more im-
the plate family of curves for the particular
portance than high voltage amplification,
tube in question by employing the following
consequently gain characteristics may be sac-
steps:
rificed in power -tube design to obtain more
important power -handling capabilities. Class - 1. The load resistance should be approxi-
A power tubes, such as the 12BY4A, 2A3, mately twice the plate resistance of
and 6AS7G, are characterized by a low the tube for maximum undistorted
Nr
power output. Remember this fact for

a quick check on calculations.
250 Yf1N
NNN
NNN o
2. Calculate the zero -signal bias voltage

W
wINNNNN
,wwME=
."
(E,,).
Wzao
wiw
2
NN NM
En, -
- (0.68 X E,,)

S0
xawnsi/rrme
ww
Parstral=
M M, MIMI=
'bmax_
<
~

Ib - iiFmM'iIlii, r
3. Locate the En, bias point on the I,,
versus Eh graph where the Ee bias line
crosses the plate -voltage line, as shown
bm,n -- 4,27211 a e'
100 zoo joo

in figure 18. Call this point P. E
c I
400
ebmn PLATE VOLTS ebmax
4. Locate on the plate family of curves AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS - 2A3
the value of zero-signal plate current, )..1=4.2 Rp = 800 OHMS
(Ib) corresponding to operating point PLATE DISSIPATION =15 WATTS
P.
f Locate 2 X In (twice the value of Ib) LOAD RESISTANCE
on the plate- current axis (Y axis). ebmax - ebmin
RL - OHMS
This point corresponds to the value of 'bmax - 'bran
maximum- signal plate current (ib max)
6. Locate point x on the d -c bias curve POWER OUTPUT
at zero volts (En = 0), corresponding ('borax ) (ebmax-ebmn) WATTS
to the value of ib max Po g
7. Draw a straight line (x -y) through

SECOND-HARMONIC DISTORTION
points x and P. This line is the load-
resistance line. Its slope corresponds to borax+ 'brain ) - lb
the value of the load resistance. D2 =
2
X 100 PERCENT
'bmax
8. Load resistance, (in ohms) equals:
Figure 18
Formulas for determining the operating con-
- ebm,x - ehmin ditions of a class -A triode single -ended audio -
R,,
/hmnx - 1hmin
frequency power output stage. A typical load
line has been drown on the go plate
characteristics of a type 2A3 tube to illustrate
the procedure.
9. Check: Multiply the zero -signal plate the plate voltage reaches eh max and the
current (Ii,) by the operating plate plate current drops to in min. On the
voltage, (Eh). If the plate dissipation positive swing of the grid signal, the
rating of the tube is exceeded, it is plate voltage drops to eh min and the
necessary to increase the bias (E,.) on plate current reaches i,, max. The power
the tube so that the plate dissipation output of the tube in watts is:
falls within the maximum rating of
the tube. If this step is taken, opera- (ibm,s- 11, min) X (ehmnx -ehmin)
tions 2 through 8 must be repeated P,
8
with the new value of E,..
10. For maximum power output, the peak
where,
a -c grid voltage on the tube should i is in amperes,
swing to 2E, on the negative cycle, e is in volts.
and to zero -bias on the positive cycle. 11. The second -harmonic distortion gen-
At the peak of the negative swing, erated in a single -ended class -A triode
HANDBOOK
amplifier, expressed as a percentage of

Single -Ended Pentode Amplifiers
157
IIf
the fundamental output signal is:
-- --Eco M
% 2nd harmonic = _, -
. . . . I
. .Eca3v --
(ln max - lhDi ln)
__
imax
M3
-
.
VT. .
r
!b lu,ix -
2
!b min
b
X 100
Figure 18 illustrates the above steps as ap-

plied to a single class -A 2A3 amplifier stage.
-
/
021..
M:S
i.-_.
llV.11
r . 1
NI
x
TRIAL LOAD LINE. CHOOSE
LOAD UNE 30 THAT
111111611111 Ec'!2
AP P'
Ill-
6-11 Single -Ended Pentode i52iiFw ,"---E 2V

,
_'min 1 E
Amplifiers NaMNOIINOMEN
Eb(STATIC VALUE) eMAX
PLATE VOLTS
Figure 19 illustrates the conventional cir- Figure 20

cuit for a single -ended tetrode or pentode
amplifier stage. Tubes of this type have GRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF OPERAT-
largely replaced triodes in the output stage ING CHARACTERISTICS OF A PENTODE
of receivers and amplifiers due to the higher POWER AMPLIFIER
plate efficiency (30r -407( ) at which "V" is the negative control grid voltage at the
they operate. Tetrode and pentode tubes do, operating point P.
however, introduce a considerably greater
amount of harmonic distortion in their out-
put circuit, particularly odd harmonics. The plate current of the pentode tube is
In addition, their plate- circuit impedance relatively independent of the applied plate
(which acts in an amplifier to damp speaker voltage, but is sensitive to screen voltage. In
overshoot and ringing, and acts in a driver general, the correct pentode load resistance is
stage to provide good regulation) is many about
times higher than that of an equivalent tri- 0.9 E1,
ode. The application of negative feedback
acts both to reduce distortion and to reduce
the effective plate- circuit impedance of these and the power output is somewhat less than
tubes.
El, X I1,
Operating Character- The operating charac- 2

istics of a Pentode teristics of pentode pow- These formulas may be used for a quick
Power Amplifier er amplifiers may be check on more precise calculations. To ob-
obtained from the plate tain the operating parameters for class -A
family of curves, much as in the manner pentode amplifiers, the following steps are
applied to triode tubes. A typical family of taken:
pentode plate curves is shown in figure 20.
1. The in mon point is chosen so as to fall
on the zero -bias curve, just above the
"knee" of the curve (point A, figure
20).
2. A preliminary operating point (P) is
determined by the intersection of the
plate- voltage line (E5) and the line
of it, ,,,,,x /2. The grid -voltage curve that
this point falls on should be one that is
Figure 19 about %2 the value of E, required to
C tional single -ended pentode or beam
cut the plate current to a very low
tetrodo audio-frequency power-output stage. value (point B). Point B represents
PUSH -PULL TRIODE AND TETRODE
Figure 21
CONVENTIONAL PUSH -PULL CIRCUITS
ihn,i on the plate- current axis (y 6 -12 Push -Pull Audio

axis) . The line ih ,n ,12 should be lo- Amplifiers
cated halfway between ii, nmx and h min
3. A trial load line is constructed about
point P and point A in such a way A number of advantages are obtained
that the lengths AP and PB are ap- through the use of the push -pull connection
proximately equal. of two or four tubes in an audio- frequency
4. When the most satisfactory load line power amplifier. Two conventional circuits
has been determined, the load resist- for the use of triode and tetrode tubes in the
ance may be calculated: push-pull connection are shown in figure 21.
RI,= ei,m,x - (31. 1...

The two main advantages of the push -pull
max - h min
circuit arrangement are: (1) the magnetiz-
ing effect of the plate currents of the output
tubes is cancelled in the windings of the
S. The operating bias (Ea) is the bias at output transformer; (2) even harmonics of
point P. the input signal (second and fourth harmon-
6. The power output is: ics primarily) generated in the push -pull
-10- X R. stage are cancelled when the tubes are bal-
(il, max -h, mu,) -1- 1.41 (1x
anced.
32
The cancellation of even harmonics gener-
where, ated in the stage allows the tubes to be oper-
ated class AB-in other words the tubes may
Ix is the plate current at the point on
be operated with bias and input signals of
the load line where the grid volt-
age (er) is equal to: E,. 0.7 E,., - such amplitude that the plate current of
alternate tubes may be cut off during a por-
1, is the plate current at the point
tion of the input voltage cycle. If a tube
where, ec is equal to: Ec + 0.7 Ec.
were operated in such a manner in a single -
7. The percentage harmonic distortion is:
ended amplifier the second -harmonic ampli-
2nd harmonic distortion = tude generated would be prohibitively high.
Push -pull class -AB operation allows a
h MAX ih min 21ho
X 100 plate circuit efficiency of from 45 to 60
i, max -h min + 1.41 (Ix- 1) percent to be obtained in an amplifier stage
depending on whether or not the exciting
where, voltage is of such amplitude that grid cur-
I,, is the static plate current of the rent is drawn by the tubes. If grid current
tube. is taken on input voltage peaks the amplifier
% 3rd harmonic distortion = is said to be operating class-A% and the
plate- circuit efficiency can be as high as the
h max hn,In - 1.41 (Ix -I,) X 100 upper value just mentioned. If grid current
h max -h min + 1.41 (Ix -/y) is not taken by the stage it is said to be
rrrN
r{yM,
HANDBOOK
NrMI.Ma
I.
MrrMIMM'1
mumm
rrMIM/
Mw
MwrrrII
MI
rrrN/.
rr
rr
r/rwA'A
N 'N
rrIIMAI, r
iiiisiiiiiii
rrs.r
U/,MINM
um
I,
rrA
Mr rI,=11K
ow
I
AY
NN
MW11
N/A
kJlw
GimiGi.iii
rAl MA/
Ia
A II"C
NMCi2C/r
M/ANM
IA\N
MIMI/OMEN
MA/, N,i Nl'elffr.

rr%rA AIAN1r'AI
aiCa'SCii . ..
M/ir/%
30 -ZERO 31CNA
PLAT'
Ammo=
/ :AM
aNA1
aIIMN/I/MA Mifiis
v.wc or
i,w/w/ir
ii
rrwl.
A
rM/_Ell%oneMiAMMIiidn
30 200 230
100 130
PLATE VOLTS
1111
ISMIOWLIMU
.CC
AA
IMW
300
C'
(E)
Figure 22
DETERMINATION OF OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR PUSH -PULL CLASS -A

TRIODE TUBES
B
i
Push -Pull Audio Amplifiers
IiIlMIM11MMN
11N1 M
wi
NINx/
slssl
MNMMNM
NM
MNNMN1111w
NrIMMM MNMI,
NNI
MNNM11INIr111NlMrMM
IINMII
NN11111111111 MNII A
Nii iisii s 11 s i i
MNNMMIrMINIIINIrwMA 230
NM MN MN MN NM 11111/A MN
NIMIMNNMnMMI1111111AIMMN
wN211iliiNiiliir,MM
MNNMMMNMMIIIII'ANM
MNMMNMMNr111iNNMNM
M11I/111NMNM
IIIIIIINNNI
Ec lb
NMlrrlwAMIII IIINIINIINN
NMIrMNIL/Ir1111I1n1aM1
-
Cu,vI:
91!!!!MMaEIVA41 111111111MI1n1
INMM5111111111111MINN
1""MiWel.r/MM1lI1IN 11n1111N
IA/CiN 11111111N
11111101111/74G
Immuurammaimilimelminn
MINI
CNI i7.. N1M11M 11111I11 N 1111111111

NC4IMIIiiii illii
-a0 -70 -00 -30 -40 -30 -20 - 0 0
GRID VOLTS (Eel
O
M
i,
MINI
159
300
operating class -AB, and the plate- circuit where,

efficiency will be toward the lower end of P is expressed in watts,
the range just quoted. In all class -AB ampli- i1, a,ax isin amperes,
fiers the plate current will increase from 40 E1, is the applied plate voltage.
to 150 percent over the no- signal value
when full excitation voltage is applied. 3. Draw a preliminary load line through
point P to the Er, point located on the
Operating Characteristics The operating char - x -axis (the zero plate- current line).
of Push -Pull Class-A acteristics of push - This load line represents '/y of the
Triode Power Amplifier pull class -A ampli- actual plate -to -plate load of the class -
fiers may also be A tubes. Therefore:
determined from the plate family of curves
for a particular triode tube by the following
steps: R1, (plate -to- plate) = 4 X
E -0.6 E
ib Max
1. Erect a vertical line from the plate -
voltage axis (x -axis) at 0.6 Eb (figure 1.6 Eb
22), which intersects the E,. = 0 ih max
curve. This point of intersection (P),
interpolated to the plate current axis
(y- axis) , may be taken as i max. It is Figure 22 illustrates the above steps ap-
assumed for simplification that ib max plied to a push -pull class -A amplifier using
occurs at the point of the zero.bias two 2A3 tubes.
curve corresponding to 0.6 Eb.
2. The power output obtainable from the 4. The average plate current is 0.636
two tubes is: ib max, and multiplied by plate voltage
Eb, will give the average watts input
(P) _ mnx 5
to the plates of the two tubes. The
power output should be subtracted
from this value to obtain the total

operating plate dissipation of the two
tubes. If the plate dissipation is exces-
sive, a slightly higher value of RI,
should be chosen to limit the plate
dissipation.
5. The correct value of operating bias,
and the static plate current for the 5+ DRIVER - BIAS 5+ MOD.
(GROUND FOR
push -pull tubes may be determined ZERO BIAS
OPERATING
CONDITION
from the Er versus I,, curves, which
are a derivation of the E_,, versus 1,,
curves for various values of E,.. Figure 23
6. The E, versus 11, curve may be con-
CLASS -B AUDIO -FREQUENCY
structed in this manner: Values of
POWER AMPLIFIER
grid bias are read from the intersection
of each grid -bias curve with the load
line. These points are transferred to 70 percent are readily obtainable with the
the E, versus 1,, graph to produce a tube types presently available for this mode
curved line, A -B. If the grid bias of operation. Since the plate- circuit efficiency
curves of the E,, versus I, graph were is higher, smaller tubes of lower plate dissipa-
straight lines, the lines of the E, versus tion may be used in a class -B power ampli-
I,, graph would also be straight. This fier of a given power output than can be
is usually not the case. A tangent to used in any other conventional type of audio
this curve is therefore drawn, starting amplifier. An additional factor in favor of
at point A', and intersecting the grid - the class -B audio amplifier is the fact that
voltage abscissa (x -axis) . This inter- the power input to the stage is relatively
section (C) is the operating -bias point low under no- signal conditions. It is for
for fixed -bias operation. these reasons that this type of amplifier has
7. This operating -bias point may now be largely superseded other types for the genera-
plotted on the original EI versus I,, tion of audio- frequency levels from perhaps
family of curves (C'), and the zero - 100 watts on up to levels of approximately
signal current produced by this bias is 150,000 watts as required for large short-
determined. This operating bias point wave broadcast stations.
(C') does not fall on the operating
load line, as in the case of a single - Disadvantages of There are attendant dis -
ended amplifier. Class-B Amplifier advantageous features to
8. Under conditions of maximum power Operation the operation of a power
output, the exciting signal voltage amplifier of this type; but
swings from zero -bias voltage to zero - all these disadvantages can be overcome by
bias voltage for each of the tubes on proper design of the circuits associated with
each half of the signal cycle. Second - the power -amplifier stage. These disadvan-
harmonic distortion is largely cancelled tages are: (1) The class -B audio amplifier
out. requires driving power in its grid circuit;
this requirement can be overcome by the
use of an oversize power stage preceding the
6 -13 Class -B Audio - class -B stage with a step -down transformer
Frequency Power between the driver stage and the class -B
Amplifiers grids. Degenerative feedback is sometimes
employed to reduce the plate impedance of
The class -B audio -frequency power ampli- the driver stage and thus to improve the
fier (figure 23) operates at a higher plate - voltage regulation under the varying load
circuit efficiency than any of the previously presented by the class -B grids. (2) The
described types of audio power amplifiers. class -B stage requires a constant value of
Full- signal plate- circuit efficiencies of 60 to average grid bias to be supplied in spite of
HANDBOOK Class -B A -F Power Amplifiers 161
the fact that the grid current of the stage not specified in the tube operating charac-
is zero over most of the cycle but rises to teristics published by the tube manufacturer.
value as high as one -third of the peak plate The same procedure can be used with equal
current at the peak of the exciting voltage effectiveness for the calculation of the oper-
cycle. Special regulated bias supplies have ating conditions of beam tetrodes as class -
been used for this application, or B batteries AB, amplifiers or modulators when the rest-
can be used. However, a number of tubes ing plate current of the tubes (no- signal con-
especially designed for class -B audio ampli- dition) is less than 25 or 30 percent of the
fiers have been developed which require zero maximum- signal plate current.
average grid bias for their operation. The
811A, 805, 3 -400Z, and 3 -1000Z are ex- 1.With the average plate characteristics
amples of this type of tube. All these so- of the tube as published by the manu-
called zero -bias tubes have rated operating facturer before you, select a point on
conditions up to moderate plate voltages the E,, = E,. (diode bend) line at
wherein they can be operated without grid about twice the plate current you ex-
bias. As the plate voltage is increased to pect the tubes to draw under modu-
the maximum ratings, however, a small lation peaks. If beam tetrode tubes are
amount of grid bias, such as could be ob- concerned, select a point at about the
tained from a regulated bias supply, is re- same amount of plate current men-
quired. (3), A class -B audio- frequency pow- tioned above, just to the right of the
er amplifier or modulator requires a source of region where the 1,, line takes a sharp
plate- supply voltage having reasonably good curve downward. This will be the first
regulation. This requirement led to the de- trial point, and the plate voltage at
velopment of the swinging choke. The the point chosen should be not more
swinging choke is essentially a conventional than about 20 percent of the d -c volt-
filter choke in which the core air gap has age applied to the tubes if good plate -
been reduced. This reduction in the air gap circuit efficiency is desired.
allows the choke to have a much greater 2. Note down the value of il,,,,;,, and
value of inductance with low- current values e, non at this point.
such as are encountered with no signal or 3. Subtract the value of eh min from the
small signal being applied to the class -B d -c plate voltage on the tubes.
stage. 4. Substitute the values obtained in the
With a higher value of current such following equations:
as would be taken by a class -B stage with
full signal applied, the inductance of the P (2 tubes) = ii, m:,>< (E1,- eh min)
choke drops to a much lower value. With 2
a swinging choke of this type, having ade-
quate current rating, as the input inductor R,, (2 tubes) = 4 (Eh -eh min)
in the filter system for a rectifier power sup- %h max
ply, the regulation will be improved to a
point which is normally adequate for a pow-
Full signal efficiency (Np) =
er supply for a class -B amplifier or modu-
lator stage. (eh min))
78.5
Calculation of Operating The following pro -
(1 El,
Conditions of Class -B cedure can be used Effects of Speech All the above equations are
Power Amplifiers for the calculation Clipping true for sine -wave operating
of the operating condition of the tubes con-
conditions of class -B power amplifiers when cerned. However, if a speech clipper is being
they are to operate into a resistive load such used in the speech amplifier, or if it is de-
as presented by a class -C power amplifier. sired to calculate the operating conditions
This procedure will be found quite satisfac- on the basis of the fact that the ratio of
tory for the application of vacuum tubes as peak power to average power in a speech
class -B modulators when it is desired to
operate the tubes under conditions which are
wave is approximately 4 to 1 as contrasted
to the ratio of 2 to 1 in a sine wave in -
other words, when nonsinusoidal waves such tor tube and the amplifier to be modulated.
as plain speech or speech that has passed The procedure can be stated as follows: (1)
through a clipper are concerned, we are no Determine the proper plate -to -plate load im-
longer concerned with average power output pedance for the modulator tubes either by
of the modulator as far as its capability of the use of the type of calculation shown in
modulating a class -C amplifier is concerned; figure 25, or by reference to the published
we are concerned with its peak power out- characteristics on the tubes to be used. (2)
put capability. Determine the load impedance which will be
Under these conditions we call on other, presented by the class -C amplifier stage to
more general relationships. The first of these be modulated by dividing the operating
is: it requires a peak power output equal to plate voltage on that stage by the operating
the class -C stage input to modulate that in- value of plate current in amperes. (3) Di-
put fully. vide the class -C load impedance determined
The second relationship is: the average in (2) above by the plate -to -plate load im-
power output required of the modulator is pedance for the modulator tubes determined
equal to the shape factor of the modulating in (1) above. The ratio determined in this
wave multiplied by the input to the class -C way is the secondary-to- primary impedance
stage. The shape factor of unclipped speech ratio. (4) Take the square root of this ratio
is approximately 0.25. The shape factor of to determine the secondary-to- primary turns
a sine wave is 0.5. The shape factor of a ratio. If the turns ratio is greater than unity,
speech wave that has been passed through a the use of a step -up transformer is required.
clipper -filter arrangement is somewhere be If the turns ratio as determined in this way
tween 0.25 and 0.9 depending on the amount is less than unity, a step -down transformer is
of clipping that has taken place. With 15 or called for.
20 db of clipping the shape factor may be as If the procedure shown in figure 25 has
high as the figure of 0.9 mentioned abov, been used to calculate the operating condi-
This means that the audio power output of tions for the modulator tubes, the trans-
the modulator will be 90 1c of the input to former ratio calculation can be checked in
the class -C stage. Thus with a kilowatt input the following manner: Divide the plate volt-
we would be putting 900 watts of audio age on the modulated amplifier by the total
into the class -C stage for 100 percent modu- voltage swing on the modulator tubes (2 X
lation as contrasted to perhaps 250 watts for
unclipped speech modulation of 100 percent.
[En - ebmin]). This ratio should be quite
close numerically to the transformer turns
ratio as previously determined. The reason
Sample Calculation Figure 24 shows a set of for this condition is that the ratio between
for 811A Tubes plate characteristics for a the total primary voltage and the d -c plate -
type 811A tube with a supply voltage on the modulated stage is
load line for class -B operation. Figure 25 equal to the turns ratio of the transformer,
lists a sample calculation for determining the since a peak secondary voltage equal to the
proper operating conditions for obtaining plate voltage on the modulated stage is re-
approximately 185 watts output from a pair quired to modulate this stage 100 percent.
of the tubes with 1000 volts d -c plate po-
tential. Also shown in figure 25 is the meth- Use of Clipper Speech When a clipper speech
od of determining the proper ratio for the Amplifier with Tetrode amplifier is used in
modulation transformer to couple between Modulator Tubes conjunction with a
the 811's or 811A's and the anticipated final class -B modulator
amplifier which is to operate at 2000 plate stage, the plate current on that stage will
volts and 175 ma plate current. rise to a higher value with modulation (due
to the greater average power output and
Modulation Transformer The method illus- input) but the plate dissipation on the tubes
Calculation trated in figure 25 will ordinarily be less than with sine -wave
can be used in general modulation. However, when tetrode tubes
for the determination of the proper trans- are used as modulators, the screen dissipation
former ratio to couple between the modula- will be much greater than with sine -wave
HANDBOOK Class -B A -F Power Amplifiers 163
500
2 Er 6.3 VOL TS
U
800
W

Figure 24 a+6D
Typical class -8 a -1 ampli-
^ 400 aTS E
fier load lin.. The load lino

has been drawn on the w
average characteristics of a
type 811 tube. Ja +40
200
Ia1111MMTM
IMEMINW
i1111
r- - Ec
400 500 1200 1600 2000 2400

PLATE VOLTS (Eb)
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS TYPE 811 AND 811 -A
modulation. Care must be taken to ensure Practical Aspects of As stated previously, a

that the screen dissipation rating on the Class -B Modulators class -B audio amplifier
modulator tubes is not exceeded under full requires the driving
modulation conditions with a clipper speech stage to supply well -regulated audio power
amplifier. The screen dissipation is equal to to the grid circuit of the class -B stage. Since
screen voltage times screen current. the performance of a class -B modulator may
easily be impaired by an improperly designed
driver stage, it is well to study the problems
SAMPLE CALCULATION
incurred in the design of the driver stage.
The grid circuit of a class -B modulator
CONDITION: 2 TYPE Sit TUSES, Eb. 1000
INPUT TO FINAL STAGE, 350 W.
may be compared to a variable resistance
PEAK POWER OUTPUT NEEDED
FINAL AMPLIFIER Eb
350 + 5% 370 W which decreases in value as the exciting grid
2000 V.
voltage is increased. This variable resistance
FINAL AMPLIFIER Ib
FINAL AMPLIFIER ZL Jl-
.175 A.
.175
1140011
appears across the secondary terminals of the
EXAMPLE: CHOSE POINT ON 811 CHARACTERISTICS JUST
driver transformer so that the driver stage is
TO RIGHT OP Eb Ec (POINT X,FIG.24) called on to deliver power to a varying load.
Ibmoll.410 A. Ebmm +100
ICm0.100 A. Ecm5. +80
For best operation of the class -B stage, th?
grid excitation voltage should not drop as
PEAK Po .410 (10o0 -t00)
X .410 X 000 066 W.
the power taken by the grid circuit increases.
RL4X :122410
88000. These opposing conditions call for a high
No 78.5 (t - 1000 )
76.5 (.6) 70.5 % order of voltage regulation in the driver -
WO (AVERAGE WITH SINE WAVE) 92 )184yW stage plate circuit. In order to enhance the
voltage regulation of this circuit, the driver
I
WIN 7t6
aso w.
(MAXIMUM WITH SINE WAVE)
.100X80
260 MA tubes must have low plate resistance, the
WG PEAK
WZ PK
W.
driver transformer must have as large a
DRIVING POWER W.
step -down ratio as possible, and the d -c re-
TRANSFORMER:
sistance of both primary and secondary
fir 6600 1.26 windings of the driver transformer should
TURNS RATIO YiLLP
1,r7.1 1.14 STEP UP be low.
The driver transformer should reflect into
the plate circuit of the driver tubes a load
Figure 25
of such value that the required driving
power is just developed with full excitation
Typical calculation of operating conditions for applied to the driver grid circuit. If this is
a class -8 a-f power amplifier using a pair of
typo 811 or 811A tubes. Plata charact.ristks done, the driver transformer will have as
and load line are shown In Agur. 24. high a step -down ratio as is consistent with
the maximum drive requirements of the

class -B stage. If the step -down ratio of the
e , = 2R1. X
er max
R + RL
- 493 volts
driver transformer is too large, the driver
plate load will be so high that the power re- and the turns ratio of the driver trans-
quired to drive the class -B stage to full out- former (primary to %2 secondary) is:
put cannot be developed. If the step -down
ratio is too small the regulation of the driver
e 'i - 493 6.15:1
e,, max 80
stage will be impaired.
Plate Circuit One of the most common causes
Driver -Stage The parameters for the driver
Calculations stage may be calculated from
Impedance of distortion in a class -B mod -
the plate characteristic curve,
Matching ulator is incorrect load imped-
a sample of which is shown in figure 24.
ance in the plate circuit. The
The required positive grid voltage (e, max) purpose of the class -B modulation trans-
for the 811A tubes used in the sample cal- former is to take the power developed by the
culation is found at point X, the intersection modulator (which has a certain operating
of the load line and the peak plate current impedance) and transform it to the oper-
as found on the y -axis. This is + 80 volts.
ating impedance imposed by the modulated
If a vertical line is dropped from point X amplifier stage.
to intersect the dotted grid- current curves, If the transformer in question has the
same number of turns on the primary wind-
it will be found that the grid current for a
ing as it has on the secondary winding, the
single 811A at this value of grid voltage is
100 milliamperes (point Y). The peak grid -
turns ratio is 1:1, and the impedance ratio
is also 1:1. If a 10,000 -ohm resistor is placed
driving power is therefore 80 X 0.100 = 8
watts. The approximate average driving across the secondary terminals of the trans-
power is 4 watts. This is an approximate former, a reflected load of 10,000 ohms
figure because the grid impedance is not would appear across the primary terminals.
constant over the entire audio cycle. If the resistor is changed to one of 2376
A pair of 2A3 tubes will be used as ohms, the reflected primary impedance would
also be 2376 ohms.
drivers, operating class -A, with the maxi-
mum excitation to the drivers occurring just If the transformer has twice as many
below the point of grid- current flow in the turns on the secondary as on the primary,
2A3 tubes. The driver plate voltage is 300 the turns ratio is 2:1. The impedance ratio
is the square of the turns ratio, or 4:1. If a
volts, and the grid bias is -62 volts. The
peak power (Pr) developed in the primary 10,000 -ohm resistor is now placed across the
winding of the driver transformer is: secondary winding, a reflected load of 2500
ohms will appear across the primary wind-
2
(P ) = 2R, !fir max ing.
Effects of Plate It can be seen from the
where, Circuit Mismatch above paragraphs that the
isthe amplification factor of the driver class -B modulator plate
tubes (4.2 for 2A3), load is entirely dependent on the load placed
e, is the peak grid swing of the driver on the secondary terminals of the class -B
stage (62 volts), modulation transformer. If the secondary
R is the plate resistance of one driver load is incorrect, certain changes will take
tube (800 ohms), place in the operation of the class -B modu-
RL is 1/4 the plate -to -plate load of the lator stage.
driver stage, When the modulator load impedance is too
P (peak power in watts) is 8 watts. low, the efficiency of the class -B stage is
Solving the above equation for RL, we reduced and the plate dissipation of the
obtain a value of 14,500 ohms load, plate to tubes is increased. Peak plate current of the
plate for the 2A3 driver tubes. modulator stage is increased, and saturation
The peak primary voltage (epri) is then of the modulation transformer core may re-
found from the formula: sult. "Talk- back of the modulation trans-
HANDBOOK Cathode -Follower Amplifiers 165
former may result if the plate load imped-

ance of the modulator stage is too low.
When the modulator load impedance is
too high, the maximum power capability of
the stage is reduced. An attempt to increase R,
the output by increasing grid excitation to
the stage will result in peak clipping of the
audio wave. In addition, high peak voltages
may be built up in the plate circuit that
may damage the modulation transformer.
6 -14 Cathode- Follower

Power Amplifiers
The cathode follower is essentially a power
output stage in which the exciting signal is
applied between grid and ground. The plate
is maintained at ground potential with re-
spect to input and output signals, and the
output signal is taken between cathode and
ground.
D
Types of Cathode- Figure 26 illustrates

Follower Amplifiers four types of cathode -
+
follower power ampli-
fiers in common usage and figure 27 shows
the output impedance (RI,), and stage gain
(A) of both triode and pentode (or tetrode)
cathode- follower stages. It will be seen by
inspection of the equations that the stage
voltage gain is always less than unity, and
that the output impedance of the stage is
much less than the same stage operated as a
conventional cathode -return amplifier. The 5-1-)
output impedance for conventional tubes
will be somewhere between 100 and 1000 O
ohms, depending primarily on the transcon-
ductance of the tube.
This reduction in gain and output imped- Figure 26
ance for the cathode follower comes about
CATHODE-FOLLOWER OUTPUT
since the stage operates as though it has 100 CIRCUITS FOR AUDIO OR
percent degenerative feedback applied be- VIDEO AMPLIFIERS
tween its output and input circuit. Even
though the voltage gain of the stage is
reduced to a value less than unity by the ac- Use of Cathode- Although the cathode fol-
tion of the degenerative feedback, the power Follower Amplifiers lower gives no voltage
gain of the stage (if it is operating class -A) gain, it is an effective
is not reduced. Although more voltage is power amplifier where it is desired to feed a
required to excite a cathode -follower ampli- low- impedance load, or where it is desired to
fier than appears across the load circuit feed a load of varying impedance with a
(since the cathode "follows" along with the signal having good regulation. This latter
grid) the relative grid -to- cathode voltage is capability makes the cathode follower par-
essentially the same as in a conventional am- ticularly effective as a driver for the grids
plifier. of a class -B modulator stage.
TRIODE
L CF L A
.11 RL systems for feeding a coaxial cable of rela-
.0 +1 RL(11+1) +RP
tively low impedance from a vacuum-tube
Ro(G1T1400c1 = Rt. Mkt +Rita) Rof amplifier. A pentode or tetrode tube with a
11 R,tt +R,ta+ Re cathode impedance as a cathode follower
(1 /Gm) of approximately the same impe-
dance as the cable should be chosen. The
PENTODE:
Ro(crooe)= Reo R 12BY7A and 6CL6 have cathode impedances
Gu I+RL G,.
of the same order as the surge impedances of
A Cwt Rp certain types of low- capacitance coaxial
Figure 27 cable. An arrangement such as 26D is also
usable for feeding coaxial cable with audio or
Equivalent factor, for pentode (or tetrode) r -f energy where it is desired to transmit the
cathode -follower power amplifiers
output signal over moderate distances. The
resistor Rk is added to the circuit as shown
The circuit of figure 26A is the type of if the cathode impedance of the tube used is
amplifier, either single -ended or push -pull, lower than the characteristic impedance of
which may be used as a driver for a class -B the cable. If the output impedance of the
modulator or which may be used for other stage is higher than the cable impedance, a
applications such as feeding a speaker where resistance of appropriate value is sometimes
unusually good damping of the speaker is placed in parallel with the input end of the
desired. If the d -c resistance of the primary cable. The values of Cd and R,1 should be
of the transformer (T2) is approximately the chosen with the same considerations in mind
correct value for the cathode bias resistor as mentioned in the discussion of the circuit
for the amplifier tube, the components Rk of figure 26C.
and Ck need not be used. Figure 26B shows The Cathode Follower
an arrangement which may be used to feed The cathode follower
in R -F Stages may conveniently be
directly a value of load impedance which is
equal to or higher than the cathode imped- used as a method of
ance of the amplifier tube. The value of C, coupling r-f or i -f energy between two
must be quite high, somewhat higher than units separated a considerable distance. In
would be used in a conventional circuit, if such an application a coaxial cable should be
the frequency response of the circuit when used to carry the r -f or i -f energy. One such
operating into a low- impedance load is to be application would be for carrying the out-
preserved. put of a vfo to a transmitter located a con-
Figures 26C and 26D show cathode- siderable distance from the operating posi-
follower circuits for use with tetrode or tion. Another application would be where it
is desired to feed a single -sideband demodu-
pentode tubes. Figure 26C is a circuit sim-
ilar to that shown in 26A and essentially lator, an f -m adaptor, or another accessory
the same comments apply in regard to com- with an intermediate -frequency signal from
a communications receiver. A tube such as a
ponents Rk and Ck and the primary resist-
ance of transformer T2. Notice also that the 6CB6 connected in a manner such as is
screen of the tube is maintained at the same shown in figure 26D would be adequate for
signal potential as the cathode by means of the i -f amplifier coupler, while a 6AQf or a
6CL6 could be used in the output stage of a
coupling capacitor Cd. This capacitance
should be large enough so that at the lowest vfo as a cathode follower to feed the coaxial
frequency it is desired to pass through the line which carries the vfo signal from the
stage, its reactance will be low with respect control unit to the transmitter proper.
to the dynamic screen -to- cathode resistance
in parallel with Rd. T2 in this stage as well 6 -15 Feedback Amplifiers
as in the circuit of figure 26A should have
the proper turns (or impedance) ratio to It is possible to modify the characteristics
give the desired step -down or step -up from of an amplifier by feeding back a portion of
the cathode circuit to the load. Figure 26D the output to the input. All components,
is an arrangement frequently used in video circuits, and tubes included between the
HANDBOOK Feedback Amplifiers 167
point where the feedback is taken off and

the point where the feedback energy is in-
serted are said to be included within the
feedback loop. An amplifier containing a
feedback loop is said to be a feedback ampli-
fier. One stage or any number of stages may
be included within the feedback loop. How-
ever, the difficulty of obtaining proper oper-
ation of a feedback amplifier increases with OB FEEDBACK SLOG I R+RA(GMV2 RO) I
R2
the bandwidth of the amplifier, and with the l J
number of stages and circuit elements in- 20 LOG

R2 +RA(VOLTAGE GAIN OF V1
R2 11
cluded within the feedback loop. GAIN OF BOTH STAGES

[ GMVI 11
)J (GMV2 Ro)
l
I
NB+gAA
Gain and Phase Shift The gain and phase WHERE.
RA RI K RS
in Feedback Amplifiers shift of any amplifier RI +R2
R2
are functions of fre- RB
GMV2 RO
quency. For any amplifier containing a feed- RO REFLECTED LOAD IMPEDANCE ON V2
back loop to be completely stable, the gain of R2 FEEDBACK RESISTOR (USUALLY ABOUT Ws)
s)
such an amplifier, as measured from the in- RN R2
OUTPUT IMF[DANC[
put back to the point where the feedback [Oa + RA(GMV2 RO ), K(I + R-)
circuit connects to the input, must be less R, PLATE IMFEDANCE Of V2
than unity at the frequency where the feed-

back voltage is in phase with the input volt- Figure 29
age of the amplifier. If the gain is equal to
or more than unity at the frequency where SHUNT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT
the feedback voltage is in phase with the in- FOR PENTODES OR TETRODES
put, the amplifier will oscillate. This fact im- This circuit requires only the addition of one
poses a limitation on the amount of feedback resistor (Rd to the normal circuit for such an
which may be employed in an amplifier application. The plate impedance and distor-
tion introduced by the output stage are
which is to remain stable. If the reader is materially reduced.
INPUT SIGNAL ES AMPLIF IER uTPUT E

desirous of designing amplifiers in which a
GAIN A large amount of feedback is to be employed
he is referred to a book on the subject by H.
FEEDBACK OR 8 PATH
W. Bode.*
A
Types of Feedback may be either negative
VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION WITH FEEDBACKS
, -A 8 Feedback or positive, and the feedback volt-
A S GAIN IN ABSENCE OF FEEDBACK age may be proportional either to
e 2 FRACTION OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE FED BACK
output voltage or output current. The most
commonly used type of feedback with a -f or
8 IS NEGATIVE FOR NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
video amplifiers is negative feedback propor-
FEEDBACK IN DECIBELS S 20 LOG (1 -A B)
MID -FRED. GAIN WITHOUT FEEDBACK
tional to output voltage. Figure 28 gives the
20 LOG
MID -FRED. GAIN WITH FEEDBACK general operating conditions for feedback
DISTORTION WITH FEEDBACK
DISTORTION WITHOUT FEEDBACK amplifiers. Note that the reduction in distor-
(i -A 8) tion is proportional to the reduction in gain
qa RN of the amplifier, and also that the reduction
,-An (I+tL)
WHERE,
L in the output impedance of the amplifier is
RD OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
somewhat greater than the reduction in the
RN F OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF AMPLIFIER WITHOUT FEEDBACK
gain by an amount which is a function of
RL LOAD IMPEDANCE INTO WHICH AMPLIFIER OPERATES
the ratio of the output impedance of the
Figure 28 H. W. Bode, Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier

Design. D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. Princeton, New
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER RELATIONSHIPS Jersey.
168 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers
amplifier without feedback to the load im- fiers that the hum and distortion come from
pedance. The reduction in noise and hum in the latter stages, hence these will be reduced
those stages included within the feedback by feedback, but thermal agitation and mic-
loop is proportional to the reduction in gain. rophonic noise come from the first stage and
However, due to the reduction in gain of will not be reduced but may be increased by
the output section of the amplifier some- feedback unless the feedback loop includes
what increased gain is required of the stages the first stage of the amplifier.
preceding the stages included within the Figure 29 illustrates a very simple and ef-
feedback loop. Therefore the noise and hum fective application of negative- voltage feed-
output of the entire amplifier may or may back to an output pentode or tetrode ampli-
not be reduced dependent on the relative fier stage. The reduction in hum and distor-
contributions of the first part and the latter tion may amount to 15 to 20 db. The re-
part of the amplifier to hum and noise. If duction in the effective plate impedance of
most of the noise and hum is coming from the stage will be by a factor of 20 to 100
the stages included within the feedback loop depending on the operating conditions. The
the undesired signals will be reduced in the circuit is commonly used in commercial
output from the complete amplifier. It is equipment with tubes such as the 6A6
most frequently true in conventional ampli- for V, and the 6AQ5 for V.
CHAPTER SEVEN
Radio -Frequency Power Amplifiers
All modern radio transmitters consist of plate- circuit efficiency. Hence, the tube
a comparatively low -level source of radio - cost and cost of power to supply the stage
frequency energy which is amplified in is least for any given power output. Never-
strength and mixed or multiplied in fre- theless, the class -C amplifier provides less
quency to achieve the desired power level power gain than either a class -A or class -B
and operating frequency. Microwave trans- amplifier under similar conditions. The grid
mitters may be of the self -excited oscillator of the class -C amplifier must be driven
type, but when it is possible to use r -f am- highly positive over the small portion of
plifiers in uhf transmitters the flexibility of the exciting signal when the instantaneous
their application is increased. plate voltage on the tube is at its lower
Radio- frequency power amplifiers are gen- point, and is at a large negative potential
erally classified according to frequency range over a major portion of the operating cycle.
(hf, vhf, uhf, etc.), power level, type of As a result, no plate current will flow ex-
tube used, and type of service (a -m, f -m, cept during the time plate voltage is very
c -w, SSB). In addition, the amplifier may low. Comparatively large amounts of drive
be classified according to mode, or dynamic power are necessary to achieve this mode
operating characteristic of the tube (Class of operation. Class -C operational efficiency
AB,, B, or C) ; and according to circuitry is high because no plate current flows except
(grid driven or cathode driven). Each mode when the plate -to- cathode voltage drop
of operation and circuit configuration has across the tube is at its lowest value, but the
its distinct advantages and disadvantages, price paid for stage efficiency is the large
and no one mode or circuit is superior in value of drive power required to achieve
all respects to any other. As a result, modern this mode of operation.
transmitting equipments employ various The gain of a class -B amplifier is higher
modes of operation, intermixed with various than that of the class -C stage, and driving
tubes and circuit configurations. The follow- power is less in comparison. In addition, the
ing portion of this chapter will be devoted class -B amplifier may be considered to be
to the calculation of dynamic characteristics linear; that is, the output voltage is a
for some of the more practical modes of replica of the input voltage at all signal
tuned power amplifier operation. levels up to overload. This is not true in
the case of the class -C amplifier whose out-
7 -1 Class -C R -F Power put waveform consist of short pulses of
Amplifiers current, as discussed later in this chapter.
The gain of a class -A amplifier is higher
It is often desired to operate the r-f power than that of the class -B or class -C stage, but
amplifier in the class -B or class-C mode the efficiency is the lowest of the three
since such stages can be made to give high modes of operation. As with the class -B
170 R -F Power Amplifiers RADIO
stage, the class -A amplifier is considered

.4-ig lo-
to be linear with respect to input and output Riep
waveforms.
L
Relationships The class -C amplifier is

in Class -C Stage analyzed as its operation
provides an all -inclusive
case of the study of class -B and class -AB,
r -f amplifiers. 1GIAa
The class -C amplifier is characterized by
TRANSFER
the fact that the plate current flows in CURVE
pulses which, by definition, are less than
one -half of the operating cycle. The oper- OPERATING
POINT
ating cycle is that portion of the electrical Eco
cycle in which the grid is driven in a posi-
tive direction with respect to the cathode.
The operating cycle is considered in terms
-Ec
/
--EC -- t
of the plate or grid conduction angle (A).

The conduction angle is an expresion of that eg MAM 4.4
fraction of time (expressed in degrees of the Figure 1

electrical cycle) that the tube conducts
TRANSFER CURVE FOR OPERATING CYCLE
plate or grid current as compared to the OF CLASS-C AMPLIFIER
operating cycle of the input voltage wave- Typical class-C. amplifier (less neutralising cir-
form. cuits) is shown with various average and in-
stantaneous voltages noted. A summary of
The theoretical efficiency of any power symbols is given in the glossary of terms. The
amplifier depends on the magnitude of the plot is of the transfer curve, representing
conduction angle; a tuned class -A amplifier the change in plate current for a given grid
voltage. The grid signal (ep ) is repre-
having a large conduction angle with a d by a pulse of voltage along the
maximum theoretical efficiency of 50 per- y -axis, with the operating point determined
cent; a class -B amplifier with an angle of by the amount of grid bias, E. As the wave-
form rises In amplitude, a corresponding
180 degrees, and efficiency of 78.5 percent; pulse of plate current is developed across the
and a class -C amplifier with an angle of plate load impedance, (Rd). A single point
of grid voltage (A) represeats a c pond
about 160 degrees and efficiency of about 85 Mg value of instantaneous plate current
percent. (A'). All other points on the grid -voltage curve
Figure 1 illustrates a transfer curve repre- relate to corresponding points on the plate-
current curve.
senting the relationships between grid and
plate voltages and currents during the oper- instantaneous plate current, ii, -,. All other
ating cycle of a class -C amplifier. Symbols points on the grid -voltage curve relate to
shown in figure 1 and given in the follow- corresponding points on the plate -current
ing discussion are defined and listed in the curve.
Glossary of Terms included at the front As the grid is driven considerably positive,
of this Handbook. grid current flows, causing the plate cur-
The plot is of the transfer curve of a rent to be "starved" at the peak of each
typical triode tube, and represents the change cycle, thus the plate- current waveform
in plate current, (ih) for a given amount pulse is slightly indented at the top. As
of grid voltage (ea). The representation is of the waveform is poor and the distortion
the form of the I,, versus E, plot for a triode high, class -C operation is restricted to r -f
shown in figure 9, chapter 4. amplification where high efficiency is desir-
The operating point, or grid -bias level able and when the identity of the output
(E,.), is chosen at several times cutoff bias waveform to the input waveform is relative-
(E,,,), and superimposed on the operating ly unimportant.
point is one -half cycle of the grid exciting The relation between grid and plate volt-
voltage, cx max. A sample point of grid voltages and currents is more fully detailed in
age, e,.x, is shown to produce a value of the graphs of figures 2 and 3, which illus-
HANDBOOK Class -C R -F Amplifiers 171
Figure 2
INSTANTANEOUS GRID
GRID VOLTAGE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
ec, e g
OF A CLASS -C R -F
POWER AMPLIFIER
Grid voltage and current varia-
tions with respect to time are
shown. The grid is negatively
biased by the amount E. As soon
as the positive value of grid
exciting voltage (e) exceeds E,
(point A) the grid starts to draw
current, as it Is positive with
respect to the filament. Grid cur-
rent flows from point A to point
I of the grid voltage plot. This
portion of the grid cycle is termed
19 MAX,
the conduction angle. Average
value of grid of (i,) may be
read on a d-c meter in series with
PEAK GRID grid return line to bias supply.
o vo I80 iT0 !e0 CURRENT For typical class -C performance
9 grid current flows over a portion of
the operating cycle, which Is less
-- OPERATING CYCLE than half the electrical cycle.
ELECTRICAL CYCLE -
t0 tl
trate in detail the various voltage and cur- The d -c component of grid current, 1,., may
rent variations during one electrical cycle be read on the grid meter shown in figure 1.
of the exciting signal. The grid draws current only over that por-
tion of the operating cycle when it is posi-
Voltage at the Grid The curves of figure 2 tive with respect to the cathode (that por-
represent the grid voltage tion of the curve above the E0=0 axis in
and current variations with respect to time. graph A). This portion of the exciting volt-
The x -axis for grid voltage is Eel with a age is termed the maximum positive grid
secondary axis (Feo = 0) above it, the voltage (e,.,,,9).
vertical distance between axes representing
the fixed grid -bias voltage (E(.). At the Voltage at the Plate The voltage at the plate
beginning of the operating cycle (t= o) the of the tube responds to
exciting voltage (ex) is zero and increases the changes in grid voltage as shown in
in amplitude, until at point A it equals in figure 3. Instantaneous plate voltage (eb),
magnitude the value of the bias voltage. At consists of the d -c plate voltage (Eh) less
this point, the instantaneous voltage on the the a -c voltage drop across the plate load
grid of the tube is zero with respect to the impedance (er) . As the grid element be-
cathode, and plate current has already begun comes more positive, a greater flow of elec-
to flow (point A in figure 1) , as the exciting trons reach the plate, instantaneous plate
signal is already greater in magnitude than current increases, and the voltage drop
the cut -off grid voltage (Ec0). The relations across the plate load impedance (RL) rises.
are normally such that at the crest of the The phase relations are such that the
positive grid voltage cycle, ecmp (or eR max minimum instantaneous plate potential
positive) , the grid is driven appreciably (eh min) and the maximum instantaneous
positive with respect to the cathode and grid potential (eg max) occur simultaneously.
consequently draws some grid current, i.. The corresponding instantaneous plate cur-
rent pulse exists only over a portion (Ob)

of the complete plate operating cycle . (The
operating cycle is taken to be that half -
cycle of grid voltage having a positive ex-
cursion of the drive voltage.) The opposite
half of the electrical cycle is of little interest,
as the grid merely assumes a more negative
condition and no flow of plate current is
possible.
Peak plate current pulses, then, flow
as pictured in figure 3 over the conduction
angle of each operating cycle. The funda-
mental component of plate current (i1)
however, is a sine wave since it is developed
across a resonant circuit (LC). The reson-
ant circuit, in effect, acts as a "flywheel,"
holding r -f energy over the pulsed portion
of the operating cycle, and releasing it dur-
ing the quiescent portion of the electrical
cycle.
The patterns of grid voltage and current
shown in figure 2 are important in deter-
PEAK PLATE
mining grid-circuit parameters, and the pat-
CURRENT
1D. 1p
terns of plate voltage and current shown
in the illustrations can be used to determine
plate- circuit parameters, as will be dis-
cussed later.
FUNDAMENTAL
COMPONENT OF The various manufacturers of vacuum
PLATE CURRENT
le tubes publish data sheets listing in ade-
quate detail various operating conditions
for the tubes they manufacture. In addition,
additional operating data for special condi-
tions is often available for the asking. It is,
Figure 3 nevertheless, often desirable to determine
INSTANTANEOUS PLATE VOLTAGE AND optimum operating conditions for a tube
CURRENT OF CLASS -C POWER AMPLIFIER under a particular set of circumstances. To
Instant s plate voltage and current re- assist in such calculations the following
sponds to the changes in grid voltage shown paragraphs are devoted to a method of cal-
in figure 2. As grid becomes more positive,
the peak plate current rises, causing an culating various operating conditions which
increased voltage drop across the plate load is moderately simple and yet sufficiently
impedance (R,, figure 1). Maximum peak accurate for all practical purposes. It is
plate current Rows at condition of minimum
instant s plate voltage (e, ,,,,,) and based on wave -analysis techniques of the
maximum voltage drop across load impedance peak plate current of the operating cycle,
(ep ). Plate- t pulse exists only over
a portion of the operating cycle (conduction
adapted from Fourier analysis of a funda-
angle). Usable power is derived from the mental wave and its accompanying har-
fundamental component of the plate current monics. Considerable ingenuity has been
which is a sine wave developed across the
resonant tank circuit. op,.
equals np mi. . displayed in devising various graphical ways
of evaluating the waveforms in r -f power
amplifiers. One of these techniques, a Tube
rent (ib) for this sequence is shown in the Performance Calculator, for class -AB,
current plot of figure 3. class -B, and Class -C service may be obtained
As plate current is conducted only beat no cost by writing: Application Engineer-
tween points A and B of the grid -voltage ing Dept., Eimac Division of Varian, San
excursion, it can be seen that the plate -cur- Carlos, Calif. 94070.
HANDBOOK Constant -Current Curves 173
125 /LATE CURRENT

-- AMEIES
AMPERES
GRID CURRENT
100
25
25
500
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Fe-PLATE VOLTAGE SWING
2250 VOLTS PLATE VOLTAGE-VOLTS
Figure 4
CONSTANT-CURRENT CHART FOR 3 -1000Z HIGH-p. TRIODE
The constant- current chart is a plot of constant plate -current lines for various values of
grid voltage and plate current. At the start of operation (quiescent point A) the tube rests
at a plate voltage of 3000 and zero grid voltage. At a positive grid potential of 85 volts
(point I), the plate t has increased to 2 amperes, and the plate voltage has dropped
to 750, by virtue of the voltage drop across the plate load impedance. As the grid voltage
rises from zero to maximum, the operating point passes from A to 8 along the load line.
By examining rep alive samples of plate voltage and current along the load line, typical
operating characteristics may be derived for the given set of conditions shown on the graph.
7 -2 Constant- Current a set of such curves and lends itself readily

to graphic computations. Any point on the
Curves operating line, moreover, defines the instan-
taneous values of plate, screen and grid cur-
Although class -C operating conditions can rent which must flow when these particular
be determined with the aid of conventional values of plate, screen and grid voltages are
grid -voltage versus plate- current operating applied to the tube. Thus, by taking off the
curves (figure 9, chapter 4), the calculation values of the currents and plotting them
is simplified if the alternative constant cur- against time, it is possible to generate a
rent graph of the tube in question is used curve of instantaneous electrode currents,
figure 4). This representation is a graph of such as shown in figures 1 and 2. An analysis
constant plate current on a grid -voltage of the curve of instantaneous current val-
versus plate- voltage plot, as previously shown ues will derive the d -c components of the
in figure 10, chapter 4. The constant -current currents, which may be read on a d -c am-
plot is helpful as the operating line of a meter. In addition, if the plate current
tuned power amplifier is a straight line on flows through a properly loaded resonant r -f
174
500
c- _
El
:;: R -F
a,rr
Power Amplifiers
- ._',///',Fi
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1Nryf EIMAC 30/1R
.
. CONSTANT
ryr*a,, ONS1ANi CURRENT
_.,..
4.ii.'jtL
500 CNARACTERT CST
--
CHARACTERISTICS
((yQy/`fAQ,ti,
200
r-::=:
1to
:_,,,.,
:,,,,,,_.
..
:i :
.ft_ :! w,
i
.
, 500
300
0 500 CO 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
PL If YOE AGE 40115
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 5000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
PLATE VOLTAGE - OLTS

Figure 5
Figure 6
CONSTANT- CURRENT CHART rOR
MEDIUM - TRIODE CONSTANT CURRENT CHART FOR
LOW-FA TRIODE
Constant current plot for a 304TH triode with a
of 20. Note that the lines of constant plate Constart -current plot for a 3041L triode with
current have a greater slope than the cor- a of 12. Note that more plate et at a
responding lines of the high -u triode (3- 10002) given plate voltage can be obtained from the
and that for a given value of positive grid low -is triode without driving the grid into the
potential, and plate potential, the plate cur- positive voltage region. In addition, more bias
rent of this tube is higher than that of the voltage is required to cur off the plate current
hig ber - tube. at o given plate voltage. With this increased
value of bias there is a corresponding increase
in grid -voltage swing required to drive up to
the zero grid-voltage point on the graph.
circuit, the amount of power delivered to
the circuit may be predicted, as well as
drive power, and harmonic components of plate - voltage drop. Medium - (15 -50)
drive and output voltage. triodes are generally used in r -f amplifiers
A set of typical constant- current curves and oscillators, as well as class -B audio
for the 304 -TH medium - triode is shown modulators. High -p (50 -200) triodes have
in figure 5, with a corresponding set of high power gain and are often used in cath-
curves for the 304 -TL low -p triode shown ode- driven ( "grounded- grid ") r -f amplifiers.
in figure 6. The graphs illustrate how much If the amplification factor (p) is sufficient-
more plate current can be obtained from the ly high, no external bias supply is required,
low -p. tube without driving the grid into and no protective circuits for loss of bias or
the positive-grid region, as contrasted to the drive are necessary. A set of constant -cur-
higher - tube. In addition, more bias volt- rent curves for the 3 -SOOZ high - triode is
age is required to cut off the plate current given in figure 7.
of the low -.c tube, as compared to the high- The amplification factor of a triode is a
er- tube for a given value of plate voltage. function of the physical size and location
With the higher value of bias, a correspond- of the grid structure. The upper limit of
ing increase in grid -voltage swing is required amplification factor is controlled by grid
to drive the tube up to the zero grid -volt- dissipation, as high - grid structures require
age point on the curve. Low -p. tubes thus, many grid wires of small diameter having
by definition, have lower voltage gain, and relatively poorer heat -conduction qualities
this can be seen by comparing the curves as compared to a low - structure, made up
of figures and 6. S of fewer wires of greater diameter and bet-
Low - (3-15) power triodes are chosen ter heat conductivity. A set of constant-
for class -A amplifiers and series -pass tubes current curves for the 250TH power triode
in voltage regulators, as they operate well with a sample load line drawn thereon is
over a wide range of load current with low shown in figure 8.
HANDBOOK Class -C Amplifier Calculations 175
125
EIMAC 3 -500Z
TYPICAL
CONSTANT CURRENT
loo
CHARACTERISTICS
GROUNDED -GRID
PLATE CURRENT- AMPERES
GRID CURRENT -AMPERES

75
-25
25
50
0 1000 2000 3000 /000 5000
PLATE TO GRID VOLTAGE - VOLTS
Figure 7
CONSTANT -CURRENT CHART FOR HIGH - TRIODE
Constant current plot for a 3-SOOZ triode with of 160. The 3-500Z is considered to be "zero
bias" up to a plate potential of about 3000. Resting plate nt at this value of plate
voltage is approximately 160 milliamperes. This plot is for grounded-grid, cathode -driven use,
and grid -voltage axis is defined in terms of filament to grid voltage (negative) instead of
grid -to- filament voltage (positive). Grid and screen c is are usually logged on constant-
current plots, along with plate current.
Amplifier rent, average plate current, power output,

7 -3 Class -C driving power, etc., cannot be directly cal-
Calculations culated but must be determined by a Fourier
analysis from points selected at proper in-
tervals along the line of operation as plotted
In calculating and predicting the opera- on the constant- current characteristics. This
tion of a vacuum tube as a class -C radio - may be done either analytically or graphical-
frequency amplifier, the considerations which ly. While the Fourier analysis has the ad-
determine the operating conditions are plate vantage of accuracy, it also has the dis-
efficiency, power output required, maximum advantage of being tedious and involved.
allowable plate and grid dissipation, maxi- The approximate analysis which follows
mum allowable plate voltage, and maximum has proved to be sufficiently accurate for
allowable plate current. The values chosen most applications. This type of analysis also
for these factors will depend on the demands has the advantage of giving the desired in-
of a particular application of the tube. formation at the first trial. The system is
The plate and grid currents of a class -C direct in giving the desired information since
amplifier tube are periodic pulses, the dura- the important factors, power output, plate
tions of which are always less than 180 de- efficiency, and plate voltage are arbitrarily
grees. For this reason the average grid cur- selected at the beginning.
176
600
200
-200
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Calculation be described is to determine the

power which must be delivered
by the class-C amplifier. In making this de-
termination it is well to remember that
ordinarily from 5 to 10 percent of the power
delivered by the amplifier tube or tubes will
be lost in well -designed tank and coupling
circuits at frequencies below 20 MHz.
Above 20 MHz the tank and circuit losses
are ordinarily somewhat above 10 percent.
The plate power input necessary to pro-
duce the desired output is determined by the
plate efficiency: P; = P /N1 assuming 100 -
percent tank circuit efficiency.
For most applications it is desirable to op-
erate at the highest practicable efficiency.
High -efficiency operation usually requires
less -expensive tubes and power supplies, and
the amount of external cooling required is
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VOLTAGE - VOLTS
Figure 8
CONSTANT -CURRENT CHART FOR 250TH
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Active portion of load line for an Eimoc 250TH class -C r -f power amplifier, showing first trial
point and final operating point for calculation of operating parameters at a power input of
Method of The first step in the method to

1000 watts.
RADIO
-
-
AMPERES
frequently less than for low -efficiency opera-

tion. On the other hand, high-efficiency op-
eration usually requires more driving power
and involves the use of higher plate voltages
and higher peak tube voltages. The better
types of triodes will ordinarily operate at a
plate efficiency of 75 to 85 percent at the
highest rated plate voltage, and at a plate
efficiency of 65 to 75 percent at intermediate
velues of plate voltage.
The first determining factor in selecting
a tube or tubes for a particular application
is the amount of plate dissipation which will
be required of the stage. The total plate dis-
sipation rating for the tube or tubes to be
used in the stage must be equal to or greater
than that calculated from: P, = P1
After selecting a tube or tubes to meet
the power output and plate dissipation re-
Po.
quirements it becomes necessary to determine
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HANDBOOK Class -C Amplifier Calculations 177
from the tube characteristics whether the 8. Calculate the ratio: i, max / In from:
tube selected is capable of the desired opera-
tion and, if so, to determine the driving i, max 2 Np X Et,
power, grid bias, and grid dissipation. Ib ep min
The complete procedure necessary to de-
termine a set of class -C amplifier operating (where il max = peak fundamental
conditions is given in the following steps: component of plate current).
9. From the ratio of ii max Ib calculated /
1. Select the plate voltage, power output
in step 8 determine the ratio:
and efficiency. ib max /Ib from the graph of figure 9.
2. Determine plate input from: 10. Derive a new value for ib max from
Pi = P /Np the ratio found in step 9:
ib max = (ratio found in step 9) X Ib
3. Determine plate dissipation from:
Pp = (Pi -
Pn) / 1.1 11. Read the values of maximum positive
grid voltage, eg max and peak grid cur-
(Pp must not exceed maximum rated
plate dissipation for selected tube or rent (ig max) from the chart for the
tubes. Tank circuit efficiency assumed values of ep min and ib max found in
to be 90Z). steps 6 and 10 respectively.
4. Determine average plate current 12. Calculate the cosine of one -half the
(1,,) from: 1,, = Pi/Eh. angle of plate- current flow (one -half
S. Determine approximate peak plate cur-
the operating cycle, 0p /2) .
rent (ii, ,,,x) from:

= 0.85
cosep= 2.32(tix 1.57)
in max = 4.9 1h for Np
ib max = 4.5 I,, for Np = 0.80
in max = 4.0 I,, for Np = 0.75 13. Calculate the grid bias voltage (Ea)
ib max = 3.5 Ii, for Np = 0.70 from:
in max = 3.1 I,, for Np = 0.65 _ 1
Note: A figure of Np = 0.75 is often

used for class -C service, and a figure
Ec 1 - cosen
2
of Np = 0.65 is often used for class - min

B and class -AB service. i cos en eb cmp
1
6. Locate the point on the constant -
current chart where the constant -cur- for triodes.
rent plate line corresponding to the
appropriate value of i,, x determined , Ea, - 1
X
in step S crosses the point of intersec-
tion of equal values of plate and grid
1 - cosen
voltage. (The locus of such points for
all these combinations of grid and r A 2
plate voltage is termed the diode line).

en,p X cos
2- a
Estimate the value of ep min at this
point. for tetrodes, where s is the grid -
In some cases, the lines of constant screen amplification factor.
plate current will inflect sharply up- 14. Calculate the peak fundamental grid
ward before reaching the diode line. voltage, cg max from:
If so, ei, ,,,in should not be read at the
diode line but at a point to the right
eg max = ecmp
tive value of Ec.
- (-
Ea) , using nega-
where the plate -current line inter- 15. Calculate the ratio eg ,ix /Er for the
sects a line drawn from the origin values of Er and eg max found in steps
through these points of inflection. 13 and 14.
7. Calculate e1,,,,, from: 16. Read the ratio ig max /1c from figure
10 for the ratio eg max / E, found in
ei, min = F,, - ep min step 15.
17. Calculate the average grid current o

(Ia) from the ratio found in step 16
and the value of i, max found in step
11:
.o
ig max
1 (ratio found in step 16)
o
18. Calculate approximate grid driving O
1=
7.0
power from: <

a
Pd = 0.9 eg max X Ic
0.0
19. Calculate grid dissipation from:

Pg = Pd - (- E, X le) 3.0
-10 -Is -: 0 -0
(Pg must not exceed the maximum RATIO q 01
rated grid dissipation for the tube or Ec
tubes selected) . Figure 10
Relationship between the ratio of the peak
Sample Calculation A typical example of value of the fundamental component of the
grid excitation voltage, and the average grid
class -C amplifier calcu- bias; as compared to the ratio between in-
lation is shown in the following example. stantaneous peak grid c and average
Reference is made to figures 8, 9, and 10 grid current
in the calculation. The steps correspond to
those in the previous section. 1. Desired power output -800 watts.
2. Desired plate voltage-3500 volts.
Desired plate efficiency-80%
7.0
(Np = 0.8). P1 = 800/0.8 = 1000
watts.
o 3. Pp = 10001 - 800 - 182 watts.

1.
(Use 250TH; max Pp = 250w;

= 37).
4. Ib = 1000/3500 = 0.285 ampere
(285 ma). (Maximum rated lb for
250TH = 350 ma).
5. Approximate ib n,ax: 0.285 X 4.5 =
.0 1.28 amp
6. el, min = 260 volts (see figure 8, first
trial point).
7. ep min = 3 500 - 260 = 3240 volts.
0.0' .J , 8. it max
3240
/ Ib
= 1.73.
= (2 X 0.8 X 3500) /
RATIO
lb 9. ib max /
1,, = 4.1 (from figure 9).
10. ib max = 4.1 X 0.285 = 1.17.
11. eC,,,p = 240 volts
Figure 9
= 0.43 amp
lg max
Relationship between the peak value of the (Both read from final point on figure
fundamental component of the tube plate cur-
rent, and average plate nt; as compared 8).
to the ratio of the instantaneous peak value
of tube plate c nt, and average plate cur-
rent value. 12. cos
Bb
= 2.32 (1.73 - 1.57) = 0.37
HANDBOOK
o.9s
0.90
0.
0.92
M
IlMIMM
MM
1\\
IIMMME
I -. i'
Class -C Amplifier Calculations
P
Thus = 1.73 X 0.285 = 0.495).
11,.
= (0.495 X 3240)/2 = 800 watts
21. The plate load impedance of any type
of r-f amplifier is equal to:
179
l Il..,
0.90
RL - ep min
il max
ase
F2
032
CIAO
070
k. 3240
0.495
6550 ohms
0.70
An alternative equation for the ap-
074
proximate value of RT, is:
0.72
0.70
0 10 20 30 40 50 00 70 00 90 100 110 120
E,,
ELECTRICAL DEGREES
. e seee 0
9b IN
ee10 a w e MS 0.100
e2
0M e, 0 -a.ne su
I I
-0100
R7. 1.8 X Ib
COS
3500
RT.= 1.8 X 0.285 = 6820 ohms
Figure 11
Relationship between factor F, and the half-

angle of plate -current Row in an amplifier Q of Amplifier In order to obtain proper plate
with sine-wave input and output voltage, Tank Circuit tank -circuit tuning and low
operating at a grid -bias voltage greater than
cutoff radiation of harmonics from
an amplifier it is necessary that the plate
tank circuit have the correct Q. Charts giv-
Ob
ing compromise values of Q for class-C am-
= 68.3 and Oh = 136.60 plifiers are given in the chapter, Generation
) of R -F Energy. However, the amount of in-
ductance required for a special tank -circuit
13. E,-1 -0.37X 1
Q under specified operating conditions can
be calculated from the following expression:
3500
L0.37(370-240) 37
= - 240 volts. where,

14. eg max = 240 - (- 240) = 480 equals 2 7r X operating frequency,
volts. L equals tank inductance,
15. = 480/ -240 = -2. R7, equals required tube load impedance,
16. igmax /Ic = 5.75 (from figure 10). Q equals effective tank circuit Q.
17. I, = 0.43/5.75 = 0.075 amp (75
18. P,, = 0.9 X 480 X 0.075 = 32.5 A tank circuit Q of 12 to 20 is recom-
watts. mended for all normal conditions. However,
19. = 32.5 -F ( -240 X 0.075) =
Pr if a balanced push -pull amplifier is employed
14.5 watts (Maximum rated Pr for the tank receives two impulses per cycle and
250TH = 40 watts). the circuit Q may be lowered somewhat
20. The power output of any type of r -f from the above values.
amplifier is equal to:
Quick Method of The plate -circuit effi-
71 max X ep min Calculating Amplifierciency of a class -B or
n
Plate Efficiency class -C r -f amplifier
(i7 max can be determined by multiply- is approximately equal
ing the ratio determined in step 8 by to the product of two factors: F1, which is
equal to the ratio of ep max to Eb (F1 = grid- circuit conditions can be determined
e, .../En) and F2, which is proportional to the through the use of steps 15, 16, 17, 18,
one -half angle of plate current flow Ob /2. and 19.
A graph of F2 versus both Ob /2 and cos Ob/2
is given in figure 11. Either Ob /2 or cos 7 -4 Class -B Radio -
Ab /2 may be used to determine F2. Cos oh/2
may be determined either from the proced-
Frequency Power Amplifiers
ure previously given for making class-C
amplifier computations or it may be de- Radio -frequency power amplifiers operat-
termined from the following expression: ing under class -B conditions of grid bias
and excitation voltage are used in various
types of applications in transmitters. The
cos
9n
2
- ,u
E,
X eg max
+ Eb
- ep max
first general application is as a buffer- ampli-
fier stage where it is desired to obtain a high
value of power amplification in a particular
Example of It is desired to know the one- stage without regard to linearity. A particu-
Method half angle of plate- current flow lar tube type operated with a given plate
and the plate- circuit efficiency voltage will be capable of somewhat greater
for an 812 tube operating under the follow- output for a certain amount of excitation
ing class -C conditions which have bcen power when operated as a class -B amplifier
assumed from inspection of the data and than when operated as a class -C amplifier.
curves given in the RCA Transmitting Tube
Handbook: Calculation of Calculation of the operating
Operating conditions for this type of
1. Eb = 1100 volts Characteristics class -B r -f amplifier can be
Ep = -40 volts carried out in a manner sim-
= 29 ilar to that described in the previous para-
eg max = 120 volts graphs, except that the grid -bias voltage is
ep max = 1000 volts set on the tube before calculation at he
2. F1 = e9 max -
0.91
value: Ee = - En/ IA. Since the grid bias
is set at cutoff the one -half angle of plate -
Eh
2n r(29 X 40) + 11001 current flow is 90 ; hence cos An /2 is fixed
3. cos
(29
( X 120)- 10001 at 0.00. The plate- circuit efficiency for a
2480
60 - 0.025 class -B r -f amplifier operated in this manner
can be determined in the following manner:
4. F2 = 0.79 (by reference to
figure 11) ep max
Np = 78.5 X
5. N, = F, XF.. =0.91 X 0.79 = Eb
0.72 (72 percent efficiency)
Note: In reference to figure 3, ep max is
F1 could be called the plate- voltage -swing equal in magnitude to ep min and absolute
efficiency factor, and F2 can be called the value should be used.
operating -angle efficiency factor or the maxi-
mum possible efficiency of any stage running The "Class -B The second type of class -B r-f
with that value of half -angle of plate cur- Linear" amplifier is the so- called class -
rent flow. B linear amplifier which is
Np is, of course, only the ratio between often used in transmitters for the amplifica-
power output and power input. If it is de- tion of a single -sideband signal or a conven-
sired to determine the power input, exciting tional amplitude -modulated wave. Calcula-
power, and grid current of the stage, these tion of operating conditions may be carried
can be obtained through the use of steps 7, out in a manner similar to that previously
8, 9, and 10 of the previously given method described with the following exceptions: The
for determining power input and output; and first trial operating point is chosen on the
knowing that ig max is 0.095 ampere, the basis of the 100 -percent positive modulation
HANDBOOK Class -B R -F Power Amplifiers 181
peak (or PEP condition) of the exciting supply to be 2000 volts, and the screen
wave. The plate- circuit and grid -peak volt- supply to be 400 volts. To determine the
ages and currents can then be determined operating parameters of this tube as a class -
and the power input and output calculated. B linear SSB r -f amplifier, the following
Then (in the case for an a -m linear) with steps should be taken:
the exciting voltage reduced to one -half
for the no- modulating condition of the ex- 1. The grid bias is chosen so that the
citing wave, and with the same value of resting plate current will produce ap-
load resistance reflected on the tube, the a -m proximately 1/3 of the maximum
plate input and plate efficiency will drop to plate dissipation of the tube. The max-
approximately one-half the values at the imum dissipation of the 813 is 12 S
100 -percent positive modulation peak and watts, so the bias is set to allow one -
the power output of the stage will drop to third of this value, or 42 watts of
one -fourth the peak -modulation value. On resting dissipation. At a plate poten-
the negative modulation peak the input, tial of 2000 volts, a plate current of
efficiency and output all drop to zero. 21 milliamperes will produce this fig-
In general, the proper plate voltage, bias ure. Referring to figure 12, a grid bias
voltage, load resistance, and power output of -45 volts is approximately correct.
listed in the tube tables for class -B audio 2. A practical class -B linear r -f amplifier
work will also apply to class -B linear r -f runs at an efficiency of about 66% at
application. full output (the carrier efficiency
dropping to about 33% with a modu-
Calculation of Oper- The class -B linear lated exciting signal). In the case of
sting Parameters for a amplifier parameters single -sideband suppressed- carrier ex-
Class -B Linear Amplifier may be calculated citation, the linear amplifier runs at
from constant -cur- the resting or quiescent input of 42
rent curves, assuggested, or may be derived watts with no exciting signal. The
from the Eb VS II, curves, as outlined in this peak allowable power input to the
section. 813 is:
...
Figure 12 illustrates the characteristic
curves for an 813 tube. Assume the plate PEP input power (pl) =
1
Ec2 +400
IJ!
V.
Ecs= 0 v.
Eci= so
aI.
EOM
Ea S
L
.
-
pA
_ III
0
//-tl--lI _____
100 200 200 400
_
300 400 700
PLATE VOLTS
500 400 1000 1100 1200 1300
Ecl-40
1400 Ifaa lem 171
Figure 12
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS OF 813 TUBE
plate dissipation X 100

(100 -% plate efficiency)
SO
.+40o V.
125 X 100
33
- 378 watts PEP GO
EC2
Ect=ov.
Eu=+100v.
3. The maximum d -c signal plate cur-
rent is:
Ii' flax
pi
E,,
378
2000 - 0.189 ampere
40
20 --
Ecr+z
C1=+80V.
.
`
ECI +sov.
Eu = +4o V
0 100 200 300 400

PLATE VOLTS (E b),
(Single-tone drive signal condition)
Figure 13
4. The plate -current conduction angle
(06) of the class -B linear amplifier E,, VERSUS E, CHARACTERISTICS OF 813
is approximately 180 , and the peak TUBE
plate-current pulses have a maximum
value of about 3.14 times lb max:
it, mar = 3.14 X 0.189 = 0.593 amp.
Rr, 5870 - 490 ohms
X` Q 12
5. Referring to figure 12, a current of 10. For an operating frequency of 4.0
about 0.6 ampere (Point A) will MHz, the effective resonant capaci-
flow at a positive grid potential of 60 tance is:
volts and a minimum plate potential
of 420 volts. The grid is biased at
-45 volts, so a peak r -f grid voltage C
l0e
6.28 X 4.0 X 490
- 81 pf
of 60 -i'- 45 volts, or 105 volts, swing
is required. 11. The inductance required to resonate
6. The grid driving power required for at 4.0 MHz with this value of ca-
the class -B linear stage may be found pacitance is:
by the aid of figure 13. It is one -third
the product of the peak grid current = 490
6.28 X 4.0
- 19.5 microhenrys
times the peak grid swing.
Pd - 0.015 X 105
- 0.525 watt Grid -Circuit
Considerations
The maximum positive
1.
grid potential is 60
volts and the peak r -f
7. The single -tone (peak) power output grid voltage is 105 volts. Required
of the 813 is: peak driving power is 0.525 watt. The
P = .785 (Eh -eh min) X Ib max
equivalent grid resistance of this stage
is:
Po = .785 (2000 -420) X 0.189
= 235 watts PEP (eRmaz)2 1052
rg
2 X Pd 2 X 0.525
8. The plate load resistance is:
= 10,000 ohms
Eb 2000
R`" = 1.8 X I(, 1.8 X 0.188 2. As in the case of the class -B audio am-
plifier the grid resistance of the linear
= 5870 ohms amplifier varies from infinity to a low
value when maximum grid current is
9. If loaded plate tank circuit Q of
a drawn. To decrease the effect of this
12 is desired, the reactance of the resistance excursion, a swamping resis-
plate tank capacitor of a parallel tuned tor should be placed across the grid -
circuit at resonance is: tank circuit. The value of the resistor
HANDBOOK Grounded -Grid Amplifiers 183
should be dropped until a shortage of assumption that a conventional grounded -

driving power begins to be noticed. cathode or cathode -return type of amplifier
For this example, a resistor of 3000 was in question. It is possible, however, as in
ohms is used. The grid circuit load for the case of a -f and low -level r -f amplifiers
no grid current is now 3000 ohms in- to use circuits in which electrodes other than
stead of infinity, and drops to 2300 the cathode are returned to ground insofar
ohms when maximum grid current is as the signal potential is concerned. Both the
drawn. plate- return or cathode - follower amplifier
3. A circuit Q of 15 is chosen for the and the grid -return or grounded -grid am-
grid tank. The capacitive reactance plifier are effective in certain circuit applica-
required is: tions as tuned r -f power amplifiers.
Xe = 2 00 - 154 ohms Disadvantages of An undesirable aspect of

Grounded -Cathode the operation of cathode -
4. At 4.0 MHz the effective capacitance Amplifiers return r -f power ampli-
is: fiers using triode tubes is
that such amplifiers must be neutralized.
106
Principles and methods of neutralizing r-f
C
6.28 X 4.0 X 154 - 2S9 pf
power amplifiers are discussed in the chapter
5. The inductive reactance required to Generation of R -F Energy. As the frequency
resonate the grid circuit at 4.0 MHz
of operation of an amplifier is increased the
stage becomes more and more difficult to
is:
neutralize due to inductance in the grid and
L
154
6.28 X 4.0
- 6.1 microhenrys
cathode leads of the tube and in the leads to
the neutralizing capacitor. In other words
the bandwidth of neutralization decreases as
6. By substituting the loaded -grid resist- the presence of the neutralizing capacitor
ance figur in the formula in the first adds additional undesirable capacitive load-
paragraph, the peak grid driving pow- ing to the grid and plate tank circuits of
er is now found to be approximately the tube or tubes. To look at the problem in
2.4 watts. another way, an amplifier that may be per-
fectly neutralized at a frequency of 30 MHz
Screen- Circuit reference to the plate
By may be completely out of neutralization at a
Considerations characteristic curve of the frequency of 120 MHz. Therefore, if there
813 tube, it can be seen that are circuits in both the grid and plate cir-
at a minimum plate potential of 420 volts, cuits which offer appreciable impedance at
and a maximum plate current of 0.6 ampere, this high frequency it is quite possible that
the screen current will be approximately 30 the stage may develop a parasitic oscilla-
milliamperes, dropping to one or two milli- tion in the vicinity of 120 MHz.
amperes in the quiescent state. It is necessary
to use a well -regulated screen supply to hold Grounded -Grid This condition of restricted -
the screen voltage at the correct potential R-F Amplifiers range neutralization of r -f
over this range of current excursion. The use power amplifiers can be great-
of an electronically regulated screen supply ly alleviated through the use of a cathode -
is recommended. driven or grounded -grid r -f stage. The
grounded -grid amplifier has the following
advantages:
7 -5 Grounded -Grid and
1. The output and input capacitances of
Cathode -Follower R -F Power a stage are reduced to approximately
Amplifier Circuits one -half the value which would be ob-
tained if the same tube or tubes were
The r -f power amplifier discussions of operated as a conventional neutralized
Sections 7 -3 and 7 -4 have been based on the amplifier.
2. The tendency toward parasitic oscilla-

tions in such a stage is greatly reduced
since the shielding effect of the control
RL p
grid between the filament and the
plate is effective over a broad range of
frequencies.
3. The feedback capacitance within the
stage is the plate -to- cathode capaci-
tance which is ordinarily very much
less than the grid -to -plate capacitance. (et, MIN +e9MAX) XII MAX
PEP POWER TO LOAD
Hence neutralization is ordinarily not z
required in the high frequency region.
et, MIN 11 MAX
If neutralization is required the neu- PEP POWER DELIVERED BY OUTPUT TUBE - X
2
talizing capacitors are very small in
value and are cross -connected between PEP DRIVE POWER - eq MAX 11 MAX
4. 0.9 (eq MAX A 1C)
ZA
plates and cathodes in a push -pull
stage, or between the opposite end of eq MAX
ZR? 11 MAX + 1.5 x IC
a split plate tank and the cathode in
Eb
a single -ended stage. RL2 IsAlb
The disadvantages of a grounded -grid am-
Figure 14
plifier are:
ZERO -BIAS GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER
1. A large amount of excitation energy
The equations in the above figure give the
is required. However, only the normal relationships between the output power, drive
amount of energy is lost in the grid power, feedthrough power, and input and out-
circuit of the amplifier tube; most put impedances exp d in terms of the
various voltages and currents of the stage.
additional energy over this amount is
deliver to the load circuit as useful
output. tween input and output power and the peak
2. The cathode of a grounded -grid am- fundamental components of electrode volt-
plifier stage is above r -f ground This ages and currents are given below the draw-
means that the cathode must be fed ing. The calculation of the complete oper-
through a suitable impedance from the ating conditions for a grounded -grid ampli-
filament supply, or the filament trans- fier stage is somewhat more complex than
former must be of the low capacitance that for a conventional amplifier because the
type and adequately insulated for the input circuit of the tube is in series with
r -f voltage which will be present. the output circuit as far as the load is con-
3. A grounded -grid r -f amplifier cannot cerned. The primary result of this effect is,
be plate modulated 100 percent unless as stated before, that considerably more
the output of the exciting stage is power is required from the driver stage. The
modulated also. Approximately 70 -per normal power gain for a g -g stage is from
cent modulation of the exciter stage, 3 to 15 depending on the grid- circuit condi-
while the final stage is modulated tions chosen for the output stage. The higher
100 percent, is recommended. How- the grid bias and grid swing required on the
ever the grounded -grid r -f amplifier output stage, the higher will be the require-
is quite satisfactory as a class -B ment from the driver.
linear r-f amplifier for single-side-
band or conventional amplitude -modu- Calculation of Operating It
is most conven-
lated waves or as an amplifier for a Conditions of Grounded- ient to determine
straight c -w or f -m signal. Grid R -F Amplifers the operating con-
ditions for a class -
Figure 14 shows a simplified representa- B or class -C grounded -grid r -f power am-
tion of a grounded -grid zero -bias triode r -f plifier in a two -step process. The first step
power amplifier stage. The relationships be- is to determine the plate- circuit and grid-
circuit operating conditions of the tube line corresponding to the appropriate

as though it were to operate as a conven- value of ib max determined in step f
tional grid- driven amplifier. The second step inflects sharply upward. Approximate
is to then add in the additional conditions eb min = 500 volts.
imposed on the original data by the fact 7. e9,,,1 = 3000 -
500 = 2500 volts.
that the stage is to operate as a grounded -
grid amplifier. This step is the addition of
the portion of the drive power contributed
8. il max
Ib
2 X 0.65 X 3000
2500
- 1.56
by the conversion of drive power to plate

output power. This portion of the drive 9. ba' - 3.13 (from figure 9).
power is referred to as converted drive power,
or feedthrough power. The latter term is
10. ib max = 3.13 X 0.67 = 2.1 amps.
misleading, as this portioh of drive power This agrees closely with the approxi-
does not appear in the plate load circuit of mation made in Step 5.
the cathode- driven stage until after it is 11. Read the values maximum cathode-
converted to a varying -d.c. plate potential to- filament voltage (ek) and peak grid
effectively in series with the main amplifier current (ig max) from the constant -
power supply. The converted drive power current chart for the values of eb, n
serves a useful function in linear amplifier and ib ,ax found in steps 6 and 10
service because it swamps out the undesir- respectively.
able effects of nonlinear grid loading and
presents a reasonably constant load to the ek= - 88
exciter. ig max = 0.8 amp
Special constant -current curves are often
used for grounded -grid operation wherein 12. coseb= 2.32(1.56- 1.57) =
the grid drive voltage is expressed as the
cathode -to -grid voltage and is negative in (Conduction angle is approximately
sign. It must be remembered, however, that 180 and cos 180 = 0)
a negative cathode voltage is equal to a
13. E, = 0
positive grid voltage, and normal constant -
current curves may also be employed for
14. ek max = 88 volts -
15-17. For zero bias class -B mode, Ib
cathode- driven computations.
For the first step in the calculations, the 0.25 ig max le= 0.25 X 0.8 = 0.2
procedure given in Section 7 -3 is used. For amp. (200 ma)
this example, a 3 -1000Z "zero bias" triode 18. pa = 0.9 X 1881 X 0.2 = 15.8
is chosen, operating at 3000 plate volts at watts PEP
2000 watts PEP input in class -B service. 19. pg = 15.8 watts PEP
Computations are as follows: 20. il max = (Ratio of step 8) X Ib
il max = 1.56 X 0.67 = 1.06 amp
3 -1000Z at 3000 volts class -B 1.06 X 2500
P (PEP)
1,2,3. Eb= 3000 2
PI = 2000 watts PEP
Let N9 = 65%, an average value for
= 1325 watts.
class -B mode
P = 2000 X 0.65 = 1300 W PEP 21. RL _ 3000
1.8 X 0.67
- 2500 ohms
= 200
22. Total peak drive power,
4. Ib = 2000 - 0.67 amp
3000
_ ek X 1t max
5. Approx. ib ,ax = 3.1 Ib (for ND = pk + pa
0.65) = 3.1 X 2.08 amps.
6. Locate the point on the constant -cur- 88 X 1.06
rent chart where the constant -current ` 2
+ 15.8 _ 61 watts PEP
23. Total power output of the stage is 4- 2504,4 -4004, ETC
equal to 1325 watts (contributed by

3- 1000Z) plus that portion of drive
power contributed by the conversion
of drive power to plate output power. DRIVE
This is approximately equal to the

first term of the equation of step 22.
P (PEP) total = 1325 + 44
= 1369 watts
24. Cathode driving impedance of the
grounded grid stage is:
ex
Zk
tl max + 1.5 X 1c
Zk
= 1.068+ 0.3 - 64 ohms
A summary of the typical operating para- Figure 15
meters for the 3 -1000 Z at F_), = 3000 are TAPPED INPUT CIRCUIT REDUCES
D -c Plate Voltage 3000 EXCESSIVE GRID DISSIPATION
Zero -Signal Plate Current 180 ma IN G -G CRCUIT
(from constant -current chart)
Max. Signal (PEP) Plate C = 20 pt per meter wavelength
RFC = Dual -winding on 1/2-inch diameter,
Current 670 ma 31/2-Inch long ferrite rod. (Lafayette
Max. Signal (PEP) Grid Radio, N.Y.C. #MS -333).
Current 200 ma
Max Signal (PEP) Drive ground. It is possible in certain cases to use
Power 61 watts two r -f chokes of special design to feed the
Max. Signal (PEP) Power filament current to the tubes, with a con-
Input 2000 watts ventional tank circuit between filament and
Max. Signal (PEP) Power grcund. Coaxial lines also may be used to
Output 1369 waits serve both as cathode tank and filament feed
(including feedthrough power) to the tubes for vhf and uhf work.
Plate Load Impedance 2500 ohms
Cathode Driving Impedance 64 ohms
Control -Grid Dissipation Tetrode tubes may be
Cathode Tank of The cathode tank circuit in Grounded -Grid Stag-s operated as grounded -
G -G or C -F for either a grounded -grid grid (cathode- driven)
Power Amplifier or cathode- follower r -f amplifiers by tying the grid and screen
power amplifier may be a together and operating the tube as a high-fa
conventional tank circuit if the filament triode (figure 15) . Combined grid and
transformer for the stage is of the low - screen current, however, is a function of
capacitance high- voltage type. Conventional tube geometry and may reach destructive
filament transformers, however, will not op- values under conditions of full excitation.
erate with the high values of r -f voltage Proper division of excitation between grid
present in such a circuit. If a conventional and screen should be as the ratio of the
filament transformer is to be used, the cath- screen -to-grid amplification, which is ap-
ode tank coil may consist of two parallel proximately 5 for tubes such as the 4 -250A,
heavy conductors (to carry the high fila- 4 -400A, etc. The proper ratio of grid /screen
ment current) bypassed at both the ground excitation may be achieved by tapping the
end and at the tube socket. The tuning ca- grid at some point on the input circuit, as
pacitor is then placed between filament and shown. Grid dissipation is reduced, but the
HANDBOOK Class AB1 R -F Amplifiers 187
over -all level of excitation is increased about Lb

30 %, over the value required for simple
grounded -grid operation.
Plate- Return or Circuit diagram, elec-

Cathode- Follower R -F trode potentials and
Power Amplifier currents, and operat-
ing conditions for a
cathode -follower r -f power amplifier are
given in figure 16. This circuit can be used,
in addition to the grounded -grid circuit just
discussed, as an r-f amplifier with a triode
tube and no additional neutralization cir- POWER OUTPUT TO LOAD =
eb MIN (Li MAX r i.eIc
2
cuit. However, the circuit will oscillate if
MAX
the impedance from cathode to ground is POWER DELIVERED BY OUTPUT TUBE"eDuiNxL
2
allowed to become capacitive rather than (e9up r eb MIN) x I le
DRIVE POWER =
inductive or resistive with respect to the z
operating frequency. The circuit is not rec- ZGy Pg ucAx
ommended except for vhf or uhf work with e le
Eb
coaxial lines as tuned circuits since the peak RL
grid swing required on the r -f amplifier

Figure 16
stage is approximately equal to the plate
voltage on the amplifier tube if high -effi- CATHODE -FOLLOWER R -F
ciency operation is desired. This means, of POWER AMPLIFIER
course, that the grid tank must be able to The equations show the relationship between
withstand slightly more peak voltage than the tube potentials and currents and the In-
put and output power of the stage. The ap-
the plate tank. Such a stage may not be proximate input and output load impedances
plate modulated unless the driver stage is are also given.
modulated the same percentage as the final
amplifier. However, such a stage may be angle of 210 is chosen, as compared to 65
used as an amplifier of modulated waves percent for class -B operation.
( class -B linear) or as a c -w or f -m amplifier. The level of static (quiescent) plate cur-
The design of such an amplifier stage is rent for lowest distortion is quite high for
essentially the same as the design of a class -AB, tetrode operation. This value is
grounded -grid amplifier stage as far as the determined by the tube characteristics, and
first step is concerned. Then, for the second is not greatly affected by the circuit para-
step the operating conditions given in figure meters or operating voltages. The maximum
16 are applied to the data obtained in the d -c potential is therefore limited by the
first step. static dissipation of the tube, since the rest
ing plate current figure is fixed. The static
plate current of a tetrode tube varies as the
7 -6 Class -AB, Radio - 3/2 power of the screen voltage. For ex-
ample, raising the screen voltage from 300
Frequency Power to 500 volts will double the plate current.
Amplifiers The optimum static plate current for mini-
mum distortion is also doubled, since the
Class -AB, r -f amplifiers operate under shape of the F,. -11, curve does not change.
such conditions of bias and excitation that In actual practice, somewhat lower static
grid current does not flow over any portion plate current than optimum may be em-
of the input cycle. This is desirable, since ployed without raising the distortion appre-
distortion caused by grid- current loading is ciably, and values of static plate current of
absent, and also because the stage is capable 0.6 to 0.8 of optimum may be safely used,
of high power gain. Stage efficiency is about depending on the amount of nonlinearity
60 percent when a plate-current conduction that can be tolerated.
As with the class -B linear stage, the mini-

mum plate voltage swing (e,, min) of the
class -AB, amplifier must be kept above the
d -c screen potential to prevent operation in
the nonlinear portion of the characteristic
R.F.
curve. A low value of screen voltage allows E OUT
greater r -f plate voltage swing, resulting in
improvement in plate efficiency of the tube.
A balance between plate dissipation, plate
efficiency. and plate- voltage swing must be
achieved for best linearity of the ampli- R.F. E
fier.
The S-Curve The perfect linear amplifier de- LINEARITY CURVE OF

livers a signal that is a replica TYPICAL TETRODE AMPLIFIER
of the input signal. Inspection of the Flate-
At point A the instantaneous plate voltage is
characteristic curve of a typical tube will swinging down to the value of the screen
disclose the tube linearity under class -AB, voltage. At point B it is swinging well below
the screen and is approaching the point where
operating conditions (figure 17) . The curve saturation, or plate- current limiting takes
is usually of exponential shape, and the sig- place.
nal distortion is held to a small value by
operating the tube well below its maximum
output, and centering operation over the screen elements of the tube. The character-
most linear portion of the characteristic istic plot of the usual linear amplifier takes
curve. the shape of an S-curve. The lower portion
The relationship between exciting voltage of the curve is straightened out by using the
in a class -AB, amplifier and the r -f plate - proper value of static plate current, and the
circuit voltage is shown in figure 18. With a upper portion of the curve is avoided by
1
small value of static plate current the lower limiting minimum plate voltage swing to a
portion of the line is curved. Maximum un- point substantially above the value of the
distorted output is limited by the point on screen voltage.
the line (A) where the instantaneous plate
voltage drops down to the screen voltage. Operating Parameters The approximate oper-
This "hook" in the line is caused by cur- for the Class -AB ating parameters may
rent diverted from the plate to the grid and Linear Amplifier be obtained from
i1
r
the constant -current
riYw
curves (Er -E,,) or the E,. -II, curves of the
tube in question (figure 19). The following
M037UNfAR..r.:ee::::::::a:e
ORTION OF example will make use of the latter informa-
::::::
Yr/a1a, ::11111
wR3E
e:::::::: a::
men:
tion, although equivalent results may be
obtained from constant-current curves. An
111Ya1Ill operating load line is first approximated.

,
eaaa1 One end of the load line is determined by
11W1
11E11a
1111a111
111EL1T!11
IMMERSER 1111111111111111111111
Ii!iPSiMJ
11aa F
E,-
sure 17
CURVE
the d -c operating voltage of the tube, and
the required static plate current. As a start-
ing point, let the product of the plate volt-
age and current approximate the plate dissi-
pation of the tube. Assuming a 4 -400A
tetrode is used, this end of the load line will
fall on point A (figure 19). Plate power
dissipation is 360 watts (3000V at 120 ma).
r
The opposite end of the load line will fall
Amplifier operation is confined to the most
linear portion of the characteristic curve. on a point determined by the minimum
HANDBOOK Class AB, R -F Amplifiers 189
00.
4 -400A ruse
EC2 500 VOLTS
f 75 -.
SOI
251-
O
- POINT B
1000 2000 3000 0( ED
23 \I .0
l
`00 -, .4
s0
IliWw. LOAD LINE
I
POINT
A
.2
I
o
I
I
lu. I t
VALUE OF VALUE OF
ED uIN. GOO V.. MAa.
150 lb '0.6$ A DISSIPATION
I
(3000 V.. .r .12 A . MOO WATTS')
175,
roof 1
Figure 19
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR TETRODE LINEAR AMPLIFIER

ARE OBTAINED FROM CONSTANT -CURRENT CURVES.
instantaneous plate voltage, and by the should be considerably higher than the
maximum instantaneous plate current. The screen voltage. In this case, the screen volt -
minimum plate voltage, for best linearity age is 500, so the minimum plate voltage
excursion should be limited to 600 volts.
Class -AB, operation implies no grid cur-
3 -4002 11 rent, therefore the load line cannot cross
the E,. = 0 line. At the point eh 10111 = 600,
E,. = 0, the maximum instantaneous plate
01 current is 580 ma (Point B).
Each point at which the load line crosses
L a grid -voltage axis may be taken as a point
CPER PF
RFC
IT, for construction of the E,. -I,, curve, just as
08W 001 was done in figure 22, chapter 6. A con-
- SKV
NO FC -I
T structed curve shows that the approximate
0+
2000v
static bias voltage is 74 volts,, which -
checks closely with point A of figure 19. In
actual practice, the bias voltage is set to
hold the actual dissipation slightly below
B-
the maximum limit of the tube.
The single tone PEP power output is:
Figure 20
P0 = (Eh - en min) X 2h max -
SIMPLE GROUNDED -GRID 4
LINEAR AMPLIFIER
Tuned cathode (L-C) is required to p
(3000 - 600) X 0.58
- 348 watts
distortion of driving -signal waveform. 4
PC 001
MV distortion, to drop the static plate dissipation
3 -SOOZ To and to increase the screen voltage to obtain
PLATE
RFC CIRCUIT greater power output. If the screen voltage
5004
21 .01 = 500 is set at 800, and the bias increased suffici-
C C 10KV
01 ently to drop the static plate current to 70
ma, the single -toned d -c plate current may
s5 w FC-I5 rise to 300 ma, for a power input of 900
PER METER
01 watts. The plate circuit efficiency is 55.6
percent, and the power output is 500 watts.
Static plate dissipation is 210 watts, within
0-230(] the rating of either tube.
OW0-500 At a screen potential of 500 volts, the
I (1 maximum screen current is less than 1 ma,
and under certain loading conditions may be
Figure 21 negative. When the screen potential is raised
to 800 volts maximum screen current is 18
ZENER -DIODE BIAS FOR ma. The performance of the tube depends on
GROUNDED-GRID STAGE
the voltage fields set up in the tube by the
The resting plate current of a grounded stage cathode, control grid, screen grid, and plate.
may be reduced by inclusion of a Zener diode
In the filament return circuit. At a plate po- The quantity of current, flowing in the
tential of 3250 volts, for example, a Zoner screen circuit is only incidental to the fact
bias of 4.7 volts reduces the resting plate
current of the 3 -5001 from 160 to approxi- that the screen is maintained at a positive
mately 90 milliamperes. A 1N4551 Zoner may potential with respect to the electron stream
be used, bolted to the chassis for a heat sink. surrounding it.
The tube will perform as expected as long
as the screen current, in either direction, does
The plate current conduction angle ef- not create undesirable changes in the screen
ficiency factor for this class of operation voltage, or cause excessive screen dissipation.
is 0.73, and the actual plate circuit efficiency
Good regulation of the screen supply is there-
is:
fore required. Screen dissipation is highly
responsive to plate loading conditions and
En min the plate circuit should always be adjusted
Np X 0.73 = 58.4% so as to keep the screen current below the
maximum dissipation level as established by
The peak power input to the stage is there- the applied voltage.
fore:
X 100 = 348 - 595 watts PEP 7-7 Grounded -Grid

NP 58.4
Linear Amplifiers
The peak plate dissipation is:
The popularity of grounded -grid (cathode -
595 - 348 = 247 watts
driven) linear amplifiers for SSB service is
unique in the Amateur Service. Elimination
of costly and bulky bias and screen power
(Note: A 4 -250A may thus be used in lieu supplies make the "g -g" amplifier an
of the 4 -400A as peak plate dissipation is economical and relatively lightweight
less than 250 watts, provided resting plate power unit.
current is lowered vo 70 ma.) A typical grounded -grid amplifier is shown
It can be seen that the limiting factor for in figure 20. The driving signal is applied
either the 4-250A or 4 -400A is the static between the grid and the cathode, with the
plate dissipation, which is quite a bit higher grid held at r -f ground potential. The con-
than the operating dissipation level. It is trol grid serves as a shield between the
possible, at the expense of a higher level of cathode and the plate, thus making neutral-
HANDBOOK Grounded -Grid Linears 191
ization unnecessary at medium and high Cathode -Driven High -p triode tubes may
frequencies. High-p triodes and triode - High -p Triodes be used to advantage in
connected tetrodes may be used in this con- cathode -drive (grounded -
figuration. Care must be taken to monitor grid) service. The inherent shielding of a
the #1 -grid current of the tetrode tubes as high -p tube is better than that of a low -
it may run abnormally high in some types tube and the former provides better gain
(4X150A family) and damage to the tube per stage and requires less drive than the
may possibly result unless a protective cir- latter because of less feedthrough power.
cuit of the form shown in figure 21 is used. Resistive loading of the input or driving cir-
"Zero- bias" triodes (811 -A, 3 -400Z and cuit is not required because of the constant
3- 1000Z) and certain triode- connected te- feedthrough power load on the exciter as
trodes (813 and 4 -400A, for example) re- long as sufficient Q exists in the cathode
quire no bias supply and good linearity tank circuit. Low -p triodes, on the other
may be achieved with a minimum of circuit hand, require extremely large driving signals
components. An improvement of the order when operated in the cathode -driven config-
of f to 10 decibels in intermodulation dis- uration, and stage gain is relatively small. In
tortion may be gained by operating such addition, shielding between the input and
tubes in the grounded -grid mode in contrast output circuits is poor compared to that
to the same tubes operated in class -AB1t existing in high - triodes.
grid- driven mode. The improvement in the
distortion figure varies from tube type to Bias Supplies for Medium -p triode tubes
tube type, but all so- called "grounded- grid" G-G Amplifiers that require grid bias may
triodes and triode- connected tetrodes show be used in cathode- driven
some degree of improvement in distortion service if the grid is suitably bypassed to
figure when cathode- driven as opposed to ground and placed at the proper negative
grid -driven service. d -c potential. Bias supplies for such circuits,
R -F LINEAR AMPLIFIER SERVICE FOR SSB AND CW

CATHODE -DRIVEN (GROUNDED-GRID)
CLASS-B MODE
APPROX. PEP AVERAGE
SIG MAX. SIG. DRIVING PLATE MAX.SIG. PLATE USEFUL PLATE IAPPROX.
I
PLATE V ZERO SIG. PLATE
TUBE VOLTAGE FIL PLATE
I GRID Ici IMPS DAN. LOAD RL DRIVING INPUT OUTPUTW.DISSIPAT' 3J ORDER
A CURRENT CURRENT IMPEDAN.I POWER POWER pd I MD DD
Eb CURRENT Rn W.
POWER W.
1230 7. 16 175 26 320 3600 12 220 133 70 -33
611A 1700 4 30 160 26 5200 13 270 173 65 -26
572 20 230 45 115 4500 30 600 350 160 -26

2400
!
T-1 QBL 5
2000 10 20 30 5000 10 00 270 130 -30

813 2500 30 200 30
270 7000 II 300 330 150 -33
3 -4002 2000
2500
5 62
73
400
00
146
142 120
2750
3450
-- 600
1000
445
$00
355
00 -40
-35
6163 3000 14.3 100 333 120 4750 32 1000 45S 345 -32
3-500Z
2000
2500
3000 145
5 95
130
160
400
400
370
ISO
120
115
115
2750
3450
5000
-
-
30
600
1000
1100
500
600
750
300
400
350
- 36
-33
- 30
3 -1000Z 2500 7.5 162 600 270 65 1600 95 2000 1250 750 -36
21 175 670 220 65 2400 65 2000 1250 750 -35
6164 3000
3500 200 750 245 65 2600 65 2600 1770 630 -30
-
3CX1OOIIA7 2500 5 200 675 690 41 1100 76 2200 1000 1000 -32
8283 3000 30 510 600 320 42 1670 67 2400 1200 1000 -32
4 -125A,
2000
2500
5 10
15
105
I10
35
SS
340
340
10500
13500
16
II
210
27$
144
190
65
65
---
1IS 340 15700 345 240 100
4 -400A
3000
2000
2500
6.5
13
20
55
60
265
270
53
100
100
ISO
ISO
5650
4500
16
36
39
330
675
325
436
200
225
--
3000 70 330 106 140 5600 40 990 373 390 -30
173
-
-34
3000 60 700 200 104 2420 130 2100 750
7S 90 675 200 108 243g 106 2700 1670 730 -34
4- 10001 4000
700
5000 21 120 540 115 110 5600 70 2700 1900
Figure 22
Figure 23
Waveform distortion caused by half -cycle loading at cathode of grounded -grid amplifier may be
observed (right whereas undistorted waveform is observed with tuned cathode circuit (left).
Two -tone tests at 2.0 MHz proved the necessity of using a cathode tank circuit for lowest inter -
modulation distortion.
Figure 24
Tuned cathode network for cathode -driven circuit may take form of bifilar coil (A), pi- network (8),
or shunt LC circuit (C). Circuit Q of at least 2 is recommended. Capacitor C, may be a 3 -gang
broadcast -type unit. Coils j,, L , or L are adjusted to resonate to the operating frequency with
C, set to approximately 13 pf -per meter wavelength. Capacitor C is approximately 1.5 times the
value of C,. The input taps on coils L, and L , or the capacitance of C. are adjusted for minimum
SWR on coaxial line to the exciter.
HANDBOOK Intermodulation Distortion 193
RANDOM LENGTH
SSB EXCITER G -G LINEAR AMPLIFIER
COAXIAL LINE
B+ CATHODE RETURN PATH
Figure 25
Untuned cathode circuit of grounded -grid amplifier offers high -impedance path fo the r -f current
flowing between plate and cathode of the amplifier tube. The alternative path is via the inter-
connecting coaxial line and tank circuit of the exciter. Waveform distortion of the driving signal
and high intermodulation distortion may result from use of alternative input circuit.
however, must be capable of good voltage the cycle will be degraded. This waveform
regulation under conditions of grid current distortion contributes to intermodulation
so that the d -c bias value does not vary with distortion and also may cause TVI difficul-
the amplitude of the grid current of the ties as a result of the harmonic content of
stage. Suitable bias supplies for this mode of the wave. Use of a tuned cathode circuit in
operation are shown in the Power Supply the grounded -grid stage will preserve the
chapter of this Handbook. Zener bias (figure waveform as shown in the photographs. The
21) may be used for low values of bias tuned- cathode circuit need have only a Q of
voltage. Approximate values of bias volt- 2 or more to do the job, and should be
age for linear amplifier service data may be resonated to the operating frequency of the
obtained from the audio data found in amplifier. Various versions of cathode tank
most tube manuals, usually stated for push - circuits are shown in figure 24.
pull class -AB, or AB_ operation. As the tube In addition to reduction of waveform
"doesn't know" whether it is being driven distortion, the tuned -cathode circuit pro-
by an audio signal or an r -f signal, the audio vides a short r -f return path for plate cur-
parameters may be used for linear service, rent pulses from plate to cathode (figure
but the stated d -c currents should be 25). When the tuned circuit is not used,
divided by two for a single tube, since the r -f return path is via the outer shield of
the audio data is usually given for two the coaxial line, through the output capaci-
tubes. Grounded -grid operating data for tor of the exciter plate -tank circuit and
popular triode and tetrode tubes is given back to the cathode of the linear amplifier
in figure 22. tube via the center conductor of the coaxial
line. This random, uncontrolled path varies
The Tuned Input waveform distortion with the length of interconnecting coaxial
Cathode Circuit may be observed at the line, and permits the outer shield of the line
cathode of a grounded -grid to be "hot" compared to r -f ground.
linear amplifier as the result of grid- and
plate- current loading of the input circuit on 7 -8 Intermodulation
alternate half -cycles by the single -ended Distortion
stage (figure 23). The driving source thus
"sees" a very low value of load impedance If the output signal of a linear amplifier
over a portion of the r -f cycle and an ex- is an exact replica of the exciting signal
tremely high impedance over the remaining there will be no distortion of the original
portion of the cycle. Unless the output volt- signal and no distortion products will be
age regulation of the r -f source is very good, generated in the amplifier. Amplitude dis-
the portion of the wave on the loaded part of tortion of the signal exists when the output
194 R -F Power Amplifiers
signal is not strictly proportional to the monic regions of the amplifier. Signals falling
driving signal and such a change in magni- outside the fundamental- frequency region
tude may result in intermodulation distor- are termed even-order products, and may be
tion (IMD). IMD occurs in any nonlinear attenuated by high -Q tuned circuits in the
device driven by a complex signal having amplifier. The spurious products falling close
more than one frequency. A voice signal to the fundamental- frequency region are
(made -up of a multiplicity of tones) will termed odd -order products. These unwanted
become blurred or distorted by IMD when products cannot be removed from the
amplified by a nonlinear device. As practical wanted signal by tuned circuits and show
linear amplifiers have some degree of IMD up on the signal as "splatter," which can
(depending on design and operating param- cause severe interference to communication
eters) this disagreeable form of distortion in an adjacent channel. Nonlinear operation
exists to a greater or lesser extent on most of a so- called "linear" amplifier will generate
SSB signals. these unwanted products. Amateur practice
A standard test to determine the degree calls for suppression of these spurious prod-
of IMD is the two -tone test, wherein two ucts to better than 30 decibels below peak
radio- frequency signals of equal amplitude power level of one tone of a two -tone test
are applied to the linear equipment, and the signal. Commercial practice demands sup-
resulting output signal is examined for pression to be better than 40 decibels below
spurious signals, or unwanted products. this peak level.
These unwanted signals fall in the funda- Additional data on IMD and two-tone
mental-signal region and in the various har- test techniques is given in chapter 16.
CHAPTER EIGHT
The Oscilloscope
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (also called which can be converted into electrical po-
oscillograph) is an instrument which permits tentials. This conversion is made possible by
visual examination of various electrical phe- the use of some type of transducer, such as a
nomena of interest to the electronic engineer. vibration pickup unit, pressure pickup unit,
Instantaneous changes in voltage, current photoelectric cell, microphone, or a variable
and phase are observable if they take place impedance. The use of such a transducer
slowly enough for the eye to follow, or if makes the oscilloscope a valuable tool in
they are periodic for a long enough time so fields other than electronics.
that the eye can obtain an impression from
the screen of the cathode -ray tube. In addi-
tion, the cathode -ray oscilloscope may be 8 -1 A Modern Oscilloscope
used to study any variable (within the limits For the purpose of analysis, the operation
of its frequency - response characteristic) of a modern oscilloscope will be described.
N/-LO GAIN
Y-AX/S INPUT VIDEO
SIGNAL 0-MENU- CATHODE
FOLLOWER
INPUT I
ATOR
V2
VIDEO AMP. VERT /CAL
VERTICAL
MPLIF I E R -W CATHODE
RAY TUBE
-
VI GAIN V3 V4 VS
rR/GGER
.
/NPUr
TRIGGER BLANKING
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
VetV? Vis
MULTI - SWEEP SWEEP

VIBRATOR
ve.V9 V,O.
NE R ATOR
VI, j
AMPLIFIER
V,2 V, V,4
POWER
SUPPLIES
Figure 1
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A MODERN OSCILLOSCOPE

This simplified block diagram of a Tektronix oscilloscope features triggered sweep and a
blanking circuit that permit observation of single pulses as short as 0.1 microsecond.
196 The Oscilloscope RADIO
ISLM
INPUT
ATTENUAron
r -7
4.7
TO
DEFLECT ION
PLATES
MAY/SI
SIG'L 4.7K
I
/NPUTL 1001 V4 I K 402_.

500 VERTICAL
GAIN
300 1S1/R
-BIAS +SCREEN
REG.
Figure 2
VERTICAL AMPLIFIER
The vertical amplifier is capable of passing sine waves from 10 Hz to 10 MHz. Compensated
input attenuator and peaking circuits provide gain that is essentially independent of
frequency. Deflection amplifier se os phase inverter to provide push -pull signal to
deflection plates of cathode -ray tube. Deflection polarity switch permits greater upward or
downward deflection of pattern to accommodate reversed polarity of input wave.
The simplified block diagram of the instru- preamplifier depending on the amount of
ment is shown in figure 1. This oscilloscope amplification needed. The preamplifier is de-
is capable of reproducing sine waves from signed to pass the wide frequency band
10 Hz to 10 MHz and pulses as short as 0.1 desired by the use of peaking coils in the
microsecond may be observed. The sweep plate circuit, which enhance the high-fre-
speed is continuously variable, and the elec- quency response, in addition to large value
tron beam of the cathode -ray tube can be coupling capacitors which ensure good low -
moved vertically or horizontally, or the frequency response (see chapter 6, section 6
movements may be combined to produce Video Frequency Amplifiers). The signal
composite patterns on the screen. As shown then passes through a cathode -follower stage
in the diagram, the cathode-ray tube re- (V2) to the vertical amplifier. The cathode
ceives signals from two sources: the vertical follower serves as an impedance transformer
(Y -axis) the sweep (X -axis) amplifiers, and so that a low -impedance vertical gain con-
also receives blanking pulses that remove un- trol may be used. It is necessary that the po-
wanted return-trace signals from the screen. tentiometer have a low value so that stray
The operation of the cathode -ray tube has capacitances do not appreciably affect the
been covered in an earlier chapter and the frequency response as the control is rotated.
auxiliary circuits pertaining to signal pre- The original deflection polarity of the signal
sentation will be discussed here. is reversed when two stages of amplification
are used, resulting in a downward deflection
The Vertical The incoming signal to be dis - of the oscilloscope pattern for positive input
Amplifier played is applied to the vertical polarity. A deflection polarity switch is used
amplifier (figure 2). An input to change the operating bias and screen volt-
attenuator (compensated to provide attenu- age on the cathode- coupled push -pull vertical
ation that is essentially independent of signal amplifier tubes (V3, V4) permitting greater
frequency) permits the gain of the amplifier undistorted upward or downward deflection.
to be adjusted in calibrated steps. The signal The amplified signal is coupled from the
is then amplified by the wideband (video) plate circuit of the vertical amplifier through
preamplifier (V1), or is shunted around the a peaking circuit that affords optimum
HANDBOOK A Modern Oscilloscope 197
transient response rather than best frequency in synchronism with the trigger impulse. A
response, which has been previously deter- trigger amplifier (V6, VT) enhances the
mined in the preamplifier stages. trigger pulse and selects the proper polarity
of the pulse. To convert the various shapes
The Time -Base Investigation of electrical of trigger impulses into square waves of
Circuitry waveforms by the use of a controllable duration suitable for operating
cathode -ray tube requires the sweep generator and unblanking the
that some means be readily available to de- cathode -ray tube, a flip -flop multivibrator
termine the variation in these waveforms type of pulse generator is used (figure 3) .
with respect to time. An X -axis time base on The frequency of pulse generation of the
the screen of the cathode -ray tube shows the multivibrator is controlled by the external
variation in amplitude of the input signal negative trigger signal. The multivibrator
with respect to time. This display is made consists of two tubes (VA, V.,) with one
possible by a time -base generator (sweep gen- tube in a conducting state and the other
erator) which moves the spot across the nonconducting. When a trigger impulse is
screen at a constant rate from left to right received, the negative pulse lowers the plate
between selected points, returns the spot al- potential of the nonconducting tube (Vs)
most instantaneously to its original position, and also decreases the grid bias of V., via
and repeats this procedure at a specified rate the switchable coupling capacitor (sweep -
(referred to as the sweep frequency). speed control). The first tube conducts and
The Sweep -Trigger Circuit -An external the second tube is driven toward cutoff by
synchronizing impulse (which may be the the buildup of voltage in the coupling ca-
presented signal) initiates the horizontal pacitor between the two tubes. This condi-
sweep circuits of the oscilloscope, deflecting tion is maintained until the switchable sweep -
the beam of the cathode -ray tube across the speed capacitor is discharged, thus raising the
screen at uniform rate, starting each sweep grid voltage of V to such a point that the
tube starts to conduct. This lowers the plate
B+
potential of V,,, carrying with it the direct -
SWEEP STABILITr
-BIAS
coupled grid of Vs and starting a regenera-
10n 450
10.1
1001( S tive cycle which ends with Vs conducting
NEGATIVE 100k and Vs cut off-the condition which existed
PUL SE FROM
TRIGGER
AMPLIFIER
Y POSITIVEI
TRIG POL SE
TO AUX
80
LM before the trigger pulse occurred. Thus the
CIRCUI plate of VF produces a square negative pulse
VB and simultaneously the plate of V6 produces
a square positive pulse. The negative pulse is
4]' 4
4.7N
used to control the operation of the sweep
*SCR generator and the unblanking circuit of the
VIS cathode -ray tube. The positive pulse may be
r_1 used to furnish gate voltage available at the
1"-
panel of the instrument to trigger auxiliary
220 II POSITIVE circuits.
47K UNALANR-
y
=
ING PULSE
TO CRT The Blanking Circuit-During the wait -
B+ period between trigger pulses, the bias on the
SWEEP SPEED cathode -ray tube is such that the tube is
NEGATIVE TRIGGER PULSE completely cut off. As soon as a trigger ap-
TO SWEEP GENERATOR
pears and the sweep starts, it is necessary to
Figure 3 provide a positive pulse on the grid of the
TRIGGER AND UNBLANKING CIRCUIT cathode -ray tube and thus turn on the elec-
tron beam. This pulse must have extremely
Flip -flop multivibrator (V, V is triggered rapid rise time and a very flat top so that the
externally and generates negative trigger
pulse to start sweep generator. Impulse rate brightness of the image is uniform. To se-
is controlled by switchable sweep speed ca- cure a pulse of this nature, the negative
pacitor bank. Positive trigger pulse unblanks
cathode-ray tube by reducing cutoff bias on pulse from the multivibrator is passed
the grid of the cathode ray tube through a cathode- follower blanking ampli-
B+ REG
270 n
the beam returns to the left of the screen to
Vio wait another trigger signal. It is this vari-
VOL TAGE
NEGATIVE
REGULATOR SWEEP SPEED able waiting period which makes the sweep
ADJUSTMENT
TRIGGER
PULSE FROM time independent of the signal period, per-
MULTI VIBRATOR 1320 n
y SWEEP SPEED mitting the oscilloscope to view pulses and
MOLT /PL /ER
B+ REG. TO CLAMP CIRCUITS other short duration signals where the length
N-1
ANO SWEEP AMPL IF /ER of the pulse is very short compared to the
space between the pulses.
SWEEP SPEED
TIMING CAPACITORS
Some inexpensive oscilloscopes employ a
recurrent or sawtooth sweep such as that
e
47
which is generated by a gas tube or other
VII
100 K
SWEEP GENERATOR similar device that synchronizes the sweep
-BIAS with the input signal. The sweep time is
thus equal to, or a multiple of, the signal
Figure 4
period. The circuit of figure 4 may be modi-
SWEEP GENERATOR fied to produce a sawtooth sweep by the
omission of the trigger signal and adjustment
Each sweep of this triggered sweep circuit is
started independently of the preceding sweep of the multivibrator frequency to synchro-
by a trigger pulse received from the multi- nize with the period of the observed signal.
vibrator circuit. Sweep -speed timing capacitors
are ganged with sweep -speed circuit of mul- The sweep voltage necessary to produce the
tivibrator. Timing voltage is derived from sawtooth sweep is shown in figure S. The
voltage regulator to weep accuracy. sweep occurs as the voltage varies from A to
B, and the return trace as the voltage varies
fier (V15) which provides a pulse of proper from B to C. At high sweep frequencies, the
amplitude and rise time. return trace is an appreciable portion of the
sweep time.
The Sweep The voltage necessary to obtain Operation of the Sweep Generator-The
Generator a linear time base may be gen- sweep generator (V11, figure 4) is held in
erated by the circuit of figure 4. a conducting state by the positive grid bias
In this representative triggered sweep cir- derived from the voltage divider in the grid
cuit each sweep is started independently of circuit. The plate voltage of the sweep gen-
the preceding sweep by a trigger, or syn- erator is low, and the switchable sweep -speed
chronizing, pulse received from the mul- timing capacitor is essentially uncharged.
tivibrator circuit. When no trigger is The negative trigger pulse from the multi-
received the cathode -ray tube potentials vibrator rapidly cuts off V11 allowing the
position the beam at the left end of the timing capacitor to charge exponentially
horizontal trace. When the trigger signal through the 1- megohm sweep -speed multi-
arrives, the beam goes linearly to the right in plier control, approaching the voltage at the
a time interval determined by the length of cathode of regulator tube V10. This voltage
the trigger pulse. At the end of each sweep, is adjusted by the sweep -speed control in the
grid circuit of the regulator tube. The tim-
ing capacitor is charged from a constant
voltage supply having a low impedance to
ensure sweep -speed accuracy. Sweep linearity
is enhanced by using only 10 percent or less
of the charging voltage. The linear sweep
voltage is taken from the plate of the sweep
Figure 5
generator, clamped and impressed on the
following sweep amplifier.
SAWTOOTH WAVEFORM When the multivibrator trigger pulse
Recurrent or sawtooth sweep waveform is ends, the grid of the sweep generator tube
used in inexpensive oscilloscopes. Sawtooth returns to a positive potential and the heavy
may be generated by gas sweep tube, such as
the 884, and is usually synchronized with plate current reduces the plate voltage of
input signal. V to near zero, discharging the timing
HANDBOOK Waveform Displays 199
25K To achieve proper focus on the screen of

V12 SIGNAL CAMP
the cathode-ray tube it is necessary that the
final anode and both pairs of deflection
plates have approximately the same average
.001 potential. Since it is necessary to have the
22M V13
1 0
SWEEP vertical deflection plates at ground potential
AMPLIFIER
-BIAS so a direct connection may be made if de-
8+ sired, the average potential of the horizontal
200
88011
plates must also be near ground. The mean
SWEEP
potential of the sweep amplifier plate circuit
AMPLIFIER is about +250 volts. This is moved down
120K V14
to ground by means of the groups of neon
100K
HORIZON.
POS / r/ON
CONTROL = -1500 V.
glow lamps (, -N,,,) which produce a
constant voltage drop. A steady current of
about 200 microamperes keeps the lamps
25K ionized so that any change in plate potential
of the sweep amplifier tubes (such as caused
by signals) appears on the deflection plates
Figure 6
unchanged in amplitude, but moved down
SWEEP AMPLIFIER in potential about 250 volts. The ionizing
Cathode -coupled sweep amplifier provides bal-
current is obtained from the -1500 volt
anced push -pull signal to deflection plates of cathode-ray tube power supply through a
cathode -ray tube. Two groups of neon glow high- resistance network. Since the imped-
lamps pass sweep signal but move average
signal potential close to ground by virtue of ance of the neon glow lamps is rather high
constant voltage drop across lamps. Ionizing at frequencies involving the faster sweeps,
voltage for glow lamps is taken from high- small capacitors are shunted across the lamps
voltage cathode -ray tube power supply.
to piss these frequencies.
capacitor and leaving it ready to receive the The Power The low- voltage power supply
next sweep pulse from the multivibrator. Supply provides positive and negative
The Sweep
regulated voltages for the var-
Since the amplitude of the sweep ious stages of the oscilloscope. The accel-
Amplifier waveform at the output of the erating potential for the cathode -ray tube
sweep generator is not large is obtained from an oscillator operating from
enough to drive the horizontal deflection the low- voltage supply (figure 7). The os-
plates of the cathode -ray tube, further am- cillator is a conventional Hartley circuit,
plification is needed. The signal from the with a high -voltage secondary winding on
sweep amplitude is impressed on the grid of the oscillator transformer which supplies
a cathode -coupled sweep amplifier (V,3,
about 1200 volts rms to the rectifier tubes.
V14, figure 6) which inverts the phase and
Filament voltages for these tubes are also
operates as a push -pull stage. Balanced sweep obtained from windings on the oscillator
voltage is necessary to maintain the average transformer. The frequency of oscillation is
potential of the deflection plates constant about 2000 Hertz.
over the entire sweep to prevent defocussing.
The horizontal position control varies the
bias on one amplifier tube and thus deter- 8 -2 Display of Waveforms
mines the position from which the sweep
starts. To ensure that the sweep will always Together with a working knowledge of
start at the same position on the screen each the controls of the oscilloscope, an under-
cime (for a given setting of the position standing of how the patterns are traced on
control) a diode clamp (V12) is placed be- the screen must be obtained for a thorough
tween the grid of the opposite amplifier knowledge of oscilloscope operation. With
tube and ground to remove any charge that this in mind a careful analysis of two funda-
the input coupling capacitor may have mental waveform patterns is discussed under
gained during the previous sweep cycle. the following headings:
SABPI
OST
l_ l
10.5
FROM SWEEP
LIRCU /T
UNBLANK /NG
PULSE
Figure 7
CATHODE -RAY TUBE POWER SUPPLY

Accelerating potential for CRT is derived from a 2 -kHz oscillator working from the low -
voltage supply. A high -voltage secondary winding on the oscillator transformer provides
about 1200 volts rms which is rectified to provide -1500 volts and + 1800 volts. Sum of two
voltages (3300 volts) is applied to cathode -ray tube.
1. Patterns plotted against time (using wave is amplified by the vertical amplifier
the sweep generator for horizontal de- and impressed on the vertical (Y -axis) de-
flection) . flection plates of the cathode -ray tube. Si-
2. Lissajous figures (using a sine wave for multaneously the sawtooth wave from the
horizontal deflection). time -base generator is amplified and im-
pressed on the horizontal (X -axis) deflection
Patterns Plotted A sine wave is typical of plates.
Against Time such a pattern and is con-
venient for this study. This
TIME - TIME -
35E_
Figure 8 /II
PROJECTION DRAWING OF A SINE Figure 9

WAVE APPLIED TO THE VERTICAL
AXIS AND A SAWTOOTH WAVE OF THE PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE
SAME FREQUENCY APPLIED SIMUL- RESULTANT PATTERN WHEN THE FRE-
TANEOUSLY ON THE HORIZONTAL QUENCY OF THE SAWTOOTH IS ONE -
AXIS HALF OF THAT EMPLOYED IN FIGURE 8
HANDBOOK Lissajous Figures 201
The electron beam moves in accordance form plotted against time can be displayed
with the resultant of the sine and sawtooth and analyzed by the same procedure as used
signals. The effect is shown in figure 8 where in these examples.
the sine and sawtooth waves are graphically The sine -wave problem just illustrated is
represented on time and voltage axes. Points typical of the method by which any wave-
on the two waves that occur simultaneously form can be displayed on the screen of the
are numbered similarly. For example, point 2 cathode -ray tube. Such waveforms as square
on the sine wave and point 2 on the saw - wave, sawtooth wave, and many more ir-
tooth wave occur at the same instant. There- regular recurrent waveforms can be observed
fore the position of the beam at instant 2 is by the same method explained in the preced-
the resultant of the voltages on the hori- ing paragraphs.
zontal and vertical deflection plates at in-
stant 2. Referring to figure 8, by projecting 8 -3 Lissajous Figures
lines from the two point -2 positions, the
position of the electron beam at instant 2
can be located. If projections were drawn Another fundamental pattern is the Lissa-
from every other instantaneous position of jous figures, named after the 19th- century
each wave to intersect on the circle repre- French scientist. This type of pattern is of
senting the tube screen, the intersections of particular use in determining the frequency
similarly timed projects would trace out a ratio between two sine-wave signals. If one
sine wave.
of these signals is known, the other can be
In summation, figure 8 illustrates the easily calculated from the pattern made by
principles involved in producing a sine - the two signals on the screen of the cathode-
wave trace on the screen of a cathode -ray ray tube. Common practice is to connect the
tube. Each intersection of similarly timed known signal to the horizontal channel and
the unknown signal to the vertical channel.
projections represents the position of the
electron beam acting under the influence of The presentation of Lissajous figures can
be analyzed by the same method as previ-
the varying voltage waveforms on each pair
of deflection plates. Figure 9 shows the effect ously used for sine -wave presentation. A
simple example is shown in figure 10. The
on the pattern of decreasing the frequency
of the sawtooth wave. Any recurrent wave- frequency ratio of the signal on the hori-
zontal axis to the signal on the vertical axis
is 3 to 1. If the known signal on the hori-
zontal axis is 180 Hertz, the signal on the
vertical axis is 60 Hertz.
Obtaining a Lissajous 1. The horizontal am-
Pattern on the Screen; plifier should be dis-
Oscilloscope Settings connected from the
sweep oscillator. The
signal to be examined should be connected to
the horizontal amplifier of the oscilloscope.
Figure 10
PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE

RESULTANT LISSAJOUS PATTERN WHEN
Figure 11
A SINE WAVE APPLIED TO THE HORI-
ZONTAL AXIS IS THREE TIMES THAT METHOD OF CALCULATING FREQUENCY
APPLIED TO THE VERTICAL AXIS RATIO OF LISSAJOUS FIGURES
figure 11. The ratio of the number of loops

which intersect AB is to the number of loops
which intersect BC as the frequency of the
horizontal signal is to the frequency of the
vertical signal.
O RATIO I:I RATIO 2:1
Figure 12 shows other examples of Lissa -
jous figures. In each case the frequency ratio
shown is the frequency ratio of the signal on
the horizontal axis to that on the vertical
axis.
Phase Differ- Coming under the heading of

ente Patterns Lissajous figures is the method
used to determine the phase
difference between signals of the same fre-
quency. The patterns involved take on the
RATIO S 3
form of ellipses with different degrees of ec-
centricity.
Figure 12
The following steps should be taken to ob-
OTHER LISSAJOUS PATTERNS tain a phase -difference pattern:
1. With no signal input to the oscillo-
2. An audio oscillator signal should be scope, the spot should be centered on
connected to the vertical amplifier of the the screen of the tube.
oscilloscope. 2. Connect one signal to the vertical am-
3. By adjusting the frequency of the plifier of the oscilloscope, and the
audio oscillator a stationary pattern should other signal to the horizontal ampli-
be obtained on the screen of the oscilloscope. fier.
It is not necessary to stop the pattern, but 3. Connect a common ground between
merely to slow it up enough to count the the two frequencies under investiga-
loops at the side of the pattern. tion and the oscilloscope.
4. Count the number of loops which in- 4. Adjust the vertical amplifier gain so
tersect an imaginary vertical line AB and as to give about 3 inches of deflection
the number of loops which intersect the on a 5-inch tube, and adjust the cali-
imaginary horizontal line BC as shown in brated scale of the oscilloscope so that
PHASE DIFFERENCE0 PHASE DIFFERENCE S PHASE DIFFERENCE .9O PHASE DIFFERENCE. 133
PHASE DIFFERENCE ISO PHASE 01 EEERENCE22S PHASE DIFFERENCE 270 PHASE DIFFERENCE 313
Figure 13
LISSAJOUS PATTERNS OBTAINED FROM THE MAJOR PHASE DIFFERENCE ANGLES
HANDBOOK Lissajous Figures 203
the vertical axis of the scale coincides

precisely with the vertical deflection a 4
of the spot. 2
5. Remove the signal from the vertical
amplifier, being careful not to change
the setting of the vertical gain control.
6. Increase the gain of the horizontal am-
plifier to give a deflection exactly the
TIME -4
same as that to which the vertical am-
plifier control is adjusted (3 inches).
Reconnect the signal to the vertical
amplifier.
The resulting pattern will give an accu-

rate picture of the exact phase difference
Figure 14
between the two waves. If these two pat-
terns are exactly the same frequency but PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE
different in phase and maintain that differ- RESULTANT PHASE- DIFFERENCE PAT-
ence, the pattern on the screen will remain TERN OF TWO SINE WAVES 45 OUT
stationary. If, however, one of these fre- OF PHASE
quencies is drifting slightly, the pattern will
drift slowly through 360 . The phase angles
of 0 , 45 , 90 , 135 , 180 , 225 , 270 , (3) that the calibrated scale be originally set
and 315 are shown in figure 13. to coincide with the displacement of the sig-
Each of the eight patterns in figure 13 can nal along the vertical axis. If the amplifiers
be analyzed separately by the previously used of the oscilloscope are not used for convey-
projection method. Figure 14 shows two sine ing the signal to the deflection plates of the
waves which differ in phase being projected cathode -ray tube, the coarse frequency
on to the screen of the cathode -ray tube. switch should be set to horizontal input
These signals represent a phase difference of direct and the vertical input switch to direct
45. It is extremely important that (1) the and the outputs of the two signals must be
spot has been centered on the screen of the adjusted to result in exactly the same verti-
cathode -ray tube, (2) that both the hori- cal deflection as horizontal deflection. Once
zontal and vertical amplifiers have been ad- this deflection has been set by either the
justed to give exactly the same gain, and oscillator output controls or the amplifier
Y MAXIMUM= I Y MAXIMUM= I
Y INTERCEPT = .7
SINE _+
O. 45
= ao
YMAXIMUM=1 Y A
YINTERCEPT,
SINE O. SINE
s
%
=las
TERCEPT =.7
Figure 15
EXAMPLES SHOWING THE USE OF THE INTERCEPT FORMULA FOR DETERMINATION

OF PHASE DIFFERENCE
Figure 16
TRAPEZOIDAL MODULATION PATTERN
Figure 18
Figure 17 PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING TRAPE-
MODULATED CARRIER -WAVE PATTERN ZOIDAL PATTERN
gain controls in the oscillograph, it should cal channel of the oscilloscope, and follow
not be changed for the duration of the meas- the procedure set forth in this discussion to
urement. observe the various phase -shift patterns.
Determinination of The relation commonly 8 -4 Monitoring

the Phase Angle used in determining the
phase angle between sig- Transmitter Performance
nais is: with the Oscilloscope
Y intercept The oscilloscope may be used as an aid for
Sine O = Y maximum the proper operation of an a -m transmitter,
where, and may be used as an indicator of the over-
9 equals phase angle between signals, all performance of the transmitter output
Y intercept equals point where ellipse signal, and as a modulation monitor.
crosses vertical axis measured in tenths of Waveforms There are two types of patterns
inches (calibrations on the calibrated
screen), that can serve as indicators, the
Y maximum equals highest vertical point
trapezoidal pattern (figure 16) and the
on ellipse in tenths of inches.
modulated-wave pattern (figure 17). The
trapezoidal pattern is presented on the screen
Several examples of the use of the formula by impressing a modulated carrier -wave sig-
are given in figure 15. In each case the Y nal on the vertical deflection plates and
intercept and Y maximum are indicated to- the signal that modulates the carrier -wave
gether with the sine of the angle and the signal (the modulating signal) on the hori-
angle itself. For the operator to observe these zontal deflection plates. The trapezoidal pat-
various patterns with a single signal source tern can be analyzed by the method used
such as the test signal, there are many types previously in analyzing waveforms. Figure
of phase shifters which can be used. Circuits 18 shows how the signals cause the electron
can be obtained from a number of radio beam to trace out the pattern.
textbooks. The procedure is to connect the The modulated -wave pattern is accom-
original signal to the horizontal channel of plished by presenting a modulated carrier
the oscilloscope and the signal which has wave on the vertical deflection plates and by
passed through the phase shifter to the verti- using the time -base generator for horizontal
HANDBOOK l -F Alignment 205
R -F POWER AMPLIFIER
TO ANTENNA
E
EACH 1 M, 1W
MODULATOR 500 PF
STAGE 10,000 - VOLT
TV CAPACITOR
SAW TOOT H
SWEEP CRO
LC TUNES TO OP-
ERATING FREQUENCY
Figure 19
C L
PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING NOTE' IF R -F PICKUP IS

INSUFFICIENT,
TUNED CIRCUIT MAE BE USED
MODULATED -CARRIER WAVE PATTERN A
AT THE OSCILLOSCOPE AS SHOWN.
Figure 20
deflection. The modulated -wave pattern also MONITORING CIRCUIT FOR TRAPEZOIDAL
can be used for analyzing waveforms. Figure MODULATION PATTERN
19 shows how the two signals cause the elec-
tron beam to trace out the pattern.
where,
The Trapezoidal
Pattern
The oscilloscope connections
for obtaining a trapezoidal E.
An
and E,,,+ are defined as in figure 21.
shown in fig-
pattern are shown in figure overmodulated signal is
20. A portion of the audio output of the

ure 23.
transmitter modulator is applied to the hori- The Modulated- The oscilloscope connections
zontal input of the oscilloscope. The vertical Wave Pattern for obtaining a modulated -
amplifier of the oscilloscope is disconnected, wave pattern are shown in
and a small amount of modulated r-f energy figure 24. The internal sweep circuit of the
is coupled directly to the vertical deflection oscilloscope is applied to the horizontal
plates of the oscilloscope. A small pickup plates, and the modulated r -f signal is ap-
loop, loosely coupled to the final amplifier plied to the vertical plates, as described be-
tank circuit and connected to the vertical fore. If desired, the internal sweep circuit
deflection plates by a short length of coaxial may be synchronized with the modulating
line will suffice. The amount of excitation to signal of the transmitter by applying a small
the plates of the oscilloscope may be ad- portion of the modulator output signal to
justed to provide a pattern of convenient the external sync post of the oscilloscope.
size. On modulation of the transmitter, the The percentage of modulation may be deter-
trapezoidal pattern will appear. By changing mined in the same fashion as with a trape-
the degree of modulation of the carrier wave zoidal pattern. Figures 25, 26, and 27 show
the shape of the pattern will change. Figures the modulated -wave pattern for various de-
21 and 22 show the trapezoidal pattern for grees of modulation.
various degrees of modulation. The percent-
age of modulation may be determined by the
following formula:
8 -5 Receiver l -F Alignment
with an Oscilloscope
Modulation percentage =
Emax - Emin X 100
The alignment of the i -f amplifiers of a
receiver consists of adjusting all the tuned
Ema,, + Emin
circuits to resonance at the intermediate fre-
TRAPEZOIDAL PATTERNS
T-
E MIN
ir
Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23
LESS THAN 100% MODULATION 100% MODULATION OVERMODULATION
quency and at the same time permitting pas- As a rule medium- and low- priced receiv-
sage of a predetermined number of side - ers use i -f transformers whose bandwidth is
bands. The best indication of this adjustment about 5 kHz on each side of the funda-
is a resonance curve representing the response mental frequency. The response curve of
of the i -f circuit to its particular range of these i -f transformers is shown in figure 28.
frequencies. High- fidelity receivers usually contain i -f
transformers which have a broader band-
width which is usually 10 kHz on each side
R -F POWER AMPLIFIER CRO of the fundamental. The response curve for
this type transformer is shown in figure 29.
TO ANTENNA Resonance curves such as these can be dis-
USE INTERNAL
played on the screen of an oscilloscope. For
WEE
a complete understanding of the procedure
it is important to know how the resonance
curve is traced.
E+ ROM
MODULATOR The Resonance To present a resonance curve
LC TUNES TO OP-
ERATING FREQUENCY
Curve on the on the screen, a frequency -
Screen modulated signal source must
Figure 24 be available. This signal
source is a signal generator whose output is
MONITORING CIRCUIT FOR the fundamental i -f frequency which is fre-
MODULATED -WAVE PATTERN quency- modulated 5 to 10 kHz each side of
CARRIER -WAVE PATTERN
VVI
AA
Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27
LESS THAN 100% MODULATION 100% MODULATION OVERMODULATION
HANDBOOK l -F Alignment 207
Figure 31
Figure 28 DOUBLE -RESONANCE CURVE
I -F FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE OF
A LOW PRICED RECEIVER
detectors of figure 30 (between point A and
ground) and the time-base generator output
to the horizontal channel. In this way the
d -c voltage across the detector load varies
with the frequencies which are passed by the
i -f system. Thus, if the time -base generator
is set at the frequency of rotation of the
motor- driven capacitor, or the reactance
tube, a pattern resembling figure 31 (a
double resonance curve) appears on the
screen.
Figure 29 Figure 31 is explained by considering fig-
ure 32. In half a rotation of the motor -
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF driven capacitor the frequency increases
HIGH -FIDELITY I -F SYSTEM from 445 kHz to 465 kHz, more than cov-
ering the range of frequencies passed by the
i -f system. Therefore, a full resonance curve
is presented on the screen during this half
T
l rotation since only half a cycle of the volt-
age producing horizontal deflection has
transpired. In the second half of the rotation
the motor -driven capacitor takes the fre-
quency of the signal in the reverse order
through the range of frequencies passed by
the i -f system. In this interval the time -base
TRIODE DETECTOR DIODE DETECTOR
generator sawtooth waveform completes its
cycle, drawing the electron beam further
Figure 30 across the screen and then returning it to
CONNECTION OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE the starting point. Subsequent cycles of the
ACROSS THE DETECTOR LOAD motor -driven capacitor and the sawtooth
voltage merely retrace the same pattern.
Since the signal being viewed is applied
the fundamental frequency. A signal genera- through the vertical amplifier, the sweep can
tor of this type generally takes the form of be synchronized internally.
an ordinary signal generator with a rotating Some signal generators, particularly those
motor- driven tuned -circuit capacitor, called employing a reactance tube, provide a sweep
a wobbulator, or its electronic equivalent, output in the form of a sine wave which is
which is a reactance tube. synchronized to the frequency with which
The method of presenting a resonance the reactance tube is swinging the funda-
curve on the screen is to connect the vertical mental frequency through its limits, (usually
channel of the oscilloscope across the de- 60 hertz). If such a signal is used for hori-
tector load of the receiver as shown in the zontal deflection, it is already synchronized.
445ku 455kHz 465kHz 455MHz 445kHZ

O
Figure 32 Figure 34
DOUBLE -RESONANCE ACHIEVED BY SINGLE -TONE PRESENTATION

COMPLETE ROTATION OF THE Oscilloscope trace of SS! signal modulated by
MOTOR- DRIVEN CAPACITOR single tone (A). Incomplete carrier supression
or spurious products will show modulated en-
velope of (B). The ratio of supression is:
A +B
S = 20 log
A -0
two curves coincide, it is evident that the i -f

system responds equally to signals higher and
lower than the fundamental i -f frequency.
Figure 33
8 -6 Single -Sideband
SUPERPOSITION OF RESONANCE CURVES
Applications
Since this signal is a sine wave, the response Measurement of power output and distor-
curve is observed as it sweeps the spot across tion are of particular importance in SSB
the screen from left to right; and it is ob- transmitter adjustment. These measurements
served again as the sine wave sweeps the spot are related to the extent that distortion rises
back again from right to left. Under these rapidly when the power amplifier is over-
conditions the two response curves are super- loaded. The usable power output of an SSB
imposed on each other and the high -fre- transmitter is often defined as the maximum
quency responses of both curves are at one peak envelope power obtainable with a spec-
end and the low- frequency response of both ified signal-to- distortion ratio. The oscillo-
curves is at the other end. The i -f trimmer scope is a useful instrument for measuring
capacitors are adjusted to produce a response and studying distortion of all types that may
curve which is symmetrical on each side of be generated in single- sideband equipment.
the fundamental frequency.
When using sawtooth sweep, the two re-
sponse curves can also be superimposed. If
the sawtooth signal is generated at exactly R -P INPUT_ POWER AMPLIFIER
UNDER PEEST
-may TO LOAD
twice the frequency of rotation of the

motor -driven capacitor, the two resonance
INPUT OUTPUT
curves will be superimposed (figure 33) if ENVELOPE
DETECTOR
ENVELOPE
DETECTOR
the i -f transformers are properly tuned. If
the two curves do not coincide the i -f trim-
mer capacitors should be adjusted. At the
point of coincidence the tuning is correct. It --*o o.-- OSCILLOSCOPE
should be pointed out that rarely do the two
curves agree perfectly. As a result, optimum Figure 35
adjustment is made by making the peaks
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
coincide. This latter procedure is the one
generally used in i -f adjustment. When the LINEARITY TRACER
HANDBOOK SSB Applications 209
Single -Tone When an SSB transmitter is GERMANIUM 2.5 MN

Observations modulated with a single audio R-F SSB INPUT
F. VOLTAGE
DIODE RFC
AUDIO OUTPUT
tone, the r -f output should be DIVIDER OR
PICKUP COIL
TO OSCILLOSCOPE
a single radio frequency. If the vertical

plates of the oscilloscope are coupled to the
output of the transmitter, and the hori-
zontal amplifier sweep is set to a slow rate,
the scope presentation will be as shown in Figure 36
figure 34. If unwanted distortion products
SCHEMATIC OF
or carrier are present, the top and bottom of ENVELOPE DETECTOR
the pattern will develop a "ripple" propor-
tional to the degree of spurious products.
The Linearity The linearity tracer is an aux- the oscilloscope trace is cancelled. The ef-
Tracer iliary detector to be used with fect of diode differences is minimized by
an oscilloscope for quick ob- using a diode load of 5000 to 10,000 ohms,
servation of amplifier adjustments and para- as shown. It is important that both detectors
meter variations. This instrument consists of operate at approximately the same signal
two SSB envelope detectors the outputs of level so that their differences will cancel
which connect to the horizontal and vertical more exactly. The operating level should be
inputs of an oscilloscope. Figure 35 shows a 1 volt or higher.
block diagram of a typical linearity test set- It is convenient to build the detector in a
up. A two -tone test signal is normally em- small shielded enclosure such as an i -f trans-
ployed to supply an SSB modulation envelope, former can fitted with coaxial input and
but any modulating signal that provides an output connectors. Voltage dividers can be
envelope that varies from zero to full ampli- similarly constructed so that it is easy to in-
tude may be used. Speech modulation gives a sert the desired amount of voltage attenua-
satisfactory trace, so that this instrument tion from the various sources. In some cases
may be used as a visual monitor of transmit- it is convenient to use a pickup loop on the
ter linearity. It is particularly useful for end of a short length of coaxial cable.
monitoring the signal level and clearly shows The phase shift of the amplifiers in the os-
when the amplifier under observation is over- cilloscope should be the same and their fre-
loaded. The linearity trace will be a straight quency response should be flat out to at least
line regardless of the envelope shape if the twenty times the frequency difference of the
amplifier has no distortion. Overloading two test tones. Excellent high- frequency
causes a sharp break in the linearity curve. characteristics are necessary because the
Distortion due to too much bias is also easily rectified SSB envelope contains harmonics
observed and the adjustment for low dis- extending to the limit of the envelope de-
tortion can easily be made. tector's response. Inadequate frequency re-
Another feature of the linearity detector sponse of the vertical amplifier may cause a
is that the distortion of each individual little "foot" to appear on the lower end of
stage can be observed. This is helpful in the trace, as shown in figure 37. If it is
troubleshooting. By connecting the input small, it may be safely neglected.
envelope detector to the output of the SSB Another spurious effect often encountered
generator, the over -all distortion of the en- is a double trace, as shown in figure 38. This
tire r -f circuit beyond this point is observed. can usually be corrected with an RC net-
The unit can also serve as a voltage indicator work placed between one detector and the
which is useful in making tuning adjust- oscilloscope. The best method of testing the
ments. detectors and the amplifiers is to connect the
The circuit of a typical envelope detector input of the envelope detectors in parallel.
is shown in figure 36. Two matched ger- A perfectly straight line trace will result
manium diodes are used as detectors. The when everything is working properly. One
detectors are not linear at low signal levels, detector is then connected to the other r -f
but if the nonlinearity of the two detectors source through a voltage divider adjusted so
is matched, the effect of their nonlinearity on that no appreciable change in the setting of
210 The Oscilloscope
e2
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
LEVEL
Figure 37
EFFECT OF INADEQUATE
RESPONSE OF VERTICAL INPUT SIGNAL LEVEL
AMPLIFIER
Figure 40
ORDINATES ON LINEARITY CURVE FOR

3RD -ORDER DISTORTION EQUATION
nonlinear plate characteristics of the ampli-

fier tube at large plate swings. More grid
swamping should be used, or the exciting
signal should be reduced. A combination of
the effects of A and B are shown in Trace
C. Trace D illustrates amplifier overloading.
The exciting signal should be reduced.
Figure 38 A means of estimating the distortion level
DOUBLE TRACE CAUSED observed is quite useful. The first- and third -
BY PHASE SHIFT order distortion components may be derived
by an equation that will give the approxi-
mate signal -to- distortion level ratio of a
the oscilloscope amplifier controls is required. two -tone test signal, operating on a given
Figure 39 illustrates some typical linearity linearity curve. Figure 40 shows a linearity
traces. Trace A is caused by inadequate curve with two ordinates erected at half and
static plate current in class-A or class -B full peak input signal level. The length of
amplifiers or a mixer stage. To regain linear- the ordinates e, and e.: may be scaled and
ity, the grid bias of the stage should be re- used in the following equation:
duced, the screen voltage should be raised, Signal -to- distortion ratio in db
or the signal level should be decreased. Trace
B is a result of poor grid- circuit regulation 3 e, -e
when grid current is drawn, or a result of
20 log
2 e, -e2
Figure 39
TYPICAL LINEARITY TRACES
CHAPTER NINE
Special Circuitry for Vacuum Tubes

and Semiconductors
A whole new concept of vacuum -tube conducts only when the plate is at a positive
and semiconductor applications has been potential with respect to the cathode. A
developed in recent years. No longer are positive potential may be placed on the cath-
these devices chained to the field of radio ode, but the tube will not conduct until the
or wire communication. This chapter is voltage on the plate rises above an equally
devoted to some of the more common cir- positive value. As the plate becomes more
cuits encountered in computer technology positive with respect to the cathode, the
and in industrial and military applications. diode conducts and passes that portion of the
While the circuits shown are mainly wave which is more positive than the cath-
vacuum -tube configurations, they have their ode voltage. Diodes may be used as either
counterparts in semiconductor technology. series or parallel limiters, as shown in figure
1. A diode may be so biased that only a cer-
9 -1 Limiting Circuits tain portion of the positive or negative cycle
is removed.
The term limiting refers to the removal or
suppression, by electronic means, of the ex- Audio Peak An audio peak clipper consist -
tremities of an electronic signal. Circuits Limiting ing of two diode limiters may
which perform this function are referred to be used to limit the amplitude
as limiters or clippers. Limiters are useful in of an audio signal to a predetermined value
waveshaping circuits where it is desirable to to provide a high average level of modula-
square off the extremities of the applied sig- tion without danger of overmodulation. An
nal. A sine wave may be applied to a limiter effective limiter for this service is the series -
circuit to produce a rectangular wave. A diode gate clipper. A circuit of this clipper
peaked wave may be applied to a limiter cir- is shown in figure 2. The audio signal to be
cuit to eliminate either the positive or nega- clipped is coupled to the clipper through C1.
tive peaks from the output. Limiter circuits R, and R2 are the clipper input and output
are employed in f -m receivers where it is load resistors. The clipper plates are tied
necessary to limit the amplitude of the signal together and are connected to the clipping
applied to the detector. Limiters may be level control (R1) through series resistor R,.
used to reduce automobile ignition noise in R, acts as a voltage divider between the
short -wave receivers, or to maintain a high high -voltage supply and ground. The exact
average level of modulation in a transmitter. point at which clipping will occur is set by
They may also be used as protective devices which controls the positive potential ap-
to limit input signals to special circuits. plied to the diode plates.
Under static conditions, a d -c voltage is
Diode Limiters The characteristics of a diode obtained from R4 and applied through R:,
tube are such that the tube to both plates of the 6ALS tube. Current
212 Special Vacuum -Tube Circuits RADIO
e IN e OUT e1N eouT

E E
fkAi (VI).
L L E' VOLTAGE DROP
ACROSS DIODE 1 1 E = VOLTAGE DROP
ACROSS DIODE
eIN
eIN e OUT
`ti'vf
Figure t
VARIOUS DIODE LIMITING CIRCUITS

Series diodes limiting positivo and negativo peaks aro shown in A and I. Parallel diodes
limiting positivo and negativo peeks are shown in C and D. Parallel diodes limiting above
and below ground oro shown in E and F. Parallel -diode limiters which pass negativo and
positivo peaks are shown in G and H.
flows through R4, R3, and divides through is less than 4 volts, both halves of the tube
the the two diode sections of the 6AL5 and conduct at all times. As long as the tube
the two load resistors (R1 and R2). All parts conducts, its resistance is very low compared
of the clipper circuit are maintained at a with plate resistor R3. Whenever a voltage
positive potential above ground. The voltage change occurs across input resistor R,, the
drop between the plate and cathode f each voltage at all of the tube elements increases
diode is very small compared to the drop or decreases by the same amount as the input
across the 300,000 -ohm resistor (R3) in voltage changes, and the voltage drop across
series with the diode plates. The plate and R3 changes by an equal amount. As long as
cathode of each diode are therefore main- the peak input voltage is less than 4 volts,
tained at approximately equal potentials as the 6AL5 acts merely as a conductor, and
long as there is plate- current flow. Clipping the output cathode is permitted to follow
does not occur until the peak audio-input all voltage changes at the input cathode.
voltage reaches a value greater than the If, under static conditions, 4 volts appear
static voltages at the plates of the diode. at the diode plates, then twice this voltage (8
Assume that R, has been set to a point volts) will appear if one of the diode circuits
that will give 4 volts at the plates of the is opened, thus removing its d -c load from
6ALS. When the peak audio -input voltage the circuit. As long as only one of the diodes
HANDBOOK Limiting Circuits 213
6AL5 R3
CLIPPING
300K LEVEL
CONTROL
eIN
CI C2
R4
e 1N
0.1
R1 Ra
(- e
0.1
OUT
100K
200K 200 1( E V GR D-CATNODE RESISTANCE

I
WHEN GRID IS DRIVEN POSITIVE
Figure 2 Figure 3
THE SERIES -DIODE GATE CLIPPER FOR GRID LIMITING CIRCUIT

AUDIO PEAK LIMITING
continues to conduct, the voltage at the potential at the output cathode will follow
diode plates cannot rise above twice the the input cathode voltage and decrease from
voltage selected by R4. In this example, the its normal value of 4 volts until it reaches
voltage cannot rise above 8 volts. Now, if zero potential. As the input cathode voltage
the input audio voltage applied through C, decreases to less than zero, the plates will
is increased to any peak value between zero follow. However, the output cathode,
and + 4 volts, the first cathode of the grounded through R_, will stop at zero
6AL5 will increase in voltage by the same potential as the plate becomes negative. Con-
amount to the proper value between 4 and duction through the second diode is impos-
8 volts. The other tube elements will assume sible under these conditions. The output
the same potential as the first cathode. How- cathode remains at zero potential until the
ever, the 6AL5 plates cannot increase more voltage at the input cathode swings back to
than 4 volts above their original 4 -volt static zero.
level. When the input voltage to the first The voltage developed across output resis-
cathode of the 6AL5 increases to more than tor R_ follows the input voltage variations
+ 4 volts, the cathode potential increases as long as the input voltage does not swing
to more than 8 volts. Since the plate circuit to a peak value greater than the static volt-
potential remains at 8 volts, the first diode age at the diode plates, which is determined
section ceases to conduct until the input by R,. Effective clipping may thus be ob-
voltage across R, drops below 4 volts. tained at any desired level.
When the input voltage swings in a nega- The square- topped audio waves generated
tive direction, it will subtract from the 4- by this clipper are high in harmonic content,
volt drop across R, and decrease the voltage but these higher -order harmonics may be
on the input cathode by an amount equal greatly reduced by a low -level speech filter.
to the input voltage. The plates and the out-
put cathode will follow the voltage level at Grid Limiters A triode grid limiter is shown
the input cathode as long as the input volt- in figure 3. On positive peaks
age does not swing below 4 volts. If - of the input signal, the triode grid attempts
to swing positive, and the grid -cathode re-
the input voltage does not change more than
4 volts in a negative direction, the plates of sistance drops to about 1000 ohms or so. The
the 6AL5 will also become negative. The voltage drop across the series grid resistor
e IN -I0---,--1-
eIN -1 eoUT
0 POSITIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT
Figure 4
SIMPLE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUITS
s+
eIN-I DEFLECTION
,COIL
_i
+
1_ I
-100 10. CI CHARGE PATH C2 DISCHARGE PATH
Figure 5 Figure 7
NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT THE CHARGE AND DISCHARGE PATHS
EMPLOYED IN ELECTROMAGNETIC IN THE FREE -RUNNING MULTIVIBRA-
SWEEP SYSTEM TOR OF FIGURE 6
B+
or a d -c restorer. Clamping circuits are used
after RC- coupling circuits where the wave-
form swing is required to be either above or
below the reference voltage, instead of alter-
nating on both sides of it (figure 4) . Clamp-
ing circuits are usually encountered in oscil-
loscope sweep circuits. If the sweep voltage
does not always start from the same refer-
Figure 6 ence point, the trace on the screen does not
begin at the same point on the screen each
BASIC MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS time the sweep is repeated and therefore is
"jittery." If a clamping circuit is placed
(usually of the order of 1 megohm) is large between the sweep amplifier and the deflec-
compared to the grid -cathode drop, and the tion element, the start of the sweep can be
resulting limiting action removes the top regulated by adjusting the d -c voltage ap-
part of the positive input wave. plied to the clamping tube (figure 5).
9 -2 Clamping Circuits 9-3 Multivibrators

A circuit which holds either amplitude ex- The multivibrator, or relaxation oscillator,
treme of a waveform to a given reference is used for the generation of nonsinusoidal
level of potential is called a clamping circuit waveforms. The output is rich in harmonics,
5+ 5+ +
SYNC RONIZING
SIGNAL
DIRECT -COUPLED CATHODE

O
ELECTRON -COUPLED MULTI VIBRATOR WITH SINE -WAVE
MULTI VIBRATOR MULTIVIBRATOR SYNCHRONIZING SIGNAL APPLIED
TO ONE TUBE
Figure 8
VARIOUS TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
HANDBOOK Multivibrators 215
e+ e.
PULSE
OUTPUT
BASIC ECCLES-JORDAN TRIGGER ONE -SHOT MULTIVIBRATOR

CIRCUIT
Figure 9
ECCLES -JORDAN MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
but the inherent frequency stability is poor. The Eccles- Jordon The Eccles- Jordan trigger
The multivibrator may be stabilized by the Circuit circuit is shown in figure
Introduction of synchronizing voltages of 9A. This is not a true
harmonic or subharmonic frequency. multivibrator, but rather a circuit that pos-
In its simplest form, the multivibrator is sesses two conditions of stable equilibrium.
a simple two -stage RC- coupled amplifier One condition is when V, is conducting and
with the output of the second stage coupled V_ is cutoff; the other when V, is conduct-
through a capacitor to the grid of the first ing and V, is cutoff. The circuit remains in
tube, as shown in figure 6. Since the output one or the other of these two stable condi-
of the second stage is of the proper polarity tions with no change in operating potentials
to reinforce the input signal applied to the until some external action occurs which
first tube, oscillations can readily take place, causes the nonconducting tube to conduct.
started by thermal -agitation and miscellane- The tubes then reverse their functions and re-
ous tube noise. Oscillation is maintained by main in the new condition as long as no
the process of building up and discharging plate current flows in the cut -off tube. This
the store of energy in the grid- coupling type of circuit is known as a flip -flop circuit.
capacitors of the two tubes. The charging Figure 9B illustrates a modified Eccles -
and discharging paths are shown in figure 7. Jordan circuit which accomplishes a com-
Various types of multivibrators are shown in plete cycle when triggered by a positive
figure 8. pulse. Such a circuit is called a one -shot
The output of a multivibrator may be used multivibrator. For initial action, V, is cut
as a source of square waves, as an electronic off and V2 is conducting. A large positive
switch, or as a means of obtaining frequency
division. Submultiple frequencies as low as
one -tenth of the injected synchronizing fre-
quency may easily be obtained.
e OUT
lR -F
PULSE
Ian!
UU
I-I
CUTOFF
TIME
R -F
PULSE
M--I
I
h---1
CUTOFF
TIME
R -F
PULSE
h-
ivI.1
I/
TIM! Figure 11
Figure 10 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR USED AS BLOCK-

ING OSCILLATOR BY PROPER CHOICE
SINGLE -SWING BLOCKING OSCILLATOR OF R, C,
eI.. eau* e .+ Pour
POSITIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT NEGATIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT POSITIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT WITH
METER INDICATION
Figure 12
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE COUNTING CIRCUITS
pulse applied to the grid of V, causes this currence is determined by the RC time con-
tube to conduct, and the voltage at its plate stant of the grid circuit. A single-swing
decreases by virtue of the IR drop through blocking oscillator is shown in figure 10,
R:,. Capacitor C_ is charged rapidly by this wherein the tube is cut off before the comple-
abrupt change in V, plate voltage, and V_ tion of one cycle. The tube produces single
becomes cut off while V, conducts. This con- pulses of energy, the time between the
dition exists until C, discharges, allowing V, pulses being regulated by the discharge time
to conduct, raising the cathode bias of V, of the grid RC network. The self-pulsing
until it is once again cut off. blocking oscillator is shown in figure 11, and
Adirect - cathode- coupled multivibrator is used to produce pulses of r -f energy, the
is shown in figure 8A. RK is a common number of pulses being determined by the
cathode resistor for the two tubes, and cou- timing network in the grid circuit of the
pling takes place across this resistor. It is oscillator. The rate at which these pulses
impossible for a tube in this circuit to com- occur is know as the pulse-repetition fre-
pletely cut off the other tube, and a circuit quency, or p.r.f.
of this type is called a free-running multi -
vibrator in which the condition of one tube
temporarily cuts off the other.
9 -5 Counting Circuits
A counting circuit, or frequency divider,
9 -4 The Blocking Oscillator isone which receives uniform pulses (repre-
senting units to be counted) and produces a
A blocking oscillator is any oscillator voltage that is proportional to the frequency
which cuts itself off after one or more cycles of the pulses. A counting circuit may be
caused by the accumulation of a negative
charge on the grid capacitor. This negative Va
charge may gradually be drained off through eIN
the grid resistor of the tube, allowing the
circuit to oscillate once again. The process
is repeated and the tube becomes an inter-
mittent oscillator. The rate of such an oc-
Figure 14
THE STEP -BY -STEP COUNTER USED TO

TRIGGER A BLOCKING OSCILLATOR.
Figure 13
THE BLOCKING OSCILLATOR SERVES AS
STEP -BY-STEP COUNTING CIRCUIT A FREQUENCY DIVIDER.
HANDBOOK Resistance -Capacitance Oscillators 217
400PF 400PF 400PF
LP.R4. 4 WATT, Ii0 V LAMB BULB

R XC1 =R2 X CZ
Figure 15 Figure 16
THE WIEN- BRIDGE AUDIO OSCILLATOR THE PHASE -SHIFT OSCILLATOR
used in conjunction with a blocking oscilla- 9 -6 Resistance -Capacitance

tor to produce a trigger pulse which is a Oscillators
submultiple of the frequency of the applied
pulse. Either positive or negative pulses may
In an RC oscillator, the frequency is de-
be counted. A positive counting circuit is
termined by a resistance capacitance network
shown in figure 12A, and a negative count-
that provides regenerative coupling between
ing circuit is shown in figure 12B. The pos-
the output and input of a feedback ampli-
itive counter allows a certain amount of
fier. No use is made of a tank circuit con-
current to flow through RI each time a sisting of inductance and capacitance to
pulse is applied to Cl.
control the frequency of oscillation.
The positive pulse charges C1, and makes The Wien- Bridge oscillator employs a Wien
the plate of V2 positive with respect to its network in the RC feedback circuit and is
cathode. V2 conducts until the exciting pulse shown in figure 15. Tube V, is the oscillator
passes. CI is then discharged by V
and the
tube, and tube V2 is an amplifier and phase -
circuit is ready to accept another pulse. The inverter tube. Since the feedback voltage
average current flowing through R, increases through C4 produced by V2 is in phase with
as the pulse -repetition frequency increases,
the input circuit of V, at all frequencies,
and decreases as the p.r.f. decreases.
oscillation is maintained by voltages of any
By reversing the diode connections, as
frequency that exist in the circuit. The
shown in figure 12B, the circuit is made to bridge circuit is used, then, to eliminate
respond to negative pulses. In this circuit, feedback voltages of all frequencies except
an increase in the p.r.f. causes a decrease in
the single frequency desired at the output of
the average current flowing through R1, the oscillator. The bridge allows a voltage of
which is opposite to the effect in the positive
only one frequency to be effective in the
counter. circuit because of the degeneration and phase
A step -counter is similar to the circuits
shift provided by this circuit. The frequency
discussed, except that a capacitor which is at which oscillation occurs is:
large compared to C, replaces the diode load
resistor. The charge of this capacitor is in-
f-
1
creased during the time of each pulse, pro- 2rR,C,

ducing a step voltage across the output (fig- when,
ure 13) . A blocking oscillator may be con- R, X CI equals R2 X C2
nected to a step counter, as shown in figure
14. The oscillator is triggered into operation A lamp (LP) is used for the cathode resistor
when the voltage across C2 reaches a point of VI as a thermal stabilizer of the oscillator
sufficiently positive to raise the grid of V, amplitude. The variation of the resistance
above cutoff. Circuit parameters may be with respect to the current of the lamp
chosen so that a count division up to 1/20 bulb holds the oscillator output voltage at a
may be obtained with reliability. nearly constant amplitude.
B+
330
soo
Rs
3
LPI
Figure 17
THE BRIDGE -TYPE PHASE -SHIFT

OSCILLATOR
Rar J^, S
ti
R.-.ur o
"fe.
The phase -shift oscillator shown in figure
LOOP c
2
16 is a single -tube oscillator using a three -
section phase-shift network. Each section of Figure 18
the network produces a phase shift in pro-
portion to the frequency of the signal that THE NBS BRIDGE -T OSCILLATOR
passes through it. For oscillations to be pro- CIRCUIT EMPLOYS TWO FEEDBACK
duced, the signal from the plate of the tube LOOPS. LOOP 1 IS REGENERATIVE,
must be shifted 180 . Three successive phase LOOP 2 IS DEGENERATIVE
shifts of 60 accomplish this, and the fre-
quency of oscillation is determined by this
phase shift. 9 -7 Feedback
A high -p. triode or a pentode must be used
in this circuit. In order to increase the fre- Feedback amplifiers have been discussed
quency of oscillation, either the resistance or in Chapter 6, section 15 of this Handbook.
the capacitance must be decreased by an ap- A more general use of feedback is in auto-
propriate amount. matic control and regulating systems.
A bridge -type phase -shift oscillator is
shown in figure 17. The bridge is so propor- jFREO.OF OSCILLATION
tioned that only at one frequency is the Fie
NEC =POs Fie
phase shift through the bridge equal to 180 . NOTCH FREQUENCY I
Voltages of other frequencies are fed back to F. NEGATIVE
c
2/rRC FEEDBACK
the grid of the tube out of phase with the WHERE (LOOP 21
existing grid signal, and are cancelled by be- C= POSITIVE
FEEDBACK
ing amplified out of phase. (LOOP?)
The Bridge -T oscillator developed by f-
the National Bureau of Standards consists of I.FREO.OF OSCILLATION
a two -stage amplifier having two feedback
loops, as shown in figure 18. Loop 1 consists
of a regenerative cathode -to- cathode loop,
consisting of L,,, and C3. The bulb regulates <
the positive feedback, and tends to stabilize PHASE SHIFT =0
the output of the oscillator, much as in the "NOTCH NETWORK
manner of the Wien circuit. Loop 2 consists

of a grid -cathode degenerative circuit, con- Figure 19
taining the Bridge -T. BRIDGE -T FEEDBACK
Oscillation will occur at the null fre- LOOP CIRCUITS
quency of the bridge, at which frequency
the bridge allows minimum degeneration in Oscillation will occur at the null frequency of
the bridge, at which frequency the bridge
loop 2 (figure 19). allows minimum d ation in loop 2.
HANDBOOK Feedback 219
ROOM INPUT SIGNAL

TEMPERATURE PHASE SHIFT
FURNACE OF SYSTEM OUTPUT SIGNAL
(F) (T)
A
_ -_J
TIME-II.
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL
(ERROQ SIGNAL) NO PHASE SHIFT
FUEL
If it
SUPPLY 1 I
A
Figure 20
_,1 IF FEEDBACK
SIGNAL
WITH I50
PHASE
SHIFT
SIMPLE CLOSED -LOOP TIME
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Room temperature (T) controls fuel supply to Figure 21
furnace (f) by feedback loop through thermo-
stat (TH) control. PHASE SHIFT OF ERROR
SIGNAL MAY CAUSE OSCILLA-
TION IN CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
Mechanical feedback has been used for many
years in such forms as engine -speed gover- To pr t oscillation, the gain of the feed-
nors and servo steering engines on ships. back loop must be less than unity when the
phase shift of the system reaches 180 degrees.
A simple feedback system for temperature
control is shown in figure 20. This is a cause-
and -effect system. The furnace (F) raises cause the feedback control to overcorrect in
the room temperature (T) to a predeter- the opposite direction, resulting in {ranting
mined value at which point the sensing or oscillation of the closed -loop system about
thermostat (TH) reduces the fuel flow to the correct operating point.
the furnace. When the room temperature Negative- feedback control would tend to
drops below the predetermined value the damp out spurious system oscillation if it
fuel flow is increased by the thermostat con- were not for the time lag or phase shift in the
trol. An interdependent control system is system. If the over -all phase shift is equal to
created by this arrangement: the room tem- one -half cycle of the operating frequency of
perature depends on the thermostat action, the system, the feedback will maintain a
and the thermostat action depends on the steady state of oscillation when the circuit
room temperature. This sequence of events gain is sufficiently high (figure 21) . In
may be termed a closed -loop feedback system. order to prevent oscillation, the gain figure
of the feedback loop must be less than unity
Error Cancellation A feedback control sys- when the phase shift of the system reaches
tem is dependent on a de- 180 degrees. In an ideal control system the
gree of error in the output signal, since this gain of the loop would be constant through-
error component is used to bring about the out the operating range of the device, and
correction. This component is called the would drop rapidly outside the range to
error signal. The error, or deviation from the reduce the bandwidth of the control system
desired signal is passed through the feedback to a minimum.
loop to cause an adjustment to reduce the The time lag in a closed -loop system may
value of the error signal. Care must be taken be reduced by using electronic circuits in
in the design of the feedback loop to reduce place of mechanical devices, or by the use of
over- control tendencies wherein the correc- special circuit elements having a phase -lead
tion signal would carry the system past the characteristic. Such devices make use of the
point of correct operation. Under certain properties of a capacitor, wherein the current
circumstances the new error signal would leads the voltage applied to it.
CHAPTER TEN
Radio Receiver Fundamentals
A conventional reproducing device such detecting the intelligence carried by an in-

as a speaker or a pair of earphones is incoming radio wave.
capable of receiving directly the intelligence
carried by the carrier or sidebands of a radio Radiotelephony Figure 1 illustrates an ele-
transmitting station. It is necessary that an Demodulation mentary form of a radiotele-
additional device, called a radio receiver, be phone receiver employing a
placed between the receiving antenna and diode detector. Energy from a passing radio
the speaker or headphones. wave will induce a voltage in the antenna
Radio receivers vary widely in their com- and cause a radio- frequency current to flow
plexity and basic design, depending on from antenna to ground through coil L,.
the intended application and economic fac- The alternating magnetic field set up around
tors. A simple radio receiver for reception of L, links with the turns of LZ and causes an
radiotelephone signals can consist of an ear- r -f current to flow through the parallel -
phone, a silicon or germanium crystal as a tuned circuit, (L_ -C,). When variable ca-
carrier rectifier or demodulator, and a length pacitor C, is adjusted so that the tuned cir-
of wire as an antenna. However, such a re- cuit is resonant at the frequency of the ap-
ceiver is highly insensitive, and offers no plied signal, the r -f voltage is maximum.
significant discrimination between two sig- This r -f voltage is applied to the diode de-
nals in the same portion of the spectrum. tector where it is rectified into a varying
On the other hand, a dual -diversity re- direct current, which is passed through the
ceiver designed for single -sideband reception earphones. The variations in this current cor-
and employing double or triple detection respond to the voice modulation placed on
might occupy several relay racks and would the signal at the transmitter. As the ear-
cost many thousands of dollars. However, phone diaphragms vibrate back and forth in
conventional communications receivers are accord with the pulsating current they aud-
intermediate in complexity and performance ibly reproduce the modulation which was
between the two extremes. This chapter is placed on the carrier wave.
devoted to the principles underlying the oper- The operation of the detector circuit is
ation of such conventional communications shown graphically above the detector circuit
receivers. in figure 1. The modulated carrier is shown
at A, as it is applied to the antenna. B repre-
10 -1 Detection or sents the same carrier, increased in ampli-
Demodulation tude, as it appears across the tuned circuit.
A detector, or demodulator, is a device for In C the varying d -c output from the de-
removing the modulation (demodulating) or tector is seen.
Detection or Demodulation 221
0
AUDIO OUTPUT
I- e +
L L2 PLATE-TICKLER REGENERATION WITH -THROTTLE"

GROUND CAPACITOR REGENERATION CONTROL
PENTODE AUDIO OUTPUT

Figure 1
ELEMENTARY FORM OF RECEIVER

This is the basis of the "crystal set" type of
receiver. The tank circuit (L,-C,) is tuned to
the freq y it is desired to receive. The
bypass capacitor across the phones should
have a low reactance to the carrier frequency
being received, but a high reactance to the WITH SCREEN- VOLTAGE
modulation on the received radio signal. REGENERATION CONTROL
Figure 2
Radiotelegraphy Since a c -w telegraphy sig- REGENERATIVE DETECTOR CIRCUITS

Reception nal consists of an unmodu- Reg five detectors are seldom used at the
lated carrier which is inter- p time due to their poor selectivity.
Detector may be used for c.w. or SSS when
rupted to form dots and dashes, it is appar- adjusted for oscillation or for a -m phone when
ent that such a signal would not be made set just below point of oscillation.
audible by detection alone. While the keying
is a form of modulation, it is composed of dual purpose of detector and oscillator. A
such low - frequency components that the detector which self -oscillates to provide a
keying envelope itself is below the audible beat note is known as an autodyne detector,
range at hand- keying speeds. Some means and the process of obtaining feedback be-
must be provided whereby an audible tone is tween the detector plate and grid is called
heard while the unmodulated carrier is being regeneration.
received, the tone stopping immediately when An autodyne detector is most sensitive
the carrier is interrupted. when it is barely oscillating, and for this
The most simple means of accomplishing reason a regeneration control is always in-
this is to feed a locally generated carrier of cluded in the circuit to adjust the feedback
a slightly different frequency into the same to the proper amount. The regeneration con-
detector, so that the incoming signal will trol may be either a variable capacitor or a
mix with it to form an audible beat note. variable resistor, as shown in figure 2.
The difference frequency, or heterodyne as
the beat note is known, will of course stop Superregenerative At ultrahigh frequencies,
and start in accord with the incoming Receivers when it is desired to keep
c -w radiotelegraph signal, because the audible weight and cost at a mini-
heterodyne can exist only when both the mum a special form of the regenerative re-
incoming and the locally generated carriers ceiver known as the superregenerator is often
are present. used for radiotelephony reception. The su-
perregenerator is essentially a regenerative
The Autodyne The local signal which is used receiver with a means provided to throw the
Detector to beat with the desired c -w detector rapidly in and out of oscillation. The
signal in the detector may be frequency at which the detector is made to go
supplied by a separate low -power oscillator in and out of oscillation varies with the fre-
in the receiver itself, or the detector may be quency to be received, but is usually between
made to self -oscillate, and thus serve the 20,000 and 500,000 times a second. This su-
222 Radio Receiver Fundamentals RADIO
perregenerative action considerably increases AUDIO

the sensitivity of the oscillating detector so OUTPUT
that the usual background hiss is greatly Ir

- -T
amplified when no signal is being received. 'INTERNED -I

RCOUENCY 1r. S[COND 11 AUDIO
AMPLIFIER I
DETECTOR 'AMPLI nu%,
The simplest type of superregenerative
detector circuit is arranged so as to produce
its own interruption frequency oscillation, r, _
'FREQUENCY'
without the aid of a separate tube. The 10.SSCILLATDRI
! (roRCw)I
detector tube or transistor damps (or
quenches) itself out of signal -frequency
oscillation at a high rate by virtue of the Figure 4
use of a high value of grid resistor and ESSENTIAL UNITS OF A
proper size blocking and coupling capacitors, SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
in conjunction with an excess of feedback.
A representative self-quenched superregen- The basic portions of the receiver are shown
in solid blocks Practicable receivers employ
erative detector circuit is shown in figure 3. the dotted blocks and also usually include such
The optimum quenching frequency is a additional circuits as a noise limiter, an avc
circuit, and a crystal Alter in the i-f amplifier.
function of the signal frequency. As the
operating frequency goes up, so does the op-
timum quenching frequency. When the Superregenerative receivers radiate a strong,
quench frequency is too low, maximum broad, and rough signal. For this reason, it is
sensitivity is not obtained. When it is too necessary in most applications to employ a
high, both sensitivity and selectivity suffer. radio - frequency amplifier stage ahead of the
In fact, the optimum quench frequency for detector, with thorough shielding through-
an operating frequency below 15 MHz is out the receiver.
in the audible range. This makes the super - A transistorized superregenerative detector
regenerator impractical for use on the is normally used in the inexpensive Citizen's
lower frequencies. Band hand -held transceivers and is occasion-
The selectivity of a superregenerator is ally used in portable gear in the amateur
rather poor compared to a superheterodyne, 144 -MHz and 224 -MHz bands.
but is suprisingly good for so simple a re-
ceiver when figured on a percentage basis 10 -2 Superheterodyne
rather than absolute kHz bandwidth. Receivers
Because of its superiority and nearly uni-
versal use in all fields of radio reception, the
theory of operation of the superheterodyne
RFC should be familiar to every radio student and
experimenter. The following discussion con-
cerns superheterodynes for a -m and SSB re-
ception. It is, however, applicable in part to
2.2R
receivers for frequency modulation.
Principle of In the superheterodyne, the in-

Operation coming signal is applied to a
- v.
mixer consisting of a nonlinear
impedance such as a vacuum tube, transistor,
Figure 3
or diode. The signal is mixed with a steady
SUPERREGENERATIVE DETECTOR FOR VHF signal generated locally in an oscillator stage,
with the result that a signal bearing all the
A self- quenched superreg ive detector
is capable of giving good sensitivity in the modulation applied to the original signal but
vhf range, but has relatively poor selectivity. of a frequency equal to the difference be-
Such a circuit should be preceded by an r -f
stage to suppress radiation from the oscillat- tween the local oscillator and incoming sig-
ing detector. nal frequencies appears in the mixer output
HANDBOOK Superheterodyne Receivers 223
NPN
circuit. The output from the mixer stage is INPUT TRANSISTOR
fed into a fixed -tuned intermediate -f requen- 7
cy amplifier, where it is amplified and de-
tected in the usual manner, and passed on to
the audio amplifier. Figure 4 shows a block
diagram of the fundamental superheterodyne
arrangement. The basic components are
shown in heavy lines, the simplest super-
heterodyne consisting simply of these three
units. However, a good communications re- TO A6C -
ceiver will comprise all of the elements
shown, both heavy and dotted blocks. Figure S
Advantages of the The advantages of super - TYPICAL I -F AMPLIFIER STAGE

Superheterodyne heterodyne reception are
directly attributable to the
use of the fixed -tuned intermediate -f requen- and above are used in some specialized forms
cy (i -f) amplifier. Since all signals are con- of receivers, most present -day communica-
verted to the intermediate frequency, this tions superheterodynes use intermediate fre-
section of the receiver may be designed for quencies around either 455 or 1600 kHz.
optimum selectivity and high amplification. Home -type broadcast receivers almost al-
High amplification is easily obtained in the ways use an intermediate frequency in the
intermediate- frequency amplifier, since it vicinity of 455 kHz, while auto receivers
operates at a relatively low frequency, where usually use a frequency of about 262 kHz.
conventional pentode-type tubes and tran- The standard frequency for the i -f channel
sistors give ade quate voltage gain. A typical of f -m receivers is 10.7 MHz. Television re-
intermediatef requency amplifier is shown ceivers use an intermediate frequency which
in figure 5. covers the band between 41 and 46 MHz.
From the diagram it may be seen that
both the input and output circuits are tuned. Arithmetical Aside from allowing the use of
The tuned circuits used for coupling be- Selectivity fixed -tuned bandpass amplifier
tween i -f stages are known as i -f transform- stages, the superheterodyne has
ers. These will be more fully discussed later an overwhelming advantage over the tuned
in this chapter. radio frequency (trf) type of receiver be-
cause of what is commonly known as arith-
Choice of Inter- The choice of a frequency metical selectivity.
mediate Frequency for the i -f amplifier in- This can best be illustrated by considering
volves several considera- two receivers, one of the trf type and one of
tions. One of these considerations concerns the superheterodyne type, both attempting
selectivity -the lower the intermediate fre- to receive a desired signal at 10,000 kHz and
quency the greater the obtainable selectivity. eliminate a strong interfering signal at 10,-
On the other hand, a rather high intermedi- 010 kHz. In the trf receiver, separating these
ate frequency is desirable from the stand- two signals in the tuning circuits is practical-
point of image elimination, and also for the ly impossible, since they differ in frequency
reception of signals from television and f -m by only 0.1 percent. However, in a super-
transmitters and modulated self -controlled heterodyne with an intermediate frequency
oscillators, all of which occupy a rather wide of, for example, 1000 kHz, the desired signal
band of frequencies, making a broad selec- will be converted to a frequency of 1000
tivity characteristic desirable. Images are a kHz and the interfering signal will be con-
peculiarity common to all superheterodyne verted to a frequency of 1010 kHz, both
receivers, and for this reason they are given signals appearing at the input of the i -f am-
a detailed discussion later in this chapter. plifier. In this case, the two signals may be
While intermediate frequencies as low as separated much more readily, since they dif-
50 kHz are used where extreme selectivity is fer by 1 percent, or 10 times as much as
a requirement, and frequencies of 60 MHz in the first case.
7360
-
TO
Figure 6
TYPICAL FREQUENCY -CONVERTER (MIXER) STAGES

A- Pentagrid ter. B- Pentode mixer with grid injection. C-Triode mixer with cathode
injection. D- Beam-deflection mixer. E- Transistor self -oscillating (autodyne) mixer.
F-Transistor mixer with base injection.
The Converter The converter, or mixer stage, tion. Figure 6 illustrates typical circuits of
Stage of a superheterodyne receiver both types. The pentagrid converter tube is
can be either one of two shown in Figure 6A. Tubes of this type are
types: (1) it may use a single mixer/oscil- good conversion devices at medium fre-
lator element such as a 6BA7 tube or a quencies, although their performance drops
transistor, or (2) it may use two tubes or off as the frequency of operation is raised.
transistors in an oscillator -mixer combina- Their use is practical up to 50 MHz or so.
HANDBOOK Superheterodyne Receivers 225
Electrically, grids 2 and 4 shield the signal RCA

grid from the oscillator section and also act TO
as an anode for the electron- coupled oscilla - I-r
tcr portion of the tube which is composed of

grid 1 and the cathode. The pentagrid con-
verter is characterized by an equivalent
noise resistance of several hundred thou-
sand ohms, consequently it must be pre-
ceded by an r -f stage having a fairly high
gain figure if a low noise factor is desired
in the receiver.
A second frequency -conversion technique
utilizes a separate oscillator tube and a
pentode mixer (figure 6B). The local oscil-
lator voltage is applied to the mixer control
grid by capacitive or inductive coupling, or
a combination of the two. Tubes containing .00,T 001
electrically independent oscillator and mixer

units in the same envelope, such as the Figure 7
6U8A, 6KZ8, and 6EA8 are designed es-
pecially for this application and find use in HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSISTOR
TV tuners and f -m receivers. Another ver- MIXER /OSCILLATOR
sion of this circuit is shown in figure 6C Local oscillator is capacitance coupled to base
utilizing a low -noise triode mixer with cath- circuit of mixer. Circuit should be preceded
ode injection from a separate electron - by r -f stage to reduce radiation of local oscil-
lator which is coupled to the input circuit of
coupled oscillator. This circuit has a wide the mixer.
dynamic range and is capable of mixing
relatively strong signals while retaining a
low level of intermodulation distortion. oscillator function. In the latter arrange-
Tube types 6Dj8 and 6CW4 are often used ment, the oscillator voltage is injected in
for h -f and vhf mixer operation. the mixer stage by inductive coupling to the
A beam- deflection tube (7360) may be emitter, or a combination of inductive and
used as a mixer in the circuit of Figure 6D, capacitive coupling to emitter or base may
providing low noise figure and high mixer be used (figure 7).
gain. The incoming signal is applied to con- Mixers employing control -grid injection
trol grid and the mixing signal from the
1
of the local mixing signal (figure 6B, for
separate local oscillator is applied to the de- example) should be preceded by an r -f
flection plates. The electron stream is mod- stage if local oscillator spurious radiation
is to be held to a minimum.
ulated by the received signal and then
switched from one collector anode to the
other by the local oscillator switching volt- Diode Mixers As the frequency of operation
age. The i -f output signal is taken from of asuperheterodyne receiver is
one deflection anode of the 7360 in the usual increased above a few hundred megahertz
manner, although a push -pull output con- the signal -to -noise ratio appearing in the
figuration may be used for improved local - plate circuit of the mixer tube when triodes
oscillator rejection at the intermediate fre- or pentodes are employed drops to a prohibi-
quency. tively low value. At frequencies above the
Inexpensive transistor radios make use of upper frequency limit for conventional mix-
an aritodyne mixer such as shown in Figure er stages, mixers of the diode type are most
6E. The oscillator circuit is placed in the commonly employed. The diode may be
emitter lead, with inductive feedback to the either a vacuum -tube heater diode of a spe-
collector circuit. In the h -f range stable cial uhf design such as the 9005, or it may
mixer operation is more readily obtained be a germanium diode of the general type of
when a separate transistor is used for the the 1N21 through 1N28 series.
10 -3 Noise and thermal- agitation voltage appearing in the

Spurious Products center of a half -wave antenna (assuming
effective temperature to be 300 K) having
a radiation resistance of 73 ohms is approxi-
Grid Circuit Since the full amplification of mately 0.096 microvolts. Also, the thermal -
Considerations a receiver follows the first
agitation voltage appearing across a 500,-
tuned circuit, the operating 000 -ohm grid resistor in the first stage of a
conditions existing in that circuit and in its speech amplifier is approximately 8 micro-
coupling to the antenna on one side and to volts under the conditions cited above.
the grid of the first amplifier stage on the Further, the voltage due to thermal agitation
other are of greater importance in determin- being impressed on the grid of the first
ing the signal -to -noise ratio of the receiver r -f stage in a receiver by a first tuned circuit
on weak signals. whose resonant resistance is 50,000 ohms is
First Tuned It is obvious that the highest approximately 2.5 microvolts. Suffice to say,
Circuit ratio of signal to noise be im- however, that the value of thermal- agita-
pressed on the grid of the first tion voltage appearing across the first tuned
r -f amplifier tube. Attaining the optimum circuit when the antenna is properly coupled
ratio is a complex problem since noise will to this circuit will be very much less than
be generated in the antenna due to its equiv- this value.
alent radiation resistance (this noise is in It is common practice to match the im-
addition to any noise of atmospheric origin) pedance of the antenna transmission line to
and in the first tuned circuit due to its the input impedance of the grid of the first
equivalent coupled resistance at resonance. r -f amplifier stage in a receiver. This is the
The noise voltage generated due to antenna condition of antenna coupling which gives
radiation resistance and to equivalent tuned maximum gain in the receiver. However,
circuit resistance is similar to that generated when vhf tubes such as nuvistors and minia-
in a resistor due to thermal agitation and is tures are used at frequencies somewhat less
expressed by the following equation: than their maximum capabilities, a signifi-
cant improvement in signal -to -noise ratio
En = (4kTR0f )1 /2 can be attained by increasing the coupling
where, between the antenna and first tuned circuit
E = rms value of noise voltage over the to a value greater than that which gives
interval Of, greatest signal amplitude out of the receiver.
k = Boltzman's constant (1.380 X 10 -2' In other words, in the 10 -, 6 -, and 2 -meter
joule per K), bands it is possible to attain somewhat im-
T = Absolute temperature K, proved signal -to -noise ratio by increasing
R = Resistive component of impedance antenna coupling to the point where the
across which thermal noise is devel- gain of the receiver is slightly reduced.
oped, It is always possible, in addition, to obtain
Jf = Frequency band across which volt- improved signal -to -noise ratio in a vhf re-
age is measured. ceiver through the use of tubes which have
improved input impedance characteristics at
In the above equation 0 f is essentially the the frequency in question over conventional
frequency band passed by the intermediate - types.
frequency amplifier of the receiver under Noise Factor The limiting condition for sen-
consideration. This equation can be greatly sitivity in any receiver is the
simplified for the conditions normally en- thermal noise generated in the antenna and
countered in communications work. If we in the first tuned circuit. However, with
assume the following conditions: T = 300 proper coupling between the antenna and
K or 27 C or 80.5 F, room temperature; the grid of the tube, through the first tuned
Of = 8000 Hertz (the average passband of circuit, the noise contribution of the first
a communications receiver or speech ampli- tuned circuit can be made quite small. Un-
fier), the equation reduces to: E = fortunately, though, the major noise contri-
0.0115 v/R microvolts. Accordingly, the bution in a properly designed receiver is that
HANDBOOK Noise and Spurious Products 227
of the first tube. The noise contribution due of the r-f tube. However, the higher the
to electron flow and due to losses in the tube ratio of tube input resistance to equivalent
can be lumped into an equivalent value of
resistance which, if placed in the grid circuit
of a perfect tube having the same gain but
noise resistance of the tube the higher will
be the signal -to -noise ratio of the stage
and of course, the better will be the noise
-
no noise would give the same noise voltage factor of the over-all receiver. The input re-
output in the plate load. The equivalent sistance of a tube is very high at frequencies
noise resistance of tubes such as the 6BA6, in the broadcast band and gradually decreases
6DC6, etc., runs from 500 to 1000 ohms. as the frequency increases. Tube input re-
Very high G. tubes such as the 6BZ6 and sistance of conventional tube types begins to
6EH7 have equivalent noise resistances as become an important factor at frequencies of
low as 300 to 700 ohms. The lower the about 25 MHz and above. At frequencies
value of equivalent noise resistance, the above about 100 MHz the use of conven-
lower will be the noise output under a fixed tional tube types becomes impractical
set of conditions. since the input resistance of the tube has
The equivalent noise resistance of a tube become so much lower than the equivalent
must not be confused with the actual input noise resistance that it is impossible to attain
loading resistance of a tube. For highest sig- reasonable signal -to -noise ratio on any but
nal -to -noise ratio in an amplifier the input very strong signals. Hence, special vhf tube
loading resistance should be as high as pos- types such as the 6BC5, 6CW4, and 6EH7
sible so that the amount of voltage that can must be used.
be developed from grid to ground by the The lowering of the effective input re-
antenna energy will be as high as possible. sistance of a vacuum tube at higher fre-
The equivalent noise resistance should be as quencies is brought about by a number of
low as possible so that the noise generated factors. The first, and most obvious, is the
by this resistance will be lower than that fact that the dielectric loss in the internal
attributable to the antenna and first tuned insulators, and in the base and press of the
circuit, and the losses in the first tuned cir- tube increases with frequency. The second
cuit should be as low as possible. factor is due to the fact that a finite time is
The absolute sensitivity of receivers has required for an electron to move from the
been designated in recent years in government space charge in the vicinity of the cathode,
and commercial work by an arbitrary dimen- pass between the grid wires, and travel on
sionless number known as "noise factor" or to the plate. The fact that the electrostatic
N. The noise factor is the ratio of noise effect of the grid on the moving electron
output of a "perfect" receiver having a acts over an appreciable portion of a cycle
given amount of gain with a dummy anten- at these high frequencies causes a current
na matched to its input, to the noise output flow in the grid circuit which appears to the
of the receiver having the same amount of input circuit feeding the grid as a resistance.
gain with an injected signal, and the dummy The decrease in input resistance of a tube
antenna matched to its input. Although a due to electron transit time varies as the
perfect receiver is not a physically realizable square of the frequency. The undesirable
thing, the noise factor of a receiver under effect of transit time can be reduced in
measurement can be determined by calcula- certain cases by the use of higher plate volt-
tion from the amount of additional noise ages. Transit time varies inversely as the
(from a temperature -limited diode or other square root of the applied plate voltage.
calibrated noise generator) required to in- Cathode lead inductance is an additional
cause of reduced input resistance at high
crease the noise -power output of a receiver
frequencies. This effect has been reduced in
by a predetermined amount.
certain tubes such as the 6EA5 and the
6BC5 by providing two cathode leads on
Tube Input As has been mentioned in a pre- the tube base. One cathode lead should be
Loading vious paragraph, greatest gain connected to the input circuit of the tube
in a receiver is obtained when and the other lead should be connected to
the antenna is matched, through the r -f the bypass capacitor for the plate return of
coupling transformer, to the input resistance the tube.
The reader is referred to the Radiation as cutoff of plate current is approached. The
Laboratory Series, Volume 23: Microwave effect of such nonlinearity is to cause cross -
Receivers (McGraw -Hill, publishers) for ad- modulation between strong signals which
ditional information on noise factor and in- appear on the grid of the tube. When a tube
put loading of vacuum tubes. operating in such a manner is in one of the
first stages of a receiver a number of signals
10-4 Plate- Circuit are appearing on its grid simultaneously and
cross -modulation between them will take
Considerations place. The result of this effect is to produce
Noise is generated in a vacuum tube by a large number of spurious signals in the
the fact that the current flow within the output of the receiver -in
most cases these
tube is not a smooth flow but rather is made signals will carry the modulation of both the
up of the continuous arrival of particles carriers which have been cross -modulated to
(electrons) at a very high rate. This shot produce the spurious signal.
effect is a source of noise in the tube, but
its effect is referred back to the grid circuit
of the tube since it is included in the equiv-
alent noise resistance discussed in the preced-
ing paragraphs.
Plate- Circuit For the purpose of this section,
Coupling it will be considered that the
function of the plate load cir-
cuit of tuned vacuum -tube amplifier is to
a
deliver energy to the next stage with the OA AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE (APPROX.) =GMWLQ
greatest efficiency over the required band of
rM\
frequencies. Figure 8 shows three methods
of interstage coupling for tuned r -f voltage
amplifiers. In figure 8A omega (w) is 27r
times the resonant frequency of the circuit
in the plate of the amplifier tube, and L and
Q are the inductance and Q of the inductor
L. In figure 8B the notation is the same and
M is the mutual inductance between the
primary coil and the secondary coil. In fig- AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE (APPROX.)=GMWMQ
ure 8C the notation is again the same and k

is the coefficient of coupling between the
two tuned circuits. As the coefficient of
coupling between the circuits is increased
the bandwidth becomes greater but the re-
sponse over the band becomes progressively
more double- humped. The response over the
band is the flattest when the Q's of pri-
mary and secondary are approximately the W LPLS
same and the value of each Q is equal to AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE(APPRO1kGMK
K2t
Oran
1.75/k. WHERE. I. PRI. AND SEC. RESONANT AT SAME FREQUENCY
2 K IS COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
Spurious It common practice to control

is IF PRI. AND SEC. Q ARE APPROXIMATELY
TOTAL BANDWIDTH , 2
THE SAME:
Products the gain of a succession of r -f or CENTER FREQUENCY

K
-
i -f amplifier stages by varying the
MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE OCCURS AT CRITICAL COUPLING
WHEN K-
average bias on their control grids. However, Q
as the bias is raised above the operating value Figure 8

on a conventional sharp-cutoff tube the tube Gain equations for pentode r -f amplifier
becomes increasingly nonlinear in operation stases operating loto a tuned load
HANDBOOK Plate- Circuit Considerations 229
The undesirable effect of cross -modulation the fact that the conductance in the mixer
can be eliminated in most cases and greatly stage is considerably lower than in an amp-
reduced in the balance through the use lifier stage using the same tube, the propor-
of a variable -A tube in all stages which tion of inherent noise present in a mixer
have avc voltage or other large negative usually is considerably greater than in an
bias applied to their grids. The variable -.t amplifier stage using a comparable tube.
tube has a characteristic which causes the Although this noise cannot be eliminated,
cutoff of plate current to be gradual with its effects can be greatly minimized by plac-
an increase in grid bias, and the reduction in ing sufficient signal- frequency amplification
plate current is accompanied by a decrease having a high signal -to -noise ratio ahead of
in the effective amplification factor of the the mixer. This remedy causes the signal out-
tube. Variable-p, tubes ordinarily have some- put from the mixer to be large in proportion
what reduced Gm as compared to a sharp - to the noise generated in the mixer stage. In-
cutoff tube of the same group. Hence the creasing the gain of ter the mixer will be of
sharp -cutoff tube will perform best in stages no advantage in eliminating mixer noise dif-
to which avc voltage is not applied. ficulties; greater selectivity after the mixer
If the desired signal is strong enough, an will help to a certain extent, but cannot be
attenuator pad may be placed between the carried too far, since this type of selectivity
receiver and the antenna, thus reducing the decreases the i -f bandpass and if carried too
level of the undesired signal before it does far will not pass the sidebands that are an
harm. Remote cutoff tubes are advantageous essential part of a voice -modulated signal.
for reducing cross - modulation from strong
Triode Mixers A triode having a high trans -
off- frequency signals.
Cross -modulation is a serious problem in conductance is the quietest
transistorized receivers as most transistors mixer tube, exhibiting somewhat less gain
have a very limited dynamic range, the FET but a better signal -to -noise ratio than a
types being the best in this respect, although comparable multigrid mixer tube. However,
not equal to remote -cutoff tubes. below 30 MHz it is possible to construct a
When a receiver is tuned to a weak signal receiver that will get down to the atmos-
and a strong signal appears close to the pheric noise level without resorting to a
received frequency, an apparent decrease in triode mixer. The additional difficulties ex-
receiver gain may be noticed. This block- perienced in avoiding pulling, undesirable
ing, or desensitization occurs when the un- feedback, etc., when using a triode with
wanted signal voltage drives a mixer or control -grid injection tend to make multi -
amplifier tube into the grid -current region, grid tubes the popular choice for this ap-
biasing the tube toward cutoff. Spurious plication on the lower frequencies.
voltage created by the flow of rectified grid On very -high frequencies, where set noise
current in a receiver stage may also be rather than atmospheric noise limits the
weak-signal response, triode mixers are more
coupled back into the automatic volume
widely used.
control network, further reducing receiver
gain.
Injection The amplitude of the injection
The effects of mixer noise and image, are
Voltage voltage will affect the conversion
troubles common to all superheterodynes.
Since both these effects can largely be ob- transconductance of the mixer.
viated by the same remedy, they will be con- and therefore should be made optimum if
sidered together. maximum signal -to -noise ratio is desired. If
fixed bias is employed on the injection grid,
Mixer Noise Mixer noise of the shot -effect the optimum injection voltage is quite criti-
type, which is evidenced by a cal. If cathode bias is used, the optimum
hiss in the audio output of the receiver, is
voltage is not so critical; and if grid -leak
bias is employed, the optimum injection volt-
caused by small irregularities in the plate
age is not at all critical-just so it is ade-
current in the mixer stage and will mask
weak signals. Noise of an identical nature is
quate. Typical optimum injection voltages
will run from 1 to 3 volts for control -grid
generated in an amplifier stage, but due to
injection, and 20 volts or so for screen- or PENTODE
suppressor -grid injection.

Images There always are two signal fre-
quencies which will combine with a
given frequency to produce the same differ-
ence frequency. For example: assume a super-
heterodyne with its oscillator operating on a
higher frequency than the signal (which is Figure 9
common practice in many superhetero-
dynes) tuned to receive a signal at 14,100 TYPICAL PENTODE R -F AMPLIFIER STAGE
kHz. Assuming an i -f amplifier frequency of
450 kHz, the mixer input circuit will be
tuned to 14,100 kHz, and the oscillator to 10 -5 R -F Stages
14,100 plus 450, or 14,550 kHz. Now, a
strong signal at the oscillator frequency plus Since the necessary tuned circuits between
the intermediate frequency (14,550 plus the mixer and the antenna can be combined
450, or 15,000 kHz) will also give a differ- with tubes to form r-f amplifier stages, the
ence frequency of 450 kHz in the mixer reduction of the effects of mixer noise and
output and will be heard also. Note that the the increasing of the image ratio can be ac-
image is always twice the intermediate fre- complished in a single section of the receiver.
quency away from the desired signal. Images When incorporated in the receiver, this sec-
cause repeat points on the tuning dial. tion is known simply as an r -f amplifier;
The only way that the image could be when it is a separate unit with a separate
eliminated in this particular case would be to tuning control it is often known as a pre -
make the selectivity of the mixer input cir- selector. Either one or two stages are com-
cuit, and any circuits preceding it, great monly used in the preselector or r -f ampli-
enough so that the 15,000-kHz signal never fier. Some preselectors use regeneration to
reaches the mixer grid in sufficient amplitude obtain still greater amplification and selec-
to produce interference. tivity. An r -f amplifier or preselector em-
For any particular intermediate frequency, bodying more than two stages rarely ever is
image interference troubles become increas- employed since two stages will ordinarily
ingly greater as the frequency (to which the give adequate gain to override mixer noise.
signal- frequency portion of the receiver is
tuned) is increased. This is due to the fact R -F Stages in Generally speaking, atmos-
that the percentage difference between the the VHF Range pheric noise in the frequency
desired frequency and the image frequency range above 30 MHz is
decreases as the receiver is tuned to a higher quite low-so low, in fact, that the noise
frequency. The ratio of strength between a generated within the receiver itself is greater
signal at the image frequency and a signal at than the noise received on the antenna.
the frequency to which the receiver is tuned Hence it is of the greatest importance that
producing equal output is known as the internally generated noise be held to a mini-
image ratio. The higher this ratio is, the mum in a receiver. At frequencies above 500
better the receiver will be in regard to image MHz there is not much that can be done
interference troubles. in the direction of reducing receiver noise
With but a single tuned circuit between below that generated in the converter stage,
the mixer grid and the antenna, and with aside from the use of specialized parametric
400- to 500 -kHz i -f amplifiers, image ratios amplifiers. But in the vhf range, between 30
of 60 db and over are easily obtainable up to and 500 MHz, the receiver noise factor in a
frequencies around 2000 kHz. Above this well- designed unit is determined by the char-
frequency, greater selectivity in the mixer acteristics of the first r -f stage.
grid circuit through the use of additional The usual vhf receiver, whether for com-
tuned circuits between the mixer and the munications or for f -m or TV reception,
antenna is necessary if a good image ratio is uses a miniature pentode or triode for the
to be maintained. first r -f amplifier stage. The nuvistors
HANDBOOK R -F Stages 231
(6CW4 and 6DS4) are the best of presently O GROUNDED GRID

available types, with the 6EH7 (pentode) 6CW4
and the cascode -style amplifier approaching

nuvistor performance in the lower vhf
region. However, when gain in the first r -f
stage is not so important, and the best noise
factor must be obtained, the first r -f stage
usually uses a triode or a low -noise transistor. +120V
Shown in figure 10 are four commonly
used types of triode r -f stages for use in the
vhf range. The circuit at (A) uses few com-
ponents and gives a moderate amount of
gain with very low noise. It is most satis-
factory when the first r -f stage is to be fed
directly from a low- impedance coaxial trans-
mission line. Figure 10 (B) gives somewhat
more gain than (A), but requires an input CATHODE COUPLED
matching circuit. The effective gain of this
circuit is somewhat reduced when it is being
used to amplify a broad band of frequencies
+ 150v
since the effective G,,, of the cathode -cou-
pled dual tube is somewhat less than half the 001 LN 6CW4 6CW4
G,,, of either of the two tubes taken alone.
The Cascade The cascode r -f amplifier is a

Amplifier low -noise circuit employing a
grounded- cathode triode driv-
ing a grounded -grid triode, as shown in
figure 10C. The stage gain of such a circuit
is about equal to that of a pentode tube,
t LOW-NOISE .001
NUVISTOR
while the noise figure remains at the low CASCODE
level of a triode tube. Neutralization of the
first triode tube is usually unnecessary below 0 DUAL- TRIODE
CASCODE
+120v
50 MHz. Above this frequency, a definite 611J8.6B07.Ete

improvement in the noise figure may be
obtained through the use of neutralization.
The neutralizing coil (Lx) should resonate
at the operating frequency with the grid - 100
plate capacity of the first triode tube.
The TV -type double triodes such as the Figure 10 +25ov
6DJ8 (and older style 6BQ7 and 6BZ7) may
be used to good advantage up to 144 MHz TYPICAL TRIODE VHF
or so. At 2 meters and above, however, the AMPLIFIER STAGES
R -F
6CW4 nuvistor family is recommended for Triode r -f stages contribute the least amount
use. of noise output for a given signal level, hence
their frequent use in the vhf range.
Transistor R -F Three common transistor r -f
Amplifiers amplifier stages are shown in collector and the lower end of the input
figure 11. The common-base circuit, which is lifted above ground. If the
amplifier is shown in figure 11A. To over- external feedback circuit cancels both resis-
come the possibility of oscillation at the tive and reactive changes in the input cir-
higher frequencies, an external neutralizing cuit due to voltage feedback, the amplifier
circuit may be added, which consists of a is considered to be unilateralized. If only the
neutralizing capacitor placed between the reactive changes in the input circuit are
F pedance and medium -to -high output imped-

ance. The first neutralized transistor drives
the second connected in common -gate con-
figuration which is used to transform from
a low or medium input impedance to a high
output impedance. The relatively low volt-
age gain of the second stage makes dual
neutralization unnecessary in most cases. The
two FET transistors are arranged in a cas-
code amplifier circuit, with the first stage
2N3478 inductively neutralized by coil LN. FET
amplifiers of this type have been used to
provide low noise reception at frequencies
in excess of 500 MHz.
Double C As previously mentioned,

sion
@ the use of a higher inter-
mediate frequency will also improve the
image ratio, at the expense of i -f selectivity,
by placing the desired signal and the image
farther apart. To give both good image
ratio at the higher frequencies and good
selectivity in the i -f amplifier, a system
known as double conversion is sometimes
employed. In this system, the incoming signal
is first converted to a rather high intermed-
iate frequency, and then amplified and again
converted, this time to a much lower fre-
Figure 11
quency. The first intermediate frequency
HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSISTOR R -F STAGES supplies the necessary wide separation be-
tween the image and the desired signal,
A- Common -base amplifier. !-Common- emitter while the second one supplies the bulk of the
amplifier. C- Coscode amplifier using PET tran-
sistors in sassed* circuit. i -f selectivity.
The double- conversion system, as illus-

cancelled, the amplifier is considered to be trated in figure 12, is receiving two general
neutralized. Neutralization, then, is a special types of application at the present time. The
case of unilateralization. Modern silicon first application is for the purpose of attain-
NPN epitaxial planar type transistors are ing extremely good stability in a communi-
designed for vhf use up to 470 MHz and cations receiver through the use of crystal
many have sufficiently low feedback capaci- control of the first oscillator. In such an
tance so that neutralization is unecessary. arrangement, as used in several types of Col-
The common- emitter amplifier (figure lins receivers, the first oscillator is crystal
11B) corresponds to the grounded- cathode controlled and is followed by a tunable i -f
vacuum -tube circuit and provides the amplifier which then is followed by a mixer
highest power gain of common transistor stage and a fixed -tuned i -f amplifier on a
circuitry. As the phase of the output signal much lower frequency. Through such a cir-
is opposite to that of the driving signal, the cuit arrangement the stability of the com-
feedback from output to input circuit is plete receiver is equal to the stability of the
essentially negative. oscillator which feeds the second mixer,
Field-effect transistors may be used in while the selectivity is determined by the
common- source, common -gate, or common - bandwidth of the second fixed i -f amplifier.
drain configurations. The common -source The second common application of the
arrangement (figure 11C) is most fre- double-conversion principle is for the pur-
quently used as it provides high input impose of obtaining a very high degree of se-
HANDBOOK Signal- Frequency Tuned Circuits 233
t 14MHz
TUNADLE
R-f
AMPLIFIER
MIXER
MHZ
TUNADLC
bf
AMPLIFER
J MIXER
455 kHz
If
ag2
AMPLIFIER
DEMODULATOR
AND
AUDIO
CRYSTAL VAR ADLE

10MHz 5545kHz
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
rl
?Ai MHz 455 kHz I I
SO kHz
I
TUNA5LC fIx[IZ I I
FIXED DEMODULATOR
RF MI%CR F MI CR AND
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AUDIO
1-
I I
VARIADLE I I Flx
14.445kHz 505 kHz
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
I I
1 I
CONVENTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS II HIGHLY SELECTIVE ACCESSORY I -F

RECEIVER II AMPLIFIER AND DEMODULATOR (Q5'ER)I
L JL _ -J
Figure 12
TYPICAL DOUBLE-CONVERSION SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

Illustrated at A is the basic circuit of a commercial double -c Ion superheterodyne receiver.
At if is illustrated the application of an accessory sharp i -f channel for obtaining improved
selectivity from a c rional communications receiver through the use of the double -e lion
superheterodyne principle.
lectivity in the complete communications wound types shunted by variable capacitors.

receiver. In this type of application, as illus- It is in these tuned circuits that the causes
trated in figure 12B, a conventional com- of success or failure of a receiver often lie.
munications receiver is modified in such a The universal -wound type coils usually are
manner that its normal i -f amplifier (which used at frequencies below 2000 kHz; above
usually is in the 450- to 915 -kHz range) in- this frequency the single -layer solenoid type
stead of being fed to a demodulator and of coil is more satisfactory.
then to the audio system, is alternatively fed
to a fixed -tuned mixer stage and then into a Impedance The two factors of greatest sig-
much lower intermediate- frequency ampli- and Q nificance in determining the
fier before the signal is demodulated and fed gain -per -stage and selectivity, re-
to the audio system. The accessory i -f amp- spectively, of a tuned amplifier are tuned -
lifier system (sometimes called a Q5'er) circuit impedance and tuned -circuit Q. Since
normally is operated on a frequency of 175 the resistance of modern capacitors is low at
kHz, 85 kHz, or 50 kHz. ordinary frequencies, the resistance usually
can be considered to be concentrated in the
coil. The resistance to be considered in mak-
10 -6 Signal- Frequency ing Q determinations is the r -f resistance,
Tuned Circuits not the d -c resistance of the wire in the coil.
The latter ordinarily is low enough that it
The signal- frequency tuned circuits in may be neglected. The increase in r-f resist-
high- frequency superheterodynes and tuned - ance over d -c resistance primarily is due to
radio- frequency types of receivers consist of skin effect and is influenced by such factors
coils of either the solenoid or universal- as wire size and type, and the proximity of
flow into the grid. The result of this effect

is similar to that which would be obtained
by placing a resistance between the grid and
cathode of the tube.
R-F INPUT C
Superheterodyne Because the oscillator in a
Tracking superheterodyne operates
"offset" from the other
front -end circuits, it is necessary to make spe-
Figure 13 cial provisions to allow the oscillator to track
when similar tuning capacitor sections are
ILLUSTRATING "COMMON- POINT"
BYPASSING ganged. The usual method of obtaining good
tracking is to operate the oscillator on the
To reduce the detrimental effects of cathode
circuit inductance in vhf stages, all bypass high- frequency side of the mixer and use a
capacitors should be returned to the cathode series tracking capacitor to slow down the
terminal at the socket. Tubes with two cathode tuning rate of the oscillator. The oscillator
leads can give improved performance if the
grid return is made to one cathode terminal tuning rate must be slower because it covers
while the plate and screen bypass returns are a smaller range than does the mixer when
made to the cathode terminal which is con-
nected to the supp within the tube. both are expressed as a percentage of fre-
quency. At frequencies above 7000 kHz and
metallic objects or poor insulators, such as with ordinary intermediate frequencies, the
coil forms with high losses. Higher values of difference in percentage between the two
Q lead to better selectivity and increased r-f tuning ranges is so small that it may be
voltage across the tuned circuit. The increase disregarded in receivers designed to cover
in voltage is due to an increase in the cir- only a small range, such as an amateur band.
cuit impedance with the higher values of Q. A mixer- and oscillator- tuning arrange-
Frequently it is possible to secure an in- ment in which a series tracking capacitor
is provided is shown in figure 14. The value
crease in impedance in a resonant circuit
(and consequently an increase in gain from of the tracking capacitor varies considerably
an amplifier stage) by increasing the react- with different intermediate frequencies and
ance through the use of larger coils and
smaller tuning capacitors (higher LC ratio).
MIXER
Input Resistance Another factor which in-
fluences the operation of PADDING CAPACITOR
tuned circuits is the input resistance of the TUNING CAPACITOR

tubes placed across these circuits. At broad-
cast frequencies, the input resistance of most
OSCILLATOR
conventional r -f amplifier tubes is high
enough so that it is not bothersome. But as
the frequency is increased, the input resist- SERIES TRACKING CAPACITOR
ance becomes lower and lower, until it ulti-
mately reaches a value so low that no ampli-
fication can be obtained from the r -f stage.
The two contributing factors to the de- Figure 14
crease in input resistance with increasing SERIES TRACKING EMPLOYED
frequency are the transit time required by IN THE H-F OSCILLATOR OF A
an electron traveling between the cathode SUPERHETERODYNE
and grid, and the inductance of the cathode
lead common to both the plate and grid cir- The series tracking capacitor permits the use
of identical gangs in a ganged capacitor, since
cuits. As the frequency becomes higher, the the tracking capacitor slows down the rate of
transit time can become an appreciable por- Iraq y change In the oscillator so that a
constant diffa In frequency between the
tion of the time required by an r -f cycle of oscillator and the r -f stage (equal to the -f1
the signal voltage, and current will actually amplifier frequency) may be maintained.
HANDBOOK Signal- Frequency Tuned Circuits 235
tuning ranges, capacitances as low as .0001 of coils, tuning is likely to be quite difficult,
/lid being used at the lower tuning -range owing to the large frequency range covered
frequencies, and values up to .01 fd being by a small rotation of the variable capaci-
used at the higher frequencies. tors. To alleviate this condition, some
Superheterodyne receivers designed to method of slowing down the tuning rate, or
cover only a single frequency range, such as bandspreading, must be used.
the standard broadcast band, sometimes ob- Quantitatively, bandspread is usually de-
tain tracking between the oscillator and the signated as being inversely proportional to
r -f circuits by cutting the variable plates of the range covered. Thus, a large amount of
the oscillator tuning section to a different bandspread indicates that a small frequency
shape than those used to tune the r -f stages. range is covered by the bandspread control.
Conversely, a small amount of bandspread is
Frequency Range The frequency to which a taken to mean that a large frequency range
Selection receiver responds may be is covered by the bandspread dial.
varied by changing the size
of either the coils or the capacitors in the Types of Bandspreading systems are of
tuning circuits, or both. In short -wave re- Bandspread two general types: electrical and
ceivers a combination of both methods is mechanical. Mechanical systems
usually employed, the coils being changed are exemplified by high -ratio dials in which
from one band to another, and variable ca- the tuning capacitors rotate much more
pacitors being used to tune the receiver slowly than the dial knob. In this system,
across each band. In practical receivers, coils there is often a separate scale or pointer
may be changed by one of two methods: a either connected or geared to the dial knob
switch, controllable from the panel, may be to facilitate accurate dial readings. However,
used to switch coils of different sizes into the there is a practical limit to the amount of
tuning circuits or, alternatively, coils of dif- mechanical bandspread which can be ob-
ferent sizes may be plugged manually into tained in a dial and capacitor before the
the receiver, the connection into the tuning speed- reduction unit and capacitor bearings
circuits being made by suitable plugs on the become prohibitively expensive. Hence, most
coils. Where there are several plug -in coils receivers employ a combination of electrical
for each band, they are sometimes arranged and mechanical bandspread. In such a sys-
on a single mounting strip, allowing them all tem, a moderate reduction in the tuning rate
to be plugged in simultaneously. is obtained in the dial, and the rest of the
Bandspread
reduction obtained by electrical bandspread-
In receivers using large tuning ing.
Tuning capacitors to cover the short-
wave spectrum with a minimum Stray CircuitIn this book and in other radio
Capacitance literature, mention is sometimes
made of stray or circuit capaci-
tance. This capacitance is in the usual sense
defined as the capacitance remaining across
a coil when all the tuning, bandspread, and
padding capacitors across the circuit are at
their minimum capacitance setting.
Circuit capacitance can be attributed to
two general sources. One source is that due
to the input and output capacitance of the
tube when its cathode is heated. The input
capacitance varies somewhat from the static
value when the tube is in actual operation.
Figure 15 Such factors as plate load impedance, grid
BANDSPREAD CIRCUITS bias, and frequency will cause a change in
input capacitance. However, in all except
Parallel bandspread Is illustrated at (A) and
(I), series bandspread at (C), and tapped-coil the extremely high -transconductance tubes,
band-spread at (D). the published measured input capacitance is
reasonably close to the effective value when known as critical coupling is reached, the
the tube is used within its recommended fre- top of the curve begins to flatten out. When
quency range. But in the high- transconduct- the coupling is increased still more, a dip
ance types the effective capacitance will occurs in the top of the curve.
vary considerably from the published figures The windings for this type of i -f trans-
as operating conditions are changed. former, as well as most others, nearly always
The second source of circuit capacitance, consist of small, flat universal -wound pies
and that which is more easily controllable, is mounted either on a piece of dowel to pro-
that contributed by the minimum capacit- vide an air core or on powdered ironfor iron -
ance of the variable capacitors across the cir- core i -f transformers. The iron -core trans-
cuit and that due to capacitance between formers generally have somewhat more gain
the wiring and ground. In well- designed and better selectivity than equivalent air -
high- frequency receivers, every effort is core units.
made to keep this portion of the circuit ca- The circuits shown at figure 16B and C
pacitance at a minimum since a large capac- are quite similar. Their only difference is the
itance reduces the tuning range available type of mutual coupling used, an inductance
with a given coil and prevents a good LC being used at B and a capacitance at C. The
ratio, and consequently a high -impedance operation of both circuits is similar. Three
tuned circuit, from being obtained. resonant circuits are formed by the com-
A good percentage of stray circuit ca- ponents. In B, for example, one resonant cir-
pacitance is due also to distributed capac- cuit is formed by L1, C1, C2, and L2 all in
itance of the coil and capacitance between series. The frequency of this resonant circuit
wiring points and chassis. is just the same as that of a single one of the
Typical values of circuit capacitance may coils and capacitors, since the coils and ca-
run from 10 to 75 pf in high- frequency re- pacitors are similar in both sides of the cir-
ceivers, the first figure representing concen- cuit, and the resonant frequency of the two
tric -line receivers with nuvistor or miniature capacitors and the two coils all in series is
tubes and extremely small tuning capacitors, the same as that of a single coil and capaci-
and the latter representing all -wave sets with tor. The second resonant frequency of the
bandswitching, large tuning capacitors, and complete circuit is determined by the char-
conventional tubes. acteristics of each half of the circuit con-
taining the mutual coupling device. In B,
10-7 I -F Circuits this second frequency will be lower than the
I -f
amplifiers usually employ bandpass cir-
first, since the resonant frequency of L C1,
and inductance M; or L2, C2, and M is lower
cuits of some sort. A bandpass circuit is ex- than that of a single coil and capacitor, due
actly what the name implies -acircuit for to the inductance of M being added to the
passing a band of frequencies. Bandpass ar- circuit.
rangements can be designed for almost any The opposite effect takes place in figure
degree of selectivity, the type used in any 16C, where the common coupling imped-
particular case depending on the ultimate ance is a capacitor. Thus, at C the second
application of the amplifier. resonant frequency is higher than the first.
I -F Intermediate- frequency trans - In either case, however, the circuit has two
Transformers formers ordinarily consist of resonant frequencies, resulting in a flat top-
two or more tuned circuits ped selectivity curve. The width of the top
and some method of coupling the tuned cir- of the curve is controlled by the reactance of
cuits together. Some representative arrange- the mutual coupling component. As this re-
ments are shown in figure 16. The circuit actance is increased (inductance made great-
shown at A is the conventional i -f trans- er, capacitance made smaller), the two res-
former, with the coupling (M) between the onant frequencies become further apart and
tuned circuits being provided by inductive the curve is broadened.
coupling from one coil to the other. As the In the circuit of figure 16D, there is in-
coupling is increased, the selectivity curve ductive coupling between the center coil and
becomes less peaked, and when a condition each of the outer coils. The result of this ar-
HANDBOOK I -F Circuits 237
nant frequency is approached, and remains

nearly constant over a small range and then
decreases again as the resonant band is
passed.
Another very satisfactory bandpass ar-
rangement, which gives a very straight -
sided, flat - topped curve, is the negative mu-
tual arrangement shown in figure 16E.
Energy is transferred between the input and
output circuits in this arrangement by both
the negative mutual coils (M) and the com-
mon capacitive reactance (C) The negative
.
mutual coils are interwound on the same

form, and connected backward.
Transformers usually are made tunable
over a small range to permit accurate align-
ment in the circuit in which they are em-
ployed. This is accomplished either by means
of a variable capacitor across a fixed in-
ductance, or by means of a fixed capacitor
across a variable inductance. The former
usually employ either a mica- compression
capacitor (designated "mica- tuned "), or a
small air- dielectric variable capacitor (des-
ignated "air- tuned ") Those which use a
.
fixed capacitor usually employ a powdered -

iron core on a threaded rod to vary the in-
ductance, and are known as "permeability -
tuned."
Shape Factor It is obvious that to pass mod-
ulation sidebands and to allow
for slight drifting of the transmitter carrier
frequency and the receiver local oscillator,
the i -f amplifier must pass not a single fre-
Figure 16 quency but a band of frequencies. The width
of this passband, usually 5 to 8 kHz at
I -F AMPLIFIER COUPLING maximum width in a good communications
ARRANGEMENTS receiver, is known as the passband, and is
The interstage coupling arrangements illus- arbitrarily taken as the width between the
trated above give a better shape factor (more two frequencies at which the response is at-
straight-sided selectivity ) than would
the same number of tuned circuits coupled by tenuated 6 db, or is "6 db down." How-
means of tubes. ever, it is apparent that to discriminate
against an interfering signal which is strong-
rangement is that the center coil acts as a er than the desired signal, much more than
sharply tuned coupler between the other 6 db attenuation is required. The attenua-
two. A signal somewhat off the resonant tion commonly chosen to indicate adequate
frequency of the transformer will not induce discrimination against an interfering signal
as much current in the center coil as will a is 60 db.
signal of the correct frequency. When a It is apparent that it is desirable to have
smaller current is induced in the center coil, the bandwidth at 60 db down as narrow as
it in turn transfers a still smaller current to possible, but it must be done without mak-
the output coil. The effective coupling being the passband (6 -db points) too narrow
tween the outer coils increases as the reso- for satisfactory reception of the desired sig-
coils of higher Q should be employed, the

coupling being maintained at critical. If the
passband is made more narrow by using
looser coupling instead of raising the Q and
maintaining critical coupling, the shape
factor will not be as good.
The passband will not be much narrower
for several pairs of identical, critically cou-
pled tuned circuits than for a single pair.
However, the shape factor will be greatly
improved as each additional pair is added, up
to about 5 pairs, beyond which the improve-
ment for each additional pair is not signifi-
-15 -10 -5 455 +5 +10 15 cant. Commercially available communica-
kHz
tions receivers of good quality normally em-
Figure 17 ploy 3 or 4 double -tuned transformers with
coupling adjusted to critical or slightly less.
I -F PASSBAND OF TYPICAL The passband of a typical communication
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER receiver having a 455 -kHz i -f amplifier is
shown in figure 17.
nal. The figure of merit used to show the Miller As mentioned previously, the dynam-
ratio of bandwidth at 6 db down to that at Effect is input capacitance of a tube var-
60 db down is designated as shape factor. The ies slightly with bias. As avc voltage
ideal i -f curve (a rectangle), would have normally is applied to i -f tubes for radiotele-
a shape factor of 1.0. The i -f shape factor in phone reception, the effective grid- cathode
typical communications receivers runs from capacitance varies as the signal strength
2.0 to S.S. varies, which produces the same effect as
The most practical method of obtaining slight detuning of the i -f transformer. This
a low shape factor for a given number of effect is known as Miller effect, and can
tuned circuits is to employ them in pairs, as be minimized to the extent that it is not
in figure 16A, adjusted to critical coupling troublesome either by using a fairly low LC
(the value at which two resonance points just ratio in the transformers or by incorporating
begin to become apparent). If this gives a small amount of degenerative feedback,
too sharp a nose or passband, then coils of the latter being most easily accomplished
lower Q should be employed, with the cou- by leaving part of the cathode resistor un-
pling maintained at the critical value. As the bypassed for radio frequencies.
Q is lowered, closer coupling will be required
for critical coupling. Crystal Filters The passband of an interme-
Conversely if the passband is too broad, diate- frequency amplifier may
be made very narrow through the use of a
piezoelectric crystal filter employed as a
series -resonant circuit in a bridge arrange-
ment known as a crystal filter. The shape
factor is quite poor, as would be expected
when the selectivity is obtained from the
equivalent of a single tuned circuit, but the
very narrow passband obtainable as a result
Figure 18 of the extremely high Q of the crystal makes
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF the crystal filter useful for c -w telegraphy
QUARTZ FILTER CRYSTAL reception. The passband of a 455 -kHz crys-
The crystal is equivalent to a very large value tal filter may be made as narrow as 50 Hz
of inductance in series with small values of while the narrowest passband that can be ob-
capacitance and resistance across the whole
circuit (rep ling holder capacitance plus tained with a 455-kHz tuned circuit of
stray capacitances). practical dimensions is about S kHz.
The electrical equivalent of a filter crystal CRYSTAL
is shown in figure 18. For a given frequency, SELECTIVITY

L is very high, C very low, and R (assuming -Q CoNrROL
a good crystal of high Q) is very low. Ca-

pacitance C, represents the shunt capaci- PHASING
tance of the electrodes, plus the crystal CONTROL
holder and wiring, and is many times the

Figure 20
capacitance of C. This makes the crystal act
as a parallel -resonant circuit with a frequen- TYPICAL CRYSTAL FILTER CIRCUIT
cy only slightly higher than that of its fre-
quency of series resonance. For crystal filter is shown in figure 20. The balanced input
use it is the series -resonant characteristic circuit may be obtained either through the
that we are primarily interested in. use of a split- stator capacitor as shown, or
The electrical equivalent of the basic crys- by the use of a centertapped input coil.
tal filter circuit is shown in figure 19. If the
impedance of Z plus Z, is low compared to Rejection As previously discussed, a filter
the impedance of the crystal (X) at reso- Notch crystal has both a resonant (series -
nance, then the current flowing through Z resonant) and an antiresonant
and the voltage developed across it, will be (parallel- resonant) frequency-the imped-
almost in inverse proportion to the impedance of the crystal being quite low at the
ance of X, which has a very sharp resonance former frequency, and quite high at the
curve. latter frequency. The antiresonant frequency
In practical filter circuits the imped- is just slightly higher than the resonant fre-
ances Z and Z, usually are represented by quency, the difference depending on the ef-
some form of tuned circuit, but the basic fective shunt capacitance of the filter crystal
principle of operation is the same. and holder. As adjustment of the phasing ca-
pacitor controls the effective shunt capaci-
Practical Filters It
is necessary to balance out tance of the crystal, it is possible to vary the
the capacitance across the antiresonant frequency of the crystal slightly
crystal holder (C, in figure 18) to prevent without unbalancing the circuit sufficiently
bypassing around the crystal undesired sig- to let undesired signals leak through the
nals off the crystal resonant frequency. The shunt capacitance in appreciable amplitude.
balancing is done by a phasing circuit which At the exact antiresonant frequency of the
takes out -of -phase voltage from a balanced
input circuit and passes it to the output side
of the crystal in proper phase to neutralize
that passed through the holder capacitance.
A representative practical filter arrangement
CRYSTAL NOTCH
Figure 19
EQUIVALENT OF CRYSTAL -4 -3 -2 -1 415 +1 +2 +S +4
FILTER CIRCUIT kHz
For a given voltage out of the g tor, the Figure 21

voltage developed across Zl depends on the
ratio of the impedance of X to the sum of -F PASSBAND OF TYPICAL
the impedances of Iand Z,. Because of the
I
CRYSTAL FILTER
high Q of the crystal, its impedance changes
rapidly with changes in frequency. COMMUNICATION RECEIVER
crystal the attenuation is exceedingly high

because of the high impedance of the crystal
at this frequency. This is called the rejection
notch, and can be utilized to virtually elimi-
nate the heterodyne image or repeat tuning
of c -w signals. The beat -frequency oscillator
can be so adjusted and the phasing capacitor
so adjusted that the desired beat note is of
such a pitch that the image (the same audio
note on the other side of zero beat) falls in
the rejection notch and is inaudible. The re-
ceiver then is said to be adjusted for single -
i,Qual operation (figure 21).
Crystal Filter A crystal filter, especially

Considerations when adjusted for single - Figure 22
signal reception, greatly re-
duces interference and background noise, the COLLINS MECHANICAL FILTERS
latter feature permitting signals to be copied The Collins Mechanical Filter is an electro-
that would ordinarily be too weak to be heard mechanical bandpass filter which surpasses, in
one small unit, the selectivity of conventional,
above the background hiss. However, when space -consuming filters. At the left is the
the filter is adjusted for maximum selectiv- miniaturized filter, less than 2, " long. A
ity, the passband is so narrow that the re- vertical design is next, and two horizontal
mounting types are at right.
ceived signal must have a high order of sta-
bility in order to stay within the passband.
Likewise, the local oscillator in the receiver ical vibration travels through the resonant
must be highly stable, or constant retuning mechanical section to the output transducer,
will be required. Another effect that will be where it is converted by magnetostriction to
noticed with the filter adjusted too "sharp" an electrical signal which appears at the out-
is a tendency for code characters to produce put terminals.
a ringing sound, and have a hangover or
In order to provide the most efficient elec-
"tails." This effect limits the code speed that tromechanical coupling, a small magnet in
can be copied satisfactorily when the filter the mounting above each transducer applies
a magnetic bias to the nickel transducer core.
is adjusted for extreme selectivity.
The electrical impulses then add to or sub-
The Mechanical The Collins Mechanical Fil- tract from this magnetic bias, causing vibra-
Filter ter (figure 22) is a new con- tion of the filter elements which corresponds
cept in the field of selectivi- to the exciting signal. There is no mechani-
ty. It is an electromechanical bandpass filter cal motion except for the imperceptible
about half the size of a cigarette package. vibration of the metal discs.
As shown in figure 23, it consists of an input Magnetostrictively driven mechanical fil-
transducer, a resonant mechanical section ters have several advantages over electrical
comprised of a number of metal discs, and equivalents. In the region from 100 kHz to
an output transducer. 500 kHz, the mechanical elements are ex-
The frequency characteristics of the reso- tremely small, and a mechanical filter having
nant mechanical section provide the almost better selectivity than the best of conven-
rectangular selectivity curves shown in figure tional i -f systems may be enclosed in a
24. The input and output transducers serve package smaller than one i -f transformer.
only as electrical -to- mechanical coupling de- The frequency characteristics of the me-
vices and do not affect the selectivity char- chanical filter are permanent, and no ad-
acteristics which are determined by the justment is required or is possible. The filter
metal discs. An electrical signal applied to is enclosed in a hermetically sealed case.
the input terminals is converted into a me- In order to realize full benefit from the
chanical vibration at the input transducer mechanical filter's selectivity characteristics,
by means of magnetostriction. This mechan- it is necessary to provide shielding between
iiI%
ONE SUPPORTING
DISC AT COUPLING RODS
r
EACH END RESONANT MECMANICAL SECTION/
(e RESONANT DISCS) BIAS MAGNET
IcS
_ 1IV1. \.
+
WWIrataVaVe
\V \V .A_
,,, ,.i \
MAGNETOSTRICTIVE RANSOUCER
DRIVING ROD COIL
ELECTRICAL SIGNAL ELECTRICAL SIGNAL

(INPUT OR OUTPUT) (INPUT OR OUTPUT)
Figure 23
0
MECHANICAL FILTER
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM
10
the external input and output circuits, ca-

pable of reducing transfer of energy external 20
to the filter by a minimum value of 100 db.
If the input circuit is allowed to couple 30
energy into the output circuit external to
the filter, the excellent skirt selectivity will
deteriorate and the passband characteristics 0 65
435 445 55 4 75
will be distorted. RHz
As with almost any mechanically resonant Figure 25
circuit, elements of the mechanical filter
have multiple resonances. These result in MECHANICAL RESONATOR
spurious modes of transmission through the USED AS I -F FILTER
filter and produce minor passbands at fre- A- Transistorized i -f amplifierusing Transfilters
quencies outside the primary passband. De- (TF -1, TF -2).Addition of second Transfilter (X)
sign of the filter reduces these subbands to a will sharpen selectivity. B- Passband of single
Transfilter i -f stage with emitter resonator.
low level and removes them from the im-
mediate area of the major passband. Two
conventional i -f transformers supply in- The Transfilter A small mechanical resonator
creased attenuation to these spurious re- (transfilter) may be used in
sponses, and are sufficient to reduce them to place of an i -f transformer in transistor i -f
an insignificant level. circuits (figure 2A). A second transfilter
Pif
resonator may be substituted for the conven-
tional emitter bypass capacitor to enhance
I-
I
I .000 6AU6 ,
I VERY SMALL
11-2PF)
O o.+
POT.
t-T o2Nls
I DETCCTOR
L - _L _ - _ ._ --J
+e
I
Figure 26
VARIABLE -OUTPUT BFO CIRCUIT

-4 -3 -2 -I 455 +1 +2 +3 +4
kMT A beat- frequency oscillator whose output is
Figure 24 controllable is of considerable assistance in
copying c -w signals over a wide range of
Selectivity curves of 455 -kHz mechanical filters levels, and such a control is often employed
with nominal 0.8 -kHz (dotted line) and 3.1- for satisfactory copying of single -sideband
kHz (solid line) bandwidth at -6 db. signals.
i -f selectivity. Transfilters may also be em- 1F STAGE DEI.
ployed in the high -Q oscillator tuned cir- (-.. AUDIO
cuits. The passband of a single transfilter

i -f stage with emitter resonator is shown
in figure 25B.
5+ e+
Beat -Frequency The beat -frequency oscilla - O GRID -LEAK DETECTOR
Oscillators tor, usually called the bfo,
is a necessary adjunct for re- IF STAGE DET.
ception of c -w or SSB signals on super -

heterodynes which have no other provision
for obtaining modulation of an incoming
c -w or SSB signal. The oscillator is cou-
pled into or just ahead of the second detector
circuit and supplies a signal of nearly the
same frequency as that of the desired signal AUDIO
from the i -f amplifier. If the i -f amplifier is

tuned to 455 kHz, for example, the bfo is
tuned to approximately 454 or 456 kHz to OB DIODE DETECTOR
produce an audible (1000 -Hz) beat note in
the output of the second detector of the re- I -F STAGE DET.
ceiver. The carrier signal itself is, of course, `-~ AUDIO
inaudible. The bfo is not used for a -m re-

ception, except as an aid in searching for
weak stations.
The bfo input to the second detector need
only be sufficient to give a good beat note on
an average signal. Too much coupling into PLATE DETECTOR
the second detector will give an excessively
high hiss level, masking weak signals by the
high noise background. IF STAGE DET.
Figure 26 shows a method of manually ad-

justing the bfo output to correspond with
the strength of received signals. This type
of variable bfo output control is a useful
RECEIVER CUTOF DIAS LINE

OD INFINITE -IMPEDANCE DETECTOR
Figure 28
TYPICAL CIRCUITS FOR GRID- RESISTOR,
DIODE, PLATE, AND INFINITE IMPED-
TO
--
IALANC ANCE DETECTOR STAGES
MODULATOR
5.314
adjunct to any superheterodyne, since it al-

lows sufficient bfo output to be obtained to
+12V. ACC
beat with strong signals or to allow single -
Fig. 27
sideband reception and at the same time
BILATERAL I -F AMPLIFIER
permits the bfo output, and consequently
FOR TRANSCEIVER
Bilateral i -f amplifier stage functions in both
the hiss, to be reduced when attempting to
receive and transmit modes in SSB transceiver. receive weak signals. The circuit shown is
Cutoff -bias lines transfer operation from tran- somewhat better than those in which one of
sistor Q, to transistor Q, as VOX relay is
actuated. Common -emitter stages are used the electrode voltages on the bfo tube is
with base -bias control. changed, as the latter circuits usually change
HANDBOOK Detector, Audio, and Control Circuits 243
the frequency of the bfo at the same time The 15K base -bias resistor of transistor Q2
they change the strength, making it nec- is returned to the transmitter -bias control
essary to reset the trimmer each time the circuit, which is at ground potential when
output is adjusted. the VOX relay is actuated. Thus, in the
The bfo usually is provided with a small receive mode, a signal appearing at the re-
trimmer which is adjustable from the front ceiver i -f transformer (T2) will be ampli-
panel to permit adjustment over a range of 5 fied by transistor Q2 and delivered to the
or 10 kHz. For single -signal reception the i -f transformer (T,) . When the VOX cir-
bfo always is adjusted to the high- frequency cuit is activated to the transmit mode, the
side, in order to permit placing the hetero- two bias -control lines are inverted in po-
dyne image in the rejection notch. larity so that transistor Q2 is cut off and
In order to reduce the bfo signal output Q, is able to conduct. Therefore, a signal
voltage to a reasonable level which will pre- appearing at transformer T, is amplified by
vent blocking the second detector, the signal Q, and impressed on transformer To. Uni-
voltage is delivered through a low- capaci- lateral stages that are not required on either
tance (high- reactance) capacitor having a transmit or receive may be turned off by
value of 1 to 10 pf. returning their base -bias resistors to an
Care must be taken with the bfo to pre- appropriate cutoff -bias control line.
vent harmonics of the oscillator from being
picked up at multiples of the bfo frequency. 10 -8 Detector, Audio, and
The complete bfo together with the coupling
circuits to the second detector, should be Control Circuits
thoroughly shielded to prevent pickup of the
Detectors Second detectors for use in super -
harmonics by the input end of the receiver. heterodynes are usually of the di-
If bfo harmonics still have a tendency to ode, plate, or infinite- impedance types (fig-
give trouble after complete shielding and ure 28) . Occasionally, grid- resistor detectors
isolation of the bfo circuit has been accom- are used in receivers using one i -f stage or
plished, the passage of these harmonics from none at all, in which case the second detector
the bfo circuit to the rest of the receiver can usually is made regenerative.
be stopped through the use of a low -pass Diodes make a practical second detec-
filter in the lead between the output of the tor because they allow a simple method of
bfo circuit and the point on the receiver obtaining automatic volume control to be
where the bfo signal is to be injected. used. Diodes load the tuned circuit to which
they are connected, however, and thus re-
duce the selectivity slightly. Special i -f
Bilateral A bilateral amplifier is one that
Amplifier amplifies in two signal directions
transformers are used for the purpose of
providing a low- impedance input circuit to
(figure 27). Such a stage is useful the diode detector.
in SSB transceivers wherein r -f and i -f stages
function in both receive and transmit modes. Automatic Modern receivers include a
During the receive function, the bilateral Gain Control control loop to automatically
amplifier passes the signal from the mixer to adjust the r -f and i -f gain.
the balanced modulator and during transmit The loop holds the receiver output sub-
it passes the signal in the opposite direction stantially constant despite changes in input
-from the balanced modulator to the signal level. This system is termed automatic
mixer. The same tuned circuits are used for gain control (agc) or automatic volume
both transmitting and receiving. The var- control (avc). In SSB receivers a d -c con-
ious injection oscillators operate continu- trol voltage is derived from the composite
ously, supplying the local mixing signals signal, while in a -m reception, the carrier
to the proper mixer stages. signal is rectified. The control voltage is
In the circuit shown, the amplifier oper- applied to a variable gain element in the
ates in the common -emitter configuration. receiver, usually in the r -f and i -f chain.
In the receive mode, the 33K base -bias The elements of a basic agc system suit-
resistor is returned to the receiver cutoff - able for a -m reception is shown in figure
bias control line, disabling transistor Ql, 29A.
AUDIO
R-F I-F
DET -AVC 6A.5
SPEAKER
+ ro
N34 AcC
120K IK Sri6ES
1N4004 1N4004
I00K le
AGC 47K
LEVE T
2.2M
1N4004
FIRST .01
PROD. DET. AGC RECT. AUDIO STAGE AUDIO
R-F
.01
K
TO
ROC
STAGES
O
Figure 29
AGC CIRCUITS OF A -M AND SSB RECEIVERS

A-Diode ave circuit suitable for a -m reception. Right -hand diode rectifies carrier wave and
delivers pulsating d -c control voltage to r -f and i -f amplifier stages. B- Product detector
and agc system. Bfo voltage is isolated from agc system so that rectified oscillator
voltage does not actuate agc loop. Initial gain level is set by gain potentiometer whose
minimum voltage value may be adjusted to correspond to d-c bias level placed on agc
rectifier. C- Audio -derived agc system is suitable for SSB reception. Agc level Is set by
potentiometer and system provides fast -attack, slow -release response. D -Audio agc
signal is derived from low -level audio stage and applied to signal diodes through
cathode follower. Action of system is similar to that of circuit C.
A dual -diode tube is used as a combination A -C Loading of By disassociating the avc and
diode detector and avc rectifier. The left - Second Detector detecting functions through
hand diode operates as a simple rectifier in the use of separate diodes, as
the manner described earlier in this chapter. shown, most of the ill effects of a -c shunt
Audio voltage, superimposed on a d -c volt- loading on the detector diode are avoided.
age, appears across the 500,000 -ohm potenti- This type of loading causes serious distor-
ometer (the volume control) and the .0001 - tion, and the additional components required
fd capacitor, and is passed on to the audio to eliminate it are well worth their cost.
amplifier. The right -hand diode receives sig- Even with the circuit shown, a -c loading
nal voltage directly from the primary of the can occur unless a very high (5 megohms, or
last i -f amplifier, and acts as the avc recti- more) value of grid resistor is used in the
fier. The pulsating d -c voltage across the following audio amplifier stage.
1- megohm avc-diode load resistor is filtered
by a 500,000 -ohm resistor and a .05 -td AVC in In receivers having a beat -
capacitor, and is applied as bias to the grids of BFO Equipped frequency oscillator for the
the r -f and i -f amplifier tubes; an increase or Receivers reception of c -w or SSB
decrease in signal strength will cause a corre- signals, the use of an avc
sponding increase or decrease in avc bias system such as shown in figure 29A can
voltage, and thus the gain of the receiver is result in a great loss in sensitivity when the
automatically adjusted to compensate for bfo is switched on. This is because the beat -
changes in signal strength. oscillator output acts exactly like a strong
HANDBOOK Detector, Audio, and Control Circuits 245
received signal, and causes the avc circuit to mately equal to the total plate current
put high bias on the r -f and i -f stages, thus taken by the stage or stages whose plate
greatly reducing the receiver's sensitivity. current passes through the instrument.
Due to the above effect, it is necessary to The value of this current can be esti-
either isolate the avc voltage or make the avc mated by assuming a plate current on each
circuit inoperative when the bfo is being stage (with no signal input to the receiver)
used. The simplest method of eliminating the of about 6 ma. However, it will be found
avc action is to short the avc line to ground to be more satisfactory to measure the
when the bfo is turned on. A two- circuit actual plate current on the stages with a
switch may be used for the dual purpose of milliammeter of perhaps 0 -100 ma full scale
turning on the beat oscillator and shorting before purchasing an instrument for use
out the avc if desired. as an S meter. The 50 -ohm potentiometer
shown in the drawing is used to adjust the
AGC for SSB For optimum SSB reception,
Reception the control voltage must be R IF
applied rapidly to the variable
gain element to avoid transient overload at
the beginning portion of each word, or an
annoying agc thump will be apparent at the
start of the first syllable. As the syllabic
envelope of the SSB wave is a replica of the
original audio signal, the agc voltage must
rise rapidly with the start of the syllable and
then hold at a value corresponding to the
average of the syllabic undulations of the
signal over an extended period of seconds.
Too -rapid variation of the agc voltage with
respect to syllabic peaks may bring up back-
ground noise in an objectionable manner,
termed agc pumping. The ideal agc action,
then, exhibits a fast -attack, slow -decay time O-1 D.
constant, such as shown in figure 29B.
Since agc voltage follows the average SSB
syllabic undulation of speech, it is possible R. F or I F
to derive the agc voltage from the audio
system of the receiver as shown in figures
29C and D. A portion of the audio signal
is rectified and returned to the controlled
stages after passing through a combination
filtering and delay network.
Signal-Strength Visual means for determin- 6U5/6G5 one

Indicators ing whether or not the re- 0 OR 6E5
ceiver is properly tuned, as
TO AVC
well as an indication of the relative signal
strength, are both provided by means of
f25Ov.
tuning indicators (S meters) . A d -c milli -
ammeter can be connected in the plate -
supply circuit of one or more r -f or i -f Figure 30
amplifiers, as shown in figure 30A, so that
SIGNAL-STRENGTH METER CIRCUITS
the change in plate current, due to the ac-
tion of the avc voltage, will be indicated on Shown above are four circuits for obtaining a
signal- strength reading which is a function of
the instrument. The d -c instrument (MA) incoming carrier amplitude. The circuits are
should have a full -scale reading approxi- di d in the accompanying text.
meter reading to full scale with no signal approximately 0.003 fd capacitance across
input to the receiver. the primary of the output transformer. The
When an ordinary meter is used in the use of a capacitor in this manner tends to
plate circuit of a stage, for the purpose of make the load impedance seen by the plate
indicating signal strength, the meter reads of the output tube more constant over the
backwards with respect to strength. This is audio- frequency range. The speaker and
because increased avc bias on stronger signals transformer will tend to present a rising im-
causes lower plate current through the meter. pedance to the tube as the frequency in-
The circuit of figure 30B can frequently creases, and the parallel capacitor will tend
be used to advantage in a receiver where the to make the total impedance more constant
cathode of one of the r -f or i -f amplifier since it will tend to present a decreasing
stages runs directly to ground through the impedance with increasing audio frequency.
cathode -bias resistor instead of running
through a cathode -voltage gain control. In 10 -9 Noise Suppression
this case a 0 -1 d -c milliammeter in con-
junction with a resistor of 1000 to 3000 The problem of noise suppression confronts
ohms can be used as shown as a signal - the listener who is located in places where
strength meter. With this circuit the meter interference from power lines, electrical ap-
will read backwards with increasing signal pliances, and automobile ignition systems is
strength as in the circuit previously dis- troublesome. This noise is often of such in-
cussed. tensity as to swamp out signals from desired
Figure 30C is the circuit of a forward - stations.
reading S meter often used in communi- There are two principal methods for re-
cations receivers. The instrument is used in ducing this noise. They are:
an unbalanced bridge circuit with the d -c
plate resistance of one i -f tube as one leg
of the bridge and with resistors for the other (1) line filters at the source of inter-
a -c
three legs. The value of resistor R must be ference, if the noise is created by an
determined by trial and error and will be electrical appliance; and
somewhere in the vicinity of 50,000 ohms. (2) noise -limiting circuits for the reduc-
Sometimes the screen circuits of the r -f and tion, in the receiver itself, of inter-
i -f stages are taken from this point along ference of the type caused by auto-
with the screen -circuit voltage divider. mobile ignition systems.
Audio Amplifen Audio amplifiers are em- Power Line Many household appliances, such
ployed in nearly all radio Filters as electric mixers, heating pads,
receivers. The purpose of the audio amplifier vacuum cleaners, refrigerators,
is to bring the relatively weak signal from oil burners, sewing machines, doorbells, etc.,
the detector up to a strength sufficient to create an interference of an intermittent na-
operate a pair of headphones or a loudspeak- ture. The insertion of a line filter near the
er. Either triodes, pentodes, or beam tetrodes source of interference often will effect a
may be used, the pentodes and beam tetrodes complete cure. Filters for small appliances
usually giving greater output. can consist of a 0.1 -fd capacitor connected
Most communications receivers, either across the 120 -volt a -c line. Two capacitors
home -constructed or factory -made, have a in series across the line, with the midpoint
single -ended beam tetrode such as a 6V6 or connected to ground, can be used in con-
6AQ5 in the audio output stage feeding the junction with industrial heating machines,
speaker. If precautions are not taken such a refrigerators, oil- burner furnaces, and other
stage will actually bring about a decrease in more stubborn offenders. In severe cases of
the effective signal -to -noise ratio of the re- interference, additional filters in the form of
ceiver due to the rising high- frequency char- heavy -duty r -f choke coils must be con-
acteristic of such a stage when feeding a nected in series with the 120 -volt a -c line on
speaker. One way of improving this condi- both sides of the line right at the interfering
tion is to place a mica or paper capacitor of appliance.
HANDBOOK Noise Suppression 247
STI.F. 2ND I.F.

Peak Noise Numerous noise -limiting circuits IST DST.
69E6
Limiters which are beneficial in overcom-
ing key clicks, automobile igni-
tion interference, and similar noise impulses
have become popular. They operate on the
principle that each individual noise pulse is
of very short duration, yet of very high
amplitude. The popping or clicking type of
noise from electrical ignition systems may
produce a signal having a peak value ten to
twenty times as great as the incoming radio
signal, but an average power much less than
the signal.
As the duration of this type of noise peak
is short, the receiver can be made inoperative
during the noise pulse without the human
ear detecting the total loss of signal. Some
noise limiters actually punch a hole in the
signal while others merely limit the maxi-
mum peak signal which reaches the head-
phones or speaker. Figure 31
The noise peak is of such short duration THE LAMB I -F NOISE SILENCER
that it would not be objectionable except for
the fact that it produces an overloading ef- double -grid tube, such as a 6BE6, and thence
fect on the receiver, which increases its time into the i -f chain. A 6BJ6 high -gain pent-
constant. A sharp voltage peak will give a ode is capacity coupled to the input of the
kick to the diaphragm of the headphones or i -f system. This auxiliary tube amplifies
speaker, and the momentum or inertia keeps
both signal and noise that is fed to it. It has
the diaphragm in motion until the damping
a maximum of selectivity ahead of it so that
of the diaphragm stops it. This move- it receives the true noise pulse before it is
ment produces a popping sound which may degraded by the i -f strip. A broadly tuned
completely obliterate the desired signal. If i -f transformer is used to couple the noise
the noise pulse can be limited to a peak am- amplifier to a 6AL5 noise rectifier. The gain
plitude equal to that of the desired signal, of the noise amplifier is controlled by a po-
the resulting interference is practically neg- tentiometer in the cathode of the 6BJ6
ligible for moderately low repetition rates,
noise amplifier. This potentiometer controls
such as ignition noise. the gain of the noise amplifier stage and in
In addition, the i -f amplifier of the receiv- addition sets the bias level on the 6AL5
er will also tend to lengthen the duration of diode so that the incoming signal will not be
the noise pulses because the relatively high-0 rectified. Only noise peaks louder than the
i -f tuned circuits will ring or oscillate when
signal can overcome the resting bias of the
excited by a sharp pulse, such as is produced
6AL5 and cause it to conduct. A noise pulse
by ignition noise. The most effective noise
rectified by the 6AL5 is applied as a nega-
limiter would be placed before the high-0
tive voltage to the control grid of the 6BE6
i -f tuned circuits. At this point the noise
i -f tube, disabling the tube, and punching
pulse is the sharpest and has not been de-
a hole in the signal at the instant of
graded by passage through the i -f transform-
the noise pulse. By varying the bias con-
ers. In addition, the pulse is eliminated be-
fore it can produce ringing effects in the i -f
trol of the noise limiter, the negative con-
trol voltage applied to the 6BE6 may be ad-
chain.
justed until it is barely sufficient to over-
The Lamb An i -f noise limiter is shown come the noise impulses applied to the #1
Noise Limiter in figure 31. This is an adap- control grid without allowing the modula-
tation of the Lamb noise tion peaks of the carrier to become badly
silencer circuit. The i -f signal is fed into a distorted.
The Bishop Another effective i -f noise an audio peak limiter is best accomplished at
Noise Limiter limiter is the Bishop limiter. the very front end of the audio system, and
This is a full -wave shunt type for this reason the function of a superheter-
diode limiter applied to the primary of the odyne second detector and limiter often are
last i -f transformer of a receiver. The lim- combined in a composite circuit.
iter is self -biased and automatically adjusts The amount of limiting that can be ob-
itself to the degree of modulation of the retained is a function of the audio distortion
ceived signal. The schematic of this limiter that can be tolerated. Because excessive dis-
is shown in figure 32. The bias -circuit time tortion will reduce the intelligibility as much
constant is determined by C, and the shunt as will background noise, the degree of
resistance, which consists of R, and R_ in limiting for which the circuit is designed has
series. The plate resistance of the last i -f to be a compromise.
tube and the capacity of C, determine the Peak noise limiters working at the second
charging rate of the circuit. The limiter is detector are much more effective when the
disabled by opening S1, which allows the bias i -f bandwidth of the receiver is broad, be-
to rise to the value of the i -f signal.
cause a sharp i -f amplifier will lengthen the
Audio Noise Some of the simplest and most pulses by the time they reach the second
Limiters practical peak limiters for ra- detector, making the limiter less effective.
diotelephone reception employ Vhf superheterodynes have an i -f bandwidth
one or two diodes either as shunt or series considerably wider than the minimum nec-
limiters in the audio system of the receiver. essary for voice sidebands (to take care of
When a noise pulse exceeds a certain pre- drift and instability). Therefore, they are
determined threshold value, the limiter diode capable of better peak noise suppression than
acts either as a short or open circuit, depend- a standard communications receiver having
ing on whether it is used in a shunt or series an i -f bandwidth of perhaps 8 kHz. Like-
circuit. The threshold is made to occur at a wise, when a crystal filter is used on the
level high enough that it will not clip modu- "sharp" position an a -f peak limiter is of
lation peaks enough to impair voice intelligi- little benefit.
bility, but low enough to limit the noise
Practical Noise limiters range all the
peaks effectively.
Because the action of the peak limiter is
Peak Noise way from an audio stage
Limiter Circuits running at very low screen
needed most on very weak signals, and these
usually are not strong enough to produce or plate voltage, to elaborate
proper avc action, a threshold setting that is
affairs employing 5 or more tubes. Rather
correct for a strong phone signal is not than attempt to show the numerous types,
correct for optimum limiting on very weak many of which are quite complex consider-
signals. For this reason the threshold control ing the results obtained, only two very
is often tied in with the avc system so as
similar types will be described. Either is
to make the optimum threshold adjustment just about as effective as the most elaborate
automatic instead of manual. limiter that can be constructed, yet requires
the addition of but a single diode and a few
Suppression of impulse noise by means of
resistors and capacitors over what would be
employed in a good superheterodyne without
a limiter. Both circuits, with but minor
modifications in resistance and capacitance
values, are incorporated in one form or an-
other in different types of factory -built com-
munications receivers.
Referring to figure 33, the first circuit
shows a conventional superheterodyne second
detector, avc, and first audio stage with the
addition of one tube element (D3) which
Figure 32
may be either a separate diode or part of a
THE BISHOP I -F NOISE LIMITER twin -diode as illustrated. Diode D3 acts as a
HANDBOOK Noise Suppression 249
VI Va
LAST 1 -1* TUSE Ire 6M6,6AL5,ETC or AUDIO
CI -0.1 -fd paper
C, -SO -pf mica
<-1 00-pf mica
CI, CS-0.01 -0d. paper
R,, R.2-1 meg, 1/2 watt
R, R4-220,000 ohms,
1/2 watt
R;, R.-1 mes,
1/2 watt
R7-2 -mes potentiometer
NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT, WITH ASSOCIATED AVC

This limiter is of the series type, and is self-adjusting to carrier strength for phone reception.
For proper operation several volts should be developed e he secondary of the last i-f trans-
former (IFT) under carrier conditions.
series gate, allowing audio to reach the grid the circuit of figure 30. This circuit can be
of the a -f tube only so long as the diode is used with equal effectiveness with a com-
conducting. The diode is biased by a d -c bined diode- triode or diode- pentode tube
voltage obtained in the same manner as avc (6AT6, 6BN8, 6FM8, or similar diode -tri-
control voltage, the bias being such that odes, or 6AS8, 6CR6, 6BW8, or similar
pulses of short duration no longer conduct diode -pentodes) as diode detector and first
when the pulse voltage exceeds the carrier by audio stage. However, a separate diode must
approximately 60 percent. This also clips be used for the noise limiter (D,). This
voice modulation peaks, but not enough to diode may be one-half of a 6H6, or 6ALS,
impair intelligibility. etc.; it may be a triode connected 6J5, 6C4,
It is apparent that the series diode clips or similar type, or it may be a high back -
only positive modulation peaks, by limiting resistance diode (1N658), or equivalent.
upward modulation to about 60 percent. Note that the return for the volume con-
Negative or downward peaks are limited trol must be made to the cathode of the de-
automatically to 100 percent in the detector, tector diode (and not to ground) when a
because obviously the rectified voltage out of dual tube is used as combined second -de-
the diode detector cannot be less than zero. tector first- audio. This means that in the cir-
It is important that the exact resistance cuit shown in figure 34 a connection will
values shown be used, for best results, and exist across the points where the "X" is
that 10- percent tolerance resistors be used shown on the diagram since a common
for R:, and R,. Also, the rectified carrier cathode lead is brought out of the tube for
voltage developed across C, should be at least D, and V,. If desired, of course, a single
S volts for good limiting. dual diode may be used for D, and D, in
The limiter will work well on c -w and this circuit as well as in the circuit of figure
SSB if the amplitude of beat- frequency 30. Switching the limiter in and out with
oscillator injection is not too high. Variable the switch S brings about no change in vol-
injection is to be preferred, adjustable from ume.
the front panel. If this feature is not pro-
The Full -Wave The most satisfactory diode
vided, the bfo injection should be reduced to
Limiter noise limiter is the series full -
the lowest value that will give a satisfactory
wave limiter, shown in figure
beat.
35. The positive noise peaks are clipped by
Alternative The circuit of figure 34 is diode A, the clipping level of which may be
Limiter Circuit more effective than that adjusted to clip at any modulation level be-
shown in figure 33 under cer- tween 25 and 100 percent. The negative
tain conditions and requires the addition of noise peaks are clipped by the right -hand
only one more resistor and one more capaci- diode at a fixed level.
tor than the other circuit. Also, this circuit The TNS Limiter The Twin Noise Squelch,
involves a smaller loss in output level than is a combination of a diode
This circuit is of the self-ad-

justing type and gives less
distortion for a given degree
of modulation than the more
common limiter circuits.
R,, R,-470K, 1/2 watt
Its-100K, 1/2 watt
R,, Rs-1 meg, Y2 watt
Its-2-meg potentiometer
Cs-0.00025 mica (approx.)
C,- 0.01 -fd paper
C 0.01 -fd paper
C, -0.01 -fd paper
D,, D -6H6, GALS, diode
sections of a 6AT6, or
crystal diodes.
Figure 34
ALTERNATIVE NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT
noise clipper and an audio squelch tube. The (CR,,Z) to conduct, thus disabling the
squelch circuit is useful in eliminating the tuned circuits of the i -f amplifier. Input
grinding background noise that is the resid- level to the blanker is adjusted by varying
ual left by the diode clipper. In figure 36, the capacitor in the base circuit of the first
the setting of the 470K potentiometer deter- transistor.
mines the operating level of the squelch action
and should be set to eliminate the residual 10 -10 Special
background noise. Because of the low in- Considerations in
herent distortion of the TNS, it may be left UHF Receiver Design
in the circuit at all times. As with other
limiters, the TNS requires a high signal level Transmission At increasingly higher fre-
at the second detector for maximum limiting Line Circuits quencies, it becomes progres-
effect. sively more difficult to obtain
Noise Blanker The noise blanker (figure 37) a satisfactory amount of selectivity and im-
employs the i -f signal to pedance from an ordinary coil and capacitor
drive blanking diodes which short out one used as a resonant circuit. On the other
or more of the tuned circuits in the i -f hand, quarter -wavelength sections of parallel
system, much in the manner of the Bishop conductors or concentric transmission line
limiter. Impulse noise entering the high - are not only more efficient but also approach
selectivity portion of a receiver causes pulse practical dimensions.
stretching (ringing) which makes weak -
signal reception difficult. Reduction of im-
pulse noise prior to amplification by high -
selectivity circuits is desired for effective
noise suppression.
In vhf receiving systems utilizing con-
verters, it is possible to place the noise -
suppression system between the converter
and the receiver for effective blanking ac-
tion. Junction field -effect (JFET) tran- AUDIO
sistors may be used in order to reduce cross -

modulation from strong signals and to
provide the greatest dynamic blanking
range.
Figure 35
Several stages of amplification are used
to provide high -amplitude, squared noise THE FULL-WAVE SERIES AUDIO
pulses which cause the blanking diodes NOISE LIMITER
HANDBOOK UHF Receiver Design 251
IF 2ND DET. -AUDIO

Tuning Tubes and tuning capacitors STAGE
AUDIO
Short Lines connected to the open end of a
transmission line provide a ca-
pacitance that makes the resonant length less
than a quarter wavelength. The amount of
shortening for a specified capacitive react-
ance is determined by the surge impedance
of the line section. It is given by the equa-
tion for resonance:
2 ir fC
- ZD tan l
where,
a equals 3.1416,
f equals the frequency,
C equals the capacitance,
ZD equals the surge impedance of the line,
tan 1 equals the tangent of the electrical Figure 36
length in degrees.
THE TNS AUDIO NOISE LIMITER
The capacitive reactance of the capaci-
tance across the end is 1/ (27rf C) ohms. tively coupled at the shorting -bar end, either
For resonance, this must equal the surge im- to the bar or to the two rods, or both. This
pedance of the line times the tangent of its normally will result in a balanced load.
electrical length (in degrees, where 90 Should a loop unbalanced to ground be cou-
equals a quarter wave). It will be seen that pled in, any resulting unbalance reflected in-
twice the capacitance will resonate a line if to the rods can be reduced with a simple
its surge impedance is halved; also that a Faraday screen, made of a few parallel wires
given capacitance has twice the loading ef- placed between the hairpin loop and the rods.
fect when the frequency is doubled. These should be soldered at only one end and
Coupling Into It is possible to couple into grounded.
Lines and a parallel -rod line by tap - An unbalanced tap on a coaxial resonant
Coaxial Circuits ping directly on one or both circuit can be made directly on the inner
rods, preferably through conductor at the point where it is properly
blocking capacitors if any d.c. is present. matched (figure 38). For low impedances,
More commonly, however, a hairpin is induc- such as a concentric -line feeder, a small one -
half turn loop can be inserted through a hole
TO in the outer conductor of the coaxial circuit,
2ND I-F
MIXER IF AMP. 2 STAGE being in effect a half of the hairpin type
recommended for coupling balanced feeders
to coaxial resonant lines. The size of the loop
and closeness to the inner conductor deter-
mines the impedance matching and loading.
Such loops coupled in near the shorting disc
do not alter the tuning appreciably, if they
are not overcoupled.
A NO
PULSISEE
AMPLIFIER
PULSE
SQUARER
TIME
CONSTANT
ADJUST. Resonant A cavity is a closed resonant
Figure 37 Cavities chamber made of metal. The cav-
NOISE BLANKER FOR I -F SYSTEM
Noise blanker employs i -f signal to drive
ity, having both inductance and
blanking diodes (CR., CR) which short out capacitance, supersedes coil- capacitor and ca-
one or more tuned circuits in the i -f amplifier. pacitance loaded transmission -line tuned cir-
Impulse noise is amplified and processed to
provide optimum blanking signal to diodes. cuits at extremely high fequencies where
CAVITY CAVITY
()LOOP
CONCENTRIC LINE
LINE
CAVITY VITY
O CAV
:W1T'.
Figure 38
IDS
COUPLING AN ANTENNA TO A HOLE ELECTRON
BEAM
COAXIAL RESONANT CIRCUIT
Figure 39
A shows the recommended method for cou-
pling a coaxial line to a coaxial resonant cir- METHODS OF EXCITING A RESONANT
cuit. B shows an alternative method for use
with an open-wire type of antenna feed line. CAVITY
conventional L and C components, of even cube), ellipsoid, ellipsoid -hyperboloid, dough-

the most refined design, prove impractical nut- shape, and various re- entrant types. In
because of the tiny electrical and physical appearance, they resemble in their simpler
dimensions they must have. Microwave cav- forms metal boxes or cans.
ities have high Q factors and are superior to The cavity actually is a linear circuit, but
conventional tuned circuits. They may be one which is superior to a conventional co-
employed in the manner of an obsorption axial resonator in the uhf range. The cavity
wavemeter or as the tuned circuit in other resonates in much the same manner as does a
r -f test instruments, and in microwave trans- barrel or a closed room with reflecting walls.
mitters and receivers. Because electromagnetic energy (and the
Resonant cavities usually are closed on all associated electrostatic energy) oscillates to
sides and all of their walls are made of con- and fro inside them in one mode or another,
duct ing material. However, in some forms, resonant cavities resemble waveguides. The
small openings are present for the purpose of mode of operation in a cavity is affected by
excitation (figure 39). the manner in which microwave energy is in-
Cavities have been produced in several jected. A cavity will resonate to a large
shapes including the plain sphere, dimpled number of frequencies, each being associated
sphere, sphere with re- entrant cones of
various sorts, cylinder, prism (including
TUNING
SLUGS
INPUT OUTP T
Figure 41
THE BUTTERFLY RESONANT CIRCUIT

Figure 40
Shown at A is the physical app I
the butterfly circuit as used in the vhf and
TUNING METHODS FOR CYLINDRICAL lower uhf range. B shows an electrical repre-
RESONANT CAVITIES sentation of the circuit.
HANDBOOK UHF Receiver Design 253
with a particular mode or standing -wave electrical midpoint. Coupling may be ef-
pattern. The lowest mode (lowest frequency fected by means of a small single-turn loop
of operation) of a cavity resonator normally placed near point E or F. The butterfly thus
is the one used. permits continuous variation of both capaci-
The resonant frequency of a cavity may tance and inductance, as indicated by the
be varied, if desired, by means of movable equivalent circuit in figure 41B, while at the
plungers or plugs, as shown in figure 40A, same time eliminating all pigtails and wiping
or a movable metal disc (figure 40B). A contacts.
cavity that is too small for a given wave- Butterfly circuits have been applied spe-
length will not oscillate. cifically to oscillators for transmitters, super-
The resonant frequencies of simple spheri- heterodyne receivers, and heterodyne fre-
cal, cylindrical, and cubical cavities may be quency meters in the 100- to 1000 -MHz
calculated simply for one particular mode. frequency range.
Wavelength and cavity dimensions (in centi- Receiver The types of resonant circuits de-
meters) are related by the following simple Circuits scribed in the previous paragraphs
resonance formulas:
have largely replaced conventional
for cylinder Ar = 2.6 X radius; coil -capacitor circuits in the range above 200
for cube Ar = 2.83 X half of 1 side; MHz. Tuned short lines and butterfly cir-
for sphere Ar = 2.28 X radius. cuits are used in the range from about 200
MHz to perhaps 3500 MHz, and above
Butterfly Unlike the cavity resonator, which
about 3500 MHz resonant cavities are used
Circuit in its conventional form is a device almost exclusively. The resonant cavity is
which can tune over a relatively also quite generally employed in the 2000 -
narrow band, the butterfly circuit is a tun- to 3500-MHz range.
able resonator which permits coverage of a
fairly wide uhf band. The butterfly circuit VHF Tubes In a properly designed re-
is very similar to a conventional coil /vari- and Transistors ceiver, thermal agitation in
able -capacitor combination, except that both the first tuned circuit is
inductance and capacitance are provided by amplified by subsequent tubes or transistors
what appears to be a variable capacitor and predominates in the output. For good
alone. The Q of this device is somewhat less signal -to- set -noise ratio, therefore, one must
than that of a concentric -line tuned circuit strive for a high -gain low -noise r -f stage.
but is entirely adequate for numerous appli- Hiss can be held down by giving careful
cations. attention to this point. A mixer has about
Figure 41A shows construction of a 0.3 the gain of an r-f tube or transistor of
single butterfly section. The butterfly -shaped the same type; so it is advisable to precede
rotor, from which the device derives its a mixer by an efficient r -f stage. It is also
name, turns in relation to the unconvention- of some value to have good r -f selectivity
al stator. The two groups of stator "fins" or before the first mixer in order to reduce
sectors are in effect joined together by a noises produced by beating noise at one fre-
semicircular metal band, integral with the quency against noise at another, to produce
sectors, which provides the circuit induc- noise at the intermediate frequency in a
tance. When the rotor is set to fill the loop superheterodyne.
opening (the position in which it is shown The frequency limit of a tube or transistor
in figure 41A), the circuit inductance and is reached when the shortest possible external
capacitance are reduced to minimum. When connections are used as the tuned circuit,
the rotor occupies the position indicated by except for abnormal types of oscillation.
the dotted lines, the inductance and capaci- Wires or sizable components are often best
tance are at maximum. The tuning range of considered as sections of transmission lines
practical butterfly circuits is in the ratio of rather than as simple resistances, capaci-
1.5:1 to 3.5:1. tances, or inductances.
Direct circuit connections may be made to Tubes employing the conventional grid -
points A and B. If balanced operation is de- controlled and diode rectifier principles have
sired, either point C or D will provide the been modernized, through various expedients,
for operation at frequencies as high, in some

new types, as 4000 MHz. Beyond that fre- s r vsoc : BRASS BASE CONNECTOR
quency, electron transit time becomes the

limiting factor and new principles must be CERAMIC SLEEVE
enlisted. In general, the improvements em- BRASS CAP
bodied in existing tubes have consisted of BRASS CONNECTOR PIN
(I) reducing electrode spacing to cut down
electron transit time, (2) reducing electrode Figure 42
areas to decrease interelectrode capacitances,
1N23 MICROWAVE -TYPE
and (3) shortening of electrode leads either CRYSTAL DIODE
by mounting the electrode assembly close to
the tube base or by bringing the leads out A small silicon crystal is attached to the base
c for and a An* feeler wire is set to the
directly through the glass envelope at nearby most sensitive spot on the crystal. After ad-
points. Through reduction of lead inductance justment the ceramic shell is Ailed with com-
pound to hold the contact wire in position.
and interelectrode capacitances, input and Crystals of this type are used to over 30,000
output resonant frequencies due to tube con- MHz.
struction have been increased substantially.
Tubes embracing one or more of the fea- quency) will be rectified by the diode. The
tures just outlined include the later loctal load, through which the rectified current
types, high- frequency acorns, button -base flows, may be connected in series or shunt
types, and the lighthouse types. The button - with the diode.
base triode and the 6CW4 Nuvistor will
reach 500 MHz. 10 -11 Receiver
VHF Transistors
Adjustment
The general use of tran-
sistorized tuners in color A simple regenerative receiver requires
TV receivers has led to the development of little adjustment other than that necessary
low- noise, high -gain transistors, suitable for to ensure correct tuning and smooth regen-
use up to 1 GHz, or beyond. When used in eration over some desired range. Receivers of
the recommended circuitry, noise figures are the tuned- radio - frequency type and super -
typically: 200 MHz -2.4; 450 MHz -3J hetera.ynes require precise alignment to ob-
and 1 GHz -6J. In amateur work, tran- tain the highest possible degree of selectivity
and sensitivity.
sistors have largely replaced tubes for low -
noise reception above 144 MHz. Good results can be obtained from a re-
ceiver only when it is properly aligned and
Germanium Small germanium semiconduc- adjusted. The most practical technique for
Rectifiers tors are employed as detector making these adjustments is given below.
and mixer elements in receivers
and test instruments used at extremely high Instruments A very small number of instru-
radio frequencies. The chief advantages of ments will suffice to check and
the germanium diode are very low capaci- align a communications receiver, the most
tance, relative freedom from transit time important of these testing units being a
difficulties, and its two - terminal nature. modulated oscillator and a d -c and a -c volt-
The diode consists of a small piece of ger- meter. The meters are essential in checking
manium mounted in a base of low- melting- the voltage applied at each circuit point
point alloy and contacted by means of a from the power supply. If the a -c voltmeter
thin, springy wire (figure 42) . is of the oxide- rectifier type, it can be used,
The complex physics of solid -state recti- in addition, as an output meter when con-
fication is beyond the scope of this discus- nected across the receiver output when tun-
sion, but it is sufficient to state that cur- ing to a modulated signal. If the signal is a
rent flows from several hundred to several steady tone, such as from a test oscillator,
thousand times more readily in one direction the output meter will indicate the value of
through the diode than in the opposite the detected signal. In this manner, align-
direction. Consequently, an alternating cur- ment results may be visually noted on the
rent (including one of microwave fre- meter.
HANDBOOK Receiver Adjustment 255
TRF Receiver Alignment procedure in a modulated signal on the frequency at which

Alignment multistage trf receiver is ex- the i -f amplifier is to operate, clip the "hot"
actly the same as aligning a output lead from the generator through a
single stage. If the detector is regenerative, small fixed capacitor to the control grid of
each preceding stage is successively aligned the last i -f tube. Adjust both trimmer ca-
while keeping the detector circuit tuned to pacitors in the last i -f transformer (the one
the test signal, the latter being a station between the last i -f amplifier tube and the
signal or one locally generated by a test second detector) to resonance as indicated by
oscillator loosely coupled to the antenna maximum deflection of the output meter.
lead. During these adjustments, the r -f am- Each i -f stage is adjusted in the same
plifier gain control is adjusted for maximum manner, moving the hot lead, stage by stage,
sensitivity, assuming that the r -f amplifier back toward the front end of the receiver
is stable and does not oscillate. Often a sen- and backing off the attenuator as the signal
sitive receiver can be roughly aligned by strength increases in each new position. The
tuning for maximum noise pickup. last adjustment will be made to the first i -f
transformer, with the hot signal generator
Superheterodyne Aligning a superhet is a lead connected to the control grid of the
Alignment detailed task requiring a mixer. Occasionally it is necessary to discon-
great amount of care and nect the mixer grid lead from the coil,
patience. It should never be undertaken grounding it through a 1000- or 5000 -ohm
without a thorough understanding of the resistor, and then couple the signal generator
involved job to be done and then only when through a small capacitor to the grid.
there is abundant time to devote to the V6'hen the last i -f adjustment has been
operation. There are no shortcuts; every completed, it is good practice to go back
circuit must be adjusted individually and through the i -f channel, re- peaking all of
accurately if the receiver is to give peak per- the transformers. It is imperative that this
formance. The precision of each adjustment recheck be made in sets which do not include
is dependent on the accuracy with which a crystal filter, and where the simple align-
the preceding one was made. ment of the i -f amplifier to the generator is
Superhet alignment requires (1) a good final.
signal generator (modulated oscillator) cov-
ering the radio and intermediate frequencies l -F with There are several ways of align -
and equipped with an attenuator; (2) the Crystal Filter ing an i -f channel which con-
necessary socket wrenches, screwdrivers, or tains a crystal -filter circuit.

"neutralizing tools' to adjust the various i -f However, the following method is one which
and r -f trimmer capacitors; and (3) some has been found to give satisfactory results in
convenient type of tuning indicator, such as every case: An unmodulated signal generator
a copper -oxide or electronic voltmeter. capable of tuning to the frequency of the
Throughout the alignment process, unless filter crystal in the receiver is coupled to
specifically stated otherwise, the r -f gain the grid of the stage which precedes the
control must be set for maximum output, crystal filter in the receiver. Then, with the
the beat oscillator switched off, and the avc crystal filter switched in, the signal genera-
turned off or shorted out. When the signal tor is tuned slowly to find the frequency
output of the receiver is excessive, either the where the crystal peaks. The receiver "S"
attenuator or the a -f gain control may be meter may be used as the indicator, and the
turned down, but never the r -f gain control. sound heard from the speaker will be of as-
sistance in finding the point. When the fre-
-F Alignment After the receiver has been quency at which the crystal peaks has been
given a rigid electrical and found, all the i -f transformers in the receiv-
mechanical inspection, and any faults which er should be touched up to peak at that
may have been found in wiring or the selec- frequency.
tion and assembly of parts are corrected,
the i -f amplifier may be aligned as the first BFO AdjustmentAdjusting the beat oscilla-
step in the checking operations. tor on a receiver that has
With the signal generator set to give a no front -panel adjustment is relatively sim-
IF SIGNAL IN
2N3783 ool
i F S GNAL our ing of first getting the oscillator to cover
the desired frequency range and then of
peaking the various r-f circuits for maxi-
15014 mum gain. However, if the frequency range
RFC 000
25 MN
covered by the receiver is very wide a fair
amount of cut and try will be required to
obtain satisfactory tracking between the r -f
25N
circuits and the oscillator. Manufactured
' --I -F ALONE
communications receivers should always be
tuned in accordance with the instructions
PLUS MULTIPLIER
I F O
given in the maintenance manual.
10 -12 Receiving
Accessories
455 Ws
FREQUENCY
The Q- Multiplier The selectivity of a receiv-
Figure 43 er may be increased by rais-
ing the Q of the tuned circuits of the i -f
The Q- MULTIPLIER
strip. A simple way to accomplish this is to
The loss resistance of a high -Q circuit is neu- add a controlled amount of positive feed-
tralised by regeneration in a simple feedback
amplifier. A highly selective passband is pro- back to a tuned circuit, thus increasing its
duced which is coupled to the i -f circuit of fhe O. This is done in the Q- multiplier, whose
receiver. basic circuit is shown in figure 43. The cir-
cuit L -C, -C, is tuned to the intermediate
ple. Itis only necessary to tune the receiver frequency, and the loss resistance of the cir-
to resonance with any signal, as indicated by cuit is neutralized by the positive- feedback
the tuning indicator, and then turn on the circuit composed of C3 and the vacuum
bfo and set its trimmer (or trimmers) to tube. Too great a degree of positive feedback
produce the desired beat note. Setting the will cause the circuit to break into oscilla-
beat oscillator in this way will result in the tion.
beat note being stronger on one "side" of the At the resonant frequency, the impedance
signal than on the other, which is what is of the tuned circuit is very high, and when
desired for c -w reception. The bfo should shunted across an i -f stage will have little
not be set to zero beat when the receiver is effect upon the signal. At frequencies re-
tuned to resonance with the signal, as this moved from resonance, the impedance of
will cause an equally strong beat to be ob- the circuit is low, resulting in high attenua-
tained on both sides of resonance. tion of the i -f signal. The resonant frequen-
cy of the Q- multiplier may be varied by
Front -End Alignment of the front end of a changing the value of one of the components
Alignment home -constructed receiver is a in the tuned circuit.
relatively simple process, consist-
The Product Detector A version of the com-
R -F SIGNAL PRODUCT HAUDIO OUTPUT mon mixer or convert-
DETECTOR
er stage may be used as a second detector
in a receiver in place of the usual diode de-
tector. The diode is an envelope detector
(section 12 -1) and develops a d -c output
LOCAL
OSCILLATOR voltage from a single r-f signal, and audio
"beats" from two or more input signals. A
Figure 44 product detector (figure 44) requires that
a local carrier voltage be present in order to
THE PRODUCT DETECTOR
produce an audio output signal. Such a de-
Audio output signal is developed only whoa
local oscillator is ea. tector is useful for single- sideband work,
HANDBOOK Receiving Accessories 257
613E6 10K 12AU7 .01

V, + V2
(-.AUDIO
100 OUT
I-F 7K
100 K
BEAT
SIGNAL
- OSC. +
BFO Figure 46
TRANS-
FORMER
DOUBLE -TRIODE PRODUCT DETECTOR
since the intermodulation distortion is ex-

Figure 45 tremely low.
A pentagrid product detector is shown in
COMBINED BEAT OSCILLATOR AND figure 45. The incoming signal is applied to
PRODUCT DETECTOR
grid 3 of the mixer tube, and the local oscil-
The variable i -f coupling capacitor is adjusted lator is injected on grid 1. Grid bias is ad-
to provide approximately 0.2 volt peak signal
at pin 7 of the 63E6. justed for operation over the linear portion
of the tube -characteristic curve. When grid -
1 injection is removed, the audio output
560 from an unmodulated signal applied to grid
3 should be reduced approximately 30 to
40 db below normal detection level. When
the frequency of the local oscillator is syn-
chronized with the incoming carrier, ampli-
560
FROM RFD
tude- modulated signals may be received by
exalted- carrier reception, wherein the local
carrier substitutes for the transmitted car-
rier of the a -m signal.
A different version of the product detec-
1N67A 1N6r,7A 66K .00z tor is illustrated in figure 46. A twin -triode
W tube is used. Section V, functions as a
1SW70r+IO AUDIO
OM
1-F
11 I 500 1t cathode - follower amplifier. Section V2 is a
"plate" detector, the cathode of which is
FROM BFO
common with the cathode - follower amplifier.
The local- oscillator signal is injected into
the grid circuit of tube V2.
Figure 47
Figure 47 shows solid -state product de-
SOLID -STATE PRODUCT DETECTOR tectors employing switching diodes driven
Switching diodes driven by bfo signal provide
effective product detector. by voltage from a local bfo.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Generation of
Radio -Frequency Energy
A radio communication or broadcast radio- frequency generator. A modern high -

transmitter consists of a source of radio fre- frequency transmitter, on the other hand, is
quency power, or carrier; a system for a very complex generator. Such equipment
modulating the carrier whereby voice or comprises a very stable crystal -controlled or
telegraph keying or other modulation is self -controlled oscillator to stabilize the out-
superimposed upon it; and an antenna sys- put frequency, a series of frequency multi -
tem, including feedline, for radiating the pliers, or mixers, one or more amplifier stages
intelligence- carrying radio- frequency power. to increase the power up to the level which
The power supply employed to convert pri- is desired for feeding the antenna system,
mary power to the various voltages required and a filter system for keeping the har-
by the r -f and modulator portions of the monic energy generated in the transmitter
transmitter may also be considered part of from being fed to the antenna system.
the transmitter.
Voice modulation usually is accomplished 11 -1 Self -Controlled
by varying either the amplitude or the fre-
quency of the radio- frequency carrier in ac- Oscillators
cord with the components of intelligence to
be transmitted or by generation of an SSB The amplifying properties of a three- (or
signal. more) element vacuum tube or a three -ter-
Radiotelegraph modulation (keying) nor- minal transistor give them the ability to
mally is accomplished either by interrupting, generate an alternating current of a fre-
shifting the frequency of, or superimposing quency determined by auxiliary compo-
an audio tone on the radio- frequency carrier nents associated with them. Such circuits
in accordance with the dots and dashes to be are termed oscillators. To generate a -c power
transmitted. with an amplifier, a portion of the output
The complexity of the radio- frequency power must be returned or fed back to the
generating portion of the transmitter is de- input in phase with the starting power
pendent on the power, order of stability, and (figure 1) . The power delivered to the load
frequency desired. An oscillator feeding an will be the output power less the feedback
antenna directly is the simplest form of power.
Self- Controlled Oscillators 259
AMPLIFIER PACKAGE
R F OUT
RESONANT
CIRCUIT FEEDBACK
POWER OA HARTLEY OD VACKAR
Figure 1
THREE TERMINAL OSCILLATOR
A portion of the output of a three -terminal

amplifier is fed back to the input In proper
phase and amplitude with the starting power
OB COLPITTS SEILER
which is g ted initially by thermal noise. EO
Power delivered to the load is output power

less feedback power. Res t circuit in input
determines frequency of oscillation. GRID OR
BASE
PLATE
OR
CATKO COLLECTOR
OR
EMITTER
Initial Oscillation may be initially
Oscillation caused in a transistor or tube
circuit by external triggering, CLAPP AMPLIFIER PACKAGE
or by self- excitation. In the latter case, at
Figure 2
the moment the d -c power is applied, the
energy level does not instantly reach maxi- COMMON TYPES OF SELF -EXCITED
mum but, instead, gradually approaches it. OSCILLATORS
Oscillations build up to a point limited by
Circuits are named after inventor and are
the normal operation of the amplifier, the based on variations in method of coupling
feedback energy, and the nonlinear condition and introducing feedback into oscillator tank
circuit. A- Inductive feed back. 11-Capacitive
of the circuit. Practical oscillator circuits feedback. C-Capacitive feedback plus series-
employ a variety of feedback paths, and tuned tank circuit. D- Capacitive feedback plus
some of the most useful ones are shown in parallel -tuned tank circuit. E-Capacitive feed-
back with separate parallel -tuned tank circuit.
figure 2. Either tubes or transistors may be Circuits may be used with either tubes or
used in these circuits. transistors by variations in feedback ampli-
tude and applied potentials.
The oscillator is commonly described in
terms of the feedback circuit. The Hartley
oscillator (figure 2A) employs a tapped lator circuits are shown in figure 3. The
inductor in the resonant circuit to develop basic Hartley oscillator is shown in figure
the proper phase relationship for the feed- 3A and the operation of this oscillator will
back voltage, while the Colpitts oscillator serve as an index to the operation of all
derives the exciting voltage by means of a negative -grid oscillators; the only real dif-
capacitive voltage divider. The Clapp cir- ference between the various circuits is the
cuit (figure 2C) employs a series -tuned manner in which the feedback energy for
tank circuit, shunted by a large capacitive excitation is coupled from the plate to the
voltage divider (C1-C2). The Vackar oscil- grid circuit.
lator (figure 2D) resembles the Clapp ex- When plate voltage is applied to the Hart-
cept that the feedback path is different. The ley oscillator shown at (A), the sudden flow
tank coil is shunted by a large value of of plate current accompanying the applica-
capacitance (C1-C2) and the circuit is tion of plate voltage will cause an electro-
tuned by means of capacitor C3. The degree magnetic field to be set up in the vicinity of
of feedback is controlled by the ratio C, /C2. the coil. The building -up of this field will
The Seiler oscillator (figure 2E) is a simpli- cause a potential drop to appear from turn
fied version of the Vackar in which one side to turn along the coil. Due to the inductive
of the oscillatory circuit is grounded. coupling between the portion of the coil in
Vacuum -tube versions of the various oscil- which the plate current is flowing and the
260 Generation of R -F Energy RADIO
.001 arc
OA HARTLEY OD CLAPP
.001 arc
i
OB COLPITTS
471(
2 2
.0011
TUNED PLATE, TUNED GRID FO ELECTRON COUPLED VACKAR =
Figure 3
VACUUM -TUBE SELF -EXCITED

OSCILLATORS
A-Shunt -fed Hartley. II- Shunt -fed Colpitts. C-Series -fed oscillator with feedback accom-
plished through plate -to -grid interelectrode capacitance. D -Clapp oscillator employs series -
resonant tuned circuit. Capacitor C, is of the order of 50 pf. E- Vackar circuit is variation of
Clapp circuit having improved tuning range and more constant output. F-Electron -coupled
oscillator using screen element of tube as the plate of the oscillator.
grid portion, a potential will be induced in The Colpitts Figure 3B shows a version
the grid portion. of the Col Pitts oscillator. It
Since the cathode tap is between the grid can be seen that this is essentially the same
and plate ends of the coil, the induced grid circuit as the Hartley except that the ratio
voltage acts in such a manner as to increase of a pair of capacitances in series determines
further the plate current to the tube. This the effective cathode tap, instead of actually
action will continue for a short period of using a tap on the tank coil. Also, the net
time determined by the inductance and ca- capacitance of these two capacitors com-
pacitance of the tuned circuit, until the fly - prises the tank capacitance of the tuned cir-
wheel effect of the tuned circuit causes this cuit. This oscillator circuit is somewhat less
action to come to a maximum and then to susceptible to parasitic (spurious) oscilla-
reverse itself. The plate current then de- tions than the Hartley.
creases (the magnetic field around the coil For best operation of the Hartley and Col -
also decreasing) until a minimum is reached, pitts oscillators, the voltage from grid to
when the action starts again in the original cathode, determined by the tap on the coil
direction and at a greater amplitude than be- or the setting of the two capacitors, normal-
fore. The amplitude of these oscillations, the ly should be from 1/3 to 1/5 that appearing
frequency of which is determined by the between plate and cathode.
coil -capacitor circuit, will increase in a very
short period of time to a limit determined by The T.P.T.G. The tuned -plate tuned -grid os-
the plate voltage of the oscillator tube. cillator illustrated at (C) has
HANDBOOK Self- Controlled Oscillators 261
a tank circuit in both the plate and grid cir- the oscillator tuned circuit (L,, C1) the im-
cuits. The feedback of energy from the plate pedance of this circuit is at minimum (since
to the grid circuits is accomplished by the it operates in series resonance) and maxi-
plate - to - grid interelectrode capacitance mum current flows through it. Note how-
within the tube. The necessary phase re- ever, that Cr and C:, also are included within
versal in feedback voltage is provided by the current path for the series -resonant cir-
tuning the grid tank capacitor to the low cuit, so that at the frequency of resonance
side of the desired frequency and the plate an appreciable voltage drop appears across
capacitor to the high side. A broadly reso- these capacitors. The voltage drop appearing
nant coil may be substituted for the grid across C. is applied to the grid of the oscilla-
tank to form the T.N.T. (tuned -not tuned) tor tube as excitation, while the amplified
oscillator. output of the oscillator tube appears across
C, as the driving power to keep the circuit
Electron -Coupled In any of the oscillator cir- in oscillation.
Oscillators cuits just described it is Capacitors C. and C, should be made as
possible to take energy large in value as possible, while still permit-
from the oscillator circuit by coupling an ting the circuit to oscillate over the full tun-
external load to the tank circuit. Since the ing range of C,. The larger these capacitors
tank circuit determines the frequency of os- are made, the smaller will be the coupling
cillation of the tube, any variations in the between the oscillating circuit and the tube,
conditions of the external circuit will be and consequently the better will be oscilla-
coupled back into the frequency -determining tor stability with respect to tube variations.
portion of the oscillator. These variations High -G,,, tubes such as the 6AH6, 5763,
will result in frequency instability. and 6CB6 will permit the use of larger
The frequency- determining portion of values of capacitance at Cr and C, than
an oscillator may be coupled to the load cir- will more conventional tubes such as the
cuit only by an electron stream, as illus- 6BA6, 6AQ5, and such types. In general it
trated in (F) of figure 3. When it is con- may be said that the reactance of capacitors
sidered that the screen of the tube acts as Cr and C: should be on the order of 40 to
the plate to the oscillator circuit, the plate 120 ohms at the onerating frequency of the
merely acting as a coupler to the load, then oscillator -with the lower values of react-
the similarity between the cathode-grid- ance going with high -Gm tubes and the
screen circuit of these oscillators and the higher values being necessary to permit
cathode -grid -plate circuits of the corre- oscillation with tubes having G,,, in the
sponding prototype can be seen. range of 2000 micromhos.
The electron -coupled oscillator has good Tt will be found that the Clapp oscillator
stability with respect to load and voltage will have a tendency to vary in power out-
variation. Load variations have a relatively put over the frequency range of tuning ca-
small effect on the frequency, since the only pacitor C,. The output will be greatest where
coupling between the oscillating circuit and C, is at its largest setting, and will tend to
the load is through the electron stream flow- fall off with C, at minimum capacitance. In
ing through the other elements to the plate fact, if capacitors Cr and C:, have too large
The plate is electrostatically shielded from a value the circuit will stop oscillating near
the oscillating portion by the bypassed the minimum capacitance setting of capaci-
screen. tor C1.
Hence it will be necessary to use a slightly
The Clapp The Clapp oscillator differs from smaller value of capacitance at Cr and C,
Oscillator the previous circuits in that it (to provide an increase in the capacitive re-
employs a series -resonant circuit actance at this point), or else the frequency
while in all the more common oscillator range of the oscillator must be restricted by
circuits the frequency -controlling circuit is paralleling a fixed capacitor across C, so that
parallel resonant. its effective capacitance at minimum setting
The Clapp oscillator operates in the fol- will he increased to a value which will sus-
lowing manner: at the resonant frequency of tain oscillation.
262 Generation of R.F Energy RADIO
47K
R F OUT
-12V.
Figure 5
TRANSISTORIZED SEILER OSCILLATOR

Figure 4 Seiler oscillator Is a variation of the Clapp
circuit which permits one end of the tank coil
TRANSISTORIZED VACKAR OSCILLATOR to be at ground potential. Coil is 22 turns
# 16e., 11/4" diam., close wound for range of
Thirty -MHz oscillator for vhf frequency control. 5.0-5.6 MHz.
Coil L, is 1.5 ,H, wound on a ceramic form.
Capacitor C, is adjusted for optimum drive
level. coil to be at ground potential, and exhibiting
slightly less loading of the tuned circuit
The Vackar The Vackar oscillator is a vari- than either the Vackar or the Clapp con-
Oscillator ation of the basic Clapp circuit figuration. The large capacitors placed across
which has improved tuning the amplifying tube or transistor tend to
range and relatively constant output com- swamp out any reactive changes in the
bined with good stability with respect to a active device and also limits the harmonic
varying load. A practical Vackar circuit output, thereby enhancing frequency sta-
designed for 30 MHz is shown in figure 4. bility. A Seiler oscillator designed for SSB
With the constants shown, the range is from service is shown in figure 5.
26.9 to 34.7 MHz, with an output ampli-
tude change of less than -
1.5 db relative
to the lower frequency. Capacitor C, tunes
Negative- Resist- Negative - resistance oscilla-
once Oscillators tors often are used when un-
the circuit while capacitor C_ is adjusted usually high frequency sta-

for optimum drive level such that the tran- bility is desired, as in a frequency meter. The
sistor is not driven to cutoff or saturation. dynatron of a few years ago and the newer
The output level, when properly adjusted, is transitron are examples of oscillator circuits
about 4 volts peak -to -peak for a 9 -volt which make use of the negative- resistance
supply. The emitter -bias resistor is bypassed characteristic between different elements in
for r -f and audio frequencies to eliminate a some multigrid tubes.
tendency for the circuit to oscillate at a In the dynatron, the negative resistance is
a consequence of secondary emission of elec-
parasitic frequency that is low in compari-
son to the working frequency. The value of trons from the plate of a tetrode tube. By a
capacitors C3 and C, are approximately: proper proportioning of the electrode volt-
age, an increase in screen voltage will cause
a decrease in screen current, since the in-
3000 creased screen voltage will cause the screen
C (pf) f (MHz) to attract a larger number of the secondary
electrons emitted by the plate. Since the net
The frequency of oscillation is approxi- screen current flowing from the screen sup-
mately: ply will be decreased by an increase in screen
voltage, it is said that the screen circuit pre-
sents a negative resistance.
fcose - 27r V
1
(C1 + C2)
If any type of tuned circuit, or even a re-
sistance- capacitance circuit, is connected in
series with the screen, the arrangement will
The Seiler The Seiler oscillator is another oscillate-provided, of course, that the ex-
Oscillator variation of the Clapp circuit, ternal circuit impedance is greater than the
permitting one end of the tank negative resistance. A negative- resistance
HANDBOOK Self- Controlled Oscillators 263
6SK7
Figure 6
TWO- TERMINAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS

Both circuits may be used for an audio oscil-
lator or for frequencies into the vhf range
simply by placing a tank circuit tuned to the
proper frequency where indicated on the
drawing. Recommended values for the com-
ponents are given below for both oscillators.
TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR
O TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR C,- 0.01 -td mica for r.f. 10-pfd elect. for a.f.
C2- 0.00005 -pfd mica for r.f. 0.1 -pfd paper for a.f.
C3-0.003 -pfd mica for r.f. 0.5 -pfd paper for a.f.
C4- 0.01 -pfd mica for r.f. 8 -pfd elect. for a.f.
I2AU7 R1-220K carbon
1/2 -watt
R2 -1800 ohms -watt carbon
1/2
R3 -22K 2 -watt carbon
R4 -22K 2 -watt carbon
CATHODE -COUPLED OSCILLATOR

C1 -0.00005-pfd mica for r.f. 0.1 -pfd paper for audio
C2- 0.003 -pfd mica for r.f. 8 -pfd elect.for audio
R, -47K 1/2 -watt carbon
R2 -1K -watt carbon
1
pB CATHODE COUPLED OSCILLATOR
effect similar to the dynatron is obtained in The chief distinction between a conven-
the transitron circuit, which uses a pentode tional negative -grid oscillator and a negative-
with the suppressor coupled to the screen. resistance oscillator is that in the former the
The negative resistance in this case is ob- tank circuit must act as a phase inverter in
tained from a combination of secondary order to permit the amplification of the tube
emission and interelectrode coupling, and is to act as a negative resistance, while in the
considerably more stable than that obtained latter the tube acts as its own phase inverter
from uncontrolled secondary emission alone (figure 6B). Thus a negative- resistance
in the dynatron. A representative transitron oscillator requires only an untapped coil
oscillator circuit is shown in figure 6A. and a single capacitor as the frequency -
determining tank circuit, and is classed as a
two -terminal oscillator. In fact, the time
constant of an RC circuit may be used as
the frequency -determining element and such
an oscillator is rather widely used as a
tunable audio- frequency oscillator.
The Franklin The Franklin oscillator makes

Oscillator use of two cascaded tubes to
- e + obtain the negative -resistance
Figure 7
effect (figure 7). The tubes may be either
a pair of triodes, tetrodes, or pentodes; a dual
THE FRANKLIN OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT triode; or a combination of a triode and a
A separate phase -inverter tube is used in this
multigrid tube. The chief advantage of this
oscillator to feed a portion of the output back oscillator circuit is that the frequency -de-
to the input in the proper phase to sustain termining tank only has two terminals, and
oscillation. The values of C, and C, should be
as small as will permit oscillations to be sus- one side of the circuit is grounded.
tained over the desired frequency range. The second tube acts as a phase inverter to
give an effect similar to that obtained with tected against excessive changes in ambient
the dynatron or transitron, except that the room temperature, and is isolated from feed-
effective transconductance is much higher. back or stray coupling from other portions
If the tuned circuit is omitted or is replaced of the transmitter by shielding, filtering of
by a resistor, the circuit becomes a relaxa- voltage supply leads, and incorporation of
tion oscillator or a multivibrator. one or more buffer -amplifier stages. In a
Oscillator The oscillator providing minimum
high -power transmitter a small amount of
Stability coupling between the active de-
stray coupling from the final amplifier to the
oscillator can produce appreciable degrada-
vice and the tuned circuit has tion of the oscillator stability if both are
proven to have the highest degree of sta- on the same frequency. Therefore, the os-
bility. However, this inherently good stabil- cillator usually is operated on a subharmonic
ity is with respect to tube or transistor varia- or image of the transmitter output fre-
tions; instability of the tuned circuit with quency, with one or more frequency multi-
respect to vibration or temperature will of pliers or mixers between the oscillator and
course have as much effect on the frequency final amplifier.
of oscillation as with any other type of oscil-
lator circuit. Solid mechanical construction
of the components of the oscillating circuit, 11 -2 Quartz- Crystal
along with a small negative -coefficient com- Oscillators
pensating capacitor included as an element
of the tuned circuit, usually will afford an Quartz is a naturally occurring crystal
adequate degree of oscillator stability. having a structure such that when plates
are cut in certain definite relationships to
VFO Transmit - When used to control the fre- the crystallographic axes, these plates will
ter Controls quency of a transmitter in show the piezoelectric effect. That is, the
which there are stringent lim- plates will be deformed in the influence of
itations on frequency tolerance, several pre-
an electric field, and, conversely, when such
cautions are taken to ensure that a variable - a plate is deformed in any way a potential
frequency oscillator will stay on frequency. difference will appear on its opposite sides.
The oscillator is fed from a voltage- regulated A quartz- crystal plate has several me-
power supply, uses a well- designed and tem- chanical resonances. Some of them are at
perature- compensated tank circuit, is of very-high frequencies because of the stiff-
rugged mechanical construction to avoid ness of the material. Having mechanical
the effects of shock and vibration, is pro- resonance, like a tuning fork, the crystal
will vibrate at a frequency depending on
the dimensions, the method of electrical
excitation, and crystallographic orientation.
Because of the piezoelectric properties, it is
possible to cut a quartz plate which, when
provided with suitable electrodes, will have
the characteristics of a resonant circuit hav-
Figure 8 ing a very high LC ratio. The circuit Q of
a crystal is many times higher than can be
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A obtained with conventional inductors and
QUARTZ PLATE capacitors of any size. The Q of crystals
The equivalent series- resonant circuit of the ranges from 10,000 to several million.
crystal itself is at the left, with shunt capaci- The equivalent electrical circuits of a
tance of electrodes and holder (C ) and
capacitance between electrodes with quartz quartz -crystal plate are shown in figure 8.
as the dielectric (C) at right. The composite The shunt capacitance of the electrodes and
circuit may exhibit both series resonance and holder is represented by C,,, and the capaci-
parallel resonance (antiresonance), the sep-
aration in frequency between the two modes tance between the electrodes with quartz as
being very small and determined largely by the dielectric is Cr. The series capacitance
the ratio of series capacitance (C.) to shunt
capacitance. (C1) represents the motional elasticity of
HANDBOOK Quartz Crystal Oscillators 265
I I
1300
HT
J PLATE 2.0t
I I I I I
3.0t x FLEXURE BAR 50.0
I I I ,
I0 0, NT CUT 130.0
MINIMMmr
10.0 H PLATE 130.0
I l l Ill
30.0, E PLATE 250.0,
I
ni
75.0, OT Cul TOO 0_
IIi
80.0, MT CUT 2CH 11,
I I
99.0 GT CUT 000.0,

I I
300.3, CT 800.0t
T 1 .
55010tI AT Cut 5 5M0
1 11 11 1111I1I
5.3 I 0 Nt SO 0 0' 500..1 00.01 503, 10MOr 50MR: 00MR!
NEWT NC,
Figure 9
FREQUENCY RANGE OF CRYSTAL CUTS
the quartz, while the inductance (L1) is a Unplated crystals are mounted in pressure
function of the mass. The series resistance holders, in which an air gap exists between
(R1) represents the sum of the crystal losses, the crystal and electrodes. Only the corners
including friction, acoustic loading, and of the crystal are clamped. At frequencies
power transmitted to the mounting struc- requiring a low ratio of length to thickness
ture. (usually below 2 MHz or so) a "free" air
gap is required because even the corners of
Practical Quartz While quartz, tourmaline, the crystal move.
Crystals Rochelle salts, ADP, and Control of the orientation of the blank
EDT crystals all exhibit the when cut from the quartz billet determines
piezoelectric effect, only quartz has a low the characteristics of the crystal. The turn-
temperature coefficient and exhibits chemi- ing point (point of zero temperature coeffi-
cal and mechanical stability. The greater cient) may be adjusted to room temperature,
part of the raw quartz used today for fre- usually taken as 20 C. A graph of the
quency control is man -made rather than normal frequency ranges of popular crystal
natural and crystal blanks are produced in cuts is shown in figure 9. For frequencies
large quantities at low prices. The crystal between 550 kHz and 55 MHz, the AT -cut
blank is cut from a billet of quartz at a crystal is now widely used. A large quantity
predetermined orientation with respect to of BT -cut crystals in the range of 6 MHz
the optical and electrical axes, the orienta- to 12 MHz exists as surplus stock from
tion determining the activity, temperature World War II. These crystals are mounted
coefficient, thickness coefficient, and other in the obsolete FT -243 style holder. The
characteristics of the crystal. AT -cut, however, is now used because mod-
The crystal blank is rough -ground almost ern techniques allow it to be produced
to frequency, the frequency increasing in cheaply, and in quantity.
inverse ratio to the oscillating dimensions
(usually the thickness, but often the Crystal Crystals are normally purchased
length) It is then finished to exact fre-
.
Holders ready- mounted. Modern high -fre-
quency by careful lapping, by etching, or quency crystals are mounted within
by plating. Care is taken to stabilize the metal holders, hermetically sealed with glass
crystal so frequency and activity will not insulation and a metal -to -glass bond. Older
change with time. crystal types make use of a phenolic holder
QUARTZ CRYSTAL HOLDERS overtone and harmonic should not be used

interchangeably. The overtone is a mechan-
Holder Pin Pin Size
ical phenomenon and its frequency differs
Type Spacing Diem. H W T from the harmonic by virtue of the mechan-
HC -5 /U 0.812 0.156 2.20 1.82 1.60 ical loading of the crystal. The harmonic is
HC -6 /U
HC -10 /U
HC -13 /U
0.486
(1)
0.486
0.050
0.060
0.050
0.78 0.76
1.10
0.78 0.76
- 0.35
0.56D
0.35
an electrical phenomenon and is an exact
multiple of the fundamental frequency.)
HC-17 /U 0.486 0.093 0.78 0.76 0.35

HC -18 /U (2) 0.53 0.40 0.15
HC -25/U 0.192 0.040 1.53 0.76 0.35
FT -243 0.500 0.093 1.10 0.90 0.40
LOW Z OUTPUT
(1)-Barrel Mount
(2) -Wire Leads 0.018 Diam. HIGH Z OUTPUT
QUARTZ CRYSTAL TYPES

3 3K
Mil. Holder
Type Used Type Resonance
CR -15B /U HC -5 /U Fund. Parallel

CR -16B/U HC -5 /U Fund. Series
CR -17 /U HC -10 /U Overtone Series
CR -18A /U HC -6 /U Fund. Parallel
CR -19A /U HC -6 /U Fund. Series
CR -23/U HC -6 /U Overtone Series
CR -24/U HC -10 /U Overtone Series
CR -27/U HC -6 /U Fund. Parallel
CR -28A /U HC -6 /U Fund. Series +50V.
CR-32A /U HC -6 /U Overtone Series
CR -52A /U HC -6/U Overtone Series
CR -53A /U HC -6 /U Overtone Series Figure 11
Figure 10 PIERCE CRYSTAL-OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS

CRYSTAL HOLDERS AND TYPES
A- Transistor oscillator. Capacitor C es
coil to output frequency, which may be
L,
an overtone of crystal frequency. e- ease-to-
sealed with a metal plate and a rubber ground capacitor (C,) determines degree of
gasket. A summary of crystal holders and feedback.
crystal types is given in figure 10.
II-Vacuum-tube version of Pierce oscillator.
Precision crystals for calibrating equip- Feedback is controlled by grid -to- ground capa-
ment are vacuum -sealed in a glass envelope. citor. Output Is at fundamental of crystal
Special vacuum- sealed crystals having a freq y.
relatively constant temperature coefficient
are used in high- stability frequency stand-
By grinding the crystal especially for
ards in place of the near -obsolete and
overtone operation, it is possible to enhance
expensive temperature -controlled "crystal its operation as an overtone resonator. AT-
oven." cut crystals designed for optimum overtone
Overtone -eut Just as a vibrating string can operation on the 3rd, 5th, and even the
Crystals be made to vibrate on its over- 7th overtone are available. The 5th- and
tone frequencies, a quartz crys- 7th -overtone types, especially the latter, re-
tal will exhibit mechanical resonance (and quire special holders and circuits for satis-
therefore electrical resonance) at overtones factory operation, but the 3rd -overtone type
of its fundamental frequency. (The terms needs little more consideration than a reg-
HANDBOOK Crystal Oscillator Circuits 267
ular fundamental type. It is possible in some parallel -resonance operation is the oscillator
circuits to operate a crystal on the funda- input reactance (capacitance) for which
mental and 3rd overtone simultaneously and they are calibrated. A crystal calibrated for
produce an audio beat between the third parallel resonance will operate at its cali-
harmonic and the third overtone. Unless brated frequency in a series- resonant circuit
specifically desired, this operation is to be with the addition of an appropriate value of
avoided in conventional circuits. series capacitance. Thus, a crystal cannot
The overtone frequency for which the be specified in frequency without stating the
crystal is designed is the working frequency, reactance with which it is to be calibrated.
which is not the fundamental, since the The older FT -243 fundamental crystals were
crystal actually oscillates on this working usually calibrated with a parallel capacitance
frequency when it is functioning in the of 35pf, while many of the new hermetic
proper manner. The Q of an overtone crys- sealed crystals are calibrated with a capaci-
tal, moreover, is much higher than that of a tance of 32 pf.
fundamental crystal of the same frequency.
As a result, overtone crystals are less prone
to frequency change brought about by
changes of oscillator input capacitance. 11 -3 Crystal Oscillator
Many frequency- standard crystals in the h -f Circuits
range, therefore, are overtone types.
Crystals may replace the conventional in-
ductance in a self- excited oscillator, the
Crystal Drive Crystal dissipation is a function crystal oscillating at its series- or parallel -
Level of the drive level. Excessive resonant frequency. The phase shift through
crystal current may lead to the crystal is approximately zero, thus pro-
frequency drift and eventual fracture of viding output -to-input feedback of the
the blank. The crystal oscillator should be proper polarity. A simple crystal oscillator
run at as low a power level as possible to is shown in figure 11A. This is a Pierce
reduce crystal heating. Drive levels of S circuit, wherein the crystal replaces the res-
milliwatts or less are recommended for onant circuit in a Colpitts oscillator and
fundamental AT blanks in HC -6 /U style operates at its parallel- resonant frequency.
holders, and a level of 1 milliwatt maximum The transistor is a low- impedance device,
is recommended for overtone crystals or requiring that capacitors C1 and C2 be
fundamental crystals above 10 MHz in HC- quite large. The circuit is suitable for low -
6/U holders. The older FT -243 style crystal or medium -impedance crystals on the funda-
is capable of somewhat greater drive levels mental or overtone frequency. The combi-
by virtue of the larger blank size. nation of L, and C, must resonate slightly
below the frequency of the desired mode.
Series and The shunt capacitance of Shown in figure 11B is a tube version of
Parallel Resonance the electrodes and associ- the Pierce oscillator. The variable capacitor
ated wiring is consider- controls the degree of feedback and should
ably greater than the capacitive component be adjusted for reliable operation at the
of an equivalent series LC circuit, and unless minimum possible capacitance setting.
the shunt capacitance is balanced out, the Other oscillator circuits are suggested
crystal will exhibit both series- and parallel - in figure 12.
resonance frequencies, the latter being some-
what higher than the former. The series -
resonant condition is employed in filter cir- Tuned -Plate The Miller, or tuned -plate
cuits and in oscillator circuits wherein the Crystal Oscillator crystal oscillator is shown
crystal is used in such a manner that the in figure 13A. The plate
phase shift of the feedback voltage is at tank is tuned on the low capacitance side of
the series- resonant frequency. resonance and oscillation occurs near the
The only difference between crystals de- parallel- resonant frequency of the crystal.
signed for series- resonance and those for The diagram shown in figure 13A is the
t12V 9 V.
2N1180
HEP -2
OUT
OUT
12V.
t12V
tISOV
OUT
.001
Figure 12
HIGH -FREQUENCY CRYSTAL -OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS

A- Transistorized Butler oscillator with amplitude -limiting diodes. The crystal is adjusted
to frequency by series capacitor. Circuit is usable over range of 1 to 25 MHz. I-
Transistorized
Pierce oscillator with resonant circuit tuned to overtone frequency of the crystal. This
circuit is suitable for overtone crystals in the range of 20 to 54 MHz. C-Vacuum -tube version
of Butler oscillator with d triode section serving as a phase inverter. Circuit is designed
for low -fr cy operation (80 to 1000 kHz). O- General purpose h -f crystal oscillator for
2- to 30 -MHz range. E-FET crystal oscillator for h -f range. Tuned circuit may be adjusted to
overtone frequency of crystal. F- Overtone oscillator. Coil L., resonates to crystal freq
with capacitance of crystal holder.
basic circuit. The most popular version of resulting high crystal current. The 6CL6
the tuned -plate oscillator employs a pentode makes an excellent all- around tube for this
or beam tetrode with cathode bias to pre- type circuit.
vent excessive plate dissipation when the cir-
cuit is not oscillating. The cathode resistor
is optional. Its omission will reduce both Pentode The usual type of crystal -
crystal current and oscillator efficiency, re- Harmonic Crystal controlled h -f transmit -
sulting in somewhat more output for a given Oscillator Circuitster operates, at least part
crystal current. The tube usually is an audio of the time, on a fre-
or video beam pentode or tetrode, the plate - quency which is an approximate multiple of
grid capacitance of such tubes being suffi- the operating frequency of the controlling
cient to ensure stable oscillation but not so crystal. Hence, oscillator circuits which are
high as to offer excessive feedback with capable of providing output on the crystal
6V6, 6AQ5, Erc. F 6AG7, 6,405. 6C16 3F
+10v
+250 V.
BASIC TUNED-PLATE OSCILLATOR RECOMMENDED TUNED -PLATE SPECIALC RCUIT FOR USE WITH
OSCILLATOR OVERTONE CUT CRYSTAL.
60 L6 F, 2F, 3F 6C L6 F. 2F, 3F, 4F 6CL6 F. 2F, 3F, 4F
10PF
1S0P
+250 V. +250 V.
PIERCE HARMONIC CIRCUIT "TRITET" CIRCUIT COLPITTS HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
O O
Figure 13
COMMONLY USED CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS

Shown at A is the basic tuned -plate crystal oscillator with a triode oscillator tube. The plate
tank must be tuned on the low- capacitance side of resonance to sustain oscillation. B shows
the tuned -plate oscillator as it is normally used, with an a -f power pentode to permit high
output with relatively low crystal current. Schematics C, D, E, and F illustrate crystal oscillator
circuits which can deliver moderate output energy on harmonics of the oscillating frequency
of the crystal. C shows a special circuit which will permit use of an overtone -cut crystal to
obtain output energy well into the vhf range. D is valuable when extremely low crystal
current is a requirement, but delivers relatively low output. E is commonly used, but is
subject to crystal damage if the cathode circuit is mistuned. F is recommended as the most
generally satisfactory from the standpoints of: low crystal current regardless of misadjust-
ment, good output on harmonic frequencies, one side of crystal is grounded, will oscillate
with crystals from 1.5 to 10 MHz without adjustment, output tank may be tuned to the
crystal frequency for fundamental output without stopping oscillation or changing frequency.
frequency if desired, but which also can recommended for use with the normal type
deliver output energy on harmonics of the of fundamental- frequency crystal since more
crystal frequency have come into wide use. output with fewer variable elements can be
Four such circuits which have found wide obtained with the circuits of 13D and 13F.
application are illustrated in figures 13C The Pierce harmonic circuit shown in fig-
through 13F. ure 13D is satisfactory for many applications
The circuit shown in figure 13C is recom- which require very low crystal current, but
mended for use with overtone-cut crystals has the disadvantage that both sides of the
when output is desired on a multiple of the crystal are above ground potential. The Tri-
oscillating frequency of the crystal. As an tet circuit of figure 13E is widely used and
example, a 25 -MHz overtone -cut crystal can give excellent output with low crystal
may be used in this circuit to obtain output current. However, the circuit has the dis-
on 50 -MHz or a 48 -MHz overtone -cut advantages of requiring a cathode coil, of re-
crystal may be used to obtain output on the quiring careful setting of the variable cath-
144 -MHz amateur band. The circuit is not ode capacitor to avoid damaging the crystal
when changing frequency ranges, and of Crystal Switching It is desirable to keep stray
having both sides of the crystal above shunt capacitances in the
ground potential. crystal circuit as low as possible, regardless
The Col pith harmonic oscillator of figure of the oscillator circuit. If a selector switch
13F is recommended as being the most gener- is used, this means that both switch and
ally satisfactory harmonic crystal oscillator crystal sockets must be placed close to the
circuit since it has the following advantages: oscillator -tube socket. This is especially true
(1) the circuit will oscillate with crystals of overtone-cut crystals operating on a
over a very wide frequency range with no comparatively high frequency. In fact, on
change other than plugging in or switching the highest frequency crystals it is prefer-
in the desired crystal; (2) crystal current is able to use a turret arrangement for switch -
extremely low; (3) one side of the crystal ing, since the stray capacitances can be kept
is grounded, which facilitates crystal- switch- lower.
ing circuits; (4) the circuit will operate A shorting switch should be used because
straight through without frequency pulling, an unused crystal, lower in frequency than
or it may be operated with output on the the one in use can cause severe "suck out"
second, third, or fourth harmonic of the or loss of oscillation through the capacity
crystal frequency. between the switch leads.
Crystal Oscillator The tunable circuits of
Tuning all oscillators illustrated A Versatile 6CL6 The 6CL6 tube may be
should be tuned for max- Crystal Oscillator used in a modified Tri -tet
imum output as indicated by maximum ex- crystal oscillator, capable
citation to the following stage, except that of delivering sufficient power on all bands
the oscillator tank of tuned -plate oscillators from 160 meters through 10 meters to fully
(figure 13A and figure 13B) should be drive a pentode tube, such as the 807, 2E26,
backed off slightly toward the low capaci- or 6146. Such an oscillator is extremely use-
tance side from maximum output, as the ful for portable or mobile work, since it
oscillator then is in a more stable condition combines all essential exciter functions in
and sure to start immediately when power one tube. The circuit of this oscillator is
is applied. This is especially important when shown in figure 14. For 160 -, 80 -, and 40-
the oscillator is keyed, as for break -in c -w meter operation the 6CL6 functions as a
operation. tuned -plate oscillator. Fundamental- frequen-
cy crystals are used on these three bands.
6CL6 75 For 20 -, 15-, and 10 -meter operation the
(--F, 2F,3F, 6CL6 functions as a Tri-tet oscillator with a
4 F.
zo-is-io fixed -tuned cathode circuit. The impedance
of this cathode circuit does not affect opera-
2
tion of the 6CL6 on the lower frequency
bands so it is left in the circuit at all times.
A 7 -MHz crystal is used for fundamental
output on 40 meters and for harmonic out-
)r. *JO s
put on 20, 15, and 10 meters. Crystal cur-
BA W M/N/DUCTOR
(2.0L/N)
rent is extremely low regardless of the out-
NOTES put frequency of the oscillator. The plate
I. Li =/suN (of of BaW 3o /s) circuit of the 6CL6 is capable of tuning a
2. L2.1.644 (I. OFBsw 3003) frequency range of 2:1, requiring only
3. FOR 160 METER OPERATION ADO Sig CAPAC/70P
BETWEEN PINS 1B8S90f5163 PLATECV/L1sj
(2 far atW3018) two output coils: one for 80- 40 -meter oper-
4. X7 MHz CRYSTAL FOR HARMONIC OPERATION ation, and one for 20 -, 15 -, and 10 -meter
operation. In some cases it may be necessary
Figure 14 to add f picofarads of external feedback ca-
pacity between the plate and control grid of
ALL -BAND CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
CAPABLE OF DRIVING BEAM -TETRODE the 6CL6 tube to sustain oscillation with
TUBE. 6CL6 OR 5763 MAY BE USED sluggish 160 -meter crystals.
6J6 2F 6J6
4F
FOR 7 MHz CRYSTAL

+150v L =28T
i 24 ON NATIONAL ARSO
FORM
+150 V
L2=8 7' II /8 ON NATIONAL FASO
FORM
oA JONES HARMONIC OSCILLATOR COLPITTS HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
12 AU 7 6J6
6,9F 3F 6,9F
3F
RFC La
i
F8MH
100 000 00
F8MH
2 8.2 n FOR 8MHz CRYSTAL FOR 8401t CRYSTAL
+150v. L = 9 T. 300,
I 84 M /N / DOCTOR
L2 2.1 T 3003 88W MIN /DOCTOR
+150v. L 1= /07 30/1 8/ w M N/DUCTOR,
TAP AT 3T. PROM GRID ENO
THESE COILS MADE FROM SINGLE SECT/ON
Of M/N /DOCTOR ONE TURN SPOKEN TO
DIVIDE INDUCTOR INTO TWO COILS.
REGENERATIVE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR REGENERATIVE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
I2AT7 I2AT7 (OR 6AB4)

3F 3
6,9F
3
F144MHz L2
L i= S T f/S, i
+150
D.
V.
SPACED
L2=/T.HOOKUP WIRE, J O.
+150 V.
EO CATHODE FOLLOWER OVERTONE OSCILLATOR OF V H F OVERTONE OSCILLATOR
Figure 15
VARIOUS TYPES OF OVERTONE OSCILLATORS USING MINIATURE DOUBLE-TRIODE

VACUUM TUBES
Triode Overtone The recent development of frequencies other than the one marked on
Oscillators reliable overtone crystals the crystal holder. A 24 -MHz overtone
capable of operation on the crystal, for example, is a specially ground
third, fifth, and seventh (or higher) over- 8 -MHz crystal operating on its third over-
tones has made possible vhf output from a tone. In the proper circuit it may be made
low- frequency crystal by the use of a dou- to oscillate on 40 MHz (fifth overtone),
ble triode regenerative oscillator circuit. 56 MHz (seventh overtone), or 72 MHz
Some of the twin triode tubes such as the (ninth overtone). Even the ordinary 8 -MHz
12A7, 12AV7, and 6J6 are especially satis- crystals not designed for overtone operation
factory when used in this type of circuit. may be made to oscillate readily on 24 MHz
Crystals that are ground for overtone service (third overtone) in these circuits.
may be made to oscillate on odd- overtone A variety of overtone oscillator circuits is
272 Generator of R -F Energy RADIO
shown in figure 15. The circuit of figure ample, with an 8 -MHz crystal, L, is tuned
1 5 A is a variety of the basic Pierce oscillator. to 24 MHz, L, resonates with the circuit
The first section of the 6J6 dual triode capacities to 23.5 MHz, and the harmonic
comprises a regenerative oscillator, with out- tank circuit of the second section of the
put on either the third or fifth overtone of 12AT7 is tuned either to 48 MHz or 72
the crystal frequency. The regenerative loop MHz. If a 24 -MHz overtone crystal is used
of this oscillator consists of a capacitance in this circuit, L3 may be tuned to 72 MHz,
bridge made up of C, and C_ with the ratio L, resonates with the circuit capacities to 70
C. /C, determining the amount of regenera- MHz, and the harmonic tank circuit (L_) is
tive feedback in the circuit. With an 8 -MHz tuned to 144 MHz. If there is any tendency
crystal, output from the first section of the toward self -oscillation in the circuit, it may
6J6 tube may be obtained on either 24 or be eliminated by a small amount of inductive
40 MHz, depending on the resonant frequen- coupling and between L2 and L,. Placing
cy of the plate circuit inductor (L,) . The these coils near each other, with the winding
second half of the 616 acts as a frequency of L2 correctly polarized with respect to L,
multiplier, its plate circuit (L2) tuned to will prevent self -oscillation of the circuit.
the sixth- or ninth -harmonic frequency The use of a 144 -MHz overtone crystal is
when L, is tuned to the third overtone, or to illustrated in figure 15F. A 6B4 or one -half
the tenth-harmonic frequency when L, is of a 12AT7 tube may be used, with output
tuned to the fifth overtone. directly in the 2 -meter amateur band. A
Figure 15B illustrates a Colpitts overtone slight amount of regeneration is provided by
oscillator employing a 6J6 tube. This is an the one turn link, (L2) which is loosely
outgrowth of the Colpitts harmonic oscil- coupled to the 144 -MHz tuned tank circuit
lator of figure 13F. The regenerative loop in (L,) in the plate circuit of the oscillator
this case consists of C1, Co, and RFC be- tube. If a 12AT7 tube and a 110 -MHz
tween the grid, cathode, and ground of the crystal are employed, direct output in the
first section of the 6J6. The plate circuit of 220 -MHz amateur band may be obtained
the first section is tuned to the second, har- from the second half of the 12AT7.
monic of the crystal, and the second section Inductive Loading A relatively wide fre-
of the 6J6 doubles to the fourth harmonic of Crystals quency range of opera-
of the crystal. This circuit is useful in ob- tion of a crystal oscillator
taining 28 -MHz output from a 7 -MHz may be achieved by operating the crystal
crystal and is highly popular in mobile work. below its resonant frequency and loading it
The circuit of figure 15C shows a typical
regenerative overtone oscillator employing a
6A6 .001
12AU7 double -triode tube. Feedback is con- R F OUT
PEAK)
trolled by the number of turns in L2, and 100 N
(1 VOLT
the coupling between L2 and L,. Only

enough feedback should be employed to
maintain proper oscillation of the crystal.
Excessive feedback will cause the first sec-
tion of the 12AU7 to oscillate as a self -
excited TNT. oscillator, independent of the
crystal. A variety of this circuit is shown in +105
REG
figure 15D, wherein a tapped coil, (L,) is
used in place of the two separate coils. Figure 16
Operation of the circuit is the same in either VARIABLE -FREQUENCY CRYSTAL
case, regeneration now being controlled by OSCILLATOR
the placement of the tap on L1.
A cathode- follower overtone oscillator is Inductive loading of crystal permits frequency
change as great as two percent of nominal
shown in figure 15E. The cathode coil (L,) crystal frequency. Range covers from slightly
is chosen so as to resonate with the crystal above to nearly two percent below resonant
frequency. Coil L, is 30 H. Maximum range
and tube capacities just below the third - is adjusted by capacitor C,. Circuit Is tuned
overtone frequency of the crystal. For ex- by capacitor C,.
HANDBOOK R -F Amplifiers 273
with an inductance. Frequency stability is efficiency. Class -C amplifiers operate with

reduced by a factor of about 10, but band- considerably more than cutoff bias, much
width operation up to 2 percent of the like a limiter; therefore, this configuration
crystal frequency may be achieved (figure cannot amplify a modulated signal without
16). A series combination of a fixed in- serious distortion. Class -C amplifiers are
ductor and a variable capacitor will permit used for high -level amplitude modulation
oscillation from slightly above to about wherein the plate voltage (or plate and
2 percent below the parallel -resonant fre- screen voltages for tetrodes) is modulated
quency of the crystal. at an audio rate. The output power of a
class -C amplifier, adjusted for plate modula-
11 -4 Radio-Frequency tion, varies with the square of the plate
voltage. That is the same condition that
Amplifiers would take place if a resistor equal to the
voltage on the amplifier, divided by the
The output of the oscillator stage in a plate current, were substituted for the
transmitter must be held down to a com- amplifier. Therefore, the stage presents a
paratively low level to maintain stability resistive load to the plate modulator. Typical
and to retain a factor of safety from frac- place effiiciency is 70 percent and stage
ture of the crystal when one is used. The gain is 8 to 10 decibels.
low -level signal is brought up to the desired
power level by means of radio -frequency Grid -Modulated If the grid current to a class -
amplifiers. The three classes of r -f amplifiers Class C C amplifier is reduced to a
that find widest application in modern radio low value, and the plate
transmitters are the class AB1, class -B, and loading is increased to the point where the
class -C types. plate dissipation approaches the rated value,
The angle of plate- current conduction the amplifier may be grid modulated
determines the class of operation. Class B for radiotelevhony. If the plate voltage is
is a 180- degree conduction angle and class
high. efficiency up to 40 percent is possible.
C is less than 180 degrees. Class AB is the Grid Excitation Adequate grid excitation
region between 180 degrees and 360 degrees must be available for class -
of conduction. The subscript "1" indicates B or class -C service. The excitation for a
that no grid current flows, and the sub- plate -modulated class -C stage must be suffi-
script "2" means that grid current is present. cient to produce a normal value of d -c grid
The class of operation has nothing to do with current with rated bias voltage. The bias
whether the amplifier is grid driven or voltage preferably should be obtained from
cathode driven (grounded grid). A cathode - a combination of grid- resistor and fixed
driven amplifier, for example, can be oper- grid -bias supply.
ated in any desired class, within limitations Cutoff bias can be calculated by dividing
imposed by the tube. the amplification factor of the tube into the
d -c plate voltage. This is the value normally
The Classes of The class -AB amplifier can be used for class -B amplifiers (fixed bias, no
Amplifiers operated with very low inter - grid resistor). Class -C amplifiers use from
modulation distortion in lin- 1.5 to S times this value, depending on the
ear amplifier service. Typical plate effi- available grid drive, or excitation, and the
ciency is about 60 percent, and stage gain desired plate efficiency. Less grid excitation
is about 20 to 25 decibels. The class -B is needed for c -w operation, and the values
amplifier will generate more intermodula- of fixed bias (if greater than cutoff) may
tion distortion than the class -AB circuit be reduced, or the value of the grid -bias re-
but the distortion level is acceptable in sistor can be lowered until normal rated d -c
many applications. Typical plate efficiency grid current flows.
is about 66 percent and power gains of 15 The values of grid excitation listed for
to 20 decibels are readily achieved. The each type of tube may be reduced by as
class -C amplifier is used where large amounts much as 50 percent if only moderate power
of r -f power are to be amplified with high output and plate efficiency are desired. When
consulting the tube tables, it is well to re- methods by which this energy feedback may
member that the power lost in the tuned be eliminated: the first, and the most com-
circuits must be taken into consideration mon method, is through the use of a capaci-
when calculating the available grid drive. tance bridge, and the second method is
At very -high frequencies, the r -f circuit through the use of a parallel reactance of
losses may even exceed the power required equal and opposite polarity to the grid -to-
for actual grid excitation. plate capacitance, to nullify the effect of
Excessive grid current damages tubes by this capacitance.
overheating the grid structure; beyond a Examples of the first method are shown
certain point of grid drive, no increase in in figure 17. Figure 17A shows a capaci-
power output can be obtained for a given tance- neutralized stage employing a balanced
plate voltage. tank circuit. Phase reversal in the tank cir-
cuit is obtained by grounding the center of
11 -5 Neutralization of the tank coil to radio- frequency energy by
capacitor C1. Points A and B are 180 degrees
R -F Amplifiers out of phase with each other, and the cor-
rect amount of out -of -phase energy is
The plate -to -grid feedback capacitance of coupled through the neutralizing capacitor
triodes makes it necessary that they be neu- (NC) to the grid circuit of the tube. The
tralized for operation as r -f amplifiers at fre- equivalent bridge circuit of this is shown in
quencies above about 500 kHz. Those figure 18A. It is seen that the bridge is not
screen -grid tubes, pentodes, and beam in balance, since the plate -filament capaci-
tetrodes which have a plate -to -grid capacitance of the tube forms one leg of the bridge,
tance of 0.1 pf or less may be operated as an and there is no corresponding capacitance
amplifier without neutralization in a well - from the neutralizing capacitor (point B)
designed amplifier up to 30 MHz provided to ground to obtain a complete balance. In
the stage gain is less than the over -all feed- addition, it is mechanically difficult to obtain
back gain from output to input circuit. a perfect electrical balance in the tank coil,
and the potential between point A and
Neutralizing The object of neutralization is ground and point B and ground, in most
Circuits to cancel or neutralize the ca- cases, is unequal. This circuit, therefore,
pacitive feedback of energy holds neutralization over a very small oper-
from plate to grid. There are two general ating range and unless tubes of low inter-
our

Figure 17
COMMON NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE -ENDED AMPLIFIERS
HANDBOOK Neutralization of R -F Amplifiers 275
electrode capacitance are used the inherent The use of this circuit is not recommended
unbalance of the circuit will permit only ap- above 7 MHz, and it should be used below
proximate neutralization. that frequency only with low internal ca-
pacitance tubes.
Split- Stator Figure 17B shows the neu-
Plate Neutrali- tralization circuit which Push -Pull Two tubes of the same type
zation is widely used in single - Neutralization can be connected for push -
ended r -f stages. The use of pull operation so as to obtain
a split- stator plate capacitor makes the elec- twice as much output as that of a single
trical balance of the circuit substantially in- tube. A push -pull amplifier, such as that
dependent of the mutual coupling within the shown in figure 19 also has an advantage
coil and also makes the balance independent in that the circuit can more easily be bal-
of the place where the coil is tapped. With anced than a single -tube r -f amplifier. The
conventional tubes this circuit will allow various interelectrode capacitances and the
one neutralization adjustment to be made on, neutralizing capacitors are connected in such
for example, 28 MHz, and this adjustment a manner that the reactances on one side of
usually will hold sufficiently close for opera- the tuned circuits are exactly equal to those
tion on all lower- frequency bands. on the opposite side. For this reason, push -
Capacitor C2 is used to balance out the pull r -f amplifiers can be more easily neu-
plate -filament capacity of the tube to allow
a perfect neutralizing balance at all frequen-
cies. The equivalent bridge circuit is shown
in figure 18B. If the plate -filament capaci-
tance of the tube is extremely low (100TH
triode, for example), capacitor C_ may be
omitted, or may merely consist of the
residual capacity of NC to ground.
Grid Neutralization A split grid -tank cir-
cuit may also be used
for neutralization of a triode tube as shown BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE 10-A
in figure 17C. Out of phase voltage is de-
veloped across a balanced grid circuit, and C
coupled through NC to the single -ended

plate circuit of the tube. The equivalent
bridge circuit is shown in figure 18C. This
circuit is in balance until the stage is in
operation when the loading effect of the
tube upon one -half of the grid circuit
throws the bridge circuit out of balance.
The amount of unbalance depends on the OB BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE 10 -B
grid -plate capacitance of the tube, and the C

amount of mutual inductance between the
two halves of the grid coil. If an r -f volt-
meter is placed between point A and ground,
and a second voltmeter placed between point
B and ground, the loading effect of the tube
will be noticeable. When the tube is supplied (AE 510UAL
CG -F
(SMALL) RFC
excitation with no plate voltage, NC may CAPACITY)`
be adjusted until the circuit is in balance.

When plate voltage is applied to the stage,
BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE 10 -C
the voltage from point A to ground will

decrease, and the voltage from point B to Figure 18
ground will increase, both in direct propor-
tion to the amount of circuit unbalance. EQUIVALENT NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS
tralized in vhf transmitters; also, they usual-

ly remain in perfect neutralization when
circuit can also be used with push -pull r -f
tuning the amplifier to different bands. amplifiers. In this case, each tube will have
The circuit shown in figure 19 is perhaps its own neutralizing inductor connected
the most commonly used arrangement for a from grid to plate.
push -pull r -f amplifier stage. The rotor of The main advantage of this arrangement
is that it allows the use of single -ended tank
the grid capacitor is grounded, and the rotor
of the plate tank capacitor is bypassed to
circuits with a single -ended amplifier.
ground. The chief disadvantage of the shunt neu-
tralized arrangement is that the stage must
Shunt or Coil be neutralized each time the stage is re-
The feedback of energy
Neutralization from grid to plate in an turned to a new frequency sufficiently re-
unneutralized r -f amplifier moved that the grid and plate tank circuits
is a result of the grid -to -plate capacitance of
must be retuned to resonance. However, by
the amplifier tube. A neutralization circuit the use of plug -in coils it is possible to
is merely an electrcial arrangement for nulli- change to a different band of operation by
fying the effect of this capacitance. All changing the neutralizing coil at the same
the previous neutralization circuits have time that the grid and plate coils are
made use of a bridge circuit for balancing changed.
out the grid -to -plate energy feedback by The 0.0001 -td capacitor in series with
feeding back an equal amount of energy of the neutralizing coil is merely a blocking
opposite phase. capacitor to isolate the plate voltage from
Another method of eliminating the feed- the grid circuit. The coil (L) will have to
back effect of this capacitance, and hence of have a very large number of turns for the
neutralizing the amplifier stage, is shown in band of operation in order to be resonant
figure 20. The grid -to -plate capacitance in with the comparatively small grid -to -plate
the triode amplifier tube acts as a capacitive capacitance.
reactance, coupling energy back from the Neutralization of Stable operation of the
plate to the grid circuit. If this capacitance Cathode- Driven cathode- driven (grounded -
is paralleled with an inductance having the Amplifiers grid) amplifier often re-
same value of reactance of opposite sign, the quires neutralization, par-
reactance of one will cancel the reactance of
the other and a high- impedance tuned cir-
cuit from grid to plate will result.
This neutralization circuit can be used on
ultra high frequencies where other neutrali-
zation circuits are unsatisfactory. This is
true because the lead length in the neutrali-
zation circuit is practically negligible. The
Figure 20
COIL -NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER
This neutralization circuit is very effective with
triode tubes on any frequency, but is particu-
larly effective in the vhf range. Coil L is ad-
justed so that it resonates at the operating
frequency with the grid -to-plate capacitance
of the tube. Capacitor C may be a very small
unit of the low -capacitance neutralizing type
Figure 19 and is used to trim the circuit to resonance
at the operating frequency. If some means of
varying the inductance of the coil a small
STANDARD CROSS-NEUTRALIZED amount is available, the trimmer capacitor is
PUSH -PULL TRIODE AMPLIFIER not needed.
HANDBOOK Neutralizing Procedures 277
Ln
ticularly above 25 MHz or so. Complete
circuit stability requires neutralization of
two feedback paths, as shown in figure 21.
The first path involves the cathode -to-
plate capacitance and proper neutralization IN OUT
may be accomplished by a shunt inductance
or by a balanced- bridge technique. The
bridge technique is less critical of adjustment
than the shunt -inductance circuit, and a
reasonable bridge balance over a wide fre-
quency range may be achieved with a single
setting of the neutralizing capacitance.
The second feedback path includes the
grid -to -plate capacitance, the cathode -to-
grid capacitance and the series inductance
of the grid -to- ground path (figure 22).
If this path is not neutralized, a voltage ap- Figure 21
pears on the grid of the tube which either
increases or decreases the driving voltage, NEUTRALIZATION OF CATHODE
depending on the values of grid inductance DRIVEN AMPLIFIER
and internal capacitances of the tube. A A- Cathode -to-plate feedback path may be
certain frequency exists at which these two neutralized by making it part of a parallel -
feedback paths nullify each other and this tuned circuit by addition of neutralizing coil
L,. Series capacitor removes plate voltage
self -neutralizing frequency may be moved from neutralizing coil. Adjustments tend to be
about by adding either positive or negative frequency sensitive.
reactance in the grid circuit, as shown in the II- Cathode -to-plate feedback path is neutral-
illustration. If the operating frequency is ized by introducing out -of -phase voltage from
drive circuit into plate circuit by means of
above the self -neutralizing frequency a capacitor NC. Inductor L, represents grid -lead
series capacitance is used to reduce the grid inductance of m tube, whose effects are
not cancelled by either neutralizing circuit.
inductance. If the operating frequency is
below the self- neutralizing frequency, the
series grid inductance should be increased. maximum drive voltage, minimum plate
For most tubes of the amateur power class, current, and maximum power output occur
the self -neutralizing frequency lies between simultaneously.
SO and 150 MHz. The state of correct neutralization, there-
fore, may be judged by observing these
Neutralizing operating parameters or by observing the
11 -6
degree of feedback present in the amplifier.
Procedures The amplifier may be neutralized in the
active or passive state provided proper in-
Voltage feedback from output to input strumentation is used.
through the distributed constants of the
vacuum tube has a deleterious effect on Passive An amplifier may be neutral-
amplifier performance. The magnitude, Neutralization ized in the passive state with
phase and rate of change with respect to the aid of a signal generator,
frequency of this feedback voltage deter- an r -f voltmeter, and a grid -dip oscillator.
mine the stability of the amplifier. Control The input and output circuits of the ampli-
of feedback is termed neutralization. The fier are resonated to the operating frequency
purpose of neutralization of an amplifier and a small signal from the generator is ap-
is to make the input and output circuits plied to the input circuit of the amplifier.
independent of each other with respect to An r -f voltmeter (or well -shielded receiver)
voltage feedback. Proper neutralization may is connected to the output circuit of the
he defined as the state in which, when out- amplifier. Neutralizing adjustments are now
put and input tank circuits are resonant, made to reduce to a minimum the feed-
through voltage reaching the receiver from neutralization at frequencies up to about 15

the signal generator. Adjustments may be MHz, provided adequate shielding has been
made with no filament or plate voltage ap- provided between the input and output cir-
plied to the amplifier. Once a null adjust- cuits. Special vhf screen -grid and beam tet-
ment has been achieved, the amplifier may rode tubes such as the 2E26, 6146, and 5516
be activated and the neutralization adjust- in the low -power category and 4E27A,
ment touched up at full power level. 4 -65A, 4 -125A, and 4 -250A in the medium-
Passive neutralization is a highy recom- power category can frequently be operated
mended technique since no voltages are ap- at frequencies as high as 50 MHz without
plied to the equipment, and adjustments any additional provision for neutralization.
and circuit modifications may be made with- Tubes such as the 807, 7094, and 813 can
out danger to the operator of accidental be operated with good circuit design at fre-
shock. quencies up to 30 MHz without any addi-
tional provision for neutralization. The 829
Active An amplifier may be neu- tube has been found to require neutralization
Neutralization tralized by the application in many cases above 20 MHz although the
of excitation with plate and 832A tube will operate quite stably at 100
screen voltage removed. A neutralizing in- MHz without neutralization.
dicator is coupled to the plate circuit and None of these tubes, however, has perfect
the neutralizing adjustment manipulated for shielding between the grid and the plate, a
an indication of minimum r -f voltage in the condition brought about by the inherent in-
plate tank circuit. This adjustment is nor- ductance of the screen leads within the tube
mally accomplished with input and output itself. In addition, unless "watertight" shield-
circuits resonated and with a suitable dum- ing is used between the grid and plate cir-
my load connected to the amplifier. cuits of the tube a certain amount of ex-
Plate (and screen) voltage should be com-
pletely removed by actually opening the
d -c plate- current return. If a direct- current
return circuit exists, a small amount of plate
current will flow when grid excitation is
applied, even though no high voltage exists
on the amplifier stage. Once neutralization
has been established, a more accurate
check may be made by applying high
voltage, and tuning and loading the amplifier
while noting if maximum grid and screen
current occur at the same point of tuning
on the plate circuit tuning capacitor as ouT
minimum plate current. As the plate tuning
capacitor is detuned slightly from resonance
on either side, plate current should rise,
and the grid (or screen) current on the Figure 22
stage should decrease smoothly without any NEUTRALIZATION OF GRID LEAD
sudden jumps on either side of the resonance INDUCTANCE
point. This technique will be found to be a
A -When amplifier is fed below self-
very precise indication of accurate neutrali- neutralizing frequency of tube (h -f range, for
zation so long as the amplifier stage is example) additional inductance (L) in grid-
coupled to a load which presents a resistive return lead may be required to achieve com-
plete neutralization of amplifier.
impedance at the operating frequency.
Neutralization of Radio- frequency amplifiers El-When amplifier is operated above self-neu-
tralizing frequency of tube (the vhf r , for
Screen -Grid R -F using screen -grid tubes can example) grid inductance is compensated by
Amplifiers be operated without any addition of series capacitance which is ad-
justed to minimize interaction between input
additional provision for and output circuits of amplifier.
HANDBOOK Neutralizing Procedures 279
-C -NV 4SG iNV
CN
Figure 14
NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR

BEAM TETRODES
A c tional cross -neutralized circuit for use with push -pull beam tetrodes is shown at A.
The neutralizing capacitors (NC) usually consist of small plates or rods mounted alongside
the plate elements of the tubes. B and C show grid -neutralized circuits for use with a single -
ended tetrads having either link coupling or capacitive coupling into the grid tank. D shows
a method of tuning the screen -lead inductance to accomplish neutralization in a single -
ended vhf tetrads amplifier, while E shows a method of neutralization by increasing the
grid -to -plate capacitance on a tetrode when the operating frequency is higher than that
frequency where the tetrads is "self- neutralized" os a result of series resonance in the
screen lead. Methods D and E normally are not practicable at frequencies below about SO
MHz with the usual types of beam tetrads tubes.
ternal leakage between the two circuits is In most push -pull tetrode amplifiers the
present. These difficulties may not be serious simplest method of accomplishing neutrali-
enough to require neutralization of the stage zation is to use the cross- neutralized capaci-
to prevent oscillation, but in many instances tance bridge arrangement as normally em-
they show up in terms of key -clicks when ployed with triode tubes. The neutralizing
the stage in question is keyed, or as parasitics capacitances, however, must be very much
when the stage is modulated. Unless the smaller than used with triode tubes, values
designer of the equipment can carefully of the order of 0.2 pf normally being re-
check the tetrode stage for miscellaneous quired with beam tetrode tubes. This order
feedback between the grid and plate circuits, of capacitance is far less than can be ob-
and make the necessary circuit revisions to tained with a conventional neutralizing
reduce this feedback to an absolute mini- capacitor at minimum setting, so the neu-
mum, it is wise to neutralize the tetrode just tralizing arrangement is most commonly
as if it were a triode tube. made especially for the case at hand. Most
common procedure is to bring a conductor include the capacitances associated with the
(connected to the opposite grid) in the vi- grid- tuning capacitor. Also, if the tube is
cinity of the plate itself or of the plate being excited by capacitive coupling from a
tuning capacitor of one of the tubes. Either preceding stage (as in figure 23C), the ef-
one or two such capacitors may be used, fective grid -to- ground capacitance includes
two being normally used on a higher -fre- the output capacitance of the preceding
quency amplifier in order to maintain bal- stage and its associated socket and wiring
ance within the stage. capacitances.
An example of this is shown in figure
23A. Cancellation of The provisions discussed in
Screen -Lead the previous paragraphs are
Neutralizing A single -ended tetrode r -f Inductance for neutralization of the
Single -Ended amplifier stage may be neu- small (though still important
Tetrode Stages tralized in the same manner at the higher frequencies) grid -to -plate ca-
as illustrated for a push -pull pacitance of beam -tetrode tubes. However,
stage in figure 23A, provided a split- stator in the vicinity of the upper frequency limit
tank capacitor is in use in the plate circuit. of each tube type the inductance of the
However, in the majority of single -ended screen lead of the tube becomes of consid-
tetrode r -f amplifier stages a single- section erable importance. With a tube operating at
capacitor is used in the plate tank. Hence, a frequency where the inductance of the
other neutralization procedures must be em- screen lead is appreciable, the screen will al-
ployed when neutralization is found neces- low a considerable amount of energy leak -
sary. through from plate to grid even though the
The circuit shown in figure 23B is not a socket terminal on the tube is carefully by-
true neutralizing circuit, in that the plate - passed to ground. This condition takes place
to -grid capacitance is not balanced out. even though the socket pin is bypassed since
However, the circuit can afford the equiva- the reactance of the screen lead will allow a
lent effect by isolating the high resonant moderate amount of r -f potential to appear
impedance of the grid -tank circuit from the on the screen itself inside the electrode as-
energy fed back from plate to grid. When sembly in the tube. This effect has been re-
NC and C are adjusted to bear the following duced to a very low amount in such tubes
ratio to the grid -to -plate capacitance and as the 4CX250B, 8122, and 4CX1000K, but
the total capacitance from grid -to- ground it is still quite appreciable in most beam -
in the output tube, tetrode tubes.
The effect of screen -lead inductance on
NC Cgp the stability of a stage can be eliminated at
C Co any particular frequency by one of two
methods. These methods are: (1) Tuning
both ends of the grid tank circuit will be at out the screen -lead inductance by series -
the same voltage with respect to ground as a resonating the screen -lead inductance with a
result of r -f energy fed back to the grid capacitor to ground. This method is illus-
circuit. This means that the impedance from trated in figure 23D and is commonly em-
grid to ground will be effectively equal to ployed in commercially built equipment for
the reactance of the grid -to- cathode capaci- operation on a narrow frequency band in the
tance in parallel with the stray grid -to- range above about 75 MHz. The other
ground capacitance, since the high resonant method (2) is illustrated in figure 23E and
impedance of the tuned circuit in the grid consists in feeding back additional energy
has been effectively isolated from the feed- from plate to grid by means of a small ca-
back path. It is important to note that the pacitor connected between these two ele-
effective grid -to- ground capacitance of the ments. Note that this capacitor is connected
tube being neutralized includes the rated in such a manner as to increase the effective
grid -to- cathode or input capacitance of the grid -to -plate capacitance of the tube. This
tube, the capacitance of the socket, wiring method has been found to be effective with
capacitances and other strays, but it does not 6146 tubes in the range above 50 MHz and
with tubes such as the 4 -125A and 4 -250A

in the vicinity of their upper frequency
limits.
Note that both these methods of stabi-
lizing a beam - tetrode vhf amplifier stage by INTERWOUND
COILS
cancellation of screen -lead inductance are
suitable only for operation over a relatively C20PF
PER METER .01 x..01 +HV
narrow band of frequencies in the vhf range. WAVELENGTH -
At lower frequencies both these expedients

for reducing the effects of screen -lead in-
-HV
ductance will tend to increase the tendency
toward oscillation of the amplifier stage. Figure 24
Neutralizing When a stage cannot be corn - GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER
Problems pletely neutralized, the diffi-
This type of triode amplifier requires no
culty usually can be traced to neutralisation, and is very popular as a zero-
one or more of the following causes: (1) bias class -B linear stage for SSB service.
Filament leads not bypassed to the common
ground of that particular stage. (2) Ground coupling between input and output circuits,
lead from the rotor connection of the split - a stable power amplifier is realized which
stator tuning capacitor to filament open or requires no neutralization in the hf region.
too long. (3) Neutralizing capacitors in a A high -p. triode may not require grid bias to
field of excessive r.f. from one of the tuning
operate in the class -B mode, however, some
coils. (4) Electromagnetic coupling between
amount of grid bias may be added to achieve
grid and plate coils, or between plate and
class -C operation.
preceding buffer or oscillator circuits. (5 )
Insufficient shielding or spacing between The grounded -grid (cathode- driven) am-
stages, or between grid and plate circuits in plifier requires considerably more excitation
compact transmitters. (6) Shielding placed than if the same tube were employed in a
too close to plate- circuit coils, causing in- conventional grounded- cathode circuit. The
duced currents in the shields. (7) Parasitic additional drive power required to drive a
oscillations when plate voltage is applied. tube in a grounded -grid circuit is not lost,
The cure for the latter is mainly a matter however, as it shows up in the output cir-
of cut and try -rearrange the parts, change cuit and adds to the power delivered to the
the length of grid, plate, or neutralizing load. Nevertheless it means that a larger
leads, insert a parasitic choke in the grid driver stage is required for an amplifier of
lead or leads, or eliminate the grid r -f chokes given output power as a portion of the drive
which may be the cause of a low -frequency power is delivered to the load (feedtbrough
parasitic (in conjunction with plate r -f power). Stage gains of 10 to 12 decibels are
chokes) .
common in grounded -grid circuits.
Some tetrodes may be strapped as triodes
11 -7 Grounded -Grid (screen and grid grounded) and operated as
class -B grounded -grid tubes. Data on this
Amplifiers class of operation may often be obtained
Certain triodes such as the 3-400Z have from the tube manufacturer.
a grid structure and lead arrangement which
result in a very low plate -to- filament capaci-
tance when the grid is grounded, the grid 11 -8 Frequency
acting as an effective shield much in the Multipliers
manner of the screen of a tetrode tube. By
connecting such a triode in the typical cir- Quartz crystals and variable- frequency os-
cuit of figure 24 taking the usual precau- cillators are not ordinarily used for direct
tions against stray capacitive and inductive control of the output of high- frequency
are suitable for doubler circuits. Tetrodes

and pentodes make excellent doublers.
Angle of Flow The angle of plate- current

in Frequency flow in a frequency multiplier
Multipliers is a very important factor in
determining the plate efficiency. As the angle
of flow is decreased for a given value of grid
current, the efficiency increases. To reduce
Figure 25 the angle of flow, higher grid bias is required
so that the grid excitation voltage will ex-
CONVENTIONAL TRIODE FREQUENCY
ceed the cutoff value for a shorter portion
MULTIPLIER of the exciting -voltage cycle. For a high
Small triodes such as the 6C4 operate satis- order of efficiency, frequency doublers should
factorily as frequency multipliers, and can have an angle of flow of 90 degrees or less,
deliver output well into the vhf range. Resistor tripiers 60 degrees or less, and quadruplera
R normally will have a value in the vicinity of
100,000 ohms. 45 degrees or less. Under these conditions
the efficiency will be on the same order as
the reciprocal of the harmonic on which the
transmitters. Frequency multipliers are stage operates. In other words the efficiency
often employed to multiply the frequency of a doubler will be approximately 1/2 or 50
to the desired value. The multipliers oper- percent, the efficiency of a tripler will be
ate on exact multiples of the excitation fre- approximately 1/3 or 33 percent and that of
quency; a 3.6 -MHz crystal oscillator can be a quadrupler will be about 25 percent.
made to control the output of a transmitter The pulses ABC, EFG, and JKL in fig-
on 7.2 or 14.4 MHz, or on 28.8 MHz, by ure 26 illustrate 180 -degree excitation pulses
means of one or more frequency multipliers. under class -B operation, the solid straight
When used at twice frequency, they are line indicating cutoff bias. If the bias is in-
often termed frequency doublers. A simple creased by N times, to the value indicated
doubler circuit is shown in figure 25. It con- by the dotted straight line, and the excita-
sists of a vacuum tube with its plate circuit tion increased until the peak r -f voltage
tuned to twice the frequency of the grid - with respect to ground is the same as before,
driving circuit. then the excitation frequency can be cut in
Doubling is best accomplished by opera- half and the effective excitation pulses will
ting the tube with high grid bias. The grid have almost the same shape as before. The
circuit is driven approximately to the normal only difference is that every other pulse is
value of d -c grid current through the r -f missing; MNO simply shows where the
choke and grid resistor, shown in figure missing pulse would go. However, if the Q
25. The resistance value generally is from of the plate tank circuit is high, it will have
two to five times as high as that used with sufficient flywheel effect to carry over
the same tube for straight amplification. through the missing pulse, and the only
Consequently, the grid bias is several times as effect will be that the plate input and r -f
high for the same value of grid current. output at optimum loading drop to approxi-
Neutralization is seldom necessary in a mately half. As the input frequency is half
doubler circuit, since the plate is tuned to the output frequency, an efficient frequency
twice the frequency of the grid circuit. The doubler is the result.
impedance of the grid- driving circuit is very By the same token, a tripler or quadrupler
low at the doubling frequency, and thus can be analyzed, the tripler skipping two ex-
there is little tendency for self- excited os- citation pulses and the quadrupler three. In
cillation. each case the excitation pulse ideally should
Frequency doublers require bias of several be short enough that it does not exceed 180
times cutoff; high-IA tubes therefore are de- degrees at the output frequency; otherwise
sirable for this type of service. Tubes which the excitation actually is bucking the output
have amplification factors from 20 to 200 over a portion of the cycle.
HANDBOOK Frequency Multipliers 283
I f TANK CIRCUIT OUTPUT VOLTAGE
n
e R N T X
i -1
1(CUTOr) ,
A C, rt G
n
1.1 LI M
i 111
O IS u1 w y
,1-
o
111 1 / t
D NI 1 / 1
- - - - -I- - -P --+--
I I I
N(curor)-
%
1
v- - - -
1 4-^ EXCITATION
1 i VOLTAGE
0
Figure 27
Figure 26
PUSH -PUSH FREQUENCY DOUBLER
ILLUSTRATING THE ACTION OF A
The output of a doubler stage may be materi-
FREQUENCY DOUBLER ally increased through the use of a push -push
circuit such as illustrated above.
Push -Push Two tubes can be connected in mitters. Hence the use of push -pull triplers
Multipliers parallel to give twice the output has become quite prevalent in both commer-
of a single -tube doubler. If the cial and amateur vhf and uhf transmitter
grids are driven out of phase instead of in designs. Such stages are balanced with re-
phase, the tubes then no longer work simul- spect to ground and appear in construction
taneously, but rather one at a time. The ef- and on paper essentially the same as a push -
fect is to fill in the missing pulses (figure pull r -f amplifier stage with the exception
26). Not only is the output doubled, but that the output tank circuit is tuned to three
several advantages accrue which cannot be times the frequency of the grid -tank circuit.
obtained by straight parallel operation. A circuit for a push -pull tripler stage is
Chief among these is the effective neutral- shown in figure 28.
ization of the fundamental and all odd har- A push -pull tripler stage has the further
monics, an advantage when spurious emis- advantage in amateur work that it can also
sions must be minimized. Another advantage be used as a conventional push -pull r -f am-
is that when the available excitation is low plifier merely by changing the grid and plate
and excitation pulses exceed 90 degrees, the coils so that they tune to the same fre-
output and efficiency will be greater than for quency. This is of some advantage in the
the same tubes connected in parallel. case of operating the 50 -MHz band with 50-
The same arrangement may be used as a MHz excitation, and then changing the
quadrupler, with considerably better effi-
ciency than for straight parallel operation,
because seldom is it practicable to supply
sufficient excitation to permit 45- degree ex-
citation pulses. As pointed out above, the
push -push arrangement exhibits better effi-
ciency than a single -ended multiplier when
excitation is inadequate for ideal multiplier
operation. A typical push -push doubler is
illustrated in figure 27.
Push -Pull Frequency is frequently desir- It Figure 28
Triplers able in the case of uhf
and vhf transmitters PUSH -PULL FREQUENCY TRIPLER
that frequency multiplication stages be bal- The push -pull tripler is advantageous in the
anced with respect to ground. Further it is vhf range since circuit balance is maintained
both in the input and output circuits. If the
just as easy in most cases to multiply the circuit is neutralized it may be used either as
crystal or vfo frequency by powers of three a straight amplifier or as a tripler. Either
triodes or tetrodes may be used; dual -unit
rather than multiplying by powers of two as tetrodes such as the 6360, 832A, and 8298 are
is frequently done in lower- frequency trans- particularly effective in the vhf range.
plate coil to tune to 144 MHz for operation

of the stage as a tripler from excitation on DYNAMIC
CHARACTER ST
48 MHz.
O O O
11-9 Tank -Circuit

Capacitances
It is necessary that the proper value of Q
be used in the plate tank circuit of any r -f
amplifier. The following section has been de-
voted to a treatment of the subject, and GRID SWING
charts are given to assist the reader in the
determination of the proper LC ratio to be Figure 29
used in a radio -frequency amplifier stage.
A class -C amplifier draws plate current in CLASS -C AMPLIFIER OPERATION
the form of very distorted pulses of short Plate current pulses are shown at A, B, and C.
duration. Such an amplifier is always oper- The dip in the top of the plate t wave-
ated into a tuned inductance -capacitance or form will occur when the excitation voltage is
such that the minimum plate voltage dips
tank circuit which tends to smooth out these below the maximum grid voltage. A detailed
pulses, by its storage or tank action, into a di ion of the operation of class -C ampli-
fiers is given in Chapter Seven.
sine wave of radio- frequency output. Any
waveform distortion of the carrier frequency
results in harmonic interference in higher -
frequency channels. to the energy delivered to the tank circuit
A class -A r -f amplifier would produce a by the class -Bor -C amplifier tube or tubes.
sine wave of radio- frequency output if its
The Q of a tank circuit at resonance is
exciting waveform were also a sine wave. equal to its parallel- resonant impedance (the
However, a class -A amplifier stage converts resonant impedance is resistive at resonance)
its d -c input to r -f output by acting as a
divided by the reactance of either the ca-
variable resistance, and therefore heats con- pacitor or the inductor which go to make up
the tank. The inductive reactance is equal
siderably. A class -Bor -C amplifier driven
to the capacitive reactance, by definition, at
hard with short pulses at the peak of the
resonance. Hence we may state:
exciting waveform acts more as an electronic
switch, and therefore can convert its d -c
input to r -f output with relatively good Rr, RL
efficiency. Q= Xe Xr.
Tank Circuit Q where,

As stated before, the tank
circuit of a class-C amplifier RI, is the resonant impedance of the tank,
receives energy in the form of short pulses Xe is the reactance of the tank capacitor,
of plate current which flow in the amplifier XL is the reactance of the tank coil.
tube. But the tank circuit must be able to
store enough energy so that it can deliver a This value of resonant impedance (RL)
current essentially sine wave in form to the is the load which is presented to the class-C
load. The ability of a tank to store energy in amplifier tube in a single -ended circuit such
this manner may be designated as the effec- as shown in figure 29.
tive O of the tank circuit. The effective cir- The value of load impedance (RL) which
cuit Q may be stated in any of several ways, the class -BIC amplifier tube sees may be ob-
but essentially the Q of a tank circuit is the tained, looking in the other direction from
ratio of the energy stored to 2.7 times the the tank coil, from a knowledge of the oper-
energy lost per cycle. Further, the energy ating conditions on the class -BIC tube. This
lost per cycle must, by definition, be equal load impedance may be obtained from the
HANDBOOK Tank -Circuit Capacitances 285
following expression, which is true in the presents to the power supply (and also to the
general case of any class -B /C amplifier: modulator in case high -level modulation of
the stage is to be used).
- 1.8
(ep max)
XN9XII,XEh
2
Combining the above simplified expression
for the r -f impedance presented by the tank
to the tube, with the expression for tank
where the values in the equation have the
Q given in a previous paragraph we have the
characteristics listed in the beginning of
following expression which relates the react-
Chapter 7.
ance of the tank capacitor or coil to the d -c
The expression is academic, since the peak input to the class -B /C stage:
value of the fundamental component of
Ra.e.
plate voltage swing (e9 max) is not ordinarily Xc =Xi,
known unless a high- voltage peak a -c volt- 2Q
meter is available for checking. Also, the The foregoing expression is the basis of the
decimal value of plate- circuit efficiency is usual charts giving tank capacitance for the
not ordinarily known with any degree of ac- various bands in terms of the d -c plate volt-
curacy. However, in a normally operated age and current to the class -B /C stage,
class -B /C amplifier theplate voltage swing will including the chart of figure 31.
be approximately equal to 0.8 S to 0.9 times
the d -c plate voltage on the stage, and the Harmonic Radia- The problem of harmonic
plate- circuit efficiency will be from 70 to 80 tion versus Q radiation from transmitters
percent (NI, of 0.7 to 0.8) , the higher values has long been present, but
of efficiency normally being associated with it has become critical during the past decades
the higher values of plate voltage swing. along with the extensive occupation of
With these two assumptions as to the normal the vhf range. Television signals are particu-
class -B /C amplifier, the expression for theplate larly susceptible to interference from other
load impedance can be greatly simplified to signals falling within the passband of the re-
the following approximate expression, which ceiver, so that the TVI problem has received
also applies to class -AB, stages: the major emphasis of all the services in the
vhf range which are susceptible to interfer-
ence from harmonics of signals in the hf or
1.8
lower -vhf range.
which means simply that the resistance pre- Inspection of figure 30 will show quickly
sented by the tank circuit to the class -B /C that the tank circuit of an r -f amplifier
tube is approximately equal to one-half the should have an operating Q of 10 or greater
d -c load resistance which the class -C stage to afford satisfactory rejection of second -
harmonic energy. The curve begins to
straighten out above a Q of about 15, so
that a considerable increase in Q must be
e made before an appreciable reduction in sec-
7 ond- harmonic energy is obtained. Above a
circuit Q of about 10 any increase will not
2NO afford appreciable reduction in the third -
HARMONIC
harmonic energy, so that additional harmon-
ic filtering circuits external to the amplifier
MAMONIC
proper must be used if increased attenuation
i of higher -order harmonics is desired. The
1111111N11iii': curves also show that push -pull amplifiers
o 10 70 20 25 so
TANK CIRCUIT Q may be operated at Q values of 6 or so, since
the second harmonic is cancelled to a large
Figure 30
extent if there is no unbalanced coupling be-
RELATIVE HARMONIC OUTPUT tween the output tank circuit and the an-
PLOTTED AGAINST TANK CIRCUIT Q tenna system.
o0,",;t11 i1,.Q 2
,I\\
s
o\\11111\1
so_
111111 1
NEUTRALIZING
COIL
RFC
W HZ
u
a
Ja
I-
O
50-
..
inn
11111\11Z111\\\Q11111
> V
W W
N H ,000 M11211\\1111111
4 Q
ii
2000 11E\\IIIMI
10 20
1111111111111
50 00 200 500 1000 2000
TOTAL CAPACITANCE ACROSS LC CIRCUIT (C1)
20
\IIIO1IIII Q=12111
5
11
s00oI
0111141111111111
1 1111 11,Ì
11 11111
e.. . \ I.

W
1 EMI
1;111\1iC I\I\ IIIIIII
JJ MiIìIII\\II;h11111I1
2
1111h,I\111111II \11111III
e.
o o
IIIIIIIHOiIiiii!
\
2 3 5 7 10 20 30 50 00 200 500 1000
CORRECT VALUES OF TANK CIRCUIT CAPACITANCE (C FOR
OPERATING Q OF 12 WITH SINGLE -ENDED SPLIT TANK COILS
20000
l'II1I111111
15000
..
loom
II11111
Q = 61111
o
W
t9
Q
9III!'IIIIIIIIII
1111\
I\II\CIGME111111=111111
1` \
> m\nm11 111111i1111111

W
<
J
111i1 i1111101111111111
0.
J
11111111111111
1000
1 2 3 5 7 10 20 30 50 100 200 500 1000
CORRECT VALUES OF TANK CIRCUIT CAPACITANCE (C ) FOR OPERATING Q OF 8 WITH PUSH -PULL
TANK CIRCUITS
Figure 31
PLATE -TANK CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
Shown above in the case of each of the tank -circuit types is the recommended circuit capaci-
tance. Chart capacitance C, represents actual circuit values for configurations A, 8, C, and
D. Capacitance C, represents the value of each section of split -stator capacitor of figure E,
and twice the value of figure F. Indicated capacitance is twice the value of each section of
the capacitor of figure G and four times the value of the capacitance of figure H.
HANDBOOK Tank -Circuit Capacitances 287
Capacity Charts for Figure 31 illustrates the Figure 32

Optimum Tank O correct value of tank USUAL BREAKDOWN RATINGS OF
COMMON PLATE SPACINGS
capacitance for various Air -gap in Peak voltage
circuit configurations. A Q value of 12 has inches breakdown
1000
.030
been chosen as optimum for single-ended
_
.050 2000
circuits, and a value of 6 has been chosen .070 ._ 3000
.100 4000
for push -pull- circuits. Figures 31A -D are .125 4500
.150 __ 5200
used when a single -ended stage is employed, .170 6000
and the capacitance values given are for the .200
.250
... _ 7500
9000
total capacitance across the tank coil. This .350. 11,000
.500 15.000
value includes the tube interelectrode ca- .700 20,000
pacitance (plate to ground), coil distributed Recommended air -gap for use when no d -c
capacitance, wiring capacitance, and the voltage appears across plate tank capacitor
(when plate circuit is shunt fed, or when the
value of any low- inductance plate -to- ground plate tank capacitor is insulated from
bypass capacitor as used for reducing har- ground).
monic generation, in addition to the actual D -Cplate Plate
mod.
voltage C-W
"in -use" capacitance of the plate tuning ca- 400 .030 .050
pacitor. Total circuit stray capacitance may 600 .050 .070
vary from perhaps S picofarads for a vhf 750
1000
.050
.070
.084
.100
stage to 30 picofarads for a medium -power 1250
1500
.070
.078
.144
.200
tetrode h -f stage. For a given value of plate 2000 .100 .250
.175 .375
voltage -to-plate current ratio, doubling the 2500
3000 .200 .500
capacitance shown doubles the Q. When a 3500 .250 .600
split plate -tank coil is employed, the circuits Spacings should be multiplied by 1.5 for same
safety factor when d-c voltage appears across
of figures 31E -F are used. In the case of plate tank capacitor.
the split-stator capacitor (E), the capaci-
tance of each section should have a value tion) and then to vary the tuned -circuit
equal to that shown by the chart. In the capacitance until resonance is reached. This
case of the single- section capacitor (F), the method is most frequently used in obtaining
capacitance should be equal to twice the proper circuit O in commercial transmitters.
value shown by the chart. The values of R,, for using the charts are
For push -pull operation, the correct values easily calculated by dividing the d -c plate -
of tank -circuit capacitance are shown in the supply voltage by the total d -c plate current
illustrations G and H. Each section of the (expressed in amperes). Correct values of
split- stator capacitor should have a value total tuning capacitance are shown in the
equal to twice that value shown by the chart for the different amateur bands. The
graph. In the case of the single- section shunt stray capacitance can be estimated
capacitor, the capacitance should be equal to closely enough for all practical purposes.
that value shown by the chart. The coil inductance should then be chosen
The tank circuit operates in the same man- which will produce resonance at the desired
ner whether the tube feeding it is pentode, frequency with the total calculated tuning
beam tetrode, neutralized triode, grounded - capacitance.
grid triode; whether it is single -ended or
push -pull; or whether it is shunt -fed or
Effect of Load- The Q of a circuit depends
series -fed. The important thing in establishing on Q on the resistance in series
ing the operating Q of the tank circuit is with the capacitance and in-
the ratio of the loaded resonant impedance ductance. This series resistance is very low
across its terminals to the reactance of the L for a low -loss coil not loaded by an antenna
and the C which make up the tank. circuit. The value of Q may be from 100 to
Due to the unknowns involved in deter- 400 under these conditions. Coupling an an-
mining circuit stray capacitances it is some- tenna circuit has the effect of increasing the
times more convenient to determine the series resistance, though in this case the pow-
value of L required for the proper circuit Q er is consumed as useful radiation by the an-
(by the method discussed earlier in this Sec- tenna. Mathematically, the antenna increases
the value of R in the expression Q = IL 'R RP RA(Q2+1)(E%ACT)

where L is the coil inductance in micro - RP Q2 RA (APPROs.)
henrys and is the term 2 -f (f being in
MHz) . RA RA Xc XL
The coupling from the final tank circuit arc XLXC
to the antenna or antenna transmission line RP= APPROX PLATE VOLTA(.(
PLATE CURRENT
can be varied to obtain values of 0 = RP= 225 RA
FOR OPERATING CIRCUIT
perhaps 3 at maximum coupling to a value
of O equal to the unloaded Q of the circuit
Q OF 15 XC
XLBf!
5
at zero antenna coupling. This value of un-
loaded Q can be as high as 400, as men-
tioned in the preceding paragraph. How- Figure 33
ever, the value of Q = 12 will not be ob- THE L- NETWORK IMPEDANCE
tained at values of normal d -c plate current TRANSFORMER
in the class -C amplifier stage unless the
C -to -L ratio in the tank circuit is correct The L- network is useful with a moderate
operating Q for high values of impedance
for that frequency of operation. transformation, and it may be used for appli-
cations other than in the plate circuit of a
Tuning Capacitor To determine the required tube with relatively low values of operating
Q for moderate impedance transformations.
Air Gap tuning- capacitor air gap Exact and approximate design equations are
for a particular amplifier given.
circuit it is first necessary to estimate the
peak r -f voltage which will appear between pedances. Common applications are the
the plates of the tuning capacitor. Then, matching between a transmission line and
using figure 32, it is possible to estimate the an antenna, or between the plate circuit of
plate spacing which will be required. a single -ended amplifier stage and an anten-
The instantaneous r -f voltage in the plate na transmission line. Such networks may be
circuit of a class -C amplifier tube varies used to accomplish a match between the
from nearly zero to nearly twice the d -c plate tank circuit of an amplifier and a
plate voltage. If the d -c voltage is being 100 transmission line, or they may be used to
percent modulated by an audio voltage, the match directly from the plate circuit of an
r -f peaks will reach nearly four times the amplifier to the line without the requirement
d -c voltage. for a tank circuit -provided the network is
These rules apply to a loaded amplifier or designed in such a manner that it has suffi-
buffer stage. If either is operated without an cient operating Q for accomplishing har-
r -f load, the peak voltages will be greater monic attenuation.
and can exceed the d -c plate supply voltage. The L- Matching The L- network is of limited
For this reason no amplifier should be oper- Network utility in impedance match-
ated without load when anywhere near nor- ing since its ratio of imped-
mal d -c plate voltage is applied. ance transformation is fixed at a value equal
If a plate blocking capacitor is used, it to (Q2+1). The operating Q may be rela-
must be rated to withstand the d -c plate tively low (perhaps 3 to 6) in a matching
voltage plus any audio voltage. This capaci- network between the plate tank circuit of
tor should be rated at a d -c working voltage an amplifier and a transmission line; hence
of at least twice the d -c plate supply in a impedance transformation ratios of 10 to 1
plate - modulated amplifier, and at least equal and even lower may be attained. But when
to the d -c supply in any other type of r -f the network also acts as the plate tank cir-
amplifier. cuit of the amplifier stage, as in figure 33,
11 -10 L- and Pi- Matching the operating Q should be at least 12 and
preferably 15. An operating Q of 15 repre-
Networks sents an impedance transformation of 225;
The L -and pi- networks often can be put this value normally will be too high even
to advantageous use in accomplishing an im- for transforming from the 2000- to 10,000 -
pedance match between two differing im- ohm plate impedance of a class -C amplifier
HANDBOOK L- and Pi- Matching Networks 289
stage down to a SO -ohm transmission line. The Pi- Network The pi impedance- matching
However, the L- network is interesting network, illustrated in figure
since it forms the basis of design for the pi- 34, is much more general in its application
network. Inspection of figure 33 will show than the L network since it offers greater
that the L- network in reality must be con- harmonic attenuation, and since it can be
sidered as a parallel- resonant tank circuit in used to match a relatively wide range of
which R.5 represents the coupled -in load re- impedances while still maintaining any de-
sistance; only in this case the load resistance sired operating Q. The values of C1 and L1
is directly coupled into the tank circuit in the pi- network of figure 34 can be
rather than being inductively coupled as in thought of as having the same values of the
the conventional arrangement where the load L network in figure 33 for the same oper-
circuit is coupled to the tank circuit by ating Q, but, what is more important from
means of a link. When R.5 is shorted, L and C the comparison standpoint these values will
comprise a conventional parallel -resonant be about the same as in a conventional tank
tank circuit, since for proper operation L circuit.
and C must be resonant in order for the net- The value of the capacitance may be de-
work to present a resistive load to the class -C termined by calculation with the operating
amplifier. Q and the load impedance which should be
COAX
OUTPUT
Eb WHERE Es IS PLATE VOLTAGE

PLATE LOAD (oHMS) AND 1 8 / S PLATE CURRENT
I.Br lb IN AMPERES
Cs- .0002S4F MICA CAPACITOR RATED AT TWICE THE D.C.
PLATE VOLTAGE.
RFC I -N- 2e ENAMELED. CLOSE -WOUND ON A CERAMIC INSULATOR
I DIA., LONG OR NATIONAL R- I T! A
RFC.2- 2 MN, NATIONAL R-/00
Estimated Plate Notes

Load (ohms) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000'
C1 in pf, 3.5 MHz 520 360 280 210 180 155 135 120 110 90 The actual capacitance setting
7 260 180 140 105 90 76 68 60 56 45 for CI equals the value in this
14 130 90 70 52 45 38 34 30 28 23 table minus the published tube
21 85 60 47 35 31 25 23 20 19 15 output capacitance. Air gap
28 65 45 35 26 23 19 17 15 14 11 approx. 10 mils /100 y Eh.
L in h, 3.5 MHz 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14 15.5 18 20 25 Inductance values are for a
7 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.2 7 7.8 9 10 12.5 50-ohm load. For a 70-ohm
14 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.5 5 6.2 load, values are approx. 3%
21 0.73 1.08 1.38 1.7 2.05 2.3 2.6 3 3.3 4.1 higher.
28 0.55 0.8 1.05 1.28 1.55 1.7 1.95 2.5 2.5 3.1
C2 in pf, 3.5 MHz 2400 2100 1800 1550 1400 1250 1100 1000 900 700 For 50 -ohm transmission line.
7 1200 1060 900 760 700 630 560 500 460 350 Air gap for C2 is approx. 1
14 600 .530 450 380 350 320 280 250 230 175 mil /100 v E1,.
21 400 350 300 250 230 210 185 165 155 120
28 300 265 225 190 175 160 140 125 115 90
C2 in pf, 3.5 MHz 1800 1500 1300 1100 1000 900 800 720 640 500 For 70-ohm transmission line.
7 900 750 650 560 500 450 400 360 320 250
14 450 370 320 280 250 220 200 180 160 125
21 300 250 215 190 170 145 130 120 110 85
28 225 185 160 140 125 110 100 90 80 65
'Values given are approximations All components shown in Table I are for a Q of 12. For other values of Q, use
Q, C. Q. LI.
When the estimated plate load is higher than 5000 ohms, it is recommended that the
QI = L
.
QI = Cn
components be selected for a circuit Q between 20 and 30.
Table 1. Components for Pi- Coupled Final Amplifiers (class AB, B, and C)
reflected to the plate of the class -C amplifier The peak voltage rating of the main tun-
as the two known quantities -or
the actual ing capacitor (C,) should be the normal
values of the capacitance may be obtained value for a class -C amplifier operating at the
for an operating Q of 12 by reference to plate voltage to be employed. The inductor
figure 31. (LT,,,) may be a plug -in coil which is
The inductive arm in the pi- network can changed for each band of operation, or some
be thought of as consisting of two induct- sort of variable inductor may be used. A
ances in series, as illustrated in figure 34. continuously variable slider -type variable in-
The inductive arm in the pi- network can ductor may be used to good advantage if
be thought of as consisting of two induct- available, or a tapped inductor may be
ances in series, as illustrated in figure 28. employed. However, to maintain good cir-
The first portion of this inductance (L,) cuit Q on the higher frequencies when a
is that value of inductance which would variable or tapped coil is used on the lower
resonate with C, at the operating frequency frequencies, the tapped or variable coil
-the same as in a conventional tank circuit. should be removed from the circuit and re-
However, the actual value of inductance in placed by a smaller coil which has been
this arm of the pi- network, LT,,, will be especially designed for the higher frequency
greater than L, for normal values of imped- ranges.
ance transformation. For high transformation The peak voltage rating of the output or
ratios LT,,, will be only slightly greater than loading capacitor (C2) is determined by the
1,1; for a transformation ratio of 1.0, LT,,, power level and the impedance to be fed. If
will be twice as great as L,. The amount of a 50 -ohm coaxial line is to be fed from the
inductance which must be added to L1 to pi- network, receiving -type capacitors will be
restore resonance and maintain circuit Q is satisfactory even up to the power level of a
obtained through use of the expression for plate- modulated kilowatt amplifier. In any
XL, and XL2 in figure 34. event, the peak voltage which will be im-
pressed across the output capacitor is ex-
pressed by:
ep = 2 X Ra X Po
where,
ep is the peak voltage across the capacitor,
R, is the value of resistive load which the
network is feeding,
Po is the maximum value of the average
power output of the stage.
Eo RL
R o.c =
Ib
XC2'-RA RA(Q2+1)-RL
RPRT Rp.c-
XL2 RAZ XC2
RL
XC,- R Alt XC22
Q
COA%
RL OUTPUT
XL, -
XLTOT.. XL1+XL2
Q
Figure 34
EB WHERE EB IS PLATE
PLATE LOAD (OHMS) VOLTAGE AND la IS PLATE
THE PI- NETWORK 2x18 CURRENT IN AMPERES
C1 - SEE TABLE I
The pi- network is valuable for use as an im- C2- ONE -HALF TO TWO -THIRDS THAT
pedance transformer over a wide ratio of VALUE OF C2 GIVEN IN TABLE I
transformation valus. Th. operating Q should LI- 1.25 TIMES THAT VALUE OF L.
be at least 12 when the circuit is to be used GIVEN IN TABLE I
in the plate circuit of a class -C amplifier. De- L2- ONE-THIRD VALUE OF L,, ABOVE
sign equations are given above. Inductor
rep a single inductance, usually vari-
L,
able, with a value equal to the sum of L andL Figure 35. THE PI -L NETWORK
HANDBOOK L- and Pi- Matching Networks 291
Figure 36
PI -L NETWORK PROVIDES EXTRA HARMONIC ATTENUATION
This linear amplifier makes use of a pi -L network in the plate circuit. The large vertical
ccil is the main portion of the pi section, with the 10 -meter coil placed horizontally in front
of it. The L section is placed beneath the chassis in the recessed area. A three -deck
bandswitch is used: one deck for the Pi coil, one deck for the L coil and the third deck for
additional 80 -meter loading capacitance. A small series -tuned circuit (adjusted to TV channel
2 or 3) is placed across the coaxial antenna receptacle to provide additional harmonic
protection at this band of frequencies.
The harmonic attenuation of the pi net- about 45 db for a 1:1 transformation and
work is quite good, although an external falls to about 38 db for an impedance step -
low -pass filter will be required to obtain down of 80:1, assuming that the operating
harmonic attenuation value upward of 100 O is maintained at 15.
db such as normally required. The attenua-
tion to second -harmonic energy will be ap- Component Chart To simplify design proced-
proximately 40 db for an operating Q of 15 for Pi- Networks ure, a pi- network chart is
for the pi- network; the value increases to given in figure 35, summa-
rizing the calculations of figure 34 for var-

ious values of plate load impedance for class FROM DRIVER
AB,, class -B and class -C amplifiers.
The Pi -L Network The pi-L network shown

in figure 35 will provide 10 Figure 37
to 15 db more attenuation of the second
harmonic than will the pi, and even more SELF BIAS
attenuation to the higher harmonics. A pi- The grid resistor on an amplifier or multiplier
network may be converted to the pi -L con- stage may also be used as the shunt feed
impedance to the grid of the tube when a
figuration by reducing the loading capacitor high value of resistor (greater than perhaps
(CO to about one -half to two -thirds that 20,000 ohms) is used. When a lower value of
value required for the equivalent pi- circuit grid resistor is to be employed, an r -f choke
should be used between the grid of the tube
capacitor, and increasing the voltage rating and the grid resistor to reduce r -f losses in
by a factor of three over that minimum rat- the grid resistance.
ing established for the pi- capacitor. The pi-
section coil (L1) will have an inductance
about 1.25 times that of its pi- circuit Class -C Bias Amplitude - modulated class - C
counterpart (coil L, Table I). The L- section amplifiers should be operated
coil (1,2) has no equivalent in the pi- circuit with the grid bias adjusted to a value great-
and should be about one -third the induct- er than twice cutoff at the operating plate
ance of the pi- section coil (L1) as deter- voltage. This procedure will ensure that the
mined above. A formal calculation of the tube is operating at a bias greater than cut-
pi -L circuit parameters is given in the article off when the plate voltage is doubled on
"The Pi -L Plate Circuit in Kilowatt Am- positive modulation peaks. C -w telegraph
plifiers", by Rinaudo, QST, July 1962. (A and f -m transmitters can be operated with
free reprint of this article may be obtained bias as low as cutoff, if only limited excita-
by writing to: Amateur Service Department, tion is available and moderate plate efficiency
EIMAC Division of Varian, San Carlos, is satisfactory. In a c -w transmitter, the bias
California) . supply or resistor should be adjusted to the
point which will allow normal grid current
to flow for the particular amount of grid
11 -11 Grid -Bias driving r -f power available. This form of
adjustment will allow more output from the
Radio- frequency amplifiers require some underexcited r -f amplifier than when higher
form of grid bias for proper operation. Prac- bias is used with corresponding lower values
tically all r -f amplifiers operate in such a of grid current. In any event, the operating
manner that plate current flows in the form bias should be set at as low a value as will
of short pulses which have a duration of give satisfactory operation, since harmonic
only a fraction of an r -f cycle. To accom- generation in a stage increases rapidly as the
plish this with a sinusoidal excitation volt- bias is increased.
age, the operating grid bias must be at least
sufficient to cut off the plate current. In Self Bias A resistor can be connected, in
very high efficiency class -C amplifiers the the grid circuit of a class -C ampli-
operating bias may be many times the cutoff fier to provide self -bias. This resistor (R1
value. Cutoff bias, it will be recalled, is that in figure 37), is part of the d -c path in the
value of grid voltage which will reduce the grid circuit.
plate current to zero at the plate voltage The r -f excitation applied to the grid cir-
employed. The method for calculating it has cuit of the tube causes a pulsating direct cur-
been indicated previously. This theoretical rent to flow through the bias supply lead,
value of cutoff will not reduce the plate cur- due to the rectifying action of the grid, and
rent completely to zero, due to the variable- any current flowing through R, produces a
ft tendency or "knee" which is characteristic voltage drop across that resistor. The grid of
of all tubes as the cutoff point is approached. the tube is positive for a short duration of
HANDBOOK Grid Bias 293
each r -f cycle, and draws electrons from the

filament or cathode of the tube during that
time. These electrons complete the circuit
through the d -c grid return. The voltage
drop across the resistance in the grid return
provides a negative bias for the grid.
Self bias automatically adjusts itself over Figure 39
fairly wide variations of r -f excitation. The R -F STAGE WITH CATHODE BIAS
value of grid resistance should be such that Cathode bias sometimes is advantageous for
normal values of grid current will flow at use in an r -f stage that operats with a rela-
the maximum available amount of r -f ex- tively small amount of r -f excitation.
citation. Self bias cannot be used for grid -
modulated or linear amplifiers in which the
average d -c current is constantly varying circuit by connecting the grid bias lead to
with modulation. the grounded or power- supply end of resistor
R, as shown in figure 39.
Safety Bias Self bias alone provides no pro- The grounded (B- minus) end of the cath-
tection against excessive plate ode resistor is negative relative to the cath-
current in case of failure of the source of r -f ode by an amount equal to the voltage drop
grid excitation. A well -regulated low -volt- across the resistor. The value of resistance
age bias supply can be connected in series must be so chosen that the sum of the de-
with the grid resistor as shown in figure 38. sired grid and plate current flowing through
This fixed protective bias will protect the the resistor will bias the tube for proper
tube in the event of failure of grid excita- operation.
tion. "Zero- bias" tubes do not require this This type of bias is used more extensively
bias source, since their plate current will in audio -frequency than in radio- frequency
drop to a safe value when the excitation is amplifiers. The voltage drop across the resis-
removed. tor must be subtracted from the total plate
Cathode Bias A resistor can be connected in supply voltage when calculating the power
series with the cathode or cen- input to the amplifier, and this loss of plate
ter- tapped filament lead of an amplifier to se- voltage in an r -f amplifier may be excessive.
A class -A audio amplifier is biased only to
cure automatic bias. The plate current flows
through this resistor, then back to the approximately one -half cutoff, whereas an
cathode or filament, and the voltage drop r -f amplifier may be biased to twice cutoff,
across the resistor can be applied to the grid or more, and thus the plate supply voltage
loss may be a large percentage of the total
available voltage when using low- or me-
dium-p. tubes.
Often just enough cathode bias is em-
ployed in an r -f amplifier to act as safety
FRON DRIVER
bias to protect the tubes in case of excita-

tion failure, with the rest of the bias coming
Figure 38
from a grid resistor.
COMBINATION SELF- AND Separate Bios An external supply often is

FIXED BIAS Supply used for grid bias, as shown in
Self-bias often is used in conjunction with a
figure 33. The bleeder re-
Axed minimum value of power supply bias. sistance across the output of the filter can
This arrangement permits the operating bias be made sufficiently low in value that the
to be established by the excitation energy,
but in the absence of excitation the elec- grid current of the amplifier will not appre-
trode currents to the tube will be held to ciably change the amount of negative grid -
safe values by the fixed- minimum power sup-
ply bias. If a relatively low value of grid bias voltage. Alternately, a voltage -regulated
resistor is to be used, an r -f choke should be grid -bias supply can be used. This type of
cted between the grid of the tube and the
bias supply is used in class -B audio and class-
c
resistor as discussed in figure 37.
PROM
r ROM
DRN DRIVC
BLEEDER
RESISTOR
}VPPLYJ
FIGURE 41
Figure 40
ZENER CATHODE BIAS
SEPARATE BIAS SUPPLY
Zener diode may be used to obtain a few
A separate bias supply may be used for volts of well- regulated cathode bias. This
triodes or tetrodes. Sias is applied across a circuit may be used to reduce zero- signal plate
low- resistance bleeder. Grid current (If any) current of high-it triodes in cathode -driven
flowing through bleeder will boost bias volt- (grounded -grid) service.
age over nominal value of supply. Bias sup-
ply for AB, linear amplifier, even though no
grid t is encountered, must still have three operating voltages: grid bias, screen
low- resistance bleeder to help overcome rise voltage, and plate voltage. The current re-
in bias due to collection of primary electrons
on grid of tube. quirements of these three operating voltages
are somewhat interdependent, and a change
B r -f linear amplifier service where the volt- in potential of one voltage will affect the
age regulation in the C -bias supply is im- current drain of the tetrode in respect to the
portant. For a class -C amplifier, regulation other two voltages. In particular, if the grid
is not so important, and an economical de-
excitation voltage is interrupted as by key-
sign of components in the power supply, ing action, or if the plate supply is momen-
therefore, can be utilized. In this case, the tarily interrupted, the resulting voltage or
bias voltage must be adjusted with normal current surges in the screen circuit are apt
grid current flowing, as the grid current will to permanently damage the tube.
raise the bias considerably when it is flowing The Series Screen A simple method of ob-
through the bias -supply bleeder resistance. Supply taining screen voltage is by
means of a dropping resis-
Zener Bias A few volts of bias may be tor from the high -voltage plate supply, as
needed to reduce the zero -signal shown in figure 42. This circuit is recom-
plate current of a "zero- bias" triode, par- mended for use with low power tetrodes
ticularly if the equipment is power- supply (6146, 5763, etc.) in class -C service. Be-
limited. A low-impedance bias source is cause of poor regulation with varying screen
required and the simplest way of obtaining current it should not be used in a linear
well -regulated bias voltage is to place a amplifier stage. Since the current drawn
zener diode in the filament or cathode by the screen is a function of the exciting
return circuit (figure 41). The 1N4551, voltage applied to the tetrode, the screen
for example, has a nominal voltage drop of voltage will rise to equal the plate voltage
4.7 volts and an impedance of 0.1 ohm, under conditions of no exciting voltage. If
making it ideal for this service. At this the control grid is overdriven, on the other
value of bias, the zero- signal plate current hand, the screen current may become exces-
of a 3 -500Z at a plate potential of 3250 sive. In either case, damage to the screen and
volts is reduced from 160 to approximately its associated components may result. in ad-
90 milliamperes. dition, fluctuations in the plate loading of
The 1N451 diode may be bolted directly
to the chassis which will act as a heat sink.
11 -12 Protective Circuits r^-

for Tetrode
Transmitting Tubes 8+
Figure 42
The tetrode transmitting tube requires DROPPING -RESISTOR SCREEN SUPPLY
HANDBOOK Protective Circuits 295
operating parameters shift. However, the

screen can be easily damaged if plate or bias
RFC
voltage is removed from the tetrode, as the
screen current will reach high values and the
screen dissipation will be exceeded. If the
screen supply is capable of providing slightly
NEGATIVE
OPEMAT/NG CLAMP
TUBE
more screen voltage than the tetrode re-
BIAS CUTS
OFF CLAMP
TUBE quires for proper operation, a series wattage -
limiting resistor may be added to the circuit
Figure 43 as shown in figure 44. With this resistor in
CLAMP -TUBE SCREEN SUPPLY the circuit it is possible to apply excitation
to the tetrode tube with screen voltage pres-
the tetrode stage will cause changes in the ent (but in the absence of plate voltage)
screen current of the tube. This will result and still not damage the screen of the tube.
in screen voltage fluctuations due to the in- The value of the resistor should be chosen so
herently poor voltage regulation of the that the product of the voltage applied to
screen series dropping resistor. These effects the screen of the tetrode times the screen
become dangerous to tube life if the plate current never exceeds the maximum rated
voltage is greater than the screen voltage by screen dissipation of the tube.
a factor of 2 or so. This circuit is not suited for linear ampli-
fiers since the screen voltage regulation is
The Clamp Tube A clamp tube may be added poor.
to the series screen supply, In designing equipment using
Screen
as shown in figure 43. The clamp tube is nor- high -power tetrodes, considera-
Protection
mally cut off by virtue of the d -c grid bias tion must be given to control of
drop developed across the grid resistor of the secondary emission from the screen element
tetrode tube. When excitation is removed of the tube. The screen is normally operated
from the tetrode, no bias appears across the at a relatively low potential to accelerate the
grid resistor, and the clamp tube conducts electrons emitted from the cathode. Not all
heavily, dropping the screen voltage to a of the electrons pass through the screen grid
safe value. When excitation is applied to the on the way to the plate, some of them being
tetrode the clamp tube is inoperative, and intercepted by the grid. In the process of
fluctuations of the plate loading of the striking the screen grid, other electrons are
tetrode tube could allow the screen voltage emitted, some of which may be attracted
to rise to a damaging value. Because of this by the higher potential of the plate. The
factor, the clamp tube does not offer com- result is a flow of electrons from the screen
plete protection to the tetrode. to the plate. It is possible that more electrons
The Separate low- voltage screen supply
A
will leave the screen than will arrive and a
Screen Supply may be used instead of the screen meter will indicate a reverse electron
series screen -dropping resis- flow, or negative screen current, under this
tor. This will protect the screen circuit from condition. A low-impedance path to ground
excessive voltages when the other tetrode
must be provided for this flow, otherwise
the screen voltage will attempt to rise to
the value of the plate voltage, by virtue
of the IR drop created by the negative
screen current flowing across the high -
impedance screen circuit. As the screen
SERIES RESISTOR
voltage rises, the plate current of the tetrode
LOW POLTAGE +B increases and the tube is in a runaway con-
SCREEN SUPPLY dition. The addition of a resistor from
Figure 44 screen to ground will compensate for the
A PROTECTIVE WATTAGE-LIMITING RE- effect of negative screen current. The value
SISTOR FOR USE WITH LOW-VOLTAGE of this resistor will be such that the bled
SCREEN SUPPLY current will run from 20 ma to as high as
FROM
DRI
11 -13 Interstage Coupling
Energy is usually coupled from one circuit
-BIAS
P yTUNE of a transmitter into another either by ca-
pacitive coupling, inductive coupling, or
SCREEN
link coupling. The latter is a special form of
Figure 45 inductive coupling. The choice of a coupling
method depends on the purpose for which it
SCREEN CONTROL CIRCUIT is to be used.
The d -creturn path to ground for screen of
a tetrads should not be broken. Resistor R, Capacitive Capacitive coupling between an
completes the circuit and screen high- voltage Coupling amplifier or doubler circuit and a
load may be open to reduce stage gain for
tuneup purposes. preceding driver stage is shown
in figure 46. The coupling capacitor (C)
70 ma, depending on the tube type. Tube isolates the d -c plate supply from the next
data sheets normally state the amount of grid and provides a low- impedance path for
bled current required to counteract the the rf energy between the tube being driven
emission current. and the driver tube. This method of cou-
A correct circuit for the screen supply of pling is simple and economical for low -power
a linear amplifier, including a "tune- operate" amplifier or exciter stages, but has certain
switch is shown in figure 45. In the "tune" disadvantages, particularly for high -fre-
position, screen voltage is removed, permit- quency stages. The grid leads in an amplifier
ting adjustments to be made to the circuit should be as short as possible, but this is
at a very low power level for tuneup pur- difficult to attain in the physical arrange-
poses. ment of a high -power amplifier with respect
to a capacitively coupled driver stage.
Grid The impedance of the grid cir- Disadvantages of One significant disadvan-
Protection cuit must be considered, par- Capacitive tage of capacitive coupling
ticularly in class AB, amplifiers Coupling is the difficulty of adjust-
wherein a regulated bias source is required.
Primary grid emission can cause trouble if ing the load on the driver
stage. Impedance adjustment can be accom-
the impedance of the grid circuit is too high.
plished by tapping the coupling lead a part
The d -c resistance to ground of the bias
supply should be sufficiently low (below of the way down on the plate coil of the
1000 ohms or so) to prevent appreciable
tuned stage of the driver circuit; but often
when this is done a parasitic oscillation will
reverse bias from being developed by the
take place in the stage being driven.
flow of emission current through the in-
ternal resistance of the bias supply. The One main disadvantage of capacitive cou-
reverse bias produced by this effect tends to
subtract from the grid bias, causing a run-
away condition if not controlled.
Figure 47
BALANCED CAPACITIVE COUPLING
Balanced capacitive coupling sometimes is
useful when it is desirable to use a relatively
Figure 46 large inductance in the interstage tank cir-
cuit, or where the exciting stage is neutralized
CAPACITIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING as shown above.
HANDBOOK Radio -Frequency Chokes 297
piing lies in the fact that the grid -to -fila-

ment capacitance of the driven tube is
placed directly across the driver tuned cir-
cuit. This condition sometimes makes the r -f
amplifier difficult to neutralize, and the in-
creased minimum circuit capacitance makes
it difficult to use a reasonable size coil in the
vhf range. Difficulties from this source can Figure 48
be partially eliminated by using a center -
tapped or split- stator tank circuit in the INDUCTIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING
plate of the driver stage, and coupling ca-
pacitively to the opposite end from the plate.
This method places the plate -to- filament ca- Link A modified form of inductive
pacitance of the driver across one -half of Coupling coupling termed link coupling is
the tank and the grid -to- filament capaci- often used in transmitting equip-
tance of the following stage across the other ment when two stages are separated by a
half, as shown in figure 47. distance comparable to a fraction of the
Capacitive coupling, generally speaking, operational wavelength. A low- impedance
r -f transmission line couples the two tuned
does not provide a high degree of attenua-
tion to harmonics of the driving signal and circuits together. Each end of the line is
its use (particularly in driver chains for terminated in one or more turns of wire, or
vhf equipment) should be tempered links, wound around the coils which are
caution. being coupled together. These links should
be coupled to each tuned circuit at the point
Inductive Inductive coupling (figure 48) of zero r -f potential, or nodal point. A
Coupling results when two coils are electro- ground connection to one side of the link
magnetically coupled to one an- usually is used to reduce harmonic coupling,
other. The degree of coupling is controlled or where capacitive coupling between two
by varying the mutual inductance of the circuits must be minimized. Coaxial line is
two coils, which is accomplished by chang- commonly used to transfer energy between
ing the spacing or the relationship between the two coupling links (figure S0).
the axes of the coils.
Inductive coupling is used extensively for 11 -14 Radio- Frequency
coupling r -f amplifiers in radio receivers
and in vhf exciters to attenuate harmonics
Chokes
and subharmonics of the signal frequency. Radio -frequency chokes are connected in
circuits for the purpose of attenuating the
Unity Coupling If the grid- tuning capacitor
of figure 48 is removed and
the coupling increased to the maximum iNTERWOVND
practicable value by interwinding the turns
of the two coils, the circuit insofar as r.f.
is concerned, acts like that of figure 46, in
which one tank serves both as plate tank
for the driver and grid tank for the driven
stage. The interwound grid winding serves
simply to isolate the d -c plate voltage of the
driver from the grid of the driven stage, and Figure 49
to provide a return for d -c grid current.
This type of coupling, illustrated in figure "UNITY" INDUCTIVE COUPLING
49, is commonly known as unity coupling. Due to the high value of coupling between
Because of the high mutual inductance, the two coils, one tuning capacitor tunes
both circuits. This arrangement often is useful
both primary and secondary are resonated by in coupling from a single -ended to a push -pull
the one tuning capacitor. stage.
the series -resonant frequency should fall

outside the operating range of the choke.
R -f chokes for operation on several bands
LINK COUPLING
must be designed carefully so that the im-
AT "COLD' ENDS.
UPPER ENDS 'MOT.
pedance of the choke will be extremely high
(several hundred thousand ohms) in each of
the bands.
Figure 50 The direct current which flows through
the r -f choke largely determines the size of
INTERSTAGE COUPLING BY MEANS
wire to be used in the winding. The induc-
OF A LINK
tance of r-f chokes for the vhf range is
Link interstage coupling is very commonly much less than for chokes designed for
used since the two stages may be separated
by a considerable distance, since the amount broadcast and ordinary short -wave opera-
of a coupling between the two stages may be tion. A very high- inductance r -f choke has
easily varied, and since the capacitances of
the two stages may be isolated to permit use more distributed capacitance than a smaller
of larger inductances in the vhf range. one, with the result that it will actually
offer lrss impedance at very high frequencies.
Another consideration, just as important
passage of r -f energy while still permitting a
as the amount of d.c. the winding will carry,
direct current or audio- frequency current to is the r -f voltage which may be placed across
pass. They consist of inductances wound
the choke without its breaking down. This
with a large number of turns, either in the is a function of insulation, turn spacing, fre-
form of a solenoid, a series of solenoids, a
quency, number and spacing of pies, and
single universal pie winding, or a series of
other factors.
pie windings. These inductors are designed
Some chokes which are designed to have a
to have as much inductance and as little
high impedance over a very wide range of
distributed or shunt capacitance as possible. frequency are, in effect, really two chokes: a
The unavoidable small amount of distributed
uhf choke in series with a high- frequency
capacitance resonates the inductance, and
choke. A choke of this type is polarized; that
when the choke terminals are shorted,
is, it is important that the correct end of the
combination choke be connected to the
"hot" side of the circuit.
Various r -f choke designs for h -f and
vhf operation are shown in Table 2. Series
resonance is checked by shorting the choke
terminals with a wire and finding the lowest
+SG +NV +5G +NV
self- resonant frequency with a grid -dip os-
cillator. Do not coat the chokes with liquid
PARALLEL PLATE FEED SERIES PLATE FEED
insulative material as it tends to increase
the distributed capacity and lower the self-
Figure 51 resonant frequency.
ILLUSTRATING PARALLEL AND
SERIES PLATE FEED
Parallel plate feed is desirable from a safety 11 -15 Parallel and

standpoint since the tank circuit is at ground
potential with respect to d.c. However, a Push -Pull Tube Circuits
high -impedance r -f choke is required, and
the r -f choke must be able to withstand the The comparative r -f power output from
peak r -f voltage output of the tube. Series
plate feed eliminates the requirement for a parallel or push -pull operated amplifiers is
high-performance r -f choke, but requires the the same if proper impedance matching is
use of a relatively large value of bypass
capacitance at the bottom end of the tank
accomplished, if sufficient grid excitation is
cir:uit, as contrasted to the moderate value available in both cases, and if the frequency
of coupling capacitance which may be used of measurement is considerably lower than
at the top of the tank circuit for parallel
plate feed. the frequency limit of the tubes.
HANDBOOK Cooling Transmitting Tubes 299
Table 2. H -F Radio- Frequency Chokes for Power Amplifiers
4000 -Watt Peak Rating

3/4
I 7 -30 MHz: 90 turns #18 Formex, closewound, about 4Y8" long on ,
diam. X
61/2" long teflon form. Series resonant at 43 MHz (32H).
14-54 MHz: 43 turns #16 Formex space -wound wire diameter, about 4%8" long on 34"
diam. X 61/2" long Teflon form. Series resonant at 96 MHz (15H) It is
suggested that the form be grooved on a lathe for ease in winding.
2000 -Watt PEP Rating

3.5 -30 MHz: 110 turns #26e., space -wound wire diameter, about 4" long on 1" diam. X
6" long ceramic form. Series resonant at 25 MHz. (78H).
21 -54 MHz: 48 turns #26e., space -wound wire diameter, about 11/2" long on 1/2" X 3"
long ceramic form. Or Air -Dux 432 -T (B & W 3004) on wood form. Serie!
resonant near 130 MHz. (75H.)
Parallel Operating tubes in parallel has long tube life. Deteriorating effects increase
Operation some advantages in transmitters directly with the temperature of the tube
designed for operation below 30 envelope and seals. Even if no cooling air
MHz, particularly when tetrode or pentode is specified by the technical data sheet for
tubes are to be used. Only one neutralizing a particular tube, ample free space for cir-
capacitor is required for parallel operation of culation of air about the tube is required,
triode tubes, as against two for push -pull. or else air must be forced past the tube.
Above about 30 MHz, depending on the As the frequency of operation of the tube
tube type, parallel -tube operation is not is extended into the vhf region, additional
ordinarily recommended with triode tubes. cooling is usually required because of the
However, parallel operation of grounded - larger r -f losses inherent in the tube struc-
grid stages and stages using low -C beam ture.
tetrodes often will give excellent results well Temperature- sensitive paint or crayons
into the vhf range. may be used to monitor the temperature of
a tube under operating conditions. If the
Push -Pull The push -pull connection pro- paint is applied to the tube envelope in a
Operation vides a well -balanced circuit in- very thin coat, it will melt and virtually
sofar as miscellaneous capaci- disappear at its critical temperature. After
tances are concerned; in addition, the circuit subsequent cooling, it will have a crystalline
can be neutralized more completely, espe- appearance indicating that the surface with
cially in high- frequency amplifiers. The LC which it is in contact has exceeded the
ratio in a push -pull amplifier can be made critical temperature. Temperature- sensitive
higher than in a plate -neutralized parallel - tapes and decals are also available to measure
tube operated amplifier. Push -pull amplifiers, envelope temperature of transmitting tubes.
when perfectly balanced, have less second -
harmonic output than parallel- or single -tube
amplifiers, but in practice undesired capaci-
tive coupling and circuit unbalance more or 11 -17 High -Power
less offset the theoretical harmonic -reducing R -F Chokes
advantages of push -pull r -f circuits.
The design of r -f chokes is discussed in
11 -16 Cooling Transmitting Chapter 17, Section 3. By observing the
series- resonant frequency of the choke, a
Tubes homemade, high -power r -f choke may be
made very inexpensively. Representative de-
Adequate cooling of the tube envelope signs are shown in Table 2. The first choke
and seals is one of the factors leading to covers the 7.0- to 30 -MHz frequency region
300 Generation of R -F Energy
and the first series resonance occurs at 43 quency of 25 MHz. The choke is rated for
MHz. The choke is rated for a maximum 3 kV at 1 ampere d.c. The third choke is
voltage of kV and a maximum plate cur-
5 designed for the 21- to 54 -MHz region
rent of 2 amperes d.c. The second choke with a series -resonance near 130 MHz. It has
covers the 3.5- to 30 -MHz region, with the same voltage and current rating as the
the exception of the series- resonance fre- second choke.
CHAPTER TWELVE
R -F Feedback
Comparatively high gain is required in sin - 12 -1 R -F Feedback

gle-sideband equipment because the signal is
usually generated at levels of one watt or less.
Circuits
To get from this level to a kilowatt requires R -f feedback circuits have been developed
about 30 db of gain. High gain tetrodes may by the Collins Radio Co. for use with linear
be used to obtain this increase with a minimum amplifiers. Tests with large receiving and small
number of stages and circuits. Each stage con- transmitting tubes showed that amplifiers us-
tributes some distortion; therefore, it is good ing these tubes without feedback developed
practice to keep the number of stages to a signal -to- distortion ratios no better than 30 db
minimum. It is generally considered good prac- or so. Tests were run employing cathode -fol-
tice to operate the low-level amplifiers below lower circuits, such as shown in figure 1A.
their maximum power capability in order to Lower distortion was achieved, but at the cost
confine most of the distortion to the last two of low gain per stage. Since the voltage gain
amplifier stages. R -f feedback can then be through the tube is less than unity, all gain
utilized to reduce the distortion in the last has to be achieved by voltage step -up in the
two stages. This type of feedback is no dif- tank circuits. This gain is limited by the dis-
ferent from the common audio feedback used sipation of the tank coils, since the circuit
in high - fidelity sound systems. A sample of capacitance across the coils in a typical trans-
the output waveform is applied to the ampli- mitter is quite high. In addition, the tuning
fier input to correct the distortion developed of such a stage is sharp because of the high -
in the amplifier. The same advantages can be Q circuits.
obtained at radio frequencies that are obtained The cathode- follower performance of the
at audio frequencies when feedback is used. tube can be retained by moving the r -f ground
B
Br
-J
Figure 1
SIMILAR CATHODE FOLLOWER CIRCUITS HAVING DIFFERENT R -F GROUND POINTS
302 R -F Feedback RADIO
B+
0+
R. F.OUT
B1A5 BIAS 0+
Figure 2 Figure 4
SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH R WITH FEEDBACK
-F AMPLIFIER
R -F FEEDBACK CIRCUIT AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING
OUTPUT NETWORK
Tuning and loading are accomplished by C,
B+ and C,. C, and L, are tuned in unison to
establish the correct degree of feedback.
R. F.OUT
Inductive coupling is required for this cir-

cuit, as shown in the illustration.
The circuit of figure 3 eliminates the need
for inductive coupling by moving the r -f
ground to the point common to both tank
Figure 3 circuits. The advantages of direct coupling be-
SINGLE STAGE FEEDBACK tween stages far outweigh the disadvantages of
AMPLIFIER WITH GROUND having the r -f feedback voltage appear on the
RETURN POINT MODIFIED FOR cathode of the amplifier tube.
UNBALANCED INPUT AND
OUTPUT CONNECTIONS In order to match the amplifier to a load,
the circuit of figure 4 may be used. The ratio
of X,,, to Xe, determines the degree of feed-
point of the circuit from the plate to the cath- back, so it is necessary to tune them in unison
ode as shown in figure 1B. Both ends of the when the frequency of operation is changed.
input circuit are at high r -f potential so in- Tuning and loading functions are accomplished
ductive coupling to this type of amplifier is by varying C2 and C3. L2 may also be varied
necessary.
to adjust the loading.
Inspection of figure 1B shows that by mov-
ing the top end of the input tank down on a Feedback Around a The maximum phase
voltage- divider tap across the plate tank cir- Two -Stage Amplifier shift obtainable over
cuit, the feedback can be reduced from 100%, two simple tuned cir-
as in the case of the cathode -follower circuit, cuits does not exceed 180 degrees, and feed-
down to any desired value. A typical feedback back around a two -stage amplifier is possible.
circuit is illustrated in figure 2. This circuit The basic circuit of a two stage feedback
is more practical than those of figure 1, since amplifier is shown in figure 5. This circuit
the losses in the input tank are greatly reduced. is a conventional two -stage tetrode amplifier
A feedback level of 12 db may be achieved except that r.f. is fed back from the plate
as a good compromise between distortion and circuit of the PA tube to the cathode of the
stage gain. The voltage developed across Co driver tube. This will reduce the distortion
will be three times the grid- cathode voltage.
R. F. INO( E F.OUT
Figure 5
BASIC CIRCUIT OF TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH R -F FEEDBACK
Feedback voltage is obtained from o voltage divider across the output circuit and
applied directly to the cathode of the first tube. The input tank circuit is thus
outside the feedback loop.
HANDBOOK R -F Feedback Circuits 303
of both tubes as effectively as using individual cuit is inductive there is energy transferred
feedback loops around each stage, yet will from the plate to the grid circuit (positive
allow a higher level of over-all gain. With feedback) which will introduce negative resist-
only two tuned circuits in the feedback loop, ance in the grid circuit. When this shunt
it is possible to use 12 to 15 db of feedback negative resistance across the grid circuit is
and still leave a wide margin for stability. It lower than the equivalent positive resistance
is possible to reduce the distortion by nearly of the grid loading, circuit losses, and driving
as many db as are used in feedback. This cir- source impedance, the amplifier will oscillate.
cuit has two advantages that are lacking in the When the plate circuit is in resonance
single -stage feedback amplifier. First, the fila- ( phase angle equal to zero) the input resist-
ment of the output stage can now be operated ance due to the grid -plate capacitance becomes
at r -f ground potential. Second, any conven- infinite. As the plate circuit is tuned to the
tional pi output network may be used. capacitive side of resonance, the input resist-
R -f feedback will correct several types of ance becomes positive and power is actually
distortion. It will help correct distortion caused transferred from the grid to the plate circuit.
by poor power supply regulation, too low grid This is the reason that the grid current in an
bias, and limiting on peaks when the plate unneutralized tetrode r -f amplifier varies from
voltage swing becomes too high. a low value with the plate circuit tuned on the
low- frequency side of resonance to a high value
Neutralization The purpose of neutraliza- on the high- frequency side of resonance The
and R -F Feedback Lion of an r -f amplifier grid current is proportional to the r -f voltage
stage is to balance out ef- on the grid which is varying under these con-
fects of the grid -plate capacitance coupling in ditions. In a tetrode class -AB, amplifier, the
the amplifier. In a conventional amplifier us- effect of grid -plate feedback can be observed
ing a tetrode tube, the effective input capacity by placing a r -f voltmeter across the grid cir-
is given by: cuit and observing the voltage change as the
Input capacitance = C;,, +C4i, (1 + A cos B) plate circuit is tuned through resonance.
If the amplifier is over -neutralized, the ef-
where,
fects reverse so that with the plate circuit
Ci equals tube input capacitance, tuned to the low- frequency side of resonance,
Co equals grid -plate capacitance, the grid voltage is high, and on the high -fre-
A equals grid -to -plate voltage amplifica- quency side of resonance, it is low.
cation,
O equals angle of load.
Amplifier A useful "rule of
Neutralization Check thumb" method of
In a typical unneutralized tetrode amplifier checking neutraliza-
having a stage gain of 33, the input capaci- tion of an amplifier stage (assuming that it
tance of the tube with the plate circuit in is nearly correct to start with) is to tune both
resonance is increased by 8 pf due to the grid and plate circuits to resonance. Then, ob-
unneutralized grid-plate capacitance. This is serving the r -f grid current, tune the plate cir-
unimportant in amplifiers where the gain (A) cuit to the high - frequency side of resonance.
remains constant but if the tube gain varies, If the grid current rises, more neutralization
serious detuning and r -f phase shift may result. capacitance is required. Conversely, if the grid
A grid or screen modulated r -f amplifier is an current decreases, less capacitance is needed.
example of the case where the stage gain var- This indication is very sensitive in a neutral-
ies from a maximum down to zero. The gain ized triode amplifier, and correct neutraliza-
of a tetrode r -f amplifier operating below plate tion exists when the grid current peaks at the
current saturation varies with loading so that point of plate current dip. In tetrode power
if it drives a following stage into grid current amplifiers this indication is less pronounced.
the loading increases and the gain falls off. Sometimes in a supposedly neutralized tetrode
The input of the grid circuit is also affected amplifier, there is practically no change in
by the grid -plate capacitance, as shown in this grid voltage as the plate circuit is tuned
equation: through resonance, and in some amplifiers it
is unchanged on one side of resonance and
Input resistance =
Zzrf X Cs (AsinO) drops slightly on the other side. Another ob-
This resistance is in shunt with the grid servation sometimes made is a small dip in
current loading, grid tank circuit losses, and the center of a broad peak of grid current.
driving source impedance. When the plate cir- These various effects are probably caused by
E:soR.F.^,T
Figure 6 Figure 7
SINGLE STAGE R -F AMPLIFIER NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER AND
WITH FEEDBACK RATIO OF INHERENT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT
C /C to C, /C.. DETERMINES Neutralization is achieved by varying
STAGE NEUTRALIZATION
the capacity of C.
coupling from the plate to the grid circuit tential when r.f. is impressed upon the cathode.
through other paths which are not balanced The output voltage available with capacity
out by the particular neutralizing circuit used. coupling, of course, is less than the plate-
Figure 6 shows an r-f am- cathode r -f voltage developed by the amount
Feedback and of feedback voltage across C,.
Neutralization plifier with negative feed-
of a One -Stage back. The voltage devel-
R -F Amplifier oped across C4 due to the 12 -2 Feedback and
divider action of C:, and C, Neutralization of a
is introduced in series with the voltage devel-
oped across the grid tank circuit and is in
Two -Stage R -F Amplifier
phase- opposition to it. The feedback can be Feedback around two r -f stages has the ad-
made any value from zero to 100% by proper- vantage that more of the tube gain can be
ly choosing the values of C:, and C,. realized and nearly as much distortion reduc-
For reasons stated previously, it is necessary tion can be obtained using 12 db around two
to neutralize this amplifier, .and the relation- stages as is realized using 12 db around each
ship for neutralization is: of two stages separately. Figure 9 shows a
C, C basic circuit of a two -stage feedback ampli-
fier. Inductive output coupling is used, al-
Ca Cpt though a pi- network configuration will also
It is often necessary to add capacitance from work well. The small feedback voltage required
plate to grid to satisfy this relationship is obtained from the voltage divider (C, -C_)
Figure 7 is identical to figure 6 except that and is applied to the cathode of the driver
it is redrawn to show the feedback inherent in tube. C, is only a few pf, so this feedback
this neutralization circuit more clearly. CN and voltage divider may be left fixed for a wide
C replace C:, and C and the main plate tank frequency range. If the combined tube gain is
160, and 12 db of feedback is desired, the ratio
tuning capacitance is C. The circuit of figure
7 presents a problem in coupling to the grid
of C_ to C, is about 40 to 1. This ratio in
circuit. Inductive coupling is ideal, but the practice may be 100 pf to 2.5 pf, for example.
extra tank circuits complicate the tuning of a A complication is introduced into this sim-
transmitter which uses several cascaded amplified circuit by the cathode -grid capacitance
plifiers with feedback around each one. The
grid could be coupled to a high source imped-
ance such as a tetrode plate, but the driver R. FOUT
then cannot use feedback because this would

cause the source impedance to be low. A pos- R.RIN
sible solution is to move the circuit ground
point from the cathode to the bottom end of
the grid tank circuit. The feedback voltage then
appears between the cathode and ground
( figure 8 ) . The input can be capacitively
coupled, and the plate of the amplifier can
be capacitively coupled to the next stage. Also, UNBALANCED INPUT AND OUTPUT
cathode type transmitting tubes are available CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE -STAGE
that allow the heater to remain at ground po- R -F AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
HANDBOOK R -F Feedback Circuits 305
Figure 9
TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
included is a capacitor (C,) for neutralizing the cathode-grid capacity of the first tube. Vi is neutralized
by capacitor C,, and V: is neutralized by the correct ratio of C, /Cr.
of the first tube which, causes an. undesired more feedback from the output stage to over-
coupling to the input grid circuit. It is neces- come.
sary to neutralize out this capacitance coupling, Tests For Neutralizing the circuit of
as illustrated in figure 9. The relationship for Neutralization figure 9 balances out cou-
neutralization is: pling between the input
C3 Cet tank circuit and the output tank circuit, but it
C4 C6 does not remove all coupling from the plate
circuit to the grid- cathode tube input. This
The input circuit may be made unbalanced latter coupling is degenerative, so applying a
by nuking C, five times the capacity of signal to the plate circuit will cause a signal
This will tend to reduce the voltage across to appear between grid and cathode, even
the coil and to minimize the power dissipated though the stage is neutralized. A bench test
by the coil. For proper balance in this case, for neutralization is to apply a signal to the
C must be five times the grid- filament capaci- plate of the tube and detect the presence of a
tance of the tube. signal in the grid coil by inductive coupling
Except for tubes having extremely small to it. No signal will be present when the stage
grid -plate capacitance, it is still necessary to is neutralized. Of course, a signal could be in-
properly neutralize both tubes. If the ratio of ductively coupled to the input and neutraliza-
C, to C, is chosen to be equal to the ratio of tion accomplished by adjusting one branch of
the grid -plate capacitance to the grid -filament the neutralizing circuit bridge (C; for ex-
capacitance in the second tube (V:), this tube ample) for minimum signal on the plate cir-
will be neutralized. Tubes such as a 4X -150A cuit.
have very low grid -plate capacitance and prob-
ably will not need to be neutralized when used Neutralizing the cathode-grid capacitance of
in the first (V1) stage. If neutralization is the first stage of figure 9 may be accomplished
necessary, capacitor C:, is added for this pur- by applying a signal to the cathode of the tube
pose and the proper value is given by the and adjusting the bridge balance for minimum
following relationship: signal on a detector inductively coupled to the
input coil.
CRa CRt C,
C5 E,, C{ Tuning a Two -Stage Tuning the two -stage
Feedback Amplifier feedback amplifier of
If neither tube requires neutralization, the figure 9 is accom-
bottom end of the interstage tank circuit may plished in an unconventional way because the
be returned to r -f ground. The screen and output circuit cannot be tuned for maximum
suppressor of the first tube should then be output signal. This is because the output cir-
grounded to keep the tank output capaci- cuit must be tuned so the feedback voltage
tance directly across this interstage circuit and applied to the cathode is in -phase with the
to avoid common coupling between the feed- input signal applied to the first grid. When
back on the cathode and the interstage circuit. the feedback voltage is not in- phase, the result-
A slight amount of degeneration occurs in the ant grid- cathode voltage increases as shown
first stage since the tube also acts as a grounded in figure 10. When the output circuit is
grid amplifier with the screen as the grounded properly tuned, the resultant grid- cathode volt-
grid. The of the screen is much lower than age on the first tube will be at a minimum, and
that of the control grid so that this effect may the voltage on the interstage tuned circuit will
be unnoticed and would only require slightly also be at a minimum.
r. VOLTAGE - GRID TO CATHODE
VOLTAGE -
f
iNPUT GRID
TO
GROUND /VOLTAGE-CATHODE TO GROUND
IEEEDBICY,
Figure 12
INTERSTAGE CIRCUIT WITH
SEPARATE NEUTRALIZING
Figure 10
AND FEEDBACK CIRCUITS
VECTOR RELATIONSHIP OF
FEEDBACK VOLTAGE
A = Output Circuit Properly Tuned It is convenient, however, to separate these cir-
B= Output Circuit Mis -Tuned
cuits so neutralization and feedback can be
adjusted independently. Also, it may be de-
The two -stage amplifier may be tuned by sirable to be able to switch the feedback out
placing a r -f voltmeter across the interstage of the circuit. For these reasons, the circuit
tank circuit ( "hot" side to ground) and tuning shown in figure 12 is often used. Switch Si
the input and interstage circuits for maximum removes the feedback loop when it is closed.
meter reading, and tuning the output circuit A slight tendency for low- frequency para-
for minimum meter reading. If the second tube sitic oscillations still exists with this circuit.
is driven into the grid current region, the grid LA should have as little inductance as possible
current meter may be used in place of the r-f without upsetting the feedback. If the value of
voltmeter. On high powered stages where oper- L, is too low, it cancels out part of the re-
ation is well into the class -AB region, the actance of feedback capacitor C, and causes
plate current dip of the output tube indicates the feedback to increase at low values of radio
correct output circuit tuning, as in the usual frequency. In some cases, a swamping resistor
amplifier. may be necessary across L1. The value of this
resistor should be high compared to the re-
Parasitic Oscillations in Quite often low fre- actance of C, to avoid phase-shift of the r -f
the Feedback Amplifier q u e n c y parasitics feedback.
may be found in
the interstage circuit of the two -stage feedback
amplifier. Oscillation occurs in the first stage 12 -3 Neutralization
due to low frequency feedback in the cathode Procedure in
circuit. R-f chokes, coupling capacitors, and Feedback -Type Amplifiers
bypass capacitors provide the low frequency
tank circuits. When the feedback and second Experience with feedback amplifiers has
stage neutralizing circuits are combined, it is brought out several different methods of neu-
necessary to use the configuration of figure 11. tralizing. An important observation is that
This circuit has the advantage that only one when all three neutralizing adjustments are
capacitor (C:,) is required from the plate of correctly made the peaks and dips of various
the output tube, thus keeping the added ca- tuning meters all coincide at the point of cir-
pacitance across the output tank at a minimum. cuit resonance. For example, the coincident in-
dications when the various tank circuits are
tuned through resonance with feedback oper-
ating are:
A-When the PA plate circuit is tuned
through resonance:
1 -PA plate current dip
2-Power output peak
3 -PA r -f grid voltage dip
AS
4-PA grid current dip
B
Figure 11 (Note: The PA grid current peaks

INTERSTAGE CIRCUIT COMBINING
NEUTRALIZATION AND when feedback circuit is disabled
FEEDBACK NETWORKS and the tube is heavily driven)
HANDBOOK Neutralization 307
R F OUT
CCP
T
ar' "CiT lour
'
s; r;1rN s I )~
_CGF
c,o RFC
Hu - -
T
l
BIAS 8+ R e5
Figure 13
TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK CIRCUIT
B-When the PA grid circuit is tuned 2- Neutralize the grid -plate capaci-
through resonance: tance of the driver stage
1- Driver plate current dip 3-Neutralize the grid -plate capaci-
2 -PA r-f grid voltage peak tance of the power amplifier (PA)
3 -PA grid current peak stage
4 -PA power output peak 4-Apply r -f feedback
5- Neutralize driver grid- cathode ca-
C-When the driver grid circuit is tuned pacitance
through resonance:
1- Driver r-f grid voltage peak These steps will be explained in more detail
2- Driver plate current peak in the following paragraphs:
3 -PA r -f grid current peak
4 -PA plate current peak
Step 1. The removal of r -f feedback through
5 -PA power output peak
the feedback circuit must be complete. The
switch (Si) shown in the feedback circuit
Four meters may be employed to measure ( figure 13) is one satisfactory method. Since
the most important of these parameters. The C,; is effectively across the PA plate tank cir-
meters should be arranged so that the follow- cuit it is desirable to keep it across the circuit
ing pairs of readings are displayed on meters when feedback is removed to avoid appreciable
located close together for ease of observation detuning of the plate tank circuit. Another
of coincident peaks and dips: method that can be used if properly done is
to ground the junction of C,; and C. Ground-
1 -PA plate current and power output ing this common point through a switch or
2 -PA r -f grid current and PA plate relay is not good enough because of common
current coupling through the length of the grounding
3 -PA r-f grid voltage and power out- lead. The grounding method shown in figure
put 14 is satisfactory.
4-Driver plate current and PA r -f
Step 2. Plate power and excitation are applied.
grid voltage
The driver grid tank is resonated by tuning
The third pair listed above may not be for a peak in driver r -f grid voltage or driver
necessary if the PA plate current dip is pro- plate current. The power amplifier grid tank
nounced. When this instrumentation is pro- circuit is then resonated and adjusted for a
vided, the neutralizing procedure is as follows: dip in driver plate current. Driver neutraliza-
tion is now adjusted until the PA r-f grid
1- Remove the r-f feedback voltage (or PA grid current) peaks at exactly
the point of driver plate current dip. A handy
rule for adjusting grid -plate neutralization of
a tube without feedback: with all circuits in
resonance, detune the plate circuit to the high
frequency side of resonance: If grid current
to next stage (or power output of the stage
under test) increases, more neutralizing capaci-
tance is required and vice versa.
Figure 14 If the driver tube operates class A so that

FEEDBACK SHORTING DEVICE a plate current dip cannot be observed, a dif-
308 R -F Feedback
Neutralization The method of neutralization

Techniques employing a sensitive r -f de-
Ce tector inductively coupled to
'-Hi a tank coil is difficult to apply in some cases
c,o
c9
because of mechanical construction of the
equipment, or because of undesired coupling.
` Another method for observing neutralization
Figure 15 can be used, which appears to be more ac-
FEEDBACK NEUTRALIZING curate in actual practice. A sensitive r -f detec-
CIRCUIT USING tor such as a receiver is loosely coupled to the
AUXILIARY RECEIVER
grid of the stage being neutralized, as shown
in figure 15. The coupling capacitance is of
ferent neutralizing procedure is necessary This the order of one or two pf. It must be small
enough to avoid upsetting the neutralization
will be discussed in a subsequent section. when it is removed because the total grid-
Step 3. This is the same as step 2 except it ground capacitance is one leg of the neutraliz-
ing bridge. A signal generator is connected at
is applied to the power amplifier stage. Ad-
point S and the receiver at point R. If C,,, is
just the neutralization of this stage for a peak not properly adjusted the S -meter on the re-
in power output at the plate current dip. ceiver will either kick up or down as the grid
tank circuit is tuned through resonance. C,,,
Step 4. Reverse step 1 and apply the r-f feed- may be adjusted for minimum deflection of the
back. S -meter as the grid circuit is tuned through
resonance.
Step 5. Apply plate power and an exciting sig- The grid -plate capacitance of the tube is
nal to drive the amplifier to nearly full out- then neutralized by connecting the signal gen-
put. Adjust the feedback neutralization for a erator to the plate of the tube and adjusting
peak in amplifier power output at the exact C of figure 13 for minimum deflection again
as the grid tank is tuned through resonance.
point of minimum amplifier plate current. The power amplifier stage is neutralized in
Decrease the feedback neutralization capaci- the same manner by connecting a receiver
tance if the power output rises when the tank loosely to the grid circuit, and attaching a
circuit is tuned to the high frequency side of signal generator to the plate of the tube. The
resonance. r -f signal can be fed into the amplifier output
terminal if desired.
The above sequence applies when the neu- Some precautions are necessary when using
tralizing adjustments are approximately cor- this neutralization method. First, some driver
rect to start with. If they are far off, some "cut -
tubes (the 6CL6, for example) have appre-
ciably more effective input capacitance when
and -try" adjustment may be necessary. Also, in operation and conducting plate current than
the driver stage may break into oscillation if when in standby condition. This increase in
the feedback neutralizing capacitance is not input capacitance may be as great as three or
near the correct setting. four pf, and since this is part of the neu-
tralizing bridge circuit it must be taken into
It is assumed that a single -tone test signal consideration. The result of this change in
is used for amplifier excitation during the input capacitance is that the neutralizing ad-
above steps, and that all tank circuits are at justment of such tubes must be made when
resonance except the one being detuned to they are conducting normal plate current. Stray
make the observation. There is some interaction coupling must be avoided, and it may prove
between the driver neutralization and the feed- helpful to remove filament power from the
back neutralization so if an appreciable change preceding stage or disable its input circuit in
is made in any adjustment the others should some manner.
be rechecked. It is important that the grid -plate It should be noted that in each of the above
neutralization be accomplished first when using adjustments that minimum reaction on the
the above procedure, otherwise the feedback grid is desired, not minimum voltage. Some
neutralization will be off a little, since it par- residual voltage is inherent on the grid when
tially compensates for that error. this neutralizing circuit is used.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Amplitude Modulation
and Audio Processing
If the output of a c -w transmitter is varied chapter. To transmit voice at radio frequen-
in amplitude at an audio frequency rate in- cies by means of amplitude modulation, the
stead of interrupted in accordance with code voice frequencies are mixed with a radio -
characters, a tone will be heard on a receiver frequency carrier so that the voice frequen-
tuned to the signal. If the audio signal con- cies are converted to radio-frequency side -
sists of a band of audio frequencies com- bands. Though it may be difficult to visual-
prising voice or music intelligence, then the ize, the amplitude of the radio -frequency
voice or music which is superimposed on the carrier does not vary during conventional
radio- frequency carrier will be heard on the amplitude modulation.
receiver. Even though the amplitude of radio -fre-
When voice, music, video, or other intelli- quency voltage representing the composite
gence is superimposed on a radio frequency signal (resultant of the carrier and sidebands,
carrier by means of a corresponding variation called the envelope) will vary from zero to
in the amplitude of the radio frequency out- twice the unmodulated signal value during
put of a transmitter, amplitude modulation full modulation, the amplitude of the carrier
is the result. Telegraph keying of a c -w component does not vary. Also, as long as
transmitter is the simplest form of amplitude the amplitude of the modulating voltage
modulation, while video modulation in a does not vary, the amplitude of the sidebands
television transmitter represents a highly will remain constant. For this to be apparent,
complex form. however, it is necessary to measure the am-
Low-level amplitude modulation (a -m) plitude of each component with a highly
is commonly used to generate an SSB signal, selective filter. Otherwise, the measured
the a -m wave being passed through a power or voltage will be a resultant of two
highly selective filter to remove the carrier or more of the components, and the ampli-
and unwanted sideband. Systems for modu- tude of the resultant will vary at the mod-
lating the amplitude of a carrier envelope ulation rate.
in accordance with voice, music, or similar If a carrier frequency of 5000 kHz is
types of complicated audio waveforms are modulated by a pure tone of 1000 Hz, or 1
many and varied, and will be discussed later kHz, two sidebands are formed: one at 5001
in this chapter. kHz (the sum frequency) and one at 4999
kHz (the difference frequency). The fre-
quency of each sideband is independent of
13-1 Sidebands the amplitude of the modulating tone, or
modulation percentage; the frequency of
Modulation is essentially a form of mixing, each sideband is determined only by the fre-
or combining, already covered in a previous quency of the modulating tone. This assumes,
310 Amplitude Modulation RADIO
of course, that the transmitter is not modu-

lated in excess of its linear capability.
When the modulating signal consists of
multiple frequencies, as is the case with
l l
C.W. OR
J
UNMODULATED CARRIER
l' 1:
voice or music modulation, two sidebands
will be formed by each modulating frequen-
cy (one on each side of the carrier), and
the radiated signal will consist of a band of SINE WAVE
AUDIO SIGNAL FROM MODULATOR
frequencies. The bandwidth, or channel, taken
up in the frequency spectrum by a conven- A
tional double -sideband amplitude- modulated 11111111' 111 E E1/1/Iti t11111E11

A
11 IE
signal, is equal to twice the highest modu- 1111111111111111111111111

lating frequency. For example, if the highest 1111'1,111111 _A /i
!A/2 1
modulating frequency is 5000 Hz, then the 50 % MODULATED CARRIER
signal (assuming modulation of complex and

varying waveform) will occupy a band ex-
tending from 5000 Hz below the carrier to A
5000 Hz above the carrier. A
Frequencies up to at least 2500 Hz, and

preferably 3500 Hz, are necessary for good -vvvfi A
speech intelligibility. If a filter is incorporated , A
in the audio system to cut out all frequen- 100% MODULATED CARRIER
cies above approximately 3000 Hz, the band-

width of a radiotelephone signal can be Figure 1
limited to 6 kHz without a significant loss

in intelligibility. However, if harmonic dis- AMPLITUDE -MODULATED WAVE
tortion is introduced subsequent to the filter, Top drawing A represents an unmodulated
as would happen in the case of an over- carrier wave; I shows the audio output of the
loaded modulator or overmodulation of the modulator. Drawing C shows the audio signal
impressed on the carrier wave to the extent
carrier, new frequencies will be generated of SO percent modulation; D shows the carrier
and the signal will occupy a band wider with 100 percent amplitude modulation.
than 6 kHz.
lope, is the same with or without modula-
tion. This simply means that the modulation
13 -2 Mechanics of is symmetrical (assuming a symmetrical
Modulation modulating wave) and that for distortionless
modulation the upward modulation is limited
A c -w or unmodulated r -f carrier wave is to a value of twice the unmodulated carrier
represented in figure lA. An audio -frequency wave amplitude because the amplitude can-
sine wave is represented by the curve of not go below zero on downward portions of
figure 113. When the two are combined or the modulation cycle. Figure 1D illustrates
"mixed," the carrier is said to be amplitude the maximum obtainable distortionless mod-
modulated, and a resultant similar to 1C or ulation with a sine modulating wave, the r -f
1D is obtained. It should be noted that under voltage at the peak of the r -f cycle varying
modulation, each half cycle of r -f voltage from zero to twice the unmodulated value,
differs slightly from the preceding one and and the r -f power varying from zero to four
the following one; therefore at no time dur- times the unmodulated value (the power
ing modulation is the r -f waveform a pure varies as the square of the voltage).
sine wave. This is simply another way of While the average r -f voltage of the mod-
saying that during modulation, the transmit- ulated wave over a modulation cycle is the
ted r -f energy no longer is confined to a same as for the unmodulated carrier, the
single radio frequency. average Gower increases with modulation. If
It will be noted that the average amplitude the radio- frequency power is integrated over
of the peak r -f voltage, or modulation enve- the audio cycle, it will be found with 100
HANDBOOK Mechanics at Modulation 311
percent sine -wave modulation the average r-f

power has increased 50 percent. This addi- CA
tional power is represented by the sidebands, 1
because, as previously mentioned, the carrier

power does not vary under modulation.
Thus, when a 100 -watt carrier is modulated
100 percent by a sine wave, the total r-f Figure 2
power is 150 watts-100 watts in the carrier
and 25 watts in each of the two sidebands. GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF MODU-
LATION PERCENTAGE
Modulation So long as the relative propor- the procedure for determining modulation
Percentage lion of the various sidebands percentage from the peak voltage points
indicated is discussed in the text.
making up voice modulation is
maintained, the signal may be received and
detected without distortion. However, the
higher the average amplitude of the side - M- Ecar - Emin
Ecu.
bands, the greater the audio signal produced
at the receiver. For this reason it is desirable
to increase the modulation percentage, or de- In the above two formulas E. is the
gree of modulation, to the point where maxi- maximum carrier amplitude with modulation
mum peaks just hit 100 percent. If the and Em;,, is the minimum amplitude; E,.;,,
modulation percentage is increased so that is the steady -state amplitude of the carrier
the peaks exceed this value, distortion is in- without modulation. Since the deflection of
troduced, and if carried very far, bad inter- the spot on a cathode -ray tube is linear with
ference to signals on nearby channels will respect to voltage, the relative voltages of
result. these various amplitudes may be determined
by measuring the deflections, as viewed on
Modulation The amount by which a car- the screen, with a rule calibrated in inches
Measurement rier is being modulated may or centimeters. The percentage of modula-
be expressed either as a mod- tion of the carrier may be found by multiply-
ulation factor, varying from zero to 1.0 at ing the modulation factor thus obtained by
maximum modulation, or as a percentage. 100. The above procedure assumes that there
The percentage of modulation is equal to 100 is no carrier shift, or change in average
times the modulation factor. Figure 2A carrier amplitude with modulation.
shows a carrier wave modulated by a sine - If the modulating voltage is symmetrical,
wave audio tone. A picture such as this such as a sine wave, and modulation is ac-
might be seen on the screen of a cathode -ray complished without the introduction of dis-
oscilloscope with sawtooth sweep on the tortion, then the percentage modulation will
horizontal plates and the modulated carrier be the same for both negative and positive
impressed on the vertical plates. The same peaks. However, the distribution and phase
carrier without modulation would appear on relationships of harmonics in voice and music
the oscilloscope screen as figure 2B. waveforms are such that the percentage
The percentage of modulation of the posi- modulation of the negative modulation peaks
tive peaks and the percentage of modulation may exceed the percentage modulation of the
of the negative peaks can be determined positive peaks, or vice versa. The percent-
separately from two oscilloscope pictures age modulation when referred to without
such as shown. regard to polarity is an indication of the
The modulation factor of the positive average of the negative and positive peaks.
peaks may be determined by the formula:
M - E max - Ecar Modulation

Capability
The modulation capability of a
transmitter is the maximum
Ecar percentage to which that trans-
The factor for negative peaks may be de- mitter may be modulated before spurious
termined from the formula: sidebands are generated in the output or
before the distortion of the modulating peak clipping -as indicated by bright "spots"
waveform becomes objectionable. The high- in the center of the 'scope pattern whenever
est modulation capability which any trans- the carrier amplitude goes to zero-will
mitter may have on the negative peaks is occur at a considerably lower level of aver-
100 percent. The maximum permissible mod- age modulation than with the speech signal
ulation of many transmitters is less than being fed to the transmitter with the other
100 percent, especially on positive peaks. polarity. When the input signal to the
The modulation capability of a transmitter transmitter is polarized in such a manner
may be limited by tubes with insufficient that the "fingers" of the speech wave ex-
filament emission, by insufficient excitation tend in the direction of positive modulation
or grid bias to a plate -modulated stage, too these fingers usually will be clipped in the
light loading of any type of amplifier car- plate circuit of the modulator at an accept-
rying modulated r.f., insufficient power out- able peak modulation level.
put capability in the modulator, or too much The use of the proper polarity of the in-
excitation to a grid -modulated stage or a coming speech wave in modulating a trans-
class -B linear amplifier. mitter can afford an increase of approxi-
mately two to one in the amount of speech
Speech Waveform The manner in which the audio power which may be placed on the
Dissymmetry human voice is produced carrier of an amplitude- modulated trans-
by the vocal cords gives mitter for the same amount of sideband
rise to a certain dissymmetry in the wave- splatter.
form of voice sounds when they are picked
up by a good quality microphone. This is
especially pronounced in the male voice, and 13 -3 Systems of Amplitude
more so on certain voice sounds than on Modulation
others. The result of this dissymmetry in
the waveform is that the voltage peaks on There are many different systems and
one side of the average value of the wave methods for amplitude-modulating a carrier,
will be considerably greater, often two or but most may be grouped under three gen-
three times as great, as the voltage excursions eral classifications: (1) variable- efficiency
on the other side of the zero axis. The systems in which the average input to the
average value of voltage on both sides of stage remains constant with and without
the wave is, of course, the same. modulation and the variations in the effi-
As a result of this dissymmetry in the ciency of the stage in accordance with the
male voice waveform, there is an optimum modulating signal accomplish the modula-
polarity of the modulating voltage that must tion; (2) constant -efficiency systems in
be observed if maximum sideband energy is which the input to the stage is varied by an
to be obtained without negative peak clip- external source of modulating energy to ac-
ping and generation of splatter on adjacent complish the modulation; and (3) so- called
channels. high-efficiency systems in which circuit com-
A conclusive illustration of the lopsided- plexity is increased to obtain high plate -
ness of a speech waveform may be obtained circuit efficiency in the modulated stage
by observing the modulated waveform of an without the requirement of an external high -
a -m transmitter on an oscilloscope. A por- level modulator. The various systems under
tion of the carrier energy of the transmitter each classification have individual character-
should be coupled by means of a link direct- istics which make certain ones best suited to
ly to the vertical plates of the 'scope, and particular applications.
the horizontal sweep should be a sawtooth
or similar wave occurring at a rate of
approximately 30 to 70 sweeps per second. Variable- Efficiency Since the average input
Modulation remains constant in a
With the speech signal from the speech stage employing varia-
amplifier connected to the transmitter with ble- efficiency modulation, and since the aver-
one polarity it will be noticed that .negative- age power output of the stage increases with
HANDBOOK Modulation Systems 313
modulation, the additional average power If such a swamping resistance across the grid
output from the stage with modulation must tank is not included, or is too high in value,
come from the plate dissipation of the tubes the positive modulation peaks of the in-
in the stage. Hence, for the best relation becoming modulated signal will tend to be
tween tube cost and power output, the tubes flattened with resultant distortion of the
employed should have as high a plate dissi- wave being amplified.
pation rating per dollar as possible. The class -B linear amplifier has long been
The plate efficiency in such an amplifier used in broadcast transmitters, but recently
is doubled when going from the unmodu- has received much more general usage in the
lated condition to the peak of the modula- h -f range for SSB service since the plate effi-
tion cycle. Hence, the unmodulated efficiency ciency with full signal will be in the vicin-
of such an amplifier must always be less than ity of 70 percent, while with no modulation
45 percent, since the maximum peak efficien- the input to the stage drops to a relatively
cy obtainable in a conventional amplifier is low value.
in the vicinity of 90 percent. Since the peak Since a class -B linear amplifier is biased
efficiency in certain types of amplifiers will to extended cutoff with no excitation (the
be as low as 60 percent, the unmodulated grid bias at extended cutoff will be approxi-
efficiency in such amplifiers will be in the mately equal to the plate voltage divided by
vicinity of 30 percent. the amplification factor for a triode, and
There are many systems of efficiency mod- will be approximately equal to the screen
ulation, but they all have the general lim- voltage divided by the grid- screen factor
itation discussed in the previous paragraph for a tetrode or pentode) the plate current
-so long as the carrier amplitude is to will essentially flow in 180 -degree pulses.
remain constant with and without modula- Due to the relatively large operating angle of
tion, the efficiency at carrier level must be plate current flow the theoretical peak plate
not greater than one -half the peak modula- efficiency is limited to 78.5 percent, with 65
tion efficiency, if the stage is to be capable to 70 percent representing a range of effi-
of 100 -percent modulation. ciency normally attainable.
The classic example of efficiency modula- The carrier power output from a class -B
tion is the class -B linear r -f amplifier, to be linear amplifier of a normal 100 percent
discussed below. The other three common modulated a -m signal will be about one -half
forms of efficiency modulation are control - the rated plate dissipation of the stage, with
grid modulation, screen -grid modulation, optimum operating conditions. The peak
and suppressor -grid modulation. In each case, output from a class -B linear, which repre-
including that of the class -B linear amplifier, sents the maximum- signal output as a single -
note that the modulation, or the modulated sideband amplifier, or peak output with a
signal, is impressed on a control electrode of 100 percent a -m signal, will be about twice
the stage. the plate dissipation of the tubes in the
stage. Thus the carrier -level input power to
a class -B linear should be about 1.5 times the
The Class -B This is the simplest practi- rated plate dissipation of the stage.
Linear Amplifier cable type amplifier for an The schematic circuit of a grid -driven
amplitude-modulated wave class -B linear amplifier is the same as a
or a single- sideband signal. The system re- conventional single-ended or push -pull stage,
quires that excitation, grid bias, and loading whether triodes or beam tetrodes are used.
must be carefully controlled to preserve the However, a swamping resistor, as mentioned
linearity of the stage. Also, the grid cir- before, must be placed across the grid tank
cuit of the tube, in the usual application of the stage if the operating conditions of
where grid current is drawn on peaks, pre- the tube are such that appreciable grid
sents a widely varying value of load im- current will be drawn on modulation peaks.
pedance to the source of excitation. Hence Also, a fixed source of grid bias must be
it is necessary to include some sort of provided for the stage. A regulated grid -bias
swamping resistor to reduce the effect of power supply or zener diode are the usual
grid -impedance variations with modulation. source of negative bias voltage.
Adjustment of a Class- With grid bias ad- R -F AMPLIFIER
B Linear Amplifier justed to the correct

value, and with pro- RFC
000 ANT
vision for varying the excitation voltage to
the stage and the loading of the plate circuit,
a fully modulated signal is applied to the
grid circuit of the stage. Then with an
oscilloscope coupled to the output of the
stage, excitation and loading are varied until
the stage is drawing the normal plate input
and the output waveshape is a good replica
of the input signal. The adjustment proced-
ure normally will require a succession of
approximations, until the optimum set of MIDGET CHORE
adjustments is attained. Then the modulation

being applied to the input signal should be
removed to check the linearity. With modu-
AUDIO INPUT
lation removed, in the case of a 100 percent FROM 6AU6
ETC
a -m signal, the input to the stage should re-
main constant, and the peak output of the
r -f envelope should fall to one -half the value
obtained on positive modulation peaks.
Class -C One effective system of 325 323V.
Grid Modulation efficiency modulation for ,00oo,
communications work is
SMALL 60-BO MA.
class -C control -grid bias modulation. The 115-V A C. C TRANSFORMER
distortion is slightly higher than for a prop-
erly operated class -B linear amplifier, but the Figure 3
efficiency is also higher, and the distortion GRID -BIAS MODULATOR CIRCUIT
can be kept within tolerable limits for com-
munications work.
Class -C grid modulation requires high A comparatively small amount of audio
plate voltage on the modulated stage if power will be required to modulate the am-
maximum output is desired. The plate volt- plifier stage 100 percent. An audio amplifier
age is normally run about SO percent higher having 20 watts output will be sufficient to
than for maximum output with plate modu- modulate an amplifier with one kilowatt
lation. input. Proportionately smaller amounts of
The driving power required for operation audio will be required for lower -powered
of a grid- modulated amplifier under these stages. However, the audio amplifier that is
conditions is somewhat more than is required being used as the grid modulator should, in
for operation at lower bias and plate voltage, any case, either employ low- plate- resistance
but the increased power output obtainable tubes such as 2A3's, employ degenerative
overbalances the additional excitation re- feedback from the output stage to one of
quirement. Actually, almost half as much the preceding stages of the speech amplifier,
excitation is required as would be needed if or be resistance loaded with a resistor across
the same stage were to be operated as a the secondary of the modulation transformer.
class -C plate -modulated amplifier. A re- This provision of low driving impedance
sistor across the grid tank of the stage in the grid modulator is to ensure good
serves as swamping to stabilize the r -f driv- regulation in the audio driver for the grid -
ing voltage. At least SO percent of the out- modulated stage because the grid impedance
put of the driving stage should be dissipated of the stage varies widely over the audio
in this swamping resistor under carrier con- cycle.
ditions. A practical circuit for obtaining grid -bias
modulation is shown in figure 3. The modu- the input was too little or too much, respec-
lator and bias regulator tube have been com- tively) until the input is more nearly the
bined in a single 2A3 tube. correct value. The bias should then be re-
The regulator -modulator tube operates as adjusted until the plate meter remains con-
a cathode -follower. The average d -c voltage stant with modulation as before. By slight
on the control grid is controlled by the 70,- jockeying back and forth of antenna cou-
000 -ohm wirewound potentiometer and this pling and grid bias, a point can be reached
potentiometer adjusts the average grid bias where the tubes are running at rated plate
on the modulated stage. However, a -c signal dissipation, and where the plate milliam-
voltage is also impressed on the control grid meter on the modulated stage remains sub-
of the tube and since the cathode follows stantially constant with modulation.
this a -c wave the incoming speech wave is The linearity of the stage should then be
superimposed on the average grid bias, thus checked by any of the conventional methods;
effecting grid -bias modulation of the r -f the trapezoidal pattern method employing a
amplifier stage. An audio voltage swing is cathode-ray oscilloscope is probably the most
required on the grid of the 2A3 of approx- satisfactory. The check with the trapezoidal
imately the same peak value as will be re- pattern will allow the determination of the
quired as bias -voltage swing on the grid -bias proper amount of gain to employ on the
modulated stage. speech amplifier.
With the normal amount of comparatively
tight antenna coupling to the modulated Screen -Grid Amplitude modulation may be
stage, an unmodulated carrier efficiency of Modulation accomplished by varying the
40 percent can be obtained, with substantial- screen -grid voltage in a class -
ly distortion -free modulation up to practi- C amplifier which employs a pentode, beam
cally 100 percent. tetrode, or other type of screen -grid tube.
The modulation obtained in this way is not
Tuning the The most satisfactory pro- especially linear as the impedance of the
Grid -Bias cedure for tuning a stage screen grid with respect to the modulating
Modulated Stage for grid -bias modulation of
signal is nonlinear. However, screen-grid
the class -C type is as fol- modulation does offer other advantages and
lows. The amplifier should first be neutral- the linearity is quite adequate for communi-
ized, and any possible tendency toward cations work.
parasitics under any condition of operation There are two significant and worthwhile
should be eliminated. Then the antenna advantages of screen -grid modulation for
should be coupled to the plate circuit, the communications work: (1) The excitation
grid bias should be run up to the maximum requirements for an amplifier which is to be
available value, and the plate voltage and screen modulated are not at all critical,
excitation should be applied. The grid -bias and good regulation of the excitation volt-
voltage should then be reduced until the am- age is not required. The normal rated grid -
?lifier draws the approximate amount of circuit operating conditions specified for
plate current it is desired to run, and modu- class -C c -w operation are quite adequate for
lation corresponding to about 80 percent is screen -grid modulation. (2) The audio mod-
then applied. If the plate current kicks up ulating power requirements for screen -grid
when modulation is applied, the grid bias modulation are relatively low.
should be reduced; if the plate meter kicks A screen -grid modulated r -f amplifier op-
down, increase the grid bias. erates as an efficiency -modulated amplifier,
When the amount of bias voltage has been the same as does a class -B linear amplifier and
found (by adjusting the fine control (R2) a grid -modulated stage. Hence, plate circuit
on the bias supply) where the plate meter re- loading is relatively critical as in any effi-
mains constant with modulation, it is more ciency- modulated stage, and must be ad-
than probable that the stage will be drawing justed to the correct value if normal power
either too much or too little input. The an- output with full modulation capability is to
tenna coupling should then be either in- be obtained. As in the case of any efficiency -
creased or decreased (depending on whether modulated stage, the operating efficiency at
the peak of the modulation cycle will be cycle when the screen does draw current, it
between 70 and 80 percent, with efficiency presents approximately a square -law imped-
at the carrier level (if the stage is operating ance.
in the normal manner with full carrier) The cathode- follower modulator circuit
about half of the peak -modulation value. of figure 4 is capable of giving good quality
screen -grid modulation, and in addition the
Screen -Grid Instead of being linear with re- circuit provides convenient adjustments for
Impedance spect to modulating voltage, as the carrier level and the output level on
is the plate circuit of a plate - negative modulation peaks. This latter con-
modulated class -C amplifier, the screen grid trol (P2), allows the amplifier to be ad-
presents approximately a square -law imped- justed in such a manner that negative -peak
ance to the modulating signal over the region clipping cannot take place, yet the nega-
of signal excursion where the screen is positive modulation peaks may be adjusted to
tive with respect to ground. This nonlineari- a level just above that at which sideband
ty may be explained in the following man- splatter will occur.
ner: At the carrier level of a conventional
screen -modulated stage the plate -voltage
The Cathode- The cathode follower is
Follower Modulator ideally suited for use as
swing of the modulated tube is one -half the
voltage swing at peak -modulation level. This the modulator for a
condition must exist in any type of conven- screen -grid stage since it acts as a relatively
tional efficiency- modulated stage if 100 per- low- impedance source of modulating voltage
cent positive modulation is to be attainable. for the screen -grid circuit. In addition the
Since the plate -voltage swing is at half am- cathode -follower modulator allows the sup-
plitude, and since the screen voltage is at ply voltage both for the modulator and for
half its full modulation value, the screen cur- the screen grid of the modulated tube to be
rent is relatively low. But at the positive obtained from the high -voltage supply for
modulation peak the screen voltage is ap- the plate of the screen -grid tube or beam
proximately doubled, and the plate -voltage tetrode. In the usual case the plate supply
swing also is at twice the carrier amplitude. for the cathode follower, and hence for the
Due to the increase in plate -voltage swing screen grid of the modulated tube, may be
with rising screen voltage, the screen current taken from the bleeder on the high- voltage
increases more than linearly with rising power supply. It is important that a bypass
screen voltage. capacitor be used from the plate of the cath-
Another factor which must be considered ode- follower modulator to ground.
in the design of a screen -modulated stage, if The voltage applied to the plate of the
full modulation is to be obtained, is that the cathode follower should be about 100 volts
power output of a screen -grid stage with greater than the rated screen voltage for the
zero screen voltage is still relatively large. tetrode tube as a c -w class -C amplifier.
Hence, if anything approaching full modu-
lation on negative peaks is to be obtained, 6J5, ETC. STEPUP 6L6
the screen potential must be made negative
with respect to ground on negative modula-
tion peaks. In the usual types of beam
tetrode tubes the screen potential must be
20 to 0 volts negative with respect to
ground before cutoff of output is obtained.
This condition further complicates the prob-
lem of obtaining good linearity in the audio
modulating voltage for the screen -modulated 1511 POT.
P2
stage, since the screen voltage must be driven 250v
negative with respect to ground over a Figure 4
portion of the cycle. Hence the screen draws
no current over a portion of the modulating CATHODE -FOLLOWER
cycle, and over the major portion of the SCREEN -MODULATION CIRCUIT
Then potentiometer (P,) in figure 4 should Note that the correct plate current for
be adjusted until the carrier -level screen an efficiency- modulated amplifier is only
voltage on the modulated stage is about one - slightly less than the out -of- resonance plate
half the rated screen voltage specified for current of the stage. Hence carrier -level
the tube as a class -C c -w amplifier. The screen voltage must be low so that the out -
current taker, by the screen of the modu- of- resonance plate current will not be too
lated tube under carrier conditions will be high, and relatively heavy antenna coupling
about one - fourth the normal screen current must be used so that the operating plate
for c -w operation. current will be near the out -of- resonance
The only current taken by the cathode value, and so that the operating input will
follower itself will be that which will flow be slightly greater than 1.5 times the rated
through the 100,000 -ohm resistor between plate dissipation of the tube or tubes in the
the cathode of the 6L6 modulator and the stage. Since the carrier efficiency of the
negative supply. The current taken from stage will be only 35 to 40 percent, the tubes
the bleeder on the high- voltage supply will will be operating with plate dissipation of
be the carrier -level screen current of the approximately the rated value without mod-
tube being modulated (which current passes ulation.
of course through the cathode follower) plus
that current which will pass through the Speech Clipping in The maximum r -f out-
100,000 -ohm resistor. the Modulated Stage put of an efficiency-
The loading of the modulated stage should modulated stage is limit-
be adjusted until the input to the tube is ed by the maximum permiss i ble plate- voltage
about 50 percent greater than the rated swing on positive modulation peaks. In the
plate dissipation of the tube or tubes in the modulation circuit of figure 4 the minimum
stage. If the carrier -level screen voltage value output is limited by the minimum voltage
is correct for linear modulation of the stage, which the screen will reach on a negative
the loading will have to be somewhat greater modulation peak, as set by potentiometer P2.
than that amount of loading which gives Hence the screen- grid -modulated stage,
maximum output from the stage. The stage when using the modulator of figure 4, acts
may then be modulated by applying an effectively as a speech clipper, provided the
audio signal to the grid of the cathode- modulating signal amplitude is not too much
follower modulator, while observing the more than that value which will accomplish
modulated envelope on an oscilloscope. full modulation. With correct adjustments
of the operating conditions of the stage it
4E27
CARRIER
OUTPUT can be made to clip positive and negative
=33 W
modulation peaks symmetrically. However,
the inherent peak -clipping ability of the
R -F INPUT
stage should not be relied upon as a means
IG=
0MA
IP
EI
70 MA.
of obtaining a large amount of speech com-
pression, since excessive audio distortion and
-130 V.
22 K excessive screen current on the modulated
6J5 2:15TEPUP +1500 V. stage will result.
A.F INPUT PEAK SWING FOR FULL Characteristics of o An important charac-

MODULATION = 210 V.
Typical Screen- teristic of the screen -
Modulated Stage modulated stage, when
+300 V -210 V.
using the cathode -fol-
lower modulator, is that excessive plate volt-
Figure 5
age on the modulated stage is not required.
AMPLIFIER WITH SUPPRESSOR -GRID As an example of a typical screen -modu-
MODULATION lated stage, full output of 75 watts of car-
rier may be obtained from an 813 tube
Recommended operating conditions for linear
suppressor-grid modulation of a 4E27/5-125B operating with a plate potential of only 1250
stage are given on the drawing. volts. No increase in output from the 813
may be obtained by increasing the plate rather high. The high screen current is a
voltage, since the tube may be operated with natural consequence of the rather high neg-
full rated plate dissipation of 125 watts, ative bias on the suppressor grid, which re-
with normal plate efficiency for a screen - duces the plate -voltage swing and plate cur-
modulated stage -37.5 percent, at the 1250 - rent with a resulting increase in the screen
volt potential. current.
The operating conditions of a screen - In tuning a suppressor -grid modulated
modulated 813 stage are as follows: amplifier, the grid bias, grid current, screen
voltage, and plate voltage are about the
Plate voltage -1250 volts same as for class -C c -w operation of the
Plate current-160 ma stage. But the suppressor grid is biased
Plate input -200 watts negatively to a value which reduces the
Grid current-11 ma plate- circuit efficiency to about one -half the
Grid bias --110 volts maximum obtainable from the particular
Carrier screen voltage-190 volts amplifier, with antenna coupling adjusted
Carrier screen current -6 ma until the plate input is about 1.5 times the
Power output -approx. 75 watts rated plate dissipation of the stage. It is im-
portant that the input to the screen grid be
With full 100- percent modulation the plate measured to make sure that the rated screen
current decreases about 2 ma and the screen dissipation of the tube is not being exceeded.
current increases about 1 ma; hence plate, Then the audio signal is applied to the sup-
screen, and grid current remain essentially pressor grid. In the normal application the
constant with modulation. Referring to audio voltage swing on the suppressor will
figure 4, which was the circuit used as mod- be somewhat greater than the negative bias
ulator for the 813, E1 measured + 155 on the element. Hence suppressor -grid cur-
volts, E_ measured -50
volts, E3 measured rent will flow on modulation peaks, so that
+ 190 volts, E4 measured + 500 volts, the source of audio signal voltage must have
and the rms swing at Er, for full modulation good regulation.
measured 210 volts, which represents a peak
swing of about 296 volts. Due to the high
positive voltage, and the large audio swing, 13 -4 Input Modulation
on the cathode of the 6L6 (triode -con- Systems
nected) modulator tube, it is important that
the heater of this tube be fed from a sep-
arate filament transformer or filament wind- Constant -efficiency variable -input modu-
ing. lation systems operate by virtue of the addi-
tion of external power to the modulated
Suppressor -Grid Still another form of effi- stage to effect the modulation. There are
Modulotion ciency modulation may be two general classifications that come under
obtained by applying the this heading; those systems in which the
audio modulating signal to the suppressor additional power is supplied as audio -fre-
grid of a pentode class -C r -f amplifier (fig- quency energy from a modulator (usually
ure 5) . Basically, suppressor -grid modulation called plate- modulation systems) and those
operates in the same general manner as other systems in which the additional power to
forms of efficiency modulation; carrier plate- effect modulation is supplied as direct cur-
circuit efficiency is about 35 percent, and rent from the plate supply.
antenna coupling must be rather heavy. How- Under the former classification comes
ever, suppressor -grid modulation has one Heising modulation (probably the oldest
sizeable disadvantage, in addition to the fact type of modulation to be applied to a con-
that pentode tubes are not nearly so widely tinuous carrier) , class -B plate modulation,
used as beam tetrodes which of course do and series modulation. These types of plate
not have the suppressor element. This dis- modulation are by far the easiest to get into
advantage is that the screen -grid current operation, and they give a very good ratio
to a suppressor-grid modulated amplifier is of power input to the modulated stage to
HANDBOOK Input Modulation Systems 319
power output; 65 to 80 percent efficiency quency channel must supply this additional
is the general rule. It is for these two im- f 0 percent increase in average power for
portant reasons that these modulation sys- sine -wave modulation. If the power input
tems, particularly class -B plate modulation, to the modulated stage is 100 watts, for
are at present the most popular for a -m example, the average power will increase
communications work. to 150 watts at 100 percent modulation, and
Modulation systems coming under the this additional 50 watts of power must be
second classification have been widely ap- supplied by the modulator when plate mod-
plied to broadcast work. There are quite ulation is used. The actual antenna power is
a constant percentage of the total value of
a few systems in this class. Two of the more
input power.
widely used are the Doherty linear amplifier,
One of the advantages of plate (or power)
and the Terman- Woodyard high -efficiency
modulation is the ease with which proper
grid -modulated amplifier. Both systems oper-
adjustments can be made in the transmitter.
ate by virtue of a carrier amplifier and a
Also, there is less plate loss in the r-f ampli-
peak amplifier connected together by elec-
fier for a given value of carrier power than
trical quarter -wave lines. They will be de- with other forms of modulation because the
scribed later in this section. plate efficiency is higher.
By properly matching the plate impedance
Plate Modulation Plate modulation is the ap- of the r -f tube to the output of the modu-
lator, the ratio of voltage and current swing
plication of the audio pow-
er to the plate circuit of an r -f amplifier.
to d -c voltage and current is automatically
The r -f amplifier must be operated class C obtained. The modulator should have a peak
for this type of modulation in order to ob- voltage output equal to the average d -c
tain a radio- frequency output which changes plate voltage on the modulated stage. The
in exact accord with the variation in modulator should also have a peak power
plate voltage. The r -f amplifier is 100 per- output equal to the d -c plate input power
cent modulated when the peak a -c voltage to the modulated stage.
from the modulator is equal to the d -c volt- The average power output of the modula-
age applied to the r -f tube. The positive tor will depend on the type of waveform. If
peaks of audio voltage increase the instan- the amplifier is being Heising modulated by
taneous plate voltage on the r -f tube to twice a class -A stage, the modulator must have an
the d -c value, and the negative peaks reduce average power output capability of one -half
the voltage to zero. the input to the class -C stage. If the mod-
The instantaneous plate current to the ulator is a class -B audio amplifier, the aver-
r -f stage also varies in accord with the age power required of it may vary from
modulating voltage. The peak alternating one -quarter to more than one -half the class -
current in the output of a modulator must be C input depending on the waveform. How-
equal to the d -c plate current of the class -C ever, the peak power output of any modu-
r -f stage at the point of 100 percent modu-
lator must be equal to the class -C input to
lation. This combination of change in audio
be modulated.
voltage and current can be most easily re-
ferred to in terms of audio power in watts.
In a sinusoidally modulated wave, the an- Heising Heising modulation is the old -
tenna current increases approximately 22 Modulation est system of plate modulation,
percent for 100 percent modulation with a and usually consists of a class-A
pure tone input; an r -f meter in the antenna audio amplifier coupled to the r -f amplifier
circuit indicates this increase in antenna cur- by means of a modulation choke, as shown in
rent. The average power of the r -f wave in- figure 6.
creases 50 percent for 100 percent modula- The d -c plate voltage and plate current of
tion, the efficiency remaining constant. the r -f amplifier must be adjusted to a value
This indicates that in a plate -modulated which will cause the plate impedance to
radiotelephone transmitter, the audio -fre- match the output of the modulator, since
MODULATED CLASS -C CLASS- C

R -F AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
R -F DRIVE
CLASS- D
MODULATOR
MODULATOR
A -
DRIVE CH
+e
Figure 6
HEISING PLATE MODULATION MOD. to R-r te

This typo of modulation was the first form
of plate modulation. It is sometimes known Figure 7
as "constant- t" modulation. Because
of the effective 1:1 ratio of the coupling CLASS -B PLATE MODULATION
choke, it is impossible to obtain 100 per-
cent modulation unless the plate voltage to This type of modulation is the most flexible
the modulated stage is dropped slightly by in that the loading adjustment can be made
resistor R. The capacitor (C) merely by- in a short period of time and without elab-
passes the audio around R, so that the full orate test equipment after a change in
a -f output voltage of the modulator is operating frequency of the class -C amplifier
impressed on the class -C stage. has been made.
the modulation choke gives a 1 -to -1 cou- 100 percent modulation is correct only if
pling ratio. A series resistor, bypassed for the waveform of the modulating power is a
audio frequencies by means of a capacitor, sine wave. Where the modulator waveform is
must be connected in series with the plate of unclipped speech waveforms, the average
the r -f amplifier to obtain modulation up to modulator power for 100 percent modulation
100 percent. The peak output voltage of a is considerably less than one -half the class -C
class -A amplifier does not reach a value equal input. A detailed discussion of modulation
to the d -c voltage applied to the amplifier transformer calculations is given in Chapter
and, consequently, the d -c plate voltage im- Six.
pressed across the r-f tube must be reduced
to a value equal to the maximum available
Power Relations in It has been determined
a -c peak voltage if 100' modulation is to
be obtained.
Speech Waveforms experimentally that the
A higher degree of distortion can be toler-
ratio of peak -to- average
ated in low -power emergency phone trans- power in a speech waveform is approximately
mitters which use a pentode modulator tube, 4 to 1 as contrasted to a ratio of 2 to 1 in a
and the series resistor and bypass capacitor sine wave. This is due to the high harmonic
are usually omitted in such transmitters. content of such a waveform, and to the fact
that this high harmonic content manifests
Class -B High -level class -B plate itself by making the wave unsymmetrical
Plate Modulation modulation is the least and causing sharp peaks or "fingers" of high
expensive method of plate energy content to appear. Thus for unclipped
modulation. Figure 7 shows a conventional speech, the average modulator plate current,
class -B plate -modulated class -C amplifier. plate dissipation, and power output are ap-
The statement that the modulator output proximately one -half the sine wave values
power must be one -half the class -C input for for a given peak output power.
HANDBOOK Input Modulation Systems 321
Both peak power and average power are C, is seldom required yet some tubes may
necessarily associated with waveform. Peak require this capacitor in order to keep C:
power is just what the name implies; the from attenuating the high frequencies. Dif-
power at the peak of a wave. Peak power, ferent values between .0002 and .002 fd.
although of the utmost importance in mod- should be tried for best results.
ulation, is of no great significance in a -c Figure 8C shows another method which
power work, except insofar as the average uses a third winding on the modulation
power may be determined from the peak transformer, through which the screen grid
value of a known waveform. is connected to a low- voltage power supply.
There is no time element implied in the The ratio of turns between the two output
definition of peak power; peak power may be windings depends on the type of screen -grid
instantaneous-and for this reason average tube which is being modulated. Normally it
power, which is definitely associated with will be such that the screen voltage is being
time, is the important factor in plate dissi- modulated 60 percent when the plate voltage
pation. It is possible that the peak power of is receiving 100 percent modulation.
a given waveform be several times the aver- If the screen voltage is derived from a
age value; for a sine wave, the peak power is dropping resistor (not a divider) that is by-
twice the average value and for unclipped passed for r.f. but not a.f., it is possible to
speech the peak power is approximately four secure quite good modulation by applying
times the average value. For 100 percent modulation only to the plate. Under these
modulation, the peak (instantaneous) audio conditions, the screen tends to modulate it-
power must equal the class -C input, al- self, the screen voltage varying over the
though the average power for this value of audio cycle as a result of the screen imped-
peak varies widely depending on the mod- ance increasing with plate voltage, and de-
ulation waveform, being greater than 50 per- creasing with a decrease in plate voltage.
cent for speech that has been clipped and This circuit arrangement is illustrated in
filtered, 50 percent for a sine wave, and figure 8B.
about 25 percent for typical unclipped A similar application of this principle is
speech tones. shown in figure 8D. In this case the screen
voltage is fed directly from a low -voltage
Plate- and- Screen When only the plate of a supply of the proper potential through choke
Modulation screen -grid tube is modu- L. A conventional filter choke having an
lated, it is difficult to ob- inductance from 10 to 20 henrys will be
tain high -percentage linear modulation under satisfactory for L.
ordinary conditions. The plate current of To afford protection of the tube when
such a stage is not linear with plate voltage. plate voltage is not applied but screen volt-
However, if the screen is modulated simul- age is supplied from the exciter power sup-
taneously with the plate, the instantaneous ply, when using the arangement of figure
screen voltage drops in proportion to the 8D, a resistor of 3000 to 10,000 ohms can
drop in the plate voltage, and linear modula- be connected in series with choke L. In
tion can then be obtained. Four satisfactory this case the screen supply voltage should be
circuits for accomplishing combined plate at least 1.5 times as much as is required for
and screen modulation are shown in figure 8. actual screen voltage, and the value of re-
The screen r -f bypass capacitor (C2) sistor is chosen such that with normal screen
should not have a greater value than 0.005 current the drop through the resistor and
fd, preferably not larger than 0.001 fd. It choke will be such that normal screen volt-
should be large enough to bypass effectively age will be applied to the tube. When the
all r -f voltage without short -circuiting high - plate voltage is removed the screen current
frequency audio voltages. The plate bypass will increase greatly and the drop through
capacitor can be of any value from 0.002 resistor R will increase to such a value that
fd to 0.005 fd. The screen- dropping re- the screen voltage will be lowered to the
sistor (R1) should reduce the applied high point where the screen dissipation on the
voltage to the value specified for operating tube will not be exceeded. However, the
the particular tube in the circuit. Capacitor supply voltage and value of resistor R must
e+ 8+
8+ 54 8+
Figure 8
PLATE MODULATION OF A BEAM -TETRODE OR SCREEN -GRID TUBE
These alternative arrangements for plate modulation of tetrodes or pentodes are discussed in
detail in the text. The arrangements shown at B or D are recommended for most applications.
be chosen carefully so that the maximum circuit of a pentode or tetrode amplifier stage
rated screen dissipation cannot be exceeded. where modulation is not to be applied.
The maximum possible screen dissipation us- The modulation transformer for plate -
ing this arrangement is equal to: W = and- screen modulation, when utilizing a
E2/4R where E is the screen supply voltage dropping resistor as shown in figure 8A, is
and R is the combined resistance of the re- similar to the type of transformer used for
sistor in figure 8D and the d -c resistance any plate-modulated transmitter. The com-
of the choke (L). It is wise, when using this bined screen and plate current is divided into
arrangement to check, using the above for- the plate voltage in order to obtain the
mula, to see that the value of W obtained is class -C amplifier load impedance. The peak
less than the maximum rated screen dissipa- audio power required to obtain 100 -percent
tion of the tube or tubes used in the modu- modulation is equal to the d -c power input
lated stage. This same system can of course to the screen, screen resistor, and plate of the
also be used in figuring the screen supply modulated r -f stage.
HANDBOOK Cathode Modulation 323
13 -5 Cathode Modulation Figure 9 shows the circuit of such a

modulator, designed to cathode-modulate a
Cathode modulation offers a workable class -C amplifier using high -mu triodes.
compromise between the good plate efficiency
but expensive modulator of high -level plate Cathode Modulation Cathode modulation has
modulation, and the poor plate- efficiency but of Tetrodes not proved too satisfac-
inexpensive modulator of grid modulation. tory for use with beam
Cathode modulation consists essentially of a tetrode tubes. This is a result of the small
mixture of the two. excitation and grid -swing requirements for
The efficiency of the average well- designed such tubes, plus the fact that some means
plate- modulated transmitter is in the vicinity for holding the screen voltage at the po-
of 75 to 80 percent, with a compromise at tential of the cathode as far as audio is con-
perhaps 77.5 percent. On the other hand, the cerned is usually necessary. Because of these
efficiency of a good grid -modulated trans- factors, cathode modulation is not recom-
mitter may run from 28 to perhaps 40 per- mended for use with tetrode r -f amplifiers.
cent with the average falling at about
34 percent. Now since cathode modulation 13 -6 The Doherty and the
consists of simultaneous grid and plate mod- Terman- Woodyard
ulation, in phase with each other, we can
theoretically obtain any efficiency from
Modulated Amplifiers
about 34 to 77.5 percent from our cathode -
These two amplifiers will be described to-
modulated stage, depending on the relative gether since they operate on very similar
percentages of grid and plate modulation. principles. Figure 10 shows a greatly simpli-
Since the system is a compromise between
fied schematic diagram of the operation of
the two fundamental modulation arrange-
both types. Both systems operate by virtue
ments, a value of efficiency approximately of a carrier tube, (V, in both figures 10 and
half way between the two would seem to be 11) which supplies the unmodulated carrier,
the best compromise. Experience has proved
and whose output is reduced to supply neg-
this to be the case. A compromise efficiency
ative peaks, and a peak tube, (V2) whose
of about 56.5 percent, roughly half way be-
tween the two limits, has proved to be opti- function is to supply approximately half the
mum. Calculation has shown that this value positive peak of the modulation cycle and
whose additional function is to lower the
of efficiency can be obtained from a cathode -
load impedance on the carrier tube so that
modulated amplifier when the audio- frequen-
it will be able to supply the other half of
cy modulating power is approximately 20
percent of the d -c input to the cathode - the positive peak of the modulation cycle.
modulated stage. The peak tube is able to increase the
output of the carrier tube by virtue of an
impedance-inverting line between the plate
An Economical Series cathode modulation is circuits of the two tubes. This line is de-
Series Cathode ideally suited as an economi- signed to have a characteristic impedance of
Modulator cal modulating arrangement one -half the value of load into which the
for a high -power triode c -w carrier tube operates under the carrier con-
transmitter. The modulator can be conditions. Then a load of one-half the charac-
structed quite compactly and for a minimum teristic impedance of the quarter -wave line
component cost since no power supply is re- is coupled into the output. By experience
quired for it. When it is desired to change with quarter -wave lines in antenna -matching
over from c -w to 'phone, it is only neces- circuits we know that such a line will vary
sary to cut the series modulator into the the impedance at one end of the line in such
cathode- return circuit of the c -w amplifier a manner that the geometric mean between
stage. The plate voltage for the modulator the two terminal impedances will be equal
tubes and for the speech amplifier is taken to the characteristic impedance of the line.
from the cathode voltage drop of the modu- Thus, if we have a value of load of one-half
lated stage across the modulator unit. the characteristic impedance of the line at
one end, the other end of the line will present much power as it does under the carrier con-
a value of twice the characteristic imped- ditions.
ance of the lines to carrier tube V1. On negative modulation peaks the peak
This is the situation that exists under the tube does not contribute; the output of the
carrier conditions when the peak tube merely carrier tube is reduced until, on a 100 per-
floats across the load end of the line and cent negative peak, its output is zero.
contributes no power. Then as a positive
peak of modulation comes along, the peak
The Electrical While an electrical quarter -
tube starts to contribute power to the load
Quarter -Wave wave line (consisting of a pi
until at the peak of the modulation cycle it
Line network with the inductance
is contributing enough power so that the
impedance at the load end of the line is equal and capacitance units having
to R, instead of the R/2 that is presented a reactance equal to the characteristic im-
under the carrier conditions. This is true pedance of the line) does have the desired
because at a positive modulation peak (since impedance- inverting effect, it also has the
it is delivering full power) the peak tube undesirable effect of introducing a 90 phase
subtracts a negative resistance of R/2 from shift across such a line. If the shunt elements
the load end of the line. are capacitances, the phase shift across the
Now, since under the peak condition of line lags by 90 ; if they are inductances, the
modulation the load end of the line is termi- phase shift leads by 90 . Since there is an
nated in R ohms instead of R /2, the imped- undesirable phase shift of 90 between the
ance at the carrier -tube will be reduced from plate circuits of the carrier and peak tubes,
2R ohms to R ohms. This again is due to the an equal and opposite phase shift must be
impedance-inverting action of the line. Since introduced in the exciting voltage of the
the load resistance on the carrier tube has grid circuits of the two tubes so that the
been reduced to half the carrier value, its
resultant output in the plate circuit will be
output at the peak of the modulation cycle in phase. This additional phase shift has been
will be doubled. Thus we have the necessary indicated in figure 10 and a method of ob-
condition for a 100 - percent modulation taining it has been shown in figure 11.
peak; the amplifier will deliver four times as
Comparison Between The difference between
Doherty and Terman- the Doherty linear am-
R -F AMPLIFIER Woodyard Amplifiers plifier and the Terman-
Woodyard grid- modula-
ted amplifier is the same as the difference
between any linear and grid -modulated
stages. Modulated r.f. is applied to the grid
circuit of the Doherty linear amplifier with
the carrier tube biased to cutoff and the peak
tube biased to the point where it draws sub-
stantially zero plate current at the carrier
BIAS SUPPLY
POR C,W, PHONE PHONE condition.
In the Terman -Woodyard grid -modulated
amplifier the carrier tube runs class-C with
Mie 6AJB RAUB 4 -ALA'S comparatively high bias and high plate effi-
CATHODE ciency, while the peak tube again is biased
MODULATOR
so that it draws almost no plate current.
Unmodulated r.f. is applied to the grid cir-
cuits of the two tubes and the modulating
Figure 9 voltage is inserted in series with the fixed
bias voltages. From one -half to two -thirds
CATHODE -MODULATOR INSTALLATION as much audio voltage is required at the grid
SHOWING PHONE -CW TRANSFER of the peak tube as is required at the grid
SWITCH of the carrier tube.
HANDBOOK Speech Clipping 325
ELECTRICAL A/4
-J%.Ro v ILINE[ZnOn=nnR
2
C
o 7 VV
C2
a , LOAD L, b
Ca _.t
J %R0
-JxR
EACITA-
i I
TION
BIAS
Figure 10
/ elAsva-7-
DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF
i
THE DOHERTY LINEAR Lao
0
C> TO
C> ANT.
Operating The resting carrier efficiency of 2

r
Efficiencies the grid -modulated amplifier
may run as high as is obtain- Figure 11
able in any class -C stage -80 percent or
better. The resting carrier efficiency of the SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF A
linear will be about as good as is obtainable "HIGH- EFFICIENCY" AMPLIFIER
in any class -B amplifier -60 to 70 percent. "carrier" tube
The basic system, comprising a
The over -all efficiency of the bias- modulated (V,) and a"peak" tube (V,) interconnected
by lumped-constant quarter -wave lines, is the
amplifier at 100 percent modulation will run same for either grid -bias modulation or for
about 75 percent; of the linear-about 60 use as a linear amplifier of a modulated wave.
percent.
In figure 11 the plate tank circuits are de-
tuned enough to give an effect equivalent to Other High- Efficiency Many other high -effi-
the shunt elements of the quarter -wave Modulation Systems ciency modulation sys-
"line" of figure 10. At resonance, coils L, tems have been de-
and I._ in the grid circuits of the two tubes scribed since about 1936. The majority of
have each an inductive reactance equal to these, however, have received little applica-
the capacitive reactance of capacitor C,. tion either by commercial interests or by
Thus we have the effect of a pi network amateurs. In most cases the circuits are diffi-
consisting of shunt inductances and series cult to adjust, or they have other undesirable
capacitance. In the plate circuit we want a features which make their use impracticable
phase shift of the same magnitude but in alongside the more conventional modulation
the opposite direction; so our series element systems. Nearly all these circuits have been
is inductance L:, whose reactance is equal to published in the I.E.E.E. Proceedings and the
the characteristic impedance desired of the interested reader can refer to them in back
network. Then the plate tank capacitors of copies of that journal.
the two tubes (C., and C,) are increased an
amount past resonance, so that they have a 13 -7 Speech Clipping
capacitive reactance equal to the inductive
reactance of the coil L:,. It is quite important Speech waveforms are characterized by
that there be no coupling between the in- frequently recurring high- intensity peaks of
ductors. very short duration. These peaks will cause
Although both these types of amplifiers overmodulation if the average level of mod-
are highly efficient and require no high -level ulation on loud syllables exceeds approxi-
audio equipment, they are difficult to adjust mately 30 percent. Careful checking into the
-particularly so on the higher frequencies nature of speech sounds has revealed that
-and it would be an extremely difficult these high -intensity peaks are due primarily
problem to design a multiband transmitter to the vowel sounds. Further research has
employing the circuit. However, the grid - revealed that the vowel sounds add little to
bias modulation system has advantages for intelligibility, the major contribution to in-
the high -power transmitter which will be telligibility coming from the consonant
operated on a single frequency band. sounds such as v, b, k, s, t, and I. Measure-
ments have shown that the power contained higher order sidebands known as "splatter,"
in these consonant sounds may be down 30 and the transmitted signal would occupy a
db or more from the energy in the vowel re!atively tremendous spectrum width. So
sounds in the same speech passage. Obvious- another method of accomplishing the desir-
ly, then, if we can increase the relative enable effects of clipping must be employed.
ergy content of the consonant sounds with A considerable reduction in the amount of
respect to the vowel sounds it will be possi- splatter caused by a moderate increase in the
ble to understand a signal modulated with gain of the speech amplifier can be obtained
such a waveform in the presence of a much by phasing the signal from the speech ampli-
higher level of background noise and inter- fier to the amplitude -modulated transmitter
ference. Experiment has shown that it is such that the high- intensity peak occurs
possible to accomplish this desirable result on upward or positive modulation. Over-
simply by cutting off or clipping the high - loading on positive modulation peaks pro-
intensity peaks and thus building up in a duces less splatter than the negative -peak
relative manner the effective level of the clipping which occurs with overloading on
weaker sounds. the negative peaks of modulation. This
Such clipping theoretically can be accom- aspect of the problem has been discussed in
plished simply by increasing the gain of the more detail in the section on Speech Wave-
speech amplifier until the average level of form Dissymmetry earlier in this chapter.
modulation on loud syllables approaches 90 The effect of deriving proper speech polarity
percent. This is equivalent to increasing the from the speech amplifier is shown in fig-
speech power of the consonant sounds by ure 12.
about 10 times or, conversely, we can say A much more desirable and effective meth-
that 10 db of clipping has been applied to od of obtaining speech clipping is actually to
the voice wave. However, the clipping when employ a clipper circuit in the earlier stages
accomplished in this manner will produce of the speech amplifier, and then to filter out
Figure 12
SPEECH -WAVEFORM
1043111, NEG MODULATION AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Showing the effect of using the
proper polarity of a speech wave
for modulating an a -m transmitter.
A shows the effect of proper speech
AVERAGE LEVEL
polarity on a transmitter having an
upward modulation capability of
greater than 100 percent. B shows
the effect of using proper speech
1001b NEG. MODULATION
polarity on a transmitter having an
upward modulation capability of
only 100 percent. Both these condi-
tions will give a clean signal with-
IOD 1b POS_MODULATION out objectionable splatter. C shows
the effect of the use of improper
speech polarity. This condition will
cause serious splatter due to nega-
AVERAGE LEVEL tive -peak clipping in the modulated-
amplifier stage.
; 1001b NEG. MODULATION

NEGATIVE- 1 r
PEAR CLIPPING -
the objectionable distortion components by where the cant apparent on the clipped speech
means of a sharp low -pass filter having a waves still cannot cause overmodulation.
cutoff frequency of approximately 3000 Hz. This effect is illustrated in figures 13 and 14.
Tests on clipper-filter speech systems have The cant appearing on the tops of the
shown that 6 db of clipping on voice is just square waves leaving the clipper -filter centers
noticeable, 12 db of clipping is quite accept- about the clipping level. Hence, as the fre-
able, and values of clipping from 20 to 25 quency being passed through the system is
db are tolerable under such conditions that a lowered, the amount by which the peak of
high degree of clipping is necessary to get the canted wave exceeds the clipping level
through heavy QRM or QRN. A signal with is increased.
12 db of clipping doesn't sound quite natur-
al but it is not unpleasant to listen to and is Phase -Shift a normal a -m transmitter
In
much more readable than an unclipped signal Correction having a moderate amount of
in the presence of strong interference. phase shift the cant applied to
The use of a clipper -filter in the speech the tops of the waves will cause overmodu-
amplifier of an a -m transmitter, to be com- lation on frequencies below those for which
pletely effective, requires that phase shift be- the gain following the clipper -filter has been
tween the clipper -filter stage and the final adjusted unless remedial steps have been
modulated amplifier be kept to a minimum. taken. The following steps are advised:
However, if there is phase shift after the
clipper -filter the system does not completely 1. Introduce bass suppression into the
break down. The presence of phase shift speech amplifier ahead of the clipper -
merely requires that the audio gain follow- filter.
ing the clipper -filter be reduced to the point 2. I to prof a the low- frequency response
POSITIVE CLIPPING LEVEL
Figure 13
_ NjGATIyj CSIPPINGQIFL
ACTION OF A CLIPPER -FILTER
ON A SPEECH WAVE
Drawing A shows the incoming
speech wave before it reaches the INCOMING SPEECH WAVE
clipper stage. B shows the output
of the clipper -Alter, illustrating the
m in which the peaks are clip-
ped and then the sharp edges of
the clipped wave removed by the POSITIVE CUPPING LEVEL
Alter. C shows the effect of phase
shift in the stages following the
clipper -Alter and the manner in
which the a -m transmitter may be 0 AVERAGE LEVEL
NEGATIVE CLIPPING LEVEL

adjusted for 100 -percent modula-
tion of the "canted" peaks of the CLIPPED AND FILTERED SPEECH WAVE
wave, the sloping top of the wave
reaching about 70% modulation.
_100% POSITIVE MODULATION

70% POSITIVE MODULATION
AVERAGE LEVEL
70% NEGATIVE MODULATION

100% NEGATIVE MODULATION
MODULATED WAVE AFTER UNDERGOING PHASE SHIFT
characteristic insofar as it is possible in

the stages following the clipper- filter.
--
Feeding the plate current to the final
amplifier through a choke rather than 0 f
through the secondary of the modu-
lation transformer will help materially.
J
Even with the normal amount of im- 3000, WAVE
provement which can be attained through the

steps mentioned above there will still be an
amount of wave cant which must be com-
pensated in some manner. This compensation
can be done in either of two ways. The first
and simpler way is as follows:
1. Adjust the speech gain ahead of the 10001, WAVE
clipper -filter until with normal talking
into the microphone the distortion
being introduced by the clipper -filter
circuit is quite apparent but not ob-
jectionable. This amount of distortion
will be apparent to the normal listener
when 10 to 15 db of clipping is taking
place.
2. Tune a selective communications re- 300'1. WAVE
ceiver about 15kHz to one side or the Figure 14
other of the frequency being transmit- ILLUSTRATING THE EFFECT OF PHASE
ted. Use a short antenna or no antenna
SHIFT AND FILTERED WAVES OF
at all on the receiver so that the trans-
DIFFERENT FREQUENCY
mitter is not blocking the receiver.
3. Again, with normal talking into the Sketch A shows the effect of a clipper and a
microphone, adjust the gain follow- filter having a cutoff of about 3500 Hs on a
wave of 3000 Hz. Note that no harmonics
ing the clipper -filter to the point where are present In the wave so that phase shift
the sideband splatter is being heard, following the clipper -filter will have no signifi-
cant effect on the shape of the wave. B and C
and then slightly back -off the gain show the effect of phase shift on waves well
after the clipper -filter until the splat- below the cutoff frequency of the filter. Note
ter disappears. that the "cant" placed on the top of the wave
causes the peak value to rise higher and
higher above the clipping level as the fre-
If the phase shift in the a -m transmitter or quency is lowered. It is for this reason that
modulator is not excessive, the adjustment bass suppression before the clipper stage is
desirable. Improved low- frequency response
procedure given above will allow a clean following the clipper -filter will reduce the
signal to be radiated regardless of any rea- phase shift and therefore the "canting" of the
wave at the lower voice frequencies.
sonable voice level being fed into the micro-
phone.
If a cathode -ray oscilloscope is available band splatter cannot take place and to af-
the modulated envelope of the a -m transmit- ford a still higher average percentage of
ter should be checked with 30- to 70 -Hz modulation. This second step consists of the
sawtooth waves on the horizontal axis. If the addition of a high -level splatter suppressor
upper half of the envelope appears in general such as is illustrated in figure 15.
the same as the drawing of figure 13C, all is The use of a high -level splatter suppressor
well and phase -shift is not excessive. How- after a clipper -filter system will afford the
ever, if much more slope appears on the tops result shown in figure 16 since such a device
of the waves than is illustrated in this figure, will not permit the negative -peak clipping
it will be well to apply the second step in which the wave cant caused by audio- system
compensation in order to ensure that side- phase shift can produce. The high -level splat-
MODULATOR 5R4GY.1616
836 Cz
ure 15 will not operate properly since nega-
tive -peak clipping in the modulated stage
L2 can take place when the screen voltage goes
ttt
1
Ott too low.

1 C3 C /
To
PLATE- MODULATED
CLASS-C AMPLIFIER
Clipper Two effective low -level clipper
FIL. TRANS.
INSULATED
1500-10 000 OHMS
LOAD
Circuits circuits are shown in figures 17 and
FOR M.V.
18. The circuit of figure 17 is
transistorized, with a modified input circuit
B MOD 115-V A C. B R -F FINAL suitable for use with high -impedance (crys-
tal) microphones having an average output
Figure 15
level of about 10 millivolts, peak -to-peak.
HIGH -LEVEL A -M SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR Three amplifier stages boost the microphone
This circuit is effective in reducing splatter level to about 5 volts peak -to -peak and the
caused by negative -peak clipping in the mod- output of the last stage is fed to a double -
ulated amplifier stage. The use of a two-section
filter as shown is recommended, although diode clipper, utilizing a pair of germanium
either a single m-derived or a constant-k diodes. A maximum of 12 to 14 db of clip-
section may be used for greater economy. ping may be achieved with this circuit, and
Suitable chokes, along with recommended ca-
pacitor values, are available from the two -stage speech amplifier must there-
manufactu . fore be considered as a part of the clipper
circuit since it compensates for the loss of
ter suppressor operates by virtue of the fact gain incurred in the clipping process. A
that it will not permit the plate voltage on simple RC lowpass filter starts to round-off
the modulated amplifier to go completely to the waveform at about 2.5 kHz. The output
zero regardless of the incoming signal ampli- level of about 0.5 volt peak -to-peak is
tude. Hence negative -peak clipping with its ample to drive most speech amplifiers with
attendant splatter cannot takL place. Such a gain to spare. The degree of clipping is
device can, of course, also be used in a trans- adjusted by variation of the microphone
mitter which does not incorporate a clipper - level in conjunction with the proper setting
filter system. However, the full increase in of the gain potentiometer.
average modulation level without serious A vacuum -tube version of this circuit is
distortion, afforded by the clipper -filter sys- shown in figure 18, making use of a 6AL5
tem, will not be obtained. double -diode series clipper and a commer-
A word of caution should be noted at this cially made low -pass filter. This configura-
time in the case of tetrode -final modulated tion provides somewhat better high -fre-
amplifier stages which afford screen -voltage quency cutoff characteristics than the simple
modulation by virtue of a tap or a separate filter of figure 17. The actual performance
winding on the modulation transformer such of both circuits is about the same.
as is shown in figure 8C of this chapter. If The circuit of figure 18 has an adjust
such a system of modulation is in use, the clipping control in addition to the adjust
high -level splatter suppressor shown in fig- gain potentiometer. The gain control deter-
Figure 16
100% PDX MODULATION
ACTION OF HIGH -LEVEL
SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
A high -level splatter suppressor
ZERO AXIS
may be used in a transmitter with-
out a clipper -filter to reduce nega-
tive -peak clipping, or such a unit
may be used following a clipper -
10070 NEG. MOOULAT ION filter to allow a higher
SPLATTER -CAUSING modulation level by eliminating the
NEGATIVE OVERMODULATION PEAR
CUT OFF BY "HIGH -LEVEL
negative-peak clipping which the
SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR" wave cant caused by phase shift
might produce.
HEP -254 HEP -254 HEP -254 compression circuits for SSB equipment are
GE -2 GE -2 GE -2
covered in a later section.
High -Level Even though we may have cut

Filters off all frequencies above 3 or 3.5
kHz through the use of a filter
system such as shown in the circuits of
figures 17 and 18, higher frequencies may
again be introduced into the modulated wave
Figure 17 by distortion in stages following the speech
amplifier. Harmonics of the incoming audio
SPEECH CLIPPER FOR USE WITH frequencies may be generated in the driver
CRYSTAL MICROPHONE stage for the modulator; they may be gen-
This simple clipper /amplifier may be inserted erated in the plate circuit of the modulator;
between microphone and existing speech or they may be generated by nonlinearity in
amplifier. Power is supplied by a 9 -voit tran- the modulated amplifier itself.
sistor radio battery. Transistors are either
Motorola (HEP type) or General Electric (GE Regardless of the point in the system fol-
type). lowing the speech amplifier where the high
audio frequencies may be generated, these
mines the modulation level of the transmit- frequencies can still cause a broad signal to
ter. This control should be set so that over - be transmitted even though all frequencies
modulation is impossible, regardless of the above 3000 or 3500 Hz have been cut off in
amount of clipping used. Once the gain the speech amplifier. The effects of distortion
control has been set, the clipping control in the audio system following the speech am-
may be used to set the modulation level plifier can be eliminated quite effectively
to any percentage below 100 percent. As through the use of a post- modulator filter.
the modulation level is decreased, more and Such a filter may be used between the modu-
more clipping is introduced into the circuit, lator plate circuit and the r -f amplifier
until a full 12 to 14 db of clipping is used. which is being modulated (figure 19).
This means the gain control may be ad-
vanced some 12 db past the point at which
the clipping action started. Clipping action 13 -8 Speech Compression
should start at about 90-percent modulation
when a sine wave is used for circuit adjust- Volume compression or a form of auto-
ment purposes. In all cases, the use of a matic gain control may be used to maintain
monitor oscilloscope to adjust clipping level constant voice intensity over a large range
is highly recommended. of audio input to the speech system of a
These circuits are not recommended for voice transmitter. This is accomplished by
single -sideband transmitters and suitable making the system gain a function of the
i2Ax7 ADJUST GA /N 6AL5 CHICAGO TRANS.

LPF -2 FILTER
01
TO NEXT
e GRID
470 2100
1 K 2 0( ;SISK
PEAR OUTPUT APPROX.
PF10 T SV MAX. W/TN 120e
OF CL/PP/Ni
ADJUST CLIP
SK,I W 100K
ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT UNLESS
1K, IW OTHERWISE MARKED.
ALL CAPACITORS IN 1/f UNLESS
*S00 v. OTHERWISE. MARRED.
Figure 18
CLIPPER FILTER USING 6AL5 STAGE
HANDBOOK
CLASS-C AMPLIFIER
RIAL
Speech Compression
Mlc. .005 IOII

y
6BA6
02 oz
331
AVDIO
our
CONTROL
VOLTAGE IN
I N34A (30 r PEAR)
Figure 20
SPEECH COMPRESSOR FOR USE WITH

CRYSTAL MICROPHONE
B. MOD. St A F
This basic volume compressor derives control

Figure 19 voltage from a high-level stage in the exist-
ing speech amplifier. A signal of about 30
ADDITIONAL HIGH -LEVEL LOW -PASS volts peak is required to provide up to 20
decibels of compression. Compressor is de-
FILTER TO FOLLOW MODULATOR signed to be placed between microphone and
WHEN A LOW -LEVEL CLIPPER station amplifier.
FILTER IS USED
Suitable choke, along with recommended ca-
pression is substantially proportional to the
pacitor values, is available from several average input signal and thus holds the
manufacturers. output level at a constant level. Rise time
is regulated by the choice of R2 and C2,
average variations in speech amplitude. Prac- while release time is controlled by R1 and C1.
tical systems rectify and filter the speech A simple and inexpensive compression
signal as it passes through the speech ampli- circuit suitable for amplitude modulation
fier and apply the d -c component of the or SSB is shown in figure 21. A two stage
signal to a gain- control element in the am- 12AX7 preamplifier is used, the input cir-
plifier. The compression system usually has cuit of which is shunted with a silicon tran-
a time constant such that the control volt- sistor working as a d -c amplifier whose gain
age is held at a steady value between sylla- is inversely proportional to the audio output
bles and words. Simple compressors usually voltage of the amplifier. The compression
exhibit an attack time of about 10 milli- amplifier is suitable for use with a dynamic
seconds and a release time of 300 milli- microphone having an impedance as high as
seconds or longer. Compression range of the 0.05 megohm.
order of 20 to 35 decibels is realizable in A driving signal of about 0.8 volts r.m.s.
practical circuits, corresponding roughly to at point A will overcome the threshold
the dynamic range of the human speaking level of the system and an audio input of
voice. Reverberation and background noise 10 mV at the microphone jack will produce
usually limit the practical compression about 10 db of compression. Rise time is
range to 15 decibels or so. about 30 mS and release time is about 100
Compression is usually preferred in SSB mS, both of which are controlled by the
systems as contrasted to clipping because of 1 -pf capacitor in the base circuit of the
reduced distortion and better threshold in- transistor.
telligibility for weak -signal reception. A solid -state compressor /amplifier is shown
A basic compression amplifier is shown in figure 22. It is designed to be used with
in figure 20. A sample of the audio signal a dynamic microphone having an impedance
is taken and rectified to provide a negative in the range of 500 to 2000 ohms, and pro-
control voltage which fluctuates with aver- vides a compression range of approximately
age voice level. The compression control 20 db.
voltage is applied as bias to the control grid Compression is achieved by change of gain
of a variable -ft pentode amplifier. Corn- brought about by variation of the emitter
-12V
1N625
Small coupling capacitors are used be-
tween amplifier stages to limit the low -fre-
DYNAMIC
MIC 0
022 1.0 ! 1N625 quency response of the system.
A similar amplifier having somewhat
= ,D1' higher gain and lower distortion is shown
in figure 23. A FET is used for the control
element.
Boss Suppression Most of the power repre-

sented by ordinary speech
100 (particularly the male voice) lies below 1000
Hz. If all frequencies below 400 or 500 Hz
ON
COMPRESSION
arc eliminated or substantially attenuated,
there is a considerable reduction in power
but insignificant reduction in intelligibility.
Figure 21 This means that the speech level may be
increased considerably without overmodula-
TRANSISTOR -CONTROLLED SPEECH tion or overload of the audio system. In
COMPRESSOR addition, if speech processing is used, atten-
A single transistor (Motorola HEP-type) acts uation of the lower audio frequencies before
as a d-c amplifier, receiving its driving signal the clipper or compressor will reduce phase
from point A. Maximum compression of 20 shift and canting of the clipper output.
decibels is achieved using a dynamic micro-
phone. A simple method of bass suppression is to
reduce the size of the interstage coupling
bypass capacitance in the first -stage tran- capacitors in a resistance- coupled amplifier.
sistor. With the emitter load impedance Figure 24 shows the frequency characteris-
about twice the value of the collector load, tics caused by such a suppression circuit. A
and with unbypassed emitter, the first stage second simple bass- suppression circuit is to
gain is about 0.5. In series with the emitter place a small iron -core filter choke from
bypass capacitor (C,) is a variable resistance grid to ground in a speech -amplifier stage,
as shown in figure 25.
composed of a diode network. Control volt-
age derived from the output of the amplifier
is applied to the diode which, in effect, isolates Modulated -Amplifier The systems described
bypass capacitor C, from signal voltages, Distortion in the preceding para-
effectively lowering the stage gain. Maxi- graphs will have no
mum stage gain is approximately the ratio of effect in reducing a broad signal caused by
the collector load resistance (2.7K) to the nonlinearity in the modulated amplifier or
forward resistance of the cathode control in linear- amplifier stages. Even though the
diode (D,) and minimum stage gain is modulating waveform impressed on the
about 0.5. modulated stage may be distortion free, if
2N1305 2N1305
Figure 22
SOLID -STATE COMPRESSOR

AMPLIFIER FOR
LOW Z
AUDIO OUT DYNAMIC MICROPHONE
AMS
Compression is brought about by
variation of emitter bypass capacitor
C, in the first -stage transistor. Vari-
able- resistance network is driven by
two 1N270 diodes as a voltage dou-
bler of output signal token from
emitter of the third-stage 2N1305
emitter follower.
HANDBOOK Speech Compression 333
MPS -37013 MPS -3708 MPS -3708 MPS -3708 MFE-2094
9V
DYNAMIC
PA IC 0.22
2T
30
Is
1 :
(AUDIO OUT
Figure 23
COMPRESSOR AMPLIFIER USING FET IN CONTROL LOOP
Emitter bypass variation of second amplifier stage is controlled by FET amplifier, with signal
taken from drain element. MPS and MFE transistors by Motorola.
/i can be corrected is by making the modu-

lated amplifier more linear. Degenerative
feedback which includes the modulated am-
plifier in the loop will help in this regard.
Plenty of grid excitation and high grid
bias will go a long way toward making a
plate -modulated class -C amplifier linear, al-
RECOMMENDED CURVES FOR though such operating conditions will make
VOI E COMMUNICATION
more difficult the problem of TVI reduction.
7 If this still does not give adequate linearity,
z the preceding buffer stage may be modulated
IV
0 percent or so at the same time and in the
same phase as the final amplifier. The use of
a grid resistor to obtain the majority of the
bias for a class -C stage will improve its
MINIM linearity.
100 200 300 500 700 1000
III11
2000 3000 5000
FREOUENCY(H2)
Figure 24
BASS -ATTENUATION CHART

Frequency attenuation caused by various values
of coupling capacitor with a grid resistor of L. "/0 HENRY' MIDGET
A -C /D -C FILTERCHOKE
0.5 megohm in the following stage (R, R, ) -
(STANCOR C-133,1)
Figure 25
the modulated amplifier is nonlinear, distor-
tion will be generated in the amplifier. The USE OF PARALLEL INDUCTANCE
only way in which this type of distortion FOR BASS SUPPRESSION
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Frequency and Phase

Modulation
Exciter systems for f -m and single -side- Vhf commercial two -way mobile radio
band transmission are basically similar in is now standardized on channelized fre-
that modulation of the signal in accordance quency- modulation techniques which pro-
with the intelligence to be transmitted is vide superior rejection to random noise,
normally accomplished at a relatively low interference, and fading as compared to
level. Then the intelligence- bearing signal is conventional a -m systems. When the ampli-
amplified to the desired power level for ulti- tude of the r -f signal is held constant (lim-
mate transmission. True, amplifiers for the ited) and the intelligence transmitted by
two types of signals are basically different; varying the frequency or phase of the
linear amplifiers of the class -A or class -B signal, some of the disruptive effects of noise
type being used for SSB signals, while class -C can be eliminated. In addition, audio squelch
or nonlinear class -B amplifiers may be used circuits silence noise peaks and background
for f -m amplification. But the principle of effects in the receiver until an intelligible
low -level modulation and subsequent ampli- signal appears on the frequency. The combi-
fication is standard for both types of trans- nation of noise rejection and squelch control
mission. provides superior range for a given primary
power, as compared to an equivalent a -m
14 -1 Frequency power allocation.
Modulation Amateur vhf f -m techniques are based on
the channel concept. Transmitters and re-
ceivers are mainly crystal controlled on a
The use of frequency modulation and the given frequency and random tuning tech-
allied system of phase modulation has become niques common to the lower frequency
of increasing importance in recent years. amateur bands are absent. F -m channels on
For amateur vhf communication, frequency the 2 -meter band, for example, are usually
and phase modulation offer important ad- 60 kHz apart, starting at about 146.04 MHz
vantages in the reduction of broadcast and by general agreement, and are commonly
TV interference, in reduction of random 100 kHz apart in the 450 -MHz range. A
noise, and in the elimination of the costly spot frequency of 29.60 MHz is uftun used
high -level modulation equipment most com- for f -m operation in the 10 -meter band, and
monly employed with amplitude modulation. numerous f -m channels are in use on the
For broadcast work, frequency modulation 6 -meter band above 52.5 MHz.
offers an improvement in signal -to -noise In this chapter various points of difference
ratio for the high field intensities available between frequency -modulation and ampli-
in the local- coverage area of f -m and TV tude- modulation transmission and reception
broadcast stations. will be discussed and the advantages of
Frequency Modulation 335
frequency -modulation for certain types of

communication pointed out. Since the dis-
tinguishing features of the two types of
transmission lie entirely in the modulating
circuits at the transmitter and in the detec-
tor and limiter circuits in the receiver, these
parts of the communication system will re-
ceive the major portion of attention.
Modulation Modulation is the process of al-

tering a radio wave in accord
with the intelligence to be transmitted. The
nature of the intelligence is of little impor-
tance as far as the process of modulation is Figure 1 Figure 2
concerned; it is the method, by which this
intelligence is made to give a distinguishing A -M AND F -M WAVES
characteristic to the radio wave which will Figure I shows a sketch of the scope pattern
enable the receiver to convert it back into of an amplitude- modulated wave at the bot-
intelligence,that determines the type of mod- tom. The conter sketch shows the modulating
wave and the upper sketch shows the carrier
ulation being used. wave.
Figure 1 is a drawing of an r -f carrier Figure 2 shows at the bottom a sketch of a
amplitude- modulated by a sine -wave audio frequency -modulated wave. In this case the
center sketch also shows the modulating wave
voltage. After modulation the resultant mod- and the upper sketch shows the carrier wave.
ulated r-f wave is seen still to vary about Note that the carrier wave and the modulating
wave are the same in either case, but that
the zero axis at a constant rate, but the the waveform of the modulated wave is quite
strength of the individual r -f waves is difl in the two cases.
proportional to the amplitude of the mod-
ulation voltage.
In figure 2, the carrier of figure 1 is shown supplied either by the modulator itself, in
frequency- modulated by the same modula - the high -level system, or by operating one or
tine voltage. Here it may be seen that mod- more of the transmitter stages at such a low
ulation voltage of one polarity causes the output level that they are capable of produc-
carrier frequency to decrease, as shown by ing the additional output without distortion
the fact that the individual r -f waves of in the low -level system. On the other hand,
the carrier are spaced farther apart. A mod- a frequency -modulated transmitter requires
ulating voltage of the opposite polarity causes an insignificant amount of power from the
the frequency to increase, and this is shown modulator and needs no provision for in-
by the r -f waves being compressed together to creased power output on modulation peaks.
allow more of them to be completed in a All of the stages between the oscillator and
given time interval. the antenna may be operated as high- efficien-
Figures 1 and 2 reveal two very important cy class -B or class -C amplifiers or frequency
characteristics about amplitude- and fre- multipliers.
quency- modulated waves. First, it is seen
that while the amplitude (power) of the sig- Carrier -Wave The second characteristic of
nal is varied in a -m transmission, no such Distortion f -m and a -m waves revealed
variation takes place in frequency modula- by figures 1 and 2 is that both
tion. In many cases this advantage of fre- types of modulation result in distortion of
quency modulation is probably of equal or the r -f carrier. That is, after modulation, the
greater importance than the widely publi- r -f waves are no longer sine waves, as they
cized noise- reduction capabilities of the sys- would be if no frequencies other than the
tem. When 100 percent amplitude modula- fundamental carrier frequency were present.
tion is obtained, the average power output It may be shown in the amplitude- modula-
of the transmitter must be increased by 0 tion case illustrated, that there are only two
percent. This additional output must be additional frequencies present, and these are
336 Frequency and Phase Modulation RADIO
UNMODULATED CARRIER AMPLITUDE UNMODULATED CARRIER AMPLITUDE
CARRIER CARRIER
SIDE SIDE
SIDE FREQUENCY I SIDE FREQUENCY FREQUENCIES FREQUENCIES
FREQUENCY
II Ili III IIII
FREQUENCY
Figure 3 Figure 4
A -M SIDE FREQUENCIES F -M SIDE FREQUENCIES
For each a -m modulating frequency, a pair of With frequency modulation, each modulation
side freq ies is produced. The side frequen- frequency component causes a large number
cies are spaced away from the carrier by an of side frequencies to be produced. The side
amount equal to the modulation frequency, and frequencies are separated from each other and
their amplitude is directly proportional to the the carrier by an amount equal to the modu-
amplitude of the modulation. The amplitude of lation frequency, but their amplitude varies
the carrier does not change under modulation. greatly as the amount of modulation is
changed. The carrier strength also varies
greatly with frequency modulation. The side
the familiar side frequencies, one located on frequencies shown represent a case where the
deviation each side of the "carrier" frequency
each side of the carrier, and each spaced is equal to five times the modulating frequen-
from the carrier by a frequency interval cy. Other amounts of deviation with the same
equal to the modulation frequency. In regard modulation frequency would cause the relative
strengths of the various sidebands to change
to frequency and amplitude, the situation is widely.
as shown in figure 3. The strength of the
carrier itself does not vary during modula-
tion, but the strength of the side frequencies in measuring the amount of frequency mod-
depends on the percentage of modulation. ulation, and will be discussed in detail later
At 100 percent modulation the power in the in this chapter.
side frequencies is equal to one -half that of One of the great advantages of frequency
the carrier. modulation over amplitude modulation is the
Under frequency modulation, the carrier reduction in noise at the receiver which the
wave again becomes distorted, as shown in system allows. If the receiver is made re-
figure 2. But, in this case, many more than sponsive only to changes in frequency, a
two additional frequencies are formed. The considerable increase in signal -to -noise ratio
first two of these frequencies are spaced from is made possible through the use of fre-
the carrier by the modulation frequency, and quency modulation, when the signal is of
the additional side frequencies are located out greater strength than the noise. The noise -
on each side of the carrier and are also spaced reducing capabilities of frequency modula-
from each other by an amount equal to the tion arise from the inability of noise to cause
modulation frequency. Theoretically, there appreciable frequency modulation of the
are an infinite number of side frequencies noise -plus- signal voltage which is applied to
formed, but, fortunately, the strength of the detector in the receiver.
those beyond the frequency swing of the
transmitter under modulation is relatively F -M Terms Unlike amplitude modulation,
low. the term percentage modulation
One set of side frequencies that might be means little in f -m practice, unless the re-
formed by frequency modulation is shown ceiver characteristics are specified. There are,
in figure 4. Unlike amplitude modulation, however, three terms, deviation, modulation
the strength of the component at the carrier index, and deviation ratio, which convey
frequency varies widely in frequency mod- considerable information concerning the
ulation and it may even disappear entirely character of the f -m wave.
under certain conditions. The variation of Deviation is the amount of frequency
strength of the carrier component is useful shift each side of the unmodulated carrier
HANDBOOK Frequency Modulation 337
frequency which occurs when the transmit- The deviation ratio is similar to the modu-
ter is modulated. Deviation is ordinarily lation index in that it involves the ratio
measured in kilohertz, and in a properly between a modulating frequency and devia-
operating f -m transmitter it will be directly tion. In this case, however, the deviation in
proportional to the amplitude of the modu- question is the peak frequency shift obtained
lating signal. When a symmetrical modula- under full modulation, and the audio fre-
ting signal is applied to the transmitter, quency to be considered is the maximum
equal deviation each side of the resting fre- audio frequency to be transmitted. When
quency is obtained during each cycle of the the maximum audio frequency to be trans-
modulating signal, and the total frequency mitted is 5000 Hz, for example, a deviation
range covered by the f -m transmitter is ratio of 3 would call for a peak deviation of
sometimes known as the swing. If, for in- 3 X 5000, or 15 kHz at full modulation.
stance, a transmitter operating on 1000 kHz The noise -suppression capabilities of frequen-
has its frequency shifted from 1000 kHz to cy modulation are directly related to the
1010 kHz, back to 1000 kHz, then to 990 deviation ratio. As the deviation ratio is in-
kHz, and again back to 1000 kHz during creased, the noise suppression becomes better
one cycle of the modulating wave, the de- if the signal is somewhat stronger than the
viation would be 10 kHz and the swing 20 noise. Where the noise approaches the signal
kHz. in strength, however, low deviation ratios
The modulation index of an f -m signal is allow communication to be maintained in
the ratio of the deviation to the audio mod- many cases where high- deviation -ratio fre-
ulating frequency, when both are expressed quency modulation and conventional ampli-
in the same units. Thus, in the example tude modulation are incapable of giving
above if the signal is varied from 1000 kHz service. This assumes that a narrow -band
to 1010 kHz to 990 kHz, and back to 1000 f -m receiver is in use. For each value of r -f
kHz at a rate (frequency) of 2000 times a signal -to-noise ratio at the receiver, there is a
second, the modulation index would be 5, maximum deviation ratio which may be used,
since the deviation (10 kHz) is 5 times the beyond which the output audio signal -to-
modulating frequency (2 kHz). noise ratio decreases. Up to this critical
The relative strengths of the f -m carrier deviation ratio, however, the noise suppres-
and the various side frequencies depend sion becomes progressively better as the
directly on the modulation index, these rela- deviation ratio is increased.
tive strengths varying widely as the modula- For high -fidelity f -m broadcasting pur-
tion index is varied. In the preceding ex- poses, a deviation ratio of 5 is ordinarily
ample, for instance, side frequencies occur used, the maximum audio frequency being
on the high side of 1000 kHz at 1002, 1004, 15,000 Hz, and the peak deviation at full
1006, 1008, 1010, 1012, etc., and on the low modulation being 75 kHz. Since a swing of
frequency side at 998, 996, 994, 992, 990. 150 kHz is covered by the transmitter, it is
988, etc. In proportion to the unmodulated obvious that wide -band f -m transmission
carrier strength (100 percent) , these side must necessarily be confined to the vhf range
frequencies have the following strengths, as or higher, where room for the signals is avail-
indicated by a modulation index of 5: 1002 able.
and 998 -33 percent; 1004 and 996 -5 per- In the case of television sound, the devia-
cent; 1006 and 994 -36 percent; 1008 and tion ratio is 1.67; the maximum modulation
992 -39 percent; 1010 and 990 -26 percent; frequency is 15,000 Hz, and the transmitter
1012 and 998 -13 percent. The carrier deviation for full modulation is 25 kHz. The
strength (1000 kHz) will be 18 percent of sound carrier frequency in a standard TV
its modulated value. Changing the amplitude signal is located exactly 4.5 MHz higher
of the modulating signal will change the than the picture carrier frequency. In the
deviation, and thus the modulation index intercarrier TV sound system, which is wide-
will be changed, with the result that the ly used, this constant difference between the
side frequencies, while still located in the picture carrier and the sound carrier is em-
same places, will have different strength ployed within the receiver to obtain an f -m
values from those given above. subcarrier at 4.5 MHz. This 4.5 MHz sub-
0 F -M BROADCAST DEVIATION - 75 kHz

MOD. FREQ.- 15 kHz
The newer 2 -meter f -m gear employs a
MOD. INDEX - 5 deviation of S kHz.
i rr o
e Bandwidth Required by As the above discus-
-105 -90 -75 -60
Ii!..
-S
,
-30 -15
^ A ^ IN IT ^
IR
+15 +30 +45 +60 +75 +90 +105
. Frequency Modulation sion has indicated,
many side frequencies
are set up when a radio- frequency carrier is
TV SOUND DEVIATION- 25 kHz frequency modulated; theoretically, in fact,
MOO. FREQ.- 15 kHz
MOD. INDEX - 767
an infinite number of side frequencies is
formed. Fortunately, however, the ampli-
tudes of those side frequencies falling out-
N side the frequency range over which the
1,-t
- 45 kHz
FN
-30 kHz -13 kHz
IN
+15 kHz +30 kHz 5r kHz
transmitter is swung are so small that most
of them may be ignored. In f -m transmis-
sion, when a complex modulating wave
CO AMATEUR NBFM DEVIATION- 31012 (speech or music) is used, still additional
MOD. FREQ.- 3 kHz
MOD. INDEX - side frequencies resulting from a beating
together of the various frequency compo-
nents in the modulating wave are formed.
This is a situation that does not occur in
1 I= Iq
-61Hz -3 kHz + 3 kHz +6 kHz amplitude modulation and it might be
thought that the large number of side fre-
CENTER
FREQUENCY
quencies thus formed might make the fre-
quency spectrum produced by an f -m trans -
miter prohibitively wide. Analysis shows,
Figure 5 however, that the additional side frequencies
EFFECT OF F -M MODULATION INDEX are of very small amplitude, and, instead of
increasing the bandwidth, modulation by a
Showing the side-frequency amplitude and complex wave actually reduces the effec-
distribution for the three most common modu-
lation indices used in f -m work. The maximum tive bandwidth of the f -m wave. This is
modulating frequency and maximum deviation especially true when speech modulation is
are shown in each case.
used, since most of the power in voiced
sounds is concentrated at low frequencies
in the vicinity of 400 Hz.
carrier then is demodulated by the f -m de- The bandwidth required in an f -m receiver
tector to obtain the sound signal which is a function of a number of factors, both
accompanies the picture. theoretical and practical. Basically, the band-
width required is a function of the deviation
Narrow -Bond Narrow -band f -m trans - ratio and the maximum frequency of modu-
F-M Transmission mission has become stand- lation, although the practical consideration
ardized for use by the of drift and ease of receiver tuning also must
mobile services such as police, fire, and be considered. Shown in figure S are the
taxicab communications, and is also au- frequency spectra (carrier and sideband fre-
thorized for amateur work in portions of quencies) associated with the standard f -m
each of the amateur radiotelephone bands. broadcast signal, the TV sound signal, and
A maximum deviation of 15 kHz has an amateur -band narrow -band f -m signal
been standardized for the mobile and com- with full modulation using the highest per-
mercial communication services, while a missible modulating frequency in each case.
maximum deviation of 3 kHz is authorized It will be seen that for low deviation ratios
for amateur n bf m h -f communication. For the receiver bandwidth should be at least
a maximum audio frequency of 3000 Hz, four times the maximum frequency devia-
the maximum deviation ratio is 1.0. For vhf tion, but for a deviation ratio of S the
f -m, the deviation ranges from 3 kHz to receiver bandwidth need be only about 2.S
15 kHz for a deviation ratio of up to 5.0. times the maximum frequency deviation.
HANDBOOK Direct F -M Circuits 339
14 -2 Direct F -M Circuits RFC
AUDIO
Frequency modulation may be obtained LI
OSC.
either by the direct method, in which the TANK
CRT.
frequency of an oscillator is changed directly
by the modulating signal, or by the indirect
method which makes use of phase modula-
tion. Phase -modulation circuits will be dis-
cussed in section 14 -3.
A successful frequency -modulated trans- RxM
Ci. Li: Ci= Li-
mitter must meet two requirements: (1) Rx 9 w 9
LL
Rx 9 M
The frequency deviation must be symmetri-

cal about a fixed frequency, for symmetrical
modulation voltage. (2) The deviation must Figure 6
be directly proportional to the amplitude of
FOUR POSSIBLE PLATE -LOAD
the modulation, and independent of the mod-
ARRANGEMENTS FOR
ulation frequency. There are several methods
REACTANCE MODULATOR
of direct frequency modulation which will
fullfill these requirements. Some of these A combination of a reactance and a resistance
methods will be described in the following form a quadrature circuit, so- called because
the r -f voltage developed a the output
paragraphs. is leading or lagging the r -f current in the
plate circuit by approximately 90 degrees.
The four arrangements possible are shown in
the diagran:, together with the formulas for
Reactance One of the most practical ways calculating the apparent resulting inductance
Modulators or capacitance.
of obtaining direct frequency
modulation is through the use
of a reactance modulator. In this arrange-
ment the modulator output circuit is con- in phase quadrature with the r -f voltage at
nected across the oscillator tank circuit, and the modulator plate (figure 6).
made to appear as either a capacitive or Figure 7 is a diagram of two of the most
inductive reactance by exciting the modu- popular forms of reactance -tube modulators.
lator with a voltage which either leads or The modulator tube, which is usually a pen-
lags the oscillator tank voltage by 90 de- tode such as a 6BA6, 6AU6, or 6CL6, has its
grees. The leading or lagging input voltage plate coupled through a blocking capacitor
causes a corresponding leading or lagging (CO to the "hot" side of the oscillator grid
output current, and the output circuit circuit. Another blocking capacitor (CO
appears as capacitive or inductive reactance feeds r -f to the phase- shifting network
across the oscillator tank circuit. When the (R-C,) in the modulator grid circuit. If the
transconductance of the modulator is varied resistance of R is made large in comparison
by varying one of the element voltages, the with thr reactance of C;, at the oscillator
magnitude of the reactance across the oscil- frequency, the current through the R-C
lator tank is varied. By applying audio combination will be nearly in phase with the
modulating voltage to one of the elements, voltage across the tank circuit, and the volt-
the transconductance (and hence the fre- age across C;, will lag the oscillator tank
quency) may be varied at an audio rate. voltage by almost 90 degrees. The result of
When properly designed and operated, the the 90- degree lagging voltage on the modu-
reactance modulator provides linear fre- lator grid is that its plate current lags the
quency modulation, and is capable of pro- tank voltage by 90 degrees, and the react-
ducing large amounts of deviation. ance tube appears as an inductance in shunt
There are numerous possible configura- with the oscillator inductance, thus raising
tions of the reactance modulator circuit. the oscillator frequency.
The difference in the various arrangements The phase -shifting capacitor (C,) can con-
lies principally in the type of phase -shifting sist of the input capacitance of the modu-
circuit used to give a grid voltage which is lator tube and stray capacitance between
AUDIO
IN OSCILLATOR IN
6BA6 I 75. Milt RANGE
ooee C2,47
Rio n
100K
'7`
BOOK C3
POT, C3, .001 - 0.1
AUDIO i1SO-2SO V.
70 n .0066 IN REGULATED
100 -200V.
REGULATED
A B
Figure 7
REACTANCE -TUBE MODULATORS

A- Circuit suitable for direct frequency-modulation of low -frequency vfo. Capacitor C, can be
the input capacitance of the modulator tube, or a small trimmer capacitor may be included to
permit o variation of the sensitivity of the reactance tube. B -An alternative circuit suitable for
low -frequency oscillators. The reactance tube is c ted across the voltage- divider capacitors
of a Clapp oscillator, although the modulator may be used with any common vfo circuit.
grid and ground. However, better control of tor cathode -to- ground circuit and adjust the
the operating conditions of the modulator phase -shift network until minimum sound is
may be had through the use of a variable heard in the phones when frequency modula-
capacitor as C-,. Resistance R will usually tion is taking place. If an electron- coupled
have a value of between 4700 and 100,000 or Hartley oscillator is used, this method re-
ohms. quires that the cathode circuit of the oscilla-
An alternative reactance- modulator cir- tor be inductively or capacitively coupled to
cuit is shown in figure 7B. The operating the grid circuit, rather than tapped on the
conditions are generally the same, except that grid coil. The phones should be adequately
the r -f excitation voltage to the grid of the bypassed for radio frequencies.
reactance tube is obtained effectively through
reversing the R and C3 of figure 7A. In this
circuit a small capacitance is used to couple Stabilization Due to the presence of the
r.f. into the grid of the reactance tube, with reactance -tube frequency mod-
a relatively small value of resistance from ulator, the stabilization of an f -m oscillator
grid to ground. This circuit has the advan- in regard to voltage changes is considerably
tage that the grid of the tube is at relatively more involved than in the case of a simple
low impedance with respect to r.f. However, self- controlled oscillator for transmitter fre-
the circuit normally is not suitable for oper- quency control. If desired, the oscillator it-
ation above a few MHz due to the shunting self may be made perfectly stable under
capacitance within the tube from grid to voltage changes, but the presence of the
ground. frequency modulator destroys the beneficial
Either of the reactance -tube circuits may effect of any such stabilization. it thus be-
be used with any of the common types of comes desirable to apply the stabilizing ar-
oscillators. The reactance modulator of fig- rangement to the modulator as well as the
ure 7A is shown connected to the high -im- oscillator.
pedance point of a conventional hot -cathode
Hartley oscillator, while that of figure 7B is
shown connected across the low -impedance Reactance -Tube A simple reactance -tube
capacitors of a series -tuned Clapp oscillator. Modulators modulator may bethat
applied to an existing vfo
Adjusting the One of the simplest methods is illustrated in figure 8. The circuit is
Phase Shift of adjusting the phase shift to extremely simple, yet effective. Only two
the correct amount is to place tubes are used exclusive of the voltage reg-
a pair of earphones in series with the oscilla- ulator tubes which perhaps may be already
HANDBOOK Direct F -M Circuits 341
6AU6 6CL6
66 PF ,500 PF
TO GRID OR CATHODE
OF VF.O.
NOTE: ALL o
RES /STRS
OTHERWISE NOTED
WATT UNLESS
ALL CAPACITORS /N LE UNLESS

OTHERWISE NOTED
ADJUST FOR CORRECT

VP CURRENT
Figure 8
SIMPLE F -M REACTANCE -TUBE MODULATOR
incorporated in the vfo. A 6AU6 serves Figure 9 shows a method of connecting

as a high -gain voltage amplifier stage, and two 4.5 -volt C batteries and a potentiometer
a 6CL6 is used as the reactance modula- to plot the characteristic of the modulator.
tor since its high value of transconductance It will be necessary to use a zero -center volt-
will permit a large value of lagging current meter to measure the grid voltage, or else
to be drawn under modulation swing. The reverse the voltmeter leads when changing
unit should be mounted in close proximity to from positive to negative grid voltage. When
the vfo so that the lead from the 6CL6 to a straight -line 'characteristic for the mod-
the grid circuit of the oscillator can be as ulator is obtained by the static test method,
short as possible. A practical solution is to the capacitances of the various bypass capac-
mount the reactance modulator in a small itors in the circuit must be kept small to
box on the side of the vfo cabinet. retain this characteristic when an audio
By incorporating speech clipping in the voltage is used to vary the frequency in
reactance modulator unit, a much more ef- place of the d -c voltage with which the
fective use is made of a given amount of characteristic was plotted.
deviation. When the f -m signal is received
on an a -m receiver by means of slope detec- The Diode When a resistor and a capacitor
tion, the use of speech clipping will be Modulator are placed in series across an os-
noticed by the greatly increased modulation cillator tank circuit, the current
level of the f -m signal, and the attenuation flowing in the series circuit is out of phase
of the center frequency null of no modula- with the voltage. If the resistance or ca-
tion. pacitance is made variable, the phase differ-
ence may be varied. If the variation is con-
Linearity Test It is almost a necessity to run trolled at an audio rate, the resultant current
a static test on the reactance - can be used to frequency -modulate an oscil-
tube frequency modulator to determine its
linearity and effectiveness, since small changes
in the values of components, and in stray TO MODULATOR
CONTROL ELEMENT
capacitances will almost certainly alter the
modulator characteristics. A frequency -
versus- control- voltage curve should be plot-
ted to ascertain that equal increments in
control voltage, both in a positive and a
negative direction, cause equal changes in
frequency. If the curve shows that the mod-
ulator has an appreciable amount of non -
linearity, changes in bias, electrode voltages, Figure 9
r -f excitation, and resistance values may be
made to obtain a straight -line characteristic. REACTANCE -TUBE LINEARITY CHECKER
AUDIO
IN
VI by a very simple resistance -capacitance net-
work.
OSC. TANK
CIRCUIT
The only disadvantage of phase modula-
tion, as compared to direct frequency mod-
ulation such as is obtained through the use
RESISTANCE
of a reactance -tube modulator, is the fact
that very little frequency deviation is pro-
AUDIO DI
IN
C
duced directly by the phase moduator. The
I
I (
deviation produced by a phase modulator is
OSC. TANK
BIAS CIRCUIT independent of the actual carrier frequency
T on which the modulator operates, but is
OB VARIABLE CAPACITANCE
dependent only on the phase deviation which
is being produced and on the modulation fre-
Figure 10 quency. Expressed as an equation:
THE DIODE MODULATOR
Fd = MP modulating frequency
A- Vacuum diode acts as variable resistance
in series with capacitance C to produce phase
shift. B- Voltage -variable semiconductor D, re- where,
sponds to change in bias level to produce
phase shift.
F,1 is the frequency deviation one way
from the mean value of the carrier,
lator (figure 10). The diode modulator MI, is the phase deviation accompanying
may be a vacuum tube acting as a variable modulation expressed in radians (a ra-
resistance or a solid -state voltage- variable dian is approximately 57.3).
capacitor whose capacitance varies inversely
as the magnitude of the reverse bias. The Thus, to take an example, if the phase
variable element is placed in series with a deviation is %2 radian and the modulating
small capacitance across the tank circuit of frequency is 1000 Hz, the frequency devia-
an oscillator to produce a frequency -modu- tion applied to the carrier being passed
lated signal. The bias voltage applied to the through the phase modulator will be 500
diode should be regulated for best results. Hz.
It is easy to see that an enormous amount
14 -3 Phase Modulation of multiplication of the carrier frequency is
required in order to obtain from a phase
By means of phase modulation (pm) it is modulator the frequency deviation of 75
possible to dispense with self -controlled os- kHz required for commercial f -m broad-
cillators and to obtain directly crystal -con- casting. However, for amateur and com-
trolled frequency modulation. In the final mercial narrow -band f -m work (nbfm)
analysis, phase modulation is simply frequen- only a quite reasonable number of multi-
cy modulation in which the deviation is plier stages are required to obtain a de-
directly proportional to the modulation fre- viation ratio of approximately one.
quency. If an audio signal of 1000 Hz Many vhf f -m transmitters employ crys-
causes a deviation of 0.5 kHz, for example, tal control with the crystal frequency one
a 2000 -Hz modulating signal of the same twenty- fourth or one thirty- second of the
amplitude will give a deviation of 1 kHz, carrier frequency. A deviation of 15 kHz
and so on. To produce an f -m signal, it is at 144 MHz, for example, is equivalent to
necessary to make the deviation independent a deviation of 0.625 kHz at a crystal fre-
of the modulation frequency, and propor- quency of 6 MHz, which is well within the
tional only to the modulating signal. With linear capability of a phase modulator. Some
phase modulation this is done by including a high- frequency f -m gear for the 30 -MHz
frequency- correcting network in the trans- region employs crystals in the 200- to 500 -
mitter. The audio- correction network must kHz region to achieve sufficient frequency
have an attenuation that varies directly with multiplication for satisfactory phase mod-
frequency, and this requirement is easily met ulation at the crystal frequency.
HANDBOOK Phase Modulation 343
deviations as high as 0.6 radian may be used

RTC 22 P-M SIGNAL
for amateur and commercial nbfm transmis-
.001
sion.
The Phase A change in the phase of a signal

,K Modulator can be produced by passing the
AUDIO signal through a network con-
22T
005 CORRECTING
NETWORK taining a resistance and a reactance. If
AUDIO IN = the series combination is considered to be
the input, and the output voltage is taken
r from across the resistor, a definite amount
RFC P-M
of phase shift is introduced, the amount
.001 00
_51NA+ depending on the frequency of the signal
and the ratio of the reactance to the resist-
ance. When the resistance is varied with an
applied audio signal, the phase angle of the
output changes in direct proportion to the
= AUDIO IN
audio signal amplitude and produces a phase -
470 1
AUDIO
CORRECTING
modulated signal.
02 f NETWORK
Two practical phase modulators are shown
in figure 11. Circuit A is the basic resistance
Figure 11 and capacitance phase -shift network with
the resistance replaced by the variable plate
PHASE -MODULATION CIRCUITS resistance of a vacuum tube. The plate re-
A-Basic phase modulator utilizing RC net- sistance of the second section of the 12AX7
work, with the resistancearm replaced by the changes with grid voltage and therefore
variable plate resistanceof the vacuum tube.
B- Capacitor C, provides adjustment for the serves as the variable resistor element. As
phase of the r -f voltageacting between grid the plate resistance of the triode changes
and plate of the phase modulator. Capacitor
C, as phase and magnitude control.
with the audio signal applied to the grid
Both capacitors are adjusted for maximum circuit, the phase between the input of the
phase -modulation capability of the circuit. circuit and the output changes in accord
with the audio signal. A variation of this
Odd -harmonic distortion is produced when circuit, one in which the transconductance
frequency -modulation is obtained by the changes with varying input signal, is often
phase- modulation method, and the amount used as the basis for a p -m signal.
of this distortion that can be tolerated is the Circuit B is also suitable for phase mod-
limiting factor in determining the amount of ulation. Capacitor C, of the second section
phase modulation that can be used. Since the of the 12AX7 should not be thought of as
aforementioned frequency- correcting net- a neutralizing capacitor, but rather as an
work causes the lowest modulating frequency adjustment for the phase of the r -f voltage
to have the greatest amplitude, maximum acting between the grid and plate of the
phase modulation takes place at the lowest phase modulator. Capacitor C2 acts as a
modulating frequency, and the amount of phase -angle and magnitude control, and
distortion that can be tolerated at this fre- both capacitors should be adjusted for max-
quency determines the maximum deviation imum phase -modulation capability of the
that can be obtained by the p -m method. circuit. Resonance is established by tuning
For high -fidelity broadcasting, the deviation the slug of coil L1. This circuit has about
produced by phase modulation is limited to six times the deviation capability of the
an amount equal to about one -third of the circuit of illustration A.
lowest modulating frequency. But for nbfm
work the deviation may be as high as 0.6 Measurement When a single- frequency mod -
of the modulating frequency before distor- of Deviation ulating voltage is used with
tion becomes objectionable on voice modula- an f -m transmitter the rela-
tion. In other terms this means that phase tive amplitudes of the various sidebands and
the carrier vary widely as the deviation is The only equipment required for making
varied by increasing or decreasing the amount the measurements is a calibrated audio oscil-
of modulation. Since the relationship be- lator of good wave form, and a communi-
tween the amplitudes of the various side - cation receiver equipped with a beat oscillator
bands and carrier to the audio modulating and crystal filter. The receiver should be
frequency and the deviation is known, a sim- used with its crystal filter set for minimum
ple method of measuring the deviation of bandwidth to exclude sidebands spaced from
a frequency- modulated transmitter is possi- the carrier by the modulation frequency.
ble. In making the measurement, the result The unmodulated carrier is accurately tuned
is given in the form of the modulation index on the receiver with the beat oscillator oper-
for a certain amount of audio input. As pre- ating. Then modulation from the audio oscil-
viously described, the modulation index is lator is applied to the transmitter, and the
the frequency of the audio modulation. modulation is increased until the first car-
The measurement is made by applying a rier null is obtained. This carrier null will
sine -wave audio voltage of known frequency correspond to a modulation index of 2.405,
to the transmitter, and increasing the mod- as previously mentioned. Successive null
ulation until the amplitude of the carrier points will correspond to the indices listed
component of the frequency -modulated wave in the table.
reaches zero. The modulation index for zero A volume indicator in the transmitter
carrier may then be determined from the audio system may be used to measure the
table below. As may be seen from the table, audio level required for different amounts of
the first point of zero carrier is obtained deviation, and the indicator thus calibrated
when the modulation index has a value of in terms of frequency deviation. If the
2.405 -in other words, when the deviation measurements are made at the fundamental
is 2.405 times the modulation frequency. frequency of the oscillator, it will be neces-
For example, if a modulation frequency of sary to multiply the frequency deviation by
1000 Hz is used, and the modulation is in- the harmonic upon which the transmitter is
creased until the first carrier null is obtained, operating, of course. It will probably be
the deviation will then be 2.405 times the most convenient to make the determination
modulation frequency, or 2.405 kHz. If the at some frequency intermediate between that
modulating frequency happened to be 2000 of the oscillator and that at which the trans-
Hz, the deviation at the first null would be
4.810 kHz. Other carrier nulls will be ob-
tained when the index is 5.52, 8.654, and
at increasing values separated approximately
by ir. The following is a listing of the modu-
lation index at successive carrier nulls up to
the tenth:
Zero carrier Modulation DETECTOR
point no. index

SQUELCH
1 2.40 5 ALAL,E /E
SAYA
2 5.520 Figure 12
3 8.654
4 11.792 DOUBLE -CONVERSION RECEIVER
FOR VHF F -M RECEPTION
5 14.931
6 18.071 Most vhf f -m receivers are of the double -con-
version type, many of which use a single
7 21.212 crystal for both the first and second frequency -
8 24.353 converter stages. Modern commercial receiv-
ers employ a frequency synthesizer to gener-
9 27.494 ate the proper mixing frequencies, permitting
10 30.635 reception on a large number of channels with
the use of few mixing crystals.
HANDBOOK Reception of F -M Signals 345
channel selectivity is necessary, a low i -f

channel is desirable; this, however lowers the
image rejection ability of the receiver. Sim-
ilarly, if good image rejection is desired, a
high i -f channel should be used, but this
is not compatible with good adjacent -
channel rejection unless an expensive i -f
F R E Q U E N C Y filter is employed.
Figure 13
These difficulties are compromised by the
use of a double- conversion receiver, such as
SLOPE DETECTION OF F -M SIGNAL the one shown in the block diagram of fig-
ure 12. In many receiver designs, the high
One side of the response characteristic of a
tuned circuit or of an i -f amplifier may be i -f channel is chosen so that a harmonic of
used as shown to c t frequency varia- the mixing oscillator used for the second
tions of an incoming signal into amplitude
variations. mixer may be used with the first mixer to
reduce the number of crystals in the re-
ceiver. In other cases, a frequency syn-
mitter is operating, and then to multiply the thesizer is used to generate the proper mixing
result by the frequency multiplication be- frequencies.
tween that frequency and the transmitter The third requirement, and one which is
output frequency. necessary if the full noise -reducing capabil-
ities of the f -m system of transmission are
desired, is a limiting device to eliminate
14 -4 Reception of F -M amplitude variations before they reach the
Signals detector. A block diagram of the essential
A conventional communications receiver parts of an f -m receiver is shown in figure
may be used to receive narrow -band f -m 12.
transmission, although performance will be
much poorer than can be obtained with an The Frequency The simplest device for con -
nbfm receiver or adapter. However, a re- Detector verting frequency variations
ceiver specifically designed for f -m recep- to amplitude variations is an
tion must be used when it is desired to re- "off-tune" resonant circuit, as illustrated in
ceive high deviation f -m such as used by figure 13. With the carrier tuned in at point
f -m broadcast stations, TV sound, and mo- A, a certain amount of r -f voltage will be
bile communications. developed across the tuned circuit, and, as
The f -m receiver must have, first of all, a the frequency is varied either side of this
bandwidth sufficient to pass the range of frequency by the modulation, the r-f voltage
frequencies generated by the f -m transmit- will increase and decrease to point C and B
ter. And since the receiver must be super- in accordance with the modulation. If the
heterodyne if it is to have good sensitivity voltage across the tuned circuit is applied
at the frequencies to which frequency mod- to an ordinary detector, the detector output
ulation is restricted, i -f bandwidth is an will vary in accordance with the modulation,
important factor in its design. the amplitude of the variation being propor-
The second requirement of the f -m re- tional to the deviation of the signal, and
ceiver is that it incorporate some sort of de- the rate being equal to the modulation fre-
vice for converting frequency changes into quency. It is obvious from figure 13 that
amplitude changes, in other words, a detec- only a small portion of the resonance curve
tor operating on frequency variations rather is usable for linear conversion of frequency
than amplitude variations. Most f -m equip- variations into amplitude variations, since
ment operates in the vhf region, and at the linear portion of the curve is rather
these frequencies it is not always possible short. Any frequency variation which ex-
to obtain optimum performance at reason- ceeds the linear portion will cause distortion
able cost with a single- conversion super- of the recovered audio. It is also obvious by
heterodyne receiver. When good adjacent- inspection of figure 13 that an a -m receiver
As its "center" frequen-

cy the discriminator pro-
duces zero output volt-
age. On either side of
c
this frequency it gives
a voltage of a polarity
and magnitude which
depend on the direction
Figure 14 and amount offreq y FREQUENCY
shift.
TRAVIS DISCRIMINATOR
This type of discriminator makes use of two Figure 15
off -tuned resonant circuits coupled to a single
primary winding. The circuit is capable of DISCRIMINATOR VOLTAGE- FREQUENCY
excellent linearity, but is difficult to align. CURVE
used in this manner is vulnerable to signals further to secure good linearity and output.
on the peak of the resonance curve and also Within limits, as the diode load resistance
to signals on the other side of the resonance or the Q is reduced, the linearity improves,
curve. Further, no noise- limiting action is and the separation between the peaks must
afforded by this type of reception. This sys- be greater.
tem, therefore, is not recommended for f -m
reception, although it may be widely used by Foster -Seeley The most widely used form of
amateurs for occasional nbfm reception. Discriminator discriminator is that shown in
figure 16. This type of dis-
Travis Discriminator Another form of fre- criminator yields an output voltage- versus-
quency detector or dis- frequency characteristic similar to that
criminator, is shown in figure 14. In this shown in figure 17. Here, again, the output
arrangement two tuned circuits are used, one voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the
tuned on each side of the i -f amplifier fre- voltages developed across the load resistors of
quency, and with their resonant frequencies the two diodes, the resistors being connected
spaced slightly more than the expected in series to ground. However, this Foster -
transmitter swing. Their outputs are com- Seeley discriminator requires only two tuned
bined in a differential rectifier so that the circuits instead of the three used in the pre-
voltage across series load resistors R, and R vious discriminator. The operation of the
is equal to the algebraic sum of the individ- circuit results from the phase relationships
ual output voltages of each rectifier. When existing in a transformer having a tuned
a signal at the i -f midfrequency is received, secondary. In effect, as a close examination
the voltages across the load resistors are equal of the circuit will reveal, the primary cir-
and opposite, and the sum voltage is zero. cuit is in series for r.f. with each half of
As the r -f signal varies from the midfre- the secondary to ground. When the received.
quency, however, these individual voltages signal is at the resonant frequency of the
become unequal, and a voltage having the secondary, the r -f voltage across the second-
polarity of the larger voltage and equal to ary is 90 degrees out of phase with that
the difference between the two voltages ap- across the primary. Since each diode is con-
pears across the series resistors, and is applied nected across one half of the secondary
to the audio amplifier. The relationship be- winding and the primary winding in series,
tween frequency and discriminator output the resultant r -f voltages applied to each are
voltage is shown in figure 15. The separation equal, and the voltages developed across each
of the discriminator peaks and the linearity diode load resistor are equal and of opposite
of the output voltage- versus- frequency polarity. Hence, the net voltage between the
curve depend on the discriminator fre- top of the load resistors and ground is zero.
quency, the Q of the tuned circuits, and the This is shown vectorially in figure 17A
value of the diode load resistors. As the in- where the resultant voltages R and R' which
termediate (and discriminator) frequency are applied to the two diodes are shown to
is increased, the peaks must be separated be equal when the phase angle between pri-
AuoIo
LIMITER OUTPUT
Figure 16
SECONDARY VOLTAGE
FOSTER -SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR
This discriminator is the most widely used

circuit since it is capable of excellent linearity Figure 17
and is relatively simple to align when proper
test equipment is available. DISCRIMINATOR VECTOR DIAGRAM
A signal at the resonant frequency of the
secondary will cause the secondary voltage to
mary and secondary voltages is 90 degrees. be 90 degrees out of phase with the primary
If, however, the signal varies from the reso- voltage, as shown at A, and the resultant
voltages R and RV are equal. If the signal fre-
nant frequency, the 90- degree phase relation- quency changes, the phase relationship also
ship no longer exists between primary and changes, and the resultant voltages are no
secondary. longer equal, as shown at B. A differential
rectifier is used to give an output voltage pro-
The result of this effect is shown in portional to the dif between R and R'.
figure 17B where the secondary r -f voltage
is no longer 90 degrees out of phase with
respect to the primary voltage. The resultant Foster -Seeley circuit wherein the diodes are
voltages applied to the two diodes are now polarized so that the d -c output voltages buck
no longer equal, and a d -c voltage propor- each other. At the center frequency to which
tional to the difference between the r -f the discriminator transformer is tuned, the
voltages applied to the two diodes will exist voltage appearing at the top of the 1-
across the series load resistors. As the signal megohm potentiometer will be one -half the
frequency varies back and forth across the d -c voltage appearing at the eve output
resonant frequency of the discriminator, an terminal, since the contribution of each diode
a -c voltage of the same frequency as the will be the same. However, as the input
original modulation, and proportional to the frequency varies to one side or the other of
deviation, is developed and passed on to the the tuned value (while remaining within the
audio amplifier.
0001 FC
Ratio One of the more recent types of R
Detector f -m detector circuits, called the

ratio detector is diagrammed in
figure 18. The input transformer can be de-
signed so that the parallel input voltage to
the diodes can be taken from a tap on the
primary of the transformer, or this voltage
may be obtained from a tertiary winding
coupled to the primary. The r -f choke used Figure 18
must have high impedance at the intermedi- RATIO- DETECTOR CIRCUIT
ate frequency used in the receiver, although
this choke is not needed if the transformer The parallel voltage to the diodes in a ratio
detector may be obtained from a tap on the
has a tertiary winding. primary winding of the transformer or from
The circuit of the ratio detector appears a third winding. Note that one of the diodes
is reversed from the system used with the
very similar to that of the more conven- Foster -Seeley discriminator, and that the out-
tional discriminator arrangement. However, put circuit is completely different. The ratio
it will be noted that the two diodes in the detector does not have to be preceded by a
limiter, but is more difficult to align for
ratio detector are polarized so that their d -c distortion -free output than the conventional
output voltages add, as contrasted to the discriminator.
6AU6 very low plate voltage and with grid -resistor

bias, so that it overloads quite easily. Up to
a certain point the output of the limiter will
increase with an increase in signal. Above
this point, however, the limiter becomes
TO
DISCRIM- overloaded, and further large increases in
INATOR
.250 signal will not give any increase in output.
To operate successfully, the limiter must be
Figure 19
supplied with a large amount of signal, so
LIMITER CIRCUIT that the amplitude of its output will not
One, or sometimes two, limiter stages nor- change for rather wide variations in ampli-
mally precede the discriminator so that a tude of the signal. Noise, which causes little
constant signal level will be fed to the f -m frequency modulation but much amplitude
detector. This procedure eliminates amplitude
variations in the signal fed to the discrimi- modulation of the received signal, is virtual-
nator, so that it will respond only to frequency ly wiped out in the limiter.
changes.
The voltage across the grid resistor varies
with the amplitude of the received signal.
passband of the i -f amplifier feeding the For this reason, conventional amplitude-
detector) the relative contributions of the modulated signals may be received on the
two diodes will be different. The voltage ap- f -m receiver by connecting the input of the
pearing at the top of the 1- megohm volume audio amplifier to the top of this resistor,
control will increase for frequency deviations rather than to the discriminator output.
in one direction and will decrease for fre- When properly filtered by a simple RC cir-
quency deviations in the other direction cuit, the voltage across the grid resistor may
from the mean or tuned value of the trans- also be used as avc voltage for the receiver.
former. The audio output voltage is equal to When the limiter is operating properly avc is
the ratio of the relative contributions of the neither necessary nor desirable, however, for
two diodes, hence the name ratio detector. f -m reception alone.
The ratio detector offers several advan-
tages over the simple discriminator circuit. Receiver Design One of the most important
The circuit does not require the use of a Considerations factors in the design of an
limiter preceding the detector since the cir- f -m receiver is the frequen-
cuit is inherently insensitive to amplitude cy swing which it is intended to handle. It
modulation on an incoming signal. This will be apparent from figure 15 that if the
factor alone means that the r-f and i -f gain straight portion of the discriminator circuit
ahead of the detector can be much less than covers a wider range of frequencies than
the conventional discriminator for the same those generated by the transmitter, the audio
over -all sensitivity. Further, the circuit pro- output will be reduced from the maximum
vides avc voltage for controlling the gain of value of which the receiver is capable.
the preceding r -f and i -f stages. The ratio In this respect, the term modulation per-
detector is, however, susceptible to variations centage is more applicable to the f -m re-
in the amplitude of the incoming signal as ceiver than it is to the transmitter, since the
in any other detector circuit except the modulation capability of the communication
discriminator with a limiter preceding it, system is limited by the receiver bandwidth
so that avc should be used on the stage pre- and the discriminator characteristic; full
ceding the detector. utilization of the linear portion of the char-
acteristic amounts, in effect, to 100 percent
Limiters The limiter of an f -m receiver modulation. This means that some sort of
using a conventional discriminator standard must be agreed on, for any particu-
serves to remove amplitude modulation and lar type of communication, to make it un-
pass on to the discriminator a frequency - necessary to vary the transmitter swing to
modulated signal of constant amplitude; a accommodate different receivers.
typical circuit is shown in figure 19. The Two considerations influence the receiver
limiter tube is operated as an i -f stage with bandwidth necessary for any particular type
R 02
NAti
On the other hand, a low deviation ratio
FROM
DISCRIMINATOR TO AUDIO GRID is more satisfactory for strictly communica-
IME', tion work, where readability at low signal -
to -noise ratios is more important than addi-
R. 2206, C. 340 PF tional noise suppression when the signal is
R.100 It, C' 730 PF already appreciably stronger than the noise.
R. 47I1, C 1600 PF
R. 22 n, C = 3400 PF
As mentioned previously, broadcast f -m
practice is to use a deviation ratio of 5.
Figure 20 When this ratio is applied to a voice -com-
75- MICROSECOND DE- EMPHASIS munication system, the total swing becomes
30 to 40 kHz. With lower deviation ratios,
CIRCUIT
such as are most frequently used for voice
The audio signal transmitted by f -m and TV work, the swing becomes proportionally less,
stations has received high -frequency pre -
emphasis, so that a de- emphasis circuit should until at a deviation ratio of 1 the swing is
be included between the output of the f -m equal to twice the highest audio frequency.
detector and the input of the audio system. Actually, however, the receiver bandwidth
must be slightly greater than the expected
of communication. These are the maximum transmitter swing, since for distortionless
audio frequency which the system will reception the receiver must pass the complete
handle, and the deviation ratio which will band of energy generated by the transmitter,
be employed. For voice communication, the and this band will always cover a range
maximum audio frequency is more or less somewhat wider than the transmitter swing.
fixed at 3000 to 4000 Hz. In the matter of
deviation ratio, however, the amount of Pre- Emphasis Standards in f -m broadcast
noise suppression which the f -m system will and De- Emphasis and TV sound work call
provide is influenced by the ratio chosen, for the pre- emphasis of all
since the improvement in signal -to -noise audio modulating frequencies above about
ratio which the f -m system shows over am- 2000 Hz, with a rising slope such as would
plitude modulation is equivalent to a con- be produced by a 75- microsecond RL net-
stant multiplied by the deviation ratio. This work. Thus the f -m receiver should include
assumes that the signal is somewhat stronger a compensating de- emphasis RC network
than the noise at the receiver, however, as with a time constant of 75 microseconds so
the advantages of wideband frequency mod- that the over-all frequency response from
ulation in regard to noise suppression disap- microphone to speaker will approach linear-
pear when the signal -to -noise ratio ap- ity. The use of pre- emphasis and de- emphasis
proaches unity. in this manner results in a consideraole
QI
SECOND
MIXER
FROM
NIGH
FL-1
I-F
To
LAST
I -F
AND
DISC
-9w
Figure 21
TRANSISTOR I -F STRIP USES CASCODE CIRCUIT
Transistors in pairs (Q -Q and Q -Q are placed in series in regard to the supply voltage in
1
the manner of a cascade amplifier so that each transistor of a pair has half the d -c voltage
across it. A crystal or mechanical filter provides good adjacent -channel selectivity.
56 K
660 660
56 K
TO
AUDIO
Figure 22
F -M DETECTOR, SQUELCH, AND AGC CIRCUIT
Squelch voltage is derived from the last i -f stage, amplified and rectified, and applied as a
control voltage to the base of first audio -amplifier transistor, Q,.
provement in the over -all signal -to -noise in regard to the supply voltage, with the
ratio of an f -m system. Appropriate values paired transistors placed in series so that
for the de- emphasis network, for different each has half the supply voltage, somewhat
values of circuit impedance are given in in the manner of a cascode amplifier. The
figure 20. whole i -f strip may be built on a printed -
circuit board somewhat larger than a postage
F-M Receiver F -m receivers, as with receiv- stamp. Type 2N291 transistors may be
Circuitry ers for other modes, exhibit used in this design.
interesting circuits that are A companion transistor f -m detector,
unique to the service. Shown in figure 21 is audio squelch, and agc circuit are shown in
a transistorized low frequency i -f strip used figure 22. These stages may also be assem-
in many compact f -m receivers and trans- bled on a printed -circuit board, along with
ceivers. A filter package (FL -1) provides ad- a suitable audio amplifier for speaker oper-
jacent- channel selectivity and i -f gain is ation.
achieved in a resistance -capacitance coupled
four -stage amplifier. The stages are paired A NBFM 455 -kHz The unit diagrammed in
Adapter Unit figure 23 is designed to
provide nbfm reception
6AU6
50PF
13A LS
IOOK
when attached to any communication re-
100
PF
AUDIO
OUT
ceiver having a 45) -kHz i -f amplifier. Al-
a PF
100K though nbfm can be received on an a -m
--, receiver by tuning the receiver to one side
A55.kHz 100;i, or the other of the incoming signal, a tre-
14 IN K
I)
2206 100
PF T mendous improvement in signal -to -noise ratio
vOIT-
0.1 39K
2W T I -J.W. MILLEN 0 /2-C3
METER
and in signal to amplitude ratio will be
obtained by the use of a true f -m detector
e. 250
AT 3 MA.
v.
system.
NOTE: ALL CAPACITORS IN 1/F UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
ALL RESISTORS 0.3 WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED The adapter uses two tubes. A 6AU6 is
used as a limiter, and a 6AL5 as a discrimi-
Figure 23 nator. The audio level is approximately 10
NBFM ADAPTER FOR 455 -kHz I -F SYSTEM volts peak for the maximum deviation which
can be handled by a conventional 455 -kHz

i -f system. The unit may be tuned by placing
a high resistance d -c voltmeter across R,
147.71 MH 146.85 MHZ
and tuning the trimmers of the i -f trans- INPUT. 148.85 MHZ
former for maximum voltage when an un-
modulated signal is injected into the i -f strip
of the receiver. The voltmeter should next
/ 46.
MHZ
OIJTPUT' 147.71 MHZ
r14z71 MHZ
147.71 MHZ
14\ 7 71
MHZ
be connected across the audio output termi-

nal of the discriminator. The receiver is now
tuned back and forth across the frequency
of the incoming signal, and the movement les MHZ 147.71 MHZ
OUT
of the voltmeter noted. When the receiver yIN -TO -WEST REPEATER
1
is exactly tuned on the signal the voltmeter J1 MI %ER A MP. ANO MIXER
POWER
AMP.
J M
reading should be zero. When the receiver is 'SELECTOR .
tuned to one side of center, the voltmeter LOCAL (LOCAL

reading should increase to a maximum value ose. Il05C.
and then decrease gradually to zero as the Z4187.71 MHZ 146 83 MHZ-'8e..,
signal is tuned out of the passband of the OUT IN
receiver. When the receiver is tuned to the
SAME ARRANGEMENT
other side of the signal the voltmeter should
increase to the same maximum value but WEST -TO -EAST REPEATER
in the opposite direction or polarity, and
then fall to zero as the signal is tuned out
of the passband. It may be necessary to make
small adjustments to C, and C, to make the Figure 24
voltmeter read zero when the signal is tuned
in the center of the passband. F -M REMOTE REPEATER
FOR MOBILE SERVICE
F -M Mobile Since radio transmission in the Radio relay station serves as a repeater to
Relays vhf region is essentially short extend the range of base or mobile f -m sta-
tions. Communication between units may be
range, a form of radio relay sta- achieved either directly, or through repeater.
tion termed a repeater may be employed to The repeater consists of a back -to -back re-
ceiver and transmitter having a common 1-f
expand the communication range of base and remoduiator system. Most repeaters are
or mobile stations over an extended distance. limited to a single channel, but multiplex
Various types of relays are in use in the operation permits simult s transmission
of different information forms on the channel.
United States, their operation depending on
the requirements of the communications cir-
cuit. put. In so doing, remote bases serve on com-
The relay unit is a fixed repeating station mon frequencies by which individual groups
whose specific purpose is to extend station - operating their own installation can cross -
to- station communication capability. The communicate. Frequencies above 220 MHz
user's transmitter is on the input frequency or direct -wire lines must be used for remote
while his receiver is on the output frequency control.
of the relay (figure 24). When desired, di- Simplex communication, on the other
rect communication between stations may hand, refers to communication between indi-
take place by using a closely spaced fre- vidual units operating on a common trans-
quency domain and a two -frequency transmit and receive frequency. Thus simplex
mitter. operation can be interfaced with relay oper-
The remote base is a form of relay unit ation, using either a local or remote base.
whose location has a height or tactical ad- Remote base operation must take place
vantage. Means must be provided to control under FCC license to a responsible con-
such an installation which in amateur serv- trolling authority and each application for
ice most often is working in conjunction such service is judged individually on the
with a pair of frequencies -input and out- merits of the case.
352 Frequency and Phase Modulation
While most repeaters are limited to a receiver to lose the incoming signal and thus
single communication channel, multiplex turning the transmitter off. As soon as the
operation, or simultaneous transmission of transmitter is off, the receiver again detects
two or more signals on a common carrier the incoming signal and the cycle is repeated.
wave is often employed by means of narrow- Sufficient separation between receiving and
band filter techniques. For example, simul- transmitting antennas at the repeater site
taneous voice and RTTY transmissions may and the addition of high -Q intermediate
occur on a single channel. It is also possible tuned circuits in the transmitter will be of
to insert traffic at a relay station for trans- benefit in increasing coupling loss between
mission in either or both directions and, in input and output circuits of the repeater.
addition, duplex- (two way simultaneous) In addition, the SWR on both receiving and
transmission through the relay may be transmitting feedlines to the respective an-
achieved in many cases. tennas must be low. When the SWR is high,
The performance of the f -m repeater may the feedlines become part of the radiating
be degraded by the broad spectrum of white antenna, and since the feedlines often run
noise generated by the low -Q circuits of parallel to each other, the coupling loss be-
the transmitter, the broad noise spectrum tween antennas may be degraded.
masking weak signals on the receive fre- It is beyond the scope of this handbook
quency, causing the repeater receiver to be to cover f -m repeaters in detail. Extensive
less sensitive with the repeater transmitter coverage on this subject can be found in
on than it is when the transmitter is off. the "F -M Repeater Handbook" published
This desensitization can result in repeater by Editors and Engineers, New Augusta,
"pumping," the transmitter coming on and Indiana.
generating noise that causes the repeater
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Radioteletype Systems
Teleprinling is a form of intelligence based conveys information by changing from an

on asimple binary (on -off) code designed on to an off condition. Early RTTY circuits
for electromechanical transmission. The code employed MBK equipment, which is now
consists of d -c pulses generated by a special considered obsolete since it is less reliable
electric typewriter, which can be reproduced than the frequency -shift technique. Audio
at a distance by a separate machine. The frequency -shift keying employs a steady
pulses may be transmitted from one machine radio carrier modulated by an audio tone
to another by wire or by a radio circuit. which is shifted in frequency according to
When radio transmission is used, the system the RTTY pulses. Other forms of informa-
is termed radioteletype (RTTY). The name tion transmission may be employed by a
teletype is a registered trademark of Teletype RTTY system which also encompass trans-
Corporation and the term teleprinter is used lation of binary pulses into r -f signals.
in preference to the registered term.
The Teleprinter The teleprinter code con-
Code sists of 26 letters of the
15 -1 Radioteletype alphabet and additional char-
Systems acters that accomplish machine functions,
such as line feed, carriage return, bell, and
The d -c pulses that comprise the tele- upper- and lower -case shift. These special
printer signal may be converted into three characters are required for the complete
basic forms of emission suitable for radio automatic process of teleprinter operation
transmission. These are: (1) frequency-shift in printing received copy. Numerals, punc-
keying (FSK), designated as F1 emission; tuation, and symbols may be taken care of in
(2) make - break keying (MBK), designated the case shift, since all transmitted letters
as A 1 emission; and (3) audio frequency- are capitals.
shift keying (AFSK), designated as F2 The teleprinter code is made up of spaces
emission. and pulses, each of 22 milliseconds dura-
Frequency -shift keying is achieved by tion for radio amateur transmission at 60
varying the transmitted frequency of the words per minute. Each character is made
radio signal a fixed amount (usually 850 up of five elements, plus a 22 millisecond
Hertz or less) during the keying process. start space and a 31 millisecond stop pulse.
The shift is accomplished in discrete intervals All characters are equal in total transmission
designated mark and space. Both types of in- time to 163 milliseconds duration to achieve
tervals convey information to the teleprinter. machine synchronization at both ends of the
Make -break keying is analogous to simple RTTY circuit. Timing is usually accom-
c -w transmission in that the radio carrier plished by the use of synchronous motors in
354 Radioteletype Systems RADIO
LETTER 'R and made to print the letter corresponding

MARK
/
-,- to the key pressed. Synchronization of ma-
chines is accomplished by means of start
and stop pulses transmitted with each char-
acter. An electromechanical device driven
SPACE
,
22MS 22 MS
AA
22 MS
3 A S
22MS 22MS 22MS

4016,42.2.
)t M
by the motor of the teleprinter is released
when a key is pressed and transmission of
the complete character is automatic.
163 MS
TIME The receiving apparatus operates in re-
verse sequence, being set in operation by the
Figure 1 first pulse of a character sent by the trans-
mitter mechanism. While each character is
THE TELEPRINTER CODE sent at the speed of 60 w.p.m., actual trans-
Teleprinting is based on a simple binary code mission of a sequence of characters may be
made up of spaces and pulses, each of 22 much slower, depending on the speed of the
milliseconds duration. Normal transmission is
at the rate of 60 w.p.m. The seq f mark operator. A simplified diagram of a one -way
and space pulses for the letter R are shown RTTY circuit is shown in figure 2.
here. Start space provides time for machine
synchronization and stop pulse provides time
for sending and receiving mechanisms to 15 -2 RTTY Reception
position themselves for transmission of the
following character.
The RTTY receiving mechanism must re-
spond to a sequence of pulses and spaces
the equipment, locked to the a -c line fre- transmitted by wire or radio. Frequency -shift
quency. The sequence of mark and space keying may be demodulated by a beat -fre-
pulses for the letter R is shown in figure 1. quency technique, or by means of a discrimi-
The start space provides time for synchro- nator as employed in f -m service. The re-
nization of the receiving machine with the ceived signal is converted into d -c pulses
sending machine. The stop pulse provides which are used to operate the printing mag-
time for the sending mechanism as well as nets in the teleprinter. Conversion of RTTY
the receiving mechanism to properly po- signals into proper pulses is accomplished by
sition themselves for transmission of the a receiving converter (terminal unit,abbrevi-
following character. ated TU) . RTTY converters may be either i -f
The FSK system normally employs the
higher radio frequency as the mark and the
lower frequency as the space. This relation- KEYBOARD
ship often holds true in the AFSK system
also. The lower audio frequency may be
2125 Hz and the higher audio frequency SYNCHRONIZED
2975 Hz, giving a frequency difference or BY 60-HERTZ
POWER SOURCE
shift of 850 Hz. Other, more narrow shifts
are gradually coming into popularity in radio
amateur RTTY work.
The Teleprinter The teleprinter resembles a
Figure 2
typewriter in appearance,
having a keyboard, a type basket, a carriage, BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
and other familiar appurtenances. The key-
ONE -WAY -RTTY CIRCUIT
board, however, is not mechanically linked
to the type basket or printer. When a key is The teleprinter generates code sequence in
pressed on the keyboard of the sending ap- the form of on -off pulses for the alphabet and
additional special characters. Teleprinter code
paratus a whole code sequence for that char- is transmitted at rate of 60 w.p.m. by means
acter is generated in the form of pulses and of ireq -shift technique. The receiving
apparatus drives a mechanical printer that is
spaces. When this code sequence is received usually synchronized with the keyboard by
on a remote machine, a type bar is selected the common 60 -Hz power source.
HANDBOOK Radioteletype Reception 355
TERMINAL UNIT
TERMINAL UNIT IF r
MARK -SPACE
RECEIVER l'b LIMITER -..'"'N.11M-
NA TOR I
RECEIVER vi
LIMITER FILTERS
1
Y I I
AUDIO AUDIO DISCRIM-

RE YE R FILTER INATOR
FILTER I
L _ -
NEVER
PRINTER
L J
PRINTER
Figure 3
A shows block diagram of i -f terminal unit employing f-m discriminator

technique. l -f
means of
converter requires that selectivity and interference rejection be achieved by terminal
selective tuned circuits of the receiver. B shows block diagram of audio- frequency low -pass
unit. Mark and space filters are used ahead of audio discriminator, followed by a and 2975
audio filter. Beat oscillator of receiver is used to provide audio beat tones of 2125
Hz required for nominal 850 -Hz shift system.
discriminator or audio discriminator units. A keyer. In its simplest form, the i -f converter
block diagram of an intermediate- frequency requires that adequate selectivity and inter-
converter is shown in figure 3A. The RTTY ference rejection be achieved by means of
signal in the i -f system of the receiver is the i -f system of the receiver.
considered to be a carrier frequency -modu- The schematic of a typical i -f RTTY
lated by a 22.8 -Hz square wave having converter is shown in figure 4.
a deviation of plus and minus 425 Hz A block diagram of an audio-frequency
(for 850 -Hz shift). Amplitude variations converter is shown in figure 3B. An audio
are removed by the limiter stage and the limiter is followed by mark -frequency and
discriminator stage converts the frequency space- frequency filters placed ahead of the
shift into a 22.8 -Hz waveform, applied discriminator stage. A low -pass filter and
to the teleprinter by means of an electronic electronic keyer provide the proper d -c sig-
I 2AU7 Rv
DISCRIMINATOR D-C AMPLIFIER (W E -255A)
6BH6
LIMITER
455 kHz
o
R +250 V. TO LOOP SUPPLY
ANO PRINTER
Figure 4
I -F RTTY CONVERTER
Typical i -f converter circuit illustrates this technique. Some type of indication that the RTTY
signal is properly tuned is required, particularly on the hf bands. With the i -f terminal -8).
unit, a zero -center microammeter may be connected across discriminator load resistors (A
356 Radioteletype Systems RADIO
12AU7 RY
I2AT 7 6C4 D{ AMPLIFIER (wE-255.4)
LIMITER AMA
AUDIO
NPUT 001
3
B250V TO LOOP SUPPLY
AND AMPLIFIER
Figure 5
AUDIO RTTY CONVERTER

The audio terminal unit usually has an oscilloscope presentation in the form of a cross,
with the horizontal input for "mark" and the vertical input for "space."
nal required by the teleprinter. The beat space intelligence of the RTTY code. Fre-
oscillator of the receiver is used to provide quency -shift keying (FSK) may be accom-
the beat tones of 2125 and 2975 Hz re- plished by varying the frequency of the
quired in the usual 850-Hz shift system. transmitter oscillator in a stable manner be-
Either frequency may be used for either tween two chosen frequencies. The amount
mark or space, and the signals may be easily of shift must be held within close tolerances
inverted by tuning the beat oscillator to the as the shift must match the frequency differ-
opposite side of the i -f passband of the re- ence between the selective filters in the
ceiver. The schematic of a simple audio - receiving terminal unit. The degree of fre-
frequency RTTY converter is shown in
figure 5.
Receiving converters of both types usually
include clipping and limiting stages which 6V6GT TI
hold the signal at constant amplitude and o -1-6AL5 ro
converters occasionally include pulse -forming KEVING 5 6.3 v.
SIGNAL 1
circuits which help to overcome distortion 500 It

that occurs during transmission of the intel- ID
ligence. - = 1N4003
Teleprinters are actuated by electromag-
nets which release the motor- driven mecha- PRINTER
MAGNET 0-100 MA
nism driving the type bars. The magnets
require 20 or 60 milliamperes of current
which may be obtained from an electronic
keyer such as the one shown in figure 6. A Figure 6
single teleprinter may be run as an electric
typewriter on a local loop supply which cou- ELECTRONIC KEYER FOR
ples the keyboard and typing mechanisms RTTY PRINTER
in a single circuit (figure 7).
The polar relay may be eliminated and the
teleprinter mechanism driven directly by a
15 -3 Frequency-Shift keyer such as shown here. This circuit pro-
vides loop supply and keeps the printer mag-
Keying nets in the ground circuit. Printer coils are
placed in series for 20-ma loop operation, or
The keyed d -c voltage from the teleprinter in parallel for 60 -ma operation. Additional
is used to operate a keyer circuit to shift printer magnets are connected either in series
or parallel, to a limit of two or three before
the transmitter carrier back and forth in inductive effects of coils introduce undesirable
frequency in accord with the mark and side effects.
HANDBOOK Radioteletype Keying 357
KEYBOARD
KEYBOARD
Figure 7
LOCAL LOOP SUPPLY

Figure 8
FOR TELEPRINTER
DIODE KEYER FOR FREQUENCY -SHIFT
A single teleprinter may be run as electric
typewriter on local loop supply which couples KEYING OF VFO
the keyboard and typing mechanism in o
single circuit. Depending on how the machine A simple diode switch may be used to vary
is wired, the keyboard and magnets can be the frequency of the transmitter in a stable
on plugs, or connected in series internally, manner between two chosen frequencies. The
with only one plug (usually "red ") to the amount of shifts must match the frequency
loop supply. difference between the selective filters in the
receiving terminal unit.
quency shift of the oscillator is, of course,

multiplied by any factor of multiplication mitter- distributor (T -D) unit. This is an
realized in succeeding doubler stages of the electromechanical device which senses per-
transmitter. A simple diode switch suitable forations in a teleprinter tape and translates
for many variable- frequency oscillators is this information into electrical impulses of
shown in figure 8. Older systems often made the five -unit teleprinter code at a constant
use of a reactance tube to obtain an adjust- speed (S5 -65 w.p.m. in the amateur radio
able shift. service). The information derived from the
Auxiliary RTTY RTTY transmission by pre -
Equipment punched tape is made pos-
sible by means of a trans- 005 12A17 +250V
DISTRIBUTOR SLIP RINGS

AND COMMUTATOR SYNC MOTOR
2 f-
15p ' LSTOP
:. sTART
SPACE
CONTACTS
r-- -
v v v b MARK Figure 10
CONTACTS
1 2 D 4
AFSK OSCILLATOR
Figure 9
Audio frequency -shift keying is often used on
TRANSMITTER -DISTRIBUTOR (T -D) UNIT vhf bands to avoid problems of holding close
radio -frequency stability. The L -C. circuit is
T-D unit is electromechanical device which tuned to 2975 Hx (with keyboard open). Clos-
senses perforations in a teleprinter tape and ing the keyboard parallels capacitor CI and
translates this information into the ele al lowers the oscillator frequency to 2125 Hz. The
impulses of the teleprinter code. Information coil L is an 88 mH toroid (with about 44" of
derived from the tape by contact fingers is wire removed). Capacitors C: and C. are high
transmitted in proper time sequence by a quality paper or mylar. Compression mica ca-
commutator - distributor driven by a constant - pacitors may be used as padders to place the
speed motor. oscillator on the correct frequencies.
358 Radioteletype Systems
punched tape by contact fingers is trans- to use by an audio converter of the type
mitted in the proper time sequence by a shown in figure 4. The beat oscillator in the
commutator- distributor driven at a constant receiver is not used for this form of recep-
speed by a synchronous motor (figure 9) . tion. AFSK is permitted only on those ama-
Used in conjunction with the T -D is a teur bands on which A2 emission is author-
tape perforator which punches the teleprinter ized. A simple AFSK oscillator circuit is
code in a paper tape. The perforator operates shown in figure 10.
mechanically from a teleprinter keyboard
for originating messages. A reperforator may Obtaining Sources available to radio ama-
be connected to receiving equipment to Teleprinter teurs include several nonprofit
"tape" an incoming message for storage or Machines RTTY societies, established in
retransmission. various areas of the United
States for the purpose of disposing of tele-
Audio Frequency- Audio frequency -shift key - printer equipment discarded by commercial
Shift Keying ing (AFSK) is often used services. These societies can be contacted
by radio amateurs on the through active RTTY amateurs. The com-
vhf bands in order to avoid the problems of mercial services, including the Bell Tele-
holding close radio- frequency stability. An phone Company, generally cannot dispose of
audio oscillator is employed to generate a used equipment directly to radio amateurs.
2125 -Hz tone (mark) and a 297f -Hz tone Commercial services should not be contacted
(space) when driven by the keyboard of a regarding used teleprinters. Many radio ama-
teleprinter, or by a tape T -D unit. The teurs, active in RTTY, rebuild machines
audio signal is then applied to the modulator from junked or damaged equipment at nom-
of the vhf transmitter and the resulting am- inal cost. These amateurs are also an excel-
plitude- modulated signal is detected and put lent source of maintenance support.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Si ngleSideband
Transmission and Reception
Single- sideband (SSB) communication is drum accomplish this sequence of events

a unique, sophisticated information trans- for sound; the light source, the "ether,"
mission system well suited for wire and and the human eye provide the same se-
radio services. Although known in theory quence for sight.
for several decades, "sideband" was sparingly Experiments before the turn of the cen-
used in commercial service for a number tury proved the existence of electromagnetic
of years, and only recently has it achieved waves which could be propagated and put
popularity and general acceptance in the to use for transmission of information.
Amateur Service. Now, it is an important When voice transmission via radio waves
and vital communication medium and it is was successfully accomplished circa 1907,
safe to predict that some form of single- the concept of carrier waves and sidebands
sideband technique will someday supplant was unknown, although it was understood
other types of intelligence transmission by that "a channel separation high compared
electrical means. Economical in cost, spar- with the pitch of the sound waves trans-
ing of valuable spectrum space, and usable mitted" was required. An implication that
a transmission band of frequencies was in-
under the most trying propagation condi-
tions, SSB is the stepping stone to a future volved was apparently not grasped at the
era of better and more reliable rapid com- time, and the idea that intelligence could be
munication. transmitted by a single carrier wave of
constant frequency and varying amplitude
persisted until about 1921 at which time
16 -1 The SSB System the sideband concept had been established by
a series of discoveries, experiments, and in-
Single sideband is a recent attempt to ventions.
translate human intelligence into electrical Early SSB experiments with single -sideband
impulses capable of being economically transmission were conducted by the tele-
transmitted over great distances. The gen- phone industry which was interested in
eral flow of information in a communication transmitting electrical impulses correspond-
system includes a source, followed by a ing to the human voice over long- distance
translator which propagates the intelligence telephone circuits. Since the transmission
through a conducting medium. A second properties of wire and cable deteriorate
translator is used to extract the intelligence rapidly with cable length and increasing
conveyed by the medium and to make it frequency, a means of frequency conserva-
available in a usable form. The vocal chords, tion was desired which would permit the
vibrations in the atmosphere, and the ear "stacking" of different voices in an electro-
360 SSB Transmission and Reception RADIO
600 16000
INPUT
VOICE BANDBI VOICEBAND4 CARRIER VOICE BANDBI
300 -3000 Hz 300-3000 H2 OSCILLATOR
300 -3000 HZ
9900 15 RHZ 15300
9400 8 15000
INPUT 4700
1 VOICE BAND3I INPUT

VOICE BAND2 VOICE BAND TRANSLATOR
VOICE RAND I
300 -3000 Hz 300 -3000 Hz I
300-3000 HZ
'BLACK BOR 300 -3000 HZ
VOICE BAND 6700 12000
TRANSLATOR 6200
INPUT
VOICE BAND
300 -3000 Hz
3 VOICE BAND2
300 -3000 Hz
INPUT
VOICE BANDS2
3500 300 -3000 HZ
NPUT
VOICE BAND
300 -3000 HZ
04
3000
VOICE BAND
300 -3000 Hz
I 3600
VOICE BAND 812
300- 3000Hz
300 300
0
0
OUTPUT SPECTRUM
OF TRANSLATOR OUTPUT SPECTRUM
Figure 1
Figure 2
THE "BLACK BOX" VOICE BAND THE TRANSLATOR MIXER
TRANSLATOR
Voice band .1 is impressed on a carrier sig-
A simple device for "stacking" voice bands nal in a translator (mixer) stage. Voice band
in an electromagnetic "package" for trans- p2 is unchanged. The output spectrum of the
mitting many voices over a single circuit device shows that two voice bands are avail-
cannot be built as it is impossible to trans- able, one "stacked" above the other in fre-
late a band of frequencies directly to an- quency. Addition of other translators will
other bond. Translation must be accomplished permit additional voice bands to be "stacked"
by an indirect method, making use of an in the frequency region between 3600 Hz
auxiliary carrier wave and a mixing process and 12,000 Hz. The voice packages thus
termed "modulation." created could be sent over a single circuit.
Note that the translation process creates two
symmetrical voice bands from the original
+/ signal, spaced each side of a carrier fre-
1
magnetic package so that many voices could quency between the bands. Elimination of car-
be sent over a single circuit. The voice im- rier signal and one voice band would permit
addition of another signal in this portion of
pulses were mainly concentrated in the band the spectrum.
300 -3,000 Hz and the problem at hand
was to translate this voice band to a higher
band of frequencies (15,300- 18,000 Hz, frequencies were created lying on either side
for example) for transmission on the tele- of the carrier, spaced from it by a frequency
phone circuit, then to reverse the translation proportional to the modulation frequency
process at the receiving terminal to recover (figure 2) . These additional frequencies
the original band of frequencies. Experi- were termed sidebands and conclusive evi-
ments proved, however, that a simple and dence of separate sidebands was achieved in
economical apparatus for translation of the 1915 by the use of electric filters that sep-
voice frequencies from one band to another arated sidebands and carriers, proving their
was not forthcoming. No device could be individuality.
built that would do the job that looked so The sideband theory was of little more
simple when sketched on paper (figure 1) . than passing interest to radio engineers,
lt proved possible, however, to generate a but it was a matter of considerable impor-
continuous electrical signal at some high tance to the telephone industry. The carrier
frequency (1 5,000 Hz, for example) and to wave was useless except as an operator nec-
impress the voice impulses on this signal. essary to generate and then upon which to
For convenience, the continuous signal was "hang" the two sidebands, both of which
termed the carrier wave, as it was assumed to carried the same information (figure 3) .
"carry" the intelligence in some way or For economic reasons and spectrum con-
other. A suitable device at the receiving servation it was desirable to remove one side -
terminal detected the intelligence on the band and the carrier from the translator,
carrier, recovering the original speech fre- passing only one sideband through the con-
quencies impressed on the carrier at the ducting medium. At the receiver, a locally
transmitter. Mathematical analysis of this generated carrier wave of the correct fre-
process (called modulation) showed that the quency and amplitude was combined with
carrier remained unchanged and additional the incoming single -sideband signal. The re-
HANDBOOK The SSB System 361
suiting output was a reproduction of the

signal impressed on the translator. Com-
mercial wire telephone systems using this
4
technique were placed in operation in 1918 a
and the first h -f SSB telephone link was 4kH, - 40001H7 40041145 3996511, 40001147
activated in 1927. AUDIO SPECTRUM SSB SPECTRUM

(UPPER SIOEGANO)
SSS SPECTRUM
(LOWER S/OECAA0)
O
Practical The spectrum waste aris-
Application ofSSB ing from a frequency Figure 3
translation process utiliz- RELATIONSHIP OF AUDIO AND
ing simple amplitude modulation could be SSB SPECTRUMS
eliminated by suppression of one sideband The single-sideband components are the same
and the carrier, and the transmission of as the original audio components except that
only the remaining sideband. To date, no the frequency of each is raised by the fre-
quency of the carrier. The relative amplitude
method exists to directly generate an SSB of the various components remains the same.
signal. All translation techniques involve
the use of a carrier wave, and the resulting
signal includes the original carrier and two Single sideband is now well established in
auxiliary sidebands. Elimination of the un- the field of amateur radio as more and more
wanted signal components was (and still is) amateurs turn toward this natural means of
a complex and sophisticated task. communication as they discover for them-
The post -World War II acceptance of selves the benefits and advantages SSB can
SSB transmission for military and com- offer.
mercial circuits has stimulated research and Basic SSB A single -sideband signal can be
development in this field and has contributed best be described as an audio sig-
to a heightened interest in the technique by nal raised (or translated) to the desired
the radio amateur. Mass production of sharp - radio frequency. The translation process
cutoff filters and stable translation oscilla- may not result in the inversion of the
tors, plus the use of advanced and simplified audio- frequency components in the signal,
circuitry has brought SSB close to the point
of obsoleting simple amplitude -modulation
transmission on the high -frequency amateur
bands. Undoubtedly, in the years ahead, I`
AUDIO TONE
2000 H Z LSO USC
further design refinements and technical J

advances will make the use of SSB even TRANSLATOR
more advantageous to all concerned with (MIXER)
1
453 455 457
transmission of intelligence by electrical 1HZ
means. CARRIER
455 HHZ
1
The popularity of SSB for general ama- OUTPUT SPECTRUM
teur use has been brought about as this

technique has consistently proved to allow Figure 4
more reliable communication over a greater
range than has amplitude modulation. It has THE TRANSLATOR SPECTRUM
greater ability to pierce interference, static, The SSS signal is an audio signal raised
and man -made noise than has amplitude (mixed, or translated) fo the desired rodio
frequency. A 455 -kHz carrier signal upon
modulation and is inherently resistant to which is impressed a 2 -kHz audio tone in
propagation abnormalities that render a.m. a translator stage will possess two side -
completely useless. In addition, the annoy- bands, separated from the carrier frequency
by the frequency of the tone. The carrier
ing interference caused by heterodynes be- has been generated by the separate oscillator
tween a -m carriers is completely missing in and the two adjacent signals (sidebands) are
a product of the mixing process taking place
SSB service. Finally, the cost of high -power between the audio signal and the carrier. The
SSB equipment has dropped sufficiently to output spectrum pictured is of a double side-
compete with a -m equipment of the same band, with carrier. To produce an SSS signal,
it is necessary to eliminate the carrier and
or greater power capability. one sideband.
depending on the sideband selected (figure low signal level, of the order of a volt or
4). For example, a single audio tone of 2000 two, so that power dissipation is low.
Hz is to be translated into an SSB signal
in the 4S5 -kHz region. The tone is ampli- The SSB Spectrum A single audio tone in a
fied and applied to one input of a transla- perfect SSB system remains
tor stage (usually termed a balanced modu- a simple sine wave at all points in the sys-
lator) . A radio -frequency carrier is applied tem and cannot be distinguished from a
to the other input terminal of the modula- c -w signal generated by more conventional
tor. For this example, the frequency of the means. A voice signal, on the other hand,
carrier is 455 kHz. The translation process is a complex band of audio components
takes place in the balanced modulator; creat- having many frequencies of varying ampli-
ing two sidebands positioned each side of tudes. A simple and useful compromise sig-
the carrier, and separated from it by nal for testing SSB equipment is the two -
the modulation frequency. Thus, at least tone signal, composed of two equal and sep-
four signals are flowing within the modula- arate sine waves separated a very small per-
tor: the 2000 -Hz (2 -kHz) audio signal, centage in frequency. If two audio tones
the lower sideband (455 - 2 = 453 kHz),
the carrier (455 kHz), and the upper side-
are applied to the input circuit of the
SSB exciter previously discussed, the output
band (455 + 2 = 457 kHz). The carrier, of the 455 -kHz balanced modulator will
of course, has been generated by the separate contain four sideband frequencies (figure 5).
local oscillator, and the two sidebands are Assume the audio tones are 700 and 2000
a product of the mixing process taking Hz. The output frequencies of the balanced
place between the audio signal and the car- modulator will be: 453 kHz, 454.3 kHz,
rier. 455 kHz (the partially suppressed carrier),
The balanced modulator is usually de- 455.7 kHz and 457 kHz. The two lower
signed to balance (or cancel) the carrier sig- frequencies represent the lower sideband,
nal to a large degree, leaving only the two and the two higher frequencies represent the
sidebands and the audio signal to appear in upper sideband. With a properly designed
the output circuit. Some modulators also filter following the balanced modulator,
balance out the audio signal. Part of the both the frequencies in one sideband and
job of creating an SSB signal has now been the remainder of the carrier will be almost
accomplished. The high- frequency compon- completely eliminated. If the filter corn-
ents of the output signal of the balanced
modulator comprise a double-sideband, sup-
pressed- carrier signal. The remaining step to CARRIER
ti UPPER SIDEBAND
FILTER
create an SSB signal is to eliminate one of PASSBAND
the sidebands and to reduce to minor pro-

portions any vestige of carrier permitted to
pass through the balanced -modulator stage.
A sideband filter accomplishes this last step.
At the output of the filter is the desired 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 456 459
SSB signal. The passband of the filter should FREOVENC

be just wide enough to pass the intelligence Figure 5
without passing the carrier wave or the
unwanted sidebnd. For voice communica- THE SSB SIGNAL
tion, such filters usually pass a band of radio The SSB signal may be generated by passing
frequencies about 2 or 3 kHz wide. a double- sideband-with-carrier signal through
The unwanted carrier and sideband that a filter which removes one sideband and par-
tially supp he carrier. In this example,
are eliminated by the filter and balanced a two-tone audio signal (700 and 2000 Hz) Is
modulator are actually absorbed by the filter mixed with a 455 -kHz carrier signal. The out-
put signal from the mixer, or modulator,
and modulator and converted to heat. In contains four sideband frequencies: 453 kHz,
order to hold the cost and size of the filter 454.3 kHz, 455.7 kHz, and 457 kHz, in addition
to the carrier at 455 kHz. Additional carrier
to a reasonable figure, it is necessary that suppression may be obtained by the use of
the above process take place at a relatively a balanced modulator.
440--
4
C; O
PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER
A- SINGLE TONE: PsVG PEP
8- TWO TONE: 2XPAvG PEP

x 10)
W14 4
D- THREE TONE, 3XPevG PEP
E- FOUR TONE- 4 X PvG= PEP
F- SQUARE WAVE MULTITONE) = INFINITE PEP
Figure 6
SSB WAVEFORMS
The waveform of the SSB signal changes with the nature of the modulating signal, and the
envelope shape of the SSB wave may not be the same as the original audio waveshape. The
peak power in the SSB wave is a direct function of the r -f waveform, as shown here
Peak and average power in the SSB wave will be di d later in this chapter.
pletely eliminates the lower sideband and quency spacings and at one particular phase
the carrier, the output of the exciter will relationship is shown in illustration D. Illus-
be two radio frequencies at 455.7 kHz and tration E shows the SSB envelope of four
457 kHz. An observer examining these r -f equal tones having equal frequency spacings
signals could not tell if the signals were and at one particular phase relationship.
generated by two oscillators operating at the Finally, illustration F shows the SSB en-
observed frequencies, or if the two signals velope of a square wave having an infinite
were the result of two audio tones applied number of odd harmonics. A pure square
to an SSB exciter. wave requires infinite bandwidth, so in
The waveform of the SSB signal changes theory the SSB envelope requires infinite
drastically as the number of audio tones amplitude. This emphasizes the point that
is increased, as shown in figure 6. A single - the SSB envelope shape may not be the same
tone waveform is shown in illustration A as the original audio waveshape, and usually
and is simply a single, steady sine -wave r -f bears no similarity to it. This is be-
output. A signal composed of two audio cause the percentage difference between the
tones is shown in illustration B. Vie two radio frequencies is small, even though one
radio -frequency signals are separated by the audio tone may be several times the other in
difference in frequency between the audio terms of frequency. Because of nonlinearity
tones and beat together to give the SSB and phase shift in the practical SSB transmit-
envelope shown. The figure has the shape of ter, the peak amplitude of a transmitted
half -sine waves, and from one null to the square wave is not so great as predicted by
next represents one full cycle of the differ- theory through the addition of the harmonic
ence frequency. If one tone has twice the coefficients, making it impossible to faith-
amplitude of the other, the envelope shape fully reproduce a square wave. Speech pro-
is as shown in illustration C. The SSB cessing in the form of heavy audio clipping
envelope of three equal tones of equal f re- therefore is of limited value in SSB because
the SSB r -f envelopes are so different from following equations approximate the rela-
the audio envelopes. A heavily clipped wave tionships between single -tone and two -tone
approaches a square wave which will have meter readings, peak envelope power, and
the tendency to exhibit the high amplitude average power for class -B or class -AB linear
peaks shown in illustration 6F, a waveform amplifier operation:
the SSB transmitter is theoretically unable
to transmit. Single tone:
The Received In summary, if an audio spec- D -C Plate Current (Meter Reading) :
SSB Signal trum containing many differ-

ent tones (the human voice, lo
-- ivm
T
for example) is applied to the SSB exciter,
an r-f spectrum is generated that corres- Plate Input (Watts) :
ponds to the audio tones. If the audio spec-

trum encompasses the range of 300 -3000 Pin - ipm
X
T
Eh
Hz, the output of the 455 -kHz balanced

modulator will be 452 to 454.7 kHz (the Average Output Watts and PEP:
lower sideband), 455 kHz (the partially
suppressed carrier), and 455.3 to 458 kHz ipm X ep
P
(the upper sideband). An "upper -sideband" 4
type filter having a passband of 455.3 to Plate Efficiency:
458 kHz will substantially eliminate the
residual carrier and lower sideband.
N
- - X pp
Listening to the output of the SSB exciter 4XEb
on a typical a -m receiver will divulge a
series of unintelligible sounds having no ap- Two equal tones:
parent relation to the original speech im-
pressed on the SSB exciter. (A low- pitched D -C Plate Current (Meter Reading) :
voice can be read with difficulty as the syl-

labic content is preserved and is apparent) . lb - 2 X
as
iDm
Injection in the receiver of a local carrier

frequency of 455 kHz (corresponding to Plate Input (Watts) :
the suppressed carrier eliminated in the ex-
citer) will produce intelligible speech that 2 XipmXEb
is a replica of the original voice frequencies.
Pin
T2
In order to transmit simple double side-
band with carrier (amplitude modulation) Average Output Watts:
with this SSB exciter, it is only necessary
to bypass the sideband filter and unbalance P - ipm X
8
ep
the balanced modulator. The resulting a -m

signal with carrier may be intelligible on PEP Output Watts:
the ordinary receiver without the necessity
of local-oscillator injection, the latter func-
tion being fulfilled by the transmitted car-
Po - im X
4
ep
rier, if it has sufficient strength relative to

Plate Efficiency:
the sidebands.
XEb
SSB Power The SSB transmitter is usually 1
Rating rated at peak envelope input or
where,
output power. Peak envelope
power (PEP) is the root- mean -square (rms) ipm equals peak of the plate -current pulse,
power generated at the peak of the modula- ep equals peak value of plate -voltage
tion envelope. With either a two -equal -tone swing,
test signal or a single -tone test signal, the it equals 3.14,
Eh equals d -c plate voltage, quency range of the audio or speech signal

Np equals efficiency in percent. transmitted, whereas other forms of radio
transmission require from two to several
times as much spectrum space. The r -f power
Power Advantage Section97.67 of the in the transmitted SSB signal is directly pro-
of SSB over AM Amateur Radio Service portional to the power in the original audio
Rules of the FCC indi- signal and no strong carrier is transmitted.
cates that the average power input of an Except for a weak pilot carrier present in
SSB transmitter in the amateur service shall some commercial usage, there is no r -f out-
not exceed one kilowatt on modulation put when there is no audio input.
peaks, as indicated by a plate- current meter The power output rating of an SSB trans-
having a time constant of not more than mitter is given in terms of peak envelope
0.25 second. It is common practice among power (PEP). This may be defined as the
amateurs to define this as equivalent to a rms power at the crest of the modulation
peak envelope power input of two kilowatts. envelope. The peak envelope power of a con-
This is convenient, since a two -tone test ventional amplitude- modulated signal at
signal having a peak -to- average power ratio 1007, modulation is four times the carrier
of two to one can thereby be employed power. The average power input to an SSB
for tuneup and adjustment purposes with transmitter is therefore a very small fraction
the reasonable assumption that the SSB of the power input to a conventional ampli-
equipment will be properly adjusted for tude- modulated transmitter of the same
one kilowatt average power voice opera- power rating.
tion. Single sideband is well suited for long -
It is difficult to determine the ratio of range communications because of its spec-
peak to average power in the human voice, trum and power economy and because it is
as the range of intensity of speech sounds less susceptible to the effects of selective fad-
may vary as much as 40 decibels. "Aver- ing and interference than amplitude modu-
age" speech seems to have an intensity range lation. The principal advantages of SSB arise
of about 20 decibels and a ratio of instan- from the elimination of the high- energy car-
taneous peak to average power of about 15 rier and from further reduction in sideband
decibels for 99 percent of the time of speech. power permitted by the improved perform-
Speech processing (clipping or compres- ance of SSB under unfavorable propagation
sion) may alter this figure, bringing the conditions.
peak to average power ratio closer to unity. In the presence of narrow -band manmade
In any event, adjustment of the amateur interference, the narrower bandwidth of SSB
SSB transmitter to achieve a peak power reduces the probability of destructive inter-
input of twice the average power input ference. A statistical study of the distribu-
level has proven by experience to allow tion of signals on the air versus the signal
sufficient peak -power capability to cover strength shows that the probability of suc-
the majority of cases. In those situations cessful communication will be the same if
where the peak capability of the equipment the SSB power is equal to one -half the power
is exceeded at an average -power input level of one of the two a -m sidebands. Thus SSB
of one kilowatt, the average -power level can give from 0 to 9 db improvement under
must be reduced to conform with the maxi- various conditions when the total sideband
mum capability of the transmitter. In any power is equal in SSB and regular amplitude
case, the use of an oscilloscope is mandatory modulation. In general, it may be assumed
to determine the peak -power capability of that 3 db of the possible 9 db advantage will
an SSB transmitter. be realized on the average contact. In this
case, the SSB power required for equivalent
Power Advantage Single sideband is a very performance is equal to the power in one of
of SSB over AM form of voice
efficient the a -m sidebands. For example, this would
communication by radio. rate a 100 -watt SSB and a 400 -watt (car-
The amount of radio - frequency spectrum rier) a -m transmitter as having equal per-
occupied can be no greater than the fre- formance. It should be noted that in this
comparison it is assumed that the receiver carrier becomes weak and the sidebands are
bandwidth is just sufficient to accept the strong, the distortion is extremely severe and
transmitted intelligence in each case. the signal may sound like "monkey chatter."
To help evaluate other methods of com- This is because a carrier of at least twice the
parison the following points should be con- amplitude of either sideband is necessary to
sidered. In conventional amplitude modula- demodulate the signal properly. This can be
tion two sidebands are transmitted, each hav- overcome by using exalted- carrier reception
ing a peak envelope power equal to %y car- in which the carrier is amplified separately
rier power. For example, a 100 -watt a -m and then reinserted before the signal is de-
signal will have 25 -watt peak envelope modulated or detected. This is a great help,
power in each sideband, or a total of 50 but the reinserted carrier must be very close
watts. When the receiver detects this signal, to the same phase as the original carrier. For
the voltages of the two sidebands are added example, if the reinserted carrier were 90
in the detector. Thus the detector output degrees from the original source, the a -m
voltage is equivalent to that of a 100 -watt signal would be converted to phase modula-
SSB signal. This method of comparison says tion and the usual a -m detector would de-
that a 100 -watt SSB transmitter is just liver no output.
equivalent to a 100 -watt a -m transmitter. The phase of the reinserted carrier is of no
This assumption is valid only when the re- importance in SSB reception and by using a
ceiver bandwidth used for SSB is the same as strong reinserted carrier, exalted -carrier re-
that required for amplitude modulation ception is in effect realized. Selective fading
(e.g., 6 kHz), when there is no noise or in- with one sideband simply changes the ampli-
terference other than broadband noise, and tude and the frequency response of the sys-
if the a -m signal is not degraded by propaga- tem and very seldom causes the signal to be-
tion. By using half the bandwidth for SSB come unintelligible. Thus the receiving tech-
reception (e.g., 3 kHz) the noise is reduced niques used with SSB are those which inher-
3 db so the 100 -watt SSB signal becomes ently greatly minimize distortion due to se-
equivalent to a 200 -watt carrier a -m signal. lective fading.
It is also possible for the a -m signal to be de-
graded another 3 db on the average due to SSB Amplification and The single -sideband
narrow -band interference and poor propaga- Frequency Changing signal appearing at
tion conditions, giving a possible 4 to 1 the output of the
power advantage to the SSB signal. filter must be amplified to a sufficiently
It should be noted that 3 db signal -t strong level for practical use. The ampli-
noise ratio is lost when receiving only one fying stage must have low distortion and
sideband of an a -m signal. The narrower re- the output signal must be a faithful replica
ceiving bandwidth reduces the noise by 3 db of the input signal. An amplifier meeting
but the 6 db advantage of coherent detection these requirements is called a linear ampli-
is lost, leaving a net loss of 3 db. Poor propa- fier. Any deviation from amplitude linear-
gation will degrade this "one -sideband" re- ity produces signal distortion and spurious
ception of an a -m signal less than double - products which rapidly degrade the SSB
sideband reception, however. Also under signal. It is therefore impossible to pass
severe narrow -band interference conditions the SSB signal through frequency doublers
(e.g., an adjacent strong signal) the ability or class -C amplifiers without creating severe
to reject all interference on one side of the distortion, because these are inherently non-
carrier is a great advantage. linear devices. Linear amplifier stages must
be used, and if a change of frequency of the
Advantage of SSB On long- distance com- SSB signal is desired, it must be heterodyned
with Selective Fading munication circuits us- to the new frequency by means of a mixer
ing amplitude modula- stage and another local oscillator (figure 7).
tion, selective fading often causes severe dis- The resulting signal may be vfo controlled
tortion and at times makes the signal unin- by varying the frequency of the local oscil-
telligible. When one sideband is weaker than lator, but the frequency at which the SSB
the other, distortion results; but when the signal is generated is held constant. Thus,
HANDBOOK Basic SSB Transmitter 367
ation can be assembled from the preceding

information. A block diagram of such a
I
455 455 7
I
457 unit is shown in figure 8. The transmitter

9HZ
SPECTRUM consists of a speech amplifier, a carrier oscil-
SSB SIGNAL
FROM FILTER C
lator, a balanced modulator, a sideband
(55 HHZ) filter, a high- frequency mixer stage and con-
11I 111
version oscillator, and a linear amplifier
MIXER
3.500 having a high -Q tuned output circuit. In-
3.045 MHZ 3 95
MHZ MHz cidental equipment such as power supplies
LOCAL
OSCILLATOR and metering circuits are also necessary.
MHZ OUTPUT SPECTRUM
3.500
Many variations of this basic block diagram
Figure 7 are possible.
SSB FREQUENCY TRANSLATION

The Speech Amplifier typical speech-A
amplifier consists of a microphone which
The SSB signal may be translated higher in converts the voice into electrical signals in
frequency in the same manner the voice sig- the audio band, followed by one or more
nals are translated to a radio- frequency
spectrum. In this example, the 455 -kHz two- stages of voltage amplification. No appre-
tone, suppressed -carrier signal is translated ciable audio power output is required
(mixed) with a 3.5 -MHz oscillator to provide
two new sidebands, one at 3.045 MHz and making the audio system of the SSB trans-
the other at 3.95 MHz. If the 3.95 -MHz signal mitter quite different from that of the
is desired, filter circuits may be used to eli-
minate the unwanted 3.045 -MHz sideband usual a -m transmitter, which requires an
and the 3.5 -MHz carrier signal from the audio power level equal to one -half the
local oscillator. The 3.95 -MHz signal may now class C amplifier power input. Included
be shifted in frequency by changing the fre-
quency of the local oscillator. in the speech system is a speech level (audio
volume) control and additional stages to
by means of linear amplifiers and mixer allow automatic voice operation (VOX)
stages, a low frequency SSB signal may be of the equipment.
amplified and converted to any other fre- The Carrier Oscillator -A
highly stable
quency desirable for communication pur- r -f oscillator (often crystal -controlled) is
poses. used to generate the carrier signal required
in the mixing process. The choice of carrier
16 -2 A Basic Single - frequency is determined by the design of
Sideband Transmitter the sideband filter, and frequencies in the
range of 250 kHz to 20 MHz are common.
The general outline of a practical SSB Power output is low and frequency stability
transmitter suitable for high- frequency oper- is a prime necessity in this circuit.
SPEECH
AMPLIFIER
200-30001,
LOW -Z
PHASE
INVERTER -
-
200-3000 1
SHUNT-QUAD
RING
MODULATOR
453-456
--
kHz
450- 4536W,
455 -kHz
MECHANICAL
F LTER
453- 456 MU
CONVERTER
395500
R -F AMPLIFIER
WITH HIGH -C1
TUNED CIRCUIT
FOR OUTPUT ON
3953- kHz
3500 -kHz
OSCILLATOR
Figure 8
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FILTER-TYPE SSB TRANSMITTER
Voice frequencies in the range of 200 to 3000 Hz are amplified and fed to a balanced modu-
lator. Depending on the choice of frequency of the local oscillator, either the upper or lower
sideband may be passed through to the mechanical filter. The carrier has, to some extent, been
reduced by the balanced modulator. Additional carrier rejection is afforded by the filter.
The SSB signal at the output of the filter is translated directly to a higher operating frequency.
Suitable tuned circuits follow the converter stage to eliminate the conversion oscillator signal
and the image signal.
The Balanced Modulator-The balanced gion; that is, by the use of a converter stage
modulator translates the audio frequencies and conversion oscillator. The process car-
supplied by the speech amplifier into r-f side- ried out in this step may be referred to as
bands adjacent to the carrier generated by translation, mixing, heterodyning, or con-
the carrier oscillator. In addition, the bal- verting. For this example, it is desired to
anced modulator partially rejects the carrier convert a 455 -kHz SSB signal to 3.95 MHz.
which has no further use after the mixing The operation takes place in a second bal-
process is completed. A carrier- balance anced- modulator circuit. One input is the
(null) control is an integral part of this 45 5 -kHz SSB signal, and the other input
circuit and is adjusted for optimum carrier signal is from an oscillator operating on
suppression. 3.500 MHz. The output of the second mix-
The Sideband Filter -Selection of one er is a partially suppressed carrier (3.500
of the two sidebands at the output of the MHz), the lower sideband in the 3.045 -
balanced modulator is the function of the
filter. A practical filter may consist of small
MHz range (3.500 - 0.455 = 3.045
MHz), and the upper sideband in the 3.95 -
tuned LC circuits, or it may consist of MHz range (3.500 -1- 0.455 = 3.95 MHz).
mechanical resonators made of quartz or The upper sideband is the desired one, so a
steel. A representative passband for a side - simple auxiliary image filter is used to sep-
band filter is shown in figure 9. The filter arate it from the unwanted sideband and
must provide a sharp cutoff between the the partially suppressed carrier. In most
wanted sideband and the carrier, as well cases, this filter consists of the two or three
as rejection of the unwanted sideband. parallel -tuned circuits normally associated
The Converter (Mixer) Stage and Con- with the following amplifier stages tuned
version Oscillator -Itis usually necessary to 3.95 MHz.
to obtain an SSB signal at a frequency The Linear Amplifier -The output of
other than that of the sideband filter pass - the last mixer stage is usually of the order
band. Frequency conversion is accomplished of a few milliwatts and must be amplified
in the same manner the voice frequencies to a usable level in one or more linear ampli-
were translated to the filter frequency re- fier stages. For lowest distortion, the output
of the linear amplifier should be a nearly
o exact reproduction of its input signal. Any
amplitude nonlinearity in the amplifier not
+o
only will produce undesirable distortion
within the SSB signal, but will also produce
20
annoying spurious products in adjacent
30 channels. Distortion may be held to a low
z .-CARRIER
value by the proper choice of tubes, their

F
40 FREQUENCY operating voltages and driving- circuit con-
siderations, and by the use of external
Z so negative feedback, as discussed in Chapter
Twelve.
Q 60
70
fi
459 460 461 462 463 464
FREQUENCY (kHz)
16 -3 The Balanced
Modulator
Figure 9
The balanced modulator is used to mix
PASSBAND OF CRYSTAL LATTICE
the audio signal with that of the local car-
FILTER
rier to produce sideband components which
A 460.5 -kHz crystal -lattice Alter composed of may be selected for further amplification.
eight crystals has an excellent passband for Any nonlinear element will serve in a modu-
voice waveforms. Carrier rejection is about
-20 decibels, and unwanted sideband rejec- lator, producing sum and difference signals
tion is better than -35 decibels. Passband is as well as the original frequencies. This
essentially fiat up to 463 kHz, providing an
audio passband of about 300 to 2500 Hz. phenomenon is objectionable in amplifiers
HANDBOOK The Balanced Modulator 369
MC).
VOLT
Pm9
CARRI ER VOLTAGE
Fmr1
CARRIER VOLTAGE
TWO DIODE SERIES BALANCED MODULATOR TWO DIODE SHUNT MODULATOR
MOD
VOLTAG
rami
CARRIER VOLTAGE
r6-00-9
CARRIER VOLTAGE
FOUR DIODE SHUNT QUAD MODULATOR DOUBLE BALANCED RING MODULATOR
7'7
CARRIER VOLTAGE
FOUR DIODE SERIES QUAD MODULATOR
1000001
CARRIER VOLTAGE
TWO DIODE SHUNT PAIR MODULATOR
MOD.
VOLTAGE 1N67's 220
759
CARRIER VOLTAGE
TWO DIODE SERIES PAIR MODULATOR PRACTICAL RING MODULATOR
Figure 10
BALANCED-MODULATOR CIRCUITS
The balanced modulator is used to mix the audio signal with that of the carrier to produce
sideband components. It may also be used as a converter or mixer stage to convert an $SB
signal to a higher frequency. The diodes act as an r-f driven switch and may be arranged in
series or shunt mode as shown in the illustrations. A practical diode modulator incorporating
balancing circuits is shown in illustration H.
and desirable in mixers or modulators. The um-tube rectifiers may be employed and
simplest modulator is a rapid-action switch, some of the more commonly used circuits
commonly simulated by diode rectifiers for are shown in figure 10. The simplest mod-
r-f service. Either semiconductors or vacu- ulator is that of figure 10A, the two-diode
series -balanced modulator. The input trans-

former introduces the audio signal to the AUDIO MECHANICAL
balanced diode switches, which are turned 0.2VOLT FILTER
1
off and on by the carrier voltage introduced

in an in -phase relationship. If the carrier 0.1 VOLT
sse
amplitude is large with respect to the audio OUTPUT
signal, the only current flowing in the out-

put transformer is due to the action of the
audio voltage added to the carrier voltage.
A properly designed DSB output transformer
R -F CARRIER
will filter out the switching transients, the 2.5 VOLTS
audio component, and the carrier signal,
leaving only the desired double -sideband out-
put. A shunt version of this circuit is shown
in illustration B wherein the diodes form a
short -circuit path across the input trans- Figure 11
former on alternate half -cycles of carrier
SERIES- CONNECTED BALANCED
switching voltage.
MODULATOR
Four -diode balanced modulators are shown
in illustrations C through E. Circuits C Audio and carrier signals are imp d on a
diode modulator c ted in series with side -
and E are similar to the two -diode circuits band filter. loth resistive and capacitive car-
except that untapped transformers may be rier balance controls are used. The audio
used to save cost. The double -balanced ring signal is taken from a low -impedance cathode
follower and the balanced carrier signal is
circuit of illustration D is popular as both derived from a phase -splitter in cathode and
carrier and audio signal are balanced with plate circuits of a triode tube.
respect to the output, which is advantage-
ous when the output frequency is not suf- ly provide the best compromise, permitting
ficiently different from the inputs to allow a high degree of carrier balance at minimum
ready separation by inexpensive filters. The cost and maximum effectiveness. An exam-
series and shunt -quad configuration may be ple of a typical diode modulator circuit is
adapted to two diodes as shown in illustra- shown in figure 11.
tions F and G, substituting a balanced car- Vacuum -Tube Two modulated amplifiers
rier transformer for one side of the bridge. Modulators may be connected with the
In applying any of these circuits, r -f chokes
and capacitors must be employed to control
carrier inputs 180 out of
phase, and with the carrier outputs in paral-
the path of audio and carrier currents and lel. The carrier will be balanced out of the
balancing capacitors are usually added to
null the carrier as shown in the circuit of output circuit, leaving only the two side -
bands. The audio signal or the injected car-
illustration H.
rier may be applied either in push -pull or
Vacuum -tube diodes such as the 6AL5
parallel mode, some of the most commonly
may be used in these circuits, having the ad-
used circuits being shown in figure 12. The
vantage of zero reverse current as compared
use of vacuum -tube triode and pentagrid
to semiconductor devices, but suffer/from
modulators permits the use of high- imped-
contact potential at low signal levels and,
ance audio and carrier sources, but this ad-
when conducting, have a higher resistance,
vantage may often be counterbalanced by
than good semiconductor units.
the fact that carrier balance may be depen-
The double -diode circuits appear attrac-
dent on signal levels and that the balance
tive, but in general it is more difficult to bal-
drifts with time and environment.
ance a transformer at the carrier frequency
than it is to use an additional pair of diodes.
Untapped transformers are desirable, eli- 16 -4 The Sideband Filter
minating this critical component from the
circuit. Paired diodes combined with bal- The heart of a filter -type SSB exciter is
ancing potentiometers and capacitors usual- the sideband filter. Conventional coils and
HANDBOOK The Sideband Filter 371
100
PUSH-PULL 8+
AUDIO IN
BALANCED TRIODE MODULATOR

PLATE MODULATED BALANCED WITH SINGLE ENDED INPUT CIRCUITS BALANCED PENTAGRID CON-
TRIODE MODULATOR VERTER MODULATOR
91
GALS
R -F CAR R-F OUT

470 RIEB IN
RFC
JSH- PULLR -F AUDIO

CARRIER IN .001
IN
C
SERIES- BALANCED DIODE MODULATOR OE R'NG -DIODE MODULATOR USING 6AL5 TUBE
USING 6AL5 TUBE
Figure 12
THE BALANCED MODULATOR
Two modulated amplifiers or mixers may be connected with the outputs out of phase
with
the carrier input signal. The carrier will be balanced out of the output circuit, leaving only
the two sidebands. Illustrations A and B show typical triode circuits. Illustration C shows
pentagrid converters using 68E6 or 6BA7 tubes. Circuits D and E may also use semiconductor
diodes (such as the 1N34) in place of the 6AL5.
capacitors may be used to construct a filter for SSB signals. Practical filters for speech
based on standard wave -filter techniques. transmission, therefore, have a passband from
Such filters are restricted to relatively low about 300 to 2500 Hz or so, rejecting sig-
frequencies because of the rapid cutoff re- nals in the unwanted passband and those
quired between the filter passband and ad- above 3000 Hz by over 40 decibels. A ten -
jacent stopbands. The Q of the filter induc- pole LC SSB filter and the characteristic
tors must be relatively high when compared response is shown in figure 13.
with the reciprocal of the fractional band-
width. If a bandwidth of 3 kHz is needed
at a carrier frequency of 50 kHz, for ex- Crystal Filters
Practical and inexpensive SSB
ample, the bandwidth expressed in terms of filters may be designed around
the carrier frequency is 3/50, or 6 percent. quartz crystal resonators at center frequen-
This is expressed in terms of fractional cies well into the h -f range. Home -made
bandwidth as 1/16. For satisfactory opera- lattice -type filters of the type shown in
tion, the Q of the filter inductances should figure 14 may be made of surplus low -fre-
be ten times the reciprocal of this, or 160. quency crystals. Experimental designs usual-
For voice communication purposes, the ly synthesize a selectivity curve by group-
lower frequency response of the sideband ing sharp notches at the sides of the pass -
filter is usually limited to about 300 Hz. band. Where the width of the passband is
Frequencies above 2500 Hz or so contribute greater than twice the spacing of the series
little to speech intelligence, moreover, and and parallel resonances of the crystal, special
their elimination permits closer grouping circuit techniques must be used.
f-r--
765MM
1MPUr
677PF
.0631
000
1420 PF
a.11
3.66MM
.0141
666PF
6.55144
000 -1
7.61
660
PAM
236
PF 442
11.7 MM
(--/-000`-1(
046
PF
112 MM
Figure 13
TEN -POLE BUTTERWORTH -TYPE SSB FILTER
The carrier frequency is 70 kHz and filter impedance is 600 ohms. Each series -resonant and
parallel-resonant circuit is tuned to the carrier frequency. Using high -Q inductors, the filter
passband is about 4 kHz wide at a response of -40 decibels. Nose of filter is about 2500 Hz
wide. Low -frequency SSE filters of this type require two or more conversion stages to provide
h -f SSE signal without troublesome images. High- frequency quartz -crystal filters, on the other
hand, make possible SSB exciters capable of single ion operation up to SO MHz or so.
Mechanical Filters Filters using mechanical

resonators have been
16 -5 The Phasing Type
studied by a number of companies and are SSB Exciter
offered commercially by the Collins Radio
Co. They are available in a variety of band- An SSB signal may be generated by the
widths at center frequencies of 250 and 455 phasing of two a -m signals in such a way
kHz. The 250 -kHz series is specifically in- that one sideband is enhanced, and the other
tended for sideband selection. The selectivity sideband and carrier are cancelled or bal-
attained by these filters is intermediate be- anced out. This technique is known as the
tween good LC filters at low center fre- phasing system and exchanges the problems
quencies and engineered quartz -crystal filt- of filter design for those of accurately con-
ers. A passband of two 250 -kHz filters is trolled phase shifts. In general, the phasing
shown in figure 15. In application of the transmitter is more economical in cost than
mechanical filters some special precautions is the filter -type transmitter and may be
are necessary. The driving and pickup coils less complex. It requires adjustment of vari-
should be carefully resonated to the opera- ous audio and r -f balancing controls for
ting frequency. If circuit capacitances are maximum suppression of the unwanted side -
unknown, trimmer capacitors should be used band and carrier that is otherwise accom-
across the coils. Maladjustment of these plished by bandpass -filter action in the fil-
tuned coils will increase insertion loss and ter -type equipment. The phasing system has
the peak -to- valley ratio. On high -impedance the advantage that all electrical circuits
filters (ten- to twenty- thousand ohms) sig- which give rise to the SSB signal can oper-
nals greater than 2 volts at the input should ate in a practical transmitter at the nominal
be avoided. Direct current should be blocked output frequency of the transmitter. Thus,
out of the end coils. While the filters are if an SSB signal is desired at 50.1 MHz, it
rated for S ma of coil current, they are not is not necessary to go through several fre-
rated for d -c plate voltage. quency conversions in order to obtain an
Y4
T1 T3
OUT OUT
Ys YI -Y4= 453.7 MHZ Y.

Y5 -Y6 = 455.6 MHZ
Figure 14
CRYSTAL -LATTICE FILTER
This crystal lattice filter is designed for a carrier freq y of 453.7 kHz. Surplus crystals
are used. Y, -Y, are marked Channel 45, 24.5 MHz. 11,-11., are marked Channel 46, 24.6 MHz.
Transformers T, and T, are standard 455 -kHz units. Transformer T7 is a standard unit with one
winding removed. A bifilar primary winding of 25 turns is wound in place of the removed
winding. One 25 -turn winding is applied, and a second 25 -turn winding placed over it, with
the end of the first winding connected to the beginning of the second. The common connection
is the center tap. The transformers are aligned at the center of the passband (455.5 kHz).
When properly aligned, carrier rejection is better than -25 decibels and the nominal filter
bandwidth is about 2500 Hz.
HANDBOOK The Phasing Type Exciter 373
( amplified, restricted in bandwidth by a

o
speech filter and then split into two branches
UPPER SI 00BAND
(01 and 02) by the audio phase network.
LOWER SIDEBARD
10
The resulting signals are applied indepen-
dently to two balanced modulators. The
20
CANNIER
audio networks have the property of holding
FREQUENCY a 90 phase difference between their respec-
tive output signals within the restricted
range of audio frequencies passed by the
40
i speech filter and applied to their input
50
I
terminals. In addition, the amplitude re-
I
sponse of the networks remains essentially
90 I constant over this frequency range.
246 247 246 249 250 251 252 253 254 255
FREQUENCY(kHz)
Each balanced modulator is driven by a
fixed -frequency carrier oscillator whose out-
Figure 15
put is also split into two branches (01 and
PASSBAND OF LOWER- AND UPPER - 02) by a 90 r -f phase shift network oper-
SIDEBAND MECHANICAL FILTER ating at the carrier frequency. The alge-
braic sum of the output signals of the two
SSB signal at the desired output frequency. balanced modulators appears at the output
The balanced modulator in the phasing of a combining circuit and is the desired
transmitter is merely fed with a 50.1 MHz single -sideband, suppressed- carrier signal.
carrier and with the audio signal from a bal- The degree of sideband suppression is depen-
anced phase splitter. Practical considerations, dent on the control of audio phase shift and
however, make the construction of a 6- amplitude balance through the system; a
meter SSB phasing-type exciter a challenge phase error of two degrees, for example, will
to the home constructor because of the degrade the sideband attenuation by over
closely controlled r -f phase shifts that must 10 decibels.
be achieved at that frequency. By way of illustration, assume that the
carrier oscillator frequency is 3.8 MHz and
A Practical A simplified block diagram that a single modulating tone of 2000 Hz
Phasing Exciter phasing
illustrating the is used. The output from balanced modula-
generation
method of SSB tor #1 is represented by the spectrum plot
is shown in figure 16. An audio signal is of figure 17A, in which the carrier frequency
BALANCED
MODULATOR
N 1
200i3000 AUDIO
PHASE - TO POWER AMPLIFIER STAGES
SPEECH SPEECH
AMPLIFIER FILTER SPLITTING OR DIRECTLY TO ANTENNA SYSTEM
NETWORKS BALANCED
Y2 MODULATOF
N -2
PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Or AND 02 .90. IQI ez
PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN R, ANO .2 = 90.
RADIO -FRED
PHASE -
SPLITTING
NETWORK
RADIO FRED.
SIGNAL AT
CARRIER FREO-
Figure 16
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE "PHASING" METHOD
Tho phasing method of obtaining a single-sideband signal is simpler than the Alter system in
regard to the number of tubes and circuits required. The system is also less expensive in
regard to the comp is required, but is more critical in regard to adjustments for the
transmission of a pure single-sideband signal.
LSD uSB LSD i use

anced modulator from those of the other
will double the strength of the lower -side-
band component while cancelling the upper -
sideband component. In either case, an SSB
3.798 3.600
MHZ
3.802 3.796 3.800 3.802 signal is created. A double -pole, double -
MHZ
throw reversing switch in two of the four
U313
audio leads to the balanced modulators is
all that is required to switch from one side -
LSD
band to the other.
The phase -shift method works not so
much because the system passes a certain
3.798 3.600 3.602 band of frequencies but because it is able
MHZ
to cancel a closely adjacent band of fre-
O quencies. The result, however, is equivalent
Figure 17 to that obtained by the use of bandpass fil-
ters.
THE PHASING -TYPE SSB SIGNAL
Two signals having identical spectrum plots Filter versus The phasing system of SSB
may be combined to produce an SSB signal. Phasing? generation does not necessarily
The signals of illustrations A and 8, however,
have simult s 90- degree phase shifts ap-
produce a better or worse sig-
plied to the audio and carrier signals and nal than does the filter -type of SSB gener-
when properly combined produce an SSB ator. Suppression of the unwanted sideband
signal whose lower sidebands are out of
phase and whose upper sidebands are in in the phasing generator depends on the
phase. By use of twin balanced modulators, characteristic of the audio phase -shift net-
the carrier may be suppressed and proper
sideband addition and subtraction achieved works and on matching the differential phase
(illustration C). shift these networks provide to the r -f phase
shift at carrier frequency. These adjust-
is represented by the vertical dashed line ments must be accomplished by the equip-
at 3.8 MHz with the symmetrical sidebands ment operator. On the other hand, in this
at 3.798 MHz and 3.802 MHz. The carrier filter -type SSB generator, unwanted side -
frequency is balanced within the modulator band suppression depends on the built -in
and so does not appear in its output. Simi- characteristics of the sideband filter and on
larly, the output of balanced modulator #2 the placement of the carrier relative to the
produces a signal which has an identical filter passband. How well the job is done
spectrum plot, as shown in figure 17B. in each case is primarily a matter of design
While the spectrum plots appear identical, and cost-not one of basic superiority of
they do not show everything about the out- one method over the other. Reduced cost
put signals of the two modulators as addi- of high- frequency crystal filters has dropped
tion of two identical quantities yields a re- the price of the filter equipment to that of
sult which is simply twice as great as either the previously less- expensive phasing system
quantity. However, the result of the two and most of today's commercial and amateur
simultaneous 90 phase shifts applied to the SSB gear makes use of the filter technique
audio and carrier signals impressed on the of sideband generation. Even so, for equiv-
modulators produces sideband signals in . alent quality of components and design,
their respective outputs that are in phase it would be hard for an observer to tell
for the identical upper-sideband frequency whether a given SSB signal was generated
of 3.802 MHz but 180 out of phase for by the phasing method or by the filter
the lower -sideband frequency of 3.798 MHz method.
as shown in figure 17C. Addition of the
output signals of the two balanced modula- Balanced Illustrated in figure 18 are
tors thus doubles the strength of the upper - Modulator Circuits the basic balanced modu-
sideband component while balancing out the lator circuits which give
lower -sideband component. Conversely, sub- good results with a radio-frequency car-
traction of the output signals of one bal- rier and an audio modulating signal. Note
HANDBOOK The Phasing Type Exciter 375
Pu5s -PULL
AUDIO IN
R F.
0 e0.90.270
OuT
FOUR -PHASE A F
Puses -PULL
AUDIO IN
Figure 18
SHOWING TWO COMMON TYPES

OF BALANCED MODULATORS R.
OUT
Notice that a balanced modulator changes

the circuit condition from single ended to
push -pull, or vice versa. Choice of circuit de-
pends on external circuit conditions since
both the A and B arrangements can give
satisfactory generation of a double -sideband
suppressed -carrier signal.
o leo 90 270
\ /
that one push -pull and one single -ended tank FOUR-PHASE A F
circuit is required, but that the push -pull

Figure 19
circuit may be placed either in the plate or
the grid circuit. Also, the audio modulating TWO CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE -
voltage always is fed into the stage in push - SIDEBAND GENERATION BY THE
pull, and the tubes normally are operated PHASING METHOD.
class A.
When combining two balanced modulators The circuit of A offers the advantages of
simplicity in the single -ended input circuits
to make up a double balanced modulator as plus a push -pull output circuit. Circuit B re-
used in the generation of an SSB signal by quires double -ended input circuits but allows
all the plates to be connected in parallel for
the phasing system, only one plate circuit is the output circuit.
required for the two balanced modulators.
However, separate grid circuits are required output circuit tuned to the carrier fre-
since the grid circuits of the two balanced quency.
modulators operate at an r -f phase difference
of 90 degrees. Note that the circuit of figure
19A is derived from the balanced modulator Radio- Frequency A single -sideband genera -
of figure 18A, and similarly figure 19B Phasing tor of the phasing type re-
is derived from figure 18B. quires that the two bal-
Another circuit that gives excellent per - anced modulators be fed with r -f signals
formance, and is very easy to adjust is shown having a 90- degree phase difference. This r -f
in figure 20. The audio signal and r -f source phase difference may be obtained through the
are applied in series to two diodes serving use of two loosely coupled resonant circuits,
as balanced modulators having a push -pull such as illustrated in figure 19A and 19B.
The r -f signal is coupled directly or induc-

tively to one of the tuned circuits, and the
coupling between the two circuits is varied
until, at resonance of both circuits, the r-f
voltages developed across each circuit have
the same amplitude and a 90- degree phase
difference.
The 90- degree r -f phase difference also
may be obtained through the use of a low -Q
phase- shifting network, such as illustrated in
figure 21; or it may be obtained through the
.e
use of a lumped- constant quarter -wave line.
The low -Q phase- shifting system has proved Figure 21
quite practical for use in single -sideband
systems, particularly on the lower frequen- LOW -Q R -F PHASE -SHIFT NETWORK
cies. In such an arrangement the two resist- The r -f phase -shift system illustrated above
ances (R) have the same value, usually in is c lent in a ease where it is desired to
the range between 100 and a few thousand make small changes in the operating fre-
quency of the system without the ity
ohms. Capacitor C, in shunt with the input of being precise in the adjustment of two
capacitances of the tubes and circuit capaci- coupled circuits as used for r -f phase shift in
the circuit of figure 19.
tances, has a reactance at the operating fre-
quency equal to the value of resistor R. Also,
inductor L has a net inductive reactance equal and opposite 45- degree phase shifts
eaual in value at the operating frequency to are provided by the RL and RC circuits,
resistance R. thus providing a 90- degree phase difference
The inductance chosen for use at L must between the excitation voltages applied to
take into account the cancelling effect of the the two balanced modulators.
input capacitance of the tubes and the cir-
cuit capacitance; hence the inductance Audio -Frequency The audio- frequency phase -
should be variable and should have a lower Phasing shifting networks used in
value of inductance than that value of in- generating a single-sideband
ductance which would have the same react- signal by the phasing method usually are
ance as resistor R. Inductor L may be con- based on those described by Dome in an ar-
sidered as being made up of two values of in- ticle in the December, 1946, Electronics. A
ductance in parallel: (1) a value of induct- relatively simple network for accomplishing
ance which will resonate at the operating the 90- degree phase shift over the range
frequency with the circuit and tube capaci- from 160 to 3500 Hz is illustrated in figure
tances, and (2) the value of inductance 22. The values of resistance and capacitance
which is equal in reactance to resistance R. must be carefully checked to ensure mini-
In a network such as shown in figure 21, mum deviation from a 90- degree phase shift
over the 200- to 3000 -Hz range.
Another version of the Dome network is
shown in figure 23. This network employs
three 12AU7 tubes and provides balanced
output for the two balanced modulators. As
with the previous network, values of the
resistances within the network must be held
to very close tolerances. It is necessary to
restrict the speech range to 300 to 3000 Hz
with this network. Audio frequencies out-
side this range will not have the necessary
SERIES DIODE MODULATOR CIRCUIT phase -shift at the output of the network and
R -f and a -f sources
are applied in series to will show up as spurious emissions on the
balanced modulator. sideband signal, and also in the region of the
HANDBOOK SSB Frequency Conversion 377
+ I SO V.
TO BA_.
3900 0.5 pMOD R I
024220,,
TO BAL.
100K
1%
1-
MOD. 1 PUSH -PULL 215
AUDIO AUDIO
SIGNAL INPUT TO BAL.
3900 133.3K
176
OD.e2
_
1111
3900 0.5 2430 607
TO BAL.
MOD 2
Figure 24
00535 2011
PASSIVE AUDIO -PHASE -SHIFT
900
NETWORK, USEFUL OVER RANGE
+ 150 V.
OF 300 TO 3000 Hz.
Figure 22
DOME AUDIO -PHASE-SHIFT NETWORK 16 -6 Single -Sideband

This circuit arrangement is c tent for ob- Frequency Conversion
taining the audio phase shift when it is
desired to use a minimum of circuit compo-
nents and tube elements. The output signal from the low -level SSB
generator is usually at a fixed frequency
and must be converted, or translated, to the
rejected sideband. A low -pass 3500 -Hz desired operating frequency. This conversion
speech filter, such as the Stancor Electron- is accomplished by a heterodyne process in-
ics Co. LPF -2 should be used ahead of this volving converter or mixer stages and suit-
phase -shift network. able oscillators. Frequency multipliers can-
A passive audio phase -shift network that not be used with the SSB signal since this
employs no tubes is shown in figure 24. This process would alter the frequency relation-
network has the same type of operating re- ships present in the original audio signal.
strictions as those described above. Addi- The heterodyne process mixes two sig-
tional information concerning phase -shift nals in a manner to produce new signal
networks will be found in The Single Side - components equal in frequency to the sum
band Digest published by the American and difference of the original frequencies.
Radio Relay League. A comprehensive side - One of the two products is useful and is
hand review is contained in the December, passed by the tuned circuits of the equip-
1956 issue of Proceedings of the I.E.E.E. ment which rejects the undesired products
as well as the original signals. Mixing im-
poses many problems in keeping the output
12AU7 12AU7 I2AU7
+105 V. REGULATED signal free from spurious products created
in the mixer. Selection of mixing frequen-
cies and signal levels is required to aid in
holding the level of unwanted products
within reasonable limits. A discussion of
TO BAL
143130 frequency -conversion problems will follow
TO BAL later in this chapter.
14013112
Mixer Stages One circuit which can be used

for this purpose employs a re-
ceiving -type mixer tube, such as the 6BE6.
The output signal from the SSB generator is
fed into the #1 grid and the conversion fre-
Figure 23 quency into the #3 grid. This is the reverse
A VERSION OF THE DOME of the usual grid connections, but it offers
AUDIO -PHASE -SHIFT about 10 db improvement in distortion. The
NETWORK plate circuit is tuned to select the desired
6BE6 pear in the output. In practice, when a con-

2000-kHz siderable frequency range must be tuned by
CONVERSION
PREOUENCV TuNE TO SELECT
2000 250.2250YH1
the balanced modulator and it is not practi-
(z V ) OR
2000 -250175011H' cal to trim the push -pull circuits and the
tubes into exact amplitude and phase bal-
250-kHz SOB
SIGNAL
ance, about 20 db of injection -frequency
(o.2s v ) cancellation is all that can be depended on.
Figure 25
With suitable trimming adjustments the can-
cellation can be made as high as 40 db, how-
PENTAGRID MIXER CIRCUIT FOR ever, in fixed -frequency circuits.
SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
The Twin-Triode Mixer The mixer circuit
output frequency product. Actually, the shown in figure 26
output of the mixer tube contains all har- has about 10 db lower distortion than the
monics of the two input signals and all pos- conventional 6BE6 converter tube. It has a
sible combinations of the sum and difference lower voltage gain of about unity and a
frequencies of all the harmonics. In order to lower output impedance which loads the first
avoid distortion of the SSB signal, it is fed to tuned circuit and reduces its selectivity. In
the mixer at a low level, such as 0.1 to 0.2 some applications the lower gain is of no
volts. The conversion frequency is fed in at consequence but the lower distortion level is
a level about 20 db higher, or about 2 volts. important enough to warrant its use in high
By this means, harmonics of the incoming performance equipment. The signal- to -dis-
SSB signal generated in the mixer tube will tortion ratio of this mixer is of the order of
be very low. Usually the desired output fre- 70 db compared to approximately 60 db for
quency is either the sum or the difference of a 6BE6 mixer when the level of each of two
the SSB generator carrier frequency and the tone signals is 0.5 volt. 'With stronger sig-
conversion frequency. For example, using an nals, the 6BE6 distortion increases very
SSB generator carrier frequency of 250 kHz rapidly, whereas the 12AU7 distortion is
and a conversion injection frequency of comparatively much better.
2000 kHz as shown in figure 25, the output In practical equipment where the injection
may be tuned to select either 2250 or 1750 frequency is variable and trimming adjust-
kHz. ments and tube selection cannot be used, it
Not only is it necessary to select the de- may be easier and more economical to obtain
sired mixing product in the mixer output this extra 20 db of attenuation by using an
but also the undesired products must be extra tuned circuit in the output than by
highly attenuated to avoid having spurious using a balanced modulator circuit. Two
output signals from the transmitter. In gen- balanced modulator circuits of interest are
eral, all spurious signals that appear within shown in figure 27, providing a minimum of
the assigned frequency channel should be at 20 db of carrier attenuation.
least 60 db below the desired signal, and
those appearing outside of the assigned fre-
quency channel at least 80 db below the
signal level. 100
When mixing 250 kHz with 2000 kHz SSB OUTPUT
as in the above example, the desired product

is the 2250 -kHz signal, but the 2000 -kHz 0.2 VOLT 2.0 VOLT
SIGNALINPUT CONVERSION
injection frequency will appear in the output SIGNAL
about 20 db stronger than the desired signal.

To reduce it to a level 80 db below the de-
sired signal means that it must be attenuated
100 db.
Figure 26
The principal advantage of using bal-
anced- modulator mixer stages is that the in- TWIN-TRIODE MIXER CIRCUIT FOR
jection frequency theoretically does not ap- SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
6AS6's
BALANCE
2N1225
0.1 sse
>--I OUTPUT
0.01 voaT
Ste SIG.
INPUT
120
toN 1.0
I
CARRIER 120 V +17 V. 0. 1 V. CARRIER IN

IN AT SUA.
Figure 27
BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUITS FOR SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
A Is a balanced modulator using 6AS6 tubes with screen elements cross -connected for max-
imum carrier suppression. Bias potentiometer allows adjustment for variation In tube param-
eters. B is a transistor balanced modulator. Balance is achieved by varying the base bias
on the 2N1255 transistors.
Selective Tuned Circuits The selectivity re- normally realized in small permeability -
quirements of the tuned coils. The number of tuned circuits
tuned circuits following a mixer stage often with a O of 50 required for providing 100
become quite severe. For example, using an db of attenuation at 4000 kHz while pass-
input signal at 250 kHz and a conversion in- ing 4250 kHz may be found as follows:
jection frequency of 4000 kHz the desired
output may be 4250 kHz. Passing the 4250 -
Of is 4250 -
4000 = 250 kHz
kHz signal and the associated sidebands where,
without attenuation and realizing 100 db of f,. is the resonant frequency (4250 kHz),
attenuation at 4000 kHz (which is only 250
kHz away) is a practical example. Adding
the requirement that this selective circuit
must tune from 2250 to 4250 kHz further
and,
ffr
= 250
4250
- 0.059
complicates the basic requirement. The best
solution is to cascade a number of tuned cir- The point on the chart where .059 inter-
cuits. Since a large number of such circuits sects 100 db is between the curves for 6 and
7 tuned circuits, so 7 tuned circuits are re-
may be required, the most practical solution
is to use permeability tuning, with the cir-
quired.
cuits tracked together. An example of such Another point which must be considered
in practice is the tuning and tracking error
circuitry is found in the Collins 32S side -
band transmitter. of the circuits. For example, if the circuits
were actually tuned to 4220 kHz instead of
If an amplifier tube is placed between each
tuned circuit, the over -all response will be
the sum of one stage multipled by the num- 4250 kHz, the ,f
f,.
would be
220
or
ber of stages (assuming identical tuned cir-
cuits). Figure 28 is a chart which may be 0.0522. Checking the curves shows that 7
used to determine the number of tuned cir- circuits would just barely provide 100 db of
cuits required for a certain degree of at- attenuation. This illustrates the need for
tenuation at some nearby frequency. The O very accurate tuning and tracking in cir-
of the circuits is assumed to be 50, which is cuits having high attenuation properties.
....................................... oo
.1111.111111.11.111111111.11111...1111111M1111.11.1111....
1111111111111.11111111111.1111111..1.r..111111.11.11111111
111111111111111111111 1 11111111111111111111111111/111111111111111111111
11IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllulu11111111111111illllrilllllllllllll111111111
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111MI 11111111111111111111
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 5 111111111111111111111111
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
l'
......I ......................................... o ,1
...............1.I......1..I1.I...'/.........................P..
111111111111111111111111111111r.111111111111111111111I'.11
1111III111111111IIIIIIII1111111IIIIIII%IIIIIIIIII11111111111II111/111
111111111111111111111111111111111111Pi1111111111111111111111I111511111
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIi11111111111111111111111111111111
11111111111111111111111111111IIIID5IIII111111111111IIIIIIII:111111111
1111111111111111111111111IIIII IIIr1111111111111111111I11:I 1111111111
.........................
111.................
,i
I..........I........'i..........I.......A
'/..............Pi....1..1...I1.1...:.
11111111111111111111111/1111111.111111'd11111111111111.H1
.I
1111111111111IIIIIIIIIIIIIII/IIIIIIIIIIII1111/LIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIR11111
11111111111111111111111111P/111111111111111151111111111111111M111111
11111111111111111111111111III IIIIIIIIII IICIIIIIII IIIIIIIIi I1111IIIII
IIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIII511111111111111;III11111111111llIl IIIIIIIIII
II,(IIIII IIIIII.,'11111111111.!IIIIIII III l
111111111111111111111101111111011111111111011111111111
................................. .......s.......i_.
.............1....111.1Vd 111...11L...111M.1111i111
................rd ........11...r........!: ...!5...r5i.....
IIIIII11111111111/IIIIIIIPiI111II/i11IIIIr;i11I!II1111!5i1111I!5a
11111111111111111'1111111.111111t.11111M11111!.I.' IR/lll!E1M!.
1111111111111111/lll lll,lllll:11111.:lll l!:IIlI1.I 1!::l1l::llll
1111111111 11111'IIIII 1IIII1:III!iiI!ii II!:i!:li i!piill IIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIBIIIIII,:IiIli!ii;;s'sss';iiIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
'I''1;;'s'''''.
1I,,1,,;;,. '
o
,I,,,,,,,:.Ii
0 o o o o
IIIII
oD oti oco o o
o
^ N M v1" ( '
94
Figure 28
RESPONSE OF "N" NUMBER OF TUNED CIRCUITS,

ASSUMING EACH CIRCUIT Q IS 50
Coupled Tuned When as many as 7 tuned

Circuits circuits are required for pro-
per attenuation, it is not - SIGNALDISTORTION
TO
necessary to have the gain that 6 isolating (S /D) RATION

amplifier tubes would provide. Several vac-
uum tubes can be eliminated by using two or
three coupled circuits between the amplifiers.
With a coefficient of coupling between cir- I i
l
I
cuits 0.5 of critical coupling, the over -all S'44 4P'3q 3P Zg 2P P Zq-P 34-2P 44-3 3q41.
response is very nearly the same as isolated

circuits. The gain through a pair of circuits
having 0.5 coupling is only eight- tenths that
of two critically coupled circuits, however.
If critical coupling is used between two
tuned circuits, the nose of the response curve
is broadened and about 6 db is lost on the
skirts of each pair of critically coupled cir-
cuits. In some cases it may be necessary to
broaden the nose of the response curve to
;void adversely affecting the frequency re-
sponse of the desired passband. Another
tuned circuit may be required to make up
for the loss of attenuation on the skirts of
critically coupled circuits. In some cases it
may be necessary to broaden the nose of the
response curve to avoid adversely affecting
the frequency response of the desired pass -
band. Another tuned circuit may be required
to make up for the loss of attenuation on the
critically coupled circuits.
Frequency- Conversion The example in the
Problems previous section shows
the difficult selectivity
problem encountered when strong undesired
signals appear near the desired frequency. A
high- frequency SSB transmitter may be re-
quired to operate at any carrier frequency
in the range of 1.7 to 30 MHz. The prob- Figure 29
lem is to find a practical and economical A shows SSB distortion products pictured up to
means of heterodyning the generated SSB ninth order. shows SS! distortion products as
B
seen on a panoramic analyzer. Third -order
frequency to any carrier frequency in this products are 19 decibels below two -tone test
range. There are many modulation products signal and fifth-order products are 32 decibels
below the test signal. C illustrates that third -
in the output of the mixer and a frequency order products are about 31 decibels below
scheme must be found that will not have un- test signal and higher -order products are bet-
desired output of appreciable amplitude at ter than 40 decibels down from test signal.
or near the desired signal. When tuning
across a frequency range some products may lar order of the product. In general, most
"cross over" the desired frequency. These products of the 7th order and higher will be
undesired crossover frequencies should be at at least 60 db down. Thus any crossover fre-
least 60 db below the desired signal to meet quency lower than the 7th order must be
modern standards. The amplitude of the un- avoided since there is no way of attenuating
desired products depends on the particular them if they appear within the desired pass -
characteristics of the mixer and the particu- band. The book Single Sideband Principles
R -F LINEAR AMPLIFIER SERVICE FOR SSB AND CW

GRID DRIVEN, CLASS AB] MODE
PLATE SCREEN GRID ZEROSIG. MAX.SIG MAX SIG. PL LOAD PLATE USEFUL !AVERAGE 3d ORDER
TUBE FIL BASE VOLTAGE VOLTAGEVOLTAGE PLATE PLATE SCREEN IMPEDWN INPUT POWER PLATE IMD DD
Eb Ecz Ec1 CUR.IboCUR.Ib CUR.Ic2 RP -11 PWR. W. OUT. Po DISSIRPo
600 200 -46 25 103 9 3570 e1 41 16 -23
6146 6.3 750 200 -51 25 116 7 2625 86 55 26 -22
7CK 35 -24
1.2 600 290 -69 30 125 10 3620 100 59
6146B 600 290 -77 23 160 13 2300 145 1 5 -19
6_3 600 300 -34 1e 70 6 300 2 26 12

1
-23
607 019 SAW 750 300 -35 15 70 I 5200 53 36 -23
660 340 -39 44 140 20 3010 95 67 26 -32

6550 -3

176
7s
600 290 -33 45 127 15 3920 102 70 29 -30
500 150 -46 46 170 17 1600 45 54 27 -26

500 150 -46 46 162 13 1625 91 56 29 -26
6DQ5 '3
-5
2
11.1C
700 ISO -49 35 162 11 2210 127 76 41 -23
600 160 -67 30 250 13 1710 200 121 70 -19
600 200 -41 23 192 14 1900 115 60 30 -16

6G B5 6. 9914
6GE5 -
6.3
1 2
126.1
600
600
500
200
250
140
-45
-61
-46
30
25
40
132
172
133
1S
18
5
2500
2730
1900
79
136
67
Si
90
35
23
39
29
-22
-19
-27
6H F5 12F6 46 -21
3
.225
2 800 125 -45 30 197 7 2170 156
4- 100
30 24 -26
500 125 -44 40 110 4 2300 55
'3 90L
6JE6A -s
z 750 17$ -63 27 216 15 1250 1e3 102 51 -20
6y3 790 173 -80 25 215 9 1650 161 102 9 -16

6L06 2.5 600 200 -69 25 242 13 1850 197 124 60 -16
Figure 30
SWEEP TUBE DATA FOR CLASS AB, LINEAR AMPLIFIER SERVICE
and Circuits by Pappenfus, McGraw Hill and analysis, a two -tone test signal (two
Book Co., Inc., N. Y., covers the subject of equal -amplitude tones) is used as the SSB
spurious products and incorporates a "mix source. Since the SSB radio- frequency ampli-
selector" chart that is useful in determining fiers use tank circuits, all distortion products
spurious products for various different mix- are filtered out except those which lie close
ing schemes. to the desired frequencies. These are all odd -
In general, for most applications when the order products; third order, fifth order, etc.
intelligence -bearing frequency is lower than The third -order products are 2p and -q
the conversion frequency, it is desirable that 2q -p where p and q represent the two SSB
the ratio of the two frequencies be between r -f tone frequencies. The fifth order products
S to 1 and 10 to 1. This a compromise -
are 3p 2q and 3q- 2p. These and some
between avoiding low -order harmonics of higher order products are shown in figure 29
this signal input appearing in the output, A, B, and C. It should be noted that the fre-
and minimizing the selectivity requirements
of the circuits following the mixer stage.
POWER
FROM SSB
GENERATOR
GA N CONTROL
PREAMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER -4T0 ANT.
STAGE
16 -7 Distortion Products FROM P -A

R -F
PLATE CIRCUIT
Due to Nonlinearity of
R -F Amplifiers CONTROL BIAS R F
RECTIFIER
When the SSB envelope of a voice or multi -
tone signal is distorted, a great many new DELAY BIAS VOLTAGE
FROM POWER SUPPLY
frequencies are generated. These represent all
Figure 31
of the possible combinations of the sum and
difference frequencies of all harmonics of the BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUTOMATIC
original frequencies. For purposes of test LOAD CONTROL (A.L.C.) SYSTEM
HANDBOOK ALC and Speech Compression 383
quency spacings are always equal to the dif- convenience, the ratio between one of the
ference frequency of the two original tones. test signals and one of the intermodulation
Thus when an SSB amplifier is badly over- products is read as a power ratio expressed
loaded, these spurious frequencies can extend in decibels below the test signal level.
far outside the original channel width and Measurements made on a number of power
cause an unintelligible "splatter" type of in- tubes have shown typical intermodulation
terference in adjacent channels. This is usu- distortion levels in the range of -20 to
ally of far more importance than the distor- -40 decibels below one tone of a two-tone
tion of the original tones with regard to test signal.
intelligibility or fidelity. To avoid interfer- The present state of the art in commercial
ence in another channel, these distortion and military SSB equipment calls for third -
products should be down at least 30 db below order intermodulation products better than
the adjacent channel signal. Using a two-
tone test, the distortion is given as the ratio
-
-40 to 60 decibels below one tone of a
two -tone test signal. Amateur requirements
of the amplitude of one test tone to the are less strict, running as low as - 20 deci-
amplitude of a third -order product. This is bels, and may be justified on an economic
called the signal-to- distortion ratio (S /D) basis since signal distortion, at least to the
and is usually given in decibels. The use of listener, is a highly subjective thing. To
feedback r -f amplifiers make S/D ratios of date, the use of inexpensive TV -type sweep
greater than 40 db possible and practical. tubes as linear amplifiers in amateur SSB
gear has been acceptable, regardless of the
Vacuum -Tube Distortion products caused by rather high level of distortion inherent in
Nonlinearity amplifier departure from a these tube types.
linear condition are termed Listed in the chart of figure 30 are inter-
intermodulation products and the distortion mittent voice operation ratings for various
is termed intermodulation distortion. This sweep tubes used for linear operation in
distortion can be caused by nonlinearity of the amateur service. While the plate dissipa-
amplifier gain or phase shift with respect to tion of these tubes is of the order of 30
input level, and only appears when a multi - watts or so, the intermittent nature of ama-
tone signal is used to drive the linear ampli- teur transmission and the high ratio of peak
fier. This is the case for a voice signal which to average power in the human voice allow
is composed of many tones, and intermodu- a good balance between power input, tube
lation distortion will show up as a "gravelly" cost and tube life. For lower levels of inter-
tone on-the voice and will create interfer- modulation distortion, the user must shift
ence to signals on adjacent channels. The to transmitting -type tubes rated for linear
main source of intermodulation distortion service, and which are designed to have low
in a linear amplifier is the vacuum tube intermodulation -distortion characteristics.
or transistor as these components have in-
herently nonlinear characteristics. Maximum 16 -8 Automatic Load
linearity may be achieved by proper choice
of tube or transistor and their operating
Control and Speech
conditions. Compression
A practical test of linearity is to employ
a two-tone, low- distortion signal to drive Several means may be used to keep the
the tube or transistor and to use a spectrum amplitude of distortion products down to
analyzer to display a sample of the output acceptable levels and yet provide a high
spectrum on an oscilloscope (figure 29) The
. average degree of modulation. One method
test signal, along with spurious intermodu- is to design the amplifier for excellent lin-
lation products may be seen on the screen, earity over the expected amplitude or power
separated on the horizontal axis by the dif- range. A second method is to employ audio
ference in frequency between the two tones. compression to ensure that high amplitude
A reading is made by comparing the ampli- peaks are suitably restricted before they
tude of a specific intermodulation product cause trouble. The third method is to limit
with the amplitude of the test signal. For the amplitude of the SSB envelope by em-
ploying an r-f driven source of compression 3 DB

2 DB ALC LEVEL
termed automatic load control (ALC)
It should be noted that the r -f wave
shapes of the SSB signal are always sine
waves because the tank circuits make them
-T -f ---
so. It is the change in gain or phase with
signal level in an amplifier that distorts
the SSB envelope and generates unwanted 20 DB
distortion products. An ALC system may

be used to limit the input signal to an ampli -
fier to prevent a change in gain level caused
DB SIGNAL LEVEL INPUT
by excessive input level.
The ALC system is adjusted so the power Figure 32
amplifier is operating near its maximum PERFORMANCE CURVE OF
power capability and at the same time is pro- ALC CIRCUIT
tected from being over -driven.
In amplitude -modulated systems it is
common to use speech compressors and very similarly to the intermediate- frequency
speech clipping systems to perform this stages of a receiver having automatic volume
function. These methods are not equally use- control.
ful in SSB. The reason for this is that the The grid bias voltage which controls the
SSB envelope is different from the audio en- gain of the tubes is obtained from a voltage
velope and the SSB peaks do not necessarily detector circuit connected to the power am-
correspond with the audio peaks as explained plifier tube plate circuit. A large delay bias
earlier in this chapter. For this reason an r -f is used so that no gain reduction takes place
compressor of some sort located between the until the signal is nearly up to the full power
SSB generator and the power amplifier is capability of the amplifier. At this signa!
most effective because it is controlled by level, the rectified output overcomes the de-
SSB envelope peaks rather than audio peaks. lay bias and the gain of the preamplifier is
Such an "SSB signal compressor" and the reduced rapidly with increasing signal so
means of obtaining its control voltage com- that there is very little rise in output power
prise a satisfactory ALC system. above the threshold of gain control.
When a signal peak arrives that would
The ALC Circuit A block diagram of an normally overload the power amplifier, it is
ALC circuit is shown in desirable that the gain of the ALC amplifier
figure 31. The compressor or gain control be reduced in a few milliseconds to a value
part of this circuit uses one or two stages of where overloading of the power amplifier is
remote cutoff tubes such as 6BA6, operating overcome. After the signal peak passes, the
6BA6
1E-
6BA6 { sas OUTRUT
TO P-A GRID
Figure 33
SSB
INPUT
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC
T7 _ .
TO P -A
s
PLATE i210v
OF AUTOMATIC LOAD
CONTROL AMPLIFIER.
OPERATING POINT OF ALC
22n CIRCUIT MAY BE SET
6X4 BY VARYING BLOCKING
R
RFC 2511 BIAS ON CATHODE OF
T0} 6X4 SIGNAL RECTIFIER
R j so
SENS. 0.1
ALC ZERO
=COMPRESSION ADJ. _
INDICATOR
HANDBOOK ALC and Speech Compression 385
gain should return to the normal value in for the ALC rectifier. The output of the
about one -tenth second. These attack and ALC rectifier passes through RC networks
release times are commonly used for voice to obtain the desired attack and release times
communications. For this type of work, a and through an r -f filter capacitor. The 3.3K
dynamic range of at least 10 db is desirable. resistor and 0.1 -pfd capacitors across the
Input peaks as high as 20 db above the rectifier output stabilize the gain around the
threshold of compression should not cause ALC loop to prevent "motorboating" (in-
loss of control although some increase in dis- stability) .
tortion in the upper range of compression An effective grid- derived ALC system is
can be tolerated because peaks in this range shown in figure 34. Minute fluctuations
are infrequent. Another limitation is that the in grid current occur in tetrodes as the grid
preceding SSB generator must be capable of is driven to zero potential and these fluctua-
passing signals above full power output by tions are rectified and filtered to provide an
the amount of compression desired. Since the ALC signal which may be applied to a re-
signal level through the SSB generator should mote -cutoff tube in an earlier stage of
be maintained within a limited range, it is the exciter.
unlikely that more than 12 db ALC action
will be useful. If the input signal varies more Speech Compression The human voice is
than this, a speech compressor should be used characterized by a rath-
to limit the range of the signal fed into the er high ratio of peak -to- average power.
SSB generator. Since any SSB transmitter has a definite
Figure 32 shows the effectiveness of the peak -power capacity, which should not be
ALC in limiting the output signal to the exceeded, a reduction in the ratio of peak -
capabilities of the power amplifier. An ad- to- average power levels allows an increase
justment of the delay bias will place the in the average power transmitted. Reduc-
threshold of compression at the desired tion in this ratio may be accomplished by
power output. Figure 33 shows a simplified ALC systems or by audio- derived speech
compression. A simple speech compressor is
schematic of an ALC system. This ALC uses
a form of automatic variable gain amplifier
two variable -gain amplifier stages and the whose output signal bears some consistent
maximum over -all gain is about 20 db. A relationship to the input and which is con-
meter is incorporated which is calibrated in trolled by a feedback loop which samples
db of compression. This is useful in adjust- the output signal of the compressor. The
ing the gain for the desired amount of load sample signal is rectified and the resulting
control. A capacitance voltage divider is d -c control voltage is applied to a preceding
used to step down the r -f voltage at the gain- controlled stage. The time constants
plate of the amplifier tube to about IO volts of this type of circuit are slow in order to
prevent oscillation and distortion.
A practical speech compressor which may
TO P GRID
be added ahead of the speech system of an
SSB transmitter is shown in figure 31. A
2N3819 FET -type transistor is used as the
input stage to provide a high- impedance
ALC TO REMOTE termination for a crystal microphone. The
CUTOFF I.F STAGE
second stage is a 2N2925 whose output load
is divided between the emitter and the col-
- BIAS
lector. Stage gain may be varied by con-
Figure 34 trolling the emitter -to- ground impedance.
GRID -DERIVED ALC CIRCUIT
A third 2N2925 amplifier provides the
output signal from the compressor and also
Minute fluctuations in grid current caused by feeds the audio signal to a rectifier -filter sys-
driving tetrads tube to zero bias point are
rectified, filtered, and applied to low -level i -f tem which provides an amplified syllabic -
stage having a remote -cutoff pentode tube. varying d -c feedback voltage to the second -
ALC level is set by applying delay bias to
diode rectifiers. stage transistor. The last stage acts as a
2N3819 2N2925 2N2925 2N2925

Figure 35
FET SPEECH COMPRESSOR -

AMPLIFIER FOR SSB
This five -stage transistor compressor /ampli-

fier may be added between a crystal micro-
phone and an existing speech amplifier.
Compression is achieved by applying recti-
fied signal voltage to the emitter of the
second amplifier stage. Stage gain is thus
controlled by varying the emitter -to-ground
impedance. Compression is adjusted by con-
trol of speech-amplifier gain in transmitter
and the setting of input gain in the com-
pressor amplifier. Maximum compression is
about 30 decibels, and up to IS decibels or
so may be used to advantage without undue
distortion of the voice.
current -sensitive variable resistor effectively response microphone are worthwhile ad-
in series with the emitter bypass capacitor juncts to any sideband operator wishing
of the 2N2925 amplifier, changing the gain to achieve maximum transmission efficiency
of this stage as the resistance of the third from his station.
transistor changes. Compression starts to
take place at an input level of about 1
millivolt, holding the output substantially 16 -9 Basic SSB Exiters
constant up to an input level of about 35
millivolts. Output level is about 200 milli- Several basic filter and phasing -style ex-
volts and the maximum compression range citer circuits exist which are the foundation
is over 30 decibels. of the majority of amateur SSB exciters.
Experience "on the air" with speech com- One of the best known of these interesting
pression has proven its usefulness, especially circuits is the so- called SSB Junior. Employ-
when no provisions for automatic load con- ing only three tubes, this phasing unit is a
trol are incorporated in the transmitter. To classic example of single -sideband genera-
achieve maximum effectiveness and signal tion reduced to its simplest form.
"punch ", it has been found that attenua-
tion of the lower- frequency voice tones is The SSB, Jr. This little phasing exciter em-
of great benefit under conditions of high ploys audio and r -f phasing cir-
compression. A compression level of about cuits to produce an SSB signal at one spot
14 decibels, coupled with smooth and grad- frequency. The complete circuit is shown
ual attenuation of speech frequencies below in figure 36.
500 Hz or so provides excellent intelligibil- The first tube, a 12AU7, is a twin triode
ity to the SSB signal. Low -frequency audio serving as a speech amplifier and a crystal
attenuation may be achieved by tailoring oscillator. The second tube is a 12AT7, act-
the audio response of the transmitter; how- ing as a twin -channel audio amplifier follow-
ever, an easier approach is to employ a ing the phase -shift audio network. The linear
microphone having controlled low- frequency amplifier stage is a 6AG7, capable of a peak
attenuation, such as the Electro -Voice model power output of 5 watts.
676. A three- position switch on the micro- Sldeband switching is accomplished by the
phone permits adjustment of low- frequency reversal of audio polarity in one of the audio
rolloff and that degree of attenuation best channels (switch S1), and provision is made
suited to the operator's voice may be chosen for equalization of gain in the audio channels
by experiment. The combination of a simple (R,2). This adjustment is necessary in order
speech compressor and controlled -frequency- to achieve normal sideband cancellation,
HANDBOOK Basic SSB Exciters 387
PHASE -SHIFT NETWORK

T2
XTAL OR
V F O.
2 12AU7
BLUE_ RED -WHITE
=E 120U7
AUDIO \ 05% BLiitT!..RED
INPUT - tt
6-{
I \ Ta o
L RIO
1.611
*5%
100
OO
EACH
20
V* 10 %
FC
0.5 MN 1016
Ls 6AG7 L3
12AU7
f10 12AT7
R -F OUTPUT
(1
4
TWIST RFC
R1,
NAGT
C2C C2D
+300V. -10 5 V C B-
6.3V
C2A,B.C,D = EACH SECTION 20 LIE. 450 V. ELECTROLYTIC 61,2,3, = 1NS2 GERMANIUM DIODE OR EQUIVALENT
C7 =2430 PF (002 LIFO MICA *5% WITH 170 -760 PF TRIMMER) L1, La= 33T. N 21 E. WIRE CLOSEWOUND ON MILLEN N 69046
Ca =6150 PF (0043LFDMICA *5% WITH 170 -760 PF TRIMMER) IRON -CORE ADJUSTABLE SLUG COIL FORM. LINK OF 6
C9.1215 PF ( 001 LIFO MICA *5%WITH 50 -380 PF TRIMMER) TURNS OF HOOKUP WIRE WOUND ON OPEN END.
C10 =6075 PF (500 PF MICA *5% WITH 5 -180 PF TRIMMER) L3= I6 N IR E. WIRE SPACED TO FILL MILLEN N. 69046
T.
C18 =350 PF 600V MICA *10% (250 PF AND 100 pF PARALLEL) COIL FORM TAP AT 8 TURNS. LINK OF 1 TURN AT CENTER.
R7,R 10 - 133.300 OHMS. 1/2 WATT 2 I% LA. SAME AS L1 EXCEPT NO LINK USED.
L5 =28 T. OF N19 E. WIRE. LINK ON END TO MATCH LOAD.
Re.R9= 100.000 OHMS.
T1 =STANCOR A -9.1C TRANSFORMER
T2 T3= UTC R -364 TRANSFORMER.
I/2 WATT * 1%
(
TURN LINK MATCHES 72 OHM LOAD)
S1 =DPDT TOGGLE SWITCH F = MOUNTING END OF COILS
Figuro 36
SCHEMATIC, SSB, JR . FOR 80 METERS
which may be of the order of 35 db or eration, and multiband operation. A simpli-

better. Phase -shift network adjustment may fied schematic of the Model 10A is shown
be achieved by adjusting potentiometer R;. in figure 37. The 12AX7 two -stage speech
Stable modulator balance is achieved by the amplifier excites a transformer -coupled %2-
balance potentiometers (R1, and R17) in 12BH7 low- impedance driver stage and a
conjunction with the germanium diodes. voice operated (VOX) relay system employ-
The SSB, Jr. is designed for spot- frequency ing a 12AX7 and a 6ALS. A transformer -
operation. Note that when changing fre- coupled 12AT7 follows the audio phasing
quency L,, L2, L3, L,, and L, should be read- network, providing two audio channels hav-
justed, since these circuits constitute the ing a 90- degree phase difference. A simple
tuning adjustments of the rig. The principal 90- degree r -f phase shift network in the
effect of mistuning L,, L,, and L; will be plate circuit of the 9 -MHz crystal oscillator
lower output. The principal effect of mis- stage works into the matched, balanced mod-
tuning L2, however, will be degraded side - ulator consisting of four 1N48 diodes.
band suppression. The resulting 9 -MHz SSB signal may be
Power requirements of the SSB, Jr. are 300 converted to the desired operating frequency
volts at 60 ma, and -10.5 volts at 1 ma. in a 6BA7 mixer stage. Eight volts of r. f
from an external vfo injected on grid #1 of
The "Ten -A" The Model 10 -A phasing ex- the 6BA7 is sufficient for good conversion
Exciter citer is an advanced version efficiency and low distortion. The plate cir-
of the SSB, Jr. incorporating cuit of the 6BA7 is tuned to the sum or dif-
extra features such as vfo control, voice op- ference mixing frequency and the resulting
J
o
^
:.. T8
r
ce
N <
N
o
0, Y
cc
Qf
a NI
N
N N J >O

, ry
!>
-i
II
UN
dI
QN
ll
'
IIWT1
f
o I
r
-Y
QU IY cc_
N
Figuro 37
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF "TEN -A" EXCITER
HANDBOOK Basic SSB Exciters 389
signal is amplified in a 6AG7 linear amplifier low- impedance dynamic microphone. Audio
stage. Two "tweet" traps are incorporated in gain is controlled by varying the base bias
the 6BA7 stage to reduce unwanted responses on the second speech amplifier stage.
of the mixer which are apparent when the The 9 -MHz SSB signal from the filter is
unit is operating in the 14 -MHz band. Band beat to the desired operating frequency in a
changing is accomplished by changing coils transistor mixer stage. Typical r -f voltages
L, and L., and the frequency of the external in the mixer stage are indicated in the sche-
mixing signal. Maximum power output is of matic. The collector of the mixer is tapped
the order of S watts at any operating fre- down on the output tank circuit to provide
quency. optimum impedance match. Output of the
mixer stage is about 0.1 volt.
A Transistorized A transistorized SSB filter Selection of the upper or lower sideband is
SSB Filter exciter is illustrated in Fig - accomplished by placing the carrier oscillator
Exciter ure 38. It is designed for on the proper slope of the sideband filter.
operation in the 2- to 30- The oscillator should be set at approximately
MHz range and makes use of a 9 -MHz the 20- decibel suppression point of the pass -
crystal filter. A GE -1 transistor crystal os- band for best operation. If the oscillator is
cillator provides the carrier for the balanced closer in frequency to the filter passband
modulator via a link- coupled circuit. Ca- than this, carrier rejection will suffer. If the
pacitive and resistive carrier -balance controls oscillator is moved further away in frequen-
provide over 30 decibels carrier suppression. cy from the passband, the lower voice fre-
The balanced modulator is of the configura- quencies will be attenuated and the SSB sig-
tion shown in Figure 20. A two -stage speech nal will sound high- pitched and tinny. The
amplifier provides ample gain for use of a two carrier -balance controls are adjusted for
CARRIER OSC. MIXER

GE-1 GE -1
a Li 30 1N34A Ti Ta .01 0.1 V. L2
.006V.
SSBOUT.
10K
-12V' 330K
1-0w-2
MIC.
2
GE -2 GE -2
SPEECH AMPLIFIER
101 .01 T00

-12 V.
Figure 38
TRANSISTOR 558 EXCITER USING 9 -MHz CRYSTAL FILTER

This simple SS! exciter employs "entertainment- type" transistors and a packaged 9 -MHz
crystal filter. Transistors are General Electric types. Transformers T, and T. may be supplied
by filter manufacturer and vary according to filter design. Selection of sideband is accom-
plished by choice of crystal oscillator frequency, placing the carrier oscillator crystal (Y,) on
the proper slope of the sideband filter.
Yi
i 6UBA
klu
30
IN34A 2 6USA
IT T2 T3
(---
"
roo
4.7M 330
55B OUT
S00
CAR.
eAL f
a MM
5 6
470
CARR /ER
/LASER,
%TAL
MIC
2 SUBA
I01
60
+250 V.
Figure 39
TWO -TUBE FILTER-TYPE SSB EXCITER

Simple two -tube exciter illustrates basic principles of filter technique. First 6UBA serves as
carrier oscillator and speech amplifier. Second 6U8A serves as mixer and local h -f oscillator.
Choice of filter and oscillator frequencies depend on the frequency of the desired SS! signal.
Sideband selection is accomplished by placing carrier -oscillator crystal frequency on the proper
slope point of the sideband filter.
a carrier null indication on the S meter of a The single sideband selected by the filter
receiver coupled to the output of the side- is converted to the chosen operating range
band filter. in a 6U8A combined mixer /oscillator stage.
A crystal is now placed in the conversion The triode section of the 6U8A is used as
oscillator and proper operation is checked by a grid -injection mixer and the tetrode sec-
monitoring the conversion frequency with tion is employed as an electron -coupled os-
the nearby receiver. The mixer stage is final- cillator, whose frequency is determined by
ly adjusted for maximum output at the de- the difference frequency between the filter
sired frequency. passband and the output frequency of the
exciter. Generally speaking, for minimum
A Two-Tube A "basic" two-tube SSB ex- "birdie" problems, the mixing oscillator is
SSB Exciter citer is shown in figure 39. De- placed on the high -frequency side of the
pending upon the frequency of output frequency for the lower -frequency
the sideband filter, the exciter may be used bands, and on the low- frequency side of the
on any amateur band between 160 and 6 output frequency for the 20 -, 15- and 10-
meters. A 6U8A is used as a combined car- meter bands.
rier oscillator and speech amplifier. The Selection of sideband is done by placing
audio and r -f signals are combined in a the carrier oscillator crystal Y1 on the proper
double -diode modulator having resistive and side of the sideband filter passband. Out-
capacitive balance controls. The filter put of the h -f mixer stage is of the order
(FL -1) and coupling transformers may be of 3 to S volts, peak; sufficient to drive a
purchased as a package and a common 6CL6 or 6GK6 tetrode to several watts out-
choice of filter frequency falls in the range put. For best frequency stability, the high
between S MHz and 9MHz. For 6 -meter voltage to the oscillator stages should be
operation, a 10.7 MHz crystal filter is often voltage regulated, particularly on the high-
used. er- frequency bands.
HANDBOOK SSB Reception 391
16 -10 SSB Reception initial bursts of a received signal. To prevent

background noise from receiving full'ampli-
Single-sideband reception may be con- fication when the SSB signal is weak or
sidered the reverse of the process used in absent, a relatively slow agc release time is
SSB transmission. The received SSB signal required.
is amplified, translated downward in fre- The agc system, moreover, must be iso-
quency, further amplified and converted lated from the local -oscillator voltage to
into a replica of the original audio fre- prevent rectification of the oscillator voltage
quencies. The SSB receiver is invariably a from placing an undesired no- signal static
superheterodyne in order to achieve high bias voltage on the agc line of the receiver.
sensitivity and selectivity. Thus, the SSB receiver differs from the
To recover the intelligence from the SSB a -m receiver in that it requires a higher
signal, it is necessary to restore the carrier order of oscillator stability and i -f band-
in such a way as to have the same relation- width, a more sophisticated agc system, and
ship with the sideband components as the the capability of receiving signals over a
original carrier generated in the SSB exciter. very wide range of strength without over-
To achieve this, it is important that the load or cross modulation. In addition, the
receiver oscillators have good frequency ac- tuning rate of the SSB receiver should be
curacy and stability. substantially less than that of an a -m
To take advantage of the narrow band- receiver; generally speaking, tuning rates
width occupied by the SSB signal, selec- of 25 to 100 kHz per dial revolution are
tivity characteristics of the receiver must common in modern SSB receivers.
be held to narrow limits. Excessive receiver Because of variations in the propagation
bandwidth degrades the signal by passing path, transmitter power, and distance be-
unnecessary interference and noise. tween stations, the input signal to an SSB
receiver can vary over a range of 120 decibels
SSB Receivers In a conventional a -m re- or so. The receiver requires, therefore, a
ceiver, the audio intelligence large dynamic range of signal -handling capa-
is recovered from the radio signal by an bility and an enhanced degree of gain -
envelope amplitude detector, such as a adjusting capability.
diode rectifier. This technique may be used
to recover the audio signal from an SSB SSB Receiver Circuitry
For minimum spurious
transmission provided the amplitude of the response it is desired
local carrier generated by the beat oscil- to have good selectivity ahead of the am-
lator is sufficiently high to hold audio dis- plifier stages in the SSB receiver. This is
tortion at a reasonable low level. Better per- possible to a degree, provided circuit sim-
formance with respect to distortion may be plicity and receiver sensitivity are not sacri-
achieved if a product detector is used to ficed. For the case when sensitivity is not
recover the audio signal. important, an attenuator may be placed in
The characteristics of the automatic vol- the receiver input circuit to reduce the am-
ume control (or automatic gain control) plitude of strong, nearby signals (figure 40) .
system of an SSB receiver differ from those To further reduce the generation of cross -
of a conventional a -m receiver. In the lat- modulation interference, it is necessary to
ter, the agc voltage is derived by rectifying carefully select the tube type used in the r -f
the received carrier, as the carrier is rela- amplifier stage to determine if it will retain
tively constant and does not vary rapidly its linearity with the application of agc -bias
in amplitude. The agc system can therefore control voltage. Suitable r -f stage circuits
have a rather long time constant so that an are shown in the Radio Receiver Funda-
S -meter may be used to indicate relative mentals chapter of this Handbook.
carrier amplitude. Avoidance of images and spurious re-
In an SSB receiver, however, the signal sponses is a main problem in the design of
level varies over a large range at a syllabic SSB receiver mixers. Due to the presence of
rate and a fast time -constant agc system is harmonics in the mixer /oscillator signal and
required to prevent receiver overload on nonlinearity in the mixer, higher -order prod-
before they drive the amplifier tubes into

the overload region. In addition to the side -
band filter, additional tuned circuits are
usually provided to improve over -all re-
ceiver selectivity, especially at frequencies
which are down the skirt of the selectivity
Figure 40 curve. Some types of SSB filters have spur-
ious responses outside the passband which
R -F ATTENUATOR FOR SSB RECEIVER
can be suppressed in this manner.
The dynamic signal range of an SSB receiver
may be increased, and troubles resulting from Automatic Gain Control The function of an
overload may be decreased with the use of a
simple r -f attenuator placed in the coaxial and Signal Demodulation automatic gain con-
line from the antenna to the receiver. This trol system is to re-
attenuator is designed for use with either 50-
or 70-ohm transmission lines and may be built duce the gain of the controlled stages on
in a small aluminum Minibox. signal peaks to prevent receiver overload
and hold constant audio output. Since the
ucts are generated in addition to the desired carrier is not transmitted in SSB, the re-
mixing product. These undesired products ceiver agc system must obtain its signal
vary in frequency as the oscillator is tuned voltage from the modulation envelope. The
and may fall within the received passband, agc voltage may be derived either from
creating crossovers, or birdies (spurious beat - the i -f signal or the audio signal (figure
notes which tune faster than the normal 41) Audio -derived agc has the advantage
.
tuning rate) . of easier isolation from the local carrier

Choice of an intermediate frequency low voltage, but the i -f system will function
with respect to signal frequency minimizes on both SSB and a -m signals in a satisfac-
the probability of strong birdie signals tory manner.
within the receiver passband. The low inter- Product detectors are preferred for SSB
mediate frequency, however, may lead to reception because they minimize intermodu-
image problems at the higher received fre-
quencies. TO PRODUCT
DETECTOR
The twin problems of images and cross- LAST
F 100
AGC
RECTIFIER
overs can be resolved through the use of TRANS
H" +
double conversion. The first (high) conver- TO A -V -C
CONTROLLED H"
sion provides adequate image rejection and STAGES 100
3.3 M
the second (low) conversion may be ad-

410 ION I. 2N
justed so as to reduce crossover points to a BIAS
G/N
minimum. In addition, double conversion
allows the use of a crystal -controlled oscil-
lator for the first converter stage, which 6AQ5 .005 1.1.15383,,
r_
TO A -V-C
can provide a higher order of stability than CONTROLLED
STAGES
a tunable oscillator. The oscillator for the 100 N
lower mixer stage may be made tunable,

covering only a single frequency range,
GA/N
eliminating some of the mechanical and +250V /450 V.
REG.
electrical factors contributing to receiver
instability. Figure 41
The bandwidth of the low- frequency i -f
system determines the over -all selectivity R -F AND A -F DERIVED AGC CIRCUITS
of the SSB receiver. For SSB voice reception, A- Control voltage is derived from r -f signal
the optimum bandwidth at the 6 -db point by agc rectifier placed at end of i -f strip.
Threshold gain is set by adjustment of nega-
is about 2 kHz to 3 kHz. It is good practice tive bias on the plate of the age rectifier.
to place the selective filter in the circuit B- Control voltage is derived from audio signal
taken from output stage of receiver. Threshold
ahead of the i -f amplifier stages so that gain is set by diode bias applied through low-
strong adjacent-channel signals are attenuated resistance audio inductance (CH).
HANDBOOK SSB Reception 393
1N67'S 470 .005

lation distortion products in the audio signal
and, in addition, do not require a large I-F
SIGNAL T0 T00 T00
local -oscillator voltage. The product de-
tector also affords a high degree of isolation CARRIER SIGNAL
between the carrier oscillator and the agc
circuit. The undesired mixing products pres-
ent in the output circuit of the detector
may be suppressed by a low -pass filter
placed in the audio line.
Product detectors may take the form of
mixer stages, as discussed in a previous
chapter. Two simple diode product detectors
are shown in figure 42. These are of the
same form as the diode modulators shown
earlier in this Chapter. CARRIER SIGNAL
Two vacuum -tube product detectors are
shown in figure 43. Illustration A shows a
6BE6 multigrid mixer tube functioning as Figure 42
a combined product detector and beat oscil- DIODE PRODUCT DETECTORS
lator. The SSB signal is applied to the con- A- Back -to -back diodes form sin.ple product
detector with local -oscillator signal injected
trol grid of the tube and the #1, #2, and at junction of diodes. Audio RC filter re-
#4 grids, and the cathode element form moves oscillator voltage from output signal.
the triode oscillator. Mixing takes place B- Balanced Quad, commonly used for trans-
mitting modulators, may also be used for
within the tube, since the cathode current product detector.
of the tube is controlled by the simultaneous
action of the two signals and contains fre-
quencies equal to the sum and difference of the "gun." The division of plate current
between the sideband signal and the local between the two plates is determined by the
carrier signal. The desired audio signal is difference in voltage between two deflecting
recovered across the plate resistor of the electrodes placed between the "gun" and the
tube and other unwanted signals are sup- plates. R -f voltage is used to modulate the
pressed by the low pass r -f filter in the control grid of the electron "gun" and the
plate circuit of the stage. electron stream within the tube may be
A low-distortion product detector is switched between the plates by means of an
shown in figure 43B using a 6AS6 dual -grid audio signal applied to the deflecting elec-
pentode tube. The SSB signal is injected on trodes. The 7360 makes an excellent bal-
one grid and the external local- oscillator anced modulator (figure 44) or product de-
signal is injected on the second grid. A tector having high -impedance input circuits,
portion of the signal is rectified by a small low distortion, and excellent carrier suppres-
diode to provide ALC control voltage and sion.
an S -meter is placed between the 6AS6
cathode and the cathode of the last con- A Representative A typical SSB receiver is
trolled i -f amplifier stage. The ALC time SSB Receiver made up of circuits re-
constant may be adjusted by switch S1. sembling those discussed in
Another popular product detector resembles the previous section. To achieve both high
the mixer shown in figure 26. stability and good image rejection, many
An interesting development in the single- amateur SSB receivers are double- conversion
sideband field is the beam -deflection tube types, such as outlined in figure 45. An
(type 7360). This miniature tube employs a accurate, stable low- frequency tunable os-
simple electron "gun" which generates, con- cillator is employed, together with a stand-
trols, and accelerates a beam of electrons di- ard 455 -kHz i -f channel and a crystal or
rected toward identical plates. The total mechanical SSB filter. The frequency cover-
plate current is determined by the voltages age of the vfo may be as high as 500 kHz
applied to the control grid and screen grid to cover all of the low -frequency amateur
73b0
DSB
OUT
100 150AS 150A

,IHn
10
41A SA 1A 350
STO,
TO PUSH -PULL AUDIO - 265V

CATHODE
LAST I. F
Figure 44
Figure 43 BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUIT
VACUUM -TUBE PRODUCT DETECTORS USING 7360 BEAM DEFLECTION TUBE.
A -The 68E6 pentagrid c rter may be used
as combined product detector and local oscil-
lator. Maximum input level is controlled by
variable injection of i -f signal. Circuit LC
16 -11 The SSB
is a common bfo transformer.
8 -A 6S6 and separate bfo make excellent Transceiver
product detector having a very low level of
intermodulation distortion. Age-voltage and
S -meter circuits are incorporated In this sche- The SSB transceiver is a unit in which
matic. Time constant of ogc control voltage is the functions of 'transmission and reception
adjusted by switch S,.
are combined, allowing single -channel semi -
duplex operation at a substantial reduction
bands, or it may be restricted to only 100 in cost and complexity along with greatly
kHz or so, necessitating the use of a multi- increased ease of operation. The transceiver
plicity of crystals in the first conversion is especially popular for mobile operation
oscillator to achieve complete band coverage. where a savings in size, weight, and power
A tunable first i -f stage covering the re- consumption are important. Dual usage of
quired passband may be ganged with the components and stages in the SSB transceiver
variable- frequency oscillator and with the permits a large reduction in the number of
r -f amplifier tuning circuits. The high -fre- circuit elements and facilitates tuning to
quency tuning range is chosen by the ap- the common frequency desired for two -way
propriate high- frequency crystal. communication.
To permit sideband selection, the bfo may Figure 46 shows a basic filter -type trans-
be tuned to either side of the i -f passband. ceiver circuit. Common mixer frequencies
Proper tuning is acomplished by ear, the are used in each mode and the high -fre-
setting of the bfo on the filter passband quency vfo is used to tune both transmit
slope may be quickly accomplished by ex- and receive channels to the same operating
perience and by recognition of the proper frequency. In addition, a common i -f system
voice tones. and sideband filter are used.
In addition to the special circuitry cov- The transceiver is commonly switched
ered in this chapter, SSB receivers make full from receive to transmit by a multiple -con-
use of the general receiver design information tact relay which transfers the antenna and
given in Chapter Ten of this Handbook. removes blocking bias from the activated
HANDBOOK The SSB Transceiver 395
Figure 45 A
DOUBLE CONVERSION
SSB RECEIVER
Typical double- conversion 5513 receiver

MIMFR
_ TSZNG
2M;ri
MIXER
FILTEIVRi
i-F AMP
455 HMI
OE
employs tunable first i -f and crystal -con-
CRYSTAL
trolled local oscillator, with tunable OSC. 2 e53
ss
oscillator and fixed- frequency i -f ampli
fier and sideband filter. This receiver
tunes selected 500 -kHz segments of the TUNING RANG! CRYSTAL
h -f spectrum. Additional conversion crys- (MHZ) (MHZ)
tals are required for complete coverage 3.5 -4.0 5 7
7.0 -7.5 9.0
of the 10 -meter band.
14.0 -14.3 16.2
21.0 -21.5 23.2
26.5-29.0 30.1
TRANSMIT SECTION
Figure 46
THE SSB TRANSCEIVER
Common carrier oscillator, i -f amplifier /filter,

and vfo are used in transceiver, designed to
communicate on a single frequency selected
by proper vfo setting. Transfer from receive
to transmit is carried out by relays and by
application of blocking voltage to unused
tubes.
RECEIVE SECTION
stages. Transceivers are ideal for net opera- Various designs have been made available
tion since the correct frequency may be for the 50MHz band and a recent trans-
ascertained by tuning the received signal to ceiver kit has been put on the market for
make the voice intelligible and pleasing. the 160 -meter band. Commercial transceiver
With practice, the SSB transceiver may be designs are usually operated on crystal -con-
adjusted to a predetermined frequency with trolled channels in the h -f and vhf spectrum
an error of 100 Hz or less by this simple using a crystal synthesizer for channel con-
procedure. trol. Elaborate synthesizers permit selection
of discrete operating frequencies as closely
Single -Band recent development has been
A separated as 100 Hz. Some units include a
Transceivers the single -band transceiver, a clarifier control which permits a slight fre-
simplified circuit designed for quency adjustment to place the unit exactly
operation over one narrow frequency band. on the chosen operating channel.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Equipment Design
The performance of communication equip- knowledge of the limitations of the com-

ment is a function of the design, and is de- ponents, and with a basic concept of the ac-
pendent on the execution of the design and tions of ground currents, the average ama-
the proper choice of components. This chap- teur will be able to build equipment that
ter deals with the study of equipment cir- will work "just like the book says."
cuitry and the basic components that go to The twin problems of TVI and parasitics
make up this circuitry. Modern components are an outgrowth of the major problem of
are far from faultless. Resistors have induct- over all circuit design. If close attention is
ance and reactance, and inductors have re- paid to the cardinal points of circuitry de-
sistance and distributed capacitance. None of sign, the secondary problems of TVI and
these residual attributes show up on circuit parasitics will in themselves be solved.
diagrams, yet they are as much responsible
for the success or failure of the equipment
as are the necessary and vital bits of resist- 17 -1 Resistors
ance, capacitance, and inductance. Because
of these unwanted attributes, the job of The resistance of a conductor is a function
translating a circuit on paper into a working of the material, the form the material takes,
piece of equipment often becomes an impos- the temperature of operation, and the fre-
sible task to those individuals who disregard quency of the current passing through the
such important trivia. Rarely do circuit dia- resistance. In general, the variation in re-
grams show such pitfalls as ground loops and sistance due to temperature is directly pro-
residual inductive coupling between stages. portional to the temperature change. With
Parasitic resonant circuits are seldom visible most wirewound resistors, the resistance in-
from a study of the schematic. Too many creases with temperature and returns to its
times radio equipment is rushed into service original value when the temperature drops to
before it has been entirely checked. The im- normal. So called composition or carbon re-
mediate and only too apparent results of this sistors have less reliable temperature /resist-
enthusiasm are receiver instability, trans- ance characteristics. They usually have a
mitter instability, difficulty of neutraliza- positive temperature coefficient, but the re-
tion, r.f. wandering all over the equipment, trace curve as the resistor is cooled is often
and a general "touchiness" of adjustment. erratic, and in many cases the resistance does
Hand in glove with these problems go the not return to its original value after a heat
more serious ones of receiver overload, TVI, cycle. It is for this reason that care must be
keyclicks, and parasitics. By paying at- taken when soldering composition resistors in
tention to detail, with a good working circuits that require close control of the
S
L.
,'__'ril
Mg R11
116291101
-20
own
- 0 0 10
W
i
[[
20 30
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
40 30 60 70 SO O 100
Figure 1
+2
+4
3
30 -20 - O O 10 20
Resistors
30
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
40 30 !O 70 W
397
/O 100
HEAT CYCLE OF UNCONDITIONED HEAT CYCLE OF CONDITIONED

COMPOSITION RESISTORS COMPOSITION RESISTORS
resistance value. Matched resistors used in sirable amounts of inductance and distrib-
phase -inverter service can be heated out of uted capacitance. These quantities are illus-
tolerance by the act of soldering them into trated in figure 2A, the general equivalent
the circuit. Long leads should be left on the circuit of a resistor. This circuit represents
resistors and long -nose pliers should grip the the actual impedance network of a resistor at
lead between the iron and the body of the any frequency. At a certain specified fre-
resistor to act as a heat block. General tem- quency the impedance of the resistor may be
perature characteristics of typical carbon thought of as a series reactance (X,) as
resistors are shown in figure 1. The behavior shown in figure 2B. This reactance may be
of an individual resistor will vary from these either inductive or capacitive depending on
curves depending on the manufacturer, the whether the residual inductance or the dis-
size and wattage of the resistor, etc. tributed capacitance of the resistor is the
dominating factor. As a rule, skin effect
Inductance of Every resistor because of its tends to increase the reactance with fre-
Resistors physical size has in addition to quency, while the capacitance between turns
its desired resistance, less de- of a wirewound resistor, or capacitance be-
_"`
`, `-
`-15=11--
M,_
Figure 2
%;1=ZI
R D.C. L
o MIN
7
e MI
ME
'WNW
OEM
,
iff=1 IM
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A RESISTOR
2
Q-- -yyJì {--O

3 i0
FREQUENCY MHz
Figure 3
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A RESISTOR FREQUENCY EFFECTS ON SAMPLE
AT A PARTICULAR FREQUENCY COMPOSITION RESISTORS
398 Equipment RADIO
60
R SHUNT
Mt 5500011
50
41-O
i
Vf
Z
0
O WOMAN& C L RseniES
Figure 5

h
0
z
<
V1
:0 KIIMILMM EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A CAPACITOR
0
igIEFABINE\ tain frequency the series inductive reactance
x
I- I
64
io 20
of the capacitor and the capacitive reactance
are equal and opposite, and the capacitor is
in itself series resonant at this frequency. As
FREQUENCY MHz the operating frequency of the circuit in
which the capacitor is used is increased above
Figure 4 the series -resonant frequency, the effective-
CURVES OF THE IMPEDANCE OF WIRE - ness of the capacitor as a bypassing element
WOUND RESISTORS AT RADIO deteriorates until the unit is useless.
FREQUENCIES
Bypass The usual forms of bypass ca-
tween the granules of a composition resistor
Capacitors pacitors have dielectrics of paper,
tends to cause the reactance and resistance to mica, or ceramic. For audio
drop with frequency. The behavior of var- work, and low- frequency r -f work up to
ious types of composition resistors over a perhaps 2 MHz or so, the paper capacitors
large frequency range is shown in figure 3. are satisfactory as their relatively high in-
By proper component design, noninductive ternal inductance has little effect on the
resistors having a minimum of residual re- proper operation of the circuit. The actual
actance characteristics may be constructed. amount of internal inductance will vary
Even these have reactive effects that cannot widely with the manufacturing process, and
be ignored at high frequencies. some types of paper capacitors have satis-
Wirewound resistors act as low -Q in- factory characteristics up to a frequency of
5 MHz or so.
ductors at radio frequencies. Figure 4 shows
typical curves of the high- frequency char- When considering the design of transmit-
acteristics of cylindrical wirewound resistors. ting equipment, it must be remembered that
In addition to resistance variations wire - while the transmitter is operating at some
wound resistors exhibit both capacitive and relatively low frequency (for example, 7
inductive reactance, depending on the type MHz) , there will be harmonic currents flow-
of resistor and the operating frequency. In ing through the various bypass capacitors of
fact, such resistors perform in a fashion as the order of 10 to 20 times the operating
low -Q r -f chokes below their parallel self - frequency. A capacitor that behaves properly
resonant frequency. at 7 MHz however, may offer considerable
impedance to the flow of these harmonic
currents. For minimum harmonic generation
17 -2 Capacitors and radiation, it is obviously of greatest im-
portance to employ bypass capacitors having
The inherent residual characteristics of ca- the lowest possible internal inductance.
pacitors include series resistance, series in- Mica -dielectric capacitors have much less
ductance and shunt resistance, as shown in internal inductance than do most paper ca-
figure 5. The series resistance and inductance pacitors. Figure 6 lists self -resonant fre-
depend to a large extent on the physical con- quencies of various mica capacitors having
figuration of the capacitor and on the ma- various lead lengths. It can be seen from in-
terial from which it is composed. Of great spection of this table that most mica ca-
interest to the amateur constructor is the pacitors become self- resonant in the 12- to
series inductance of the capacitor. At a cer- 50 -MHz region. The inductive reactance
HANDBOOK Capacitors 399
CAPACITOR LEAD LENGTHS RESONANT FREQ. hibits piezoelectric effects, and capacitors
pfd MICA NONE 44.5 MHz
employing it for a dielectric will tend to
.02
.002 pfd MICA NONE 23.5 MHz "talk- back" when a -c voltages are applied
.01 fd MICA 14w 10 MHz across them. When these capacitors are used
.0009 Add MICA 14# 55 MHz as plate bypass units in a modulated trans-
.002 fd CERAMIC 3'e" 24 MHz
pfd CERAMIC 14nn 55 MHz
mitter they will cause acoustical noise.
.001
500 pf BUTTON NONE 220 MHz Otherwise they are excellent for general r -f
.0005 pfd CERAMIC 14n 90 MHz work.
.01 pfd CERAMIC 14 14.5 MHz A recent addition to the varied line of ca-
pacitors is the coaxial, or Hypass, type of
Figure 6
capacitor. These capacitors exhibit superior
SELF-RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF bypassing qualities at frequencies up to 200
VARIOUS CAPACITORS WITH MHz and the bulkhead type are especially
RANDOM LEAD LENGTH effective when used to filter leads passing
through partition walls between two stages.
they would offer to harmonic currents of 100
Variable Air Even though air is the perfect
MHz, or so, would be of considerable magni-
tude. In certain instances it is possible to
Capacitors dielectric, air capacitors exhibit
losses because of the inherent
deliberately series- resonate a mica capacitor
to a certain frequency somewhat below its resistance of the metallic parts that make up
normal self -resonant frequency by trimming the capacitor. In addition, the leakage loss
the leads to a critical length. This is some- across the insulating supports may become of
times done for maximum bypassing effect in some consequence at high frequencies. Of
the region of 40 to 60 MHz. greater concern is the inductance of the ca-
The button -mica capacitors shown in fig- pacitor at high frequencies. Since the capaci-
ure 7 are especially designed to have ex- tor must be of finite size, it will have tie rods,
tremely low internal inductance. Certain metallic braces, and end plates; all of which
types of button -mica capacitors of small contribute to the inductance of the unit.
physical size have a self- resonant frequency The actual amount of the inductance will
in the region of 600 MHz.
depend on the physical size of the capacitor
Ceramic-dielectric capacitors in general
have the lowest amount of series inductance
per unit of capacitance of these three univer-
sally used types of bypass capacitors. Typical
resonant frequencies of various ceramic units
are listed in figure 6. Ceramic capacitors are
available in various voltage and capacitance
ratings and different physical configurations.
Standoff types such as shown in figure 7 are
useful for bypassing socket and transformer
terminals. Two of these capacitors may be
mounted in close proximity on a chassis and
connected together by an r -f choke to form
a highly effective r -f filter. The inexpensive
disc type of ceramic capacitor is recom-
mended for general bypassing in r -f cir-
cuitry, as it is effective as a bypass unit to
well over 100 MHz. Figure 7
The large TV doorknob capacitors are
useful as by -pass units for high voltage lines. TYPES OF CERAMIC AND MICA CAPACI-
These capacitors have a value of 500 pf, and TORS SUITABLE FOR HIGH -FREQUENCY
are available in voltage ratings up to 40,000 BYPASSING
volts. The dielectric of these capacitors is Ths Centralab asas (1000 pf) is recommended
usually titanium dioxide. This material ex- for screen and plate circuits of tetrad. Pubes.
400 Equipment Design RADIO
and the method used to make contact to the At the higher frequencies, solid enameled
stator and rotor plates. This inductance may copper wire is most efficient for r -f leads.
be cut to a minimum value by using as small Tinned or stranded wire will show greater
a capacitor as is practical, by using insulated losses at these frequencies. Tank -coil and
tie rods to prevent the formation of closed tank- capacitor leads should be of heavier
inductive loops in the frame of the unit, and wire than other r -f leads.
by making connections to the centers of the The best type of flexible lead from the en-
plate assemblies rather than to the ends as is velope of a tube to a terminal is thin copper
commonly done. A large transmitting ca- strip, cut from thin sheet copper. Heavy,
pacitor may have an inherent inductance as rigid leads to these terminals may crack the
large as 0.1 microhenry, making the capaci- envelope glass when a tube heats or cools.
tor susceptible to parasitic resonances in the Wires carrying only audio frequencies or
50- to 150-MHz range of frequencies. direct current should be chosen with the volt-
The question of optimum C/L ratio and age and current in mind. Some of the low-fila-
capacitor plate spacing is covered in Chapter ment-voltage transmitting tubes draw heavy
Eleven. For all -band operation of a high - current, and heavy wire must be used to
power stage, it is recommended that a capaci- avoid voltage drop. The voltage is low, and
tor just large enough for 40 -meter oper- hence not much insulation is required. Fila-
ation be chosen. (This will have sufficient ment and heater leads are usually twisted
capacitance for operation on all higher - together. An initial check should be made on
frequency bands.) Then use fixed padding the filament voltage of all tubes of 25 watts
capacitors for operation on 80 meters. Such or more plate dissipation rating. This voltage
padding capacitors are available in air, should be measured right at the tube sockets.
ceramic, and vacuum types. If it is low, the filament- transformer volt-
Specially designed variable capacitors are age should be raised. If this is impossible,
recommended for uhf work; ordinary ca- heavier or parallel wires should be used for
pacitors often have "loops" in the metal filament leads, cutting down their length if
frame which may resonate near the operating possible.
frequency. Coaxial cable may be used for high -volt-
age leads when it is desirable to shield them
17 -3 Wire and Inductors from r -f fields. RG -8/U cable may be used
at d -c potentials up to 8000 volts, and the
Any length of wire, no matter how short, lighter RG -58 /U may be used to potentials
has a certain value of inductance. This prop- of 3000 volts. Spark plug -type high- tension
erty is of great help in making coils and in- wire may be used for unshielded leads, and
ductors, but may be of great hindrance when will withstand 10,000 volts.
it is not taken into account in circuit design If this cable is used, the high- voltage leads
and construction. Connecting circuit ele- may be cabled with filament and other low -
ments (themselves having residual induct- vo!tage leads. For high -voltage leads in low -
ance) together with a conductor possessing power exciters, where the plate voltage is not
additional inductance can often lead to puz- over 4S0 volts, ordinary radio hookup wire
zling difficulties. A piece of No. 10 copper of good quality will serve the purpose.
wire ten inches long (a not uncommon No r -f leads should be cabled; in fact it is
length for a plate lead in a transmitter) can better to use enameled or bare copper wire
have a self -inductance of 0.15 microhenrys. for r -f leads and rely on spacing for insula-
This inductance and that of the plate tuning tion. All r -f joints should be soldered, and
capacitor together with the plate -to- ground the joint should be a good mechanical junc-
capacity of the vacuum tube can form a tion before solder is applied.
resonant circuit which may lead to parasitic The efficiency and Q of air coils com-
oscillations in the vhf regions. To keep the monly used in amateur equipment is a factor
self -inductance at a minimum, all r -f carry- of the shape of the coil, the proximity of the
ing leads should be as short as possible and coil to other objects (including the coil
should be made out of as heavy material as form), and the material from which the coil
possible. is made. Dielectric losses in so- called "air-
HANDBOOK Wire and Inductors 401
Rc L Rc L Rc,C L
"-"`-lr-.,.. '
C DISTRIBUTED
O O
Figure B
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF R -F CHOKE AT VARIOUS FREQUENCIES
wound " coils are low and the Q of such in the plane formed by the center turn of
coils runs in the neighborhood of 300 to 500 the other coil. If this condition is not met,
at medium frequencies. Unfortunately, most there will be appreciable coupling unless the
of the transmitting -type plug -in coils on the unshielded coils are very small in diameter
market designed for link coupling have far or are spaced a considerable distance from
too small a pickup link for proper opera- each other.
tion at 3.5 and 7 MHz. The coefficient of Insulation On frequencies above 7 MHz,
coupling of these coils is about 0.5, and ad-
ceramic, polystyrene, or Mycale.v
ditional means must be employed to provide
insulation is to be recommended. Cold flow
satisfactory coupling at these low fre-
must be considered when using polystyrene
quencies. Additional inductance in series
(Am phenol 912, etc.) . Bakelite has low losses
with the pickup link, the whole being reso-
on the lower frequencies but should never be
nated to the operating frequency, will often
used in the field of high- frequency tank cir-
permit satisfactory coupling.
cuits.
Coil Placement For best Q a coil should be Lucite (or Plexiglas), which is available
in the form of a solenoid with in rods, sheets, or tubing, is satisfactory for
length from one to two times the diameter. use at all radio frequencies inhere the r -f
For minimum interstage coupling, coils voltages are not especially high. It is very
should be made as small physically as is easy to work with ordinary tools and is not
practicable. The coils should then be placed expensive. The loss factor depends to a con-
so that adjoining coils are oriented for min- siderable extent on the amount and kind of
imum mutual coupling. To determine if this plasticizer used.
condition exists, apply the following test: The most important thing to keep in mind
the axis of one of the two coils must lie regarding insulation is that the best insula-
tion is air. If it is necessary to reinforce air -
wound coils to keep turns from vibrating or
touching, use strips of Lucite or polystyrene
p20 v1111
cemented in place with Am phenol 912 coil
dope. This will result in lower losses than
the commonly used celluloid ribs and Duco
Z I.o
IFIGUIV. la cement.
Radio- Frequency R -f chokes may be consid-
0
EMNIIMIE Chokes ered to be special
ances designed to have a
induct-
I VIr o 20 25 30
high value of impedance over a large range
of frequencies. A practical r -f choke has in-
ductance, distributed capacitance, and resist-
FREQUENCY MHz ance. At low frequencies, the distributed
capacitance has little effect and the electrical
Figure 9 equivalent circuit of the r -f choke is as
FREQUENCY- IMPEDANCE CHARACTERIS-
shown in figure 8A. As the operating fre-
TICS FOR TYPICAL PIE -WOUND
quency of the choke is raised the effect of
R -F CHOKES
the distributed capacitance becomes more
isincreased above 30 MHz, the chassis must

be considered as a conducting sheet on which
there are points of maximum current and
potential. However, for the lower amateur
frequencies, an object may be assumed to
be at ground potential when it is affixed to
the chassis.
In transmitter stages, two important cur-
rent loops exist. One loop consists of the grid
BOX circuit and chassis return, and the other loop
consists of the plate circuit and chassis re-
turn. These two loops are shown in figure
10A. It can be seen that the chassis forms a
return for both the grid and plate circuits,
and that ground currents flow in the chassis
towards the cathode circuit of the stage. For
some years the theory has been to separate
these ground currents from the chassis by
Figure 10
returning all ground leads to one point,
usually the cathode of the tube for the stage
GROUND LOOPS IN AMPLIFIER STAGES in question. This is well and good if the
A. Using chassis return
ground leads are of minute length and do
B. Common ground point not introduce cross couplings between the
leads. Such a technique is illustrated in figure
evident until at some particular frequency IOB, wherein all stage components are
the distributed capacitance resonates with grounded to the cathode pin of the stage
the inductance of the choke and a parallel - socket. However, in transmitter construction
resonant circuit is formed. This point is the physical size of the components prevent
shown in figure 8B. As the frequency of such close grouping. It is necessary to spread
operating is further increased the over -all the components of such a stage over a fairly
reactance of the choke becomes capacitive, large area. In this case it is best to ground
and finally a point of series resonance is items directly to the chassis at the nearest
reached (figure 8C). This cycle repeats possible point, with short, direct grounding
itself as the operating frequency is raised leads. The ground currents will flow from
above the series -resonant point, the imped- these points through the low inductance
ance of the choke rapidly becoming lower on chassis to the cathode return of the stage.
each successive cycle. A chart of this action Components grounded on the top of the
is shown in figure 9. It can be seen that as chassis have their ground currents flow
the r -f choke approaches and leaves a condi- through holes to the cathode circuit which
tion of series resonance, the performance of is usually located on the bottom of the chas-
the choke is seriously impaired. The condition sis, since such currents travel on the surface
of series resonance may easily be found by of the chassis. The usual "top to bottom"
shorting the terminals of the r -f choke in ground path is through the hole cut in the
question with a piece of wire and exploring chassis for the tube socket. When the gain
the windings of the choke with a grid -dip per stage is relatively low, or there are only
oscillator. Most commercial transmitting - a small number of stages on a chassis this
type chokes have series resonances in the universal grounding system is ideal. It is
vicinity of 11 or 24 MHz. only in high gain stages (i -f strips) where
the "gain per inch" is very high that circula-
17 -4 Grounds ting ground currents will cause operational
instability.
At frequencies of 30 MHz and below, a
chassis may be considered as a fixed ground Intercoupling of It is important to prevent
reference, since its dimensions are only a Ground Currents intercoupling of various dif-
fraction of a wavelength. As the frequency ferent ground currents when
HANDBOOK Holes, Leads, and Shafts 403
EXTERNAL FIELD
TINCAN BOTTOM WITH
FLUTED EDGE PRESSED
AGAINST PANEL
RUBBER GROMMET HOLES FOR COAXIAL SOCKET
METER STUDS
METER NUT
COAXIAL PLUG
00I CERAMIC
RFC
OAXIAL SHIELD
.00I CERAMIC
CENTER
CONDUCTOR
GROUND CURRENTS IN BOX
J
ANEL
PANEL
METER
LEAD
- FLUTEDELECTRICALMAKE
GOOD
EDGES TO
CON-
RIGHT.
METER TACT WITH PANEL
Figure 11A
OPEN BOX
SIMPLE METER SHIELD
HOLE EXTERNAL
FIELD
the chassis is used as a common ground re-

turn. To keep this intercoupling at a mini- INTERNAL GROUND
mum, the stage should be completely shield- CURRENTS
LE f pAIL CURRENTS
J
ed. This will prevent external fields from 'TE
ExTEN1R
generating spurious ground currents, and pre-
WRONG
vent the ground currents of the stage from
upsetting the action of nearby stages. Since Figure 1 1B
the ground currents travel on the surface of
the metal, the stage should be enclosed in an Use of coaxial e fors on electrically fight
box p is escape of ground currents from
electrically tight box. When this is done, all interior of box. At the same time external
ground currents generated inside the box will fields are not conducted into the interior of
remain in the box. The only possible means the box.
of escape for fundamental and harmonic
currents are imperfections in this electrically A screened ventilation opening should be
tight box. Whenever we bring a wire lead roughly three times the size of an equivalent
into the box, make a ventilation hole, or unscreened opening, since the screening rep-
bring a control shaft through the box we resents about a 70 percent coverage of the
create an imperfection. It is important that area. Careful attention must be paid to
the effect of these imperfections be reduced equipment heating when an electrically tight
to a minimum. box is used.
Commercially available panels having
17 -5 Holes, Leads, and hilf -inch ventilating holes may be used as
Shafts part of the box. These holes have much less
attenuation than does screening, but will
Large size holes for ventilation may be put perform in a satisfactory manner in all but
in an electrically tight box provided they are the areas of weakest TV reception. If it is
properly screened. Perforated metal stock desired to reduce leakage from these panels
having many small, closely spaced holes is the to a minimum, the back of the grill must
best screening material. Copper wire screen be covered with screening tightly bonded to
may be used provided the screen wires are the panel.
bonded together every few inches. As the Doors may be placed in electrically tight
wire corrodes, an insulating film prevents boxes provided there is no r -f leakage around
contact between the individual wires, and the seams of the door. Electronic weather-
the attenuation of the screening suffers. The stripping or metal "finger stock" may be
screening material should be carefully used to seal these doors. A long, narrow slot
soldered to the box, or bolted with a spacing in a closed box has the tendency to act as a
of not less than two inches between bolts. slot antenna and harmonic energy may pass
Mating surfaces of the box and the screening more readily through such an opening than
should be clean. it would through a much larger circular hole.
Variable- capacitor or switch shafts may FIELD STRENGTH
:.
TEST IN LV SHIELDED OSCILLATOR
act as antennas, picking up currents inside NO.
B. ySMALL HOLE IN SHIELD TO
12000
the box and re- radiating them outside of the
I
03C.
CI
box. It is necessary either to ground the 2 10000
shaft securely as it leaves the box, or else to 3 630

WELDED HOOK-UP WIRE
make the shaft of some insulating material. C2

R1
13L.2
CI p,py.C2
600
A two- or three -inch panel meter causes a
large leakage hole if it is mounted in the
5 150
I11 (.2
cc
C]
wall of an electrically tight box. To mini- 70
pHlp
mize leakage, the meter leads should be by- 7 140
1 I ,CI RI
cz
passed and shielded. The meter should be en- 600 --- , .
cased in a metal shield that makes contact to 110
c,l ",,;; .
the box entirely around the meter. The con- _iiCill.F4.L. RFC
10 SO
necting studs of the meter may project C RFC C4 RFC
2
through the back of the metal shield. Such a 25

J-C] ] HIELDEDTWI2RE
shield may be made out of the end of a tin 12 TRACE
C2
or aluminum can of correct diameter, cut to
fit the depth of the meter. This complete RI- 100011 CARBON C2 -.005 DISC CERAMIC
RFC- OHMITE 2 -50 C3 -.01 SPRAGUE HI -PASS
shield assembly is shown in figure 11A. CI - 75 PF CERAMIC G - 005 CERAMIC
Careful attention should be paid to leads FEEDTHROUGH FEEDTHROUGH
entering and leaving the electrically tight

Figure 12
box. Harmonic currents generated inside the
box can easily flow out of the box on power LEAD LEAKAGE WITH VARIOUS
or control leads, or even on the outer shields LEAD -FILTERING SYSTEMS
of coaxially shielded wires. Figure 11B illus-
trates the correct method of bringing filament, bias, and meter leads should be so
shielded cables into a box where it is desired treated. This will make the job of filtering
to preserve the continuity of the shielding. the leads as they leave the box much easier,
Unshielded leads entering the box must be since normally "cool" leads within the box
carefully filtered to prevent fundamental will not have picked up spurious currents
and harmonic energy from escaping down from nearby "hot" leads.
the lead. Combinations of r -f chokes and low -
inductance bypass capacitors should be used
17 -6 Parasitic Resonances
in power leads. If the current in the lead is
high, the chokes must be wound of large -
gauge wire. Composition resistors may be Filament leads within vacuum tubes may
substituted for the r -f chokes in high -im- resonate with the filament bypass capacitors
pedance circuits. Bulkhead or feedthrough at some particular frequency and cause in-
type capacitors are preferable when passing stability in an amplifier stage. Large tubes
a lead through a shield partition. A summary
of the 4 -1000A and 3-1000Z type are
of lead leakage with various filter arrange- prone to this spurious effect. In particular, an
ments is shown in figure 12. amplifier using .001-pfd filament bypass ca-
pacitors had a filimcnt resonant loop that
Internal Leads Leads that connect two points fell in the 7 -MHz amateur band. When the
within an electrically tight amplifier was operated near this frequency,
box may pick up fundamental and harmonic marked instability was noted, and the fila-
currents if they are located in a strong field ments of the tubes increased in brilliance
of flux. Any lead forming a closed loop with when plate voltage was applied to the ampli-
itself will pick up such currents, as shown fier, indicating the presence of r.f. in the
in figure 13. This effect is enhanced if the filament circuit. Changing the filament by-
lead happens to be self- resonant at the fre- pass capacitors to .01 fd lowered the fila-
quency of the exciting energy. The solution ment resonance frequency to 2.2 MHz and
for all of this is to bypass all internal power cured this effect. A 1 -kV mica capacitor of
leads and control leads at each end, and to .01 fd used as a filament bypass capacitor
shield these leads their entire length. All on each filament leg seems to be satisfactory
HANDBOOK Parasitic Oscillation 405
Figure 13 and aluminum chassis and shielding may be

used with good results provided care is taken
SHIELDED SHIELDED
COMPARTMENT
in making all grounding connections. Cad-
COMPARTMENT
O mium and zinc plated chassis are preferable
RADIATION
FIELD HOLE
RE-RADIATED
FIELD from a corrosion standpoint, but are much
'/ CRUP RADIATION
fiP WRONG more difficult to handle in the home work-
shop.
LOOP LOOP
CAPACITOR
BYPASS
CAPACITOR, 17 -7 Parasitic Oscillation
in R -F Amplifiers
ILLUSTRATION OF HOW A SUPPOSEDLY
GROUNDED POWER LEAD CAN COUPLE Parasitics (as distinguished from self -oscil-
ENERGY FROM ONE COMPARTMENT lation on the normal tuned frequency of the
TO ANOTHER amplifier) are undesirable oscillations either
of very -high or very -low frequencies which
may occur in radio- frequency amplifiers.
LETRICALLY
COMOPART ENTTIGNT
ELECTRICALLY
COMPARTMENTTIGNT
They may cause spurious signals (which
are often rough in tone) other than normal
FIELD \
RADIATION
BULKHEAD
CAPACITOR
A
harmonics, hash on each side of a modulated
R IGHT
'
carrier, key clicks, voltage breakdown or flash-
IPICNUP
over, instability or inefficiency, and short-
LOOP
ened life or failure of the tubes. They may
be damped and stop by themselves after key-
T ing or modulation peaks, or they may be
undamped and build up during ordinary
ILLUSTRATION OF LEAD ISOLATION BY
PROPER USE OF BULKHEAD BYPASS
unmodulated transmission, continuing if the
CAPACITOR
excitation is removed. They may result from
series- or parallel- resonant circuits of all
types. Due to neutralizing lead length and
from both a resonant and a TVI point of the nature of most parasitic circuits, the
view. Filament bypass capacitors smaller in amplifier usually is not neutralized for the
value than .01 fd should be used with parasitic frequency.
caution. Sometimes the fact that the plate supply
Various parasitic resonances are also is keyed will obscure parasitic oscillations in
found in plate and grid tank circuits. Push - a final amplifier stage that might be very
pull tank circuits are prone to double reson-
ances, as shown in figure 14. The parasitic
resonance circuit is usually several MHz
higher than the actual resonant frequency of
the full tank circuit. The cure for such a
double resonance is the inclusion of an r -f
choke in the center -tap lead to the split coil.
Chassis Material From a point of view of
electrical properties, alumi- +
num is a poor chassis material. It is difficult
WRONG RIGHT
to make a soldered joint to it, and all grounds
must rely on a pressure joint. These pressure
joints are prone to give trouble at a later Figure 14
date because of high resistivity caused by DOUBLE RESONANCE EFFECTS IN PUSH -
the formation of oxides from electrolytic PULL TANK CIRCUIT MAY BE ELIMI-
action in the joint. However, the ease of NATED BY THE INSERTION OF AN
working and forming the aluminum material R -F CHOKE IN THE COIL CENTER
far outweighs the electrical shortcomings, TAP LEAD
NC
RFCI RFCa
cqlD PLATE
`TANK. TANN
R -F CIRCUIT PARASITIC CIRCUIT FOR CURE

LOW-FREQ. OSCILLATION
Figure 15
LOW- FREQUENCY PARASITIC SUPPRESSION

A- Low -frequency parasitic circuit is formed by grid and plate r -f chokes and associated by-
pass capacitors, as shown at B. fundamental -frequency tank circuits have little effect on
parasitic freq y. C-Parasitic circuits are "de -Q'ed" by addition of either series or parallel
resistance until circuit will not sustain oscillation.
severe if the plate voltage were left on and grid and plate inductances of the parasitic
the excitation were keyed. oscillator. The neutralizing capacitor, no
In some cases, an all -wave receiver will longer providing out -of -phase feedback to
prove helpful in locating vhf spurious oscil- the grid circuit, actually enhances the low -
lations, but it may be necessary to check frequency oscillation. Because of the low Q
from several hundred MHz downward in of the r -f chokes, they will usually run
frequency to the operating range. A normal warm when this type of parasitic oscillation
harmonic is weaker than the fundamental is present and may actually char and burn
but of good tone; a strong harmonic or a up. A neon bulb held near the oscillatory
rough note at any frequency generally indi- circuit will glow a bright yellow, the color
cates a parasitic. appearing near the glass of the neon bulb
In general, the cure for parasitic oscilla- and not between the electrodes.
tion is twofold: The oscillatory circuit is One cure for this type of oscillation is to
damped until sustained oscillation is impos- change the type of choke in either the plate
sible, or it is detuned until oscillation ceases. or the grid circuit. This is a marginal cure,
An examination of the various types of para- because the amplifier may again break into
sitic oscillations and of the parasitic oscilla- the same type of oscillation when the plate
tory circuits will prove handy in applying voltage is raised slightly. The best cure is to
the correct cure. remove the grid r-f choke entirely and re-
place it with a wirewound resistor of suffi-
cient wattage to carry the amplifier grid cur-
Low- Frequency One type of unwanted rent. If the inclusion of such a resistor upsets
Parasitic Oscillationsoscillation often occurs the operating bias of the stage, an r -f choke
in shunt -fed circuits in may be used, with a 100 -ohm 2 -watt carbon
which the grid and plate chokes resonate, resistor in series with the choke to lower the
coupled through the tube's interelectrode operating Q of the choke. If this expedient
capacitance. This also can happen with series does not eliminate the condition, and the
feed. This oscillation is generally at a much stage under investigation uses a beam -tetrode
lower frequency than the operating frequen- tube, negative resistance can exist in the
cy and will cause additional carriers to ap- screen circuit of such tubes. Try larger and
pear, spaced from perhaps twenty to a few smaller screen bypass capacitors to determine
hundred kHz on either side of the main whether or not they have any effect. If the
wave. Such a circuit is illustrated in figure condition is coming from the screen circuit
15. In this case, RFC, and RFC, form the an audio choke with a resistor across it in
series with the screen -feed lead will often when first constructed. But these oscillations
eliminate the trouble. were eliminated in each case; hence, the
Low -frequency parasitic oscillations can expedients used in these equipments should
often take place in the audio system of an be studied. Vhf parasitics may be readily
a -m transmitter, and their presence will not identified, as they cause a neon lamp to have
be known until the transmitter is checked on a purple glow close to the electrodes when
a receiver. It is easy to determine whether or it is excited by the parasitic energy.
not the oscillations are coming from the
modulator simply by switching off the Parasitic Oscillations In the case of triodes,
modulator tubes. If the oscillations are com- with Triodes vhf parasitic oscillations
ing from the modulator, the stage in which often come about as a
they are being generated can be determined result of inductance in the neutralizing
by removing tubes successively, starting leads. This is particularly true in the case
with the first speech amplification stage, un- of push-pull amplifiers. The cure for this
til the oscillation stops. When the stage has effect will usually be found in reducing the
been found, remedial steps can be taken on length of the neutralizing leads and in-
that stage. creasing their diameter. Both the reduction
If the stage causing the oscillation is a in length and increase in diameter will re-
low -level speech stage it is possible that the duce the inductance of the leads and tend
trouble is coming from r -f or power -supply to raise the parasitic oscillation frequency
feedback, or it may be coming about as a until it is out of the range at which the
result of inductive coupling between two tubes will oscillate. The use of straight-
transformers. If the oscillation is taking forward circuit design with short leads will
place in a high -level audio stage, it is pos- assist in forestalling this trouble at the out-
set.
sible that inductive or capacitive coupling is
taking place back to one of the low -level Vhf parasitic oscillations may take place
as a result of inadequate bypassing or long
speech stages.
bypass leads in the filament, grid- return, and
plate- return circuits. Such oscillations also
can take place when long leads exist between
17 -8 Elimination of VHF the grids and the grid tuning capacitor or
Parasitic Oscillations between the plates and the plate tuning ca-
pacitor. Sometimes parasitic oscillations can
Vhf parasitic oscillations are often diffi- be eliminated by using iron or nichrome wire
cult to locate and difficult to eliminate since for the neutralizing leads. But in any event
their frequency often is only moderately it will always be found best to make the
above the desired frequency of operation. neutralizing leads as short and of as heavy
But it may be said that vhf parasitics al- conductor as is practicable.
ways may be eliminated if the operating To increase losses at the parasitic frequen-
frequency is appreciably below the upper cy, the parasitic coils may be wound on 100 -
frequency limit for the tubes used in the ohm 2 -watt resistors. These "lossy" suppres-
stage. However, the elimination of a persist- sors should be placed in the grid leads of the
ent parasitic oscillation on a frequency only tubes close to the grid connection, as shown
moderately higher than the desired operating in figure 16.
frequency will involve a sacrifice in either
the power output or the power sensitivity of
the stage, or in both. Porosities with Where beam - tetrode tubes are
Beam -tetrode stages, particularly those Beam Tetrodes used in the stage which has
using 6146 or TV -style sweep tubes, will been found to be generating
almost invariably have one or more vhf the parasitic oscillation, all the foregoing
parasitic oscillations unless adequate precau- suggestions apply in general. However, there
tions have been taken in advance. Many of are certain additional considerations involved
the units described in the constructional sec- in elimination of parasitics from beam -tet-
tion of this edition had parasitic oscillations rode amplifier stages. These considerations
when the amplifier is designed for vhf oper-

ation where the r -f circuits external to the
tube have small tuning capacitors and induc-
tors. Without tuning capacitors, the highest
frequency of oscillation is then the funda-
mental frequency and no higher frequen-
cies of resonance exist for the parasitic
oscillation.
PC =eT.R /e E. ON 10011,2W
CARRON RESISTOR The vhf oscillation commonly occurs in
h -f amplifiers, using the capacitors and asso-
ciated grid and plate leads for the induct-
Figure 16 ances of the tuned circuit. The frequency
of unwanted oscillation is generally well
GRID PARASITIC SUPPRESSORS IN PUSH - above the self-neutralizing frequency of
PULL TRIODE STAGE the tube. If the frequency of the parasitic
can be lowered to or below the self- neutral-
involve the facts that a beam -tetrode ampli- izing frequency, complete suppression of
fier stage has greater power sensitivity than the parasitic will result. It is also possible to
an equivalent triode amplifier, such a stage suppress the oscillation by loading the circuit
has a certain amount of screen -lead induct- so that the circuit is "lossy" at the parasitic
ance which may give rise to trouble, and frequency. This may be done by the use of
such stages have a small amount of feedback a parasitic choke in the plate and /or grid
capacitance. lead of the stage in question. A parallel coil
Beam -tetrode stages often will require the and resistor combination operates on the
inclusion of a neutralizing circuit to elimi- principle that the resistor loads the vhf
nate oscillation on the operating frequency. circuit but is shunted by the coil for the
However, oscillation on the operating fre- lower fundamental frequency. The parasitic
quency is not normally called a parasitic choke (figure 17) is usually made up of a
oscillation, and different measures are re- noninductive resistor of about 25 to 100
quired to eliminate the condition. ohms, shunted by three or four turns of
When a parasitic oscillation is found on wire, approximately one-half inch in diam-
a very high frequency, the interconnecting eter and frequently wound over the body
leads of the tube, the tuning capacitors and of the resistor.
the bypass capacitors are involved. This In the process of adjusting the resistor -
type of oscillation generally does not occur coil combination, it may be found that the
PC
PC
FOR 807, ETC.
PC=sT.R11E.ON PC =er.I8E.oN4Tn,2W
2212.21 COM- COMPOSITION RESISTOR
POSITION RESISTOR
FOR 4 -250A, ETC.
Doi PC=s-s70/1, 2.
COMPOSITION
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL WITH
ro leE. I/I-OM.
O O
Figure 17
PLATE AND GRID PARASITIC SUPPRESSION IN TETRODE TUBES

R -C -typeparasitic chokes are placed in grid (A) or plate (I) load of 'strode and pentode tubes
as shown above. Too few turns on the parasitic choke will not completely suppress the par-
asitic, whereas too many turns will permit the shunt resistor to absorb too much funda-
mental power. Five turns for the shunt coil will work well to 14 MHz. For 21 and 2$ MHz, the
shunt coil should be reduced to three turns.
resistor runs too hot. The heat is usually stage be neutralized. Neutralization is abso-
caused by the dissipation of fundamental lutely necessary unless the grid and plate cir-
power in the resistor, which is an indica- cuits of the tetrode stage are each completely
tion of too many turns in the suppressor isolated from each other in electrically tight
coil. Just enough turns should be used to boxes. Even when this is done, the stage will
suppress the parasitic oscillation, and no show signs of regeneration when the plate
more. Once the circuit is properly loaded and grid tank circuits are tuned to the same
and the parasitic suppressed, no parasitic frequency. Neutralization will eliminate this
power will be present and no power other regeneration. Any of the neutralization cir-
than primary power will be lost in the resis- cuits described in the chapter Generation of
tor of the suppressor. R -F Energy may be used.
For medium power levels, a plate sup-
pressor may be made of a 22 -ohm, 2 -watt
Ohmite or Allen- Bradley composition resis- 17 -9 Checking for Parasitic
tor wound with 4 turns of No. 18 enameled Oscillations
wire. For kilowatt stages operating up to
30 MHz, a satisfactory plate suppressor may It is an unusual transmitter which har-
be made of three 220 -ohm, 2 -watt composi- bors no parasitic oscillations when first con-
tion resistors in parallel, shunted by 3 or structed and tested. Therefore it is always
4 turns of No. 14 enameled wire, '/z -inch wise to follow a definite procedure in check-
diameter and %z -inch long. ing a new transmitter for parasitic oscilla-
The parasitic suppressor for the plate cir- tions.
cuit of a small rube such as the 5763, 2E26, Parasitic oscillations of all types are most
6146, 6LQ6, or similar type normally may easily found when the stage in question is
consist of a 47 -ohm composition resistor of running by itself, with full plate (and
2 -watt size with 4 turns of No. 18 enameled
screen) voltage, sufficient protective bias to
wire wound around the resistor. However, limit the plate current to a safe value, and
for operation above 30 MHz, special tailor- no excitation. One stage should be tested at
a time, and the complete transmitter should
ing of the value of the resistor and the size
of the coil wound around it will be required never be put on the air until all stages have
in order to attain satisfactory parasitic sup- been thoroughly checked for parasitics.
pression without excessive power loss in To protect tetrode tubes during tests for
the parasitic suppressor. parasitics, the screen voltage should be ap-
plied through a series resistor which will
limit the screen current to a safe value in
Tetrode Screening Isolation between the grid case the plate voltage of the tetrode is sud-
and plate circuits of a denly removed when the screen supply is on.
tetrode tube is not perfect. For maximum The correct procedure for parasitic testing
stability, it is recommended that the tetrode is as follows (figure 18) :
1. The stage should be coupled to a
dummy load, and tuned up in correct oper-
EXCITER
AMPLIFIER STAGE
TO BE TESTED
ating shape. Sufficient protective bias should
FOR PARASITICS DUMMY
LOAD
be applied to the tube at all times. For pro-
tection of the stage under test, a lamp
1
ITER CONTROL
bulb should be added in series with one leg
of the primary circuit of the high -voltage
E XC
SWITCH
power supply. As the plate-supply load in-

BIAS SUPPLY
HIGH-VOLTAGE VARIAC OR creases during a period of parasitic oscilla-
POWER SUPPLY LIGHT BULBS
SUPPLY tion, the voltage drop across the lamp
increases, and the effective plate voltage
drops. Bulbs of various sizes may be tried to
Figure 18
adjust the voltage under testing conditions
SUGGESTED TEST SETUP FOR PARASITIC to the correct amount. If a Variac or Power -
TESTS stai is at hand, it may be used in place of
the bulbs for smoother voltage control. shorted out. A series of rapid dots should be
Don't test for parasitics unless some type of sent, and the frequency spectrum for several
voltage control is used on the high- voltage MHz each side of the carrier frequency care-
supply! When a stage breaks into parasitic fully searched. If any vestige of parasitic is
oscillations, the plate current increases vio-
left, it will show up as an occasional "pop"
lently and some protection to the tube
under test dust be used. on a keyed dot. This "pop" may be enhanced
2. The r -f excitation to the tube should by a slight detuning of the grid or plate.
now be removed. When this is done, the grid, S. If such a parasitic shows up, it means
screen, and plate currents of the tube should that the stage is still not stable, and further
drop to zero. Grid and plate tuning capaci- measures must be applied to the circuit. Par-
tors should be tuned to minimum capacity. asitic suppressors may be needed in both
No change in resting grid, screen, or plate screen and grid leads of a tetrode, or per-
current should be observed. If a parasitic is haps in both grid and neutralizing leads of
present, grid current will flow, and there will a triode stage. As a last resort, a 10,000 -ohm
be an abrupt increase in plate current. The 25 -watt wirewound resistor may be shunted
size of the lamp bulb in series with the high - across the grid coil, or grid tuning capacitor
voltage supply may be varied until the stage of a high powered stage. This strategy re-
can oscillate continuously, without exceed- moved a keying "pop" that showed up in a
ing the rated plate or screen dissipation of commercial transmitter, operating at a plate
the tube. voltage of 5000.
3. The frequency of the parasitic may
now be determined by means of an absorp- Test for Parasitic In most high - frequency
tion wavemeter, or a neon bulb. Low -fre- Tendency in Tetrode transmitters there are a
quency oscillations will cause a neon bulb Amplifiers great many resonances
to glow yellow. High- frequency oscillations in the tank circuit at
will cause the bulb to have a soft, violet frequencies other than the desired operat-
glow. ing frequency. Most of these parasitic reso-
4. When the stage can pass the above test nant circuits are not coupled to the tube
with no signs of parasitics, the bias supply of and have no significant tendency to oscillate.
the tube in question should be decreased A few, however, are coupled to the tube in
until the tube is dissipating its full plate some form of oscillatory circuit. If the re-
rating when full plate voltage is applied, generation is great enough, oscillation at the
.vith no r -f excitation. Excitation may now
be applied and the stage loaded to full input
ATMOSPHERIC
into a dummy load. The signal should now TuBE PRESSURE
be monitored in a nearby receiver which has TUBE 1

SOCKET MANO-
the antenna terminals grounded or otherwise METER
SIGNAL GENERATOR
- 200 MHz
100 kHz
T
PRESSURE
DIrr ERENCE
PRESSURIZED
CHASSIS
O BLOWER
Figure 20
FORCED -AIR COOLING SYSTEM

Figure 19
Centrifugal blower pressurizes plenum cham-
PARASITIC GAIN MEASUREMENT ber (air -tight chassis) and air is exhausted
through the tube socket and anode cooler
Grid-dip oscillator and vacuum tube voltmeter of vacuum tube. P difference between
may be used to measure parasitic stage gala plenum chamber and atmosphere Is measured
over 100 kHz -200 Mils raglan. with manometer tube.
HANDBOOK Forced -Air Cooling 411
SOCKET
parasitic frequency results. Those spurious TUBE TYPE AIR GPM
BACK
PRESSURE
BLOWER
SIZE
RPM
CHIMNEY
circuits existing just below oscillation must 3 -4002
13 0.20 3 600
30410
SN16
be found and suppressed to a safe level. 3 -500Z 50406
3/4 3000 50310
One test method is to feed a signal from a
3
3 -10002 25 0.64 21/2 6000 50516
grid -dip oscillator into the grid of a stage 4 -1000 25 0.64
3 3/4 3000 50510
50506
6000
and measure the resulting signal level in the
2 1/2
50600
plate circuit of the stage, as shown in figure 4Cx250e 6.4 1.12 21/2 6000 50606
19. The test is made with all operating volt- 4C01000 22 0.3 3 3100
50600
50606
ages applied to the tubes. Class -C stages
4Cx1500B
50640
6000
should have bias reduced so a reasonable 5C %1a00 47 1.12 3 50806
amount of static plate current flows. The

grid -dip oscillator is tuned over the range of Figure 21
100 kHz to 200 MHz, the relative level of COOLING REQUIREMENTS FOR
the r -f voltmeter is watched, and the fre- TRANSMITTING TUBES
quencies at which voltage peaks occur are Mr-system sockets and chimneys are required
noted. Each significant peak in voltage gain for high -power transmitting tubes. Complete
air -cooling data for these types may be ob-
in the stage must be investigated. Circuit tained from Application Engineering Depart-
changes or suppression must then be added ment, Eimac Division of Varian, San Carlos,
Calif. 94070.
to reduce all peaks by 10 db or more in am-
plitude. for on the component, and an air exhaust
exit. The resistance to the air passage
17 -10 Forced-Air Cooling through such a system is termed system
back pressure, pressure drop, or static pres-
A large percentage of the primary power sure. Air requirements are normally expressed
as a pressure drop defined in inches of water
drain of a transmitter is converted to heat
emitted by tubes and components. The re- (as measured by a manometer) with a cor-
sulting temperature rise must be held within responding volumetric air flow defined in
reasonable limits to ensure satisfactory life cubic feet per minute (c.f.m.). A typical
for the equipment. air- cooling system is shown in figure 20.
Forced - air -cooled systems may be used to Cooling requirements for most transmitting
remove excess heat. A typical system con- tubes are provided on the data sheet and
sists of an air blower, a conduit to guide the air requirements and blower data for some
air to the tube or component, a heat radia- popular tubes are given in figure 21.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Radio Interference
The problem of interference to other These types of interference are:

equipment is best approached by the philoso-
1. Overloading of the TV set by the
phy discussed in Chapter Seventeen. By cor-
transmitter fundamental
rect design procedure, spurious harmonic 2. Impairment of the picture by spurious
generation in radio transmitters may be
emissions
held to a minimum. The remaining problem Impairment of the picture by the ra-
3.
is twofold: to make sure that the residual
diation of harmonics
harmonics generated by the transmitter are
not radiated, and to make sure that the TV-Set Even if the amateur transmitter
fundamental signal of the transmitter does Overload were perfect and had no harmonic
not overload the other equipment by reason radiation or spurious emissions
of the proximity of one to the other. whatever, it still would be likely to
In an area of high TV- signal field inten- cause overloading to TV sets whose antennas
sity the TVI problem is capable of complete were within a few hundred feet of the trans-
solution with routine measures both at the mitting antenna. This type of overloading is
amateur transmitter and at the affected re- essentially the same as the common type of
ceivers. But in fringe areas of low TV- signal BCI encountered when operating a medium -
field strength the complete elimination of power or high -power amateur transmitter
TVI is a difficult and challenging problem. within a few hundred feet of the normal
The fundamentals illustrated in Chapter broadcast receiver. The field intensity in
Seventeen must be closely followed, and ad- the immediate vicinity of the transmitting
ditional antenna filtering of the transmitter antenna is sufficiently high so that the ama-
is required. teur signal will get into the BC or TV set
either through overloading of the front end,
18 -1 Types of Television or through the i -f, video, or audio systems.
Interference A characteristic of this type of interference
is that it always will be eliminated when the
There are three main types of TVI which transmitter temporarily is operated into a
may be caused singly or in combination by dummy antenna. Another characteristic of
the emissions from an amateur transmitter. this type of overloading is that its effects
Television Interference 413
SHIELD BOX
CI
SHORT
1 1 LEADS
300 OHM TO
M
LINE FROM
FR
ANTENNA
I" ya
Ss
TO INPUT
TERMINALS
OF TV SET
LINE FROM
ANTENNA
ANTENNA
TERM ON
TV SET
Lt
'I ` rt
T
OA FOR 300 -OHM LINE, SHIELDED OR UNSHIELDED
Figure
, 1
1
ICz COAX
TUNED TRAP FOR THE TRANSMITTER FITtNGIa-iQ 1`
111
FITTING
FUNDAMENTAL C. L3
L3
This trap has p to be effective in elimina- 11
ting the condition of g blocking as

1
caused by a 50 -MHz transmitter In the vicini-

ty of a TV receiver. The tuned circuits L, C, Q FOR 50 -75 OHM COAXIAL LINE
are resonated separately to the frequency of Figure 2
transmission. The adjustment may be done
at the station, or it may be accomplished at
the TV receiver by tuning for minimum inter- HIGH -PASS TRANSMISSION LINE FILTERS
ference on the TV screen.
The arrangement at A will stop the passing of
all signals below about 45 MHz from the an-
tenna transmission line into the TV set. Coils
will be substantially continuous over the en- L, are each 1.2 microhenrys (17 turns No. 24
tire frequency coverage of the BC or TV re- enam. closewound on 1/4-inch dio. polystyrene
rod) with the center tap grounded. It will be
ceiver. Channels 2 through 13 will be af- found best to scrape, twist, and solder the
fected in approximately the same manner. center tap before winding the coil. The number
With the overloading type of interference, of turns each side of the tap may then be
varied until the tap is in the exact center of
the problem is simply to keep the funda- the winding. Coil L. is 0.6 microhenry (12 turns
mental of the transmitter out of the affected No. 24 enam. closewound on 1/4-inch dia. poly-
styrene rod). The capacitors should be about
receiver. Other types of interference may or 16.S pf, but either 1S- or 20 -pf ceramic capaci-
may not show up when the fundamental is tors will give satisfactory results. A similar
taken out of the TV set (they probably will filter for coaxial antenna transmission line is
shown at B. Both coils should be 0.12 micro-
appear), but at least the fundamental must henry (7 turns No. 18 enam. spaced to t/2 inch
be eliminated first. on 1/4 -inch dia. polystyrene rod). Capacitors
C, should be 75 -pf midget ceramics, while C.
The elimination of the transmitter funda- should be a 40-pf ceramic.
mental from the TV set is normally the only
operation performed on or in the vicinity of
the TV receiver. After the fundamental has readjusted whenever the band of operation
been eliminated as a source of interference to is changed, or even when moving from one
reception, work may then be begun on or in extreme end of a band to the other. Hence,
the vicinity of the transmitter toward elim- wavetraps are not recommended except
inating the other two types of interference. when operation will be confined to a rela-
tively narrow portion of one amateur band.
Taking Out More or less standard BCI- However, figure 1 shows a suitable trap
the Fundamental type practice is most com- system, especially effective at SO MHz.
Signal monly used in taking out
fundamental interference. High -Pass Filters High -pass filters in the an-
Wavetraps and filters are installed, and the tenna lead of the TV set
antenna system may or may not be modified have proven to be quite satisfactory as a
so as to offer less response to the signal from means of eliminating TVI of the overloading
the amateur transmitter. In regard to a type. In many cases when the interfering
comparison between wavetraps and filters, transmitter is operated only on the bands
the same considerations apply as have been below 30 MHz, the use of a high -pass
effective in regard to BCI for many years; filter in the antenna lead has completely
wavetraps are quite effective when properly eliminated all TVI. In some cases the in-
installed and adjusted, but they must be stallation of a high -pass filter in the antenna
414 Radio Interference RADIO
transmission line and an a -c line filter of a

standard variety has proven to be completely
effective in eliminating the interference from
a transmitter operating in one of the high -
frequency amateur bands.
Designs for high -pass filters are given in
figures 2 and 3. In most cases the filters may Figure 3
be constructed in one of the small shield
SERIES- DERIVED HIGH -PASS FILTER
boxes which are on the market. Input and
output terminals may be standard connec- Thisfilter is designed for use in the 300 -ohm
transmission line from the TV antenna to the
tors, or the inexpensive type of terminal TV receiver. Nominal cut -off frequency is 36
strips usually used on BC and TV sets may MHz and maximum rejection is at about 29
be employed. Coaxial terminals should of MHz.
C,,C, -15 -pf zero-coefficient ceramic
course be employed when a coaxial feed line C C,C,C 20 -pf zero-coefficient ceramic
is used to the antenna. In any event, the L, L -2.0 h. About 24 turns No. 28 d.c.c. wound
to s/e on %" diameter polystyrene rod. Turns
leads from the filter box to the TV set should be adjusted until the coil ates to
should be very short, including both the an- 29 MHz with the associated 1 S -pf capacitor.
tenna lead and the ground lead to the box L,-0.66,h. 14 turns No. 28 d.c.c. wound to s/,"
on i/c" dia. polystyrene rod. Adjust turns to
itself. If the leads from the box to the set resonate externally to 20 MHz with an auxili-
have much length, they may pick up enough ary 100 -pf capacitor whose value is accurately
known.
signal to nullify the effects of the high -pass
filter.
emitted spurious signals as a result of key
Blocking from Operation on the 50-Mc. clicks, parasitics, and overmodulation trans-
50 -MHz Signals amateur band in an area ients. In most cases the operators of the
where channel 2 is in use for transmitters were not aware of these emis-
TV imposes a special problem in the matter sions since they were radiated only for a short
of blocking. The input circuits of most TV distance and hence were not brought to his
sets are sufficiently broad so that an amateur attention. But with one or more TV sets in
signal on the 50-MHz band will ride through the neighborhood it is probable that such
with little attenuation. Also, the normal TV spurious signals will be brought quickly to
antenna will have quite a large response to the attention of the operator.
a signal in the 50-MHz band, since the lower
limit of channel 2 is 54 -MHz. 18 -2 Harmonic Radiation
High -pass filters of the normal type sim-
ply are not capable of giving sufficient at- After any condition of blocking at the
tenuation to a signal whose frequency is so TV receiver has been eliminated, and when
close to the necessary passband of the filter. the transmitter is completely free of trans-
Hence, a resonant circuit element, as illus- ients and parasitic oscillations, it is probable
trated in figure 1, must be used to trap out that TVI will be eliminated in certain cases.
the amateur field at the input of the TV set. Certainly general interference should be
The transmitter operating frequency will have eliminated, particularly if the transmitter is
to be near the lower frequency limit of the a well- designed affair operated on one of the
50 -MHz band to obtain adequate rejection lower frequency bands, and the station is in
of the amateur signal while still not ma- a high-signal TV area. But when the trans-
terially affecting the response of the receiver mitter is to be operated on one of the higher
to channel 2. frequency bands, and particularly in a mar-
ginal TV area, the job of TVI- proofing will
Elimination of All spurious emissions just have begun. The elimination of har-
Spurious Emissions from amateur transmit- monic radiation from the transmitter is a
ters (ignoring harmonic difficult and tedious job which must be done
signals for the time being) must be elim- in an orderly manner if completely satis-
inated to comply with FCC regulations. But factory results are to be obtained.
in the past many amateur transmitters have First it is well to become familiar with the
HANDBOOK Harmonic Radiation 415
ti
WI
2ND 3RD 4TH 5TH 6TH 7TH 8TH 9TH 10TH
N
Zcs
Z
7.0- 21 -21.9 42 -44 56 -58.4 63 -65.7 70 -73

7.3 TV I.F. TV I.F. CHANNEL CHANNEL CHANNEL
O O C)
14.0- 42 -43 56.57.6 70-72 84 -86.4 98 -100.8

14.35 TV I.F. CHANNEL CHANNEL CHANNEL F -M
0 0 DO BROADCAST
63 -64.35 84 -85.8 105- 107.25 189 -193 210 -214.5

21.0- CHANNELS CHANNEL
21.45 CHANNEL CHANNEL F -M
OO 0 BROADCAST 0 CD Ii
28.0-
29.7
56 -59.4
CHANNEL
84 -89.1
CHANNEL
168 -178.2 196 -207.9
CHANNEL CHANNELS
cg Q 07 o n, g
50.0- 100 -108 200 -216 450-486 500-540
54.0 F -M CHANNELS POSSIBLE INTERFERENCE
BROADCAST iO Q (i TO UHF CHANNELS
Figure 4
HARMONICS OF THE AMATEUR BANDS

Shown are the harmonic frequency ranges of the amateur bands between 7 and 54 MHz, with
the TV channels (and TV i -f systems) which are most likely to receive inter/ from these
harmonics. Under certain conditions amateur signals in the 1.8- and 3.5 -MHz bands can
cause interference as a result of direct pickup in the video systems of TV receivers which are
not adequately shielded.
TV channels presently assigned, with the TV 1. An unmodulated carrier, such as a c -w

intermediate frequencies commonly used, and signal with the key down or an a -m
with the channels which will receive inter- signal without modulation, will give a
ference from harmonics of the various ama- crosshatch or herringbone pattern on
teur bands. Figures 4 and S give this infor- the TV screen. This same general type
mation. of picture also will occur in the case
Even a short inspection of figures 4 and S of a narrow -band f -m signal either
will make obvious the seriousness of the in- with or without modulation.
terference which can be caused by har- 2. A relatively strong a -m or SSB signal
monics of amateur signals in the higher fre- will give in addition to the herringbone
quency bands. With any sort of reasonable a very serious succession of light and
precautions in the design and shielding of dark bands across the TV picture.
the transmitter it is not likely that har- 3. A moderate strength c -w signal with-
monics higher than the 6th will be en- out transients, in the absence of over-
countered. For this reason, the most fre- loading of the TV set, will result
quently found offenders in the way of merely in the turning on and off of
harmonic interference will almost invari- the herringbone on the picture.
ably be those bands above 14 MHz. To discuss condition 1 above, the herring-
bone is a result of the beat note between the
Nature of Investigations into the TV video carrier and the amateur harmonic.
Harmonic Interference nature of the interfer- Hence the higher the beat note the less ob-
ence caused by ama- vious will be the resulting crosshatch. Fur-
teur signals on the TV screen, assuming that ther, it has been shown that a much stronger
blocking has been eliminated as described signal is required to produce a discernible
earlier in this chapter, have revealed the fol- herringbone when the interfering harmonic
lowing facts: is as far away as possible from the video car-
\
VIDEO SOUND
O
V a
- J
N
U
I t t -
I TV I I TV 1
TV I TV 1\ICHANNELI
'CHANNEL' CHANNELIaTMER/ I
'CHANNEL' 'CHANNEL
TV 7
I O I I O I I O I I I I
O
66 72 76 82 88 108
LOW BAND
VIDEO SOUND
2.
O N
U
N S
I N
t I I I I I I 1 r 1
1 TV I
I TV I I TV I I
TV I 1 TV I
I
TV I I TV I
'CHANNEL' ICHANNELI 'CHANNEL' 'CHANNEL' 'CHANNEL' ICHANNELI ICHANNELI

I
I
O I
I
I
I
O I
I
I
(D I
I
1 E) I
I
I
I
111 I
I
I
1
I
I I
I i I
1 180 186 192 198 204 210 2 6

HIGH BAND
Figure 5
FREQUENCIES OF THE VHF TV CHANNELS
Showing the frequency ranges of TV channels 2 through 13, with the picture carrier and sound
carrier frequencies also shown.
rier, without running into the sound carrier. In most cases, it will be found that the
Thus, as a last resort, or to eliminate the last interference drops materially when the
vestige of interference after all corrective transmitting antenna is removed and a
measures have been taken, operate the trans- dummy load substituted. It may also be
mitter on a frequency such that the interfer- found that the interference level is rela-
ing harmonic will fall as far as possible from tively constant, regardless of the operation
the picture carrier. The worst possible inter- of the output stage of the transmitter. In
ference to the picture from a continuous car- rare cases, it may be found that a particular
rier will be obtained when the interfering stage in the transmitter is causing the inter-
signal is very close in frequency to the video ference and corrective measures may be ap-
carrier. plied to this stage. The common case, how-
ever, is general TVI radiating from antenna,
Isolating Throughout the testing pro- cabinet, and power leads of the transmitter.
the Source of cedure it will be necessary to The first corrective measure is to properly
the Interference have some sort of indicating bypass the transmitter power leads before
device as a means of deter- they leave the cabinet. Each lead should be
mining harmonic field intensities. The best bypassed to chassis ground with a .01 -4d,
indicator, of course, is a nearby television 1.6 -KV ceramic capacitor, or run through
receiver. The home receiver may be bor- a 0.1 -4d, 600 -volt feedthrough ( Hypass)
rowed for these tests. A portable "rabbit capacitor. If possible, the transmitter chassis
ears" antenna is useful since it may be should be connected to an external ground.
moved about the transmitter site to examine The next step is to check transmitter
the intensity of the interfering harmonics. shielding. Paint should be removed from
The first step is to turn on the transmit- mating surfaces wherever possible and the
ter and check all TV channels to determine cabinet should be made as "r -f tight" as
the extent of the interference and the num- possible in the manner discussed in Chapter
ber of channels affected. Then disconnect 32.
the transmitting antenna and substitute a
shielded dummy load, noting the change in 18 -3 Low -Pass Filters
interference level, if any. Now, remove
excitation from the final stage of the trans- After the transmitter has been shielded,
mitter, and determine the extent of inter- and all power leads have been filtered in such
ference caused by the exciter stages. a manner that the transmitter shielding has
HANDBOOK Low -Pass Filters 417
not been rendered ineffective, the only re-

maining available exit for harmonic energy
lies in the antenna transmission line. Hence
the main burden of harmonic attenuation
will fall on the low -pass filter installed be-
tween the output of the transmitter and the
antenna system.
z
Experience has shown that the low -pass
filter can best be installed externally to the L4 e%
main transmitter enclosure, and that the C3 -4C 3

transmission line from the transmitter to the T T
lowpass filter should be of the coaxial type.
Hence the majority of low -pass filters are
Figure 6
designed for a characteristic impedance of 52
chms, so that RG -8 /U cable (or RG -58 /U LOW -PASS FILTER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
for a small transmitter) may be used be-
tween the output of the transmitter and the The filter illustrated at A uses m-derived
terminating hall sections at each end, with
antenna transmission line or the antenna three constant-k midsections. The Alter at is /
tuner. essentially the same except that the center
section has been changed to act as an m-de-
Transmitting -type low -pass filters for rived section which can be designed to offer
.amateur use usually are designed in such a maximum attenuation to channels, 2, 4, S, or
6 in accord with the constants given below.
manner as to pass frequencies up to about Cutoff frequency is 4S MHz in all cases. All
30 MHz without attenuation. The nominal coils, except L,, in B above, are wound 1/2r, i.d.
cutoff frequency of the filters is usually be- with 8 turns per inch.
The A Filter
tween 38 and 45 MHz, and m- derived sec- C,, C, -41.5 pf (40 pf will be found suitable.)
tions with maximum attenuation in channel C., C,, C,- 136 pf (730 to 140 pf may be used.)
L,, L, -0.2 h; 31/2 t. No. 74
2 usually are included. Well- designed filters ,.h; S t. No. 12
capable of carrying any power level up to L,, L, -0.37 uh; 6'/3 t. No. 12
The 8 Filter Wsh midsection tuned to Channel
one kilowatt are available commercially from 2 (58 MHz)
several manufacturers. Alternatively, filters C,, C, -41.S pl (use 40 pl)
in kit form are available from several manu- C., C,-136 pf (use 130 to 140 pf)
C, -8il pf (SO pf fixed and 7S pf variable in
facturers at a somewhat lower price. Effec- parallel.)
tive filters may be home constructed, if the L, L. -0.2 h;3/,t. No. 14
test equipment is available and if sufficient
L L,, L,, L,-0.3 h; 5 t. No. 12
L, -0.09 h; 2 t. No. 14, i/3" dia. 1n long
care is taken in the construction of the as- The B Filter witfr:niidsection tuned to Channel
4 (71 MHz) All components same except that:
sembly. C, -106 pf (use 100 pi)
L, L,- 0.33h; 6 t. No. 12
11/2 t. No. 14, 3/e" dia. by 3/e " long.
Construction of Figures 6 and 7, illustrate The 8 Filter with midsection tuned to Channel
Low -Pass Filters high -performance low -pass 5 (81 MHz). Change the following:
C, -113 pf (use 115 pf)
filters which are suitable for L,, L, -0.34 h; 6 t. No. 12
home construction. All are constructed in L, -0.033 h; 1 t. No. 14, 3/e" dia.
The B Filter with midsection tuned to Channel
slip -cover aluminum boxes with dimensions 6 (86 MHz). All comp is are essentially the
of 17 by 3 by 25/8 inches. Five aluminum same except that the theoretical value of L,
baffle plates have been installed in the chassis is changed to 0.03 h, and the capacitance of
C, is changed to 117 pf. (use 120 pf)
to make six shielded sections within the en-
closure. Feedthrough bushings between the
shielded sections are Johnson No. 135-55. ure 613 have provisions for an additional re-
Both the A and B filter types are designed jection trap in the center of the filter unit
for a nominal cutoff frequency of 45 MHz, which may be designed to offer maximum re-
with a frequency of maximum rejection at jection in channel 2, 4, 5, or 6, depending on
about 57 MHz as established by the termi- which channel is likely to be received in the
nating half- sections at each end. Characteris- area in question. The only components which
tic impedance is 52 ohms in all cases. The must be changed when changing the fre-
alternative filter designs diagramed in fig- quency of the maximum rejection notch in
Figure 7
PHOTOGRAPH OF THE B FILTER WITH COVER REMOVED
The midsection in this filter is adjusted for maximum rejection of channel 4. Note that the
main coils of the filter are mounted at an angle of about 45 degrees so that there will be
minimum inductive coupling from one section to the next through the holes in the aluminum
partitions. Mounting the coils in this manner was found to give a measurable improvement
in the attenuation characteristics of the filter.
the center of the filter unit are inductors L,, Lions can be wound to the dimensions given
L,, and L; and capacitor C,. A trimmer ca- (L,, L, and L2). Then the resonant fre-
pacitor has been included as a portion of C, quency of the series -resonant end sections
so that the frequency of maximum rejection should be checked with a grid -dip meter,
can be tuned accurately ro the desired value. after the adjacent input or output terminal
Reference to figures 4 and 5 will show the has been shorted with a very short lead. The
amateur bands which are most likely to coils should be squeezed or spread until
cause interference to specific TV channels. resonance occurs at 57 MHz.
Either high -power or low -power compo- The intermediate m- derived section in the
nents may be used in the filters diagramed filter of figure 6B may also be checked with
in figure 6. With the small zero-coeffi- a grid -dip meter for resonance at the cor-
cient ceramic capacitors used in the filter rect rejection frequency, after the hot end
units of figure 6A or figure 6B, power levels of L, has been temporarily grounded with a
up to 200 watts output may be used without low- inductance lead. The variable- capacitor
danger of damage to the capacitors, provided portion of C, can be tuned until resonance at
the filter is feeding a 52 -ohm resistive load. the correct frequency has been obtained.
It may be practical to use higher levels of Note that there is so little difference between
power with this type of ceramic capacitor in the constants of this intermediate section for
the filter, but at a power level of 200 watts channels S and 6 that variation in the setting
on the 28 -MHz band the capacitors run just of C, will tune to either channel without
perceptibly warm to the touch. As a point materially changing the operation of the
of interest, it is the current rating which is filter.
of significance in the capacitors used in filters
such as illustrated. Since current ratings for The coils in the intermediate sections of
small capacitors such as these are not readily the filter (Lt, L,, L1, and L5 in figure 6A,
available, it is not possible to establish an and Lt, L,, L,, and LB in figure 6B) may be
accurate power rating for such a unit. The checked most conveniently outside the filter
high -power unit illustrated in figure 7, unit with the aid of a small ceramic capaci-
which uses Centralab type 8 S OS and 854S tor of known value and a grid -dip meter.
capacitors, has proven quite suitable for The ceramic capacitor is paralleled across the
power levels up to 2 kW, PEP. small coil with the shortest possible leads.
Capacitors C,, C2, C1, and C, can be Then the assembly is placed on a cardboard
standard manufactured units with normal 5 box and the resonant frequency checked with
percent tolerance. The coils for the end sec- a grid -dip meter.
HANDBOOK Low -Pass Filters 419
FROM TRANS. TO RECEIVER
t LI L3 L4
1
VW/ T 55V ANl
r
1 T
5o TL2 I Ls
G
,
L 100 60 60 a0 60 200MH
MH2 IMN
C2 C3 C a i CS C 6 C7
Figure 8 , PF i
T 7r, PF
SCHEMATIC OF THE SINGLE-SECTION
HALF -WAVE FILTER 30
The constants given below are ;.^- a character-

istic impedance of 52 ohms, for ce with ao
RG -8 /U and RG -58/U cable. Coil L, should be
50
checked for resonance at the operating fre-
quency with C and the same with L. and C .
This check can be made by soldering a low - 60
inductance grounding strap to the lead be-
tween L and L. where it passes through the 70
shield. When the coils have been trimmed to
resonance with a grid -dip meter, the ground- 00
400
150 200 250 300
ing strap should of course be removed. This F (MHZ)
filter type will give an attenuation of about
30 db to the second harmonic, about 48 db to Figure 9
the third, about 60 db to the fourth, 67 to the
fifth, etc., increasing at a rate of about 30 db SIX METER TVI FILTER
per octave.
C , C, C , C -Silver
mica or small ceramic for C -50 -pf Centralab 8505 -50Z. Resonates with
low power, transmitting type ceramic for L to 200 MHz.
high power. Capacitance for different bands is C , C -4 -pf piston capacitor. JFD type VC -4G.
given below. C , C , C , C, -60 pl. Three 20 -pf capacitors in
parallel. Centralab 853A -20Z.
160 meters -1700 pf L-Copper strap, 12" wide, 21 4" long, 178"
80 meters- 850 pf between mounting holes, approximately 0.01"
40 meters- 440 pf thick. Strap is bent in U-shape around capaci-
20 meters- 220 pf tor and bolted to capacitor terminals.
10 meters- 110 pf
6 meters- 60 pf
L -II
turns 418 enam. wire, 14" diameter,
)4" long, airwound. Resonates to 100 MHz with
L, L -May be made up of sections of B&W capacitor C .
Miniductor for power levels below 250 watts, L. L -3 turns 3/16" tubing, 11'4" i.d., spaced
or of No. 12 enam. for power up to one kilo- to occupy about 21 2 ". Turns are adjusted to
watt. Approximate dimensions for the coils are resonate each section at 50 MHz.
L -6 turns #18 enam. wire, 4" diameter,
given below, but the coils should be trimmed 1
to resonate at the proper frequency with a 58" long, airwound. Resonates to 200 MHz
grid -dip meter as discussed above. All coils with capacitor C..
except the ones for 160 meters are wound 8
turns per inch.
160 meters -4.2 ph; 22 turns No. 16 enam. 1
dia. 2'" long leads must be suppressed. This subject has

80 meters -2.1 ph; 13 t. 1" dia. (No. 3014 Mini - been discussed in the previous section. Sec-
ductor or No. 12 at 8 t.p.i.
40 meters -1.1 ph; 8 t. 1" dia. (No. 3014 or No. ondly, the filter must be operated into a load
12 at 8 t.p.i.) impedance approximately equal to its design
20 meters -0.55 ph; 7 t. dia. (No. 3010 or
No. 12 at 8 t.p.i.) characteristic impedance. The filter itself
10 meters -0.3 ph; 6 t. 1/2" dia. (No. 3002 or will have very low losses (usually less than
No. 12 at 8 t.p.i.) 0.5 db) when operated into its nominal
6 meters -0.17 ph; 4 t. 1/2" dia. (No. 3002 or
No. 12 at R t.p.i.) value of resistive load. But if the filter is
not terminated correctly, its losses will be-
come excessive, and it will not present the
Using Low -Pass The low -pass filter con - correct value of load impedance to the trans-
Filters netted in the output transmitter.
mission line of the transmit- If a filter, being fed from a high -power
ter is capable of affording an enormous de- transmitter, is operated into an incorrect ter-
gree of harmonic attenuation. However, the mination it may be damaged; the coils may
filter must be operated in the correct manner be overheated and the capacitors destroyed
or the results obtained will not be up to ex- as a result of excessive r -f currents. Hence
pectations. it is wise when first installing a low -pass
In the first place, all direct radiation from filter, to check the standing -wave ratio of
the transmitter and its control and power the load being presented to the output of the
Figure 10
INTERIOR VIEW OF SIX -METER FILTER
The input compartment of the Alter is at the left. The series coil is wound of copper tubing,
and the connection to the output section (right) is made by o length of tubing which passes
through a hole in the center shield. Series elements carry less nf and employ wirewound
coils. At right is antenna relay, with power leads bypassed as they leave filter comportment.
Filter is set to co t frequency by adjusting the inductance of the tubing coils.
filter with a standing -wave meter of any of 200 MHz to provide additional protection
the conventional types. Then the antenna to television channels 11, 12, and 13.
termination or the antenna coupling should The filter (figure 10) is built in an alumi-
be adjusted, with low power on the transmit- num box measuring 4" x 4" x 10" and uses
ter, until the s.w.r. of the load being pre- type -N coaxial fittings. The half -wave filter
sented to the filter is less than 2.0, and pre- coils are wound of 3/16 -inch diameter cop-
ferably below 1.5. per tubing and have large copper lugs sol-
Holt-Wove Filters A half -wane filter is an dered to the ends. The 60 -pf capacitors are
made up of three 20 -pf, Sky ceramic units
effective device for TVI
in parallel. A small sheet of copper is cut in
suppression and is easily built. It offers the
advantage of presenting the same value of triangular shape and joins the capacitor
impedance at the input terminal as appears
terminals and a coil lug is attached to the
as a load across the output terminal. The
center of the triangle with heavy brass bolts.
filter is a single -band unit, offering high at- The parallel -tuned 200 -MHz series filter
tenuation to the second- and higher -order element at the input terminal is made of a
length of copper strap shunted across a 50-
harmonics. Design data for high- frequency
pf, 5kv ceramic capacitor. In this particular
half -wave filters is given in figure 8.
filter, the parallel circuit was affixed to the
A High -Power The second and higher har- output capacitor of the pi- network tank cir-
Filter for monics of a six -meter trans - cuit of the transmitter and does not show in
Six Meters mitter fall directly into the the photograph.
f -m and uhf and vhf tele- The filter is adjusted by removing the
vision bands. An effective low -pass filter is connections from the ends of the half -wave
required to adequately suppress unwanted sections and adjusting each section to 50
transmitter emissions falling in these bands. MHz by spreading the turns of the coil with
Described in this section is a six -meter TVI a screwdriver while monitoring the resonant
filter rated at the two -kilowatt level which frequency with a grid -dip oscillator. The
provides better than 75 decibels suppression next step is to ground the top end of each
of the second harmonic and better than 60 series -tuned section (C2, L_ and C2, L;) with
decibels suppression of higher harmonics of a heavy strap. The input section is tuned to
a six -meter transmitter (figure 9). The 100 MHz and the output section to 200
unit composed of a half -wave filter with
is MHz. When tuning adjustments are com-
added end sections which are tuned to 100 pleted, the straps are removed and the top
MHz and 200 MHz. An auxiliary filter ele- of the filter box is held in place with sheet -
ment in series with the input is tuned to metal screws.
HANDBOOK Broadcast Interference 421
Broadcast recommended cures will be discussed in the

18 -4
following paragraphs.
Interference
Blanketing is not a tunable effect, but
This
Interference to the reception of signals in total blocking of the receiver.
a
the broadcast band (540 to 1600 kHz) or in A more or less complete "washout" covers
the f -m broadcast band (88 to 108 MHz) the entire receiver range when the carrier
by amateur transmissions is a serious mat- is switched on. This produces either a com-
ter to those amateurs living in densely popu- plete blotting out of all broadcast stations,
lated areas. Although broadcast interference or else knocks down their volume several
has recently been overshadowed by the decibels -depending on the severity of the
seriousness of television interference, the con- interference. Voice modulation causing the
dition of BCI is still present. blanketing will be highly distorted or even
In general, signals from a transmitter unintelligible. Keying of the carrier which
operating properly are not picked up by re- produces the blanketing will cause an annoy-
ceivers tuned to other frequencies unless the ing fluctuation in the volume of the broad-
receiver is of inferior design, or is in poor cast signals.
condition. Therefore, if the receiver is of Blanketing generally occurs in the imme-
good design and is in good repair, the burden diate neighborhood (inductive field) of a
of rectifying the trouble rests with the powerful transmitter, the affected area being
owner of the interfering station. Phone and directly proportional to the power of the
c -w stations both are capable of causing transmitter. Also, it is more prevalent with
broadcast interference, key -click annoyance transmitters which operate in the 160 -meter
from the code transmitters being particularly and 80 -meter bands, as compared to those
objectionable. operating on the higher frequencies.
Broadcast interference, as covered in this In the rare case where the broadcast re-
section refers primarily to standard (ampli- ceiver utilizes an external antenna, a simple
tude- modulated, 50 -1600 kHz) broadcast.
S wavetrap tuned to the frequency of the
Interference with f -m broadcast reception is local transmitter will minimize the signal
much less common, due to the wide separa- entering the receiver (figure 11) . The wave -
tion in frequency between the f -m broad- trap should be installed as close to the re-
cast band and the more popular amateur ciever antenna terminal as practical. Most
bands, and due also to the limiting action broadcast receivers, however, dispense with
which exists in all types of f -m receivers. an external antenna and instead use a ferrite
Occasional interference with f -m broadcast "loopstick" antenna concealed within the
by a harmonic of an amateur transmitter has receiver cabinet. Loopstick pickup at the
been reported; if this condition is encount- higher frequencies is quite restricted and it
ered, it may be eliminated by the procedures is usually found that severe blanketing may
discussed in the first portion of this chapter be reduced by merely bypassing each side
under Telet ision Interference. of the receiver power line to the chassis of
the receiver with a pair of .01 -0d, 1.6 -kV
Interference Depending on whether it is ceramic disc capacitors.
Classifications traceable directly to causes
within the station or within Phantoms With two strong local carriers
the receiver, broadcast interference may be applied to a nonlinear imped-
divided into two main classes. For example, ance, the beat note resulting from cross
that type of interference due to transmitter modulation between them may fall on some
overmodulation or flat -topping is at once frequency within the broadcast band and
listed as being caused by improper opera- will be audible at that point. If such a
tion, while an interfering signal that tunes "phantom" signal falls on a local broadcast
in and out with a broadcast station is prob- frequency, there will be heterodyne interfer-
ably an indication of cross -modulation or ence as well. This is a common occurrence
image response in the receiver, and the poorly with broadcast receivers in the neighborhood
designed input stage of the receiver is held of two amateur stations, or an amateur and
liable. The various types of interference and a broadcast station. It also sometimes occurs
1.8 MHz 1 inch No. 30 enam.

closewound on 1" form
75 -pf var.
ol l l
I
l
a~002
c
3.5 MHz 42 turns No. 30 enam. 50 -pf var. 33L.+ g33LH

7.0 MHz 23 turns No. 24 enam. 50 -pf var. 1
closewound on 1" form 1
14 MHz 10 turns No. 24 enam. 50 -pf vor.
closewound on 1" form Figure 12
21 MHz 7 turns No. 24 enam. 50 -pf var.
HYPASS FILTER FOR AMATEUR
28 MHz 4 turns No. 24 enam. 25 -pf vor.
closewound on 1" form RECEIVER
50 MHz 3 turns No. 24 enam. 25 -pf var.
spaced %,1" on 1" form This simple Alter attenuates signals below
1600 kHz to reduce overload caused by strong
nearby broadcast station. Filter is designed to
be placed in series with coaxial line to re-
ceiver. Filter should be built in small shield
box with appropriate coaxial fittings. J. W.
Miller ferrite choke 74F336AP may be used
for 3.3 H inductor.
a simple superhet receiver and cause inter-

ference of the untunable variety if the man-
ufacturer has not provided an i -f wavetrap
Figure 11 in the antenna circuit.
WAVETRAP FOR BC! This particular type of phantom may, in
addition to causing i -f interference, generate
If the radio receiver has an external antenna, harmonics which may be tuned in and out
a parallel -tuned circuit may be placed at the
antenna terminal and tuned to the frequency with heterodyne whistles from one end of
of the offending signal. Table shows circuit the receiver dial to the other. It is in this
constants for amateur -band wavetraps.
manner that birdies often result from the
operation of nearby amateur stations.
when one of the stations is located in the When one component of a phantom is a
immediate vicinity. steady unmodulated carrier, only the intelli-
As an example: an amateur signal on 3514 gence presence on the other carrier is con-
kHz might beat with a local 2414 kHz vened to the broadcast receiver.
carrier to produce a 1100 -kHz phan-
tom. If the two carriers are strong enough
Phantom signals almost always may be
identified by the suddenness with which they
in the vicinity of a circuit which can cause
are interrupted, signaling withdrawal of
rectification, the 1100 -kHz phantom will be
heard in the broadcast band. A poor contact one party of the union. This is especially
between two oxidized wires can produce baffling to the inexperienced interference
rectification. locater, who observes that the interference
Two stations must be transmitting simul- suddenly dissapears, even though his own
taneously to produce a phantom signal; when transmitter remains in operation.
either station goes off the air the phantom If the mixing or rectification is taking
disappears. Hence, this type of interference place in the receiver itself, a phantom signal
is apt to be reported as highly intermittent may be eliminated by removing either one
and might be difficult to duplicate unless a of the contributing signals from the receiver
test oscillator is used "on location" to simul- input circuit. In the case of phantom cross-
late the missing station. Such interference talk in an amateur -band receiver, a simple
cannot be remedied at the transmitter, and high -pass filter designed to attenuate signals
often the rectification takes place some dis- below 1600 kHz may be placed in the
tance from the receivers. In such occurrences coaxial antenna lead to the receiver (figure
it is most difficult to locate the source of the 12). This will greatly reduce the strength
trouble. of local broadcast signals, which in a metro-
It will also be apparent that a phantom politan area may amount to fractions of
might fall on the intermediate frequency of a volt on the receiver input circuit.
HANDBOOK Broadcast Interference 423
HIGH -u TUSE
A -c /d -c Receivers
Inexpensive table - model SUCH AS 6AV6
a -c /d -c receivers are par- RFC

TO VOLUME
ticularly susceptible to interference from CONTROL
amateur transmissions. In most cases the

receivers are at fault; but this does not
absolve the amateur of his responsibility in
attempting to eliminate the interference.
In cases of interference to inexpensive
receivers, particularly those of the a -c /d -c
type, is will be found that stray receiver
rectification is causing the trouble. The of-
fending stage usually will be found to be a
high -p triode as the first audio stage follow-
ing the second detector. Tubes of this type Figure 13
are quite nonlinear in their grid character-
istic, and hence will readily rectify any r -f CIRCUITS FOR ELIMINATING AUDIO -
signal appearing between grid and cathode. STAGE RECTIFICATON
The r -f signal may get to the tube as a result
of direct signal pickup due to the lack of
shielding, but more commonly will be fed "Floating" Volume - Several sets have been
to the tube from the power line as a result Control Shafts encountered where there
of the series heater string. was only a slight in-
The remedy for this condition is simply to terfering signal; but, on placing one's hand
ensure that the cathode and grid of the to the volume control, the signal would
high -p audio tube (usually a 6AV6 or equiv- greatly increase. Investigation revealed that
alent) are at the same r -f potential. This is the volume control was installed with its
accomplished by placing an r -f bypass capac- shaft insulated from ground. The control
itor with the shortest possible leads directly itself was connected to a critical part of a
from grid to cathode, and then adding an circuit, in many instances to the grid of a
impedance in the lead from the volume con- high -gain audio stage. The cure is to install
trol to the grid of the audio tube. The a volume control with all the terminals in-
impedance may be an amateur band r-f sulated from the shaft, and then to ground
choke (such as a National R -100U) for best the shaft.
results, but for a majority of cases it will
be found that a 47,000 -ohm 1/4-watt resistor Image Interference In addition to those types
in series with this lead will give satisfactory of interference already
operation. Suitable circuits for such an oper- discussed, there are two more which are com-
ation on the receiver are given in figure 13. mon to superhet receivers. The prevalence of
In many a -c /d -c receivers there is no r -f these types is of great concern to the ama-
bypass included across the plate -supply recti- teur, although the responsibility for their
fier for the set. If there is an appreciable existence more properly rests with the broad-
level of r -f signal on the power line feeding cast receiver.
the receiver, r -f rectification in the power The mechanism whereby image production
rectifier of the receiver can cause a particu- takes place may be explained in the following
larly bad type of interference which may be manner: when the first detector is set to the
received on other broadcast receivers in the frequency of an incoming signal, the high -
vicinity in addition to the one causing the frequency oscillator is operating on another
rectification. The soldering of a 0.01 -pfd, frequency which differs from the signal by
1.6 kV disc ceramic capacitor directly from the number of kHz of the intermediate
anode to cathode of the power rectifier frequency. Now, with the setting of these
(whether it is of the vacuum -tube or silicon - two stages undisturbed, there is another
rectifier type) usually will bypass the r -f signal which will beat with the high-fre-
signal across the rectifier and thus eliminate quency oscillator to produce an i -f signal.
the difficulty. This other signal is the so- called image,
which is separated from the desired signal

by twice the intermediate frequency.
Thus, in a receiver with a 175 -kHz inter- 01-0
mediate frequency tuned to 1000 kHz; the INPUT OUTPUT
h -f oscillator is operating on 1175 kHz, and

o o
a signal on 1350 kHz (1000 kHz plus 2 X
CONSTANT -k TYPE
175 kHz) will beat with this 1175 kHz
oscillator frequency to produce the 175 -kHz
i -f signal. Similarly, when the same receiver
is tuned to 1450 kHz, an amateur signal on
1800 kHz can come through.
If the image appears only a few Hz or
kHz from a broadcast carrier, heterodyne
interference will be present as well. Other-
wise, it will be tuned in and out in the m- DERIVED TYPE FREQUENCY
manner of a station opera4ng in the broad-
cast band. Sharpness of tunng will be com- Figure 14
parable to that of broadcast stations produc- TYPES OF LOW -PASS FILTERS
ing the same avc voltage at the receiver.
Filters such as those may be used in the
The second variety of superhet interfer- circuits between the antenna and the input of
ence is the result of harmonics of the receiver the receiver.
high- frequency oscillator beating with ama-
teur carriers to produce the intermediate
frequency of the receiver. The amateur to enter the circuit through channels other
transmitter will always be found to be on than the input circuit. If a wavetrap or filter
a frequency equal to some harmonic of the will not cure the trouble, the only alterna-
receiver hf oscillator, plus or minus the tive will be to attempt to select a transmitter
intermediate frequency. frequency such that neither image nor har-
As an example: when a broadcast superhet monic interference will be set up on favorite
with 465 -kHz intermediate frequency is stations in the susceptible receivers. The
tuned to 1000 kHz, its high- frequency oscil- equation given earlier may be used to deter-
lator operates on 1465 kHz. The third har- mine the proper frequencies.
monic of this oscillator frequency is 4395
kHz, which will beat with an amateur signal Low -Pass FiltersThe greatest drawback of
on 3930 kHz to send a signal through the the wavetrap is the fact
i -f amplifier. The 3930 kHz signal would be that it is a single- frequency device; i.e., it
tuned in at the 1000 -kHz point on the dial. may be set to reject at one time only one
Some oscillator harmonics are so related frequency (or, at best, an extremely narrow
to amateur frequencies that more than one band of frequencies). Each time the fre-
point of interference will occur on the requency of the interfering transmitter is
ceiver dial. Thus, a 3500 -kHz signal may be changed, every wavetrap tuned to it must be
tuned in at six points on the dial of a nearby retuned. A much more satisfactory device is
broadcast superhet having a 175 -kHz inter- the wale filter which requires no tuning.
mediate frequency and no r -f stage. One type, the low -pass filter, passes all fre-
Insofar as remedies for image and harmon- quencies below one critical frequency, and
ic superhet interference are concerned, it is eliminates all higher frequencies. It is this
well to remember that if the amateur signal property that makes the device ideal for the
did not in the first place reach the input task of removing amateur frequencies from
stage of the receiver, the annoyance would broadcast receivers.
not have been created. It is therefore good A good low -pass filter designed for maxi-
policy to try to eliminate it by means of a mum attenuation around 1700 kHz will pass
wavetrap or low -pass filter. Broadcast super - all broadcast carriers, but will reject signals
hets arc not always the acme of good shield- originating in any amateur band. Naturally
ing, however, and the amateur signal is apt such a device should be installed only in
HANDBOOK Miscellaneous Interference 425
ANT Li L2 interference is caused by stray pickup of the

r -f signal by the interconnecting leads of
l
TO RECEIVER ANT. POST
the stereo system accompanied by audio

T, 1E2 /IC3 TCf rectification in the low -level stages of the
O
GNO.
O TO RECEIVER GND. POST system. The solution to this difficulty, in
general, is to bypass and shield all speaker
Figure 15 leads and bypass the power lead to the am-
COMPOSITE LOW -PASS FILTER plifier or tuner units. The power line leads
CIRCUIT may be bypassed to the chassis with a pair
of .01 -td, 1.6 -kV ceramic capacitors.
This filter is highly effective in reducing broad- Speaker leads should be shielded (with the
cast interi from all high-freq y sta-
tions, and requires no tuning. Constants for shield grounded) and each lead bypassed to
400 -ohm terminal impedance and 1600 kHz the amplifier chassis with a .001 -fd, 600 -
cutoff are as follows: L,. 65 turns No. 22 d.c.c.
closewound on 11/2 in. dia. form. L,, 41 turns volt ceramic capacitor. Shielded leads should
ditto, not coupled to L,. C,, 250 -pf fixed mica also be employed between the amplifier and
capacitor. C,, 400 -pf fixed mica capacitor. C
and C,, 1S0 -pf fixed mica capacitors, former tuner and the phono cartridge. The frame-
of 5% tolerance. With some receivers, better work of the turntable should be grounded
results will be obtained with a 200 -ohm carbon to the chassis of the amplifier to reduce
resistor ins d between the filter and an-
tenna post on the receiver. With other re- stray r -f pickup in the turntable wiring and
ceivers the effetti ss will be Improved with equipment.
a 600 -ohm carbon resistor placed from the
ant post to the ground post on the re- In some cases it may be necessary to in-
ceiver. The filter should bo placed as close to stall an r -f filter in the input circuit of the
the receiver terminals as possible. amplifier. A small r-f choke in series with
the input lead, together with a 500 -pf
ceramic capacitor between leads and ground
standard broadcast receivers, never in all - will reduce r -f pickup in the input circuit
wave sets. of the amplifier. In high -impedance circuits,
Two types of low -pass filter sections are it may be necessary to decrease the size of
shown in figure 14. A composite arrange- the capacitor to 50 pf or so to prevent loss
ment comprising a section of each type is of the higher audio frequencies.
more effective than either type operating
alone. A composite filter composed of one
k- section and one shunt -derived m- section
Telephone The carbon microphone of the
is shown in figure 15, and is highly recom-
Interference telephone often serves as an
mended. The m- section is designed to have efficient rectifier of nearby
maximum attenuation at 1700 kHz, and for radio signals, injecting the modulation of
that reason C3 should be of the close- toler- the signal on the telephone circuit. Older
ance variety. (type 300) telephones merely require the
If a fixed 150 -pf mica capacitor of 5 per- installation of a .001 -pfd ceramic capacitor
cent tolerance is not available for C1, a com- across the terminals of the carbon micro-
pression trimmer covering the range of 125- phone. Most telephone companies supply a
175 pf may be substituted and adjusted to
special capacitor for this purpose on request.
give maximum attenuation at about 1700 The newer 500- series telephones, however,
kHz. contain an automatic -level control circuit
in the base which includes a thermistor unit
which is sensitive to strong r-f fields. In
addition to the microphone capacitor, the
18 -5 Miscellaneous 500 -series unit requires the installation of a
Interference pair of 2.5 -mH, 100 -ma r -f chokes, one in
series with each side of the line, placed with-
Stereo Stereo sound systems may rein the telephone base underneath the dial
ceive interference from strong
Interference mechanism. This prevents r -f pickup by the
nearby radio transmitters, both telephone line from reaching the thermistor,
amateur and broadcast. In most cases, the thus eliminating the interference.
426 Radio Interference
Power -Line Power -line interference may ence and it is recommended that the ama-
Interference reach a radio receiver by trans- teur contact the local company office and
mission along the line or by register a complaint of power -line interfer-
direct radiation. Typical sources of power - ence rather than to try and find it himself,
line interference are spark and electrostatic since the cure for such troubles must be
discharge. Spark discharge from brush -type applied by the company, rather than the
motors, heaters for fish aquariums, thermo- amateur.
stats on sleeping blankets, and heating pads
are prolific sources of such interference. If Electrostatic discharge may be caused by
the interfering unit can be located, bypass intermittent contact between metallic ob-
capacitors on the power line directly at the jects in a strong electric field. Guy wires or
unit will usually suppress the noise. The hardware on power poles are a source of this
noise may often be located by using a port- form of interference. In addition, loose
able radio as a direction finder, homing in hardware on a nearby TV antenna, or the
on the noise source. Direct power -line noise, tower of the amateur antenna may cause
caused by leaky insulators or defective hard- this type of interference in the presence of
ware on high -voltage transmission lines is a nearby power line. This type of interfer-
harder to pinpoint, as the noise may be car- ence is hard to pinpoint, but may often be
ried for a considerable distance along the line. found with the aid of a portable radio. In
Standing waves of noise are also apparent any event, suspected power -line interference
on power lines, leading to false noise peaks originating on the power -line system should
that confuse the source. Many power com- be left to the power- company interference
panies have a program of locating interfer- investigator.
CHAPTER NINETEEN
Station Assembly and Control
19-1 Station Layout power system and control circuitry, and the
control system for the rotary antenna, or
antenna switching network.
The amateur radio station has literally
moved from the garage or home workshop Power At a minimum, an amateur sta-
into the living room during the past two Systems tion will have a transceiver, or
decades. Gone are the black -crackle panels separate receiver and transmitter
and the six -foot steel relay rack, and in that will exhibit a primary power drain of
their place are the new -design streamlined, about 500 watts. In addition, an electric
miniaturized desk -top cabinets. Bandswitch- clock, desk light, and one or two auxiliary
ing linear amplifiers, solid -state power sup- pieces of equipment will consume another
plies and compact transceivers and exciters 200 watts or so. Since the usual home outlet
are the modern counterparts of the bulky is rated to handle only about 600 watts
plug -in coil class -C amplifiers, cumbersome maximum, the transmitting equipment, un-
modulators, and weighty power supplies that less it is of relatively low power, should be
identified the amateur station of the late powered from a separate primary outlet. In
"forties." addition, there should be an outlet available
Station location and layout, accordingly, for a soldering iron and one or two addi-
has undergone vast changes in the past few tional outlets provided for powering extra
years and it is possible to place a high -ower pieces of equipment being worked on (fig-
station within a desk, bookcase, or console ure 1).
assembly if space is at a premium. It thus becomes obvious that six to ten
Ideally, the best arrangement is for a com- outlets connected to the 117 -volt a -c line
plete room in the home or apartment to be should be available at the operating position.
devoted to the station, affording maximum It may be practical to have this number of
comfort for operation, yet permitting op- receptacles installed as an outlet strip along
eration and work to be done with minimum the baseboard at the time a new home is be-
interference to family life. Regardless of ing planned or constructed. Or it might be
the size and scope of the amateur station, well to install an outlet strip at the rear
however, the arrangement must be one that of the operating desk so as to have the
affords maximum efficiency, power capabil- flexibility of moving the desk from one
ity, and safety to the operator. The care position to another. Alternatively, the out-
that has gone into the equipment and acces- let strip may be wall mounted behind the
sories must be carried over into the primary desk. It is inadvisable from the standpoint
428 Station Assembly and Control RADIO
CLOCK
117 V.15 A. 117V,20A

2 POLE, 2 WIRE NEMA
OUTLET STRIP G
(FUSED)
230 VOLT AIIX OUTLETS

OJTLET
117 VOLT
O VTL ETS G
117 V. 15A 1 1 7 V., 20 A
EXTEPNAL GROUND 2 POLE, 3 WIRE NEMA T WIST LOCK
CONNE,. Ti -N TO
EQUIPMENT G
Figure 1

CONVENIENT POWER SYSTEM FOR N
AN AMATEUR STATION 1 1 7 V., 30 A. 117 -240 VOLT

G
2 POLE, 3 WIRE NEMA 30 A

Receiver transceiver draws power from
or
117 -volt a -c
line through multiple -outlet strip G
attached to the rear of the operating desk.

Additional outlets provide power for clock
and other gear. A separate outlet is mounted
near the front of the table for soldering iron
and other temporary uses. A separate 240 -
volt power line is run from the main fuse box 240 V., 20A 11 7-240 VOLT
to power the linear amplifier. All equipment 2 POLE,3WIRE NEMA 30 A.
in the operating room is fused in series with

fuses in main box. A separate 240 -line is run Figure 2
in from the main fuse box to power the linear
amplifier. All equipment in the operating room
is fused in series with fuses in main box. 240 - COMMON RECEPTACLE STANDARDS IN
volt line is run in conduit. It is recommended THE UNITED STATES
that the entire house be wired in conduit, if
possible, to reduce r -f pickup of the primary The front view of various common 117 -volt
power lines as an aid in reduction of television and 240 -volt standard receptacles is shown.
interference and line noise. 117 -volt circuits have one wire (neutral) at
about ground potential and the other wire
(hot) above ground. The neutral wire (white
W, with nickel screw terminal) is unfused
of safety to use a number of adapter plugs while the hot wire (H, black, red, or blue with
at one wall outlet to power the station brass screw terminal) is fused. The switch
equipment. should be in the hot line. The neutral is
grounded at the distribution transformer and
Line regulation is of importance in the should not be grounded at any other point.
amateur station installation. Poor regulation Neutral is often referred to as system ground
and is coded white. Equipment ground (G) is
will cause the house lights to fluctuate with separately grounded at the electrical device
keying or modulation and in severe cases and is coded green (circuits A, B, and C).
240 -volt single phase receptacles are polarized
will cause an annoying shrinkage of the so that 117 -volt plugs cannot be used by error.
television image in a nearby receiver powered Duplex (E) and Twistlock (F) are common in-
from the same line. It is good practice, dustrial plugs, while the plugs of figures G
and H are used with electric stoves, motors,
therefore, to check the power capability of air conditioners, etc.
the house wiring before placing the full
equipment load on the 117 -volt primary
service. 110 and 125 are commonly encountered.
In many overseas countries, 220 or 240
Power -Line confusion of power-line
A volts at 50 Hz may be found. In addition,
"Standards" voltages and frequencies, as unique combinations, such as 137 volts at
well as a multiplicity of plugs 42 Hz, or 110 volts at 16% Hz may exist as
and connectors exists throughout the world. a result of special circumstances. Operation
In the United States and Canada the nomi- of equipment on one phase of a three -phase
nal design center for consumer primary 240 -volt power system calls for a design
power is 117 volts, 60 Hz. voltages between center of 208 volts.
HANDBOOK Station Layout 429
Aside from the primary power complex- legs are fused, and, should a neutral fuse
ity, an endless number of plug and receptacle blow, there is a chance that damage to the
designs harass the experimenter. Recently, radio transmitter will result.
the National Electrical Manufacturers As- If you have a high -power transmitter and
sociation in the United States has announced do a lot of operating, it is a good idea to
standards covering general- purpose recept- check on your local power rates if you are
acles designed for the consumer wiring sys- on a straight lighting rate. In some cities a
tem, based on a design center of 117 volts, lower rate can be obtained (but with a
or the multiwire 240 -volt, single -phase higher "minimum ") if electrical equipment
system used in many new homes. such as an electric heater drawing a specified
A clear distinction is made in all specifi- amount of current is permanently wired in.
cations between system ground and equip- It is not required that you use this equip-
ment ground. The former, referred to as a ment, merely that it be permanently wired
grounded conductor, normally carries line into the electrical system. Naturally, how-
current at ground potential. Terminals for ever, there would be no saving unless you
system grounds are marked W and are expect to occupy the same dwelling for a
color -coded white. Terminals for equipment considerable length of time.
grounds are marked G and are color -coded Outlet Strips The outlet strips which have
green. In this standard, the equipment
been suggested for installation
ground carries current only during short
in the baseboard or for use on the rear of a
circuit conditions. desk are obtainable from the large electrical -
A summary of some of the more common
supply houses. If such a house is not in the
NEMA receptacle configurations, and other vicinity it is probable that a local electrical
configurations still in popular use are shown contractor can order a suitable type of strip
in figure 2. A complete chart covering all
from one of the supply -house catalogs. These
standard NEMA plugs and receptacles may strips are quite convenient in that they arc
be obtained for twenty -five cents from:
available in varying lengths with provision
The Secretary, NEMA Wiring Device Sec- for inserting a -c line plugs throughout their
tion, 1 5 5 East 44th Street, New York, length. The a -c plugs from the various items
N.Y., 10017. of equipment on the operating desk then
may be inserted in the outlet strip through-
Checking an To make sure that an outlet out its length. In many cases it will be de-
Outlet with a will stand the full load of the sirable to reduce the equipment cord lengths
Heavy Load entire transmitter, plug in an so that they will plug neatly into the outlet
electric heater rated at about strip without an excess to dangle behind the
SO percent greater wattage than the power desk.
you expect to draw from the line. If the line
voltage does not drop more than S volts Contactors and The use of power-control
(assuming a 117 -volt line) under load and Relays relays and primary switches
the wiring does not overheat, the wiring is often will add considerably
adequate to supply the transmitter. About to the operating convenience of the station
600 watts total drain is the maximum that installation. The most practical arrangement
should be drawn from a 117 -volt lighting usually is to have a main a -c line switch on
outlet or circuit. For greater power, a sep- the operating desk to energize or cut the
arate pair of heavy conductors should be power to the outlet strip on the rear of the
run right from the meter box. For a 1 -kw operating desk. Through the use of such a
phone transmitter the total drain is so great switch it is not necessary to remember to
that a 240 -volt "split" system ordinarily switch off a large number of separate
will be required. Most of the newer homes switches on each of the items of equipment
are wired with this system, as are homes on the operating desk.
utilizing electricity for cooking and heating. The alternative arrangement, and that
With a three -wire system, be sure there is which is approved by the Underwriters, is
no fuse in the neutral wire at the fuse box. to remove the plugs from the wall both for
A neutral fuse is not required if both "hot" the transmitter and for the operating -desk
outlet strip when a period of operation has TO EXCITER POWER

been completed.
While the insertion of plugs or operation
of switches usually will be found best for
applying the a -c line power to the equip-
ment, the changing over between transmit
and receive can best be accomplished through
the use of relays. Such a system usually in-
volves three relays, or three groups of relays. UI -LO
POWER RELAY
The relays and their functions are: (1)
power -control relay for the transmitter
applies the 117- or 240 -volt line to the
-
primary of the high -voltage transformer TO FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS
and energizes the exciter; (2) control relay
for the receiver -makes the receiver in-
operative by any one of a number of meth-
ods when closed, also may apply power to
a keying or a modulation monitor; and (3)
the antenna changeover relay -connects
the antenna to the transmitter when the
transmitter is energized and to the receiver
when the transmitter is not operating. Sev-
eral circuits illustrating the application of
240vAC
relays to such control arrangement are dis- SINGLE PHASE
WITH GROUNDED
cussed in the paragraphs to follow in this NEUTRAL
chapter.
Controlling Transmitter It is necessary, in TRANSFORMERS
Power Output order to comply with
FCC regulations, that Figure 3
transmitter power output be limited to the FULL-VOLTAGE/HALF-VOLTAGE
minimum amount necessary to sustain com- SYSTEM OF POWER CONTROL
munication. This requirement may be met The circuit at A is for use with a 117 -volt
in several ways. Many amateurs have a a -t line. Transformer T is of the standard type
having two 117 -volt primaries; these primaries
separate amplifier capable of relatively high ore connected in series for half -voltage output
power output for use when calling, or when when the power -control relay K, is energised
interference is severe, using the exciter for but the hi-lo relay (K.) is not operated. When
both relays are energized the full output volt-
local contacts, or when interference is ab- age is obtained. At I is a circuit for use with
sent. In most cases, the exciter acts as a a standard 240 -volt residence line with
grounded neutral. The two relays control the
driver for the amplifier stage when full output of the power supplies the same as at A.
power output is required. But the majority
of the amateurs using high-power equipment
also have some provision for reducing the operated from a 117 -volt line, operation of
plate voltage on the high -level stages when both primaries in parallel will deliver full
reduced power output is desired. output from the plate supply. Then when
One of the most common arrangements the two primaries are connected in series and
for obtaining two levels of power output still operated from the 117 -volt line the out-
involves the use of a plate transformer hav- put voltage from the supply will be reduced
ing a double primary for the high -voltage approximately to one half. In the case of the
power supply. The majority of the high - normal amplifier, a reduction in plate volt-
power plate transformers of standard manu- age to one half will reduce the power input
facture have just such a dual -primary ar- to the stage to one quarter.
rangement. The two primaries are designed If the transmitter is to be operated from a
for use with either a 117 -volt or 240 -volt 240 -volt line, the usual procedure is to op-
line. When such a transformer is to be erate the filaments from one side of the line,
HANDBOOK Station Layout 431
TO EXCITER POWER SUPPLIES the plate transformer will allow a contin-

uous variation in power input from zero to
TO M.V.
the full capability of the transmitter.
POWER SUPPLY
"
(1-o
LINE
V.A.C. F
POWER CONTROL Variable -Ratio There are several types of
RELAY
PLUG FOR
Autotransformers variable -ratio autotrans-
ABLE TO
VARIAC OR
formers available on the
DUMMY PLUG FOR
POWERSTAT
market. Of these, the most common are the
STRAIGHT OPERATION Variac manufactured by the Genera! Radio
TO FILAMENT
Company, and the Powerstat manufactured
TRANSFORMERS
by the Superior Electric Company. Both these
types of variable -ratio transformers are ex-
cellently constructed and are available in a
EXTERNAL VARIAC
OR POWERSTAT wide range of power capabilities. Each is
capable of controlling the line voltage from
Figure 4 zero to about 15 percent above the nominal
line voltage. Each manufacturer makes a
CIRCUIT WITH VARIABLE -RATIO
single -phase unit capable of handling an out-
AUTOTRANSFORMER
put power of about 175 watts, one capable
When the dummy plug is inserted into the re- of about 750 to 800 watts, and a unit
ceptacle on the equipment, closing of the
power -control relay will apply full voltage capable of about 1500 to 2000 watts. The
to the primaries. With the cable from the maximum power- output capability of these
Variac or Powerstat plugged into the socket units is available only at approximately the
the voltage output of the high -voltage power
supply may be varied from zero to about 15 nominal line voltage, and must be reduced to
percent above normal. a maximum current limitation when the out-
put voltage is somewhat above or below the
input line voltage. This, however, is not an
the low -voltage power supplies from the important limitation for this type of appli-
other side, and the primaries of the high - cation since the output voltage seldom will
voltage transformer across the whole line be raised above the line voltage, and when
for full power output. Then when reduced the output voltage is reduced below the line
voltage the input to the transmitter is re-
power output is required, the primary of
the high- voltage plate transformer is oper- duced accordingly.
ated from one side to center tap rather than
One convenient arrangement for using a
Variac or Powerstat in conjunction with the
across the whole line. This procedure places
high -voltage transformer of a transmitter is
117 volts across the 240 -volt winding the
same as in the case discussed in the previous
illustrated in figure 4. In this circuit a heavy
paragraph. Figure 3 illustrates the two stand- three -wire cable is run from a plug on the
ard methods of power reduction with a plate transmitter to the Variac or Powerstat. The
transformer having a double primary; A Variac or Powerstat then is installed so that
shows the connections for use with a 117 - it is accessible from the operating desk so that
volt line and B shows the arrangement for a the input power to the transmitter may be
240 -volt a -c power line to the transmitter. controlled during operation. If desired, the
When tuning the transmitter, the antenna cable to the Variac or Powerstat may be un-
coupling network, or the antenna system plugged from the transmitter and a dummy
itself it is desirable to be able to reduce the plug inserted in its place. With the dummy
power input to the final stage to a relatively plug in place the transmitter will operate at
low value, and it is further convenient to be normal plate voltage. This arrangement al-
able to vary the power input continuously lows the transmitter to be wired in such a
from this relatively low input up to the full manner that an external Variac or Powerstat
power capabilities of the transmitter. The may be used if desired, even though the unit
use of a variable -ratio autotransformer in is not available at the time that the trans-
the circuit from the line to the primary of mitter is constructed.
117 VOLT SUPPLY FOR

ENTIRE TRANSMITTER
FUSES
SAFETY SWITCH
( SEE FIG e %
RECEIVER POWER
O
\SI HUSKY TOGGLE SWITCH
ON TRANSMITTER
TRANSFORMER C.T.
THERMAL PROTECTIVE
TIME-DELAY INTERLOCKS
RELAY
O - O -
TRANSMIT-
RECEIVE SWITCH
HIGH-VOLT.
FILS. STANDS (Ill-v.)
O II? -V. ANTENNA-
CHANGEOVER
CL O o RELAY
TUNE-UP
INDICATOR LIGHTS SWITCH
.SZQQ_ ,9 0 0 ) ,000,
ALL FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS 6 3 v. EXCITER H-V HIGH- VOLTAGE

TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
Figure 5
TRANSMITTER CONTROL CIRCUIT
Closing Si lights all filaments in the transmitter and starts the time -delay in its cycle. When
the time -delay relay has operated, closing the transmit -receive switch at the operating position
will apply plate power to the transmitter and disable the receiver. A tune -up switch has been
provided so that the exciter stages may be tuned without plate voltage on the final amplifier.
Use of the Plate voltage to the modu- at the same time that the plate voltage is
Autotransformer lators may be controlled at changed. This will allow the tubes to be
with A -M Gear the same time as the plate operated at approximately the same relative
voltage to the final ampli- point on their operating characteristic when
fier is varied if the modulator stage uses the plate voltage is varied. When the mod-
beam - tetrode tubes; variation in the plate ulator tubes are operated with zero bias at
voltage on such tubes used as modulators full plate voltage, it will usually be possible
causes only a moderate change in the stand- to reduce the modulator voltage along with
ing plate current. the voltage on the modulated stage, with no
Since the final amplifier plate voltage is apparent change in the voice quality. How-
being controlled simultaneously with the ever, it will be necessary to reduce the audio
modulator plate voltage, the conditions of gain at the same time that the plate voltage
impedance match will not be seriously up- is reduced.
set. In several high -power transmitters using
this system, and using beam -tetrode modus 19 -2 Transmitter Control
lator tubes, it is possible to vary the plate Methods
input from about f 0 watts to one kilowatt Almost everyone, when getting a new
without a change other than a slight in- transmitter on the air, has had the experience
crease in audio distortion at the adjustment of having to throw several switches and pull
which gives the lowest power output from or insert a few plugs when changing from
the transmitter. receive to transmit. This is one extreme in
With triode tubes as modulators it usually the direction of how not to control a trans-
v-ill be found necessary to vary the grid bias mitter. At the other extreme we find systems
HANDBOOK Transmitter Control Methods 433
17 -VOLT SUPPLY FOR

ENTIRE TRANSMITTER
AT OPERATING POSITION
START STOP TRANSMIT

FUSES
_Qa- -O D- -
FETYSWITCH I I
[SEE no 12)
PROTECTIVE
0-0 ----12.ar
n- a
.
.-
INTERLOCKS
i
OVERLOAD
RELAY
CONTACTS
O RECEIVER POWER
o TRANSFORMER C.T.
THERMAL
TI ME-DELAY
RELAY Figure 6
HIGH-VOLT.
FILS ON STANDBY (I17-V.
WV,/ ANTENNA -
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
TUNE-UP
INDICATOR LIGHTS SWITCH
1111
((151
ALL FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS EXCITER H -v HIGH -VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
Figure 6
PUSH -BUTTON TRANSMITTER -CONTROL CIRCUIT

Pushing the START button either at the transmitter or of the operating position will light all
filaments and start the time -delay relay in its cycle. When the cycle has been completed, a
touch of the TRANSMIT button will put the transmitter on the air and disable the receiver.
Pushing the RECEIVE button will disable the transmitter and restore the receiver. Pushing the
STOP button will instantly drop the entire transmitter from the a -c line. If desired, a switch
may be placed in series with the lead from the RECEIVE button to the protective interlocks;
opening the switch will make it impossible for any person accidentally to put the transmitter
on the air. Various other safety provisions, such as the protective -interlock arrangement
described in the text have been incorporated. With the circuit arrangement shown for the
overload -relay contacts, it is only necessary to use a simple normally closed d -c relay with a
variable shunt across the coil of the relay. When the current through the coil becomes great
enough to open the normally closed contacts the hold circuit on the plate -voltage relay will
be broken and the plate voltage will be removed. If the overload is only momentary, such
as a modulation peak or a tank flashover, merely pushing the TRANSMIT button will again
put the transmitter on the air. This simple circuit provision eliminates the requirement for
expensive overload relays of the mechanically latching type, but still gives excellent overload
protection.
where it is only necessary to speak into the protective interlocks are connected in series
microphone or touch the key to change both with the coil of the relay which applies
transmitter and receiver over to the transmit high voltage to the transmitter. A tune-up
condition. Most amateur stations are inter- sw;tcl, has been included so that the trans-
mediate between the two extremes in the mitter may be tuned up as far as the grid
control provisions and use some relatively circuit of the final stage is concerned before
simple system for transmitter control. application of high voltage to the final am-
When assured time delay of the proper plifier. Provisions for operating an antenna -
interval and greater operating convenience changeover relay and for cutting the plate
are desired, a group of inexpensive a -c relays voltage to the receiver when the transmitter
may be incorporated into the circuit to give is operating have been included.
a control circuit such as is shown in figure A circuit similar to that of figure 5 but
5. This arrangement uses a 117 -volt thermal incorporating push- button control of the
(or motor -operated) time -delay relay and a transmitter is shown in figure 6. The circuit
dpdt 117 -volt control relay. Note that the features a set of START -STOP and TRANS-
MIT -RECEIVE buttons at the transmitter an external ground such as a waterpipe.

and a separate set at the operating position.
The control push buttons operate independ- Exposed Wires It not necessary to resort
is
ently so that either set may be used to con- and Components to rack -and -panel con-
trol the transmitter. It is only necessary to struction in order to pro-
push the START button momentarily to vide complete enclosure of all components
light the transmitter filaments and start the and wiring of the transmitter. Even with
time -delay relay in its cycle. When the metal -chassis construction it is possible to
standby light comes on it is only necessary to arrange things so as to incorporate a protec-
touch the TRANSMIT button to put the tive shielding housing which will not inter-
transmitter on the air and disable the re- fere with ventilation yet will prevent con-
ceiver. Touching the RECEIVE button will tact with all wires and components carrying
turn off the transmitter and restore the re- high voltage d -c or a -c, in addition to
ceiver. After a period of operation it is only offering shielding action.
necessary to touch the STOP button at If everything on the front panel is at
either the transmitter or the operating posi- ground potential (with respect to external
tion to shut down the transmitter. This type ground) and all units are effectively housed
of control arrangement is called an elec- with protective covers, then there is no
trically locking push -to- transmit control danger except when the operator must reach
system. Such systems are frequently used in into the interior part of the transmitter, as
industrial electronic control. when neutralizing, adjusting coupling, or
troubleshooting. The latter procedure can
19 -3 Safety Precautions be made safe by making it possible for the
operator to be absolutely certain that all
The best way for an operator to avoid voltages have been turned off and that they
serious accidents from the high voltage sup-
cannot be turned on either by short circuit
plies of a transmitter is for him to use his
or accident. This can be done by incorpora-
head, act only with deliberation, and not
tion of the following system of main pri-
take unnecessary chances. However, no one
mary switch and safety signal lights.
is infallible, and chances of an accident are
greatly lessened if certain factors are taken Combined Safety The common method of
into consideration in the design of a trans- Signal and Switch using red pilot lights to
mitter, in order to protect the operator in show when a circuit is on
the event of a lapse of caution. If there are is useless except from an ornamental stand-
too many things one must "watch out for" point. When the red pilot is not lit it usually
or keep in mind there is a good chance that means that the circuit is turned off, but it
sooner or later there will be a mishap; and can mean that the circuit is on but the lamp
it only takes one. When designing or con- is burned out or not making contact.
structing a transmitter, the following safety To enable you to touch the tank coils in
considerations should be given attention. your transmitter with absolute assurance
Grounds For the utmost in protection, every- that it is impossible for you to obtain a
thing of metal on the front panel of shock except from possible undischarged
a transmitter capable of being touched by filter capacitors (see following topic for
the operator should be at ground potential. elimination of this hazard), it is prudent
This includes dial set screws, meter zero - to incorporate a device similar to that of
adjustment screws, meter cases if of metal, figure 7. It is placed near the point where
meter jacks, everything of metal protruding the main 117 -volt leads enter the room (pre-
through the front panel or capable of being ferably near the door) and in such a position
touched or nearly touched by the operator. as to he inaccessible to small children. Notice
This applies whether or not the panel itself is that this switch breaks both leads; switches
of metal. Do not rely on the insulation of that open just one lead do not afford com-
meter cases or tuning knobs for protection. plete protection, as it is sometimes possible to
The B negative or chassis of all plate power complete a primary circuit through a short
supplies should be connected together, and to or accidental ground. Breaking just one side
HANDBOOK Safety Precautions 435
of the line may be all right for turning the with little chance of opening up. For a
transmitter on and off, but when you are 1500 -volt supply, connect three 500,000 -ohm
going to place an arm inside the transmitter, resistors in series. If the voltage exceeds an
both 117 -volt leads should be broken. integral number of 500 -volt divisions, as-
When you are all through working your sume it is the next higher integral value; for
transmitter for the time being, simply throw instance, assume 1800 volts as 2000 volts and
the main switch to neutral. use four resistors.
When you find it necessary to work on Do not attempt to use fewer resistors by
the transmitter or change coils, throw the using a higher value for the resistors; not
switch so that the green pilots light up. over 500 volts should appear across any
One should be placed on the front panel single 1 -watt resistor.
of the transmitter; others should be placed In the event that the regular bleeder opens
so as to be easily visible when changing up, it will take several seconds for the auxil-
coils er making adjustments requiring the iary bleeder to drain the capacitors down to
operator to reach inside the transmitter. a safe voltage, because of the very high re-
For 100 percent protection, just obey the sistance. Therefore it is best to allow 10 or
following rule: never work on the transmit- 15 seconds to elapse after turning off the
ter or reach inside any protective cover ex- plate supply before attempting to work on
cept when the green pilots are glowing. To the transmitter.
avoid confusion, no other green pilots should If a 0 -1 d -c milliammeter is at hand, it
be used on the transmitter; if you want an may be connected in series with the auxiliary
indicator jewel to -show when the filaments bleeder to act as a high -voltage voltmeter.
are lighted, use amber instead of green.
"Hot" Adjustments Some amateurs contend
Safety Bleeders Filter capacitors of good that it is almost impossi-
quality hold their charge for ble to make certain adjustments, such as
some time, and when the voltage is more coupling and neutralizing, unless the trans-
than 100 volts it is just about as dangerous mitter is running. The best thing to do is to
to get across an undischarged 4 -pfd filter make all neutralizing and coupling devices
capacitor as it is to get across a high -voltage adjustable from the front panel by means of
supply that is turned on. Most power sup- flexible control shafts which are broken with
plies incorporate bleeders to improve regula- insulated couplings to permit grounding of
tion, but as these are generally wirewound the panel bearing.
resistors, and as wirewound resistors occa- If your particular transmitter layout is
sionally open up without apparent cause, it is such that this is impractical and you refuse
desirable to incorporate an auxiliary safety to throw the main switch to make an adjust-
bleeder across each heavy -duty bleeder. Car- ment -throw the main switch -take a read-
bon resistors will not stand much dissipation ing -throw the main switch -make an ad-
and sometimes change in value slightly with justment -and so on, then protect yourself
age. However, the chance of their opening by making use of long adjustment rods made
up when run well within their dissipation from Va -inch dowel sticks which have been
rating is very small. wiped with oil when perfectly free from
To make sure that all capacitors are bled, moisture.
it is best to short each one with an insulated
screwdriver. However, this is sometimes awk- Protective Interlocks
With the increasing ten-
ward and always inconvenient. One can be dency toward construc-
virtually sure by connecting auxiliary car- tion of transmitters in desk cabinets a
bon bleeders across all wirewound bleeders transmitter becomes a particularly lethal
used on supplies of 1000 volts or more. For device unless adequate safety provisions have
every 500 volts, connect in series a 500,000 - been incorporated. Even with a combined
ohm -watt carbon resistor. The drain will
1 safety signal and switch as shown in figure 7
be negligible (1 ma) and each resistor will it is still conceivable that some person un-
have to dissipate only 0.5 watt. Under these familiar with the transmitter could come in
conditions the resistors will last indefinitely contact with high voltage. It is therefore
S.3 V. TO GREEN PILOT LIGHTS ON

ANTENNA RELAY
FRONT PANEL AND ON EACH CHASSIS RECEIVER
NTENNA
TRANSMITTER
TIL TRANS. TRANSMITTER
T-o f TO
CONTROL CRTS.
NAIN 117.V SUPPLY 4-(0 SWITCH RELAY COIL

SUPPLY
1117.V A C TO ENTIRE TRANSMITTER
TO PRIMARY
T% POWER TO OTHER
Figure 7 SYSTEM RELAY COILS
COMBINED MAIN SWITCH AND

SAFETY SIGNAL
When shutting down the transmitter, throw
the main switch to neutral. If work is to be Figure 8
done on the transmitter, threw the switch all
the way to "pilot," thus turning on the green ANTENNA -RELAY CONTROL SYSTEM
pilot lights on the panel and on each chassis,
and ensuring that no voltage can exist on the A- Antenna relay should be actuated before
primary of any transformer, even by virtue r -f power Rows through contacts. Extra set of
of a short or accidental ground. contacts are used to control transmitter cir-
cuits after antenna relay closes. B -A-c relays
may be operated from simple d-c power sup-
ply to reduce hum and chatter. Transformer
T, may be a 1:1 isolation transformer of 50
recommended that the transmitter, when- watts capacity, with D, a I ampere, 600 volt
ever possible, be built into a complete metal p.i.v. diode. Series resistor R, is adjusted
housing or cabinet and that all doors or ac- to provide proper relay action and may be
of the order of S00 to 5000 ohms, SO watts.
cess covers be provided with protective inter- Additional relay coils may be placed in paral-
locks (all interlocks must be connected in lel across coil Ry,. Relay may be energized by
applying primary power (with due regard to
series) to remove the high voltage whenever time-lag in filter system) or by completing
these doors or covers are opened. The term secondary circuit between resistor R, and
relay coil.
"high voltage" should mean any voltage
above approximately SO volts, although it
is still possible to obtain a serious burn from
a 50-volt circuit under certain circum- system, then, in turn, actuating the trans-
stances. The S0 -volt limit usually will mitter by a separate set of control contacts
mean that grid -bias supplies as well as high - en the antenna relay, as shown in figure 8A.
voltage packs should have their primary cir- In this manner, the antenna relay must be
cuits opened when any interlock is opened. closed before r-f is applied to the contacts.
Relay Seq It is important that the D- CRelay designed to operate

Relays
antenna changeover relay Operation from an a -c source are often
be activated before r -f power flows through troublesome sources of audible
the relay contacts. Certain VOX or key - hum and chatter. Cleaning the relay striker
operated sequences do not provide this pro- and pole pieces will alleviate this annoyance
tection. As a result, the contacts of the somewhat, but operation of the relay from
antenna relay may be damaged from making a d -c source will eliminate this difficulty.
and breaking the r -f current, or eventual A -c relays may be operated without dam-
damage may occur to the transmitting age from a d -c source capable of supplying
equipment because of repeated operation a d -c voltage equal to about 70 percent of
without r -f load during the periods of time the a -c design voltage. Thus an 8S -volt d -c
necessary for the antenna relay to close. The supply will be proper to operate 117 -volt a -c
proper relay sequence can be achieved by relays. A suitable supply for such service is
actuating the antenna relay by the control shown in figure 8B.
HANDBOOK Transmitter Keying 437
19 -4 Transmitter Keying Location of Considerable thought should be

Keyed Stage given as to which stage in a
The carrier from a c -w telegraph trans- transmitter is the proper one to
mitter must be broken into dots and dashes key. If the transmitter is keyed in a stage
for the transmission of code characters. The close to the oscillator, the change in r -f load-
carrier signal is of constant amplitude while ing of the oscillator will cause the oscillator
the key is closed, and is entirely removed to shift frequency with keying. This will
when the key is open. When code characters cause the signal to have a distinct chirp.
are being transmitted, the carrier may be The chirp will be multiplied as many times
considered as being modulated by the keying. as the frequency of the oscillator is multi-
If the change from the no- output condition plied. A chirpy oscillator that would be pass-
to full -output, or vice versa, occurs too able on 80 meters would be unusable on 28-
rapidly, the rectangular pulses which form MHz c.w.
the keying characters contain high -fre- Keying the oscillator itself is an excellent
quency components which take up a wide way to run into keying difficulties. If no
frequency band as sidebands and are heard key -click filter is used in the keying circuit,
as clicks. the transmitter will have bad key clicks. If a
To be capable of transmitting code char- key -click filter is used, the slow rise and de-
acters and at the same time not splitting the cay of oscillator voltage induced by the filter
eardrums of neighboring amateurs, the c -w action will cause a keying chirp. This action
transmitter must meet two important speci- is true of all oscillators, whether electron
fications. coupled or crystal controlled.
The more amplifier or doubler stages that
1. It must have no parasitic oscillations
follow the keyed stage, the more difficult it
either in the stage being keyed or in is to hold control of the shape of the keyed
any succeeding stage.
2. It must have some device in the keying waveform. A heavily excited doubler stage or
circuit capable of shaping the leading class -C stage acts as a peak clipper, tending
and trailing edge of the waveform. to square up a rounded keying impulse, and
the cumulative effect of several such stages
Both these specifications must be met be-
cascaded is sufficient to square up the keyed
fore the transmitter is capable of c -w opera- waveform to the point where bad clicks are
tion. Merely turning a transmitter on and off
reimposed on a clean signal.
by the haphazard insertion of a telegraph A good rule of thumb is to never key back
key in some power lead is an invitation to
farther than one stage removed from the
trouble. final amplifier stage, and never key closer
The two general methods of keying a than one stage removed from the frequency -
transmitter are those which control the ex- controlling oscillator of the transmitter.
citation to the keyed amplifier, and those Thus there will always be one isolating stage
which control the plate or screen voltage ap- between the keyed stage and the oscillator,
plied to the keyed amplifier. and one isolating stage between the keyed
Key -Click Key -click elimination is accom- stage and the antenna. At this point the
Elimination plished by preventing a too -rapid
waveform of the keyed signal may be most
make and break of power to the easily controlled.
antenna circuit, thus rounding off the keying
characters so as to limit the sidebands to a Keyer Circuit In the first place it may be es-
value which does not cause interference to Requirements tablished that the majority of
adjacent channels. Too much lag will pre- new design transmitters, and
vent fast keying, but fortunately key clicks many of those of older design as well, use a
can be practically eliminated without limit- medium -power beam tetrode tube or a zero-
ing the speed of manual (hand) keying. bias triode either as the output stage or as
Some circuits which eliminate key clicks in- the driver for the output stage of a high
troduce too much time lag and thereby add power transmitter.
tails to the dots. These tails may cause the Second, it may be established that it is un-
signals to be difficult to copy at high speeds. desirable to key further down in the trans-
mitter chain than the stage just ahead of the

final amplifier. If a low -level stage, which is
followed by a series of amplifiers, is keyed,
serious transients may be generated in the
output of the transmitter even though the
keyed stage is being turned on and off very
smoothly. This condition arises as a result of
pulse sharpening, which has been discussed
previously.
Third, the output from the stage should
be completely cut off when the key is up,
and the time constant of the rise and decay Figure 9
of the keying wave should be easily con-
trollable. CENTER -TAP KEYING WITH KEY
Fourth, it should be possible to make the CLICK FILTER
rise period and the decay period of the key- The constants shown are suggested as pre-
ing wave approximately equal. This type of liminary values and may be changed to per-
mit optimum amplifier keying under dilf t
keying envelope is the only one tolerable for operating conditions. Inductance of iron -core
commercial work, and is equally desirable for choke and series capacitor value are changed
to alter keying characteristic. R -f choke and
obtaining clean -cut and easily readable sig- associated capacitors reduce transients caused
nals in amateur work. by sparking at key contacts.
Last, for the sake of simplicity and safety,
it should be possible to ground the frame of
the key, and yet the circuit should be such and closing characteristics of the electronic
that placing the fingers across the key will switch may easily be altered to suit the par-
not result in an electrical shock. In other ticular need at hand. Such an electronic
words, the keying circuit should be inher- switch is called a t'acuum -tube keyer. Low
ently safe. internal resistance triode tubes such as the
All these requirements have been met in 2A3 or 6AS7 are used in the keyer. These
the keying circuits to be described. tubes act as a very high resistance when
sufficient blocking bias is applied to them,
and as a very low resistance when the bias is
19 -5 Cathode Keying removed. The desired amount of lag or
cushioning effect can be obtained by em-
The lead from the cathode or center -tap
ploying suitable resistance and capacitance
connection of the filament of an r -f amplifier
values in the grid of the keyer tube(s). Be-
can be opened and closed for a keying cir-
cause very little spark is produced at the key,
cuit. Such a keying system opens the plate
voltage circuit and at the same time opens due to the small amount of power in the key
circuir, sparking clicks are easily suppressed.
the grid bias return lead. For this reason, the
One type 6AS7 tube (both sections)
grid circuit is blocked at the same time the
should be used for every 250 ma of plate cur-
plate circuit is opened. This helps to reduce
rent. Type 2A3 tubes may also be used; allow
the backwave that might otherwise leak one 2A3 tube for every 80 ma of plate cur-
through the keyed stage. rent.
The simplest cathode keying circuit is il- Because of the series resistance of the keyer
lustrated in figure 9, where a key -click filter tubes, the plate voltage at the keyed tube
is employed, and a hand key is used to break will be from 30 to 60 volts less than the
the circuit. This simple keying circuit is not power supply voltage. This voltage appears
recommended for general use, as consider- as cathode bias on the keyed tube, assuming
able voltage may be developed across the key the bias return is made to ground, and should
when it is open. be taken into consideration when providing
An electronic switch can take the place of bias.
the hand key. This will remove the danger Some typical cathode circuit vacuum -tube
of shock. At the same time, the opening keying units are shown in figure 10.
HANDBOOK Keying 439
TO
6Y6 CAT) EOr R -F TUBE
KEYED STAGE
SOMA. 31LI CON- IM CREAK) M(MARE)
1
RECTIFIER
47 1W 4714.2
STANCOR PA41421
2A3
OR6A57
2E.2W 470E, I W
350-0350
SOMA. 470K -4
IW +e00V
60 f
KEY H-V SUPPLY
.1
Figure 10
VACUUM -TUBE KEYERS FOR CENTER -TAP KEYING CIRCUIT

The type -A keyer is suitable for keying stages running up to 1250 volts on the plate.
Two 2A3's or a 6AS7 tube can safely key 160 milliamperes of cathode current. The simple 6Y6
keyer in figure B is for keying stages running up to 650 volts on the plate. A single 616
can key 80 milliamperes. Two in parallel may be used for plate currents under 160 ma. If
softer keying is desired, the .005 mid mica capacitor should be increased to .01 ufd.
19 -6 Grid -Circuit Keying and associated key -click filter in the grid -re-
turn lead of these tubes. No blocking bias
supply is needed. This circuit is shown in
Grid- circuit, or blocked -grid keying is an- figure 12.
other effective method of keying a c -w trans-
mitter. A basic blocked -grid keying circuit is
shown in figure 11. The time constant of the
keying is determined by the RC circuit,
which also forms part of the bias circuit of
the tube. When the key is closed, operating
bias is developed by the flow of grid current
through R1. When the key is open, sufficient
fixed bias is applied to the tube to block it,
preventing the stage from functioning. If -CLOCKING L.V. +M.V.
II AS
an unneutralized tetrode is keyed by this
method, there is the possibility of a consider- Figure 11
able backwave caused by r -f leakage through
SIMPLE BLOCKED -GRID KEYING SYSTEM
the grid -plate capacitance of the tube.
Certain high -j. triode tubes, such as the The blocking bias must be sufficient to cut
off plate current to the amplifier stage In the
811 -A and the 3 -400Z, automatically block p of the excitation voltage. RI is nor-
themselves when the grid- return circuit is mal bias resistor for the tube. R: and C,
should be adjusted for correct keying wave-
opened. It is merely necessary to insert a key form.
HIGH-MU TRIODE
811A, 3-400Z.
driver stage to the power amplifier, or the
ETC.
amplifier itself. Since the circuit is so pro -
pertioned that the lower -powered stage
comes on first and goes off last, any keying
chirp in the oscillator is not emitted on the
air. Keying lag is applied to the high -powered
keyed stage only.
19 -7 Screen -Grid Keying

The screen circuit of a tetrode tube may
be keyed for c -w operation. Unfortunately,
Figure 12 when the screen grid of a tetrode tube is
SELF -BLOCKING KEYING SYSTEM FOR brought to zero potential, the tube still de-
HIGH -A (ZERO BIAS) TRIODE livers considerable output. Thus it is nec-
essary to place a negative blocking voltage
High -4 triodes such as the 1111A, 5728 (7- 160L), on the screen grid to reduce the backwave
3-400Z, 3-500Z, etc. may be keyed by opening
the d-c grid return circuit. Components R, and through the tube. A suitable keyer circuit
C are adjusted for correct keying waveform. which will achieve this is shown in figure 14A.
This circuit is not suited for keying a linear
amplifier stage as the voltage drop across A 6L6 is used as a combined clamper tube
resistor R, provides additional grid bias to and keying tube. When the key is closed, the
the amplifier tube.
6L6 tube has blocking bias applied to its
control grid. This bias is obtained from the
rectified grid bias of the keyed tube. Screen
A more elaborate blocked-grid keying sys- voltage is applied to the keyed stage through
tem using a 6C4 and VR -150 is shown in a screen dropping resistor and a VR -105 reg-
figure 13. Two stages are keyed, preventing ulator tube. When the key is open, the 6L6
any backwave emission. The first keyed stage is no longer cutoff, and conducts heavily.
may be the oscillator, or a low -powered The voltage drop across the dropping resistor
buffer. The last keyed stage may be the caused by the heavy plate current of the
6L6 lowers the voltage on the VR -105 tube
until it is extinguished, removing the screen
807,6146, ETC. voltage from the tetrode r -f tube. At the
100
same time, rectified grid bias is applied to
EXC. the screen of the tetrode through the 1
LOW rowER eUrrER RFC megohm resistor between screen and key.
(4AG7 ETC.) 2.5 um
This voltage effectively cuts off the screen
of the tetrode until the key is closed again.
+L.V. +H.V.
The RC circuit in the grid of the 6L6 tube
10..
1w = +lo v. determines the keying characteristic of the
6C4,OR
VR-I50 5 Ih 12AU7
RFC
tetrode tube.
2.5 MN
A simple keying relay for screen -grid key-
94. 70K 1w
100T
OKEY
ing is shown in figure 14B.
X
-400 V. A more elaborate screen -grid keyer is
4.1V.TO6C4 shown in figure 15. This keyer is designed
0001 to block- grid -key the oscillator or a low -
ti powered buffer stage, and to screen -key a
medium -powered tetrode tube such as an
Figure 13 807, 2E26 or 6146. A 6BL7 is used as
TWO -STAGE BLOCKED -GRID KEYER the screen keyer, and a 12AU7 is used as a
cathode follower and grid -block keyer. As
A separate filament transformer must be used
for the tube, as its filament is at a potential in the figure 13 circuit, this keyer turns
of -100 volts. on the exciter a moment before the tetrode
HANDBOOK Keying 441
807. ETC
E XC.
-50 V +SCR
Figure 14
SCREEN -GRID KEYER CIRCUITS FOR TETRODE AND PENTODE TUBES

A -A damper and keyer tube. When key is open, 6L6 conducts and voltage
6L6 acts as a
drop across screen resistor extinguishes the voltage regulator tube, removing screen voltage
from the tetrode tube. Bias is applied to screen to completely cut off the tetrode. B- Simple
version of circuit A employs screen keying relay. When relay is open, negative bias voltage
applied through 150K resistor effectively blocks tetrode -tube screen circuit.
stage is turned on. The tetrode stage goes By listening in the receiver one can hear
off on instant before the exciter does. Thus the exciter stop operating a fraction of a
any keying chirp of the oscillator is effec- second after the tetrode stage goes off. In
tively removed from the keyed signal. fact, during rapid keying, the exciter may be
12Au7A 6BL7 -GT

OSCILLATOR
OR MIXER STAGE
TO
EXC
C102
AMPLIFIER
RI soon RIA6, ETC.
ADJUST
BIAS
2 0- +400 V. -BIAS -
-105V
1005
2W 4 o--200V.
Ra
5 o-1
R2 5005 ZW
'MAKE - AMP. SCREEN
DELAY CONTROL - VOLTAGE
Figure 15
DIFFERENTIAL KEYING SYSTEM FOR SCREEN CIRCUIT

This keyer contains a 6BL7 series screen-voltage keyer tube and utilizes one -half of a 12AU7
as a control triode for the keyer tube. The second section of the 12AU7 is diode- connected to
apply blocking bias to the 6BL7. With open key, pin 7 of the 12AU7 is adjusted to about
-85 volts by means of potentiometer R,, using vtvm. The 12AU7 and 6BL7 are now plugged
in their sockets and, with the key still open, -
105 to -110 volts should be observed at
cathode pin 3 of the 12AU7. The screen voltage to the keyed amplifier stage (6146, etc.)
should be about -SO volts. With the key closed, screen control potentiometer R should be
set to the proper screen voltage. Sharpness of keying on wave front is adjusted by the
setting of potentiometer R . "Softness" of keying may be increased by raising value of
capacitor C . The 6BL7 tube should be run from separate 6.3 -volt filament supply with the
filament transformer center tap connected to amplifier screen voltage lead to keep heater -
cathode voltage of 6BL7 within its rating.
6AL5 TO CATHODE
BLOCKING DIODES CIRCUIT OF
KEYED STAGE
Z
r LL
O
o
170
V r -250 V
K
VACUUM-
. V TUBE
LL KEYER
V (F/6. /O)
1 KEY
CUTOFF VALUE
AMPLIFIER
Figure 17
BLOCKING DIODES EMPLOYED TO VARY

CUTOFF
VALUE TIME CONSTANT OF "MAKE" AND "BREAK"
OSC.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VACUUM -TUBE KEYER
l.- KEY IS DEPRESSED

DURING THIS TIME
+I
I
differential keyer can apply waveshaping to
I
I.-TRANSMITTER IS ÒN THE --M

I
the amplifier section of the transmitter, elim-
AIR DURING THIS TIME. inating the click caused by rapid keying of
Figure 16 the latter stages.
The ideal keying system would perform as
TIME SEQUENCE OF A
illustrated in figure 16. When the key is
DIFFERENTIAL KEYER closed, the oscillator reaches maximum out-
put almost instantaneously. The following
heard as a steady signal in the receiver, as it stages reach maximum output in a fashion
has appreciable time lag in the keying circuit. determined by the waveshaping circuits of
The clipping effect of following stages has the keyer. When the key is released, the out-
a definite hardening effect on this, however. put of the amplifier stages starts to decay in
a predetermined manner, followed shortly
19 -8 Differential Keying thereafter by cessation of the oscillator. The
over -all result of these actions is to provide
Circuits relatively soft "make" and "break" to the
Excellent waveshaping may be obtained by keyed signal, meanwhile preventing oscilla-
a differential keying system whereby the tor frequency shift during the keying se-
master oscillator of the transmitter is turned quence.
on a moment before the rest of the stages The rates of charge and decay in a typical
are energized, and remains on a moment KC keying circuit may be varied independ-
longer than the other stages. The chirp, or ently of each other by the blocking -diode
frequency shift, associated with abrupt system of figure 17. Each diode permits the
switching of the oscillator is thus removed charging current of the timing capacitor to
from the emitted signal. In addition, the flow through only one of the two variable
OSCILLATOR BUFFER *1 BUFFER *2
*300 V.
OUTPUT
CONTROL
RI
c 100 K
2w
Figure 18
DIFFERENTIAL KEYING SYSTEM WITH OSCILLATOR -SWITCHING DIODE
HANDBOOK Keying 443
Vi V2 V3
OSCILLATOR BUFFER DRIVER
+300 V.
V4
12AU7 KEYER TUBE
K 100K 330E
cos
Figure 19
DIFFERENTIAL KEYER USING A 12AU7 DOUBLE TRIODE
potentiometers, thus permitting independent on tubes V, and V,. A waveshaping filter

adjustment of the "make" and "break" char- consisting of R_, R3, and C1 is used in
acteristics of the keying system. the keying control circuit of V2 and V,. To
A practical differential keying system avoid chirp when the oscillator (V1) is
making use of this differential technique is keyed, the keyer tube V, allows the oscillator
shown in figure 18. A 6AL5 switch tube to start quickly-before V2 and V:, start
turns the oscillator on before the keying conducting -and then continue operating
action starts, and holds it on until after the until after V_ and V, have stopped con-
keying sequence is completed. Time conducting. Potentiometer R, adjusts the "hold"
stant of the keying cycle is determined by time for vfo operation after the key is
values of C and R. When the key is open, a opened. This may be adjusted to cut off the
cutoff bias of about -110 volts is applied vfo between marks of keyed characters, thus
to the screen -grid circuits of the keyed allowing rapid break -in operation.
stages. When the key is closed, the screen -
grid voltage rises to the normal value at a Transmitter The c -w transmitter keying
rate determined by the time constant (RC). Keying comprises more than simply
On opening the key again, the screen volt- turning the carrier on and off
age returns to cutoff value at the predeter- by means of a teleg -aph key. The previous
mined rate. circuits are designed to provide clean crisp
The potentiometer (R,) serves as an out- keying, when properly adjusted, without
put control, varying the minimum internal click or snap on the keyed waveform. The
resistance of the I 2BH7 keyer tube, and is a optimum keying characteristic is a highly
useful device to limit power input during subjective thing and "on- the-air" checks are
tuneup periods. Excitation to the final amp- questionable, since many amateurs hesistate
lifier stage may be controlled by the screen to be truly critical of another amateur's
potentiometer (R:,) in the second buffer signal unless it is causing objectionable
stage. An external bias source of approxi- interference.
mately - 120 volts at 10 ma is required for Observation of the r -f waveform of the
operation of the kever, in addition to the keyed signal on an oscilloscope can quickly
300 -volt screen supply. show the operator the characteristic of his
Blocking voltage may be removed from signal and comparison of the 'scope image
the oscillator for zeroing purposes by closing with the signal heard in a local monitor will
switch S1, rendering the diode switch in- quickly provide good knowledge of the
operative. keyed signal. A properly keyed signal will
A second popular keying system is shown have minimum thump on the make, and no
in figure 19. Grid -block keying is used perceptible click on the break. Illustration
in the keyed wave to drop during long

dashes, adding an unusual "yoop" to the
signal. Other undesirable effects such as
excess ripple on the waveform may be
easily observed with the use of an oscillo-
scope.
19 -9 VOX Circuitry
A form of VOX ( voice- operated trans-
mission) is often employed in SSB operation.
The VOX circuitry makes use of a trans-
Figure 20
mitter control relay that is actuated by the
C -W KEYING CHARACTERISTICS operator's voice and is held open by an anti-
A- Abrupt rise and decay time of dot charac- 0% circuit actuated by the audio system of
ter leads to key clicks on make and
break. B- Simple keying filter rounds dot the station receiver. Voice- controlled break -
character reducing transition time between in operation is thus made possible without
key -open and key- closed condition. C-Poor
power- supply regulation can distort keying annoying feedback from the receiver speaker.
waveform and add "yoop" to signal. A representative \'OX system is illustrated in
figure 21. The VOX signal voltage is taken
from the speech amplifier of the SSB trans-
A (figure 20) shows a keyed signal having mitter and adjusted to the proper amplitude
no control of make or break. The abrupt by means of VOX -gain potentiometer. The
rise and decay of the waveform generates signal is rectified by diode V,A and the posi-
severe clicks and thumps that would be tive voice impulses are applied to the grid of
extremely objectionable on the air. Suitable the VOX relay tube (KA) which is normal-
filter circuits increase the rise and decay ly biased to cutoff. An RC network in the
time of the signal (B) , reducing the abrupt VOX rectifier circuit permits rapid relay ac-
transition times to conservative values. Poor tion yet delays the opening of the relay so
power -supply regulation can alter an other- that VOX action is sustained during syl-
wise perfect keyed waveform (C) . Insuffi- lables and between words. Delay periods of
cient filter capacitance permits the power up to 0.5 second are common.
The antivox signal voltage is derived from
550M SPEECH V2 A
ro CONTROL CIRCUITS] the speaker circuit of the receiver, adjusted
AMPLIFIER
6AL5 to the proper amplitude by the antivox -gain
100
VOX
i VDA
12AT7 potentiometer and rectified by diode V,B to
provide a negative voice impulse which
GAIN ooI Rr biases the vox diode (V2A) to a noncon-
ducting state. The relay is held in a cut -off
position until a positive override signal from
the VOX circuit defeats the antivox signal
taken from the station receiver. The relay
IF-
tube may also be actuated by the manual
Vie { n switch which drops the bias level, causing
I2AT7
00K
the tube to draw a heavy plate current and
Nr / -' 22. trip the VOX relay.
VOX 100I
GAIN
.0
.200 v
10 K 100 K
X00000 VOX Control Apractical and reliable

for a TransceiverVOX circuit for a trans-
311
FROM VO /GE COIL ceiver is shown in figure
OF RECEIVER
22. A primary consideration in transceiver
Figure 21 VOX design is that the VOX circuit must
A REPRESENTATIVE VOX CIRCUIT provide a controlled delay to prevent the
HANDBOOK VOX Circuitry 445
FROM SPEECH
AMPLIFIER
Figure 22
FLEXIBLE VOX CIRCUIT FOR SSB

TRANSCEIVER
This one -tube VOX circuit provides indepen-
dent adjustment of gain, threshold, and delay.
Second neon lamp is connected as transient
suppressor across extra relay contacts. In
receive (no input signal from speech amplifier),
the pentode section of the 7199 conducts, ex-
tinguishing the neon lamp and the triode sec-
tion of the 7199 is cut off by the -25 volt
bias supply. The VOX relay thus remains open.
In transmit, the input signal is amplified ap-
220K plying positive bias to the VOX control tube,
f-1 FROM RECE VER SPEAKER
I
causing relay contacts to close. VOX delay as
long as 3 seconds is available.
.01
VOX relay from returning the transceiver open. With a voice signal, the neon lamp
to the receive condition between words or ignites, causing the triode section to conduct
short pauses in the operator's speech. The and energize the VOX relay. A portion of
delay should be adjustable, yet the VOX the VOX signal is rectified by two diodes
must permit switching so that the first for the threshold voltage and, in addition,
portion of the syllable of the first words the antivox is fed in at this point, providing
is not lost during the switching sequence. an auxiliary control voltage for the pentode
An antivox circuit is incorporated to re- section of the 7199. VOX delay may be
duce VOX sensitivity to signals received varied over the range of 0.2 to 3 seconds.
from the receiver speaker and a VOX thresh- To reduce switching transients to a mini-
old adjustment provides complete inde- mum, a second neon lamp is placed in an
pendence of sensitivity and delay -time ad- RC circuit in the control -grid leg of the
justment. 7199. When the VOX relay is actuated, the
VOX excitation is taken from the speech .01 -td capacitor is discharged, and the re-
amplifier and amplified through the pentode sulting negative pulse holds the triode sec-
section of a 7199. With the first neon lamp tion of the 7199 in a cutoff state for a
extinguished, the triode section of the 7199 short period of time until the neon lamp
is cut off, leaving the VOX relay (Ry) is extinguished. A separate set of contacts
9v VOX
FROM SPEECH CONTROL
IN34A CIRCUITS
AMPLIFIER 2N2925 s6o 2N2925 p
RT
Figure 23
TRANSISTORIZED VOX
Self- contained VOX circuit may be added to existing equipment. Relay has pull-in current
of about 7 ma. (Sigma 11F -10000 -SIL). U gized relay current is 3 ma, and actual pull -In
c nt is 12 ma.
446 Station Assembly and Control
HIGH MU TRIODE
phone or from the grid circuit of the first
811A, 3 -400Z, ETC.
or second speech -amplifier stage in the sta-
tion equipment. Two stages of high -gain
RC amplifier follow the direct coupled input
stage and the enhanced voice signal is recti-
fied and clamped in a 1N34 -2N404 combi-
nation, the output of which drives a
2N2925 relay -control transistor. Time delay
is determined by a capacitor in the emitter
circuit of the 2N404. Relay dropout is
determined largely by the travel time of
the relay armature.
VOX Bias It is desirable to completely dis-

Figure 24
Control able a high -power linear ampli-
VOX BIAS CONTROL fier during reception for two
Cutoff bias for grounded -grid triode may be reasons: first, the amplifier consumes stand-
obtained from cathode bias resistor. Action of by power unless it is biased to cutoff and,
VOX relay shorts out resistor, restoring ampli- second, many amplifiers will generate "white
fier to normal operating conditions.
noise" when in a normal standby condition.
The white noise, or diode noise, may show
on the VOX relay are used for various con- up in the receiver as a loud hiss interfering
trol circuits in the transceiver. with all but the loudest signals.
The circuit of figure 24 provides an auto-
matic cutoff-bias system for a VOX -con-
A Transistor The transistor VOX circuit trolled amplifier stage. The resting plate
VOX Circuit shown in figure 23 may be current of the amplifier is passed through a
added to existing SSB equip- 50K resistor in the filament return circuit,
ment, or may be included in new -design creating a voltage drop that is applied as
equipment to provide inexpensive and com- cutoff bias to the tube(s). The filament
pact VOX control. The unit is powered from circuit is raised to a positive voltage with
a 9 -volt transistor -radio battery, or power respect to the grid, thus leaving the grid in
may be obtained from a well -filtered tap a negative, cutoff condition. On activation
point in the station equipment. of the VOX relay, a separate set of con-
The input impedance of the first emitter - tacts short out the bias resistor, restoring
follower stage is of sufficiently high imped- the amplifier stage to normal operating con-
ance to work directly from a crystal micro- dition.
CHAPTER TWENTY
Radiation, Propagation,
and Transmission Lines
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves occurs at the open end of a wire. Therefore,
similar in nature to, but much lower in fre- a dipole has a great mismatch at each end,
quency than, light waves or heat waves. Such producing a high degree of reflection. We
waves represent electric energy traveling say that the ends of a dipole are terminated
through space. Radio waves travel in free in an infinite impedance.
space with the velocity of light and can be A returning wave which has been reflected
reflected and refracted much the same as meets the next incident wave, and the volt-
light waves. age and current at any point along the an-
tenna are the vector sum of the two waves.
20 -1 Radiation from an At the ends of the dipole, the voltages add,
Antenna while the currents of the two waves cancel,
thus producing high voltage and low current
Alternating current passing through a con- at the ends of the dipole or half -wave section
ductor creates an alternating electromagnetic of wire. In the same manner, it is found that
field around that conductor. Energy is alter- the currents add while the voltages cancel
nately stored in the field, and then returned at the center of the dipole. Thus, at the
to the conductor. As the frequency is raised, center there is high current but low voltage.
more and more of the energy does not return Inspection of figure 1 will show that the
to the conductor, but instead is radiated off current in a dipole decreases sinusoidally
into space in the form of electromagnetic toward either end, while the voltage similar-
waves, called radio waves. Radiation from a ly increases. The voltages at the two ends of
wire, or wires, is materially increased when- the antenna are 180 out of phase, which
ever there is a sudden change in the electrical means that the polarities are opposite, one
constants of the line. These sudden changes being plus while the other is minus at any
produce reflection, which places standing instant. A curve representing either the volt-
waves on the line. age or current on a dipole represents a stand-
When a wire in space is fed radio -fre- ing wate on the wire.
quency energy having a wavelength of ap-
proximately 2.1 times the length of the wire Radiation From Radiation can and does take
in meters, the wire resonates as a half -wat e Sources Other place from sources other
dipole antenna at that wavelength or fre- Than Antennas than antennas. Undesired ra-
quency. The greatest possible change in the diation can take place from
electrical constants of a line is that which open -wire transmission lines, both from sin-
448 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines RADIO
.
s-
VOLTARK
CENKA
" ,CURRENT
electrostatic lines of force will be vertical.
Likewise, a simple horizontal antenna will
\
cUSRRENl T radiate horizontally polarized waves.
. \ i
.
Because the orientation of a simple linear
radiator is the same as the polarization of
\\\ the waves emitted by it, the radiator itself
HALF -WAVE ANTENNA
is referred to as being either vertically or
\\.
SNOWING NOW STANDING WAVES
horizontally polarized. Thus, we say that a
EXIST CM A HORIZONTAL ANTENNA. horizontal antenna is horizontally polarized.
CURRENT IS MAXIMUM AT CENTER. VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE IS MAXIMUM AT ENCS. Figure 2A illustrates the fact that the
polarization of the electric field of the radi-
Figure 1 ation from a vertical dipole is vertical.
Figure 2B, on the other hand, shows that
STANDING WAVES ON A RESONANT the polarization of electric -field radiation
ANTENNA from a vertical slot radiator is horizontal.
This fact has been utilized in certain com-
gle -wire lines and from lines comprised of mercial f -m antennas where it is desired to
more than one wire. In addition, radiation have horizontally polarized radiation but
can be made to take place in a very efficient where it is more convenient to use an array
manner from electromagnetic horns, from of vertically stacked slot arrays. If the me-
plastic lenses or from electromagnetic lenses tallic sheet is bent into a cylinder with the
made up of spaced conducting planes, from slot on one side, substantially omnidirection-
slots cut in a piece of metal, from dielectric al horizontal coverage is obtained with hor-
wires, or from the open end of a waveguide. izontally polarized radiation when the cyl-
inder with the slot in one side is oriented
Directivity of The radiation from any phys- vertically. An arrangement of this type is
Radiation ically practical radiating sys- shown in figure 2C. Several such cylinders
tem is directive to a certain may be stacked vertically to reduce high -
degree. The degree of directivity can be en- angle radiation and to concentrate the radi-
hanced or altered when desirable through the ated energy at the useful low radiation
combination of radiating elements in a pre- angles.
scribed manner, through the use of reflec- in any event the polarization of radiation
ting planes or curved surfaces, or through from a radiating system is parallel to the
the use of such systems as mentioned in the electric field as it is set up inside or in the
preceding paragraph. The construction of vicinity of the radiating system.
directive antenna arrays is covered in detail
in the chapters which follow. 20 -2 General Character-
Polarization Like light waves, radio waves istics of Antennas
can have a definite polarization. All antennas have certain general char-
In fact, while light waves ordinarily have to acteristics to be enumerated. It is the result
he reflected or passed through a polarizing of differences in these general characteristics
medium before they have a definite polari- which makes one type of antenna system
zation, a radio wave leaving a simple radi- most suitable for one type of application
ator will have a definite polarization, the and another type best for a different appli-
polarization being indicated by the orienta- cation. Six of the more important charac-
tion of the electric -field component of the teristics are: (1) polarization, (2) radiation
wave. This, in turn, is determined by the resistance, (3) horizontal directivity, (4)
orientation of the radiator itself, as the vertical directivity, (S) bandwidth, and
magnetic -field component is always at right (6) effective power gain.
angles to a linear radiator, and the electric - The polarization of an antenna or radi-
field component is always in the same plane ating system is the direction of the electric
as the radiator. Thus we see that an antenna field and has been defined in Section 20 -1.
that is vertical with respect to the earth will The radiation resistance of an antenna
transmit a vertically polarized wave, as the system is normally referred to the feed point
HANDBOOK Antenna Characteristics 449
Figure 2
ANTENNA POLARIZATION
The polarization (electric field) of
the radiation from a resonant di-
pole such as shown at A is par- ELECTRIC
FIELD A
allel to the length of the radia- (POLARIZATION)
tor. In the case of a resonant slot VERTICAL
cut in a sheet of metal and used as
o radiator, the polarization (of the 'rZ
electric field) is perpendicular to the
length of the slot. In both cases,
however, the polarization of the
radiated field is parallel to the po-
tential gradient of the radiator; in ELECTRIC FIELD
the case of the dipole the electric (POLARIZATION)
lines of force are from end to end, HORIZONTAL _t_
while in the case of the slot the
field is across the sides of the slot. FcEDeRS CONNECT
The metallic sheet containing the TO POINTS A Se
NSIDE CYLINDER
slot may be formed into a cylinder
to make up the radiator shown at
C. With this type of radiator the
radiated Reid will be horizontally
polarized even though the radiator
le mounted vertically.
in an antenna fed at a current loop, or it is may be expressed either as an actual power

referred to a current loop in an antenna ratio, or as is more common, the power ratio
system fed at another point. The radiation may be expressed in decibels.
resistance is that value of resistance which,
when substituted for the antenna at a Physical Length If the cross section of the
current loop, would dissipate the same ener- of o Half -Wave conductor which makes up
gy as is actually radiated by the antenna if Antenna the antenna is kept very
the antenna current at the feed point were small with respect to the
to remain the same. antenna length, an electrical half wave is a
The horizontal and vertical directivity fixed percentage shorter than a physical
can best be expressed as a directive pattern half wavelength. This percentage is approxi-
which is a graph showing the relative radi- mately 5 percent. Therefore, most linear
ated field intensity against azimuth angle half -wave antennas are close to 95 percent
for horizontal directivity and field intensity of a half wavelength long physically. Thus,
against elevation angle for vertical direc- a half -wave antenna resonant at exactly 80
tivity. meters would be one -half of 0.95 times 80
The bandwidth of an antenna is a measure meters in length. Another way of saying
of its ability to operate within specified the same thing is that a wire resonates at a
limits over a range of frequencies. Band- wavelength of about 2.1 times its length in
width can be expessed as either operating fre- meters. If the diameter of the conductor be-
quency plus or minus a specified percent of gins to be an appreciable fraction of a wave-
operating frequency, or operating frequency length, as when tubing is used as a vhf
plus or minus a specified number of MHz radiator, the factor becomes slightly less
for a certain standing- wave -ratio limit on than 0.95. For the use of wire and not tub-
the transmission line feeding the antenna ing on frequencies below 30 MHz, however,
system. the figure of 0.95 may be taken as accurate.
The effective power gain or directive gain This assumes a radiator removed from sur-
of an antenna is the ratio between the power rounding objects, and with no bends.
required in the specified antenna and the Simple conversion into feet can be ob-
power required in a reference antenna (usu- tained by using the factor 1.56. To find the
ally a half -wave dipole) to attain the same physical length of a half -wave 80 -meter an-
field strength in the favored direction of the tenna, we multiply 80 times 1.56, and get
antenna under measurement. Directive gain 124.8 feet for the length of the radiator.
It is more common to use frequency than

wavelength when indicating a specific spot
il
in the radio spectrum. For this reason, the
relationship between wavelength and fre-
quency must be kept in mind. As the
velocity of radio waves through space is
constant at the speed of light, it will be seen 1
that the more waves that pass a point per

second (higher frequency), the closer to-
gether the peaks of those waves must be
(shorter wavelength). Therefore, the higher 0 50 60 b 100 200 500 400 400 600 1000 2000 000
the frequency, the lower will be the wave- RATIO OF LENGTH TO DIAMETER
length. Figure 3
A radio wave in space can be compared to
CHART SHOWING SHORTENING OF A RESO-
a wave in water. The wave, in either case,
NANT ELEMENT IN TERMS OF RATIO OF
has peaks and troughs. One peak and one
LENGTH TO DIAMETER
trough constitute a full wave, or one nace-
length. The use of this chart is based on the basic
formula where radiator length in feet is
Frequency describes the number of wave equal to 475/frequency in MHz. This formula
cycles or peaks passing a point per second. applies to frequencies below perhaps 30 MHz
when the radiator is made from wire. On
Wavelength describes the distance the wave higher frequencies, or on 14 and 28 MHz when
travels through space during one cycle or the radiator is made of large -diameter tubing,
oscillation of the antenna current; it is the the radiator is shortened from the value ob-
tained with the above formula by an amount
distance in meters between adjacent peaks or determined by the ratio of length to diameter
adjacent troughs of a wave train. of the radiator. The amount of this shortening
is obtainable from the chart shown above.
As a radio wave travels 300,000,000
meters a second (speed of light), a fre-
quency of 1 cycle per second (1 Hz) cor- Length of a half -wave radiator made from
responds to a wavelength of 300,000,000 wire (No. 14 to No. 10):
meters. So, if the frequency is multiplied by
3.5 -MHz to 30 -MHz bands
a million, the wavelength must be divided
by a million, in order to maintain their cor- 475
rect ratio. Length in feet =
Freq. in MHz
A frequency of 1,000,000 cycles per sec-
ond (1000 kHz) equals a wavelength of
300 meters. Multiplying frequency by 10 50 -MHz band
and dividing wavelength by 10, we find: a
466
frequency of 10,000 kHz equals a wave- Length in feel = Freq. in MHz
length of 30 meters. Multiplying and divid-
ing by 10 again, we get: a frequency of
100,000 kHz equals 3 meters wavelength. Length in inches - 5600
Freq. in MHz
Therefore, to change wavelength to fre-
quency (in kilohertz), simply divide 300,-
000 by the wavelength in meters (A). 144 -MHz band
300,000 5600
FkHz = Length in inches =
X Freq. in MHz
= 300,000 Length -to- Diameter
When a half -wave radi-
FkHz Rotio ator is constructed from
Now that we have a simple conversion tubing or rod whose
formula for converting wavelength to fre- diameter is an appreciable fraction of the
quency and vice versa, we can combine it length of the radiator, the resonant length
with our wavelength -versus-antenna length of a half -wave antenna will be shortened.
formula, and we have the following: The amount of shortening can be deter-
HANDBOOK Antenna Characteristics 451
(K -.OS) X 492
mined with the aid of the chart of figure 3.
In this chart the amount of additional short- L
- Freq. in MHz
ening over the values given in the previous
paragraph is plotted against the ratio of the where,
length to the diameter of the half -wave K equals number of %2 waves on antenna,
radiator. L equals length in feet.
The length of a wave in free space is Under conditions of severe current atten-
somewhat longer than the length of an an- uation, it is possible for some of the nodes,
tenna for the same frequency. The actual or loops, actually to be slightly greater than
free -space half wavelength is given by the a physical half wavelength apart. Practice
following expressions: has shown that the most practical method of
Half wavelength - Freq.492in MHz in feet resonating a harmonically operated antenna

accurately is by cut and try, or by using a
feed system in which both the feedline and
Half wavelength - Freq.5905
in MHz
in inches antenna are resonated at the station end as
an integral system.
Harmonic A wire in space can resonate at A dipole or half -wave antenna is said to
R more than one frequency. The operate on its fundamental or first harmonic.
lowest frequency at which it A full -wave antenna, 1 wavelength long,
resonates is called its fundamental frequency, operates on its second harmonic. An antenna
and at that frequency it is approximately a with five half wavelengths on it would be
half wavelength long. A wire can have two, operating on its fifth harmonic. Observe that
three, four, five, or more standing waves on the fifth harmonic antenna is VA wave-
it, and thus it resonates at approximately lengths long, not S wavelengths.
the integral harmonics of its fundamental Antenna Most types of antennas operate
frequency. However, the higher harmonics Res most efficiently when tuned, or
are not exactly integral multiples of the
resonated, to the frequency of
lowest resonant frequency as a result of end
operation. This consideration of course does
effects.
not apply to the rhombic antenna and to the
A harmonic-operated antenna is somewhat
parasitic elements of Yagi arrays. However,
longer than the corresponding integral num-
ber of dipoles, and for this reason, the dipole
length formula cannot be used simply by 000
DI +1
multiplying by the corresponding harmonic.
The intermediate half -wave sections do not
have end effects. Also, the current distribu-
.,ti,
tion is disturbed by the fact that power
can reach some of the half -wave sections
only by flowing through other sections, the
latter then acting not only as radiators, but
D=
also as transmission lines. For the latter rea-
son, the resonant length will be dependent Figure 4
to an extent on the method of feed, as there
will be less attenuation of the current along EFFECT OF SERIES INDUCTANCE AND CA-
the antenna if it is fed at or near the center PACITANCE ON THE LENGTH OF A HALF -
than if fed toward or at one end. Thus, the WAVE RADIATOR
antenna would have to be somewhat longer The top antenna has been electrically length-
ened by placing a coil in series with the cen-
if fed near one end than if fed near the ter. In other words, an antenna with a lumped
center. The difference would be small, how- inductance in its center can be made shorter
ever, unless the antenna were many wave- for a given frequency than a plain wire radia-
tor. The bottom antenna has been capacitive-
lengths long. ly shortened electrically. in other words, an
The length of a center -fed harmonically antenna with a capacitor in series with it must
be made longer for a given frequency since its
operated doublet may be found from the effective electrical length as compared to plain
formula: wire is shorter.
10000 + 6000
1J,,010Td1 TAN
6000 +5000
=
DIAMETER' IOW
8000 +4000
i
7000 +3000
soon +
a0oo
4000
3000
DI
+1000
1000
o
EMII/III/I
EWA'S 11'
I/Il
re %
DIAMETER=1 ,
2000 2000
1000 3000
0 .600
0.15) 0.5). 1.0) 1.5). 2.0) 2.6)
OVER -ALL LENGTH OF RADIATOR
5000
Figure 5
FEED -POINT 6
RESISTANCE OF A CENTER - 015) 0.3) 1.0) 1.5) 2.0) 2.5)
DRIVEN RADIATOR AS A FUNCTION OF OVER -ALL LENGTH OF RADIATOR
PHYSICAL LENGTH IN TERMS OF FREE Figure 6
SPACE WAVELENGTH
REACTIVE COMPONENT OF THE FEED -POINT
IMPEDANCE OF A CENTER-DRIVEN RADIA-
in practically every other case it will be TOR AS A FUNCTION OF PHYSICAL LENGTH
found that increased efficiency results when IN TERMS OF FREE -SPACE WAVELENGTH
the entire antenna system is resonant,
whether it be a simple dipole or an elaborate
array. The radiation efficiency of a resonant ciency; it simply indicates a sharper reso-
wire is many times that of a wire which is nance curve.
not resonant.
If an antenna is slightly too long, it can 20 -3 Radiation Resistance
be resonated by series insertion of a variable and Feed -point Impedance
capacitor at a high -current point. If it is
slightly too short, it can be resonated by In many ways, a half -wave antenna is
means of a variable inductance. These two like a tuned tank circuit. The main differ-
methods, illustrated schematically in figure ence lies in the fact that the elements of
4, are generally employed when part of the inductance, capacitance, and resistance are
antenna is brought into the operating room. lumped in the tank circuit, and are distri-
With an antenna array, or an antenna fed buted throughout the length of an antenna.
by means of a transmission line, it is more The center of a half -wave radiator is effec-
common to cut the elements to exact reso- tive at ground potential as far as r -f voltage
nant length by "cut- and -try" procedure. is concerned, although the current is highest
Exact antenna resonance is more important at that point.
when the antenna system has low radiation When the antenna is resonant, and it al-
resistance; an antenna with low radiation ways should be for best results, the imped-
resistance has higher Q (tunes sharper) than ance at the center is substantially resistive,
an antenna with high radiation resistance. and is termed the radiation resistance. Radi-
The higher Q does not indicate greater effi- ation resistance is a fictitious term; it is that
HANDBOOK
value of resistance (referred to the current

loop) which would dissipate the same
amount of power as being radiated by the
antenna, when fed with the current flowing
at the current loop.
The radiation resistance depends on the
antenna length and its proximity to nearby
objects which either absorb or re- radiate
power, such as the ground, other wires, etc.
The Marconi
Antenna
Before going too far with the
discussion of radiation resist-
ance, an explanation of the
23 .3
'=
Radiation Resistance
HEIGHT IN WAVELENGTHS OF CENTER OF VERTICAL

HALF -WAVE ANTENNA ABOVE PERFECT GROUND
.4 .S
4:3tir-7111Bra'r:n: i!A
NIIIITA11111IMMIN
MIN/--
.7 .71
453
Marconi (grounded quarter -wave) antenna

is in order. The Marconi antenna is a special
type of Hertz antenna in which the earth 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .! .11 .7 .8 d to
acts as the "other half" of the dipole. In HEIGHT IN WAVELENGTHS OF HORIZONTAL HALF -
other words, the current flows into the earth WAVE ANTENNA ABOVE PERFECT GROUND
instead of into a similar quarter -wave sec-

Figure 7
tion. Thus, the current loop of a Marconi
antenna is at the base rather than in the EFFECT OF HEIGHT ON THE RADIATION RE-
center. SISTANCE OF A DIPOLE SUSPENDED ABOVE
A half -wave dipole far from ground and PERFECT GROUND
other reflecting objects has a radiation re-
sistance at the center of about 73 ohms. A
Marconi antenna is simply one -half of a ground, since the height determines the
dipole. For that reason, the radiation resist- phase and amplitude of the wave reflected
ance is roughly half the 73 -ohm impedance from the ground back to the antenna. Thus
of the dipole, or 36.S ohms. The radiation the resultant current in the antenna for a
resistance of a Marconi antenna, such as a given power is a function of antenna height.
mobile whip, will be lowered by the prox-
Center -Fed When a linear radiator is series
imity of the automobile body.
Feed -Point fed at the center, the resistive
Antenna Because the power throughout Impedance and reactive components of the
Impedance the antenna is the same, the im- driving -point impedance are de-
pedance of a resonant antenna pendent on both the length and diameter of
at any point along its length merely expresses the radiator expressed in wavelengths. The
the ratio between voltage and current at manner in which the resistive component
that point. Thus, the lowest impedance oc- varies with the physical dimensions of the
curs where the current is highest, namely, at radiator is illustrated in figure S. The man-
the center of a dipole, or a quarter wave ner in which the reactive component varies
from the end of a Marconi. The impedance is illustrated in figure 6.
rises uniformly toward each end, where it Several interesting things will be noted
is about 2000 ohms for a dipole remote from with respect to these curves. The reactive
ground, and about twice as high for a verti- component disappears when the over -all
cal Marconi. physical length is slightly less than any num-
If a vertical half -wave antenna is set up ber of half waves long, the differential in-
so that its lower end is at the ground level, creasing with conductor diameter. For over-
the effect of the ground reflection is to in- all lengths in the vicinity of an odd number
crease the radiation resistance to approxi- of half wavelengths, the center feed point
mately 100 ohms. When a horizontal half - looks like a series -resonant lumped circuit to
wave antenna is used, the radiation resist- the generator or transmission line, while
ance (and, of course, the amout of energy for over -all lengths in the vicinity of an
radiated for a given antenna current) de- even number of half wavelengths, it looks
pends on the height of the antenna above like a parallel -resonant or antiresonant
lumped circuit. Both the feed -point resist- The radiation resistance of an antenna
ance and the feed -point reactance change generally increases with length, although
more slowly with over -all radiator length this increase varies up and down about a
(or with frequency with a fixed length) as constantly increasing average. The peaks and
the conductor diameter is increased, indi- dips are caused by the reactance of the an-
cating that the effective Q is lowered as the tenna, when its length does not allow it to
diameter is increased. However, in view of resonate at the operating frequency.
the fact that the damping resistance is
nearly all radiation resistance rather than Antenna Antennas have a certain loss re-
loss resistance, the lower Q does not repre- Efficiency sistance as well as a radiation re-
sent lower efficiency. Therefore, the lower Q sistance. The loss resistance defines
is desirable, because it permits use of the the power lost in the antenna due to ohm-
radiator over a wider frequency range with- ic resistance of the wire, ground resistance
out resorting to means for eliminating the (in the case of a Marconi), corona dis-
reactive component. Thus, the use of a charge, and insulator losses.
large diameter conductor makes the over -all The approximate effective radiation effi-
system less frequency sensitive. If the diam- ciency (expressed as a decimal) is equal to:
eter is made sufficiently large in terms of
wavelengths, the Q will be low enough to N'
R
qualify the radiator as a broadband anten- R + R,.
na.
The curves of figure 7 indicate the theo- where,
retical center -point radiation resistance of a R;, equals the radiation resistance,
half -wave antenna for various heights above R. equals loss resistance of antenna.
perfect ground. These values are of im-
The loss resistance will be of the order of
portance in matching untuned radio -fre-
0.25 ohm for large- diameter tubing con-
ouency feeders to the antenna, in order to
obtain a good impedance match and an ab-
ductors such as are most commonly used in
multi -element parasitic arrays, and will be of
sence of standing waves on the feeders.
the order of 0.5 to 2.0 ohms for arrays of
normal construction using copper wire.
Ground Losses Above average ground, the When the radiation resistance of an an-
actual radiation resistance of tenna or array is very low, the current at a
a dipole will vary from the exact value of voltage node will be quite high for a given
figure 7 since the latter assumes a hypothet- power. Likewise, the voltage at a current
ical, perfect ground having no loss and per- node will be very high. Even with a heavy
fect reflection. Fortunately, the curves for conductor and excellent insulation, the losses
the radiation resistance over most types of due to the high voltage and current will be
earth will correspond rather closely with appreciable if the radiation resistance is suf-
those of the chart, except that the radiation ficiently low.
resistance for a horizontal dipole does not Usually, it is not considered desirable to
fall off as rapidly as is indicated for heights use an antenna or array with a radiation re-
below an eighth wavelength. However, with sistance of less than approximately 5 ohms
the antenna so close to the ground and the unless there is sufficient directivity, com-
soil in a strong field, much of the radiation pactness, or other advantage to offset the
resistance is actually represented by ground losses resulting from the low radiation re-
loss; this means that a good portion of the sistance.
antenna power is being dissipated in the
earth, which, unlike the hypothetical perfect Ground The radiation resistance of a
ground, has resistance. In this case, an ap- Resistance Marconi antenna, especially,
preciable portion of the radiation resistance should be kept as high as pos-
actually is loss resistance. The type of soil sible. This will reduce the antenna current
also has an effect upon the radiation pattern, for a given power, thus minimizing loss re-
especially in the vertical plane, as will be sulting from the series resistance offered by
seen later. the earth connection. The radiation resist-
HANDBOOK Antenna Directivity 455
ance can be kept high by making the Mar- A half -wave resonant doublet, because of
coni radiator somewhat longer than a quar- its different current distribution and signifi-
ter wave, and shortening it by series ca- cant length, exhibits slightly more free -space
pacitance to an electrical quarter wave. This power gain as a result of directivity than
reduces the current flowing in the earth con- does the infinitesimal dipole, for reasons
nection. It also should be removed from which will be explained in a later section.
ground as much as possible (vertical being The space- directivity power gain of a half -
ideal). Methods of minimizing the resistance wave resonant doublet is 1.63 (or 2.15 db)
of the earth connection will be found in the referred to an isotropic radiator.
discussion of the Marconi antenna.
Horizontal When choosing and orienting an
20 -4 Antenna Directivity Directivity antenna system, the radiation
All practical antennas radiate better in patterns of the various common
some directions than others. This character- types of antennas should be given careful
istic is called directivity. The more directive consideration. The directional characteristics
an antenna is, the more it concentrates the are of still greater importance when a di-
radiation in a certain direction, or direc- rective antenna array is used.
tions. The more the radiation is concen-
trated in a certain direction, the greater will
be the field strength produced in that direc-
tion for a given amount of total radiated
power. Thus the use of a directional an-
tenna or array produces the same result in
the favored direction as an increase in the
power of the transmitter.
The increase in radiated power in a cer-
tain direction with respect to an antenna in
free space as a result of inherent directivity
is called the free -space directivity power gain
or just space directivity gain of the antenna
(referred to a hypothetical isotropic radiator
which is assumed to radiate equally well in
all directions). Because the fictitious iso-
tropic radiator is a purely academic antenna, J
not physically realizable, it is common prac- ,2 3
tice to use as a reference antenna the sim-

plest ungrounded resonant radiator, the half - .3
wave dipole, or resonant doublet. As a half - .5

wave doublet has a space directivity gain of .1
2.15 db over an isotropic radiator, the use of o

a resonant dipole as the comparison antenna
20 as ss 22 70 N M 14 12 q
WAVE ANGLE IN DEGREES
reduces the gain figure of an array by 2.15
Figure 8
db. However, it should be understood that
power gain can be expressed with regard to VERTICAL -PLANE DIRECTIONAL CHARAC-
any antenna, just so long as it is specified. TERISTICS OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTI-
As a matter of interest, the directivity of CAL DOUBLETS ELEVATED 0.6 WAVE-
an infinitesimal dipole provides a free -space LENGTH AND ABOVE TWO TYPES OF
directivity power gain of 1.5 (or 1.76 db) GROUND
over an isotropic radiator. This means that
in the direction of maximum radiation the H, represents a horizontal doublet over typi-
cal farmland. H. over salt water. V, is a verti-
infinitesimal dipole will produce the same cal pattern of radiation from a vertical doub-
field of strength as an isotropic radiator let over typical farmland, V over salt water. .
A salt water ground is the closest approach to

which is radiating 1.5 times as much total an extensive ideally perfect ground that will
power. be met in actual practice.
Horizontal directivity is always desirable points. This means, of course, that more
on any frequency for point -to -point work. than one angle of radiation can be used. If
However, it is not always attainable with no elevation directivity is being used under
reasonable antenna dimensions on the lower this condition of propagation, selective fad-
frequencies. Further, when it is attainable, as ing will take place because of interference
on the frequencies above perhaps 7 MHz, between the waves arriving over the dif-
with reasonable antenna dimensions, oper- ferent paths.
ating convenience is greatly furthered if the On the 28 -MHz band it is by far the
maximum lobe of the horizontal directivity most common condition that only one mode
is controllable. It is for this reason that roof propagation will be possible between two
tatable antenna arrays have come into such points at any one time. This explains, of
common usage. course, the reason why rapid fading in gen-
Considerable horizontal directivity can be eral and selective fading in particular are
used to advantage when: (1) only point -to- almost absent from signals heard on the 28-
point work is necessary, (2) several arrays MHz band (except for fading caused by
are available so that directivity may be local effects).
changed by selecting or reversing antennas, Measurements have shown that the angles
(3) a single rotatable array is in use. Signals useful for communication on the 14 -MHz
follow the great -circle path, or within 2 or band are from 3 to about 30 , angles
3 degrees of that path under all normal above about 15 being useful only for local
propagation conditions. However, under work. On the 28 -MHz band, measurements
turbulent ionospheric conditions, or when have shown that the useful angles range
unusual propagation conditions exist, the from about 3 to 180; angles above about
deviation from the great -circle path for 12 being useful only for local (less than
greatest signal intensity may be as great as 3000 miles) work. These figures assume
90. Making the array rotatable overcomes normal propagation by virtue of the F,
these difficulties, but arrays having extremely layer.
high horizontal directivity become too cum -
b :rsome to be rotated, except perhaps when Angle of Radiation It now becomes of in-
desiened for operation on frequencies above of Typical Antennas terest to determine the
50 MHz. and Arrays amount of radiation
Vertical Vertical directivity is of the available at these useful
Directivity lower angles of radiation from commonly
greatest importance in obtain-
used antennas and antenna arrays. Figure 8
ing satisfactory communication
above 14 MHz whether or not horizontal shows relative output voltage plotted against
directivity is used. This is true simply be- elevation angle (wave angle) in degrees
above the horizontal, for horizontal and
cause only the energy radiated between
certain definite elevation angles is useful for vertical doublets elevated 0.6 wavelength
above two types of ground. It is obvious by
communication. Energy radiated at other
elevation angles is lost and performs no use- inspection of the curves that a horizontal
ful function. dipole mounted at this height above ground
(20 feet on the 28 -MHz band) is radiating
Optimum Angle The optimum angle of ra- only a small amount of energy at angles use-
of Radiation diation for propagation of ful for communication on the 28 -MHz
signals between two points band. Most of the energy is being radiated
is dependent on a number of variables. uselessly upward. The vertical antenna above
Among these significant variables are: (1) a good reflecting surface appears much bet-
height of the ionosphere layer which is pro- ter in this respect-and this fact has been
viding the reflection, (2) distance between proven many times by actual installations.
the two stations, (3) number of hops for It might immediately be thought that the
propagation between the two stations. For amount of radiation from a horizontal or
communication on the 14 -MHz band it is vertical dipole could be increased by raising
often possible for different modes of propa- the antenna higher above the ground. This is
gation to provide signals between two true to an extent in the case of the hori-
HANDBOOK Antenna Directivity 457
Figure 9
VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
Showing the vertical radiation
patterns for half -wave antennas
(or collinear half -wav or ex-
tended half -wave antennas) at
cliff heights above average
ground and perfect ground. Note
that such antennas one -quarter
wave above ground concentrate
most of the radiation at the
very high angles which are use-
ful for communication only on
the lower- frequency bands. An-
I o I
tennas one-half wave above
ground are not shown, but the
POWER OUTPUT elevation pattern shows one
lobe on each side at an angle
of 30 above horizontal.
zontal dipole; the low -angle radiation does radiation to high -angle radiation it is neces-
increase slowly after a height of 0.6 wave- sary to place the antenna high above ground,
length is reached but at the expense of and in addition it is necessary to use addi-
greatly increased high -angle radiation and tional means for suppressing high -angle ra-
the formation of a number of nulls in the diation.
elevation pattern. No signal can be trans-
mitted or received at the elevation angles Suppression of High -angle radiation can be
where these nulls have been formed. Tests High -angle suppressed, and this radiation
have shown that a center height of 0.6 Radiation can be added to that going
wavelength for a vertical dipole (0.35 wave- out at low angles, only
length to the bottom end) is about optimum through the use of some sort of directive
for this type of array. antenna system. There are three general
Figure 9 shows the effect of placing a types of antenna arrays composed of dipole
horizontal dipole at various heights above elements commonly used which concentrate
ground. It is easily seen by reference to fig- radiation at the lower more effective angles
ure 9 (and figure 10 which shows the radi- for high- frequency communication. These
ation from a dipole at 3/4 wave height) that types are: (1) The close- spaced out -of -phase
a large percentage of the total radiation system as exemplified by the "flat -top"
from the dipole is being radiated at relative- beam, or W8JK array. Such configurations
ly high angles which are useless for commu- are classified as end -fire arrays .(2) The wide -
nication on the 14 -MHz and 28 -MHz bands. spaced in -phase arrays, as exemplified by the
Thus we see that in order to obtain a worth- "Lazy H" antenna. These configurations are
while increase in the ratio of low -angle classified as broadside arrays. (3) The close-
Figure 10
VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
Showing vertical -plane radiation
patterns of a horizontal single -
section flat -top beam with one-
eighth wave spacing (solid
curves) and a horizontal half -
wave antenna (dashed curves)
when both are 0.5 wavelength
(A) and 0.75 wavelength (B)
1.0 1.5 zA 2.1 3.0 .3 1.0 f.s 2.0 3.5 Lo above ground.
GAIN IN FIELD STRENGTH
Figure 11
COMPARATIVE VERTICAL
RADIATION PATTERNS
Showing the vertical radiation
patterns of a horizontal single -
section flat-top beam (A), an ar-
ray of two stacked horizontal
in -phase half -wave elements
half of a "Lazy H " -(B), and a
-
horizontal dipole (C). In each
case the top of the antenna sys-
tem is 0.75 wavelength above
ground, as shown to the left of
the curves.
I.0 /.! 2-0 s.s
spaced parasitic systems, as exemplified by its bandwidth will be greater than that of a
the three -element rotary beam. similar array constructed of single wires.
A comparison between the radiation from The radiation resistance of antenna arrays
a dipole, a "flat -top beam" and a pair of of the types mentioned in the previous para-
dipoles stacked one above the other (half of graphs may be increased through the use of
a "lazy H "), in each case with the top of wider spacing between elements. With in-
the antenna at a height of 3/4 wavelength is creased radiation resistance in such arrays
shown in figure 11. The improvement in the the radiation efficiency increases since the
amplitude of low -angle radiation at the ex- ohmic losses within the conductors become a
pense of the useless high -angle radiation with smaller percentage of the radiation resist-
these simple arrays as contrasted to the ance, and the bandwidth is increased pro-
dipole is quite marked. portionately.
Figure 12 compares the patterns of a 3-
element beam and a dipole radiator at a 20 -6 Propagation of
height of 0.75 wavelength. It will be noticed Radio Waves
that although there is more energy in the
The preceding sections have discussed the
lobe of the beam as compared to the dipole,
manner in which an electromagnetic -wave
the axis of the beam is at the same angle
above the horizontal. Thus, although more
radiated energy is provided by the beam at
low angles, the average angle of radiation of A-DIPOLE
the beam is no lower than the average angle B-2-ELEMENT
ITIC ARRAY
of radiation of the dipole.
20 -5 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna or an an-
tenna array is a function primarily of the
radiation resistance and of the shape of the
conductors which make up the antenna
system. For arrays of essentially similar con- I.0 IA 2.0 2.3 1.O 3.5 4.0
struction the bandwidth (or the deviation GAIN IN FIELD STRENGTH
in frequency which the system can handle Figure 12
without mismatch) is increased with in- VERTICAL RADIATION PATTERNS
creasing radiation resistance, and the band- Showing vertical radiation patterns of a hori-
width is increased with the use of con- zontal dipole (A) and a horizontal 3- element
ductors of large diameter (smaller ratio of parasitic array (I) at a height above ground
of 0.75 wavelength. Note that the axes of the
length to diameter) . This is to say that main radiation lobes are at the same angle
if an array of any type is constructed above the horizontal. Note also the suppres-
sion of high angle radiation by the parasitic
of large diameter tubing or spaced wires, array.
HANDBOOK Ground -Wave Communication 459
known as an ionospheric wave or a sky wave.

-- OB DIRECT WAVE
Such waves make possible long distance
radio communication. Propagation of radio
.` signals by ionospheric waves is discussed in
(CGROUMD-REFLECTED
C WAVE
detail in Section 20 -8.
OA SURFACE WAVE
- -- L 20 -7 Ground -Wave
Communication
Figure 13
As stated in the preceding paragraph, the
GROUND -WAVE SIGNAL PROPAGATION tern ground wave applies both to the sur-
The illustration above shows the three com- face wave and to the space wave (the resul-
ponents of the ground wave: A, the surface tant wave from the combination of the
wave; B, the direct wave; and C, the
ground -reflected wave. The direct wave and direct wave and the ground- reflected wave)
the ground- reflected wave combine at the re- or to a combination of the two. The three
ceiving antenna to make up the space wave. waves which may combine to make up the
ground wave are illustrated in figure 13.
or radio -wave field may be set up by a radi- The Surface Wave The surface wave is that
ating system. However, for this field to be wave which we normally
useful for communication it must be propa- receive from a standard broadcast station.
gated to some distant point where it can be It travels directly along the ground and
received, or where it may be reflected so terminates on the earth's surface. Since the
that it can be received at some other point. earth is a relatively poor conductor, the sur-
Radio waves may be propagated to a remote face wave is attenuated quite rapidly. The
point by either or both of two general meth- surface wave is attenuated less rapidly as it
ods. Propagation may take place as a result passes over sea water, and the attenuation
of the ground wave, or as a result of the decreases for a specific distance as the fre-
sky wave or ionospheric wave. quency is decreased. The rate of attenuation
with distance becomes so large as the fre-
The Ground Wave The term ground ware quency is increased above about 3 MHz that
actually includes several the surface wave becomes of little value for
different types of waves which usually are communication.
called: (1) the surface wave, (2) the direct The Space Wave The resultant wave or space
wave, and (3) the ground -reflected wave. wave is illustrated in fig-
The latter two waves combine at the re- ure 13 by the combination of B and C. It
ceiving antenna to form the resultant ware is this wave path, which consists of the
or the space ware. The distinguishing char- combination of the direct wave and the
acteristic of the components of the ground ground- reflected wave at the receiving an-
wave is that all travel along or over the tenna, which is the normal path of signal
surface of the earth, so that they are af- propagation for line -of -sight or near line -of-
fected by the conductivity and terrain of sight communication or f -m and TV recep-
the earth's surface. tion on frequencies above about 40 MHz.
Below line -of -sight over plane earth or
The Ionospheric Wave Intense bombardment water, when the signal source is effectively
or Sky Wave of the upper regions at the horizon, the ground -reflected wave
of the atmosphere by does not exist, so that the direct wave is the
radiations from the sun results in the for- only component which goes to make up the
mation of ionized layers. These ionized lay- space wave. But when both the signal source
ers, which form the ionosphere, have the and the receiving antenna are elevated with
capability of reflecting or refracting radio respect to the intervening terrain, the
waves which impinge on them. A radio wave ground- reflected wave is present and adds
which has been propagated as a result of one vectorially to the direct wave at the receiv-
or more reflections from the ionosphere is ing antenna. The vectorial addition of the
two waves, which travel over different path refraction and diffraction of the signal
lengths (since one of the waves has been around the spherical earth cause a smaller
reflected from the ground) results in an reduction in field strength than would oc-
interference pattern. The interference be- cur in the absence of such bending, so that
tween the two waves brings about a cyclic the average radio horizon is somewhat be-
variation in signal strength as the receiving yond the geometrical horizon. The equation
antenna is raised above the ground. This d = 1.4 \%H is sometimes used for deter-
effect is illustrated in figure 14. From this mining the radio horizon.
figure it can be seen that best spacewave
reception of a vhf signal often will be ob- Tropospheric Propagation by signal bending
tained with the receiving antenna quite close Propagation in the lower atmosphere, called
to the ground. tropospheric propagation, can
The distance from an elevated point to result in the reception of signals over a
the geometrical horizon is given by the ap- much greater distance than would be the
proximate equation: d = 1.22 V H where case if the lower atmosphere were homo-
distance d is in miles and antenna height H geneous. In a homogeneous or well -mixed
is in feet. This equation must be applied lower atmosphere, called a normal, or stand-
separately to the transmitting and receiving ard, atmosphere, there is a gradual and uni-
antennas and the results added. However, form decrease in index of refraction with
height. This effect is due to the combined
effects of a decrease in temperature, pressure,
TTING and water -vapor content with height.
ANTCNNA Dt /DIR[CT WAVES
This gradual decrease in refractive index
NN.N. with height causes waves radiated at very
N. NZ,.
11. low angles with respect to the horizontal to

N be bent downward slightly in a curved path.
uK The result of this effect is that such waves
RECEIVING
GROUND-REFLECTED
WAVCS
D2 Ds ANTCNNA
At DIFFERENT will be propagated beyond the true, or geo-
HEIGHTS metrical, horizon. In a so- called standard
atmosphere the effect of the curved path is
Figure 14 the same as though the radius of the earth
WAVE INTERFERENCE WITH HEIGHT were increased by approximately one - third.
This condition extends the horizon by ap-
When the source of a horizontally- polarized proximately 30 .percent for normal propa-
space-wave signal is above the horizon, the
received signal at a distant location will go gation, and the extended horizon is known
through a cyclic variation as the antenna as the radio -path horizon, mentioned before.
height is progressively raised. This is due to
the diff in total path length between Conditions Leading to When the tempera -
the direct wave and the ground -reflected
wave, and to the fact that this path length Tropospheric ture, pressure, or wa-
cliff changes with antenna height. Stratification ter -vapor content of
When the path length cliff is such that
the two waves arrive at the receiving anten- the atmosphere does
na with a phase difference of 360 or some not change smoothly with rising altitude, the
multiple of 360 , the two waves will appear discontinuity or stratification will result in
to be in phase as far as the antenna is con -
d and maximum signal will be obtained. the reflection or refraction of incident vhf
On the other hand, when the antenna height sienils. Ordinarily this condition is more
is such that the path length differ for the
two waves causes the waves to arrive with a prevalent at night and in the summer. In
phase difference of an odd multiple of 180 certain areas, such as along the west coast
the two waves will substantially cancel, and a of North America, it is frequent enough to
null will be obtained at that antenna height.
The differ between D, and D. plus D, is be considered normal. Signal strength de-
the path -length difference. Note also that creases slowly with distance and, if the
there is an additional 180 phase shift in the favorable condition in the lower atmosphere
ground -reflected wave at the point where it is
reflected from the ground. It is this latter covers sufficient area, the range is limited
phase shift which causes the space -wave field only by the transmitter power, antenna gain,
intensity of a horizontally polarized wave to
be zero with the receiving antenna at ground receiver sensitivity, and signal -to -noise ratio.
level. There is no skip distance. Usually, transmis-
HANDBOOK Ground -Wave Communication 461
sion due to this condition is accompanied by 15). However, such ducts usually are formed
slow fading, although fading can be violent only on an over -water path. The depth of
at a point where direct waves of about the the duct over the water's surface may be
same strength are also received. only 20 to 50 feet, or it may be 1000 feet
Bending in the troposphere, which refers deep or more. Ducts exhibit a low- frequency
to the region from the earth's surface up to cutoff characteristic similar to a waveguide.
about 10 kilometers, is more likely to occur The cutoff frequency is determined by depth
on days when there are stratus clouds than of the duct and by the strength of the dis-
on clear, cool days with a deep blue sky. continuity in refractive index at the upper
The temperature or humidity discontinuities surface of the duct. The lowest frequency
may be broken up by vertical convection that can be propagated by such a duct sel-
currents over land in the daytime but are dom goes below 50 MHz, and usually will
more likely to continue during the day over not be greater than 450 MHz even along
water. This condition is in some degree pre- the Pacific Coast.
dictable from weather information several
days in advance. It does not depend on the Stratospheric Communication by virtue of
sunspot cycle. Like direct communication, Reflection stratospheric reflection can be
best results require similar antenna polariza- brought about during magnetic
tion or orientation at both the transmitting storms, aurora borealis displays, and during
and receiving ends, whereas in transmission meteor showers. DX communication during
via reflection in the ionosphere (that part extensive meteor showers is characterized by
of the atmosphere between about 50 and frequent bursts of great signal strength fol-
500 kilometers high) it makes little differ- lowed by a rapid decline in strength of the
ence whether antennas are similarly polar- received signal. The motion of the meteor
ized. forms an ionized trail of considerable extent
Duet Formation When bending conditions are which can bring about effective reflection of
signals. However, the ionized region persists
particularly favorable they
may give rise to the formation of a duct
only for a matter of seconds so that a shower
which can propagate waves with very little of meteors is necessary before communica-
tion becomes possible.
attenuation over great distances in a manner
The type of communication which is pos-
similar to the propagation of waves through
sible during visible displays of the aurora
a waveguide. Guided propagation through
borealis and during magnetic storms has
a duct in the atmosphere can give quite re-
been called aurora -type DX. These condi-
markable transmission conditions (figure
tions reach a maximum somewhat after the
sunspot cycle peak, possibly because the spots
on the sun are nearer to its equator (and
more directly in line with the earth) in the
latter part of the cycle. Ionospheric storms
T
-T
INVERSION
generally accompany magnetic storms. The
normal layers of the ionosphere may be
1-
DUCT
l churned or broken up, making radio trans-
mission over long distances difficult or im-
INVERSION AND DUCT possible on high frequencies. Unusual condi-
tions in the ionosphere sometimes modulate
REFRACTIVE INDEX vhf waves so that a definite tone or noise
modulation is noticed even on transmitters
Figure 15 located only a few miles away.
ILLUSTRATING DUCT TYPES A peculiarity of this type of auroral prop-
agation of vhf signals in the northern hem-
Showing two types of variation in refractive
index with height which will give rise to the isphere is that directional antennas usually
formation of a duct. An elevated duct is must be pointed in a northerly direction for
shown at A, and a ground -based duct is best results for transmission or reception. re-
shown at B. Such ducts can propagate ground -
wave signals far beyond their normal range. gardless of the direction of the other station
being contacted. Distances out to 700 or the earth. Thus we see that high- frequency
800 miles have been covered during magnetic radio waves may travel over short distances
storms, using 30- and 50 -MHz transmitters, in a direct line from the transmitter to the
with little evidence of any silent zone be- receiver, or they can be radiated upward into
tween the stations communicating with each the ionosphere to be bent downward in an
other. Generally, voice -modulated transmis- indirect ray, returning to earth at consider-
sions are difficult or impossible due to the able distance from the transmitter. The
tone or noise modulation on the signal. Most wave reaching a receiver via the ionosphere
of the communication of this type has route is termed a sky ware. The wave reach-
taken place by c.w. or by tone -modulated ing a receiver by traveling in a direct line
waves with a keyed carrier. from the transmitting antenna to the re-
ceiving antenna is commonly called a ground
20 -8 Ionospheric ware.
The amount of bending at the ionosphere
Propagation which the sky wave can undergo depends
on its frequency, and the amount of ioniza-
Propagation of radio waves for communi- tion in the ionosphere, which is in turn de-
cation on frequencies between perhaps 3 and pendent on radiation from the sun. The sun
30 MHz is normally carried out by virtue of increases the density of the ionosphere layers
ionospheric reflection or refraction. Under (figure 16) and lowers their effective height.
conditions of abnormally high ionization in For this reason, the ionosphere acts very dif-
the ionosphere, communication has been ferently at different times of day, and at
known to have taken place by ionospheric different times of the year.
reflection on frequencies higher than 50 The higher the frequency of a radio wave,
MHz. the farther it penetrates the ionosphere, and
The ionosphere consists of layers of ion- the less it tends to be bent back toward the
ized gas located above the stratosphere, and earth. The lower the frequency, the more
extending up to possibly 300 miles above easily the waves are bent, and the less they
penetrate the ionosphere. 160 -meter and 80-
200 meter signals will usually be bent back to
F2 earth even when sent straight up, and may
130 be considered as being reflected rather than
Fi refracted. As the frequency is raised beyond
MID DAY
100
about 5000 kHz (dependent on the critical
w 30
E
frequency of the ionosphere at the moment),
J_
D
it is found that waves transmitted at angles
o
higher than a certain critical angle never
? 200 return to earth. Thus, on the higher fre-
F2
li quencies, it is necessary to confine radiation
130
to low angles, since the high -angle waves
x
100
MIDNIGHT simply penetrate the ionosphere and are lost.
30 The F, Loyer The higher of the two major

reflection regions of the iono-
o
sphere is called the F, layer. This layer has
IONIZATION DENSITY -0. a virtual height of approximately 175 miles
Figure 16 at night, and in the daytime it splits up into
two layers, the upper one being called the F,
IONIZATION DENSITY IN THE IONO-
liver and the lowerbeing called the F, layer.
SPHERE
The height of the F. layer during daylight
Showing typical ionization density of the iono- hours is normally about 250 miles on the
sphere in midsummer. Note that the f, and average and the F, layer often has a height
D layers disappear at night, and that the den-
sity of the E layer falls to such o low value of as low as 140 miles. It is the F2 layer
that it is ineffective. which supports all nighttime DX communi-
HANDBOOK Ionospheric Propagation 463
me
cation and nearly all daytime DX propaga- 34

tion. 32
30
WINTER
The E Layer
Below the F2 layer is another 20 SUNSPOT
MAIUMUM
layer, called the E layer, which
24
is of importance in daytime communication
zz
over moderate distances in the frequency 20
range between 3 and 8 MHz. This layer has
an almost constant height of about 70 miles.
)
U 10
1 1.1___-.En SUMMER
SUNSPOT
Iii
z MINIMUM
,_H
14
Since the recombination time of the ions at W
this height is rather short, the E layer dis- aW 1
i
appears almost completely a short time after
local sunset.
4
The D Layer Below the E layer at a height 2
of about 35 miles is an absorb- 0 2 4 0 s 10 12 14 10 u 20 22 24
ing layer, called the D layer, which exists in LOCAL TIME

the middle of the day in the summertime. Figure 17
The layer also exists during midday in
winter during periods of high solar activity, TYPICAL CURVES SHOWING CHANGE IN
but the layer disappears completely at night. M.U.F. AT MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
It is this layer which causes high absorption POINTS IN SUNSPOT CYCLE
cf signals in the medium- and high -fre-
quency range during the middle of the day. The m.u.f. often drops to frequencies be-
Critical Frequency The critical frequency of low 10 MHz in the early morning hours.
an ionospheric layer is the The high m.u.f. in the middle of the day is
highest frequency which will be reflected brought about by reflection from the F._
when the wave strikes the layer at vertical layer. M.u.f. data is published periodically in
incidence. The critical frequency of the the magazines devoted to amateur work, and
most highly ionized layer of the ionosphere the m.u.f. can be calculated with the aid of
may be as low as 2 MHz at night and as Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, CRPL-
high as 12 to 13 MHz in the middle of the D, published monthly by the Government
day. The critical frequency is directly of in- Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
terest in that a skip -distance zone will exist
Absorption and The optimum working
on all frequencies greater than the highest
Optimum Working frequency for any par -
critical frequency at that time. The critical
frequency is a measure of the density of
Frequency titular direction
and dis-
tance is usually about 15
ionization of the reflecting layers. The
percent less than the m.u.f. for contact with
higher the critical frequency the greater the
that particular location. The absorption by
density of ionization.
the ionosphere becomes greater and greater
Maximum Usable The maximum usable f reas the operating frequency is progressively
Frequency quency or m. u. f. is of lowered below the m.u.f. It is this condition
great importance in long - which causes signals to increase tremendous-
distance communication since this frequency ly in strength on the 14- and 28 -MHz bands
is the highest that can be used for com- just before the signals drop completely out.
munication between any two specified areas. At the time when the signals are greatest in
The m.u.f. is the highest frequency at which amplitude the operating frequency is equal
a wave projected into space in a certain to the m.u.f. Then as the signals drop out
direction will be returned to earth in a the m.u.f. has become lower than the oper-
specified region by ionospheric reflection. ating frequency.
The m.u.f. is highest at noon or in the early
afternoon and is highest in periods of great- Skip Distance The shortest distance from a
est sunspot activity, often going to fre- transmitting location at which
quencies higher than 30 MHz. (figure 17). signals reflected from the ionosphere can be
returned to the earth is called the skip dis- 250

tance. As was mentioned above under criti- a
W
i995
cal frequency, there is no skip distance for X 200
MLMiMUM
a frequency below the critical frequency of z

the most highly ionized layer of the ionos- s
phere at the time of transmission. However, i
the skip distance is always present on the
14 -MHz band and is almost always present
on the 3.5 and 7 MHz bands at night. The
actual measure of the skip distance is the a
distance between the point where the ground
56 56 60 62 64 66 66 70
wave falls to zero and the point where the YEAR
sky wave begins to return to earth. This
distance may vary from 40 to SO miles on
the 3.5 -MHz band to thousands of miles on Figure 18
the 28 -MHz band. THE YEARLY TREND OF THE SUNSPOT
The Sporadic -E CYCLE. RADIO CONDITIONS IN GENERAL
Occasional patches of ex-
Layer IMPROVED DURING 1966 -1969
tremely high ionization den-
AS THE CYCLE INCREASED
sity appear at intervals
throughout the year at a height approxi-
mately equal to that of the E layer. These 11 -year cycle which is a cycle in sunspot
patches, called the sporadic -E layer may be activity. The effects of these cycles are super-
very small or may be up to several hundred imposed insofar as ionosphere activity is
miles in extent. The critical frequency of concerned. Also, the cycles are subject to
the sporadic -F layer may be greater than short term variations as a result of magnetic
twice that of the normal ionosphere layers storms and similar terrestrial disturbances.
which exist at the same time. The most recent minimum of the 11 -year
It is this sporadic-E condition which pro- sunspot cycle occurred during the winter of
vides "short- skip" contacts from 400 to per- 1964 -1965, and we are currently moving
haps 1200 miles on the 28 -MHz band in along the slope of a new cycle, the max-
the evening. It is also the sporadic-E condi- imum of which probably occurred during
tion which provides the more common type 1969. The current cycle is pictured in figure
of "band opening" experienced on the 50- 18.
MHz band when very loud signals are re-
ceived from stations from 400 to 1200 miles Fading The lower the angle of radiation of
distant. the wave, with respect to the hori-
zon, the farther away will the wave return
Cycles in The ionization density of to earth, and the greater the skip distance.
Ionosphere Activity the ionosphere is deter- The wave can be reflected back up into the
mined by the amount of ionosphere by the earth, and then be re-
radiation (probably ultraviolet) which is flected back down again, causing a second
being received from the sun. Consequently, skip distance area. The drawing of figure 19
ionosphere activity is a function of the shows the multiple reflections possible. When
amount of radiation of the proper char- the receiver receives signals which have
acter being emitted by the sun and is also a traveled over more than one path between
function of the relative aspect of the regions transmitter and receiver, the signal impulses
in the vicinity of the location under discus- will not all arrive at the same instant, since
sion to the sun. There are four main cycles they do not all travel the same distance.
in ionosphere activity. These cycles are: the When two or more signals arrive in the same
daily cycle which is brought about by the phase at the receiving antenna, the resulting
rotation of the earth, the 27 -day cycle signal in the receiver will be quite strong.
which is caused by the rotation of the sun, On the other hand, if the signals arrive 180
the seasonal cycle which is caused by the out of phase, so they tend to cancel each
movement of the earth in its orbit, and the other, the received signal will drop -perhaps
HANDBOOK ionospheric Propagation 465
Scattering occurs in the ionosphere at all

times, because of irregularities in the medi-
um (which result in "patches" correspond-
ing to the water droplets) and because of
random -phase radiation due to the collision
or recombination of free electrons. How-
ever, the nature of the scattering varies
widely with time, in a random fashion. Scat-
tering is particularly prevalent in the E
TRANSMITTER
region, but scattered reflections may occur
at any height, even well out beyond the
Figure 19 virtual height of the F2 layer.
IONOSPHERE- REFLECTION WAVE PATHS
There is no "critical frequency" or "low-
est perforating frequency" involved in the
Showing typical ionosphere -reflection wave scattering mechanism, though the intensity
paths during daylight hours when ionization
density is such that frequencies as high as 28 of the scattered reflections due to typical
MHz will be returned to earth. The distance scattering in the E region of the ionosphere
between ground -wave range and that range decreases with frequency.
where the ionosphere -reflected wave of a
specific frequency first will be returned to When the received signal is due primarily
earth is called the skip distance. to scattered reflections, as is the case in the
skip zone or where the great circle path does
not provide a direct sky wave (due to low
to zero if perfect cancellation occurs. This critical or perforation frequency, or to an
explains why high- frequency signals are sub- ionosphere storm) very bad distortion will
ject to fading. be evident, particularly a "flutter fade" and
Fading can be greatly reduced on the high a characteristic "hollow" or echo effect.
frequencies by using a transmitting antenna Deviations from a great circle path are es-
with sharp vertical directivity, thus cutting pecially noticeable in the case of great circle
down the number of possible paths of signal paths which cross or pass near the auroral
arrival. A receiving antenna with similar zones, because in such cases there often is
characteristics (sharp vertical directivity) complete or nearly complete absorption of
will further reduce fading. It is desirable, the direct sky wave, leaving off -path scat-
when using antennas with sharp vertical tered reflections the only mechanism of
directivity, to use the lowest vertical angle propagation. Under such conditions the pre-
consistent with good signal strength for the dominant wave will appear to arrive from a
frequency used. direction closer to the equator, and the sig-
nal will be noticeably, if not considerably,
Scattered Scattered reflections are random, weaker than a direct sky wave which is re-
Reflections diffused, substantially isotropic ceived under favorable conditions.
reflections which are partly re- Irregular reflection of radio waves from
sponsible for reception within the skip zone, "scattering patches" is divided into two
and for reception of signals from directions categories: short scatter and long scatter.
off the great circle path. Short scatter is the scattering that occurs
In a heavy fog or mist, it is difficult to when a radio wave first reaches the scatter-
see the road at night because of the bright ing patches or media. Ordinarily it is of no
glare caused by scattered reflection of the particular benefit, as in most cases it only
headlight beam by the minute droplets. In serves to fill in the inner portion of the
fact, the road directly to the side of the car skip zone with a weak, distorted signal.
will be weakly illuminated under these con- Long scatter occurs when a wave has been
ditions, whereas it would not on a clear refracted from the F2 layer and strikes scat-
night (assuming flat, open country). This is tering patches or media on the way down.
a good example of propagation of waves by When the skip distance exceeds several hun-
scattered reflections into a zone which other- dred miles, long scatter is primarily respon-
wise would not be illuminated. sible for reception within the skip zone, par-
ticularly the outer portion of the skip zone. reached by the transmitter. After a period
Distortion is much less severe than in the of from 10 to 40 seconds, recombination
case of short scatter, and while the signal is and diffusion have progressed to the point
likewise weak, it sometimes can be utilized where the effect of a single fairly large
for satisfactory communication. meteor is not perceptible. However, there
During a severe ionosphere disturbance in are many small meteors impinging on earth's
the north auroral zone, it sometimes is pos- atmosphere every minute, and the aggregate
sible to maintain communication between effect cf their transient ionized trails, in-
the Eastern United States and Northern cluding the small amount of residual ioni-
Europe by the following mechanism: That zation that exists for several minutes after
portion of the energy which is radiated in the original flash but is too weak and dis-
the direction of the great circle path is com- persed to prolong a "burst," is believed to
pletely absorbed on reaching the auroral contribute to the existence of the nighttime -
zone. However, the portion of the wave E layer, and perhaps also to sporadic -F.
leaving the United States in a southeasterly patches.
direction is refracted downward from the While there are many of these very small
F., laver and encounters scattering patches meteors striking the earth's atmosphere every
or media on its downward trip at a distance minute, meteors of normal size (sufficiently
of approximately 2000 miles from the trans- large to produce individual "bursts ") do
mitter. There it is reflected by "long scatter" not strike nearly so frequently except during
in all directions, this scattering region acting some of the comparatively rare meteor
like an isotropic radiator fed with a very "showers." During one of these displays a
small fraction of the original transmitter "quivering" ionized layer is produced which
power. The great circle path from this is intense enough to return signals in the
southerly point to northern Europe does not lower vhf range with good strength, but
encounter unfavorable ionosphere conditions, with a type of "flutter" distortion which is
and the wave is propagated the rest of the characteristic of this type of propagation.
trip as though it had been radiated from the
scattering region. 20-9 Transmission Lines
Another type of scatter is produced when For many reasons it is desirable to place
a sky wave strikes certain areas of the earth. an antenna or radiating system as high and
On striking a comparatively smooth surface in the clear as is physically possible, utilizing
such as the sea, there is little scattering, the some form of nonradiating transmission line
wave being shot up again by what could be to carry energy with as little loss as possible
considered specular, or mirror, reflection. from the transmitter to the radiating anten-
But on striking a mountain range, for in- na, and conversely from the antenna to the
stance, the reradiation or reflected energy is receiver.
scattered, some of it being directed back There are many different types of trans-
toward the transmitter, thus providing an- mission lines and, generally speaking, practi-
other mechanism for producing a signal cally any type of transmission line or feeder
within the skip zone. system may be used with any type of anten-
na. However, mechanical or electrical con-
Meteors and When a meteor strikes the siderations often make one type of trans -
"Bu rsts" earth's atmosphere, a cylindrical miss;on line better adapted for use to feed a
region of free electrons is particular type of antenna than any other
formed at approximately the height of the E type.
layer. This slender ionized column is quite Transmission lines for carrying r -f energy
long, and when first formed is sufficiently are of two general types: nonresonant and
dense to reflect radio waves back to earth resonant. A nonresonant transmission line
most readily, including rhf wares which is one on which a successful effort has been
are not ordinarily returned by the F., layer. made to eliminate reflections from the ter-
The effect of a single meteor, or normal mination (the antenna in the transmitting
size, shows up as a sudden "burst" of signal case and the receiver for a receiving anten-
of short duration at points not ordinarily na) and hence one on which standing waves
HANDBOOK Transmission Lines 467
-
do not exist or are relatively small in mag-
nitude. A resonant line, on the other hand,
is a transmission line on which standing
waves of appreciable magnitude do appear,
00
//SS-,;;
either through inability to match the char- .--
acteristic impedance of the line to the termi-
nation or through intentional design.
The principal types of transmission line in
_i5/ dd.%%1_1:ilill
use or available at this time include the %tei%N%Er1111111111
open-wire line (two -wire and four -wire
types), two -wire solid -dielectric line (twin -
1:110EdIr=i rDm 111111111
lead and similar ribbon or tubular types), .s . .l . . ,o I s > t q IS ,s
INCHES. CENTER TO CENTER
two -wire polyethylene -filled shielded line,
coaxial line of the solid -dielectric, beaded, Figure 20
stub -supported, or pressurized type, rectang- CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF
ular and cylindrical waveguide, and the TYPICAL TWO -WIRE OPEN LINES
single -wire feeder operated against ground.
Thy significant characteristics of the more
popular types of transmission line available Speaking in electrical terms, the charac-
at this time are given in the chart of figure teristic impedance of a transmission line is
21. simply the ratio of the voltage across the line
to the current which is flowing, the same as
20 -10 Nonresonant is the case with a simple resistor: Z = E /I.
Transmission Lines Also, in a substantially lossless line (one
A nonresonant or untuned transmission whose attenuation per wavelength is small)
line line with negligible standing waves.
is a
the energy stored in the line will be equally
Hence, a nonresonant line is a line carrying divided between the electric field and the
r -f power only in one direction -from the magnetic field which serve to propagate the
scurce of energy to the load. energy along the line. Hence the character-
Physically, the line itself should be iden- istic impedance of a line may be expressed as:
tical throughout its length. There will be a Z,,= NIUE
smooth distribution of voltage and current
throughout its length, both tapering off very Two -Wire A two -wire transmission system
slightly towards the load end of the line as a Open Line is easy to construct. Its surge
result of line losses. The attenuation (loss) in impedance can be calculated
certain types of untuned lines can be kept quite easily, and when properly adjusted and
very low for line lengths up to several thou- balanced to ground, with a conductor spac-
sand feet. In other types, particularly where ing which is negligible in terms of the wave-
the dielectric is not air (such as in the length of the signal carried, undesirable
twisted -pair line), the losses may become feeder radiation is minimized; the current
excessive at the higher frequencies, unless flow in the adjacent wires is in opposite
the line is relatively short. directions, and the magnetic fields of the
two wires are in opposition to each other.
Tronsmission-Line All transmission lines When a two -wire line is terminated with the
Impedance have distributed induct- equivalent of a pure resistance equal to the
ance, capacitance, and characteristic impedance of the line, the line
resistance. Neglecting the resistance, as it is becomes a nonresonant line.
of minor importance in short lines, it is Expressed in physical terms, the charac-
found that the inductance and capacitance teristic impedance of a two -wire open line
per unit length determine the characteristic is equal to:
or surge impedance of the line. Thus, the
surge impedance depends upon the nature 2S
and spacing of the conductors, and the di- Z= 276 log,,,
electric separating them.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON TRANSMISSION LINES
Attenuation
db /100 feet
VSWR -- 1.0
Vela- pf REMARKS
30 100 300 dty per
MHz MHz MHz factor ft.
V
Open wire line, No.

copper.
12 1715 0.3 0.8 0.96-
0.99
- Based on 4" spacing below 50 MHz; 2" spacing above
50 MHz. Radiation losses included. Clean, low -loss ceram-
ic insulation assumed. Radiation high above 150 MHz.
Ribbon line, rec. type, For clean dry line, wet weather performance rather
400 ohms. poor, best line is slightly convex. Avoid line that has
(7 28 conductors) 0.86 2.2 5.3 0.82' 6' concave dielectric. Suitable for low -power transmitting
applications. Losses increase as line weathers. Handles
4VU watts at 30 MHz if SWR is low.
Tubular "twin -lead" Characteristics similar to receiving -type ribbon line
rec. type, 300 ohms,
5 16` O.D., (Amphenol
- - - - - except for much better wet-weather performance.
type 14 -271)
Ribbon line, trans. Characteristics vary somewhat with manufacturer, but
type, 300 ohms. - - - - - approximate those of receiving -type ribbon except for
greater power -handling capability and slightly better
wer weather performance.
Tubular "twin -lead" For use where receiving -type tubular "twin -lead' does
trans. type, 7 l6 O.D. 0.85 2.3 5.4 0.79 6.1 not have sufficient power -handling capability. Will
1
rmphenol 14.0/6) handle kw at 30 MHz if SWR is low.
1
Ribbon line, receive 1.1 2.7 6.0 0.77' 10' Useful for quarter -wave matching sections. No longer
type, 150 ohms. widely used as a line.
Ribbon line, receive Useful mainly in the hf range because of excessive
type, 75 ohms. 2.0 5.0 11 0.68' 19' losses at vnt and uhf. Less atfected by weather than
300 -ohm ribbon.
Ribbon line, trans. Very satisfactory for transmitting applications below
type, 75 ohms. 1.5 3.9 8.0 0.71' 18 :At MHz at powers up to kw. Not significantly af-
1
fected by wer weather.

RG -8 U coax (52 ohms 1.0 2.1 4.2 0.66 29.5 Will handle 2 kw of 30 MHz if SWR is low. 0.4" O.D.
7 21 conouctor.
RG -11 U coax (75 ohms 0.94 1.9 3.8 0.66 20.5 Will handle 1.4 kw at 30 MHz if SWR is low. 0.4"
O.D. 7 26 conductor.
RG -17 /U coax 152 ohms. 0.38 0.85 1.8 0.66 29.5 Will handle 7.8 kw at 30 MHz if SWR is low. 0.87"
O.D. 0.19" dia. conductor.
RG -58/U coax (53 ohms) 1.95 4.1 8.0 0.66 28.5 Will handle 430 watts at 30 MHz if SWR is low. 0.2"
U.D. No. 20 conductor.
RG -59'U coax (73 ohms) 1.9 3.8 7.0 0.66 21 Will handle 680 watts at 30 MHz if SWR- is low.
0.24" U.D. No. 22 conductor.
7V -59 coax (72 ohms) 2.0 4.0 7.0 0.66 22 "Commercial" version of RG -59 U for less exacting ap-
plications. Less expensive.
RG -22 U shielded 1.7 3.0 5.5 0.66 16 For shielded, balanced -to- ground applications. Very
pair 195 ohms) low noise pickup. 0.4" O.D.
K-1 H shielded pair Designed for TV lead -in in noisy locations. Losses higher
(300 ohms) 2.0 3.5 6.1 - 4 than regular 300 -ohm ribbon, but do not increase as
much from weathering.
' Approximate. Exact figure varies slightly with manufacturer.
FIGURE 21
Older type coaxial lines have a useful life of three to six years after which the cable at-
tenuation gradually rises, especially under conditions of heat. Newer cables (designated by
the suffix A: RG -8A /U for example) have useful life up to twelve years or so. The 52 -ohm
series cables have been recently replaced with 50 -ohm cables, RG -8A /U now being designated
RG- 213/U. Long -life versions of the RG -58 family are: RG -58B /U '53.5-ohm) and RG -58C /U
(50 -ohm).
w here, 2S
S is the exact distance between wire cen-
Since expresses a ratio only, the units
ters in some convenient unit of measure- of measurement may be centimeters, milli-
ment, meters, or inches. This makes no difference
a is the diameter of the wire measured in in the answer, so long as the substituted
the same units as the wire spacing, S. values for S and c/ are in the sanie hails.
HANDBOOK Transmission Lines 469
The equation is accurate so long as the a stranded or solid inner conductor with the
wire spacing is relatively large as compared outer conductor made up of one or two
to the wire diameter. wraps of copper shielding braid.
Surge impedance values of less than 200 In the type of cable most popular for mili-
ohms are seldom used in the open -type two - tary and noncommercial use the inner con-
wire line, and, even at this rather high value ductor consists of a heavy stranded wire, the
of Z the wire spacing S is uncomfortably outer conductor consists of a braid of copper
close, being only 2.7 times the wire diameter. wire, and the inner conductor is supported
Figure 20 gives in graphical form the surge within the outer by means of a semisolid
impedance of practical two -wire lines. The dielectric of exceedingly low -loss character-
chart is self -explanatory, and is sufficiently istics called polyethylene. The Army -Navy
accurate for practical purposes. designation on one size of this cable suitable
for power levels up to one kilowatt at fre-
Ribbon and Instead of using spacer in- quencies as high as 30 MHz is RG -8 /u.
Tubular Trans- sulators placed periodically The outside diameter of this type of cable is
mission Line along the transmission line approximately one -half inch. The character-
it is possible to mold the istic impedance of this cable type is 52 ohms,
line conductors into a ribbon or tube of flex- but other similar types of greater and smaller
ible low -loss dielectric material. Such line, power- handling capacity are available in im-
with polyethylene dielectric, is used in enor- pedances of 52, 75, and 95 ohms.
mous quantities as the lead -in transmission When using solid dielectric coaxial cable
line for f -m and TV receivers. The line is it is necessary that precautions be taken to
available from several manufacturers in the ensure that moisture cannot enter the line. If
ribbon and tubular configuration, with char- the better grade of connectors manufactured
acteristic impedance values from 75 to 300 for the line are employed as terminations,
ohms. Receiving types, and transmitting this condition is automatically satisfied. If
types of power levels up to one kilowatt in connectors are not used, it is necessary that
the hf range, are listed with their pertinent some type of moisture -proof sealing corn-
characteristics, in the table of figure 21.
Coaxial Line Several types of coaxial cable 204
1111/
1111I
have come into wide use for
feeding power to an antenna system. A
cross -sectional view of a coaxial cable (some-
times called concentric cable or line) is
170
tsiIlli
=siIMsi1111111/
1111
iiifiH:
IM=MO111111102M1
ZO 13e IOOp
COAXIAL OR
lk
CONCENTRIC LINE
r,/111
130
shown in figure 22. =M=M1111i1=

MIE=MN.111
As in the parallel -wire line, the power lost 100
in a properly terminated coaxial line is the
11a1111I.111111IM1
=11111111101111=1
sum of the effective resistance losses along
the length of the cable and the dielectric
70
32
t1111
=MIM1/11111IMMINM
MINIFII11111=11=
MILiM1111=1
D1INSIOC DIANCTUI or
OUTER CONDUCTOR
NI1111
D OUTSIDC DIAMETER Of
30 111/iM1M1111=11
losses between the two conductors. INNER CONDUCTOR
Of the two losses, the effective resistance //111MI1111=M111

loss is the greater; since it is largely due to o '/MI111111111111=
the skin effect, the line loss (all other condi-
ill121
I s 7 10 15 30
RATIO OF DIAMETERS 161

tions the same) will increase directly as the
square root of the frequency. Figure 22
Figure 22 shows that, instead of havinv
two conductors running side by side, one cf CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF
the conductors is placed inside the other. AIR -FILLED COAXIAL LINES
S ;nce the outside conductor completely
If the filling of the line is a dielectric material
shields the inner one, no radiation takes place. other than air, the characteristic impedance of
The conductors may both be tubes, one the line will be reduced by a factor propor-
tional to the square -root of the dielectric con-
within the other; the line may consist of a stant of the material used as a dielectric with-
solid wire within a tube, or it may consist of in the lino.
pound be applied to the end of the cable even when used in an untuned system.
where it will be exposed to the weather. Strictly speaking, a line is untuned, or non -
Nearby metallic objects cause no loss, and resonant, only when it is perfectly flat, with
coaxial cable may be run up air ducts or ele- a standing -wave ratio of (no standing
1
vator shafts, inside walls, or through metal waves). However, some mismatch can be
conduit. Insulation troubles can be forgot- tolerated with open -wire untuned lines, so
ten. The coaxial cable may be buried in the long as the reactance is not objectionable,
ground or suspended above ground. or is eliminated by cutting the line to ap-
Standing Waves Standing waves on a trans- proximately resonant length.
mission line always are the
result of the reflection of energy. The only 20 -11 Tuned or
significant reflection which takes place in Resonant Lines
a normal installation is that at the load end
of the line. But reflection can take place If a transmission line is terminated in its
from discontinuities in the line, such as characteristic surge impedance, there will be
caused by insulators, bends, or metallic ob- no reflection at the end of the line, and the
jects adjacent to an unshielded line. current and voltage distribution will be uni-
When a uniform transmission line is ter- form along the line. If the end of the line is
minated in an impedance equal to its surge either open- circuited or short-circuited, the
impedance, reflection of energy does not oc- reflection at the end of the line will be 100
cur, and no standing waves are present. percent, and standing waves of very great
Thus, for proper operation of an untuned amplitude will appear on the line. There will
line (with standing waves eliminated), some still be practically no radiation from the line
form of impedance-matching arrangement if it is closely spaced, but voltage nodes will
must be used between the transmission line be found every half wavelength, the voltage
and the antenna, so that the radiation resist- loops corresponding to current nodes (fig-
ance of the antenna is reflected back into the ure 23).
line as a nonreactive impedance equal to the If the line is terminated in some value of
line impedance. resistance other than the characteristic surge
The termination at the antenna end is the impedance, there will be some reflection, the
only critical characteristic about the untuned amount being determined by the amount of
line fed by a transmitter. It is the reflection mismatch. With reflection, there will be
from the antenna end which starts waves standing waves (excursions of current and
moving back toward the transmitter end. voltage) along the line, though not to the
When waves moving in both directions along same extent as with an open- circuited or
a conductor meet, standing waves are set up. short -circuited line. The current and voltage
loops will occur at the same points along the
Semiresonont A well -constructed open - line as with the open- or short -circuited line,
PoroIlel -Wire Lines wire line has acceptably and as the terminating impedance is made to
low losses when its length approach the characteristic impedance of the
is less than about two wavelengths even when line, the current and voltage along the line
the voltage standing -wave ratio is as high as will become more uniform. The foregoing
10 to 1. A transmission line constructed of assumes, of course, a purely resistive (non -
ribbon or tubular line, however, should have reactive) load. If the load is reactive, stand-
the standing -wave ratio kept down to not ing waves also will be formed. But with a
more than about 3 to 1 both to reduce reactive load the nodes will occur at different
power loss and because the energy dissipation locations from the node locations encount-
on the line will be localized, causing over- ered with improper resistive termination.
heating of the line at the points of maximum A well built 500- to 600 -ohm transmission
current. line may be used as a resonant feeder for
Because moderate standing waves can be lengths up to several hundred feet with very
tolerated on open -wire lines without much low loss, so long as the amplitude of the
loss, a standing -wave ratio of 2/1 or 3 /I is standing waves (ratio of maximum to mini-
considered acceptable with this type of line, mum voltage along the line) is not too great.
HANDBOOK Tuned Lines 471
f the line no longer is negligible. Hence, co-

G Zo ZL
axial line or close- spaced parallel -wire line
is recommended for vhf work.
If a transmission line is not perfectly
matched, it should be made resonant, even
o
SWR,.o ZL Zo though the amplitude of the standing waves
(voltage variation) is not particularly great.
This prevents reactance from being coupled
1.0
into the final amplifier. A feed system having
o
moderate standing waves may be made to
SWR ,.s ZL +.s on 0.47 ZO present a nonreactive load to the amplifier
either by tuning or by pruning the feeders
to approximate resonance.
Usually it is preferable with tuned feeders
to have a current loop (voltage minimum)
at the transmitter end of the line. This
SWRs.o ZL 3.0 05 0.33 ZO means that when voltage- feeding an antenna,
the tuned feeders should be made an odd
number of quarter wavelengths long, and
when current- feeding an antenna, the feed-
ers should be made an even number of quar-
ter wavelengths long. Actually, the feeders
SWR .e ZLoon.2 are made about 10 percent of a quarter wave
Figure 23 longer than the calculated value (the value
given in the tables) when they are to be
STANDING WAVES ON A TRANSMISSION series tuned to resonance by means of a ca-
LINE pacitor, instead of being trimmed and pruned
As shown at A, the voltage and current are to resonance.
constant on a transmisson line which is ter- When tuned feeders are used to feed an
minated in its characteristic impedance, as-
suming that losses are small enough so that antenna on more than one band, it is neces-
they may be neglected. I shows the variation sary to compromise and make provision for
in current or in voltage on a line terminated
in a load with a reflection coefficient of 0.2 so both series and parallel tuning, inasmuch
that a standing -wave ratio of 1.S to 1 is set as it is impossible to cut a feeder to a length
up. At C the reflection coefficient has been in-
creased to 0.5, with the formation of a 3 -to-1 that will be optimum for several bands. If a
standing -wave ratio on the line. At D the line voltage loop appears at the transmitter end
has been terminated in a load which has a re- of the line on certain bands, parallel tuning
flection coefficient of 1.0 (short, open circuit, or
a pure reactance) so that all the energy is re- of the feeders will be required in order to get
flected with the formation of an infinite stand- a transfer of energy. It is impossible to trans-
ing-wave ratio. fer energy by inductive coupling unless cur-
rent is flowing. This is effected as a voltage
The amplitude, in turn, depends on the mis- loop by the presence of the resonant tank
match at the line termination. A line of circuit formed by parallel tuning of the an-
No. 12 wire, spaced 6 inches with good tenna coil.
ceramic or plastic spreaders, has a surge im-
pedance of approximately 600 ohms, and 20 -12 Line Discontinuities
makes an excellent tuned feeder for feeding
anything between 60 and 6000 ohms (at fre- In the previous discussion we have assumed
quencies below 30 MHz). If used to feed a a transmission line which was uniform
load of higher or lower impedance than this, throughout its length. In actual practice,
the standing waves become great enough in this is usually not the case.
amplitude that some loss will occur unless Whenever there is any sudden change in
the feeder is kept short. At frequencies above the characteristic impedance of the line,
30 MHz, the spacing becomes an appreciable partial reflection will occur at the point of
fraction of a wavelength, and radiation from discontinuity. Some of the energy will be
472 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines
transmitted and some reflected, which is es-

50-OHM
sentially the same as having some of the UNBALANCED
INPUT
energy absorbed and some reflected in so far GROUND
JUMPER
as the effect on the line from the generator
to that point is concerned. The discontinuity INPUT COIL
can be ascribed a reflection coefficient just
as in the case of an unmatched load.
In a simple case, such as a finite length of
50-OHM
uniform line having a characteristic imped- BALANCED SHORTED
ance of 500 ohms feeding into an infinite OUTPUT COIL
length of uniform line having a character-
istic impedance of 100 ohms, the behavior
is easily predicted. The infinite 100 -ohm line
will have no standing waves and will accept
the same power from the 500 -ohm line as
would a 100 -ohm resistor, and the rest of the
energy will be reflected at the discontinuity
to produce standing waves from there back to
the generator. However, in the case of a Figure 24
complex discontinuity placed at an odd dis-
tance down a line terminated in a complex AN EFFECTIVE BROADBAND BALUN
impedance, the picture becomes complicated, FOR MULTIBAND BEAMS
especially when the discontinuity is neither
sudden nor gradual, but intermediate be- This lumped- constant balun is self -reso-
tween the two. This is the usual case with nant near the center design frequency which,
amateur lines that must be erected around in this case, is about 15 MHz. The balun coil
buildings and trees. is made of a 16'8 " -length of 50 -ohm coaxial
In any case, when a discontinuity exists line (RG -213/U or RG -8 /AU) closewound
somewhere on a line and is not a smooth, into a coil of 9 turns having an inside diam-
gradual change embracing several wave- eter of 63/4 inches. At one end of the coil the
lengths, it is not possible to avoid standing inner and outer conductors of the line are
waves throughout the entire length of the shorted together and grounded to the com-
line. If the discontinuity is sharp enough and mon ground point of the antenna assembly.
is great enough to be significant, standing
The unbalanced coaxial transmission line is
waves must exist on one side of the discon- attached to the other end of the coil and a
tinuity, and may exist on both sides in many ground jumper is run between the outer ends
cases. of the braided conductor. At the center of
the winding, the outer braid of the coaxial
20 -13 A Broadband line is severed for a distance of about one
50 -Ohm Balun inch, and a connection is made to the inner
conductor at this point. In addition, the
Many triband high -frequency beam anten- inner conductor is jumpered to the outer
nas feature a balanced input system having braid of the shorted coil section. A second
a 50 -ohm feed point. In order to reduce line connection is made to the outer braid of the
discontinuities and to provide a better match input coil section, as shown in the illustra-
between the antenna and an unbalanced tion. These connections are wrapped with
transmission line, a balun (balance to unbal- vinyl tape and coated with an aerosol plastic
ance) r-f transformer should be used. Shown spray to protect the joint against the weath-
in figure 24 is a broadband balun that is er. A coaxial plug may be attached to the
effective over the range of 6 to 30 MHz. input terminals of the balun. Connection to
The balun is an inexpensive coil made of a the balanced antenna element is made at the
length of coaxial cable and is designed to be center connections of the balun coil, using
installed directly at the terminals of the an- low- impedance copper straps about %4 inch
tenna. wide.
CHAPTER TWENTY -ONE
Antennas and Antenna Matching
Antennas for the lower- frequency portion it is sometimes justifiable to bring part of
of the high- frequency spectrum (from 1.8 the radiation system directly to the trans-
to 7.0 MHz), and temporary or limited -use mitter, feeding the antenna without benefit
antennas for the upper portion of the high - of a transmission line. This is permissible
frequency range, usually are of a relatively when (1) there is insufficient room to erect
simple type in which directivity is not a a 75- or 80 -meter horizontal dipole and feed
prime consideration. Also, it often is desir- line, (2) when a long wire is also to be
able, in amateur work, that a single anten- operated on one of the higher- frequency
na system be capable of operation at least bands on a harmonic. In either case, it is
on the 3.5- and 7.0 -MHz ranges, and pre- usually possible to get the main portion of
ferably on other frequency ranges. Con- the antenna in the clear because of its
sequently, the first portion of this chapter length. This means that the power lost by
will be devoted to a discussion of such an- bringing the antenna directly to the trans-
tenna systems. The latter portion of the mitter is relatively small.
chapter is devoted to the general problem
of matching the antenna transmission line End -Fed The end -fed antenna has no form
to antenna systems of the fixed type. Match- Antennas of transmission line to couple it
ing the antenna transmission line to the
rotatable directive array is discussed in to the transmitter, but brings the
Chapter Twenty -four. radiating portion of the antenna right down
to the transmitter, where some form of
21 -1 End -Fed Half -Wave coupling system is used to transfer energy
to the antenna.
Horizontal Antennas Figure 1 shows two common methods of
The half -wave horizontal dipole is the feeding the Fuchs antenna,or end -fed Hertz.
most common and the most practical an- Some harmonic -attenuating provision (in
tenna for the 3.5- and 7 -MHz amateur addition to the usual low -pass TVI filter)
bands. The form of the dipole, and the must be included in the coupling system,
manner in which it is fed are capable of a since an end -fed antenna itself offers no dis-
large number of variations. Figure 2 shows crimination against harmonics, either odd or
a number of practical forms of the simple even.
dipole antenna along with methods of feed. The end -fed Hertz antenna has rather
Usually a high- frequency doublet is high losses unless at least three -quarters of
mounted as high and as much in the clear the radiator can be placed outside the oper-
as possible, for obvious reasons. However, ating room and in the clear. As there is r -f
474 Antennas and Antenna Matching RADIO
rANY NUMBER OF HALF-WAVES-+ use of a nonresonant transmission line be-

tween the radiating portion of the antenna
and the transmitter. The :epp portion of
the antenna is resonated as a quarter -wave
1-z O stub and the nonresonant feeders are con-
TIIIIL
nected to the stub at a point where standing
waves on the feeder are minimized. The pro -
FROM TRANSMITTER cedure for making these adjustments is de-
scribed in detail in Section 21 -8. This type
Il ANY EVEN NUMBER OF QUARTER -WAVIS of antenna system is quite satisfactory when
TVI
it is physically necessary to end -feed the
FILTER 015-0 L antenna, and where it is necessary also to
MGM -F-
CAPACITANCE / 1
-,SOW
/1 CAPACITANCE
use nonresonant feeders between the trans-
mitter and the radiating system.
Figure 1
THE END -FED HERTZ ANTENNA

21 -2 Center -Fed Half -
Wave Horizontal Antennas
Showing the manner in which an end -fed
Hertz antenna may be fed through a low -
impedance line and low -pass filter by using A center -fed half -wave antenna system
a resonant tank circuit as at A, or through
the use of a -c ted pi- network as
is usually to be desired over an end -fed
at B. system since the center -fed system is in-
herently balanced to ground and is therefore
less likely to be troubled by feeder radiation.
voltage at the point where the antenna A number of center -fed systems are illus-
enters the operating room, the insulation at trated in figure 2.
that point should be several times as effec-
tive as the insulation commonly used with
The Tuned The current -fed doublet with
low -voltage feeder systems. This antenna
Doublet spaced feeders, sometimes called
can be operated on all of its higher harmon-
ics with good efficiency, and can be operated a renter -feel cepp, is an inher-
at half frequency against ground as a quar- ently balanced system if the two legs of
ter -wave Marconi. the radiator are electrically equal. This fact
holds true regardless of the frequency, or of
The Zepp Antenna The zeppelin, or zepp an- the harmonic, on which the system is oper-
System tenna system. illustrated ated. The system can successfully be oper-
in figure 2A is very con- ated over a wide range of frequencies if the
venient when it is desired to operate a single system as a whole (both tuned feeders and
radiating wire on a number of harmonically the center -fed flat top) can be resonated to
related frequencies. the operating frequency. It is usually pos-
The zepp antenna system is easy to tune, sible to tune such an antenna system to res-
and can be used on several bands by merely onance with the aid of a tapped coil and a
retuning the feeders. As the radiating por- tuning capacitor that can optionally be
tion of the zepp antenna system must al- placed either in series with the antenna coil
ways be some multiple of a half wave long, or in parallel with it. A series -tuning capaci-
there is always high voltage present at the tor can be placed in series with one feeder
point where the live zepp feeder attaches leg without unbalancing the system.
to the end of the radiating portion of the The tuned -doublet antenna is shown in
antenna. Thus, this type of zepp antenna figure 2D. The antenna is a current -fed
system is voltage -fed. system when the radiating wire is a half
wave long electrically, or when the system
Stub -Fed Zepp- Figure 2C shows a modifica- is operated on its odd harmonics, but be-
Type Radiator tion of the zepp -type an- comes a voltage -fed radiator when operated
tenna system to allow the on its even harmonics.
HANDBOOK End -Fed Half -Wave Antennas 475
r--- ----.1
2
iEPP END -FED HERTZ STUB-FED
O
i 300-600
R LINE
END -FED TYPES
r--0.98 A/2-+I I4-0.95 3/2 -- le-0.96 Ai2-4}-
OD TUNED DOUBLET
HALF -WAVE
STUB- FED 300 -600 OHM
LINE OPEN
QUARTER -WAVE Figure 2
STUB -FED
SHORTED
FEED SYSTEMS FOR
300 -600 b LINE
A HALF -WAVE
DIPOLE ANTENNA
The half -wave dipole anten-
r--0.95 3/2 0.95 3/2 --+{ -0.95 3/2 -4.1 na may be either center- or
end-fed, as discussed in the
text. For the hf region ,be-
150 0 TWINLEAD low 30 MHz!, the length of a
GO A 8 0.193 OF FREE
SPACE WAVE- TWINLEAD simple dipole is computed
J]0 -FED TI FOUR -WIRE LENGTH OR
0.77 OF 3/4 FED by length (feet, = 468/f,
L INE -FED with f in MHz. For the
folded dipole, length is com-
puted by length (feet) =
600 R LINE 300 0 TWINLEAD
600 D. LINE
ANY LENGTH 462/f, with f in MHz. Above
30 MHz, the length of the
dipole is affected to an im-
portant degree by the diam-
eter of the element and the
method of supporting the
0.94 A/2 IA 0.94 A/2 0.95 A/2 --++ dipole see VHF and UHF
.__ -.._ -. Cn Antennas and Radiation, Prop-
3000 TWINLEAD 2'0R6 FOR DELTA agation, and Lines chap-
DIMENSIONS
LOW SIDE OPENED FEEDER ters).
O IN CENTER SPREADERS
DELTA MATCHED
SEE FIG 33
TWINLEAD 2 -WIRE DOUBLET
FOLDED DIPOLE' OR `FOLDED DIPOLE DOUBLET
300 OHM TWINLEAD 300 OHM TWINLEAD 600 OHM LINE

ANY LENGTH ANY LENGTH ANY LENGTH
0.95 A/2 0.95 A/2 14-0.95 A/2-41
014% OF
TOTAL LENGTH
O
STANDARD CO -Ax FEO
DOUBLET DOUBLET FED
75 A TWINLEAD No 14 WIRE
ANY LENGTH
CENTER -FED TYPES
The antenna has a different radiation utilizes more than one wire in parallel for
pattern when operated on its harmonics, as the radiating element, but only one of the
would be expected. The arrangement used wires is broken for attachment of the feeder.
on the second harmonic is better known as The most common arrangement uses two
the Franklin collinear array and is described wires in the flat top of the antenna so that
in Chapter Twenty -two. The pattern is an impedance multiplication of four is ob-
similar to a half -wave dipole except that it tained.
is sharper in the broadside direction. On The antenna shown in figure 2.1 is the
higher harmonics of operation there will be so- called twin -lead folded dipole which is a
multiple lobes of radiation from the system. commonly used antenna system on the
Figures 2E and 2F show alternative ar- medium- frequency amateur bands. In this
rangements for using an untuned transmis- arrangement both the antenna and the
sion line between the transmitter and the transmission line to the transmitter are con-
tuned -doublet radiator. In figure 2E a half - structed of 300 -ohm twin -lead. The flat
wave shorted line is used to resonate the tep of the antenna is made slightly less than
radiating system, while in figure 2F a quar- the conventional length (462/F5111, instead
ter -wave open line is utilized. The adjust- of 468 'FMII, for a single -wire flat top) and
ment of quarter -wave and half -wave stubs the two ends of the twin -lead are joined
is discussed in Section 21 -8.
together at each end. The center of one of
Doublets with The average value the conductors of the twin -lead flat top is
of feed im- broken and the two ends of the twin -lead
Quarter -Wove pedance for a center -fed half -
Transformers wave doublet is 75 ohms. The
feeder are spliced into the flat -top leads. As
a protection against moisture, pieces of flat
actual value varies with polyethylene taken from another piece of
height and is shown in Chapter Twenty. 300 -ohm twin -lead may be molded over the
Other methods of matching this rather low joint between conductors with the aid of a
value of impedance to a medium -impedance soldering iron.
transmission line are shown in G, H, and I
Better bandwidth characteristics can be
of figure 2. Each of these three systems uses
a quarter -wave transformer to accomplish
obtained with a folded dipole made of rib-
bon line if the two conductors of the ribbon
the impedance transformation. The only
line are shorted a distance of 0.82 (the
difference between the three systems lies in
velocity factor of ribbon line) of a free -
the type of transmission line used in the
space quarter- wave -length from the center
quarter -wave transformer. G shows the
or feed point. This procedure is illustrated
Q -match system whereby a line made up
in figure 3A. An alternative arrangement
of '/2 -inch durai tubing is used for the low -
impedance linear transformer. A line made
for a twin -lead folded dipole is illustrated in
figure 3B. This type of half -wave antenna
up in this manner is frequently called a set
system is convenient for use on the 3.5-
of Q bars. Illustration H shows the use of
MHz band when the 116- to 132 -foot dis-
a four -wire line as the linear transformer,
and I shows the use of a piece of IS0 -ohm
tance required for a full half -wave is not
quite available in a straight line, since the
twin -lead electrically %4 -wave in length
as the transformer between the center of single -wire end pieces may be bent away or
the dipole and a piece of 300 -ohm twin - downward from the direction of the main
lead. In any case the impedance of the section of the antenna.
quarter -wave transformer will be of the Figure 2K shows the basic type of two -
order of 150 to 200 ohms. The use of sec- wire doublet or folded dipole wherein the
tions of transmission line as linear trans- radiating section of the system is made up
formers is discussed in detail in Section 21 -8. of standard antenna wire spaced by means
of feeder spreaders. The feeder again is made
Multiwire An alternative method for in- of 300 -ohm twin -lead since the feed -point
Doublets creasing the feed -point impedance impedance is approximately 300 ohms, the
of a dipole so that a medium - same as that of the twin -lead folded dipole.
impedance transmission line may be used is The folded -dipole type of antenna has the
shown in figures 2J and 2K. This system broadest response characteristics (greatest
HANDBOOK Center -Fed Antennas 477
!2 on the outside of the coaxial cable. For this

-'1
FMHz
20 : reason the use of twin -lead is normally to
F MMZ
be preferred over the use of coaxial cable
for feeding the center of a half -wave dipole.
300-OMM RIebDM Off- Center The system shown in figure
Fed Doublet 20 is sometimes used to feed
a half -wave dipole, especially
when it is desired to use the same antenna
on a number of harmonically related fre-
404
Fun: quencies. The feeder wire (No. 14 enameled
wire should be used) is tapped a distance of
14 percent of the total length of the an-
tenna either side of center. The feeder wire,
operating against ground for the return
current, has an impedance of approximately
600 ohms.
The effectiveness of the antenna system
in radiating harmonics is of course an ad-
Figure 3
vantage when operation of the antenna on
FOLDED DIPOLE WITH SHORTING a number of frequency bands is desired.
STRAPS But it is necessary to use a harmonic filter
The impedance match and bandwidth char-
to ensure that only the desired frequency is
acteristics of a folded dipole may be im- fed from the transmitter to the antenna.
proved by shorting the two wires of the
ribbon a distance out from the center equal
to the velocity factor of the ribbon times the
21 -3 The Half -Wave
half -length of the dipole as shown at A. An Vertical Antenna
alternative arrangement with bent down ends
for space conservation is illustrated at B. The half -wave vertical antenna with its
bottom end from 0.1 to 0.2 wavelength
bandwidth) of any of the conventional half - above ground is an effective transmitting
wave antenna systems constructed of small antenna for low -angle radiation, where
wires or conductors. Hence such an anten- ground conditions in the vicinity of the
na may be operated over the greatest fre- antenna are good. Such an antenna is not
quency range, without serious standing good for short -range sky -ware communica-
waves, of any common half -wave antenna tion, such as is the normal usage of the
types. 3.5-MHz amateur band, but is excellent
for short -range ground-wave communica-
Delta- Matched These two types of radiat- tion such as on the standard broadcast band
Doublet and ing elements are shown in
Standard Doublet figure 2L and figure 2M.
The delta- matched doublet
is described in detail in Section eight of this O Ala 0.1
i
k 0.04A /G
chapter. The standard doublet, shown in O

figure 2M, is fed in the center by means of J ^-FED STUD-FED L -C -FED
VERTICAL
VERTICAL VERTICAL
75 -ohm transmitting type twin -lead.
The coaxial -fed doublet shown in figure
2N is a variation on the system shown in
i-1 e MONT
figure 2M. Either 52 -ohm or 75 -ohm coaxial - 1MOOT

iNlUl-TW
cable may be used to feed the center of the b0-100 A lIM[ 100-100 (1 LoN[ 00
N.
dipole, although the 52 -ohm type will give
a somewhat better impedance match at Figure 4
lower antenna heights. Due to the asym-
metry of the coaxial feed system, difficulty HALF -WAVE VERTICAL ANTENNA SHOW-
may be encountered with waves traveling ING ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF FEED
LOADING COIL
APPROXIMATELY 34 TURNS
eil WIRE, 4.9
AND FOOT
DIAMETER
I LONG
FIMN
40 RADIALS EACH
F MHt) 4 RADIALS EACH
(MHt)
52 - 014M COAXIAL LINE. 32 -ONM COAXIAL LINE

CENTER CONDUCTOR CONNECTS 45 FUT LONG
TO VERTICAL WHIP
Figure 5
Figure 6
THE LOW- FREQUENCY GROUND PLANE
80 -METER LOADED GROUND PLANE
ANTENNA
ANTENNA
The radials of the ground plane antenna
should lie in a horizontal plane, although Number of turns in loading coil to be ad-
slight departures from this caused by nearby justed until antenna system resonates at
objects is allowable. The whip may be desired frequency in 80 -meter band.
mounted on a short post, or on the roof of a
building. The wire radials may slope down-
wards toward their tips, acting as guy wires ficial ground system by the radial wires. The
for the installation.
base impedance of the ground plane is of
the order of 30 to 35 ohms, and it may be
and on the amateur 1.8 -MHz band. The fed with 52 -ohm coaxial line with only a
vertical antenna may cause greater BCI than slight impedance mismatch. For a more exact
an equivalent horizontal antenna, due to match, the ground -plane antenna may be
the much greater ground -wave field inten- fed with a 72 -ohm coaxial line and a quar-
sity. Also, the vertical antenna is poor for ter -wave matching section made of 52 -ohm
receiving under conditions where man -made coaxial line.
interference is severe, since such interfer- The angle of radiation of the ground -
ence is predominantly of vertical polariza- plane antenna is quite low, and the antenna
tion. will be found more effective for communi-
Three ways of feeding a half -wave verti- cation over 400 miles or so on the 80 and
cal antenna with an untuned transmission 40 meter bands than a high-angle radiator,
line are illustrated in figure 4. The J -fed such as a dipole.
system shown in figure 4A is obviously not
The 80 -Meter A vertical antenna of 66 feet
practical except on the higher frequencies
Loaded in height presents quite a
where the extra length for the stub may
easily be obtained. However, in the normal Ground Plane problem on a small lot, as the
case the ground -plane vertical antenna is to supporting guy wires will
be recommended over the J -fed system for tend to take up quite a large portion of the
high- frequency work. lot. Under such conditions, it is possible to
shorten the length of the vertical radiator
21 -4 The Ground -Plane of the ground plane by the inclusion of a
Antenna loading coil in the vertical whip section.
The ground -plane antenna can be artificially
An effective low -angle radiator for any loaded in this manner so that a 25 -foot
amateur band is the ground -plane antenna, vertical whip may be used for the radiator.
shown in figure 5. So named because of the Such an antenna is shown in figure 6. The
radial ground wires, the ground -plane an- loaded ground plane tends to have a rather
tenna is not affected by soil conditions in high Q and operates only over a narrow
its vicinity due to the creation of an arti- band of frequencies. An operating range of
HANDBOOK The Ground -Plane Antenna 479
Variations on the basic Marconi antenna

are shown in the illustrations of figure 8.
Figures 8B and 8C show the L -type and
T -type Marconi antennas. These arrange-
ments have been more or less superseded by
the top -loaded forms of the Marconi an-
tenna shown in figures 8D, 8E, and 8F. In
each of these latter three configurations an
-INC FROM TRANS COAX. FROM TRAMS. antenna somewhat less than one quarter
wave in length has been loaded to increase
its effective length by the insertion of a
loading coil at or near the top of the radia-
tor. The arrangement shown at figure 8D
Figure 7 gives the least loading but is the most
FEEDING A QUARTER -WAVE MARCONI practical mechanically. The system shown
ANTENNA at figure 8E gives an intermediate amount
When an open -wire line is to be used, it may
of loading, while that shown at figure 8F,
be link -coupled to a series -resonant circuit utilizing a "hat" just above the loading
between the bottom end of the Marconi and coil, gives the greatest amount of loading.
ground, as at A. Alternatively, a reasonably
good impedance match may be obtained be-
The object of all the top -loading methods
tween 52 -ohm coaxial line and the bottom shown is to produce an increase in the ef-
of a resonant quarter -wave antenna, as ill4s- fective length of the radiator, and thus to
trated at B above.
raise the point of maximum current in the
radiator as far as possible above ground.
about 100 kHz with a low SWR is possible Raising the maximum- current point in the
on 80 meters. Operation over a larger fre- radiator above ground has two desirable
quency range is possible if a higher standing results: The percentage of low -angle radia-
wave ratio is tolerated on the transmission tion is increased and the amount of ground
line. The radiation resistance of a loaded 80- current at the base of the radiator is re-
meter ground plane is about 11 ohms. duced, thus reducing the ground losses.
Amateurs primarily interested in the
21 -5 The Marconi higher- frequency bands, but liking to
Antenna work 80 meters occasionally, can usually
manage to resonate one of their antennas
A grounded quarter -wave Marconi anten-
as a Marconi by working the whole system
na, widely used on frequencies below 3
(feeders and all) against a water pipe
MHz, is sometimes used on the 3.5-MHz
ground, and resorting to a loading coil if
band, and is also used in vhf mobile
necessary. A high- frequency rotary, zepp.
services where a compact antenna is re-
quired. The Marconi type antenna allows doublet, or single- wire -fed antenna will
the use of half the length of wire that would make quite a good 80 -meter Marconi if
be required for a half -wave Hertz radiator.
high and in the clear, with a rather long
The ground acts as a mirror, in effect, and feed line to act as a radiator on 80 meters.
takes the place of the additional quarter
wave of wire that would be required to reach
resonance if the end of the wire were not Importance of With a quarter -wave an-
returned to ground. Ground Connection tenna and a ground, the
The fundamental practical form of the antenna current general-
Marconi antenna system is shown in figure ly is measured with a meter placed in the
7. Other Marconi antennas differ from this antenna circuit close to the ground con-
type primarily in regard to the method of nection. If this current flows through a
feeding the energy to the radiator. The feed resistor, or if the ground itself presents
method shown in figure 7B can often be some resistance, there will be a power loss
used to advantage, particularly in mobile in the form of heat. Improving the ground
work. connection, therefore, provides a definite
LOADING
COILS
Figure 8
LOADING THE
MARCONI ANTENNA
The various loading systems
are discussed in the accom-
panying text. _t
0
TWrT
means of reducing this power loss, and thus the system will approach that of buried
increasing the radiated power. copper radials.
The best possible ground consists of as The main objection to water -pipe grounds
many wires as possible, each at least a quar- is the possibility of high- resistance joints in
ter wave long, buried just below the surface the pipe, due to the "dope" put on the cou-
of the earth, and extending out from a com- pling threads. By attaching the ground
mon point in the form of radials. Copper wire to a junction with three or more legs,
wire of any size larger than No. 16 is satis- the possibility of requiring the main portion
factory, and the larger sizes will take of the r -f current to flow through a high
longer to disintegrate. In fact, the radials resistance connection is greatly reduced.
need net even be buried; they may be sup-
ported just above the earth, and insulated Marconi A Marconi antenna is an odd
from it. This arrangement is called a Dimensions number of electrical quarter
counter /wise, and operates by virtue of its waves long (usually only one
high capacitance to ground.
If the antenna is physically shorter than I- ,,. AT LONLS rMLGVLMC.- -
a quarter wavelength, the antenna current

is higher, due to lower radiation resistance;
consequently, the power lost in resistive
soil is greater. The importance of a good
[SONMT
ground with short, inductive - loaded Mar- 011
1.1011RLSO0ANT LIME
RESONANT LINE
coni radiators is, therefore, quite obvious.

With a good ground system, even very short
(one - eighth wavelength) antennas can be
expected to give a high percentage of the
efficiency of a quarter -wave antenna used
with the same ground system. This is
especially true when the short radiator is
top loaded with a high -Q (low-loss) coil.
Figure 9
Water -Pipe Water pipe, because of its com-
Grounds paratively large surface and THREE EFFECTIVE SPACE-CONSERVING
cross section, has a relatively ANTENNAS
low r -f resistance. If it is possible to attach The arrangements shown at A and S are
satisfactory where resonant feed line can be
to a junction of several water pipes (where used. However, nonresonant 75 -ohm feed line
they branch in several directions and run may be used In the arrangement at A when
for some distance under ground), a satis- the dimensions in wavelengths are as shown.
In the arrangement shown at g, low standing
factory ground connection will be obtained. waves will be obtained on the feed line when
If one of the pipes attaches to a lawn or the over -all length of the antenna is a half
garden sprinkler system in the immediate wave. The arrangement shown at C may be
tuned for any reasonable length of Sat top
vicinity of the antenna, the effectiveness of to give a minimum of standing waves.
HANDBOOK The Marconi Antenna 481
4
a half -wave radiator for the desired fre-
-
MHZ)
I J quency of operation. This is a common ex-
300 - ONM -NI000N- LINE
perience of apartment dwellers. The short-
WINES SNORTED TO- ened Marconi antenna operated against a
GETNEN AT END
good ground can be used under certain con-
ditions, but the shortened Marconi is noto-
52 A COAXIAL
FEED UNE rious for the production of broadcast inter-
ference and a good ground connection is
Figure 10 usually unobtainable in an apartment house.
Essentially, the technique of producing
TWIN -LEAD MARCONI ANTENNA FOR THE
an antenna for lower -frequency operation
80 -AND 160 -METER BANDS in restricted space is to erect a short radia-
tor which is balanced with respect to ground
quarter wave in length), and is always reso- and which is therefore independent of
nated to the operating frequency. The cor- ground for its operation. Several antenna
rect loading of the final amplifier is ac- types meeting this set of conditions are
complished by varying the coupling, rather shown in figure 9. Figure 9A shows a con-
than by detuning the antenna from reso- ventional center -fed doublet with bent -
nance. down ends. This type of antenna can be
Physically, a quarter -wave Marconi may fed with 7f -ohm twin -lead in the center,
be made anywhere from one -eighth to three - or it may be fed with a resonant line for
eighths wavelength overall, including the operation on several bands. The over -all
total length of the antenna wire and length of the radiating wire will be a few
ground lead from the end of the antenna percent greater than the normal length for
to the point where the ground lead attaches such an antenna since the wire is bent at a
to the junction of the radials or counter- position intermediate between a current loop
poise wires, or where the water pipe enters and a voltage loop. The actual length will
the ground. The longer the antenna is made have to be determined by the cut -and -try
physically, the lower will be the current process because of the increased effect of
flowing in the ground connection, and the interfering objects on the effective electrical
greater will be the over -all radiation effi- length of an antenna of this type.
ciency. However, when the antenna length Figure 9B shows a method for using a
exceeds three- eights wavelength, the an- two -wire doublet on one -half of its normal
tenna becomes difficult to resonate by means operating frequency. It is recommended
of a series capacitor, and it begins to take that spaced open conductor be used both
shape as an end -fed Hertz, requiring a for the radiating portion of the folder dipole
method of feed such as a pi- network. and for the feed line. The reason for this
A radiator physically much shorter than lies in the fact that the two wires of the
a quarter wavelength can be lengthened flat top are not at the same potential
electrically by means of a series loading coil, throughout their length when the antenna
and used as a quarter -wave Marconi. How- is operated on one -half frequency. Twin -
ever, if the wire is made shorter than ap- lead may be used for the feed line if opera-
proximately one-eighth wavelength, the tion on the frequency where the flat top is
radiation resistance will be quite low. This one half -wave in length is most common,
is a special problem in mobile work below and operation on half frequency is infre-
about 20 -MHz. quent. However, if the antenna is to be
used primarily on the half frequency as
21 -6 Space -Conserving shown, it should be fed by means of an
Antennas open -wire line. If it is desired to feed the
antenna with a nonresonant line, a quarter -
In many cases it is desired to undertake a wave stub may be connected to the antenna
considerable amount of operation on the 80- at the points X -X in figure 9B. The stub
or 40 -meter band, but sufficient space is should be tuned and the transmission line
simply not available for the installation of connected to it in the normal manner.
FOR DETAIL SEE FIG. A

PHENOLIC BLOCK 2- A I.S X
WRAP CABLES AND BLOCK
WITH SCOTCH ELECTRICALTAPE
SPACE BLOCKS B' APART
ALONG BALUN
64.5
*d,UIIIY
/////
T FOR DETAIL SEE FIG. A
ENOLICBLOCK
SPACE BLOCKS
ALONG BALUN
2XI.YXO!
WRAP CABLES AND BLOCK
6'
110'
=. : -
-T THE TWO WIRES MAY SE
SPREAD EITHER HOR12-
ONTALLV OR VERTICALLY.
D
FIGURE A FIGURE B FIGURE A FIGURE B
CUTOFF SHIELD AND OUTER REMOVE OUTER JACKET
JACKET AS SHOWN. ALLOW CUT OFF SHIELD AND OUTER REMOVE OUTER JACKET
FROM A SHORT LENGTH OF JACKET AS SHOWN. ALLOW FROM A SHORT LENGTH OF
DIELECTRIC TO EXTEND PART CABLE AS SHOWN HERE. DIELECTRIC TO EXTEND PART
WAY TO OTHER CABLE COVER UNBRAIO THE SHIELD OF CABLE AS SHOWN HERE.
ALL EXPOSED SHIELD ANO WAY TO OTHER CABLE. COVER UNBRAID THE SHIELD OF
COAX C. CUT OFF THE DI- ALL EXPOSED SHIELD AND
DIELECTRIC ON BOTH CABLES ELECTRIC AND INNER CON- DIELECTRIC ON BOTH CABLES
COAX C CUTOFF THE DI-
WITH A CONTINUOUS WRAP- DUCTOR FLUSH WITH THE
ELECTRIC AND INNER CON-
PING OF SCOTCH ELECTRICAL WITH A CONTINUOUS WRAP- DUCTOR FU/SH WITH THE
OUTER JACKET. 00 NOT CUT PING OF SCOTCH ELECTRICAL OUTER JACKET. DO NOT CUT
TAPE TO EXCLUDE MOISTURE. THE SHIELD. WRAP SHIELD TAPE TO EXCLUDE MOISTURE. THE SHIELD. WRAP SHIELD
OF COAX C AROUND SHIELD
OF COAX C AROUND SHIELD
OF COAX D. SOLDER THE
OF COAX D. SOLDER THE
KEEP BALUN AT B
CLEAR
OF GROUND AND OTHER OBJECTS.
CONNECTION. BEING VERY
CAREFUL NOT TO DAMAGE KEEP SALON AT LEAST B
LEAR CONNECTION, BEING VERY
THE DIELECTRIC MATERIAL OF GROUND AND OTHER OBJECTS. CAREFUL NOT TO DAMAGE
THE DIELECTRIC MATERIAL.
FOR DETAIL SEE FIGURE HOLD CABLE D STRAIGHT HOLD CABLE D STRAIGHT
B WHILE SOLDERING. COVER FOR DETAIL SEE FIGURE B WHILE SOLDERING. COVER
THE AREA WITH A CONTIN- THE AREA WITH A CONTIN-
S2 -OHM RE-11/U, ANY LENGTH UOUS WRAPPING OF SCOTCH 32- OHM RE -S /U, ANY LENGTH UOUS WRAPPING pF SCOTCH
ELECTRICAL TAPE. NO CON-
NECTION TO INNER CONDUC-
ELECTRICAL TA.
PE NOCDN-
NECTION TO INNER m IDUC-
TORS. TORS.
DIMENSIONS SHOWN NENE ARE FOR THE 4O -METEN WAND. THIS ANT-
ENNA MAY DE SU /LT POR OTHER WANDS SY US /NE DIMENSIONS THAT
ARE MULTIPLES OR SUSMUL TIPLES OF THE DIMENSIONS SHOWN.
SALON SPAC ING IS 1.5 ON ALL SANOS. DIMENSIONS SHOWN NERE ARE FOR TNEEO-METERWAND. THIS ANT-
ENNA MAY DE WU /LT POR OTHER SANDS BY USING DIMENSIONS THAT
ARE MULTIPLES OR SUSMULT/PL ES OF THE DIMENSIONS SHOWN.
SALON SPACING IS LS' ON ALL SANDS.
Figure 11
Figure 12
HALF -WAVE ANTENNA WITH QUARTER -
WAVE UNBALANCED -TO- BALANCED BROADBAND ANTENNA WITH QUARTER -
TRANSFORMER (BALUN) FEED SYSTEM WAVE UNBALANCED -TO- BALANCED
FOR 40 -METER OPERATION TRANSFORMER (BALUN) FEED SYSTEM
FOR 80-METER OPERATION
The antenna system shown in figure 9C

may be used when not quite enough length by a shortened antenna system is approxi-
is available for a full half -wave radiator. mately in proportion to the amount of
The dimensions in terms of frequency are shortening which has been employed. For
given on the drawing. An antenna of this example, the antenna system shown in fig-
type is 93 feet long for operation on 3600 ure 9C may be operated over the range
kHz and 86 feet long for operation on from 3800 to 4000 kHz without serious
3900 kHz. This type of antenna has the standing waves on the feed line. If the an-
additional advantage that it may be oper- tenna had been made full length it would
ated on the 7- and 14 -MHz bands, when be possible to cover about half again as
the flat top has been cut for the 3.5-MHz much frequency range for the same amount
band, simply by changing the position of of mismatch at the extremes of the fre-
the shorting bar and the feeder line on the quency range.
stub.
A sacrifice which must be made when The Twin -Load Much of the power loss in
using a shortened radiating system (as for Marconi Antenna the Marconi antenna is a
example the types shown in figure 9), is in result of low radiation re-
the bandwidth of the radiating system. sistance and high ground resistance. In some
The frequency range which may be covered cases, the ground resistance may even be
HANDBOOK Multiband Antennas 483
higher than the radiation resistance, caus- The Inverted -V The Inverted-V antenna is
ing a loss of 50 percent or more of the Antenna a center -fed dipole with the
transmitter power output. If the radiation ends lower than the middle.
resistance of the Marconi antenna is raised, The radiation pattern is similar to a dipole,
the amount of power lost in the ground except that more radiation is apparent off
resistance is proportionately less. If a Mar- the ends of the antenna. The main advantage
coni antenna is made out of 300 -ohm TV- of this antenna is that it may be hung, or
type ribbon line, as shown in figure 10, the supported, at the center from an existing
radiation resistance of the antenna is raised tower, with the ends tied off near the sur-
from a low value of 10 or 15 ohms to a face of the ground. For 40- or 80 -meter
more reasonable value of 40 to 60 ohms. inverted V's, the center support should be
The ground losses are now reduced by a from 40 to 60 feet above ground and the
factor of 4. In addition, the antenna may ends should clear the ground by at least 10
be directly fed from a 50 -ohm coaxial line, feet.
or directly from the unbalanced output of The impedance of an inverted V is less
a pi- network transmitter. than that of an equivalent dipole placed at
Since a certain amount of power may still the apex of the array, however, a good match
be lost in the ground connection, it is still may be had to 50 -ohm coaxial transmission
of greatest importance that a good, low - line. Bandwidth is about equal to that of a
resistance ground be used with this antenna. regular horizontal dipole.
The length of the inverted V is less than
A Broadband Shown in figures 11 and 12 that of a dipole and may be computed from
Dipole System are broadband dipoles for the the following formula:
40- and 80 -meter amateur
bands. These fan -type dipoles have excellent 464
broadband response, and are designed to be Over -all length (feet) =
fed with a 52 -ohm unbalanced coaxial line.
The antenna system consists of a fan -type
dipole, a balun matching section, and a suit- Objects near the end of the inverted V
able coaxial feedline. The O of the half - will affect the resonant frequency to some
wave 80 -meter doublet is lowered by de- extent and the installation may require end
creasing the effective length -to- diameter trimming to bring it on or near the desired
ratio. The frequency range of operation of frequency, especially in the presence of
the doublet is increased considerably by nearby buildings, telephone wires or other
this change. A typical SWR curve for the conductors. For best results, a balun should
80 -meter doublet is shown in figure 13. be used between the inverted V and the
The balanced doublet is matched to the coaxial feedline.
unbalanced coaxial line by the quarter -wave
balun. If desired, a shortened balun may be
used (figure 14). The short balun is ca-
21 -7 Multiband Antennas
pacitance loaded at the junction between the
balun and the broadband dipole. The availability of a multiband antenna
is a great operating convenience to an ama-
3 teur station. In most cases it will be found
best to install an antenna which is optimum
for the band which is used for the majority
of the available operating time, and then to
have an additional multiband antenna
3 5 3.e 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 which may be pressed into service for oper-
FREQUENCY (MM=) ation on another band when propagation
Figure 13
conditions on the most frequently used
band are not suitable.
SWR CURVE OF 80-METER BROADBAND The choice of a multiband antenna de-
DIPOLE pends on a number of factors such as the
-- ANTENNA
used from the antenna to the transmitter
and since the antenna system is balanced
SO METERS
L=ue- with respect to ground. With operation on
PNENOUC &LOCKS
C = 400 PF
the fundamental frequency of the antenna
SEE FIO. 12
40 METERS where the flat top is % wave long the
L=TS- switch SW is left open. The system affords
C ZOO PF
a very close match between the 600 -ohm
INNER
CONDUCTOR NOT USED line and the feed point of the antenna. A
SEE FIG. IS FOR CONNECTION standing -wave ratio of approximately 1.2 to
1 over the 14 -MHz band exists when the
Sa -OHM COAXIAL LINE
antenna is located approximately one -half
wave above ground.
Figure 14
For operation on the second harmonic
SHORT BALUN FOR 40 AND 80 METERS the switch SW is closed. The antenna is
still an effective radiator on the second har-
amount of space available, the band which monic but the pattern of radiation will be
is to be used for the majority of operation different from that on the fundamental,
with the antenna, the radiation efficiency and the standing -wave ratio on the feed line
which is desired, and the type of antenna will be greater. The flat top of the antenna
tuning network to be used at the trans- must be made of open wire rather than rib-
mitter. A number of recommended types bon or tubular line.
are shown on the next pages. For greater operating convenience, the
shorting switch may be replaced with a
The 34-Wave Figure 15 shows an antenna section of transmission line. If this trans-
Folded Doublet type which will be found to mission line is made one -quarter wavelength
be very effective when a long for the fundamental frequency, and
moderate amount of space is available, when the free end of the line is shorted, it will
most of the operating will be done on one act as an open circuit across the center
band with occasional operation on the sec- insulator. At the second harmonic, the
ond harmonic. The system is quite satis- transmission line is one -half wavelength
factory for use with high -power transmit- long, and reflects the low impedance of the
ters since a 600 -ohm nonresonant line is shorted end across the center insulator.
Thus the switching action is automatic as
the frequency of operation is changed. Such
an installation is shown in figure 16.
The End -Fed The end -fed Hertz antenna

Hertz shown in figure 17 is not as
V-'CEDER SPREADERS
effective a radiating system as
L los EgI asso 1N1 AwP , ISO .N!
many other antenna types, but it is par-
L N' .OA ,001N1 A. 141250 COI ticularly convenient when it is desired to
L A( E' 'cm 1A=001N1 AN0 as NNI
install an antenna in a hurry for a test, or
for field -day work. The flat top of the
Eoo-C,u 1iN[
=AMSSYIE. radiator should be as high and in the clear
as possible. In any event at least three
Figure 15 quarters of the total wire length should be
THE THREE -QUARTER WAVE FOLDED in the clear.
DOUBLET
This antenna arrangement will give very The End -Fed The end -fed zepp is conven-
satisfactory operation with o 600 -ohm feed
line for operation with the switch open on Zepp ient for multiband operation.
the fundamental freq y and with the It is shown in figure 18 along
switch closed on twice frequency. A balun
may be used to match the 600 -ehm line to with recommended dimensions for opera-
the transmitter. tion on various amateur band groups. Since
SILO.
6 FEEDER SPREADERS
600 fl LINE
SHORTED END .i 00 OHM

LINE
Figure 18
END -FED ZEPP
Loa? FT. WHEN ANTENNA IS 195 FT.

L.33 FT 96FT. formance from a simple wire. Such an ar-
L.16.5 FT ' '496FT
rangement for operation on 160 -80 meters,
and 80 -40 meters is shown in figure 19. On
Figure 16 the fundamental (lowest) frequency, the
antenna acts as a three -eighths wavelength
AUTOMATIC BANDSWITCHING STUB FOR
series -tuned Marconi. On the second har-
THE THREE -QUARTER WAVE FOLDED
monic, the antenna is a current -fed three -
DOUBLET
quarter wavelength antenna operating
The antenna of Figure 1S may be used with
against ground. For proper operation, the
a shorted stub line in place of the switch
normally used for second- harmonic operation. antenna should be resonated on its second
harmonic by means of a grid -dip oscillator
to the operating frequency most used on
this antenna type is an unbalanced radiat- this particular band. The Q of the an-
ing system, its use is not recommended with tenna is relatively low, and the antenna will
high -power transmitters where interference perform well over a frequency range of
to broadcast listeners is likely to be en- several hundred kHz.
countered. The over -all length of the antenna may
The coupling coil at the transmitter end be varied slightly to place its self- resonant
of the feeder system should be link -coupled frequency in the desired region. Bends or
to the output of the low -pass TVI filter in turns in the antenna tend to make it reso-
order to reduce harmonic radiation. nate higher in frequency, and it may be
The Two -Band A three -eighths wavelength necessary to lengthen it a bit to resonate it
Marconi Antenna Marconi antenna may be at the chosen frequency. For fundamental
operated on its harmonic operation, the series capacitor is inserted in
frequency, providing good two band per- the circuit, and the antenna may be reso-
nated to any point in the lower -frequency
L SEE BELOW
3.5, 7,14 AND 26 MHz L=136'

3.5,7 AND 14 MHz L= 137
3.5 AND 7 MHz L= 13e'
3.9MHZAND 26MHz L. 12o L =90' FOR 60 -40 -METER OPERATION
LINO 250 PF
FROR/
%MTR
Figure 17 Figure 19
RECOMMENDED LENGTHS FOR THE END - A TWO -BAND MARCONI ANTENNA FOR
FED HERTZ ANTENNA 160 -80 METER OPERATION
band. As with any Marconi-type antenna, type of feeder the impedance at the trans-
the use of a good ground is essential. This mitter end of the feeder varies from about
antenna works well with transmitters em- 70 ohms to approximately 5000 ohms, the
ploying coaxial antenna feed, since its trans- same range encountered in an end -fed zepp
mitting impedance on both bands is in the antenna. This great impedance ratio requires
neighborhood of 40 to 60 ohms. It may be provision for either series or parallel tuning
attached directly to the output terminal of of the feeders at the transmitter, and in-
a pi- network transmitter coupling circuit. volves quite high r -f voltages at various
The use of a low -pass TVI filter is of course points along the feed line.
recommended. If the feed line between the transmitter
and the antenna is made to have a character-
The Center -Fed For multiband operation, istic impedance of approximately 300 ohms
Multiband Antenna the center -fed antenna is the excursions in end -of- feeder impedance
without doubt the best are greatly reduced.
compromise. It is a balanced system on all There are several practical types of trans-
bands, it requires no ground return, and mission line which can give an impedance
when properly tuned has good rejection of approximately 300 ohms. The first is,
properties for the higher harmonics gener- obviously, 300 -ohm twin -lead. Twin -lead
ated in the transmitter. It is well suited for of the receiving type may be used as a reso-
use with the various multiband 150 -watt nant feed line in this case, but its use is not
transmitters that are currently so popular. recommended with power levels greater
For proper operation with these transmit- than perhaps 150 watts, and it should not
ters, an antenna tuning unit must be used be used when lowest loss in the transmis-
with the center -fed antenna. In fact, some sion line is desired.
sort of tuning unit is necessary for any For power levels up to 250 watts or so,
type of efficient, multiband antenna. the transmitting type tubular 300 -ohm
Various dimensions for center -fed anten- line may be used, or the open -wire 300 -ohm
na systems are shown in figure 20. If the TV line may be employed. For power levels
feed line is made up in the conventional higher than this, a 4 -wire transmission line,
manner of No. 12 or No. 14 wire spaced 4 or a line built of one -quarter inch tubing
to 6 inches, the antenna system is some- should be used.
times called a center -fed zepp. With this Even when a 300 -ohm transmission line
is used, the end -of- feeder impedance may
reach a high value, particularly on the sec-
FP- t, ond harmonic of the antenna. To limit the
O 3000 TRANS2S0I0N LINE IS 134

ASEO 'OR La Tue IMIOANCI AT
TOW T,IANIMITTSR COO Of TE
LINE IS APAOOAI La
3.041442
Nowt ,a2 17100 ONUS So
3 SYN. 1200 01025

,SR 1200 0102!
SS
0-01112 1200 OHMS
20 -YMO 1200 0w2S
3.341Ma
,a lS O2S SS
S'YNa ?S SAMS
33' OR 00 LONG- 300 -OHM OPEN -WIRE
PARALLEL 1200 Owes TV TYPE LINE
03 PARALLEL 1200 Owes 07
PAHALCOL 1200 ON2S
SENTES +S OHMS
'ARA'LtL 0200 0102S

1700 02s
SS
PA,ULLtL
'ARALEE'
PA,IALLEL
ANTENNA TUNER
OR TRANSMITTER
*WATCH 005. COAXIAL
LINE
Figure 21
Figure 20
MULTIBAND ANTENNA USING FAN -
DIMENSIONS FOR CENTER -FED MULTI - DIPOLE TO LIMIT IMPEDANCE EXCUR-
BAND ANTENNA SIONS ON HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
the 7 -MHz band and standing waves on

the feeder will be very small. However, it
is possible to insert an electrical half wave
of transmission line of any characteristic
impedance into a feeder system such as this
and the impedance at the far end of the line
will he exactly the same value of impedance
which the half -wave line "sees" at its termi-
nation. Hence this has been done in the
antenna system shown in figure 22; an elec-
trical half wave of line has been inserted
between the feed point of the antenna and
the 300 -ohm transmission line to the trans-
mitter.
Figure 22 The characteristic impedance of this ad-
FOLDED -TOP DUAL -BAND ANTENNA ditional half -wave section of transmission
line has been made about 7US ohms (No. 20
wire spaced 6 inches), but since it is an
impedance excursions, a two -wire flat top electrical half wave long at 7 MHz and
may be employed for the radiator, as shown operates into a load of 300 ohms at the
in figure 21. The use of such a radiator will antenna the 300 -ohm twin lead at the bot-
limit the impedance excursions on the har- tom of the half -wave section still "sees" an
monic frequencies of the antenna and make impedance of 300 ohms. The additional half -
the operation of the antenna matching unit wave section of transmission line introduces
much less critical. The use of a two -wire a negligible amount of loss since the current
radiator is highly recommended for any flowing in the section of line is the same
center -fed multiband antenna.
which would flow in a 300 -ohm line at
each end of the half -wave section, and at
Folded Flat Top As has been mentioned all other points it is less than the current
Dual -Band Antenna earlier, there is an in- which would flow in a 300 -ohm line since
creasing tendency the effective impedance is greater than 300
among amateur operators to utilize rotary ohms in the center of the half -wave section.
or fixed arrays for the 14 -MHz band and This means that the loss is less than it
those higher in frequency. In order to af- would be in an equivalent length of 300 -
ford complete coverage of the amateur ohm twin lead since this type of manufac-
bands it is then desirable to have an addi- tured transmission line is made up of con-
tional system which will operate with equal ductors which are equivalent to No. 20 wire.
effectiveness an the 3.5- and 7 -MHz bands, So we see that the added section of 715 -
but this low- frequency antenna system ohm line has substantially no effect on the
will not be required to operate on any operation of the antenna system on the
bands higher in frequency than the 7 -MHz 7 -MHz band. However, when the flat top
band. The antenna system shown in figure of the antenna is operated on the 3.5 MHz
22 has been developed to fill this need. band the feed -point impedance of the flat
This system consists essentially of an top is approximately 3500 ohms. Since the
open -wire folded dipole for the 7 -MHz band section of 715 -ohm transmission line is an
with a special feed system which allows the electrical quarter-11(1:e in length on the
antenna to be fed with minimum standing 3.5 -MHz band, this section of line will have
waves on the feed line on both the 7 -MHz the effect of transforming the approximate-
and 3.5 -MHz bands. The feed -point imped- ly 3500 ohms feed -point impedance of the
ance of a folded dipole on its fundamental antenna down to an impedance of about 150
frequency is approximately 300 ohms. ohms which will result in a 2:1 standing -
Hence the 300 -ohm twin lead shown in wave ratio on the 300 -ohm twin lead trans-
figure 22 can be connected directly into the mission line from the transmitter to the
center of the system for operation only on antenna system.
The antenna system of figure 22 operates L

with very low standing waves over the en-
tire 7 -MHz band, and it will operate with
140-40 M
moderate standing waves from 3500 to 700 - OMM OPEN -WIRE L=70'
TV TYPE LINE
3800 kHz in the 3.5 -MHz band and with V=S2'
sufficiently low standing -wave ratio so that 40 -40 METERS
it is quite usable over the entire 3.5 -MHz L. 35'
band. v =24'
This antenna system, as well as all other
types of multiband antenna systems, should
be used in conjunction with some type of
harmonic- reducing antenna tuning network
S2-0NM C0A%1
\ ./"...--11 RADIALS
even though the system does present a con-

venient impedance value on both bands.
The Multee An antenna that works well
Antenna on 160 and 80 meters, or 80
and 40 meters and is suffi- Figure 23
ciently compact to permit erection on the
average city lot is the Multee antenna, il- THE MULTEE TWO -BAND ANTENNA
lustrated in figure 23. The antenna evolves This compact antenna can be used with ex-
from a vertical two -wire radiator, fed on cellent results on 160/80 and 80/40 meters.
one leg only. On the low- frequency band The feedline should be held os vertical as
the top portion does little radiating, so it is possible, since it radiates when the antenna
is operated on its fundamental frequency.
folded down to form a radiator for the
higher- frequency band. On the lower -fre-
quency band, the antenna acts as a top - be wise to check the transmitter for second -
loaded vertical radiator, while on the higher - harmonic emission, since this antenna will
frequency band, the flat top does the effectively radiate this harmonic.
radiating rather than the vertical portion.
The vertical portion acts as a quarter -wave The Low- Frequency The rliseone antenna is
linear transformer, matching the 6000 -ohm Discone
antenna impedance to the S0 -ohm imped- widely used on the vhf
ance of the coaxial transmission line. bands, but until recently
it has not been put to any great use on the
The earth below a vertical radiator must
lower- frequency bands. Since the discone is
be of good conductivity not only to provide
a broadband device, it may be used on sev-
a low- resistance ground connection, but
eral harmonically related amateur bands.
also to provide a good reflecting surface
Size is the limiting factor in the use of a
for the waves radiated downward toward the
ground. For best results, a radial system discone, and the 20 -meter band is about the
lowest practical frequency for a discone of
should be installed beneath the antenna.
reasonable dimensions. A discone designed
For 160/80 -meter operation, six radials SO
feet in length, made of No. 16 copper wire
for 20 -meter operation may be used on 20,
15, 11, 10, and 6 meters with excellent
should be buried just below the surface of
results. It affords a good match to a 50 -ohm
the ground. While an ordinary water -pipe
coaxial feed system on all of these bands. A
ground system with no radials may be used, practical discone antenna is shown in figure
a system of radials will provide a worth-
24, with a SWR curve for its operation over
while increase in signal strength. For 80/40 - the frequency range of 13 to 55 MHz shown
meter operation, the length of the radials in figure 25. The discone antenna radiates
may be reduced to 25 feet. As with all multi - a vertically polarized wave and has a very
band antennas that employ no lumped tuned low angle of radiation. For vhf work the
circuits, this antenna offers no attenuation to discone is constructed of sheet metal, but
harmonics of the transmitter. When oper- for low- frequency work it may be made of
ating on the lower -frequency band, it would copper wire and aluminum angle stock. A
For minimum wind resistance, the top

"hat" of the discone is constructed from
three -quarter inch aluminum angle stock,
the rods being bolted to an aluminum plate at
the center of the structure. The tips of the
rods are all connected together by lengths
of No. 12 enamelled copper wire. The cone
elements are made of No. 12 copper wire
and act as guy wires for the discone struc-
ture. A very rigid arrangement may be made
from this design, one that will give no
trouble in high winds. A 4" X 4" post can
be used to support the discone structure.
52 -OHM COAXIAL
FEED LINE
DIMENSIONS
20, 15,11,10.8 METERS 15.11.10.8 METERS 11,10,8,2METERS
D= 1z L.18' Dow L=12 D=e L=8e"
S=10 R=1s S= e R=12r S=4 R=s'e
H=IS,T H=Io's H=e'3"
Figure 24
DIMENSIONS OF DISCONE ANTENNA

FOR LOW- FREQUENCY CUTOFF AT
mi. Opc- TOP view
13.2 MHz, 20.1 MHz, AND 26 MHz
The Discone is a vertically polarized radiator, I Pin. B' NiGN
producing an omnidirectional pattern similar [ACN [LwME ro
No W501Nwu.ws
to a ground plane. Operation on several CJSIaKTOB OF
TOP
amateur bands with low SWR on the co- DiX h4TE
axial feed line is possible.
:
SLATFOS O lSE.3 T i.LILTOB 3 BOL TEO
IDIN/H48E O:LATFONN
...1.49;r3.
JO N,LiG hArEOS4
. E..OlT
suitable mechanical layout for a low -fre-
TO
quency discone is shown in figure 26.

Smaller versions of this antenna may be
constructed for 15, 11, 10, and 6 meters,
,I.....
or for 11, 10, 6, and 2 meters as shown in
figure 24.
.I......
11'4.0
<
0
Z
o
z
cc
3
3.
30
zs
1.5
N
.I........
111.11.1111
e IO 14 18 22 28 30 34
FREQUENCY (MNi)
Figure 25
SWR CURVE FOR A 13.2 -MHz DISCONE
ANTENNA. SWR IS BELOW 1.5 TO 1 FROM
13.0 MHz TO 58 MHz
38
\..
42 48 50 54 58
!EO.BECOASUL,.e,
MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
Figure 26
METER DISCONE
JOIN ALL wISES AT BASE LAN!
OF 20-
The discone antenna may be fed by a VOLTAGE CURVES

length of 50 -ohm coaxial cable directly
from the transmitter, with a very low SWR
on all bands.
The Single -Wire-
The old favorite single-
Fed Antenna wire-fed antenna system
is quite satisfactory for an
impromptu all -band antenna system. It is
widely used for portable installations and
"Field Day" contests where a simple, multi -
band antenna is required. A single -wire
feeder has a characteristic impedance of
approximately 500 ohms, depending on the
wire size and the point of attachment to the
antenna. The earth losses are comparatively
low over ground of good conductivity.
Since the single-wire feeder radiates, it is
necessary to bring it away from the antenna
at right angles to the antenna wire for at
least one -half the length of the antenna.
The correct point for best impedance Figure 27
match on the fundamental frequency is not
suitable for harmonic operation of the an- SINGLE -WIRE -FED ANTENNA FOR ALL-
tenna. In addition, the correct length of the BAND OPERATION
antenna for fundamental operation is not An antenna of this type for 40 -, 20- and 10-
correct for harmonic operation. Consequent- meter operation would have a radiator 67
feet long, with the feeder tapped 11 feet off
ly, a compromise must be made in antenna center. The feeder can be 33, 66 or 99 feet
length and point of feeder connection to long. The same type of antenna for 80 -, 40 -,
enable the single- wire -fed antenna to oper- 20- and 10 -meter operation would hay. a
radiator 134 feet long, with the feeder
ate on more than one band. Such a com- tapped 22 feet off center. The feeder can be
promise introduces additional reactance into either 66 or 132 feet long. This system should
the single -wire feeder, and might cause be used only with those coupling methods
which provide good harmonic attenuation.
loading difficulties with pi- network trans-
mitters. To minimize this trouble, the single -
wire feeder should be made a multiple of meter bands and an external ground con-
33 feet long. nection is used on 40 and 80 meters. If
Two typical single- wire -fed antenna sys- the antenna is mounted on the roof of a
tems are shown in figure 27 with dimensions building, it may be possible to use the
for multiband operation. metal rain gutter system as a ground.
Four -wire TV rotator cable can be used
Multiband A vertical radiator can be to construct the radial system, each cable
Vertical Ant sed on several amateur including a radial wire for one of the three
bands either by employing higher bands. The fourth wire may be ex-
a variable base -loading inductor or by the tended for 40 meters, or two of the four
inclusion of trap elements in the radiator. wires can be cut for 20 meters, and one each
In either case, tuned radial wires should be for 15 and 10 meters. At least three and
used for lowest ground loss at the higher preferably four such radial assemblies should
frequencies. Shown in figure 28 is a 22 -foot be used. These can be laid out on the roof,
vertical antenna designed for operation on or possibly hidden in the attic.
amateur bands from 80 through 10 meters. The radiator is made from two ten -foot
The height is chosen to present a 3/4 -wave- sections of aluminum TV mast, plus one
length vertical for low angle radiation at five -foot section cut to the the proper
the highest frequency of operation. Radial length. The mast sections are assembled and
wires are used for the 10 -, 15,, and 20- self- tapping sheet -metal screws are run
through each joint to make a good electrical 1/2" ALUM TUBING

connection. The radiator and base coil are
attached to sturdy ceramic "beehive" in-
sulators, using strips of aluminum bent to 15-MEYER TRAP
form clamps to encircle the tubing. The
insulators are mounted to a vertical section 3/4" ALUM. TUBING
of "two -by- four" lumber bolted to the 12 10"
frame of the building. If securely mounted, 1O -METER TRAP
no guy wires are required for the vertical 10' 2"

radiator.
The antenna is resonated to the center
11/4" ALUM. TUBING 6'5'
of each operative band with the aid of a
SWR meter placed in the 52 -ohm feedline.
The taps are adjusted as indicated in the
chart and sufficient power is applied to the
antenna to cause a reading on the SWR :RADIAL SYSTEM AS SHOWN
IN FIGURE 2e.
meter. The number of active turns in the
coil and the feedline tap are varied a turn
at a time until proper transmitter loading is
52-OHM COAX TO TRANSMITTER
Figure 29
22-FOOT VERTICAL MADE FROM
ALUMINUM TV MAST SECTIONS TRIBAND TRAP VERTICAL ANTENNA
Parallel -tuned trap assemblies are used in
this vertical antenna designed for 20 -, 15 -,
and 10 -meter operation. The radial system of
r BOLT JOINT
figure 28 is used. Automatic trap action
electrically switches antenna for proper op-
eration on each band.
INSULATORS (4 RED'D) achieved with a reasonably low value of

SWR on the transmission line (below 1.5 /1
ALUMINUM
STRAPS 2X4 UPRIGHT or so at the center frequency in each band).
The trap technique described in the Di-
rective Antennas chapter can be used for a
COIL -F. three -band vertical antenna as shown in
FOUR RADIAL ASSEMBLIES
ATTACH TO POINT A.
figure 29. This antenna is designed for
TYPICAL RADIAL ASSEMBLY operation on 10, 15, and 20 meters and uses
-WIRE ROroR CABLE
a separate radial system for each band. No
adjustments need be made to the antenna
n'e'
when changing frequency from one band to
52-OHM COAX TO 17'6' another. Substitution of a ground connection
TRANSMITTER
BAND 80 40 20 15 TAPS MEASURED FROM
for the radials is not recommended because
COAX TAP 7 5 3 2 GROUND END OF CO /L .
COIL NOT USED ON
of the high ground loss normally encoun-
ANTENNA TAP 2 12 e 3 70 METERS. tered at these frequencies. Typical trap con-
Figure 28
struction is discussed in the reference chap-
ter, and the vertical radiator is built of
"ALL- BAND" VERTICAL ANTENNA sections of aluminum tubing, as described
Base -loaded whip and multiple radial system
earlier.
may be used on all bands from 80 through Each trap is built and grid- dipped to the
10 meters. Loading -coil taps are adjusted for
lowest SWR on each band. The SWR on 10 proper frequency before it is placed in the
meters may be improved by placing a 250 -pf radiator assembly. The 10 -meter trap is
capacitor in series with the feedline connec-
tion to the base of the antenna and adjusting self -resonant at about 27.9 MHz and the
the capacitor for minimum SWR. Coil is 40
turns, 2" in diameter, 4" long (Air -Dux 1610). 15 -meter trap is self- resonant at about 20.8
MHz. Once resonated, the traps need no DUO-BAND DOUBLET

further adjustment and do not enter into --DI DI --, L
later adjustments made to the antenna. The rraol raor
complete antenna is resonated to each ama-
504
teur band by placing a single -turn coil FE EDFOINT
between the base of the vertical radiator and
the radial connection and coupling the grid - BANDS Di D2 L(uN) C(PF) F R
dip oscillator to the coil. The coaxial line 80-40 32' 0^ 22' 0 6.2 60 6.95
is removed for this test. The lower section
40-20 16'6" 10'6 .7 25 13.6
of the vertical antenna is adjusted in length
20-15 10'5. 3' 71/2 2.9 20 20.7
for 10 -meter resonance at about 28.7 MHz,
followed by adjustment of the center section 15-10 6' 0 1' I P' 1.65 20 27.6
for resonance at 21.2 MHz. The last ad-
justment is to the top section for resonance
at about 14.2 MHz. TRI -BAND DOUBLET
It must be remembered that trap, or other D34 L, 402 -L2 D1 DI ."L2 7D2 -LI D5"
multifrequency antennas are capable of ra-
diating harmonics of the transmitter that CI C2 C2 CI
50 A
may be coupled to them via the transmission FEED POINT
line. It is well to check for harmonic radi-
ation with a nearby radio amateur. If such BAND Di D2 D5 LI(uN) C1(PF) L2(u1.) C2(PF)
harmonics are noted, an antenna tuner sim- 20-15-10 6" 011 1'10. 2' 9 2.9 20 I.65 20
ilar to the one described later in this chapter
should be added to the installation to reduce
unwanted harmonics to a minimum. Figure 30
MULTIBAND TRAP DOUBLETS

The Trap The trap principle discussed in
Dipole Chapter 22 may be applied to Trap doublet dimensions for duoband and
triband antennas. Traps are assembled in
dipoles as well as to vertical an- the no shown in figure 31, and antenna
tennas. Shown in figure 30 are designs for dimensions are based on an over -all trap
length of two inches. Highest -band resonant
trap dipoles for various amateur bands. For frequency many be varied by changing di-
portable or Field Day use, the antennas may mension D,. Lower band is also affected and
be fed directly with either 50- or 72 -ohm dimension D, must be adjusted to compensate
for change in D,. Seri of adjustment,
coaxial line or 72 -ohm TV -type ribbon line. then, is D,, D,, and D,. Dimensions shown are
For fixed station use, insertion of a balun for center -of-band resonance. Parallel -tuned
traps are adjusted to trap frequency (fe) out-
between the antenna and the coaxial trans- side low -frequency end of band. Trap doublet
mission line is recommended. A 20- and is preferably fed with balun and S0 -ohm
15 -meter trap is shown in figure 31. It transmission line.
is designed to be left unprotected and is
water -resistant. If desired, it may be cov-
ered with a plastic "overcoat" made from 300 kHz; 20 meters, 350 kHz. In addition,
a section of a flexible squeeze bottle, such as the antenna may be operated over the lower
bleach or laundry soap containers. 1 MHz of the 10 -meter band with an SWR
Operational bandwidth on the lower -fre- figure of less than 1.5 /1.
quency band is somewhat less than that of Data is also given in figure 30 for a tri-
a comparable dipole, since a portion of the band doublet covering the 20 -, 15 -, and
antenna is wound up in the trap element 10 -meter amateur bands. Operational band-
and does not radiate. Typical bandwidth for width is sufficient to cover all the included
an 80- and 40 -meter dipole, as measured bands with a maximum SWR figure at the
between the 2/1 SWR points on the trans- band edges of less than 2/1 on the trans-
mission line is: 80 meters, 180 kHz; 40 mission line. As with any antenna configu-
meters, 250 kHz. ration, bandwidth and minimum SWR in-
Operational bandwidth of the 40- and dication are a function of the height of the
20 -meter antenna is typically: 40 meters, antenna above the ground.
HANDBOOK Matching Nonresonant Lines 493
MATCHING SECTION
NON{1E SONANT
INC
Figure 32
THE DELTA -MATCHED DIPOLE ANTENNA
Figure 31 The dimensions for the portions of the an-
tenna are given in the text.
TRAP CONSTRUCTION
Fifteen -meter trap is shown here. Trap is
designed for power level of 500 watts, PEP. Standing Waves As was discussed earlier,
Trap is built around strain insulator which
removes pull of antenna from coil and ca- standing waves on the an-
pacitor. Capacitor is Centrolab 853A -20Z (20 pf tenna transmission line, in the transmitting
and coil is 1012 turns a 16, 1" diameter and 2"
long (8 turns per inch!, Air -Dux 808T. Trap case, are a result of reflection from the point
is about 2" long with 11 2" leads. Before place- where the feed line joins the antenna system.
ment in the antenna, it is grid- dipped to 20.7 The magnitude of the standing waves is
MHz on the bench and adjusted to frequency
by removal or addition of a fraction of a turn. determined by the degree of mismatch be-
Traps for other bands are constructed in sim- tween the characteristic impedance of the
ilar manner. For 2 kW PEP level, coil should
be * 12 wire, about 2" diameter, and capacitor transmission line and the input impedance of
should be Centrolab type 8505. the antenna system. When the feed -point
impedance of the antenna is resistive and of
the same value as the characteristic imped-
ance of the feed line, standing waves will
21 -8 Matching not exist on the feeder. It may be well to
Nonresonant Lines repeat at this time that there is no adjust-
ment which can be made at the transmitter
to the Antenna end of the feed line which will change the
magnitude of the standing waves on the
While ribbon or tubular molded 300 -ohm antenna transmission line.
line is often used in vhf antenna installa-
tions, coaxial line is universally used in h -f Delta- Matched The delta -type matched -
antenna systems and also into the lower por- Antenna System impedance antenna system
tion of the vhf spectrum. Open -wire lines is shown in figure 32. The
are occasionally used for portable installa- impedance of the transmission line is trans-
tions or for fixed antenna arrays, but even formed gradually into a higher value by
these are usually matched to a coaxial trans- the fanned -out Y portion of the feeders, and
mission line for ultimate connection to the the Y portion is tapped on the antenna at
transmitting equipment. points where the Y portion is a compromise
These transmission systems generally re- between the impedance at the antenna and
quire some sort of matching device to make the impedance of the unfanned portion of
an efficient transition from the character- the line.
istic impedance of the line to the radiation The constants of the system are rather
resistance value of the antenna, otherwise critical, and the antenna must resonate at
severe standing waves can occur on the the operating frequency in order to mini-
transmission line system. mize standing waves on the line. Some slight
readjustment of the taps on the antenna is

desirable, if appreciable standing waves per-
sist in appearing on the line.
The constants for a doublet are deter-
mined by the following formulas:
-TWiN- I
467.4
T-TOI
CONDUCTOR, IINCCD I.
OR
TO I]
Lfeel =
FnIH.
175 ;N LENGTH
Dferl =
F,fH.
147.6
LfrII = DRIVEN ELEMENT
F,IHz
SOO -SOD
where, ONU rEEDER3
L is antenna length,
D is the distance in front each end at R--
Ns
which the Y taps on, O

E is the height of the Y section.
RESONATING
CAPACITOR
JI T MATCNING SECTION
Since these constants are correct only for

a 600 -ohm transmission line, the spacing S
of the line must be approximately 75 times
the diameter of the wire used in the trans- Figure 33
mission line. For No. 14 wire, the spacing FOLDED -ELEMENT MATCHING SYSTEMS
will be slightly less than 5 inches. This Drawing A above shows a half -wave made up
system should never be used on either its of two parallel wires. If one of the wires is
broken as in B and the feeder connected, the
even or odd harmonics, as entirely different feed -point impedance is multiplied by four;
constants are required when more than a such an antenna is commonly called a
single half wavelength appears on the radi- "folded doublet." The feed -point impedance
for a simple half -wave doublet fed in this
ating portion of the system. manner is approximately 300 ohms, depend-
ing on antenna height. Drawing C shows how
Multiwire Doublets When a doublet antenna the feed -point impedance can be multiplied
by a factor greater than four by making the
or the driven element in half of the element that is broken smaller
an array consists of more than one wire or in diameter than the unbroken half. An ex-
tubing conductor the radiation resistance of tension of the principles of B and C is the
arrangement shown at D where the section
the antenna or array is increased slightly as into which the feeders are connected is
a result of the increase in the effective diam- considerably shorter than the driven element.
eter of the element. Further, if one wire of This system is most convenient when the
driven element is too long (such as for a
such a radiator is split, as shown in figure 28- or 14-MHz array) for a convenient me-
33, the effective feed-point resistance of the chanical arrangement of the system shown
antenna or array will be increased by a fac- at C.
tor of N' where N is equal to the number
of conductors, all in parallel, of the same impedance is increased by a factor of 16,
diameter in the array. Thus if there are two etc. In certain cases when feeding a para-
conductors of the same diameter in the sitic array it is desirable to have an imped-
driven element or the antenna the feed -point ance step up different from the value of 4:1
resistance will be multiplied by 2 -, or 4. If obtained with two elements of the same
the antenna has a radiation resistance of 75 diameter and 9:1 with three elements of the
ohms its feed -point resistance will be 300 same diameter. Intermediate values of im-
ohms. This is the case of the conventional pedance step up may be obtained by using
folded dipole as shown in figure 33B. two elements of different diameter for the
If three wires are used in the driven complete driven element as shown in figure
radiator the feed -point resistance is increased 33C. If the conductor that is broken for
by a factor of 9; if four wires are used the the feeder is of smaller diameter than the
DRIVEN ELEMENT The Gamma Match An unbalanced version

of the T -match may be
used to feed a dipole from an unbalanced
MOVEABLE CLAMP
GAMMA ROD
coaxial line. Such a device is called a Gam-
RESONATING CAPACITOR ma match, and is illustrated in figure 34.
!O -TO -OHM COAXIAL FEED LINE The length of the Gamma rod and the
spacing of it from the dipole determine the
impedance level at the transmission line end
of the rod. The series capacitor is used to
Figure 34 tune out the reactance introduced into the
system by the Gamma rod. The adjustment
THE GAMMA MATCH FOR CONNECTING
of the Gamma match is discussed in the
AN UNBALANCED COAXIAL LINE TO A chapter covering rotary beam antennas.
BALANCED DRIVEN ELEMENT
Matching Stubs By connecting a resonant
other conductor of the radiator, the imped- section of transmission line
ance step up will be greater than 4:1. On (called a matching stub) to either a voltage
the other hand if the larger of the two ele- or current loop and attaching parallel -wire
ments is broken for the feeder the imped- nonresonant feeders to the resonant stub at
ance step up will be less than 4:1. a suitable voltage (impedance) point, stand-
ing waves on the line may be virtually elim-
The "T" Match A method of matching a inated. The stub is made to serve as an
balanced low -impedance autotransformer. Stubs are particularly
transmission line to the driven element of adapted to matching an open line to certain
a parasitic array is the T match illustrated directional arrays, as will be described later.
in figure 33D. This method is an adaptation
of the multiwire doublet principle which is Voltage Feed When the stub attaches to the
more practical for lower -frequency para- antenna at a voltage loop, the
sitic arrays such as those for use on the 14- stub should be a quarter wavelength long
and 28 -MHz bands. In the system a section electrically, and be shorted at the bottom
of tubing of approximately one -quarter the end. The stub can be resonated by sliding
diameter of the driven element is spaced the shorting bar up and down before the
about four inches below the driven element nonresonant feeders are attached to the
by means of clamps which hold the T- section stub, the antenna being shock -excited from
mechanically and which make electrical con- a separate radiator during the process. Slight
nection to the driven element. The length errors in the length of the radiator can be
of the T- section is normally between 15 and compensated for by adjustment of the stub
30 inches each side of the center of the if both sides of the stub are connected to
dipole for transmission lines of 300 to 600 the radiator in a symmetrical manner. Where
ohms impedance, assuming 28 -MHz oper- only one side of the stub connects to the
ation. In series with each leg of the T -sec- radiating system, as in the zepp and in cer-
tion and the transmission line is a series tain antenna arrays, the radiator length must
resonating capacitor. These two capacitors be exactly right in order to prevent exces-
tune out the reactance of the T- section. If sive unbalance in the untuned line.
they are not used, the T- section will detune
the dipole when the T- section is attached Current Feed When a stub is used to current -
to it. The two capacitors may be ganged feed a radiator, the stub should
together, and once adjusted for minimum either be left open at the bottom end instead
detuning action, they may be locked. A of shorted, or else made a half wale long.
suitable housing should be devised to protect The open stub should be resonated in the
these capacitors from the weather. Addi- same manner as the shorted stub before at-
tional information on the adjustment of the taching the transmission line; however, in
T -match is given in the chapter covering this case, it is necessary to prune the stub
rotary beam antennas. to resonance, as there is no shorting bar.
Sometimes it is handy to have a stub

hang from the radiator to a point that can
be reached from the ground, in order to
facilitate adjustment of the position of the
transmission -line attachment. For this rea-
son, a quarter -wave stub is sometimes made
three -quarters wavelength long at the higher
frequencies, in order to bring the bottom
SNORTING DAR
nearer the ground. Operation with any odd
number of quarter waves is the same as for
a quarter -wave stub.
Stub Length Current -Fed Voltage -Fed

Electrical) Radiator Radiator
1/4-3/4-11/4-etc. Open Shorted
wavelengths Stub Stub
1/2-1-11/2-2-etc. Shorted Open
wavelengths Stub Stub
Any number of half waves can be added

to either a quarter -wave stub or a half -wave
stub without disturbing the operation,
though losses and frequency sensitivity will
be lowest if the shortest usable stub is em-
ployed (see chart).
Linear R -F A resonant quarter -wave line

Transformers has the unusual property of
acting much as a transform-
er. Let us take, for example, section con-
a FEEDER TAPS NEAR
ENO OF STUB
sisting of No. 12 wire spaced 6 inches,
which happens to have a surge impedance of NON RESONANT
FEEDERS STUB
600 ohms. Let the far end be terminated
with a pure resistance, and let the near end

be fed with radio- frequency energy at the N
frequency for which the line is a quarter

elength long. If an impedance measuring
wavelength
set is used to measure the impedance at the
near end while the impedance at the far end v .o.
is varied, an interesting relationship between k STUB
the 600 -ohm characteristic surge impedance NONRESONANi 511011TING BAR
of this particular quarter -wave matching FEEDER
line, and the impedance at the ends will be

discovered. Figure 35
When the impedance at the far end of MATCHING STUB APPLICATIONS
the line is the same as the characteristic
An end-fed half -wave antenna with a quar-
surge impedance of the line itself (600 ter -wave shorted stub is shown at A. B shows
ohms), the impedance measured at the near the use of a half -wove shorted stub to feed
end of the quarter -wave line will also be a relatively low impedance point such as the
center of the driven element of a parasitic
found to be 600 ohms. array, or the center of a half -wave dipole.
Under these conditions, the line would The use of an open -ended quarter -wave stub
not have any standing waves on it, since to feed a low impedance is illustrated at
C. D shows the tional use of a shorted
it is terminated in its characteristic imped- quarter -wave stub to voltage -feed two half -
ance. Now, let the resistance at the far end wave antennas with a 180 phase diffe
of the line be doubled, or changed to 1200 Q- Section The standard form of Q-

ohms. The impedance measured at the near Feed System section feed to a doublet is
end of the line will be found to have been shown in figure 36. An im-
cut in half (to 300 ohms). If the resistance pedance match is obtained by utilizing a
at the far end is made half the original matching section, the surge impedance of
value of 600 ohms or 300 ohms, the imped- which is the geometric mean between the
ance at the near end doubles the original transmission -line surge impedance and the
value of 600 ohms, and becomes 1200 ohms. radiation resistance of the radiator. A suffi-
As one resistance goes up, the other goes ciently good match usually can be obtained
down proportionately. by either designing or adjusting the match-
It will always be found that the character- ing section for a dipole to have a surge
istic surge impedance of the quarter -wave impedance that is the geometric mean be-
matching line is the geometric mean between the line impedance and 72 ohms, the
tween the impedance at both ends. This latter being the theoretical radiation resist-
relationship is shown by the following formance of a half -wave doublet either infi-
ula: nitely high or a half wave above a perfect
ground.
Z>IS = Zn 21. Though the radiation resistance may de-
part somewhat from 72 ohms under actual
where, conditions, satisfactory results will be ob-
ZMS equals impedance of matching section, tained with this assumed value, so long as
Z. equals antenna resistance, the dipole radiator is more than a quarter
Z1, equals line impedance. wave above effective earth, and reasonably
in the clear.
A Q- matched system can be adjusted
Quarter -Wave The impedance inverting precisely, if desired, by constructing a
Matching characteristic of a quarter -
Transformers wave section of transmission L FEET {
FMr
line is widely used by mak-
ing such a section of line act as a quarter- zl
ware transformer. The quarter -wave trans-

former may be used in a wide number of
applications wherever a transformer is re-
quired to match two impedances whose
geometric mean is somewhere between per-
L _ 234
FlyNrl
2- TUBING +
zo= z
Q- MATCHING SECTION
haps 25 and 750 ohms when transmission -

line sections can be used. Paralleled coaxial
lines may be used to obtain the lowest im- 2
pedance mentioned, and open -wire lines

composed of small conductors spaced a
moderate distance may be used to obtain the
higher impedance. A short list of imped-
ances, which may be matched by quarter - UNTUNED LINE
ANY LENGTH
wave sections of transmission line having
Figure 36
specified impedances, follows.
HALF -WAVE RADIATOR FED
BY "Q BARS"
F
load or Ant The Q matching section is simply a quarter -
Impedance 4. 300 480 600 Impedance wave transformer whose impedance is equal
to the geometric mean between the imped-
20 77 98 110 Quarter - ance at the center of the antenna and the
30 95 120 134 Wave impedance of the transmission line to be
used to food the bottom of the transformer.
50 110 139 155 Transformer The transformer may be made up of parallel
75 150 190 212 Impedance tubing, "ribbon" line, or any other type of
transmission lino which has the co t value
100 173 220 245 of impedance.
matching section to the calculated dimen- Other system parameters for different
sions with provision for varying the spacing output and input impedances may be cal-
of the Q- section conductors slightly, after culated from the following:
the untuned line has been checked for stand-
ing waves. N Z,,,,
r = Z,,,
Center to Impedance Impedance where,
Center in Ohms in Ohms
Spacing for /2" for 1/4" N is the number of sections. In the above
in Inches Diameters Diameters case:
1.0 170 250 3 Z;
1.25 188 277
1.5 207 298 r = Z,
1.75 225 318
2.0 248 335 Impedance between sections, as Z__;;, is r
times the preceding section. Z__;, = r X
PARALLEL TUBING SURGE IMPEDANCE Z1, and Z:,_, = r X Z,_,.
FOR MATCHING SECTIONS Midfrequency (nt):
+
in - F,
2
F_
The Collins The advantages of unbal-

For 40 -20 -10 meters = 7 +30 - 18.5 MHz
Transmission Line anced output networks for
Matching System transmitters are numer-
ous; however this output and one- quarter wavelength = 12 feet.
system becomes awkward when it is desired 14 54
to feed an antenna system utilizing a bal- For 20 -10 -6 meters = 34 MHz
2
anced input. For some time the Collins
Radio Co. has been using a balun and ta- and one- quarter wavelength = 5.5 feet.
pered -line system for matching a coaxial -
output transmitter to an open -wire balanced The impedance of the sections arc:
transmission line. Illustrated in figure 37
is one type of matching system which is
Z, = Z,XZ_,
proving satisfactory over a 4:1 frequency Z:, _ \/ Z. :, X Z:,_,
range. Z, is the transmitter end of the sys- Z., = \% Z,- X Z:, 4
tem and may be any length of 52 -ohm Z = %XZ,.

coaxial cable. Z, is one -quarter wavelength
long at the midfrequency of the range to be Generally, the larger the number of taper
covered and is made of 75 -ohm coaxial sections the greater will be the bandwidth
cable. ZA is a .quarter- wavelength shorted of the system.
section of cable at the midfrequency. Z
(ZA and Z2) forms a 200 -ohm quarter -
wave section. The ZA section is formed of a
ZO Z3 Z4
conductor of the same diameter as Z,. The ZS
difference in length between ZA and. Z, is Zz
Zs=30011
accounted for by the fact that Z_ is a co- Z3-12311 Z4=2240. (ANYLENGTM)
axial conductor with a solid dielectric,

INNER t
OUTER CONDUCTORS
whereas the dielectric for Zo is air. Z, is SHORTED AT EACH ENO
one -quarter wavelength long at the mid-

frequency and has an impedance of 123 Figure 37
ohms. Z, is one -quarter wavelength long at COLLINS TRANSMISSION -LINE
the midfrequency and has an impedance of MATCHING SYSTEM
224 ohms. Z; is the balanced line to be
A wide -band system for matching a 52 -ohm
matched (in this case 300 ohms) and may coaxial line to a balanced 300 -ohm line over
be any length. a 4:1 free y range.
HANDBOOK Antenna Supports 499
The Inducto -Match The driven element of a published by Radio Publications, Inc., Wil-
beam antenna or a sim- ton, Conn.
ple dipole antenna may form a portion of a
network whose input impedance is close to
50 ohms over a small frequency range (fig- 21 -9 Antenna
ure 38). It is necessary that the radiation Supports
resistance of the element be less than the
impedance of the tranmission line, and this The foregoing portion of this chapter has
condition is met under most circumstances. been concerned primarily with the electrical
The radiation resistance of the antenna characteristics and considerations of anten-
element is made to appear as a capacitive nas. Some of the physical aspects and me-
reactance at the driving point by shortening chanical problems incident to the actual
the element past the normal resonant length. erection of antennas and arrays will be dis-
The inductive portion of the network takes cussed in the following section.
the form of a hairpin or coil placed across Up to 30 feet, there is little point in using
the terminals of the driven element. The mast -type antenna supports unless guy wires
L/C ratio of the combination determines the either must be eliminated or kept to a mini-
transformation ratio of the network when mum. While a little more difficult to erect,
the LC product is resonant at the center because of their floppy nature, fabricated
frequency of antenna operation. Inductance wood poles of the type to be described will
of the hairpin or coil is best determined by be just as satisfactory as more rigid types,
experiment. Measurements made at 14 MHz, provided many guy wires are used.
point to a shortening effect of about six Rather expensive when purchased through
inches in the over -all length of the driven the regular channels, 40- and 50-foot tele-
element, and an inductance of about 0.5 p.H phone poles sometimes can be obtained quite
in the hairpin. Complete information on reasonably. In the latter case, they are hard
this compact and efficient matching system to beat, inasmuch as they require no guying
is given in the Beam Antenna Handbook, if set in the ground six feet (standard
depth), and the resultant pull in any lateral
- LESS THAN 0/2 direction is not in excess of a hundred
FEEDPOI NT pounds or so.
For heights of 80 to 100 feet, either three-
or four -sided lattice -type masts are most
+HAIRPIN
OR COIL practical. They can be made self- support-
Na ing, but a few guys will enable one to use a
smaller cross section without danger from
1.00
high winds. The torque exerted on the base
of a high self- supporting mast is terrific
0.75 during a strong wind.
0.50
The "A-Frame" Figures 39A and 39B show
0.25
Most the standard method of
10 15 20 25 30 35 00 construction of the A-
RADIATION RESISTANCE f rame type of mast. This type of mast is
(OHMS)
quite frequently used since there is only a
Figure 38 moderate amount of work involved in the
construction of the assembly and since the
THE INDUCTO-MATCH material cost is relatively small. The three
Dipole element acts as matching trans former pieces of selected 2 by 2 are first set up on
by placing inductor at the center and short- three sawhorses or boxes and the holes
ening element to provide capacitive reactance drilled for the three 1/4-inch bolts through
across feedpoint. Typical three -element Yogi
antenna has feedpoint impedance of about 20 the center of the assembly. Then the base
ohms and calls for 0.5 AN inductor. Impedance legs are spread out to about 6 feet and the
match is made by varying inductor and length
of dipole. bottom braces installed. Finally the upper
2x4
Figure 39
TWO SIMPLE WOOD MASTS

Shown at A is the method of as-
sembly, and at C is the completed
structure, of the c tional "A-
frame" antenna mast. At C is
shown a structure which is heavier 2x2
.
C11oSSICCCS
but more stable than the A -frame
for heights above about 40 feet. 1*- e-45 GROUND LEVEL
,.:i.o
i J
CONCRCT!' S'
d,
a;`x
braces and the cross pieces are installed and widely available at a moderate price for use
the assembly given several coats of good - in supporting television antenna arrays.
quality paint as a protection against weath- These masts usually consist of several 10-
ering. foot lengths of electrical metal tubing
Figure 39C shows another common type (EMT) of sizes such that the sections will
of mast which is made up of sections of 2 telescope. The 30- and 40 -foot lengths are
X 4 placed end -to -end with stiffening sec- well suited as masts for supporting antennas
tions of 1 by 6 bolted to the edge of the 2 and arrays of the type used on the amateur
by 4 section. Both types of mast will require bands. The masts are constructed in such a
a set of top guys and another set of guys manner that the bottom 10 -foot length may
about one -third of the way down from the be guyed permanently before the other sec-
top. Two guys spaced about 90 to 100 de- tions are raised. Then the upper sections
grees and pulling against the load of the may be extended, beginning with the top-
antenna will normally be adequate for the mast section, until the mast is at full length
top guys. Three guys are usually used at (provided a strong wind is not blowing)
the lower level, with one directly behind following which all the guys may be an-
the load of the antenna and two more chored. It is important that there be no load
spiced 120 degrees from the rear guy. on the top of the mast when the "vertical"
Raising the mast is made much easier if a raising method is to be employed.
gin pole about 20 feet high is installed about
30 or 40 feet to the rear of the direction Guy Wires Guy wires should never be pulled
in which the antenna is to be raised. A line taut; a small amount of slack is
from a pulley on the top of the gin pole is desirable. Galvanized wire, somewhat heavier
then run to the top of the pole to be raised. than seems sufficient for the job, should be
The gin pole comes into play when the used. The heavier wire is a little harder to
center of the mast has been raised 10 to 20 handle, but costs only a little more and
feet above the ground and an additional ele- takes longer to rust through. Care should be
vated pull is required to keep the top of the
taken to make sure that no kinks exist when
mast coming up as the center is raised fur-
the pole or tower is ready for erection, as
ther above ground.
the wire will be greatly weakened at such
Using TV Masts Steel tubing masts of the points if a kink is pulled tight, even if it
telescoping variety are is later straightened.
HANDBOOK Antenna Supports 501
If "dead .men" are used for the guy wire If a tree is utilized for support, provision
terminations, the wire or rod reaching from should be made for keeping the antenna taut
the dead men to the surface should be of without submitting it to the possibility of
nonrusting material, such as brass, or given being severed during a heavy wind. This can
a heavy coating of asphalt or other protec- be done by the simple expedient of using a
tive substance to prevent destructive action pulley and halyard, with weights attached to
by the damp soil. Galvanized iron wire will the lower end of the halyard to keep the
last only a short time when buried in moist antenna taut. Only enough weight to avoid
soil. excessive sag in the antenna should be tied
Only strain -type (compression) insulators to the halyard, as the continual swaying of
should be used for guy wires. Regular ones the tree submits the pulley and halyard to
might be sufficiently strong for the job, but considerable wear.
it is not worth taking chances, and egg -type
strain halyard insulators are no more expen-
sive. Pointing The life of a wood mast or pole
Only a brass or bronze pulley should be can be increased several hundred
used for the halyard, as a high pole with a percent by protecting it from the elements
rusted pulley is truly a sad affair. The bear- with a coat or two of paint. And, of course,
ing of the pulley should be given a few the appearance is greatly enhanced. The
drops of heavy machine oil before the pole wood should first be given a primer coat of
or tower is raised. The halyard itself should flit white outside house paint, which can be
be of good material, preferably waterproofed. thinned down a bit to advantage with sec-
Hemp rope of good quality is better than ond -grade linseed oil. For the second coat,
window sash cord from several standpoints, which should not be applied until the first
and is less expensive. Soaking it thoroughly is thoroughly dry, aluyninum paint is not
in engine oil of medium viscosity, and then only the best from a preservative standpoint,
wiping it off with a rag, will not only ex- but looks very well. This type of paint,
tend its life but minimize shrinkage in wet when purchased in quantities, is consider-
weather. Because of the difficulty of re- ably cheaper than might be gathered from
placing a broken halyard it is a good idea the price asked for quarter -pint cans.
to replace it periodically, without waiting Portions of posts or poles below the sur-
for it to show excessive deterioration. face of the soil can be protected from ter-
It is an excellent idea to tie both ends of mites and moisture by painting with cresote.
the halyard line together in the manner of While not so strong initially, redwood will
a flag -pole line. Then the antenna is tied deteriorate much more slowly when buried
onto the place where the two ends of the than will the white woods, such as pine.
halyard are joined. This procedure of mak-
ing the halyard into a loop prevents losing Antenna Wire The antenna or array itself
the top end of the halyard should the an- presents no special problem.
tenna break near the end, and it also pre- A few considerations should be borne in
vents losing the halyard completely should mind, however, For instance, soft -drawn
the end of the halyard carelessly be allowed copper should not be used, as even a short
to go free and be pulled through the pulley span will stretch several percent after whip-
at the top of the mast by the antenna load. ping around in the wind a few weeks, thus
A somewhat longer piece of line is required affecting the resonant frequency. Enameled
but the insurance is well worth the cost of copper wire, as ordinarily available at radio
the additional length of rope. stores, is usually soft -drawn, but by tying
one end to some object such as a telephone
Trees as Often a tall tree can be used to pole and the other to the frame of an auto, a
Supports support one end of an antenna, few husky tugs can be given and the wire,
but one should not attempt to at- after stretching a bit, is equivalent to hard -
tach anything to the top, as the swaying of drawn.
the top of the tree during a heavy wind will Where a long span of wire is required,
complicate matters. or where heavy insulators in the center of
the span result in considerable tension, cop- near an airport, and are contemplating a
per -clad steel wire is somewhat better than tall pole, it is best to investigate possible
hard -drawn copper. It is a bit more expen- regulations and ordinances pertaining to
sive, though the cost is far from prohibitive. towers in the district, before starting con-
The use of such wire, in conjunction with struction.
strain insulators is advisable where the
antenna would endanger persons or property 21 -10 Coupling to the
should it break.
For transmission lines and tuning stubs
Antenna System
steel -core or hard -drawn wire will prove
awkward to handle, and soft -drawn copper When coupling an antenna feed system to
should, therefore, be used. If the line is long, a transmitter the most important considera-
the strain can be eased by supporting it at tions are as follows: (1) means should be
several points. provided for varying the load on the ampli-
More important from an electrical stand- fier; (2) the load presented to the final
point than the actual size of wire used is amplifier should be resistive (nonreactive)
the soldering of joints, especially at current in character; and (3) means should be pro-
loops in an antenna of low radiation resist- vided to reduce harmonic coupling between
ance. In fact, it is good practice to solder the final amplifier plate tank circuit and
all joints, thus ensuring quiet operation when the antenna or antenna transmission line to
the antenna is used for receiving. an extremely low value.
Insulation A question that often arises is The Transmitter- The problem of coupling
that of insulation. It depends, of Loading Problem the power output of a high -
course, on the r -f voltage at the point at frequency or vhf trans-
which the insulator is placed. The r -f volt- mitter to the radiating portion of the an-
age, in turn, depends on the distance from a tenna system has been complicated by the
current node, and the radiation resistance virtual necessity for eliminating interference
of the antenna. Radiators having low radia- to TV reception. However, the TVI- elimi-
tion resistance have very high voltage at the nation portion of the problem may always
voltage loops; consequently, better than be accomplished by adequate shielding of the
usual insulation is advisable at those points. transmitter, by filtering of the control and
Open -wire lines operated as nonresonant power leads which enter the transmitter
lines have little voltage across them; hence enclosure, and by the inclusion of a har-
the most inexpensive ceramic types are suffi- monic- attenuating filter between the output
ciently good electrically. With tuned lines, of the transmitter and the antenna system.
the voltage depends on the amplitude of the Although TVI may be eliminated through
standing waves. If they are very great, the inclusion of a filter between the output of a
voltage will reach high values at the voltage shielded transmitter and the antenna system,
loops, and the best spacers available are the fact that such a filter should be included
none too good. At the current loops the in the link between transmitter and antenna
voltage is quite low, and almost anything makes it necessary that the transmitter-
will suffice. loading problem be re- evaluated in terms of
When insulators are subject to very high the necessity for inclusion of such a filter.
r -f voltages, they should be cleaned occa- Harmonic- attenuating filters must be op-
sionally if in the vicinity of sea water or erated at an impedance level which is close
smoke. Salt scum and soot are not readily to their design value; therefore they must
dislodged by rain, and when the coating be- operate into a resistive termination substan-
comes heavy enough, the efficiency of the tially equal to the characteristic impedance
insulators is greatly impaired. of the filter. If such filters are operated into
If a very pretentious installation is to be an impedance which is not resistive and ap-
made, it is wise to check up on both Under- proximately equal to their characteristic
writer's rules and local ordinances which impedance: (1) the capacitors used in the
might be applicable. If you live anywhere filter sections will be subjected to high peak
HANDBOOK Coupling to The Antenna 503
voltages and may be damaged, (2) the har- The arrangement of figure 41 merely adds
monic- attenuating properties of the filter an antenna coupler between the output of
will be decreased, and (3) the impedance at the harmonic attenuating filter and the an-
the input end of the filter will be different tenna transmission line. The antenna coupler
from that seen by the filter at the load end will have some harmonic -attenuating action,
(except in the case of the half -wave type but its main function is to transform the
of filter). It is therefore important that impedance at the station end of the antenna
the filter be included in the transmitter -to- transmission line to the nominal value of
antenna circuit at a point where the im- the harmonic filter. Hence the arrangement
pedance is close to the nominal value of the of figure 41 is more general than the figure
filter, and at a point where this impedance is 40 system, since the inclusion of the anten-
likely to remain fairly constant with varia- na coupler allows the system to feed an
tions in frequency. antenna transmission line of any reasonable
Block Diagrams of impedance value, and also without regard to
There are two basic
Transmitter -to- Antenna the standing -wave ratio which might exist
arrangements which
on the antenna transmission line. Antenna
Coupling Systems include all the provi-
couplers are discussed in a following section.
sions required in the
transmitter -to- antenna coupling system, and
which permit the harmonic -attenuating fil- Output Coupling It will be noticed by refer-
ter to be placed at a position in the coupling Adjustment ence to both figure 40
system where it can be operated at an im- and figure 41 that a box
pedance level close to its nominal value. labeled Coupling Adjustment is included in
These arrangements are illustrated in block the block diagram. Such an element is nec-
diagram form in figures 40 and 41. essary in the complete system to afford an
The arrangement of figure 40 is recom- adjustment in the value of load impedance
mended for use with a single -band antenna presented to the tubes in the final amplifier
system, such as a dipole or a rotatable array, stage of the transmitter. The impedance at
wherein an impedance matching system is the input terminal of the harmonic filter is
included within or adjacent to the antenna. established by the antenna, through its
The feed line coming down from the anten- matching system and the antenna coupler,
na system should have a characteristic im- if used. In any event the impedance at the
pedance equal to the nominal impedance of
input terminal of the harmonic filter should
the harmonic filter, and the impedance
be very close to the nominal impedance of
matching at the antenna should be such that
the standing -wave ratio on the antenna the filter. Then the Coupling Adjustment
feed line is less than 2 to 1 over the range of provides means for transforming this im-
frequency to be fed to the antenna. pedance value to the correct operating value
The arrangement of figure 40 is more or of load impedance which should be presented
less standard for commercially manufac- to the final amplifier stage.
tured equipment for amateur and commer- There are two common ways for accom-
cial use in the high- frequency and vhf plishing the antenna coupling adjustment,
range. as illustrated in figures 42 and 43. Figure 42
1.1111.1L AT TRANSMITTER AT ANTENNA
I 1
EXCITER COUPLING IMPEDANCE

I
PORTION AMNA R
SYSTEM TRANSMISSION
MATCHING
\T ANTENNA
SYSTEM
LINE
L J
Figure 40
ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM
Tho harmonic suppressing antenna coupling system illustrated above is for use when the
antenna transmission lino has a low standing -wave ratio, and when the characteristic
impedance of the antenna transmission line is the same as the nominal Impedance of the
low -pass harmonic- attenuating Alter.
_PILL 1,2 AT TRANSMITTER AT ANTENNA
EXCITER FINAL COUPLI NG HARMONIC IMPEDANCE

PORTION AMPLIFIER DAUSTMCN TTENUAn
UPLER
COANTENNA
MATCHING SYSTEM
SYSTEM TRANSMISSION AT ANTENNA
L
L - J
Figure 41
ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM

The antenna coupling system illustrated above is for use when the antenna transmission line
does not have the same characteristic impedance as the TVI filter, and when the standing -wave
ratio on the antenna transmission line may or may not be low.
shows the variable -link arrangement often mitter, due to the low Q and low impedance
used in home -constructed equipment, while of the coupling circuit.
the pi- network coupling arrangement is il-
Pi- Network The pi- network coupling sys-
lustrated in figure 43. Either method may be
used, and each has its advantages. Coupling tem offers two advantages: (1)
a mechanical coupling variation
Variable -Link The variable-link method il- is not required to vary the loading of the
Coupling lustrated in figure 42 pro- final amplifier, and (2) the pi- network (if
vides good rejection to sub - used with an operating Q of about 10) of-
harmonics. For greatest bandwidth of oper- fers within itself a harmonic attenuation of
ation of the coupling circuit, the reactance 30 db or more, in addition to the harmonic
of link coil L and the reactance of link attenuation provided by the additional har-
tuning capacitor C should both be between monic attenuating filter. Some commercial
3 and 4 times the nominal load impedance equipment incorporates an L- network in ad-
of the harmonic filter. This is to say that dition to the pi- network, for accomplishing
the inductive reactance of coupling link L the impedance transformation in two steps
should be tuned out or resonated by capaci- to provide additional harmonic attenuation.
tor C, and the operating Q of the LC link
circuit should be between 3 and 4. If L Tuning the Tuning a pi- network
and C are made resonant at the center of Pi- Section Coupler coupling circuit such as
a band, with a link circuit Q of 3 to 4, illustrated in figure 43 is
and coupling adjustment is made by physical accomplished in the following manner: First
adjustment of L with respect to the final place a dummy load on the output terminal
amplifier tank coil, it usually will be possi- of the transmitter. Tune CL to a capacitance
ble to operate over an entire amateur band which is large for the band in use, adding
without change in the coupling system. suitable additional capacitance by switch S
Capacitor C normally may have a low volt- if operation is to be on one of the lower -
age rating, even with a high -power trans- frequency bands. Apply reduced plate volt-
C TO
RECEIVER
ll
SHIELD
TO ANTENNA
l HARMONIC 1 COAX ANT 1
FEEDLINE OR
ATTENUATING CHANGEOVER
FILTER RELAY TO ANTENNA
COUPLER
Figure 42
TUNED-LINK OUTPUT CIRCUIT

Capacitor should be adjusted so as to tune out the inductive reactance of the coupling link,
C
L. Amplifier loading is controlled by varying the coupling between the plate tank of the
Anal amplifier and the antenna link.
HANDBOOK Antenna Couplers 505
COAX TO
RECEIVER
COAXIAL TO r(EDLINE
HARMONIC ANTENNA
ATTENUATING OR ANTENNA
CHANGEOVER
II LTCR RELAY COUPLER
C1 C2
.e
Figure 43
PI- NETWORK ANTENNA COUPLER

The design of pi- is discussed in Chapter Thirteen. The additional output -end
network circuits
shunting capacitors selected by switch S are for use on the lower frequency ranges. Inductor
L may be selected by a tap switch; it may be continuously variable; or plug -in inductors
may be used.
age to the stage and dip to resonance with 21 -11 Antenna Couplers
C,. It may be necessary to vary the induct-
ance in coil L, but in any event, resonance As stated in the previous section, an an-
should be reached with a setting of C, which tenna coupler is not required when the im-
is approximately correct for the desired pedance of the antenna transmission line is
value of operating Q of the pi- network. the same as the nominal impedance of the
Next, couple the load to the amplifier harmonic filter, and the antenna feed line is
(through the harmonic filter), apply re- being operated with a low standing -wave
duced plate voltage again and dip to reso- ratio. However, there are many cases where
nance with C1. If the plate- current dip with it is desirable to feed a multiband antenna
load is too low (taking into consideration from the output of the harmonic filter,
the reduced plate voltage), decrease the ca- where a tuned line is being used to feed the
pacitance of C_ and again dip to resonance, antenna, or where a long wire without a
repeating the procedure until the correct separate feed line is to be fed from the out-
value of plate current is obtained with full put of the harmonic filter. In such cases an
plate voltage on the stage. There should be antenna coupler is required.
a relatively small change required in the In certain cases when a pi- network is
setting of C, (from the original setting being used at the output of the transmitter,
of C, without load) if the operating Q the addition of an antenna coupler will pro-
of the network is correct and if a large vide sufficient harmonic attenuation. But in
value of impedance transformation is being all normal cases it is prudent to include a
employed-as would be the case when trans- harmonic filter between the output of the
forming from the plate impedance of a transmitter and the antenna coupler.
single -ended output stage down to the S0-
ohm impedance of the usual harmonic filter
and its subsequent load.
Function of on The function of the an-
Antenna Coupler tenna coupler is, basically,
In a pi- network of this type the har-
monic attenuation of the section will be to transform the imped-
adequate when the correct value of C, and ance of the antenna system being used to
L are being used and when the resonant dip the correct value of resistive impedance for
in C, is sharp. If the dip in C, is broad, or if the harmonic filter, and hence for the trans-
the plate current persists in being too high mitter. Thus the antenna coupler may be
with C_ at maximum setting, it means that used to resonate the feeders or the radiating
a greater value of capacitance is required at portion of the antenna system, in addition
C_, assuming that the values of C, and L to its function of impedance transforma-
are correct. tion.
COAX. TO
RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER
U HARMONIC
FILTER
COAX. ANT.
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
L
PARALLEL -WIRE
LINE TO ANTENNA
Figure 44
ALTERNATIVE ANTENNA
COUPLER CIRCUITS
Plug -in coils, one or two variable capacitors
CEPP
of the split -stator variety, and a system of
FEEDERS switches or plugs and jacks may be used in
the antenna coupler to accomplish the feeding
of different types of antennas and antenna
transmission lines from the coaxial input line
from the transmitter or from the antenna
chang relay. Link L should be resonated
with capacitor C at the operating frequency
of the transmitter so that the harmonic filter
will operate into a resistive load impedance
of the co t nominal value.
it is important to remember that there is Several general methods for using the in-
frothing that can be done at the antenna ductively coupled resonant types of antenna
coupler which will eliminate standing waves coupler are illustrated in figure 44. The
on the antenna transmission line. Standing coupling between link coil L and the main
waves are the result of reflection from the tuned circuit need not be variable; in fact
antenna, and the coupler can do nothing it is preferable that the correct link size
about this condition. However, the antenna and placement be determined for the tank
coil which will be used for each band, and
coupler can resonate the feed line (by intro-
then that the link be made a portion of the
ducing a conjugate impedance) in addition plug -in coil. Capacitor C then can be ad-
to providing an impedance transformation. justed to a predetermined value for each
Thus, a resistive impedance of the correct
value can be presented to the harmonic fil-
ter, as in figure 41, regardless of any reason -
COAX TO SINGLE -WIRE
able value of standing -wave ratio on the RECEIVER ANTENNA
antenna transmission line.

HARMONIC COAX ANT.
TRANSMITTER CHANGEOVER
FILTER
Types of All usual types of anten- RELAT
Antenna Couplers na couplers fall into two

classifications: (1) in-
ductively coupled resonant systems as exem-
plified by those shown in figure 41, and (2) Figure 45
conductively coupled pi- network systems PI- NETWORK
such as shown in figure 45. The inductively ANTENNA COUPLER
coupled system is convenient for feeding a
An arrangement such as illustrated above is
balanced line from the coaxial output of ient for feeding an end -fed Hertz
the usual harmonic filter. The pi- network antenna, or a random length of wire for
system is most useful for feeding a length of portable or emergency operation, from the
nominal value of impedance of the harmonic
wire from the output of a transmitter. Alter.
HANDBOOK Single -Wire Antenna Tuner 507
band so that it will resonate with the to the 10 -meter beam and to the 20 -meter
link coil for that band. The reactance of beam would be fed directly from the output
the link coil (and hence the reactance of of the coaxial antenna- changeover relay
the capacitor setting which will resonate through switch S.
the coil) should be about 3 or 4 times the
impedance of the transmission line between
the antenna coupler and the harmonic filter, 21 -12 A Single -Wire
so that the link coupling circuit will have Antenna Tuner
an operating Q of 3 or 4.
The pi- network type of antenna coupler, One of the simplest and least expensive
as shown in figure 45, is useful for certain antennas for transmision and reception is
applications, but is primarily useful in feed- the single -wire, end -fed Hertz antenna.
ing a single -wire antenna from a low- imped- When used over a wide range of frequencies,
ance transmission line. In such an application this type of antenna exhibits a very great
the operating Q of the pi- network may be range of input impedance. At the low -fre-
somewhat lower than that of a pi- network quency end of the spectrum such an anten-
in the plate circuit of the final amplifier of na may present a resistive load of less than
a transmitter, as shown in figure 40. An one ohm to the transmitter, combined with
operating Q of 3 or 4 in such an application a large positive or negative value of react-
will be found to be adequate, since harmonic ance. As the frequency of operation is raised,
attenuation has been accomplished ahead of the resistive load may rise to several thousand
the antenna coupler. ohms (near half -wave resonance) and the
An alternative arrangement shown in reactive component of the load can rapidly
figure 46 utilizes the antenna -coupling tank change from positive to negative values, or
circuit only when feeding the coaxial output vice -versa.
of the transmitter to the open -wire feed To provide indication for tuning the net-
line (or similar multiband antenna) of the work, a radio- frequency bridge (SWR me-
40- and 80 -meter antenna. The coaxial lines ter) is included to indicate the degree of
mismatch (standing -wave ratio) existing
COAX. LINES TO
PARALLEL -WIRE TO
40 801. ANTENNA
TO
RECEIVER 10 M. ANT 201. ANT. at the input to the tuner. All adjustments
to the tuner are made with the purpose of
r
reaching unity standing -wave ratio on the
coaxial feed system between the tuner and
.007 CCRA11 5I
the transmitter.
A Practical A simple antenna tuner for

Antenna Tuner use with transmitters of
T--4
I1S v TO RELAY
COIL I
250 watts power or less
is shown in figures 47 through 49. An SWR-
bridge circuit is used to indicate tuner reso-
nance. The resistive arm of the bridge con-
TO sists of ten 10 -ohm, 1 -watt carbon resistors
TRANSMITTER THROUGH
HARMONIC FILTER connected in parallel to form a 1 -ohm re-
sistor (R1). The other pair of bridge arms
Figure 46
are capacitive rather than resistive. The
ALTERNATIVE COAXIAL ANTENNA bridge detector is a simple r -f voltmeter em-
COUPLER ploying a IN56 crystal diode and a 0 -1 d -c
milliammeter. A sensitivity control is in-
This circuit is recommended for coaxial lines
with low SWR used to feed antenna systems corporated to prevent overloading the meter
such as rotatable beams, and when it is de- when power is first applied to the tuner.
sired to feed open -wire line to some sort of
multiband antenna for the lower -frequency Final adjustments are made with the sensi-
ranges. The tuned circuit of the antenna cou- tivity control at its maximum (clockwise)
pler is operative only when using the open- position. The bridge is balanced when the
wire feed, and then it is in operation both
for transmit and receive. input impedance of the tuner is 52 ohms
508 Antennas and Antenna Watching RADIO
SC O INPUT
FROM XMTR R
SINGLE -
WIRE
L2 ANT
25 M
SENSITIVITY
0 -1
LI - 35 TURNS e te, 2' DIA., C1- JOHNSON 350E20

3.5 LONG (AIR -DUX) C2- CENTRACAR TYPE 822
TAP AT 15 T., 27T.,
FROM POINT A Ji- TYPE SO -239 RECEPTACLE
Figure 47 La-JOHNSON 229 -207 VARIABL E R1 -TEN 10-ON1.4 l-WATT CAR-
INDUCTOR (te ..UN ) BON RESISTORS IN PARA-
LLEL. /RC TYPO BTA
ANTENNA TUNER IS HOUSED IN
METAL CABINET 7 INCHES X 8
INCHES IN SIZE
Figure 48
Inductance switch S and sensitivity control
are at left with counter dial for L at center. SCHEMATIC OF A SINGLE -WIRE
Output tuning capacitor C is at right. SWR
meter is mounted above S .
ANTENNA TUNER
resistive. This is the condition for maximum Bridge The SWR bridge must be cali-
energy transfer between transmission line Calibration brated for 52 -ohm service. This
and antenna. The meter is graduated in arbi- can be done by temporarily dis-
trary units, since actual SWR value is not connecting the lead between the bridge and
required. the antenna tuner and connecting a 2 -watt,
Tuner 52 ohm carbon resistor to the junction of
Major parts placement in the
Construction R, and the negative terminal of the 1N56
tuner is shown in figures 47 diode. The opposite lead of the carbon re-
and 49. Tapped coil L1 is sistor is grounded to the chassis of the bridge.
mounted on Va -inch ceramic insulators, and A small amount of r -f energy is fed to the
all major components are mounted above
input of the bridge until a reading is ob-
deck with the exception of the SWR bridge tained on the r -f voltmeter. The 25 -pf
(figure 50). The components of the bridge bridge- balancing capacitor C_ (see figure
are placed below deck, adjacent to the co-
50) is then adjusted with a fiber-blade
axial input plug mounted on the rear apron
of the chassis. The ten 10 -ohm resistors are screwdriver until a zero reading is obtained
on the meter. The sensitivity control is ad-
soldered to two 1 -inch rings made of copper
wire as shown in the photograph. The bridge vanced as the meter null grows, in order
capacitors are attached to this assembly with to obtain the exact point of bridge balance.
extremely short leads. The 1N56 crystal When this point is found, the carbon resistor
mounts at right angles to the resistors to should be removed and the bridge attached
ensure minimum amount of capacitive cou- to the antenna tuner. The bridge capacitor
pling between the resistors and the detector. is sealed with a drop of nail polish to pre-
The output lead from the bridge passes vent misadjustment.
through a ceramic feedthrough insulator to
the top side of the chassis. Tuner All tuning adjustments are
Connection to the antenna is made by Adjustments made to obtain proper trans-
means of a large feedthrough insulator mitter loading with a bal-
mounted on the back of the tuner cabinet. anced (zero- meter -reading) bridge condi-
This insulator is not visible in the photo- tion. The tuner is connected to the trans-
graphs. mitter through a random length of 52 -ohm
HANDBOOK Tuner For Center -Fed Systems 509
Figure 49
REAR VIEW OF
TUNER SHOWING
PLACEMENT OF
MAJOR
COMPONENTS
Rotary inductor is
driven by Johnson
116-208-4 counter dial.
Coaxial input recep-
tacle J, is mounted
directly below rotary
inductor.
coaxial line, and the single -wire antenna is 21 -13 A Tuner for
attached to the output terminal of the
tuner. Transmitter loading controls are set Center -Fed Antenna
to approximate a $2 -ohm termination. The Systems
transmitter is turned on (preferably at
reduced input) and resonance is established Center -fed antennas require a balanced
in the amplifier tank circuit. The sensitivity antenna tuner to allow them to be used with
control of the tuner is adjusted to provide transmitters having unbalanced coaxial an-
near full -scale deflection on the bridge tenna terminations. Shown in this section is
meter. Various settings of S1, L and C, a simple and inexpensive antenna tuner
should be tried to obtain a reduction of (figure f 1) which, when used in conjunc-
bridge reading. As tuner resonance is ap- tion with an SWR meter, will permit center -
proached, the meter reading will decrease fed antennas of practically any configura-
and the sensitivity control should be ad- tion to be used with modern coaxial-output
vanced. When the system is in resonance, transmitters.
the meter will read zero. All loading adjust- The unit consists of a parallel -tuned cir-
ments may then be made with the transmit- cuit that may be adjusted to a variety of
ter controls. The tuner should be readjusted requirements by means of taps on the main
whenever the frequency of the transmitter coil (L, A and B). The number of turns in
is varied by an appreciable amount. the circuit are adjusted by means of coil
wide, 10" high, and 12" deep. A piece of

masonite is used for the panel. The two vari-
able capacitors are mounted to the panel,
as are the selector switch and the airwound
inductor. The inductor is spaced away from
the panel by two 2" long ceramic insulators.
The four -winding inductor is made from a
single section of coil stock, as shown in the
drawing. Adjustable taps are made at the
chosen coil turns by means of small phos-
phor- bronze clips attached to flexible in-
sulated leads. The various terminals are
mounted on a small aluminum plate which
is mounted in a cutout area in the rear of
the wood cabinet.
Tuner The tuner is connected to the

Operation transmitter with a short length
of low -impedance coaxial line.
Figure 50
CLOSE -UP OF SWR BRIDGE

Simple SWR bridge is mounted below the
chassis of the tuner. Carbon resistors are
mounted to two copper rings to form low -
inductance one -ohm resistor. Bridge capaci-
tors form triangular configuration for lowest
lead inductance. Balancing capacitor C. is at
lower right.
taps A and B (figure 52) and the impedance

transformation presented to the two-wire
feed system is adjusted by means of coil
taps C and D. Additional flexibility is pro-
Figure 51
vided by switch (S, A and B) which per-
mits coupling coils (L, A and B) to be TUNER FOR CENTER -FED
placed in either a series or parallel connec- ANTENNA SYSTEMS
tion. The tuner is capable of operation at This balanced antenna tuner is designed to
the maximum power level on all amateur match center -fed antenna systems to trans-
bands between 80 and 10 meters, and it mitters employing the popular single -ended
pi- network matching circuit. It may be con-
may be used with open -wire or "ribbon" nected to the transmitter with a random
feeders and directly driven antennas, such length of 52- or 75 -ohm coaxial line. An SWR
as V -beams or other center -fed, long -wire meter should be placed in the line for a
tuning aid. The link- tuning capacitor is at the
arrays. left, and the split -stator tank capacitor is at
the right. Switch S, is between the two main
Tuner tuning dials. The main inductor is made from
To conserve space, yet allow a single section of coil stock, with the winding
Construction maximum circuit Q to be broken at appropriate points. Connections to
the tuner are made at fittings mounted on
achieved, the tuner is con- the aluminum plate at the rear, right of the
structed in a wooden box measuring 13" enclosure.
HANDBOOK Tuner For Center -Fed Systems 511
shown in figure 2D) is used with the tuner,

A L2A it may be operated on any high- frequency
O
FROM TRANS
C> "C
amateur band, provided the length of the
AND
SWR METER flat top plus the feeder length is equal to or
LIA
greater than one -half wavelength at the
lowest operating frequency. For general "all -
$IA,B
_7-100-100 TO BALANCED
LINE OR
band" use, a 66 -foot flat top with random -
4.5 KV
ANTENNA length open wire feedline is recommended.
LIB An antenna of this general type will be used
SERIES as an example in discussing the adjustment
1 PARALLE
G-D of the tuner.
350 The transmitter is placed on the desired
IIVIIV B L 2 band and the coil taps are set as suggested
in the illustration. Place both capacitors
at full capacitance and place switch S, in
ESTER
GROUND e the series position for 80- or 40 -meter opera-
4- SECTION COIL L1, La tion and in parallel position for 20 -, 1 S -,
L2A LIA LIB L2B or 10 -meter operation. Adjust the capacitors
Iunnt1tuomIgIttl uIvi and move clips A and B until resonance is
1'l'I1rl'l'WFi)l'I!lly''l' established. (This may be determined with
32 T. ST. ST. 32 T. the aid of a grid -dip oscillator, if desired,
before the transmitter is energized). Adjust-
Figure 52
ment of the various clips and capacitors is
SCHEMATIC AND INDUCTOR done to provide proper loading of the trans-
FOR TUNER mitter with minimum SWR reading on the
Coil L,A- 11-LA-B is fabricated from a single
coaxial line. Adjustments should be sym-
length of coil stock (Illumitronix Air-Dux 2008, metrical on each side of the coil and the
or equivalent). The coil is 21/2" inside diam- taps should be set to employ the maximum
eter, 8 turns per inch of No. 14 wire. Starting
from one end (after leaving a 6" lead) thirty - value of inductance, since, quite probably,
two turns are counted and the thirty-third various tap settings and tuning adjustments
turn is broken at the center to make leads may be found which will provide a degree
for L,A and L,A. Five more turns are counted
and the coil is broken in the same m r to of loading.
make the opposite c tion to coil L,A, Adjustments should start with minimum
and to coil LIB. In like manner, the taps to
LA and LA are made. The adjacent leads circuit inductance for the band in use,
from coils L,A and L111 are connected to the progressively increasing inductance until
arms of the switch. Taps A and B short out the desired loading is achieved with max-
the following approximate number of turns
from the outer ends of the inductor: 80 me- imum inductance in the circuit. Loading
ters, 4 turns; 40 meters, 16 turns; 20 meters, should finally be adjusted at the transmit-
28 turns; 15 meters, 29 turns; 10 meters, 30
turns. Phosphor -b lips are Mueller #88. ter to provide proper settings for the output
circuit of the transmitter. Once the adjust-
An SWR meter should be placed in the line. ments of the tuner have been determined,
Adjustments are made to the tuner to prop- the dial settings and tap points may be
erly load the transmitter while holding a logged for future reference and the coil taps
reasonably low value of SWR on the coaxial indentified with a small spot of nail polish
line. If a center-fed tuned dipole (such as on the wire.
CHAPTER TWENTY -TWO
High - Frequency Directive Antennas
It is becoming of increasing importance in itself, will have no effect on the radiation

most types of radio communication to be pattern.
capable of concentrating the radiated signal
from the transmitter in a certain desired 22 -1 Directive Antennas
direction and to be able to discriminate at
the receiver against reception from direc- When a multiplicity of radiating elements
tions other than the desired one. Such cap- is located and phased so as to reinforce the
abilities involve the use of directive antenna radiation in certain desired directions and to
arrays. neutralize radiation in other directions, a
Few simple antennas, except the single directive antenna array is formed.
vertical element, radiate energy equally well The function of a directive antenna when
in all azimuth (horizontal or compass) used for transmitting is to give an increase
directions. All horizontal antennas, except in signal strength in some direction at the
those specifically designed to give an omni- expense of radiation in other directions. For
directional azimuth radiation pattern such reception, one might find useful an antenna
as the turnstile, have some directive proper- giving little or no gain in the direction from
ties. These properties depend on the length which it is desired to receive signals if the
of the antenna in wavelengths, the height antenna is able to discriminate against inter-
above ground, and the slope of the radiator. fering signals and static arriving from other
The various forms of the half -wave hor- directions. A good directive transmitting
izontal antenna produce maximum radiation antenna, however, can also be used to good
at right angles to the wire, but the direc- advantage for reception.
tional effect is not great. Nearby objects If radiation can be confined to a narrow
also minimize the directivity of a dipole beam, the signal intensity can be increased
a great many times in the desired direction
radiator, so that it hardly seems worth while
of transmission. This is equivalent to in-
to go to the trouble to rotate a simple half -
creasing the power output of the transmit-
wave dipole in an attempt to improve trans- ter. On the higher frequencies, it is more
mission and reception in any direction. economical to use a directive antenna than
The half -wave doublet, folded-dipole, to increase transmitter power, if more than
zepp, single- wire -fed, matched-impedance, a few watts of power is being used.
and Q- section antennas all have practically Directive antennas for the high- frequency
the same radiation pattern when properly range have been designed and used commer-
built and adjusted. They all are dipoles, and cially with gains as high as 23 db over a
the feeder system, if it does not radiate in simple dipole radiator. Gains as high as 3 5
Directive Antennas 513
SO
T0
`
30.
.D
_
30*
' DOVeLE HOP
11111
iIIIIIh\...
,111.
1
20.--.
ICY S114GLE HOP
O. I II
30 SO 100 300 300 1000 3000 10000
GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE IN MILES
Figure 1
OPTIMUM ANGLE OF RADIATION

WITH RESPECT TO DISTANCES
Shown above is a plot of the optimum angle
of radiation for one -hop and two hop com-
munication. An operating frequency close to
of radiation for one -hop and two -hop com-
munication distance is assumed.
- HALF WAVE AMT. -- FULL WAVE ANT.
HORIZONTAL ANTENNAS IN FREE SPACE
- -- S WAVES AIR.
Figure 2
db are common in direct -ray microwave FREE -SPACE FIELD PATTERNS OF
communication and radar systems. A gain LONG -WIRE ANTENNAS
of 23 db represents a power gain of 200 The presence of the earth distorts the field
times and a gain of 35 db represents a power pattern in such a manner that the azimuth
pattern becomes a function of the elevation
gain of almost 3500 times. However, an an- angle.
tenna with a gain of only 15 to 20 db is so
sharp in its radiation pattern that it is
usable to full advantage only for point -to- import when dealing with frequencies and
point work. distances dependent on sky -wave propaga-
The increase in radiated power in the de- tion. it is the horizontal directivity (or
sired direction is obtained at the expense of gain, or discrimination) measured al the
radiation in the undesired directions. Power most useful vertical angles of radiation that
is of consequence. The horizontal radiation
gains of 3 to 12 db seem to be most practi-
cal for amateur communication, since the pattern, as measured on the ground, is con-
width of a beam with this order of power siderably different from the pattern obtained
gain is wide enough to sweep a fairly large at a vertical angle of 15 degrees, and still
area. Gains of 3 to 12 db represent effective more different from a pattern obtained at a
transmitter power increases from 2 to 16 vertical angle of 30 degrees. In general, the
times. energy which is radiated at angles higher
than approximately 30 degrees above the
Horizontal Pattern There is a certain op- earth, is effective only for local work at any
versus Vertical Angle timum vertical angle frequency.
of radiation for sky - For operation at frequencies in the vicin-
wave communication, this angle being de- ity of 14 MHz, the most effective angle of
pendent on distance, frequency, time of day, radiation is usually about 15 degrees above
etc. Energy radiated at an angle much lower the horizon, from any kind of antenna. The
than this optimum angle is largely lost, while most effective angles for 10 -meter operation
radiation at angles much higher than this arc those in the vicinity of 10 degrees. Fig-
optimum angle is often not nearly so effec- ure is a chart giving the optimum vertical
1
tive. angle of radiation for sky -wave propagation

For this reason, the horizontal directivity. in terms of the great- circle distance between
pattern as measured on the ground is of no the transmitting and receiving antennas.
514 High- Frequency Directive Antennas RADIO
LONG STRA GMT WIRE ANTENNAS

44
YI
X
.1a
z
W
-J
Figure 3 z
DIRECTIVE GAIN OF s
I-
LONG -WIRE ANTENNAS u
Z
J
W
CC 4
3
a a 4 S 7 11 10
DB POWER RATIO OF MAIN LOBE TO A DIPOLE
Types of There is an enormous vari- broadside lobes get smaller and smaller in
Directive Arrays ety of directive antenna amplitude, even though numerous (fig-
arrays that can give a sub- ure 2).
stantial power gain in the desired direction The horizontal radiation pattern of such
of transmission or reception. However, some antennas depends on the vertical angle of
are more effective than others which require radiation being considered. If the wire is
the same space. In general it may be stated more than 4 wavelengths long, the maxi-
that long -wire antennas of various types, mum radiation at vertical angles of 15' to
such as the single long wire, the V beam, 20 (useful for DX) is in line with the
and the rhombic, are less effective for a wire, being slightly greater a few degrees
given space than arrays composed of reso- either side of the wire than directly off the
nant elements, but the long -wire arrays have ends. The directivity of the main lobes of
the significant advantage that they may be radiation is not particularly sharp, and the
used over a relatively large frequency range minor lobes fill in between the main lobes
while resonant arrays are usable only over a to permit working stations in nearly all
quite narrow frequency band. directions, though the power radiated broad-
side to the radiator will not be great if the
22 -2 Long -Wire Radiators radiator is more than a few wavelengths
long. The directive gain of long -wire an-
Harmonically operated long wires radiate tennas, in terms of the wire length in wave-
better in certain directions than others, but lengths is given in figure 3.
cannot be considered as having appreciable To maintain the out -of -phase condition
directivity unless several wavelengths long. in adjoining half -wave elements throughout
The current in adjoining half -wave elements the length of the radiator, it is necessary
flows in opposite directions at any instant, that a harmonic antenna be fed either at
and, thus, the radiation from the various one end or at a current loop. If fed at a
elements adds in certain directions and can- voltage loop, the adjacent sections will be
cels in others. fed in phase, and a different radiation pat-
A half -wave doublet in free space has a tern will result.
"doughnut" of radiation surrounding it. A The directivity of a long wire does not
full wave has 2 lobes, 3 half waves 3, etc. increase very much as the length is in-
When the radiator is made more than 4 half creased beyond about 15 wavelengths. This
wavelengths long, the end lobes (cones of is due to the fact that all long -wire anten-
radiation) begin to show noticeable power nas are adversely affected by the r -f resist-
gain over a half -wave doublet, while the ance of the wire, and because the current
HANDBOOK The V Antenna 515
LONG -ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE

Approximate Length in Feet-End -Fed Antennas
Frequency
In MHz 1a 11 /,X 2X 2V /,X 3X 3'/,X 4X 41/,X
29 33 50 67 84 101 118 135 152

28 34 52 69 87 104 122 140 157
21.4 45 68 91 1/2 1141/2 136 1/2 160 1/2 185 1/2 209 1/2
21.2 45 1/4 68 1/4 91 3/4 114 2/4 136 3/4 160 3/4 185 3/4 209 3/4
21.0 451 681/2 92 115 137 161 186 210
14.2 671/2 102 137 171 206 240 275 310

14.0 681/2 1031/2 139 174 209 244 279 314
7.3 136 206 276 346 416 486 555 625

7.15 1361/2 207 277 347 417 487 557 627
7.0 137 2071/2 2771/2 348 418 488 558 628
4.0 240 362 485 618 730 853 977 1100
3.8 252 381 511 640 770 900 1030 1160
3.6 266 403 540 676 812 950 1090 1220
3.5 274 414 555 696 835 977 1120
2.0 480 725 972 1230 1475

1.9 504 763 1020 1280
1.8 532 805 1080
amplitude begins to become unequal at dif- of the antenna. A ground is sometimes con-
ferent current loops as a result of attenua- nected to the center of the tuned coil.
tion along the wire caused by radiation and If desired, the antenna can be opened and
losses. As the length is increased, the tuning current -fed at a point of maximum current
of the antenna becomes quite broad. In by means of low -impedance ribbon line, or
fact, a long wire about 15 waves long is by a quarter -wave matching section and
practically aperiodic, and works almost open line.
equally well over a wide range of frequen-
cies. 22 -3 The V Antenna
One of the most practical methods of
feeding a long -wire antenna is to bring one If two long -wire antennas are built in
end of it into the radio room for direct the form of a V, it is possible to make two
connection to a tuned antenna circuit which of the maximum lobes of one leg shoot in
is link- coupled through a harmonic- attenu- the same direction as two of the maximum
ating filter to the transmitter. The antenna lobes of the other leg of the V. The result-
can be tuned effectively to resonance for ing antenna is bidirectional (two opposite
operating on any harmonic by means of the directions) for the main lobes of radiation.
tuned circuit which is connected to the end Each side of the V can be made any odd or
ISO
140
Figure 4
120
INCLUDED ANGLE FOR A

V BEAM
Showing the included angle be-
tween the logs of a V beam for
various leg lengths. For opti-
mum alignment of the radiation
lobe at the co t vertical
40 angle with leg lengths less than
three wavelengths, the optimum
included angle is shown by the
ao dashed curve.
o
o 4 e 10 /2
LENGTH IN "L' WAVELENGTHS
516 High- Frequency Directive Antennas
Figure 5
TYPICAL V BEAM ANTENNA
even number of quarter wavelengths, de-

pending on the method of feeding the apex
of the V. The complete system must be a
multiple of half waves. If each leg is an
even number of quarter waves long, the
antenna must be voltage -fed at the apex; if
an odd number of quarter waves long, cur-
rent feed must be used.
By choosing the proper apex angle (figure
4 and figure 5) the lobes of radiation from
the two long -wire antennas aid each other
to form a bidirectional beam. Each wire by
itself would have a radiation pattern similar
to that for a long wire. The reaction of one
on the other removes two of the four
main lobes, and increases the other two in
such a way as to form two lobes of still
greater magnitude.
The correct wire lengths and the degree of
the angle 8 are listed in the V- Anlenna De-
sign Table for various frequencies in the
10 -, 15 -, 20- and 40 -meter amateur bands.
;
3
-

W
a
V
G
Z
-
2
1
.
..
...
.d
I
Ilr.
,Ir.
IrTd
I..d
l
M
1]
12
7pi
11
]I
rm
M
osi
4
]
2
.
ENENEMPIENNENENNEMON
0 2 3 4
LENGTH OF SIDE
This curve shows the approximate directive

3
gain of a V beam with respect to a half -wave

antenna located the same distance above
The legs of a very long N' antenna are

usually so arranged that the included angle
is twice the angle of the major lobe from a
single wire if used alone. This arrangement
concentrates the radiation of each wire along
the bisector of the angle, and permits part
of the other lobes to cancel each other.
With legs shorter than 3 wavelengths, the
best directivity and gain are obtained with
a somewhat smaller angle than that deter-
mined by the lobes. Optimum directivity
for a one -wave V is obtained when the angle
V"
Figure 6
DIRECTIVE GAIN OF A V BEAM
BEAM
ground, in terms of the side length
side length when optimum apex angle is

used is given in figure 6.
e
"L'
GAIN
RADIO
a 11
L.
IS
Apex angles for all side lengths are given in is 90 rather than 180 , as determined by
figure 4. The gain of a V beam in terms of the the ground pattern alone.
V-ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE
Frequency L = X L = 2\ L = 4\ L = I\
in kHz 5 =90 5 =70 6 =52 5= 39
28000 34'8" 69'8" 140' 280'

29000 33'6" 67'3" 135' 271'
21100 45'9" 91'9" 183' 366'
21300 45'4" 91'4" 182'6" 365'
14050 69' 139' 279' 558'
14150 68'6" 138' 277' 555'
14250 68'2" 137' 275' 552'
7020 138'2" 278' 558' 1120'
7100 136'8" 275' 552' 1106'
7200 134'10" 271' 545' 1090'
HANDBOOK The Rhombic Antenna 517
If very long wires are used in the V, the

angle between the wires is almost unchanged 1.7
I .s ..r.
when the length of the wires in wavelengths ,.a
1..
I.a
is altered. However, an error of a few de-
ìiirr
21.:
grees causes a much larger loss in directivity
and gain in the case of the longer V than
in the shorter one.
1.1
o.
o..
0.7
...
a_
M r:iirM
The vertical angle at which the wave is .r
w
M ell eT, TA14La ."
best transmitted or received from a horizon-
rr MN
ar-as
VISO COS
tal V antenna depends largely on the in- ;,

cluded angle. The sides of the V antenna
should be at least a half wavelength above :r
ground; commercial practice dictates a a.
11 jl'
as
height of approximately a full wavelength a. La11GTN IN rAVILtINTMa
3
ran MAO warm
aa
al rea ALIaN.aaNt
above ground. LENGTH ,N 1118811.11743141
. ..
. aalNN1 Ae
`N
a
NO
1. r11
o: n
22 -4 The Rhombic Antenna a1 Is
11110 BOVAMN
1.
t-, la
la
rrorr.rrr
M
'_ \
The terminated rhombic or diamond is z 11
probably the most effective directional an- o MOH

tenna that is practical for amateur com- MIME
munication. This antenna is nonresonant, .r
with the result that it can be used on four r lo Ir u 4 Ir
WAVE ANGLE
ao
A
ar a.
:::_
ar ar
amateur bands, such as 10, 15, 20, and 40
meters. When the antenna is nonresonant, Figure 7
i.e., properly terminated, the system is uni-
directional, and the wire dimensions are not RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE
critical. Design data is given in terms of the wave
angle (vertical angle of transmission and re-
Rhombic When the free end is termi- ception) of the antenna. The lengths I are
Termination nated with a resistance of a for the "maximum output" design; the shorter
lengths (I') are for the "alignment" method
value between 700 and 800 which gives approximately 1.5 db less gain
ohms the rear lobes are eliminated, the for- with a considerable reduction in the space
ward gain is increased, and the antenna can required for the antenna. The values of side
length, tilt angle, and height for a given
be used on several bands without changes. wave angle are obtained by drawing a ver-
The terminating resistance should be cap- tical line upward from the desired wave
angle.
able of dissipating one -third the power out-
put of the transmitter, and should have very
little reactance. For medium- or low -power consisting of No. 25 nichromc wire, spaced
transmitters, the noninductive plaque resis- 6 inches and terminated with 800 ohms,
tors will serve as a satisfactory termination. will serve satisfactorily. Because of the at-
Several manufacturers offer special resistors tenuation of the line, the lumped resistance
suitable for terminating a rhombic antenna. at the end of the line need dissipate but a
The terminating device should, for tech- few watts even when high power is used.
nical reasons, present a small amount of in- A half dozen 5000 -ohm 2 -watt carbon re-
ductive reactance at the point of termina- sistors in parallel will serve for all except
tion. very high power. The attenuating line may
A compromise terminating device com- be folded back on itself to take up less
monly used consists of a terminated 250 - room.
foot or longer length of line made of The determination of the best value of
resistance wire which does not hate too terminating resistor may be made while re-
much resistance per unit length. If the latter ceiving, if the input impedance of the
qualification is not met, the reactance of receiver is approximately 800 ohms. The
the line will be excessive. A 250 -foot line value of resistor which gives the best di-
Figure 8
TYPICAL RHOMBIC
ANTENNA DESIGN
The ant system illus-
trated above may be used
over the freq y range from LINE TO Tx
5114 SPACED
7 to 29 MHz without change.
The directivity of the system SPACING BETWEEN SIDES S, 214 FEET TERMINATING LINE
N 25
may be reversed by the sys-
tem discussed in the text.
TOTAL LENGTH 692 FEET OF 250. OF
NICHROME SPACED
AND 1100-OHM 15 -WATT
^
Hso CARBON RESISTOR AT
END. 2-WATT 1OO -OHM
RESISTORS IN SERIES
rectivity on reception will not give the above ground is increased in the same man-
most gain when transmitting, but there ner as with a dipole antenna. The rhombic
will be little difference between the two. should not be tilted in any plane. In other
The input resistance of the rhombic words, the poles should all be of the same
which is reflected into the transmission line height and the plane of the antenna should
that feeds it is always somewhat less than be parallel to the ground.
the terminating resistance, and is around A considerable amount of directivity is
700 to 750 ohms when the terminating re- lost when the terminating resistor is left off
sistor is 800 ohms. the end and the system is operated as a reso-
The antenna should be fed with a non - nant antenna. If it is desired to reverse the
resonant line having a characteristic imped- direction of the antenna it is much better
ance of 650 to 700 ohms. The four corners practice to run transmission lines to both
of the rhombic should be at least one -half ends of the antenna and then run the
wavelength above ground for the lowest terminating line to the operating position.
frequency of operation. For three -band op- Then with the aid of two dpdt switches it
eration the proper tilt angle (0) for the will be possible to connect either feeder to
center band should be observed. the antenna changeover switch and the
The rhombic antenna transmits a hori- other feeder to the terminating line, thus
zontally polarized wave at a relatively low reversing the direction of the array and
angle above the horizon. The angle of radia- maintaining the same termination for either
tion (wave angle) decreases as the height direction of operation.
Figure 9
RHOMBIC ANTENNA GAIN

Showing the theoretical gain of a rhombic
antenna, in terms of the side length, over a
half -wave antenna mounted at the same 7
height above the same type of soil. o

z s
Z 4
u 30 I
10 11 12 II 14 15 111 17 U If 20
'il = LENGTH OF EACH LEG OF RHOMBIC IN WAVELENGTHS
--
HANDBOOK Stacked -Dipole Arrays 519
1s I Lt L2
--.a
Ls
Lz
La
Lt
/ \ PLANE OF WIRES
I END VIEW
QUARTER -WAVE STUBS
NONRESONANT
FEED LIN
(10)
GAIN APPROO DB
Figure )1
THE FRANKLIN OR COLLINEAR
s =
MO. OUT OF PHASE I
S. 4E'
IN PHASE
ANTENNA ARRAY
An antenna of this type, regardless of the
(FLAT -TOP BEAM, ETC.) _- / (LAZY H, STERBA CURTAIN)
number of elements, attains all of its direc-
tivity through sharpening of the horizontal
or azimuth radiation pattern; no vertical di-
Figure 10 rectivity is provided. Hence a long antenna
of this type has an extremely sharp azimuth
RADIATION PATTERNS OF A PAIR OF pattern, but no vertical directivity.
DIPOLES OPERATING WITH IN -PHASE
EXCITATION, AND WITH EXCITATION
180 OUT OF PHASE 90 , and 135 for instance), the pattern is
If the dipoles are oriented horizontally most
unsymmetrical, the radiation being greater
of the directivity will be in the vertical in one direction than in the opposite direc-
plane; if they are oriented vertically most tion.
of the directivity will be in the horizontal
plane.
With spacings of more than 0.8 wave-
length, more than two main lobes appear
for all phasing combinations; hence, such
Figure 7 gives curves for optimum -design spacings are seldom used.
rhombic attennas for both the maximum -
output method and the alignment method. In -Phase With the dipoles driven so as to
The alignment method is about 1.5 db down Spacing be in phase, the most effective
from the maximum output method but spacing is between 0.5 and 0.7
requires only about 0.74 as much leg length. wavelength. The latter provides greater
The height and tilt angle are the same in gain, but minor lobes are present which do
either case. Figure 8 gives construction data not appear at 0.5- wavelength spacing. The
for a recommended rhombic antenna for the radiation is broadside to the plane of the
7.0- through 29.7 -MHz bands. This antenna wires, and the gain is slightly greater than
will give about 11 db gain in the 14.0 -MHz can be obtained from two dipoles out of
band. The approximate gain of a rhombic phase. The gain falls off rapidly for spac-
antenna over a dipole (both above normal ings less than 0.375 wavelength, and there is
soil) is given in figure 9. little point in using spacing of 0.25 wave-
length or less with in -phase dipoles, except
22 -5 Stacked - Dipole Arrays where it is desirable to increase the radiation
resistance. (See Multiwire Doublet.)
The characteristics of a half -wave dipole Out of Phase When the dipoles are fed 180
already have been described. When another Spacing out of phase, the directivity is
dipole is placed in the vicinity and excited through the plane of the wires,
either directly or parasitically, the resultant and is greatest with close spacing, though
radiation pattern will depend on the spac- there is but little difference in the pattern
ing and phase differential, as well as the after the spacing is made less than 0.125
relative magnitude of the currents. With wavelength. The radiation resistance be-
spacings less than 0.65 wavelength, the radi- comes so low for spacings of less than 0.1
ation is mainly broadside to the two wires wavelength that such spacings are not prac-
(bidirectional) when there is no phase dif- tical.
ference, and through the wires (end fire) In the three foregoing examples, most of
when the wires are 180 out of phase. With the directivity provided is in a plane at a
phase difference between 0 and 180 (45, right angle to the wires, though when out
Frequency
COLLINEAR ANTENNA DESIGN CHART Fz1---.1 F(to:)
in MHz L1 1.1 L3 FpAti:1

28.5 16'8" 17' 8'6" A B
21.2 22'B" 23'3" 11'6" A-B. son FEED POINT GAMMArMOx. aoe
14.2 33'8" 347" 17'3"
7.15 67' 68'B" 34'4" Figure 12
4.0 120' 123' 61'6" DOUBLE EXTENDED ZEPP ANTENNA
3.6 133' 136'5" 68'2" For best results, antenna should be tuned to
operating frequency by means of grid -dip
oscillator.
of phase, the directivity is in a line through
the wires, and when in phase, the directivity dipole. This consideration applies whether
is broadside to them. Thus, if the wires are the elements are of normal length or are
oriented vertically, mostly horizontal di- extended.
rectivity will be provided. If the wires are The collinear antenna consists of two or
oriented horizontally, most of the directiv- more radiating sections from 0.5 to 0.65
ity obtained will be vertical directivity. wavelengths long, with the current in phase
To increase the sharpness of the directivity in each section. The necessary phase reversal
in all planes that include one of the wires, between sections is obtained through the
additional identical elements are added in use of resonant tuning stubs as illustrated in
the line of the wires, and fed so as to be in figure 11. The gain of a collinear array us-
phase. The familiar lazy -H array is one array ing half -wave elements (in decibels) is ap-
utilizing both types of directivity in the proximately equal to the number of ele-
manner prescribed. The two -section 8 JK ments in the array. The exact figures are as
flat -top beam is another. follows:
These two antennas in their various forms
Number of Elements 2 3 4 5 6
are directional in a horizontal plane, in addi- 1.8 3.3 4.5 5.3 6.2
Gain in Decibels
tion to being low -angle radiators, and are
perhaps the most practical of the bidirec- As additional in -phase collinear elements
tional stacked -dipole arrays for amateur use. are added to a doublet, the radiation resist-
More phased elements can be used to pro- ance goes up much faster than when addi-
vide greater directivity in planes including tional half waves are added out of phase
one of the radiating elements. The H then (harmonic operated antenna).
becomes a Sterba -curtain array. For a collinear array of from 2 to 6 ele-
For unidirectional work the most prac- ments, the terminal radiation resistance in
tical stacked- dipole arrays for amateur - ohms at any current loop is approximately
band use are parasitically excited systems 100 times the number of elements.
using relatively close spacing between the It should be borne in mind that the gain
reflectors and the directors. Antennas of from a collinear antenna depends on the
this type are described in detail in a later
chapter. The next most practical unidirec-
tional array is an H or a Sterba curtain with
a similar system placed approximately one -
quarter wave behind. The use of a reflector
system in conjunction with any type of
stacked -dipole broadside array will increase
the gain by 3 db.
Collinear The simple collinear antenna ar- PHASE -REVERSING SWITCH
Arrays ray is a very effective radiating TRANSMITTER
FOR CLOVERLEAF PATTERN
system for the 3.5- and 7.0 -MHz

bands, but its use is not recommended on
Figure 13
higher frequencies since such arrays do not
possess any vertical directivity. The eleva- TWO COLLINEAR HALF -WAVE ANTENNAS
tion radiation pattern for such an array is IN PHASE PRODUCE A 3 DB GAIN WHEN
essentially the same as for a half -wave SEPARATED ONE -HALF WAVELENGTH
HANDBOOK Broadside Arrays 521
175' 6' eS e' .{ es e- a phase reversing switch, the two elements

may be operated out of phase, producing a
cloverleaf pattern with slightly less maxi-
D2 a' I 32'9" mum gain.
_t_ .__. A three- element precut array for 40-
MAKE STUBS OE* E. I 4-30011. R BBON TO
meter operation is shown in figure 14. It is
WIRE, SPACED TO e' TRANSMITTER, ANY LENGTH
fed directly with 300 -ohm ribbon line, and
GAIN APPROX S DB may be matched to a 52 -ohm coaxial output
transmitter by means of a balun.
Figure 14
PRECUT LINEAR ARRAY FOR 40 -METER 22 -6 Broadside Arrays

OPERATION
Collinear elements may be stacked above
or below another string of collinear elements
sharpness of the horizontal directivity since to produce what is commonly called a
no vertical directivity is provided. An array broadside array. Such an array, when hori-
with several collinear elements will give zontal elements are used, possesses vertical
considerable gain, but will have a sharp directivity in proportion to the number of
horizontal radiation pattern. broadsided (vertically stacked) sections
which have been used.
Double Extended The gain of a conventional Since broadside arrays do have good verti-
Zepp two -element Franklin col-
%
cal directivity their use is recommended on
linear antenna can be in- the 14 -MHz band and on those higher in
creased to a value approaching that obtained frequency. One of the most popular of sim-
from a three -element Franklin, simply by ple broadside arrays is the Lazy H array of
making the two radiating elements 230 long figure 13. Horizontal collinear elements
instead of 180 long. The phasing stub is stacked two above two make up this anten-
shortened correspondingly to maintain the na system which is highly recommended
whole array in resonance. Thus, instead of when moderate gain without too much di-
having 0.5- wavelength elements and 0.25 - rectivity is desired. It has high radiation
wavelength stub, the elements are made resistance and a gain of approximately 5.5
0.64 wavelength long and the stub is ap- db. The high radiation resistance results in
proximately 0.11 wavelength long. low voltages and a broad resonance curve.
Dimensions for the double extended zepp which permits use of inexpensive insulators
are given in figure 12. and enables the array to be used over a fairly
The vertical directivity of a collinear an- wide range in frequency. For dimensions,
tenna having 230 elements is the same as see the stacked dipole design table.
for one having 180 elements. There is little
advantage in using extended sections when
the total length of the array is to be greater Stacked Vertical stacking may be applied
Dipoles to strings of collinear elements
than about 1.5 wavelength over all since
the gain of a collinear antenna is propor- longer than two half waves. In
tional to the overall length, whether the in- such arrays, the end quarter wave of each
dividual radiating elements are t/;- wave,%- string of radiators usually is bent in to meet
wave or % -wave in length. a similar bent quarter wave from the op-
posite-end radiator. This provides better
Spaced Half The gain of two collinear balance and better coupling between the
Wove Antennas half waves may be increased upper and lower elements when the array
by increasing the physical is current -fed. Arrays of this type are shown
spacing between the elements, up to a max- in figure 16, and are commonly known as
imum of about one -half wavelength. If the curtain arrays.
half -wave elements are fed with equal Correct length for the elements and stubs
lengths of transmission line, correctly phased, can be determined for any stacked -dipole
a gain of about 3.3 db is produced. Such an array from the Stacked - Dipole Design
antenna is shown in figure 13. By means of Table.
an alternative method of feed is shown in

the higher -gain antenna of figure 16B.
In the case of each of the arrays of figure
16, and also the Lazy H of figure 15, the
array may be unidirectional and the gain
increased by 3 db if an exactly similar
array is constructed and placed approximate-
ly %y wave behind the driven array. A screen
or mesh of wires, slightly greater in area
than the antenna array, may be used in-
stead of an additional array as a reflector to
RESONANT FLED LINE
obtain a unidirectional system. The spacing
between the reflecting wires may vary from
0.05 to 0.1 wavelength with the spacing
between the reflecting wires the smallest
directly behind the driven elements. The
LI wires in the untuned reflecting system
should be parallel to the radiating elements
of the array, and the spacing of the com-
plete reflector system should be approxi-
mately 0.2 to 0.25 wavelength behind the
2 driven elements.
On frequencies below perhaps 100 MHz,
it normally will be impractical to use a wire -
screen reflector behind an antenna array
such as a Sterba curtain or a Lazy H. Para-
sitic elements may be used as reflectors or
OUARTERWAVE STUB directors, but parasitic elements have the
disadvantage that their operation is selective
NONRESONANT
with respect to relatively small changes in
FEED LI GAIN APPROX. 5.5 OB frequency. Nevertheless, parasitic reflectors
for such arrays are quite widely used.
The X -Array In section 22 -5 it was shown
Figure 15 how two dipoles may be ar-
ranged in phase to provide a power gain of
THE LAZY H ANTENNA SYSTEM About 3 db. If two such pairs of dipoles
Stacking the collinear pairs gives both hori- are stacked in a vertical plane and properly
sontol and vertical directivity. As shown, the phased, a simplified form of in -phase curtain
array will give about S.S db gain. Note that
the array may be fed either at the center of is formed, providing an over -all gain of
the phasing section or at the bottom; if fed about 6 db. Such an array is shown in figure
at the bottom the phasing section must be 17. In this X- array, the four dipoles are all
twisted through 180 .
in phase, and are fed by four sections of
300 -ohm line, each one -half wavelength
In the arrays of figure 16 the arrow- long, the free ends of all four lines being
heads represent the direction of current flow connected in parallel. The feed impedance at
at any given instant. The dots on the radia- the junction of these four lines is about 75
tors represent points of maximum current. ohms, and a length of 75 -ohm twin lead may
All arrows should point in the same direc- be used for the feedline to the array.
tion in each portion of the radiating sections An array of this type is quite small for
of an antenna in order to provide a field in the 28 -MHz band, and is not out of the
phase for broadside radiation. This condition question for the 21 -MHz band. For best re-
is satisfied for the arrays illustrated in figure sults, the bottom section of the array
16. Figures 16A and 16C show simple meth- should be one -half wavelength above
ods of feeding a short Sterba curtain, while ground.
NONRESONANT 'CEDER
GAIN APPROX. 6 DB

GAIN APPROX. e DB
Figure 16
THE STERBA- CURTAIN ARRAY

Approximate directive gains along with alter-
native feed methods are shown.
GAIN APPROX. 6 DB
LAZY H AND STERBA section Double Bruce will give a vertically

(STACKED- DIPOLE) DESIGN TABLE polarized emission, with a power gain of 5
Frequency db over a simple dipole, and is a very
In MHz 1.1 L2 L)
simple beam to construct. This antenna,
7.0 68'2" 70' 35'
7.3 65'10" 67'6" 33'9" like other so- called broadside arrays, radiates
14.0 341" 35' 17'6"
14.2 33'8" 34'7" 17'3"
14.4 33'4" 34'2" 17'
21.0 22'9" 23'3" 11'8" L D L
21.5 22'3" 22'9" 11'5" F
27.3 177" 17'10" 811"
28.0 17' 17'7" 8'9"
29.0 16'6" 17' 8'6"
50.0 97" 9'10" 4'11"
52.0 9'3" 9'5" 4'8"
54.0 8'10" 9'1" 4'6"
144.0 39.8" 40.5" 20.3"
146.0 39" 40" 20"
148.0 38.4" 39.5" 19.8"
The Double -Bruce The Bruce Beam consists

Array of a long wire folded so
that vertical elements DIMENSIONS
104. 15M. 20M. GAIN AMNOA. e De
carry in -phase currents while the horizontal L M'3 22' 32'10
elements carry out-of -phase currents. Radia- S 20' 30' 40'
tion from the horizontal sections is low P 14'2' 21'3- 2S'
since only a small current flows in this part
D 3'e' 3'3 7'0 ,r -7SA TRANSMISSION LINE
of the wire, and it is largely phased -out. Figure 17

Since the height of the Bruce Beam is only
one -quarter wavelength, the gain per linear THE X -ARRAY FOR 28, 21, OR 14 MHz
foot of array is quite low. Two Bruce Beams The entire array (with the exception of the
75 -ohm feedline) is constructed of 300 -ohm
may be combined as shown in figure 18 to ribbon line. Be sure phasing lines (P) are
produce the Double Bruce array. A four polarised correctly, as shown.
I- L - - L f L -` ' - L --
loop. LINE GAIN APPROX. S De .INTS OP MAXIMUM

CURRENT
DIMENSION L
1014. 15 M. 20 /IOM. ANTENNA 90
TRANSMITTER
13.9. 13' I 17'S' TUNER
Figure 18
THE DOUBLE -BRUCE ARRAY FOR 10,

15, AND 20 METERS
If a 600 -ohm feed line is used, the 20 -meter
array will also perform on 10 meters as a DIMENSIONS
Sterba curtain, with an approximate gain of
10M 15M. M
9 db. L IOW 24' Y 33'
.
13 SECTION
12'S- 18'11' *14E. WIRE
SPACED 4-
maximum power at right angles to the plane GAIN APPROX. 4 De

of the array.
The feed impedance of the Double Bruce 150..1 LINE TO TRANSMITTER
is about 750 ohms. The array may be fed
with a quarter -wave stub made of 300 -ohm
ribbon line and a feedline made of 150 -ohm
ribbon line. Alternatively, the array may be Figure 19
fed directly with a wide -spaced 600 -ohm
transmission line (figure 18) . The feedline THE BI- SQUARE BROADSIDE ARRAY
should be brought away from the Double This bidirectional array is related to the
Bruce for a short distance before it drops Lazy H, and in spite of the oblique elements,
is horizontally polarized. It has slightly less
downward, to prevent interaction between gain and directivity than the Lazy H, the
the feedline and the lower part of the center free -space directivity gain being approxi-
mately 4 db. Its chief advantage is the fact
phasing section of the array. For best re- that only a single pole is required for sup-
sults, the bottom sections of the array should port, and two such arrays may be supported
from a single pole without interaction if the
be one -half wavelength above ground. planes of the elements are at right angles.
Arrays such as the X -array and the A 600 -ohm line may be substituted for the
Double Bruce are essentially high- impedance twin lead, and either operated as a resonant
line, or made nonresonant by the incorpora-
devices, and exhibit relatively broadband tion of a matching stub.
characteristics. They are less critical of ad-
justment than a parasitic array, and they
work well over a wide frequency range such less than that of a Lazy H, but is still
as is encountered on the 28- to 29.7 -MHz worthwhile, being approximately 4 db over
hand. a half -wave horizontal dipole at the same
average elevation.
The Bi- Square Illustrated in figure 19 is a When two Bi- Square arrays are suspended
Broadside Array simple method of feeding a at right angles to each other (for general
small broadside array. As coverage) from a single pole, the Q- sections
two arrays of this type can be supported at should be well separated or else symmetrical-
right angles from a single pole without in- ly arranged in the form of a square (the
teraction, it offers a solution to the problem diagonal conductors forming one Q- section)
of suspending two arrays in a restricted in order to minimize coupling between
space with a minimum of erection work. them. The same applies to the line if open
The free space directivity gain is slightly construction is used instead of twin lead, but
L 14- L -1
-4-
L 1 gain over a vertical half-wave dipole at the
same height.
A second Bi- Square serving as a reflector
may be placed 0.15 wavelength behind this
antenna to provide an over -all gain of 8.5
db. The reflector may be tuned by means of
a quarter -wave stub which has a movable
L shorting bar at the bottom end.
DIMENSIONS + 300 R RiB805 LINE

10M. ISM. 20M.
The Six -Shooter The array of figure 20 is
L 17' 22'3 33'0' GAIN APPROS 7.5 DB Broadside Array recommended for the 10-
D t7'r 34'r to 30 -MHz range as a good
Figure 20 compromise between gain, directivity, com-
THE SIX- SHOOTER BROADSIDE ARRAY pactness, mechanical simplicity, ease of ad-
justment, and bandwidth, when the addi-
tional array width and greater directivity
if twin lead is used the coupling can be made are not obtainable. The free -space directiv-
negligible simply by separating the two ity gain is approximately 7.5 db over one
twin -lead lines by at least two inches and element, and the practical DX signal gain
twisting one twin lead so as to effect a trans- over one element at the same average ele-
position every foot or so. vation is of about the same magnitude when
When tuned feeders are employed, the the array is sufficiently elevated. To show
Bi- Square array can be used on half fre- up to best advantage the array should be
quency as an end -fire vertically polarized elevated sufficiently to put the lower ele-
array, giving a slight practical DX signal ments well in the clear, and preferably at
least 0.5 wavelength above ground.
The Bobtail Another application of
Bidirectional vertical orientation of the
Broadside Curtain radiating elements of an
array in order to obtain
low -angle radiation at the lower end of the
high -frequency range with low pole heights
is illustrated in figure 21. When precut to
C100VF
the specified dimensions this single -pattern
DIMENS ONS array will perform well over the 7 -MHz
40M.
32a
COAXIAL LIN! D1 e0'0- 120'
SOM.
amateur band or the 4 -MHz amateur phone
D2 33' SO' band. For the 4 -MHz band, the required
D3 20' 703S' 34'7000' two poles need be only 70 feet high, and
the array will provide a practical signal gain
Figure 21 averaging from 7 to 10 db over a horizontal
BOBTAIL BIDIRECTIONAL BROADSIDE half -wave dipole utilizing the same pole
CURTAIN FOR THE 7 -MHz OR THE height when the path length exceeds 2500
4.0 -MHz AMATEUR BANDS miles.
The horizontal directivity is only moder-
This simple vertically polarized array pro-
vides low angle radiation and response with ate, the beam width at the half -power points
comparatively low pole heights, and is very being slightly greater than that obtained
effective for DX work on the 7 -MHz band or from three cophased vertical radiators fed
the 4.0 -MHz phone band. Because of the
phase relationships, radiation from the hori- with equal currents. This is explained by the
zontal portion of the antenna is effectively fact that the current in each of the two
suppressed. Very little current flows in the
ground lead to the coupling tank; so an elab- outer radiators of this array carries only
orate ground system is not required, and the about half as much current as the center -
length of the ground lead is not critical so driven element. While this binomial current
long as it uses heavy wire and is reasonably
short. distribution suppresses the end -fire lobe that
ve
1"-EA:;/
B' T-
- a 0i
flowing in the ground connection is com-
paratively small. A stake or pipe driven a
few feet in the ground will suffice. How-
ever, the ground lead should be of heavy
I
wire and preferably the length should not
IS, 7. exceed about 10 feet at 7 MHz or about 20
EACH
SIDE
RADIATOR feet at 4 MHz in order to minimize reactive
L
C. 50 Pf
effects due to its inductance. If it is impos-
sible to obtain this short a ground lead, a
TUNE FOR MIN MUM 150 -OHM BALANCED LINE
P/CRUP OFF REAR
OF REAM.
STUB
1A E.
=10' TO TUNING UNIT OR
TRANSMITTER.
piece of screen or metal sheet about four
SPACCO S"
feet square may be placed parallel to the
earth in a convenient location and used as
NOTE: S /OE LENirH= 11 FOR 21 MHI
IT' 7. FOR II MN: an artificial ground. A fairly high C /L ratio
ELEMENT SPACING DO' FOR EACH RAND.
STU* LENGTH APPROX. 15" FOR 21 MHz
20 FOR IAM/I
ordinarily will be required in the antenna
tank in order to obtain adequate coupling
Figure 22 and loading.
THE CUBICAL QUAD ANTENNA FOR
THE 10 -, 15 -, OR 20 -METER BANDS 22 -7 The Cubical
Quad Beam
occurs when an odd number of parallel ra- The Cubical Quad may be thought of as
diators with half -wave spacing are fed equal a smaller version of the Bi- Square antenna.
currents, the array still exhibits some high - The radiator loop consists of a wavelength
angle radiation and response off the end as of wire folded into a rectangular or dia-
a result of imperfect cancellation in the mond shape, one -quarter of a wavelength
flat -top portion. This is not sufficient to on a side, as shown in figure 22. The direc-
affect the power gain appreciably, but does tor is a similar element placed in an end -
degrade the discrimination somewhat. fire position, and additional directors or a
A moderate amount of sag can be tol- reflector may be added to the driven loop.
erated at the center of the flat top, where it The Quad, when fed at the bottom radiates
connects to the driven vertical element. The a horizontally polarized signal.
poles and antenna tank should be so located A two -element Quad may be composed
with respect to each other that the driven of driven element and director, with the
vertical element drops approximately straight director loop placed about 0.12- wavelength
down from the flat top. distance in front of the driven element.
Normally the antenna tank will be lo- Power gain is about 7 decibels over a dipole
cated in the same room as the transmitter, antenna. A reflector loop placed about 0.12
to facilitate adjustment when changing wavelength behind the two -element assem-
frequency. In this case it is recommended blyforms a three -element Quad having a
that the link- coupled tank be located across power gain of about 8.5 decibels. Quad an-
the room from the transmitter if much tennas for the 20 -, 15 -, or 10 -meter bands
power is used, in order to minimize r -f have been built with up to five elements,
feedback difficulties which might occur as with correspondingly higher gain figures.
a result of the asymmetrical high -impedance Element lengths for the Quad antenna
feed. If tuning of the antenna tank from may be expressed in the circumference of
the transmitter position is desired, flexible the loop, and the following formulas apply
shafting can be run from the antenna tank for high- frequency Quads made of wire
capacitor to a control knob at the trans- and having a square or diamond configura-
mitter. tion:
The lower end of the driven element is
quite "hot" if much power is used, and Circumference of driven element:
the lead -in insulator should be chosen with
this in mind. The ground connection need 1005
(feet)
not have very low resistance, as the current f MHz
HANDBOOK The Cubical Quad Beam 527
22
+ X 4-
PLACES
X
! TMM. X IS" LONG ANGLE IRON
_9p
TYP.
DETAIL 'V
DETAIL A
DETAIL C
B PLACES
f DRILL
4 PLACES
\-I THIN WALL PIPE

X 24 LONG
\-6 "X 6" TUN. X C.R. STEEL PLATE
1 DRILL
PLACES
6 6' 4 E SYM. Ti;

IT 22e
_1_ -
4F4 r 3
SLOT MTG. HOLES r 6"
MATL' - THN. O.R. STEEL PLATE
DETAIL A"
MATL THH. C.R. STEEL PLATE
DETAIL "B"
MATL THA. C.R.
DETAIL "C"
STEEL PLATE
Figure 23
SPIDER CENTER STRUCTURE FOR QUAD ANTENNA
Circumference of director element: If a reflector stub is used, the array may

be adjusted by aiming the back of the an-
975
(feet) tenna at a nearby field- strength meter and
fJ1Hz adjusting the stub capacitor for minimum
received signal at the operating frequency.
Circumference of reflector element: This simple antenna provides high gain
1030
for its size. The elements may be made of
(feet) No. 14 wire with the array built on a light
f MHz framework of bamboo arms with a wooden
A simple two- element Quad for 20, 15, or center structure. For maximum utility and
10 meters is illustrated in figure 22. The longer life, the metal support structure of
elements are shortened a bit over those figure 23 is recommended. Built of conduit
figures derived by formula and adjustable pipe and angle iron, this "spider" will ac-
stubs are included in series with the loop commodate bamboo or Fiberglas arms of suf-
wire to permit tuning to frequency. The ficient length for a 20 -, 15 -, or 10 -meter
Quad is fed with a 300 -ohm balanced TV- Quad, or an interlaced triband version.
type ribbon line and should employ an The "spider" is made in two parts so the
antenna tuner at the transmitter end of the elements may be assembled on the ground
line if a pi- network output stage is used in and carried to the top of the tower for
the transmitter. Alternatively, a 72 -ohm final assembly. Boom length is only two
coaxial line with a balun at the Quad ter- feet, so the entire antenna can be easily
minals may be used for unbalanced feed. supported by a single man.
The radiation resistance of the Quad is Full information on interlaced Quads
about 100 ohms and a reasonably low value and complete Quad designs may be found
of SWR is obtainable across any one amateur in the handbook All About Cubical Quad
band. Antennas,Radio Publications, Wilton,Conn.
CENTER FED TO CENTER END FED

Or FLAT TOP
1- SECTION 1- SECTION
MATCHING STUB
F---L, -4-Di LI -1 I -L2-
2- SECTION 2M S
STUD Of
CONNECT AT
rccoces
r F
p Ls1
4- SECTION
-Ls L3 (171---L3--P-1 L3-.4.64..- L4 L4 D
Figure 24
FLAT -TOP BEAM (8JK ARRAY) DESIGN DATA
A A A
Band S L, L, L:, L, M D (1/4) (t/a) (34) X
40 17' 33'6" 59' 51'8" 43'1" 8'8" 4' 26' 59' 94' 4'
20 8'8" 17' 30' 26'4" 22' 4'9" 2' 13' 30' 48' 2'
15 7'10" 12'8" 22'6" 18'3" 15' 4'0" 1'8" 10'6" 22' 36' 1'6"
10 5'2" 8'6" 15' 12'7" 10' 2'8" 1'6" 7' 15' 24' 1'
D'mension chart for flat -top beam ant . The meanings of the symbols are as follows:
L,, the lengths of the sides of the flap -top sections as shown. L, is length of the
sides of single- section center -fed, L, single- section end -fed and 2- section center fed, L, 4-
sect on center -fed and end -sections of 4- section end -fed, and L. middle sections of 4- section
end -fed.
S, the spacing between the Bat -top wires.
M, the wire length from the outside to the center of each cross -over.
D, the spacing lengthwise between sections.
A (1/4), the approximate length for a quarter -wave stub.
A (1/2), the approximate length for a half -wave stub.
A (J), the approximate length for a three- quarter wave stub.
X, the approximate distance above the shorting wire of the stub for the c ion of a
600 -ohm line. This distance, as given in the table, is approximately correct only for 2-section
flat -tops.
For single -section types it will be smaller and for 4- section types it will be larger.
The lengths given for a half -wave stub are applicable only to single- section center -fed
Aat -tops. To be certain of sufficient stub length, it is advisable to make the stub a foot or
so longer than shown in the table, especially with the end-fed types. The lengths, A, are
measured from the point where the stub c is to the flat -top.
Both the center and end-fed types may be used horizontally. However, where a vertical
antenna is desired, the flat -tops can be turned on end. In this case, the end-fed types may
be more convenient, feeding from the lower end.
them. Hence, this type of bidirectional array

22 -8 End -Fire Directivity is called end -fire. A better idea of end -fire
directivity can be obtained by referring to
By spacing two half -wave dipoles, or figure 10.
collinear arrays, at a distance of from 0.1 Remember that end -fire refers to the rad-
to 0.25 wavelength and driving the two iation with respect to the two wires in the
180 out of phase, directivity is obtained array rather than with respect to the array
through the two wires at right angles to as a whole.
HANDBOOK End -Fire Directivity 529
The vertical directivity of an end -fire bi- stub, or tuning the feeders, if no stub is
directional array which is oriented horizon- used. The data in the table may be extended
tally can be increased by placing a similar to other bands or frequencies by applying
end -fire array a half wave below it, and ex- the proper factor. Thus, for 50- to 52-MHz
cited in the same phase. Such an array is a operation, the values for 28 to 29 MHz are
combination broadside and end -fire affair. divided by 1.8.
All of the antennas have a bidirectional
8JK Flot -Top A very effective bidirectional horizontal pattern on their fundamental
Beam end -fire array is the 81K frequency. The maximum signal is broad-
Flat -Top Bean,. Essentially, side to the flat top. The single- section type
this antenna consists of two close- spaced has this pattern on both its fundamental
dipoles or collinear arrays. Because of the frequency and second harmonic. The other
close spacing, it is possible to obtain the types have four main lobes of radiation on
proper phase relationships in multisection the second and higher harmonics. The nom-
flat tops by crossing the wires at the voltage inal gains of the different types over a half -
loops, rather than by resorting to phasing wave comparison antenna are as follows:
stubs. This greatly simplifies the array. (See single- section, 4 db; two- section, 6 db; four -
figure 24.) Any number of sections may be section, 8 db.
used, though the one- and two -section ar- Although the center -fed type of flat -top
rangements are the most popular. Little generally is to be preferred because of its
extra gain is obtained by using more than symmetry, the end -fed type often is con-
four sections, and trouble from phase shift venient or desirable. For example, when a
may appear. flat -top beam is used vertically, feeding
A center -fed single- section flat -top beam from the lower end is in most cases more
cut according to the table, can be used quite convenient.
successfully on its second harmonic, the pat- If a multisection flat -top array is end -fed
tern being similar except that it is a little instead of center -fed, and tuned feeders are
sharper. The single- section array can also used, stations off the ends of the array can
be used on its fourth harmonic with some be worked by tying the feeders together and
success, though there then will be four working the whole affair, feeders and all, as
cloverleaf lobes, much the same as with a a long -wire harmonic antenna. A single -pole
full -wave antenna. double -throw switch can be used for chang-
If a flat -top beam is to be used on more ing the feeders and directivity.
than one band, tuned feeders are necessary.
The radiation resistance of a flat -top beam The Triplex The Triplex beam is a modified
is rather low, especially when only one sec- Beam version of the flat -top antenna
tion is used. This means that the voltage which uses folded dipoles for the
will be high at the voltage loops. For this half wave elements of the array. The use of
reason, especially good insulators should be folded dipoles results in higher radiation
used for best results in wet weather. resistance of the array, and a high over -all
The exact lengths for the radiating ele- system performance. Three wire dipoles are
ments are not especially critical, because used for the elements, and 300 -ohm twin -
slight deviations from the correct lengths lead is used for the two phasing sections. A
can be compensated in the stub or tuned recommended assembly for Triplex beams
feeders. Proper stub adjustment is covered for 28, 21, and 14 MHz is shown in figure
in Chapter Twenty -four. Suitable radiator 25. The gain of a Triplex beam is about 4.5
lengths and approximate stub dimensions are db over a dipole.
given in the accompanying design table.
Figure 24 shows to views of six types 22 -8 Combination End -Fire
of flat -top beam antennas. The dimensions and Broadside Arrays
for using these antennas on different bands
are given in the design table. Any of the end -fire arrays previously de-
The antennas are tuned to the frequency scribed may be stacked one above the other
used, by adjusting the shorting wire on the or placed end to end (side by side) to give
Figure 24
THE TRIPLEX FLAT -TOP BEAM

ANTENNA FOR 10, 15, AND 20
METERS
MAXIMUM
f-
MAX
4 5
RADIATION
DO
RADIATION
4.5 DS
3000 LINE TO
TRANSMITTER
ANY LENGTH
DIMENSIONS
IOU ISM. 20M MATERIAL
L 13'r al'!. 32'2. W1RlLS.3.ACEb3
S 3'r 7'r 11'
D 7'2 10'7 144 300-01IM MNON
greater directivity gain while maintaining a When two broadside curtains are placed
bidirectional characteristic. However, it one ahead of the other in end -fire relation-
must be kept in mind that to realize a ship, the aggregate mutual impedance be-
worthwhile increase in directivity and gain tween the two curtains is such that con-
while maintaining a bidirectional pattern siderable spacing is required in order to
the individual arrays must be spaced suffi- realize a gain approaching 3 db (the re-
ciently to reduce the mutual impedances to quired spacing being a function of the size
a negligible value. of the curtains) . While it is true that a
When two flat -top beams, for instance, space- directivity gain of approximately 4 db
are placed one above the other or end to can be obtained by placing one half -wave
end, a center spacing on the order of one dipole an eighth wavelength ahead of an-
wavelength is required in order to achieve other and feeding them 180 degrees out of
a worthwhile increase in gain, or approxi- phase, a gain of less than 1 db is obtained
mately 3 db. when the same procedure is applied to two
Thus it is seen that, while maximum gain large broadside curtains. To obtain a gain of
occurs with two stacked dipoles at a spacing approximately 3 db and retain a bidirectional
of about 0.7 wavelength and the space direc- pattern, a spacing of many wavelengths is
tivity gain is approximately 5 db over one required between two large curtains placed
clement under these conditions; the case of one ahead of the other.
two flat -top or parasitic arrays stacked one A different situation exists, however,
above the other is another story. Maximum when one driven curtain is placed ahead of
gain will occur at a greater spacing, and the an identical one and the two are phased so
gain over one array will not appreciably ex- as to give a unidirectional pattern. When a
ceed 3 db. unidirectional pattern is obtained, the gain
HANDBOOK End -Fire Directivity 531
over one curtain will be approximately 3 out of phase, or spaced an even multiple of
db regardless of the spacing. For instance, one half wavelength and driven in the same
two large curtains one placed a quarter phase. The optimum spacing and phase rela-
wavelength ahead of the other may have a tionship will depend on the directivity
space- directivity gain of only 0.5 db over pattern of the individual curtains used
one curtain when the two are driven 180 alone, and as previously noted the optimum
degrees out of phase to give a bidirectional spacing increases with the size and directiv-
pattern (the type of pattern obtained with ity of the component arrays.
a single curtain). However, if they are A concrete example of a combination
driven in phase quadrature (and with equal broadside and end -fire array is two Lazy H
currents) the gain is approximately 3 db. arrays spaced along the direction of maxi-
The directivity gain of a composite array mum radiation by a distance of four wave-
also can be explained on the basis of the lengths and fed in phase. The space- directiv-
directivity patterns of the component arrays ity gain of such an arrangement is slightly
alone, but it entails a rather complicated less than 9 db. However, approximately the
picture. It is sufficient for the purpose of same gain can be obtained by juxtaposing
this discussion to generalize and simplify by the two arrays side by side or one over the
saying that the greater the directivity of other in the same plane, so that the two
an end -fire array, the farther an identical ar- combine to produce, in effect, one broad-
ray must be spaced from it in broadside re- side curtain of twice the area. It is obvious
lationship to obtain optimum performance; that in most cases it will be more expedient
and the greater the directivity of a broad- to increase the area of a broadside array
side array, the farther an identical array than to resort to a combination of end -fire
must be spaced from it in end -fire relation. and broadside directivity.
ship to obtain optimum performance and re- One exception, of course, is where two
tain the bidirectional characteristic. curtains are fed in phase quadrature to ob-
It is important to note that while a bi- tain a unidirectional pattern and space-
directional end -fire pattern is obtained with directivity gain of approximately 3 db with
two driven dipoles when spaced anything a spacing between curtains as small as one
under a half wavelength, and while the quarter wavelength. Another exception is
proper phase relationship is 180 degrees re- where very low angle radiation is desired
gardless of the spacing for all spacings not and the maximum pole height is strictly
exceeding one half wavelength, the situation limited. The two aforementioned Lazy H
is different in the case of two curtains arrays when placed in endfire relationship
placed in end -fire relationship to give a bi- will have a considerably lower radiation
directional pattern. For maximum gain at angle than when placed side by side if the
zero wave angle, the curtains should be array elevation is low, and therefore may
spaced an odd multiple of one -half wave- tinder sonic conditions exhibit appreciably
length and driven so as to be 180 degrees practical signal gain.
CHAPTER TWENTY -THREE
VHF and UHF Antennas
The tcry- high -frequency or chf fre- 16 db will make a 25 -watt transmitter
quency range is defined as that range falling sound like a kilowatt at the other station.
between 30 and 300 MHz. The ultrahigh - Even a much simpler and smaller three- or
frequency or uhf range is defined as falling four -element parasitic array having a gain
between 300 and 3000 MHz. This chapter of 7 to 10 db will produce a marked im-
will be devoted to the design and construc- provement in the received signal at the other
tion of antenna systems for operation on station.
the amateur 50 -, 144 -, 235 -, and 420 -MHz However, as all vhf and uhf workers
bands. Although the basic principles of an- know, the most important contribution of a
tenna operation are the same for all fre- high -gain antenna array is in reception. If a
quencies, the shorter physical length of a remote station cannot be heard it obviously
wave in this frequency range and the differ- is impossible to make contact. The limiting
ing modes of signal propagation make it factor in vhf and uhf reception is in almost
possible and expedient to use antenna sys- every case the noise generated within the re-
tems different in design from those used in ceiver itself. Atmospheric noise is almost
the range from 3 to 30 MHz. nonexistent and ignition interference can
almost invariably be reduced to a satisfac-
tory level through the use of an effective
23 -1 Antenna noise limiter. Even with a grounded -grid or
Requirements neutralized triode first stage in the receiver,
the noise contribution of the first tuned
Any type of antenna system usable on the circuit in the receiver will be relatively
lower frequencies may be used in the vhf large. Hence it is desirable to use an antenna
and uhf bands. In fact, simple nondirective system which will deliver the greatest signal
half -wave or quarter -wave vertical antennas voltage to the first tuned circuit for a given
are very popular for general transmission field strength at the receiving location.
and reception from all directions, especially Since the field intensity being produced at
for short -range work. But for serious vhf the receiving location by a remote transmit-
or uhf work the use of some sort of direc- ting station may be assumed to be constant,
tional antenna array is a necessity. In the the receiving antenna which intercepts the
first place, when the transmitter power is greatest amount of wave front (assuming
concentrated into a narrow beam the appar- that the polarization and directivity of the
ent transmitter power at the receiving sta- receiving antenna is proper, will be the an-
tion is increased many times. A "billboard" tenna which gives the best received signal -
array or a Sterba curtain having a gain of to -noise ratio. An antenna which has two
Antenna Requirements 533
square wavelengths of effective area will pick changeover relay become of increasing im-
up twice as much signal power as one which portance as the frequency of transmission is
has one square wavelength area, assuming increased. When coaxial cable is used as the
the same general type of antenna and that antenna transmission line, satisfactory co-
both are directed at the station being re- axial antenna changeover relays with low
ceived. Many instances have been reported reflection can be used.
where a frequency band sounded completely On the 235- and 420 -MHz amateur
dead with a simple dipole receiving antenna bands, the size of the antenna array becomes
but when the receiver was switched to a quite small, and it is practical to mount two
three -element or larger array a considerable identical antennas side by side. One of these
amount of activity from 80 to 160 miles antennas is used for the transmitter, and the
distant was heard. other antenna for the receiver. Separate
transmission lines are used, and the antenna
relay may be eliminated.
Transmission Transmission lines to vhf and
Lines uhf antenna systems may be Effect of Feed A vertical radiator for
either of the parallel- conduc- System on Radiation general- coverage uhf use
tor or coaxial- conductor type. Coaxial line Angle should be made either
is recommended for short runs and closely 1/4- or Va -wavelength
spaced open wire line for longer runs. long. Longer vertical antennas do not have
Waveguides may be used under certain their maximum radiation at right angles to
conditions for frequencies greater than the line of the radiator (unless cophased),
perhaps 1500 MHz but their dimensions and, therefore, are not practical for use
become excessively great for frequencies where greatest possible radiation parallel to
much below this value. Nonresonant trans- the earth is desired.
mission lines will be found to be con- Unfortunately, a feed system which is not
siderably more efficient on these frequen- perfectly balanced and does some radiating,
cies than those of the resonant type. It not only robs the antenna itself of that
is wise to use the very minimum length of much power, but distorts the radiation pat-
transmission line possible since transmission - tern of the antenna. As a result, the pattern
line losses at frequencies above about 100 of a vertical radiator may be so altered that
MHz mount very rapidly. the radiation is bent upwards slightly, and
Open lines should preferably be spaced the amount of power leaving the antenna
closer than is common for longer wave- parallel to the earth is greatly reduced. A
lengths, since a few inches are an appreciable vertical half -wave radiator fed at the bot-
fraction of a wavelength at 2 meters. Radia- tom by a quarter -wave stub is a good exam-
tion from the line will be greatly reduced if ple of this; the slight radiation from the
1 -inch or 11/4-inch spacing is used, rather matching section decreases the power radi-
than the wider spacing used in the uhf ated parallel to the earth by nearly 10 db.
region. It is important, therefore, to decouple the
Ordinary TV -type 300 -ohm ribbon or the transmission line from the antenna with a
new coaxial foam flex line may be used on balun or other matching device to keep
the 2 -meter band for feeder lengths of about current from flowing on the outside of
50 feet or less. For longer runs, either the the shield of a coaxial line.
uhf or vhf TV open -wire lines may be used
with good over-all efficiency. The vhf line Radiator Cross In the vhf region, alu-
is satisfactory for use on the amateur 420 - Section minum tubing is commonly
MHz band. used for dipoles since the
Antenna It is recommended that the radiator length is so short that the expense
Changeover same antenna be used for trans- of large- diameter conductor is relatively
mitting and receiving in the vhf small, even though tubing of 1 -inch cross
and uhf range. An ever -present problem in section is used. With such conductors, the
this connection, however, is the antenna antenna will tune much more broadly, and
changeover relay. Reflections at the antenna often a broad resonance characteristic is
534 VHF and UHF Antennas RADIO
desirable. This is particularly true when an TABLE 1. WAVELENGTHS AND

ANTENNA DIMENSIONS
antenna or array is to be used over an entire
amateur band.
'/2 '/4 0.2
It should be kept in mind that with such Frequency Wave- Wave- 'h -Wave Wave-
large- cross- section radiators, the resonant 1MHZ) length length Dipole length
length of the radiator will be somewhat 50.5 122 61 109.5
shorter, being only slightly greater than 0.90 51.5 120 60 107.5
105.5 47"
52.5 118 59
of a half wavelength for a dipole when 53.5 116 58 103.5
large- diameter pipe is used above 100 MHz. 144 41.0 20.50 38.8
145 40.75 20.36 38.6
Insulation The matter of insulation is of 146 40.5 20.25 38.4 15'/2"
147 40.25 20.12 38.2
prime importance at very -high 148 40.0 20.00 38.0
frequencies. Many insulators that have very 221 26.5 13.25 25.3
low losses as high as 30 MHz show up rather 222 26.4 13.20 25.2 103/4"
223 26.3 13.15 25.1
poorly at frequencies above 100 MHz. Even 224 26.2 13.10 25.0
the low -loss ceramics are none too good 420 13.70 6.90 12.90
where the r -f voltage is high. One of the 430 13.65 6.82 12.75 vv.
440 13.50 6.75 12.60
best and most practical insulators for use at 450 13.35 6.68 12.45
this frequency is polystyrene. It has one
disadvantage, however, in that it is subject
1 -All
dimensions in inches.
to fracture and to deformation in the pres- 2 -For oarasitic director, multiply dipole length
ence of heat. by 0.95.
3 -For oarasitic refiecor, multiply dipole length
It is common practice to design vhf and by 1.05.
4 -For additional directors, multiply dipole length
uhf antenna systems so that the various by 0.94.
radiators are supported only at points of S -Use 1/2" tubing for 50 MHz '/4" tubing for 144
MHz, '/e" tubing for 222 and 432 MHz arrays.
relatively low voltage; the best insulation,
obviously, is air. The voltages on properly
operated untuned feed lines are not high, Experience has shown that there is a great
and the question of insulation is not quite
attenuation in signal strength when using
so important, though insulation still should
crossed polarization (transmitting antenna
be of good grade.
with one polarization and receiving antenna
with the other) for all normal ground -wave
Antenna Commercial broadcasting in contacts on these bands. When contacts are
Polarization the U.S.A. for both frequency being made through sporadic -E reflection,
modulation and television in however, the use of crossed polarization
the vhf range has been standardized on seems to make no discernible difference in
horizontal polarization. One of the main signal strength. So the operator of a station
reasons for this standardization is the fact doing vhf work (particularly on the 50-
that ignition interference is reduced through MHz band) is faced with a problem: If
the use of a horizontally polarized receiving contacts are to be made with all stations
antenna. Amateur practice, however, is di- doing work on the same band, provision
vided between horizontal and vertical polar- must be made for operation on both hori-
ization in the vhf and uhf range. Mobile zontal and vertical polarization. This prob-
stations are often vertically polarized due lem has been solved in many cases through
to the physical limitations imposed by the construction of an antenna array that
the automobile antenna installation. Most of may be revolved in the plane of polarization
the stations doing intermittent or occasional in addition to being capable of rotation in
work on these frequencies use a simple the azimuth plane.
ground -plane vertical antenna for both An alternate solution to the problem
transmission and reception. However, those which involves less mechanical construction
stations doing serious work and striving for is simply to install a good ground -plane
maximum -range contacts on the 50- and vertical antenna for all vertically- polarized
144 -MHz bands almost invariably use hor- work, and then to use a multielement hori-
izontal polarization. zontally polarized array for DX work.
HANDBOOK Horizontally Polarized Antennas 535
_1
i-
1
ANSFORMER
. 1
L VECTOR SUM OF
2 PATTERNS
COAXIAL LINE LOW Z

TO TRANSMITTER TRANSMISSION LINE
TO XMTR
Figure 1
THREE NONDIRECTIONAL HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED ANTENNAS
VHF Antenna Listed in Table i are repre- eter aluminum clothesline wire. The parasitic
Dimensions sentative dimensions for the element should not be painted, as this tends
elements of vhf and uhf an- to detune the element. A light coat of
tenna arrays of the parasitic or collinear Krylon plastic spray may be used to protect
type. Since the length -to- diameter ratio of the element against weather.
antennas above 100 MHz or so is somewhat
smaller than that of high- frequency arrays, 23 -2 Simple Horizontally
and because the arrays are physically smaller,
dimensions are generally given in inches, Polarized Antennas
based on the following formula:
Antenna systems which do not concen-
trate radiation at the very low elevation
Dipole length (inches) - 5600
/MHz
angles are not recommended for vhf and
uhf work. It is for this reason that the
horizontal dipole and horizontally disposed
The dimensions for small (3, 4, or 5 ele- collinear arrays are generally unsuitable for
ment) Yagis may be derived from Table 1, work on these frequencies. Arrays using
based on elements of the listed diameters broadside or end -fire elements do concen-
and using a nominal spacing of 0.2 wave- trate radiation at low elevation angles and
length. If other element spacings are to be are recommended for vhf work. Arrays such
used, the reflector and director elements as the lazy H, Sterba curtain, log- periodic
will have to be readjusted accordingly. beam, and arrays with parasitically excited
Closer reflector driven -element spacing will elements are recommended for this work.
call for a slightly shorter reflector for Dimensions for the first two types of arrays
optimum gain. Closer director driven -ele- may be determined from the data given in
ment spacing will call for a slightly longer the previous chapter, and reference may be
director for optimum gain. Generally speak- made to the Table of Wavelengths given in
ing, anything closer to 0.2- wavelength spac- this chapter.
ing in Yagi arrays tends to reduce the Arrays using vertically stacked horizontal
bandwidth, reduce the driven -element im- dipoles, such as are used by commercial
pedance, and increase the front -to-back television and f -m stations, are capable of
ratio. giving high gain without a sharp horizontal
Vhf and uhf elements may be made of radiation pattern. If sets of crossed dipoles,
small- diameter aluminum tubing, or (in as shown in figure 1A, are fed 90 out of
the case of the 432 -MHz band) %8" diam- phase the resulting system is called a turn-
are a half wavelength apart. The advantage

of this antenna is the simplicity of its feed
system and construction.
23 -3 Simple Vertical -
Polarized Antennas
For general coverage with a single anten-

na, a single vertical radiator is commonly
employed. A two -wire open transmission
line is not suitable for use with this type
antenna, and coaxial polyethylene feed line
such as RG -8 /U is to be recommended.
Figure 2 Three practical methods of feeding the
THREE VERTICALLY POLARIZED
radiator with concentric line, with a mini-
mum of current induced in the outside of
LOW -ANGLE RADIATORS
the line, are shown in figure 2. Antenna A
Shown of A is the "sleeve" or "hypodermic" is known as the sleeve antenna, the lower
type of radiator. At B is shown the ground -
plane vertical, and C shows a modification of half of the radiator being a large piece of
this antenna system which increases the feed - pipe up through which the concentric feed
point impedance to a value such that the sys- line is run. At B is shown the ground -plane
tem may be fed directly from a coaxial line
with no standing waves on the feed line. vertical, and at C a modification of this
latter antenna. In many cases, the antennas
of illustrations A and C have a set of quar-
stile antenna. The 90 phase difference be- ter -wave radials placed beneath the array
tween sets of dipoles may be obtained by to decouple it from the transmission line.
feeding one set of dipoles with a feed line The radiation resistance of the ground -
which is one -quarter wave longer than the plane vertical is approximately 30 ohms,
feed line to the other set of dipoles. The which is not a standard impedance for co-
field strength broadside to one of the dipoles axial line. To obtain a good match, the first
is equal to the field from that dipole alone. quarter wavelength of feeder may be of 52
The field strength at a point at any other ohms surge impedance, and the remainder
angle is equal to the vector sum of the fields of the line of approximately 75 ohms im-
from the two dipoles at that angle. A near- pedance. Thus, the first quarter -wave sec-
ly circular horizontal pattern is produced tion of line is used as a matching transform-
by this antenna. er, and a good match is obtained.
A second antenna producing a uniform, in actual practice the antenna would con-
horizontally polarized pattern is shown in sist of a quarter -wave rod, mounted by
figure 111. This antenna employs three di- means of insulators atop a pole or pipe mast.
poles bent to form a circle. All dipoles are Elaborate insulation is not required, as the
excited in phase, and are center fed. A ba- voltage at the lower end of the quarter -
zooka is included in the system to prevent wave radiator is very low. Self -supporting
unbalance in the coaxial feed system. rods from 0.25 to 0.28 wavelength are ex-
A third nondirectional antenna is shown tended out, as shown in the illustration, and
in figure 1C. This simple antenna is made of connected together. Since the point of con-
two half -wave elements, of which the end nection is effectively at ground potential, no
quarter wavelength of each is bent back insulation is required; the horizontal rods
90 degrees. The pattern from this antenna may be bolted directly to the supporting
is very much like that of the turnstile an- pole or mast, even if of metal. The coaxial
tenna. The field from the two quarter -wave line should be of the low-loss type especially
sections that are bent back are additive be- designed for vhf use. The shield connects to
cause they are 180 degrees out of phase and the junction of the radials, and the inner
HANDBOOK Vertical -Polarized Antennas 537
with the support pipe the impedance is

about 50 ohms.
The number of radial legs used in a
ground -plane antenna of either type has an
important effect on the feed -point imped-
ance and on the radiation characteristics of
TOP APEX CONNECTS TO
INNER CONNECTOR
the antenna system. Experiment has shown
LOWER APEX CONNECTS
TO OUTER CONDUCTOR
AXILES FORMED
OF Sr.EET METAL that three radials is the minimum number
that should be used, and that increasing the
number of radials above six adds substanti-
ally nothing to the effectiveness of the an-
tenna and has no effect on the feed -point
impedance. Measurement shows, however,
that the radials should be slightly longer
than one-quarter wave for best results. A
length of 0.26 wavelength has been found
4r
RG -8/U CABLE
to be the optimum value. This means that
Figure 3
the radials for a 50-MHz ground-plane ver-
tical antenna should be 62" in length.
THE DOUBLE SKELETON CONE
ANTENNA Double Skeleton The bandwidth of the an-
Cone Antenna tenna of figure 2C can be
A skeleton cone has been substituted for the increased considerably by
single element radiator of figure 2C. This
greatly increases the bandwidth. If at least substituting several space- tapered rods for
10 elements are used for each skeleton cone the single radiating element, so that the
and the angle of revolution and element
length are optimized, a low SWR can be ob- "radiator" and skirt are similar. If a suffi-
tained over o frequency range of at least two cient number of rods are used in the skele-
octaves. To obtain this order of bandwidth,
element length L should be approximately 0.2 ton cones and the angle of revolution is
wavelength at the lower frequency end of optimized for the particular type of feed
the band, and the angle of revolution opti- line used, this antenna exhibits a very low
mized for the lowest maximum SWR within
the frequency range to be covered. A greater SWR over a 2 -to -1 frequency range. Such
improvement in the impedance -frequency an arangement is illustrated schematically
characteristic can be achieved by adding
elements than by increasing the diameter of in figure 3.
the elements. With only 3 elements per
"cone" and a much smaller angle of revo- A Nondirectional Half -wave elements may
lution a low SWR can be obtained over a fre-
quency range of approximately 1.3 to 1.0 Vertical Array be stacked in the vertical
when the element lengths are optimized. plane to provide a non -
directional pattern with good horizontal
conductor to the bottom end of the vertical gain. An array made up of four half -wave
radiator. An antenna of this type is moder- vertical elements is shown in figure 4A.
ately simple to construct and will give a This antenna provides a circular pattern
good account of itself when fed at the lower with a gain of about 4.5 db over a vertical
end of the radiator directly by the 52 -ohm dipole. It may be fed with 300 -ohm TV-
RG -8 /U coaxial cable. Theoretically the type line. The feed line should be conducted
standing -wave ratio will be approximately in such a way that the vertical portion of
1.5 -to-1 but in practice this moderate SWR the line is at least one -half wavelength
produces no deleterious effects. away from the vertical antenna elements.
The modification shown in figure 2C A suitable mechanical assembly is shown in
permits matching to a standard 50- or 70- figure 4B for the 144- and 235 -MHz ama-
ohm flexible coaxial cable without a linear teur bands.
transformer. If the lower rods hug the line
and supporting mast rather closely, the feed - A Stacked The sleeve antenna makes
point impedance is about 70 ohms. If they Sleeve Antenna a good omnidirectional ar-
are bent out to form an angle of about 30 for 144 MHz ray for 144 MHz in areas
..ALUMI NUM TUBING

TYP.
23.
TTP
f
TYP.
2'X 2'21B'
220 MHz IBS
2'
j5 f'
WHIP
i-DIA.
-19' 19
l SEMI -LOOSE FIT, 300-OHM
. ALUMINUM CROSS - FEEDLIN
CAR TIGHTENS IT U? 10 DRILL TO PASS
FEED -TNRU
INSULATOR
I
2' X 2'
'N)`10-32
o- 32 +01.1 !
14 PLAGEBI 4
1!
144 MHz
2X4' SLEEVE
300-ONM 20'
TUBULAR
TWINLEAD 300-OHM
FEEDLINE
I9'
J
11 DIA.
19- MAST SECTION
GUYS
20'
2"X4' SLEEVE
144 MHz 18I, 2'DIA.
4 RADIALS
_-I9 o DIA.
Figure 4
NONDIRECTIONAL ARRAYS FOR

144 AND 235 MHz
On right is shown a two-band installation. Figure 5
For portable use, the whole system may easily
be dissembled and carried on a luggage rack SLEEVE ANTENNA FOR 144 MHz
atop a car.
Stacked dipoles provide nondirectional cover-
age with low -angle radiation. The top whip Is
where vertical polarization is used. A double fed by a coaxial line passed up through the
mast section and is insulated from remainder
stack, such as illustrated in figure 5, will of the antenna structure. Lower dipole is
provide low -angle radiation and a power composed of mast section and matching skirt
which is grounded to the mast at the top.
gain of about 3 decibels. The array is de- Bottoms of both skirts are free. Radials be-
signed to be fed with a 50 -ohm coaxial neath bottom section impede flow of antenna
transmission line. current on outside of coaxial line.
The antenna is built on an eight -foot
length of aluminum TV mast section, 11/8" a simple dipole. Directly below the sleeves
diameter. A quarter -wavelength whip ex- are mounted four quarter -wave horizontal
tends from the top of the assembly, and radials which decouple the stacked antenna
two sleeves are mounted to the mast sec- from the outer shield of the coaxial trans-
tion below the whip. Both sleeves are elec- mission line.
trically connected to the mast at their tops, Antenna construction is straightforward
and the bottom sleeve is shock -excited by and simple. The top of the mast is closed
the top antenna array, which functions as with an aluminum plug (B) having a
HANDBOOK The Discone Antenna 539
ceramic feedthrough insulator mounted in broad band characteristics and permits a

it. The vertical whip attaches to the insula- simple, rugged structure. This antenna pre-
tor, as does the center conductor of the sents a substantially uniform feed -point im-
coaxial feedline. The outer shield of the line pedance, suitable for direct connection of a
is grounded to the mast section at the in- coaxial line, over a range of several octaves.
sulator. The outer sleeve (A) is attached Also, the vertical pattern is suitable for
to the mast section by means of machine ground -wave work over several octaves, the
screws tapped into the aluminum plug. gain varying only slightly over a very wide
The lower sleeve is attached to the mast frequency range.
in a similar manner, as shown in the draw- A Discone antenna suitable for multiband
ing. The radials, made of aluminum clothes- amateur work in the uhf /vhf range is shown
line wire are threaded and screwed to an schematically in figure 6. The distance (D)
aluminum mounting cylinder (similar to B) should be made approximately equal to a
which encircles the mast. free -space quarter wavelength at the lowest
Three aluminum fittings (B) are re- operating frequency. The antenna then will
quired: one for the top sleeve, one for the perform well over a frequency range of at
lower sleeve, and one for the radials. The least 8 to 1. At certain frequencies within
top fitting is shown in figure 5. The cen- this range the vertical pattern will tend to
ter one is similar, except that it is drilled rise slightly, causing a slight reduction in
to pass the mast section. The fitting for the gain at zero angular elevation, but the re-
radials is similar to the center one, except duction is very slight.
that the V4 -inch lip at the top is omitted. Below the frequency at which the slant
The length of the fitting is such so that height of the conical skirt is equal to a free -
the inner resonant portion of the sleeve is space quarter wavelength the standing -wave
slightly shorter than the outer section. The ratio starts to climb, and below a frequency
outer section acts as a portion of the antenna approximately 20 percent lower than this
and the inner section acts as a decoupling
transformer. The resonant lengths are dif-
ferent for each case, and the length of the
fitting makes up the electrical difference.
The sleeves are free at the lower ends,
with no connection or support at this point.
Care must be taken to make the assembly
waterproof, as an accumulation of moisture
in the sleeve may detune it. Plugs at the
bottom of the sleeves, therefore, are not ad-
vised.
The 50-ohm coaxial transmission line runs
up the inside of the mast to the top fitting
where the outer shield is grounded to the
structure by means of a washer placed be-
neath the feedthrough insulator. The shield
is soldered to a lug of the washer, which may Figure 6
be cut from thin brass or copper shim stock.
THE DISCONE BROADBAND
When fed with a S0 -ohm transmission RADIATOR
line, the measured SWR across the 144 -MHz
band is less than 2/1, and better than 1.5/1 This antenna system radiates a vertically
polarized wave over a very wide frequency
at the center frequency of 146 MHz. range. The "disc" may be made of solid
metal sheet, a group of radials, or wire
screen; the "cone" may best be constructed
by forming a sheet of thin aluminum. A single
23 -4 The Discone Antenna antenna may be used for operation on the
S0 -, 144 -, and 220 -MHz amateur bands. The
vertically polar- dimension D is determined by the lowest fre-
The Discone antenna is a
quency to be employed, and is given in
ized omnidirectional radiator which has very figure 7.
the standing -wave ratio climbs very rapidly.

This is termed the cutoff frequency of the 400
antenna. By making the slant height approx-
imately equal to a free -space quarter wave- 300
length at the lowest frequency employed
(refer to figure 7), an SWR of less than 200
1.5 will be obtained throughout the oper- 160
ating range of the antenna. 160
The Discone antenna may be considered 140
as a cross between an electromagnetic horn 120

110
and an inverted ground-plane unipole an- 100
.
tenna. It looks to the feed line like a prop- 90

60
erly terminated high -pass filter. 70
Construction Details 60
The top disc and the
conical skirt may be so
03 1 0 1 5 2 26 S 3
fabricated either from sheet metal, screen D IN FEET
(such as "hardware cloth "), or 12 or more
"spine" radials. If screen is used, a support- Figure 7
ing framework of rod or tubing will be DESIGN CHART FOR THE DISCONE
necessary for mechanical strength except at ANTENNA
the higher frequencies. If spines are used,
they should be terminated on a stiff ring phase. The circularly polarized wave may be
for mechanical strength, except at the high- either "left handed" or "right handed," de-
er frequencies. pending on whether the vertically polar-
The top disc is supported by means of ized component leads or lags the horizontal
three insulating pillars fastened to the skirt. component.
Either polystyrene or low-loss ceramic is A circularly polarized antenna will re-
suitable for the purpose. The apex of the spond to any plane polarized wave whether
conical skirt is grounded to the supporting horizontally polarized, vertically polarized,
mast and to the outer conductor of the
coaxial line. The line is run down through ...ROUND OR SQUARE TRANSMIT
the supporting mast. An alternative arrange- GROUND SCREEN
RECEIVE
ment, one suitable for certain mobile appli-
cations, is to fasten the base of the skirt
directly to an effective ground plane such
G
as the top of an automobile.
COAX FEED POINT (RG -63/U)

23 -5 Helical Beam AT CENTER OP
GROUND SCREEN
Antennas
D-4} S3. Go.6A L'1.44
CONDUCTOR DIA. a APPROX. 0.17 A
Most vhf and uhf antennas are either ).WAVELENGTH IN FREE SPACE
vertically polarized or horizontally polar-
ized (plane polarization). However, circu- Figure 8
larly polarized antennas having interesting THE HELICAL BEAM ANTENNA
characteristics which may be useful for
certain applications. The installation of such This type of directional antenna system gives
excellent performance over a frequency range
an antenna can effectively solve the problem of 1.7 to 1.8 to 1. Its dimensions are such
of horizontal versus vertical polarization. that it is ordinarily not practical, however,
for use as a rotatable array on frequencies
A circularly polarized wave has its energy below about 100 MHz. The center conductor
divided equally between a vertically polarized of the feed line should pass through the
component and a horizontally polarized ground screen for connection to the feed
point. The outer conductor of the coaxial line
component, the two being 90 degrees out of should be grounded to the ground screen.
HANDBOOK Helical Beam Antennas 541
or diagonally polarized. Also, a circular po- diameter equal to approximately D/2 should
larized wave can be received on a plane be centered on the screen and soldered to it.
polarized antenna, regardless of the polari- Tin, galvanized iron, or sheet copper is
zation of the latter. suitable. The outer conductor of the RG-
When using circularly polarized antennas 63/U (125 -ohm) coax is connected to this
at both ends of the circuit, however, both plate, and the inner conductor contacts the
must be left handed or both must be right helix through a hole in the center of the
handed. This offers some interesting possibil- plate. The end of the coax should be taped
ities with regard to reduction of interference. with Scotch electrical tape to keep water
At the time of writing, there has been no out.
standardization of the "twist" for general
amateur work. The Helix It should be noted that the beam
Perhaps the simplest antenna configura- proper consists of six full turns.
tion for a directional beam antenna having The start of the helix is spaced a distance of
circular polarization is the helical lrnl S/2 from the ground screen, and the con-
which consists simply of a helix working ductor goes directly from the center of the
against a ground plane and fed with coaxial ground screen to the start of the helix.
line. In the uhf and the upper vhf range Aluminum tubing in the 2014 alloy
the physical dimensions are sufficiently small grade is suitable for the helix. Alternatively,
to permit construction of a rotatable struc- lengths of the relatively soft aluminum
ture without much difficulty. electrical conduit may be used. In the vhf
When the dimensions are optimized, the range it will be necessary to support the
characteristics of the helical beam antenna helix on either two or four wooden long -
are such as to qualify it as a broadband an- erons in order to achieve sufficient strength.
tenna. An optimized helical beam shows The longerons should be of the smallest
little variation in the pattern of the main cross section which provides sufficient rigid-
lobe and a fairly uniform feed -point im-
pedance averaging approximately 125 ohms
over a frequency range of as much as 1.7
to 1. The direction of "electrical twist"
(right or left handed) depends on the direc-
tion in which the helix is wound.
A six -turn helical beam is shown sche-
matically in figure 8. The dimensions shown
will give good performance over a frequency
range of plus or minus 20 percent of the
design frequency. This means that the di-
mensions are not especially critical when the
array is to be used at a single frequency or
over a narrow band of frequencies, such as
an amateur band. At the design frequency
the beam width is about 50 degrees and the
power gain about 12 db, referred to a non -
directional circularly polarized antenna.
Figure 9
The Ground Screen For the frequency range
100 to 500 MHz a suit- CONSTRUCTION OF THE CORNER
able ground screen can be made from REFLECTOR ANTENNA
"chicken wire" poultry netting of 1 -inch Such an antenna is capable of giving high
mesh, fastened to a round or square frame gain with a minimum of complexity in the
of either metal or wood. The netting should radiating system. It may be used either with
horizontal or vertical polarization. Design
be of the type that is galvanized after weav- data for the antenna is given in the Corner -
ing. A small, sheet -metal ground plate of Reflector Design Table.
ity, and should be given several coats of On the 144 -MHz band the beam width is
varnish. The ground ph ne butts against the approximately 60 degrees to the half -power
longerons and the whole assembly is sup- points, while the power gain is approximate-
ported from the balance point if it is to be ly 11 db over a nondirectional circularly
rotated. polarized antenna. For high -band TV cov-
Aluminum tubing in the larger diameters erage the gain will be 12 to 14 db, with a
ordinarily is not readily available in lengths beam width of about 50 degrees, and on the
greater than 12 feet. In this case several 220 -MHz amateur band the beam width
lengths can be spliced by means of short will be about 40 degrees with a power gain
telescoping sections and sheet -metal screws. of approximately 15 db.
The tubing is closewound on a drum and The antenna system will receive vertical-
then spaced to give the specified pitch. ly polarized or horizontally polarized signals
Note that the length of one complete turn with equal gain over its entire frequency
when spaced is some hat greater than the range. Conversely, it will transmit signals
circumference of a circle having the diam- over the same range, which then can be
eter D. received with equal strength on either hor-
izontally polarized or vertically polarized
Broad -Band A highly useful vhf heli- receiving antennas. The standing -wave ratio
144- to 225 -MHz cal beam which will re- will be very low over the complete fre-
Helical Beam ceive signals with good quency range if RG -63/U coaxial feed line
gain over the complete is used.
frequency range from 144 through 255
MHz may be constructed by using the fol-
lowing dimensions (180 MHz design cen- 23 -6 The Corner- Reflector
ter) :
and Horn -Type Antennas
D 22 in.
S 16IAin. The corner -reflector antenna is a good
G 53 in. directional radiator for the vhf and uhf
Tubing o.d. 1 in. region. The antenna may be used with the
radiating element vertical, in which case the
The D and S dimensions are to the center directivity is in the horizontal or azimuth
of the tubing. These dimensions must be plane, or the system may be used with the
held rather closely, since the range from driven element horizontal, in which case
144 through 255 MHz represents just about the radiation is horizontally polarized, and
the practical limit of coverage of this type most of the directivity is in the vertical
of antenna system. plane. With the antenna used as a hori-
zontally polarized radiating system the array
High -Band Note that an array construc- is a very good low -angle beam array al-
TV Coverage ted with the above dimensions though the nose of the horizontal pattern is
will give unusually good high - still quite sharp. When the radiator is ori-
band TV reception in addition to covering ented vertically the corner reflector operates
the 144- and 220 -MHz amateur bands and very satisfactorily as a direction- finding an-
the taxi and police services. tenna.
TABLE 2. CORNER -REFLECTOR DESIGN DATA

Corner Freq. Feed Approx.
Angle Band, MHz R S H A L G !mused. Gain, db
90 50 110" 82" 140" 200" 230" 18" 72 10
60 50 110" 115" 140" 230" 230" 18" 70 12
60 144 38" 40" 48" 100" 100" 5" 70 12
60 220 24.5" 25" 30" 72" 72" 3" 70 12
60 420 13" 14" 18" 36" 36" screen 74 12
NOTE: Refer to figure 9 for construction of corner-reflector antenna.
HANDBOOK Corner Reflectors and Horns 543
Design data for the corner-reflector an-

tenna is given in figure 9 and in Table 2,
Corner -Reflector Design Data. The planes
which make up the reflecting corner may A
be made of solid sheets of copper or alu- 450-OHM TV LINE
minum for the uhf bands, although spaced
wires with the ends soldered together at
ANGLE BETWEEN
top and bottom may be used as the reflector SIDES OF HOHN =60
on the lower frequencies. Copper screen may

also be used for the reflecting planes. D ZA-A GAIN (DB)
7 400 3
The values of spacing given in the corner - 420 9 TWO SIDES MADE
reflector chart have been chosen such that 2). 390 1S
OF WIRE MESH
the center impedance of the driven element

would be approximately 70 ohms. This means Figure 11
that the element may be fed directly with
70 -ohm coaxial line, or a quarter -wave THE 60 HORN ANTENNA FOR USE ON
FREQUENCIES ABOVE 144 MHz
matching transformer such as a Q- section
may be used to provide an impedance match
between the center impedance of the element A modified type of horn antenna may still
and a 460 -ohm line constructed of No. 12 be used on these frequencies, since only one
wire spaced 2 inches. particular plane of polarization is of interest
In many uhf antenna systems, waveguide to the amateur. In this case, the horn an-
transmission lines are terminated by pyra- tenna can be simplified to two triangular
midal born antennas. These horn antennas sides of the pyramidal horn. When these
(figure 10A) will transmit and receive two sides are insulated from each other,
either horizontally or vertically polarized direct excitation at the apex of the horn by
waves. The use of waveguides at 144 and 235 a two -wire transmission line is possible.
MHz, however, is out of the question be- In a normal pyramidal horn, all four
cause of the relatively large dimensions triangular sides are covered with conducting
needed for a waveguide operating at these material, but when horizontal polarization
low frequencies. alone is of interest (as in amateur work)
only the vertical areas of the horn need be
used. If vertical polarization is required,
only the horizontal areas of the horn are
employed. In either case, the system is uni-
directional, away from the apex of the
horn. A typical horn of this type is shown
in figure 10B. The two metallic sides of the
horn are insulated from each other, and
OA UHF HORN ANTENNA
the sides of the horn are made of small
mesh "chicken wire" or copper window
screening.
A pyramidal horn is essentially a high -
pass device whose low- frequency cutoff is
reached when a side of the horn is % wave-
length. It will work up to infinitely high
frequencies, the gain of the horn increasing
O VHF HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED HORN by 6 db every time the operating frequency
is doubled. The power gain of such a horn
Figure 10 compared to a half -wave dipole at frequen-

cies higher than cutoff is:
TWO TYPES OF HORN ANTENNAS
The "two -sided horn" of Illustration III may be
fed by means of an open-wire transmission
line.
Power gain (db) - 8.4 A2
a2
where A is the frontal area of the mouth of TOP VIEW
the horn. For the 60- degree horn shown in

figure 8B the formula simplifies to:
Power gain (db) = 8.4 D', when D is
expressed in terms of wavelength.
When D is equal to one wavelength, the
power gain of the horn is approximately 9
db. The gain and feed -point impedance of 0 = TILT ANGLE RI, R2=3 ACN
the 60- degree horn are shown in figure 11. N9OONMSONINDOCTE IVE
A 450-ohm open -wire TV -type line may be L 1
used to feed the horn.

Figure 13
23 -7 VHF Horizontal VHF RHOMBIC ANTENNA

Rhombic Antenna CONSTRUCTION
For vhf transmission and reception in a 40'; and minus 30',; from the design fre-
fixed direction, a horizontal rhombic permits quency. This coverage is somewhat less than
10 to 16 db gain with a simpler construc- that of a high- frequency rhombic used for
tion than does a phased dipole array, and has sky -wave communication. For ground -wave
the further advantage of being useful over a transmission or reception the only effective
wide frequency range. vertical angle is that of the horizon, and a
Except at the upper end of the vhf range frequency range greater than 2 to 1 cannot'
a rhombic array having a worthwhile gain is be covered with a rhombic array without an
too large to be rotated. However, in loca- excessive change in the vertical angle of
tiens 75 to 150 miles from a large metropol- maximum radiation or response.
itan area a rhombic array is ideally suited The dimensions of a vhf rhombic array are
for working into the city on extended (hor- determined from the design frequency
izontally polarized) ground wave while at and figure 12, which shows the proper tilt
the same time making an ideal antenna for angle (see figure 13) for a given leg length.
TV reception. The gain of a rhombic array increases with
The useful frequency range of a vhf leg length. There is not much point in con-
rhombic array is about 2 to 1, or about plus structing a vhf rhombic array with legs
shorter than about 4 wavelengths, and the
beam width begins to become excessively
75.
sharp for leg lengths greater than about 8
70
wavelengths. A leg length of 6 wavelengths
is a good compromise between beam width
65 and gain.
The tilt angle given in figure 12 is based
60 on a wave angle of zero degrees. For leg
6 METERS 2 METERS, HIGH -
55 AND LOW -BAND BAND TV, AND
TV 11/4 METERS
$
50 (side) 90' 32'
2A 47. 6A 6A 10A
L
SIDE LENGTH, S
(length) 166' 10" 59' 4"
W
Figure 12 (width) 67' 4" 23' 11"
S = 6 wavelengths at design frequency
VHF RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN Tilt angle = 68
CHART TABLE 3.
The optimum tilt angle (see figure 13) for DIMENSIONS FOR TWO DUAL-PURPOSE
"zero- angle" radiation depends on the length
of the sides. RHOMBIC ARRAYS
HANDBOOK The Log- Periodic Antenna 545
lengths of 4 wavelengths or longer, it will

be necessary to elongate the array a few
percent (pulling in the sides slightly) if
the horizon elevation exceeds about 3 de-
grees.
Table 3 gives dimensions for two dual
purpose rhombic arrays. One covers the
6 -meter amateur band and the "low" tele-
vision band. The other covers the 2 -meter
amateur band, the "high" television band,
and the 11/4-meter amateur band. The gain
is approximately 12 db over a matched half
wave dipole and the beam width is about
6 degrees.
The Feed Line The recommended feed line
is an open -wire line having a
surge impedance between 450 and 600 ohms.
With such a line the SWR will be less than
2 to 1. A line with two -inch spacing is
suitable for frequencies below 100 MHz,
but one -inch spacing is recommended for
higher frequencies. Figure 14
The Termination SPIRAL ANTENNA STRUCTURE

If the array is to be used
only for reception, a suit- This equiangular spiral antenna structure
able termination consists of two 390 -ohm frequency independent antenna as
es as a
its shape is entirely specified by angles. The
carbon resistors in series. If 2 -watt resistor; shape of the antenna, when expressed In
are employed, this termination also is suit- terms of operating wavelength, is the same
for any frequency. The structure is fed at the
able for transmitter outputs of 10 watts or center (point F) and the arm length is infinite.
less. For higher powers, however, resistors
having greater dissipation with negligible
reactance in the upper vhf range are not in figure 14) is described by angles alone,
readily available. with no characteristic length. Practical
For powers up to several hundred watts a structures of this type are finite in size,
suitable termination consists of a "lossy" thus limiting the frequency -independent be-
line consisting of stainless -steel wire (cor- havior. Variations of this basic design may
responding to No. 24 or 26 gauge) spaced take the form of toothed structures, such
2 inches, which in turn is terminated by two as illustrated.
390 -ohm 2 -watt carbon resistors. The dissi- An outgrowth of this form of wideband
pative line should be at least 6 wavelengths antenna is the log -periodic dipole array (fig-
long. ure 15) which is well suited to vhf and uhf
work. This interesting antenna is made up
of dipole elements whose lengths are deter-
23 -8 The Log- Periodic mined by the angle they subtend from the
Antenna apex point, and whose distance from the apex
is such as to provide the log -periodic be-
Frequency-independent antennas, of which havior. The dipoles are fed at the center
the Log -periodic array is an example, are from a parallel -wire line in such fashion
structures that have the same perform- that successive dipoles come out from the
ance at different frequencies by virtue of line in opposite directions, equivalent to a
the fact that the array is self -scaling and 180 phase shift between elements. A broad-
has no dimensions that are frequency sen- band log- periodic structure is thus formed,
sitive. A basic self -scaling structure (shown with most of the radiation coming from
Ss- - _ , - -S2
3 LO LI
EIS E s
E,e Eis
E12 E 1
E9
Es
E7
Es
Es
Es
E3
E2
Ei
ss"
ALUMINUM CLAMP
TYP /CAL
f ALUMINUM TUBING 3"

SUPPORT BLOCK
10t>BOOMS
10-32 HARDWARE
SLOTS FOR 10 -32 END VIEW OF ARRAY
yLONG
I I
BOOM SUPPORT BLOCKS (MAKES) r .'-- i
L -P VAGI DIMENSIONS
ELEMENT (L) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LENGTH
SPACING (S)
14
-
171_
10
I9iF
si
1s
sT
13
4 sT
11l 101
Si
Figure 15
91-
Si
91
54
B
Si
7ai-
Si 3
4
9} 9 s}
21
eI
of
%
LOG -PERIODIC ANTENNA FOR 140 TO 450 MHz

Vhf log- periodic dipole array is built on double -boom structure made of two lengths of
aluminum tubing spaced by insulated support blocks. Elements coded black are attached to
the top boom and elements coded white are attached to the lower boom. The coaxial trans-
mission line is inserted in the rear of one boom and passed through the boom, which acts
as a balancing device. Center conductor is attached to opposite boom, and shield is attached
to balancing boom.
those dipole elements in the vicinity of a relationship to the included angle of the
half -wavelength long. The bandwidth of the structure and the length.
structure is thus limited by the length of An easily constructed log -periodic antenna
the longest and shortest elements, which must is the log - periodic dipole array, a two- dimen-
be approximately a half -wavelength long sional structure made up of a series of
at the extreme frequency limits of the an- dipoles, fed at the center in such a way
tenna array. Gain and bandwidth of the that adjacent dipoles are out of phase. The
log- periodic antenna thus bear a definite array is fed at the apex and the elements
HANDBOOK The Log -Periodic Antenna 547
are excited from a parallel -wire transmis- The coaxial line is passed through one
sion line which, if properly designed, may boom from the rear and connection to both
serve as the support structure for the dipoles. booms is made at the nose of the array. The
The dipole array, in effect, is a balanced outer braid of the line is connected to the
transmission line with elements fed from boom through which the line passes, and the
each line, each set of elements reversed in center conductor connects to the opposite
feed polarity. The limiting structure, is a boom. Type -N coaxial connectors are recom-
two -element array, and amateur versions of mended for use in this frequency region.
this device are often termed the "ZL-
Special" antenna.
The balanced log- periodic dipole structure A L -P Yogi A yagi antenna consists of a
may be fed with an unbalanced coaxial line for 50 MHz driven element plus parasitic
by using the support structure as a balun, elements to increase the gain
feeding the coaxial line back from the feed - and directivity of the radiation pattern over
point through the structure toward the rear. that of a dipole. The number of parasitic
elements, their length and spacing with
respect to the driven element determine the
A L -P Dipole Array A practical L -P dipole characteristics of the parasitic yagi antenna.
for 140 -450 MHz array for the vhf spec- As gain and directivity increase, bandwidth
trum is shown in figure decreases, limiting the ultimate usefulness of
15. The antenna has a power gain over a this antenna over a complete amateur band,
dipole of about 7 decibels and may be fed especially at 10 meters and above. To in-
with a 50 -ohm coaxial transmission line. crease the bandwidth of the array, the log -
The maximum SWR on the transmission periodic principle used for broadband an-
line, after adjustment of the boom spacing tennas may be applied to the parasitic beam.
is better than 2.5/1 over the entire range. The log -periodic yagi array consists of
The L -P array is built on a twin boom made log- periodic elements, interpersed with para-
of 1/2-inch diameter, heavy -wall aluminum sitic reflectors and directors to form individ-
tubing. Two lengths of material are clamped ual cells, differing in size by a geometric con-
together to form a low- impedance transmis- stant. The driven element in each cell is
sion line 86" long. The clamps may be made fed by a common balanced transmission line.
of hard wood, or other good insulating ma- A variation of the log- periodic principle
terial. An impedance match between the aris used in the parasitic antenna described in
ray and the transmission line is effected by this section. This L -P yagi antenna is com-
varying the spacing of the boom, which posed of a five element log- periodic section
changes the impedance of the transmission designed to cover the 50- to 52 -MHz range
line created by the proximity of the booms and is used in conjunction with three par-
to each other. asitic director elements mounted in front
Alternate halves of successive dipole ele- of the log- periodic section. A top view of
ments are fastened to a boom section by the antenna is shown in figure 16. The an-
threading the element, and affixing it to a tenna exhibits about 12 decibels forward gain
clamp, as shown in the illustration. Ele- and compares nearly identically with an
ment spacings are measured from the rear 8- element yagi mounted on a 30 -foot boom.
of the array and are rounded off to the The over -all length of the L -P yagi is only
nearest quarter inch. about 181/2 feet and it provides improved
When the array is completed, all elements bandwidth performance and smaller size
lie in the same plane, with successive ele- than the comparable yagi array.
ments off center from the supporting struc- This antenna configuration was designed
ture by virtue of the alternate feed system and developed by the Swan Antenna Co.,
employed. Boom spacing should be set as 646 No. Union St., Stockton, Calif. and is
shown in the drawing, and later adjusted manufactured by that company for amateur
for minimum SWR on the coaxial trans- and television use. Thanks is given to Mr.
mission line at the various frequencies of Oliver Swan for permission to publish this
interest. description of this unusual antenna.
m
0
BOOM
-14..15}.+1542o - 35 49 11- 7 1
Figure 16
L -P YAGI ANTENNA FOR SIX METERS

This design combines bandwidth of log-periodic structure with gain of yogi antenna. L -P yogi
may be built on IT/2-inch diameter boom, about 19 feet long. L -P elements are insulated
from boom by mounting on insulating blocks. Yogi elements are grounded to boom at their
center point. The antenna is fed with a balanced 70 -ohm ribbon line at the feedpoint and
the L -P transmission line is made up of No. 8 aluminum clothesline wire, criss -cross connected
between the elements. Rear element is shorted with six -inch loop of aluminum wire. The
spacing between the inner tips of the L -P elements is 3t/2 inches.
23 -9 VHF Yogi Beam Short, large- diameter elements have low. Q

and are not practical in parasitic arrays.
Antennas Thus the yagi array becomes critical in ad-
justment and marginal in operation in the
The multielement rotary beam is un- upper reaches of the vhf spectrum. Yagi
doubtedly the most popular type of vhf antennas can be made to work at 432 MHz
antenna in use. In general, the design, assem- and higher, but their adjustment is tedious,
bly and tuning of these antennas follows and preference is given to broadside arrays
a pattern similar to that used for the larger
having relatively large spacings between
rotary arrays used on the lower- frequency elements and high impedance. The yagi an-
amateur bands. The characteristics of the tenna, however, remains "the antenna to
latter antennas are discussed in the next beat" for the 50-, 144 -, and 220 -MHz ama-
chapter of this Handbook, and the informa- teur bands.
tion contained in that chapter applies in The yagi antennas shown in this section
general to the vhf beam antennas discussed are of all -metal construction with the ele-
herewith. ments directly grounded to the boom. Either
a gamma -match system, T match, or folded -
Element Lengths Optimum length for par- dipole element may be used on the arrays.
asitic elements in vhf ar- For short lengths of transmission line, 50-
rays is a function of element spacing and ohm low -loss coaxial cable is recommended
the diameter of the element. To hold a for use with a gamma match, or with folded
satisfactory length /diameter ratio, the diam- dipole or T match and a coaxial balun.
eter of the element must decrease as the Longer line lengths should be made up of
frequency of operation is raised. At very- 300 -ohm TV -type "ribbon" line or open -
high frequencies, element length is so short wire TV -type transmission line. Care should
that the diameter of a self -supporting ele- be taken to keep the ribbon or open -wire
ment becomes a large fraction of the length. lines clear of nearby metallic objects.
HANDBOOK VHF Yagi Beam Antennas 549
DRIVEN
REFLECTOR ELEMENT DIRECTOR FEED SYSTEMS
L =116 L'IIl- L =Io6
T- MATCH
r 32- w
SOPF7r3l`SOPF IZ
300 OHM LINE OR SO OHM
LINE PLUS HALF WAVE
BOOM, BALUN
GAMMA MATCH
j.13! 4
Figure 17
36- - 36"
THREE -ELEMENT YAGI BEAM

RADIUS
FOR SIX METERS TO FIT -4 -- T
ELEMENT
This all-aluminum array is a popular six -

meter antenna. Available in kit form (Hy- r
Gain), it also may easily be constructed from RADIUS TO
available aluminum tubing. Elements are FIT BOOM
clamped to the boom and either a T match, ELEMENT CLAMP MATCHING ROD CLAMP
Gamma match, or split- driven -element feed MAME 6 MIME I OR 1
system used. T match with half -wave coaxial Figure 18
balun is recommended system for ease in SIX -METER BEAM ASSEMBLY
adjustment. Brass or aluminum hardware
should be employed to p ion of Element clamps are fabricated from soft
elements due to weather. aluminum strip. All joints should be cleaned
and d with Penetrox paste to p
corrosion. Elements may be made of sections
Yogi Beams All- aluminum beam antennas of telescoping tubing. Diameters between
one inch and one -half inch are recommended.
for 6 and 2 are easy to construct for the b-
and 2 -meter amateur bands. The
three -clement array is very popular for gen- porarily mounted atop a step ladder, in the
eral 6 -meter operation, and up to ten ele- clear, and fed with a few watts of power
ments are often used for DX work on this from the station transmitter. An SWR meter
band. The four -element array is often used or reflectometer is placed in the line near
on 2 meters, either horizontally or ver- the antenna and the length of the T sections
tically polarized, and arrays having as many and the series capacitors are adjusted to pro-
as twelve to fifteen elements are used for vide the lowest value of SWR on the trans-
meteor -scatter and over -horizon work on mission line. The capacitors are varied in
144 MHz. unison to preserve the symmetry of balance.
Shown in figures 17 and 18 is a simple The capacitors should be enclosed in a weath-
three -element array for the 6 -meter band. erproof box and mounted at the center of
The design frequency is 50.5 MHz, and the the T section.
beam is capable of operation over the 50- A four -element array for the 2 -meter
to 51 -MHz frequency span. The antenna band is shown in figures 19 and 20. Dimen-
may be fed from a 50 -ohm coaxial line with sions are given for a center frequency of
a half -wave balun and T match as shown 146 MHz. The antenna provides a power
in the illustration. The supporting boom is gain of about 9 decibels over a dipole and
made of a length of 1 Va -inch diameter is capable of good operation over the com-
aluminum TV mast section, and the ele- plete 2 -meter band. For optimum operation
ments are made of 1/2-inch diameter alum- at the low end of the band, all element
inum tubing. The elements are mounted in lengths should be increased by one -half inch.
position by drilling the boom to pass the Antenna construction is similar to the
element and then clamping the joint as 6 -meter array in that an aluminum section
shown in the drawing. of tubing is used for the boom and the ele-
The T -match system must be properly ments are passed through holes drilled in
resonated at the center frequency of antenna the boom. One -quarter inch aluminum
operation. To do this, the antenna is tern- tubing is used for the elements. The T match
DRIVEN
REFLECTOR ELEMENT DIRECTOR DIRECTOR
L=40' L=36' L.36- L=36' FEED SYSTEM
N 5 -
30 PF 30 PF
BOO 300 OHM LINE OR 50 OHM

LINE PLUS HALF WAVE
B ALUN
HALF WAVE BALUN

,SOLDER
OUTER
BRAIDS
V 16'
TOGETHER
Figure 19
RG-6A/U RG-6A/U
FOUR- ELEMENT YAGI BEAM L=2T}
FOR TWO METERS
Figure 20
Light aluminum is employed for easy -to-build
two meter beam. Reynolds "Do It Yourself"
aluminum, available at many hardware and TWO -METER BEAM ASSEMBLY
building supply stores may be used. Construc-
tion is similar to six -meter array. If boom
diameter is about one inch, the boom may polarization. Conversely, the vertical pattern
be drilled for the elements, which are then
held in place by a sheet -metal screw through is sharper when the antenna system is ori-
boom and element. ented for horizontal polarization.
The changeover from one polarization to
and coaxial balun are used to match the the other is accomplished simply by pulling
antenna to a 50 -ohm coaxial transmission on the appropriate cord. Hence, the operation
line. is based on the offset head sketched in
figure 21. Although a wood mast has been
An 8- Element used, the same system may be used with a
Two four -element beams
"Tiltable" Yogi may be stacked to double the pipe mast.
for 144 MHz The 40 -inch lengths of RG -59 /U cable
power gain and to sharpen
( electrical %- wavelength) running from
the pattern of a single beam.
Figure 21 illustrates an 8- element rotary the center of each folded dipole driven ele-
beam for 144 -MHz use. This array can be ment to the coaxial T- junction allow enough
tilted to obtain either horizontal or vertical slack to permit free movement of the main
polarization. It is necessary that the trans- boom when changing polarity. Type RG-
8 U cable is run from the T- junction to
mitting and receiving stations use the same
polarization for the ground -wave signal the operating position. Measured standing -
propagation which is characteristic of this wave ratio was less than 2:1 over the 144 -
frequency range. Although polarization has to 148 -MHz band, with the lengths and
been loosely standardized in various areas spacing given in figure 21.
of the country, exceptions are frequent
enough so that it is desirable that the polari- Construction of Most of the constructional
zation of antenna radiation be easily change- the Array aspects of the antenna array
able from horizontal to vertical. are self- evident from figure
The antenna illustrated has shown a signal 21. However, the pointers given in the fol-
gain of about 11 db, representing a power lowing paragraphs will be of assistance to
gain of about 13. Although the signal those wishing to reproduce the array.
gain of the antenna is the same whether it is The drilling of holes for the small ele-
oriented for vertical or horizontal polariza- ments should be done carefully on accurate-
tion, the horizontal beam width is smaller ly marked centers. A small angular error in
when the antenna is oriented for vertical the drilling of these holes will result in a
- -- 43" 2ND
DIRECTCP
35.5"
IST DIRECTOR
RADIATOR
36"
36'
REFLECTOR
40"
RING BOLT 4e" BOOM MAIN BOOMS- - APPROS O.D.
FILE END TO FIT ELEMENTS-
60 BOOM
60"
RG -59/U CABLES OFFSET PIVOT

EACH 40 LONG HEAD, 1/4"
OURAL
RG -11/U CABLE
SHAPE ENDS OF SHORT PIECES TO -T COAXIAL
TO FIT CONTOUR FITTING
INSULATING ROD. ENDS

CUT DOWN TO GO INTO TUBING
ABOUT
,f./..; i
-- 1
ENDS OF TUBING TERMINALS
WOOD DOWELS IN-
SIDE FOR STRENGTH
AS SHOWN, ANTENNA IS
HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED
PULL TO SWING MAIN BOOM 90

FOR VERTICAL POLARITY.
CONTROL CORDS
RD -B /U CABLE WOOD '252'

ROTATABLE MAST
TO RIG
RADIAL BEARING
Figure 21
CONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF AN EIGHT -ELEMENT TILTABLE 144 -MHz ARRAY
considerable misalignment of the elements ends of the small elements are plugged with
after the array is assembled. The same con- an inch or so of dowel, and the ends of the
sideration is true of the filing out of the antenna booms are similarly treated with
rounded notches in the ends of the main larger discs pressed into place.
boom for the fitting of the two-antenna The ends of the folded dipoles are made
booms. in the following manner: Drive a length of
Short lengths of wood dowel are used dowel into the short connecting lengths of
freely in the construction of the array. The aluminum tubing. Then drill down the cen-
ter of the dowel with a clearance hole for the The main booms were made from % -inch
connecting screw. Then shape the ends of aluminum electrical conduit. Any size of
the connecting pieces to fit the sides of the small tubing will serve for making the
element ends. After assembly the junctions elements. Note that the main boom is
may be dressed with a file and sandpaper mounted at the balance center and not nec-
until a smooth fit is obtained. essarily at the physical center.
The mast used for supporting the array is In connecting the phasing sections be-
a 30 -foot spliced 2 by 2. A large discarded tween the T- junction and the centers of the
ball bearing is used as the radial load bearing folded dipoles, it is important that the cen-
and guy -wire termination. Enough of the ter conductors of the phasing sections be
upper-mast corners were removed with a connected to the same side of the driven
drawknife to permit sliding the ball bearing elements of the antennas. In other words,
down about 9 feet from the top of the when the antenna is oriented for horizontal
mast. The bearing then was encircled by an polarization and the center of the coaxial
assembly of three pieces of durai ribbon to section goes to the left side of the top an-
form a clamp, with ears for tightening tenna, the center conductor of the other
screws and attachment of the guy wires. coaxial phasing section should go to the left
The bearing then was greased and covered side of the bottom antenna.
with a piece of auto inner tube to serve as
protection from the weather. Another junk - Long Yogi For a given power gain, the
box bearing was used at the bottom of the Antennas Yagi antenna can be built light-
mast as a thrust bearing. er, more compact, and with less
DIO DiI
D7
DO
QR /LL HOLES rNouGH BOOM AND

PASS ELEMENTS THROUGH HOLES.
BOOM LENGTH = 24', DIAM. 1

DRIVEN ELEMENT GAIN= 16.1 DB
ELEMENT DIMENSIONS, 2 -METER RAND
ELEMENT LENGTH SPACING

FROM
(D /AM. 7/6 ") 144 IMO 143 YNt 140 MNt 147 Wit DIPOLE
REFLECTOR 41" 404- 4016 19'
DIRECTORS 36r 36 se 364' D1= 7'
D2= 14.5'
DRIVEN ELEMENT D3= 22"
BOOM
38.5'
\ - -.
-
CLEARANCE HOLE
FOR BOLT
-
D4= 38"
D5= 70
De= 102'
D7= 134'
REWIRE FOR 300 I1

De=1ee"
'INSULATING FLATTEN
MATCH. PLATE TURING 09= 198"
610 WIRE FOR 450 a AT ENDS.
MATCH D 10= 230"
D11=242"
Figure 22
DESIGN DIMENSIONS FOR A 2 -METER LONG VAGI ANTENNA
wind resistance than any other type. On the

other hand, if a Yagi array of the same
approximate size and weight as another
antenna type is built, it will provide a higher
order of power gain and directivity than
that of the other antenna.
The power gain of a Yagi antenna in-
creases directly with the physical length of
the array. The maximum practical length is
entirely a mechanical problem of physically
supporting the long series of director ele-
ments, although when the array exceeds a
few wavelengths in length the element
Figure 23
lengths, spacings, and Q's becomes more and
more critical. The effectiveness of the array
TWO -METER LONG YAGI ARRAY depends on a proper combination of the
mutual coupling loops between adjacent di-
Elements are mounted atop boom by means
of small clamps made of soft aluminum strap. rectors and between the first director and
Either folded dipole or T- matching device may the driven element.
be used with antenna. Eight -element beam
similar in construction is manufactured by Practically all work on Yagi antennas
Hy -Gain and sold in kit form. with more than three or four elements has
9
C
16}' PIPE CLAMPS
PERO
TrP.
214
B
TYP TEFLON SPACERS
PEO'D
If
STUB
TO
SHORTING
BAR
AJ 1%2%6D0'
2 PED'
SUPPORT REFLECTORS
PIPE 6 PEO'D.
132 LONG
26"
FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW

-BALUN LINE
t- %0.669
re'lEE TEXT
RG -B /U
BALUN FEED SYSTEM
Figure 24
W6GD EXPANDED BROADSIDE ARRAY FOR TWO METERS
The 16- element beam is made of brass rod suspended from a wooden frame at low-
voltage
points on the antenna. Small ceramic insulators are used to mount the rods. Antenna ele-
ments and lines are aligned by means of small teflon or polystyrene spacer blocks passed
over the rods before they are bent into shape. Half -wave lines are employed in feed
system, together with a full- wavelength transformer and balun to provide a close match to
a 50 -ohm transmission line. Lines and transformer are made up of brass rod and adjustable
shorting bars are used.
554 VHF and UHF Antennas
been on an experimental, cut -and -try basis. has a sharp front lobe, with nulls at 19
Figure 22 provides dimensions for a typical and 42 each side of center and must be
long Yagi antenna for the 2 -meter vhf aimed carefully for best results.
band. Note that all directors have the same All elements are made of 0.175 -inch diam-
physical length. If the long Yagi is designed eter brass rod. The active elements are
so that the directors gradually decrease in made of square "U "s bent from four lengths
length as they progress from the dipole of rod, each 51 1/2 inches long. The half -
bandwidth will be increased, and both side wavelength reflectors are cut of the same
lobes and forward gain will be reduced. material and are 13T/8-inches long. The
One advantage gained from staggered di- W6GD array is built on a wooden frame-
rector length is that the array can be short- work, so designed as to keep the supporting
ened and lengthened by adding or taking structure in back of the array. The driven
away directors without the need for re- elements are self -supporting except for four
tuning the remaining group of parasitic insulating blocks placed at low- voltage
elements. When all directors are the same points. The blocks and spacers are drilled
length, they must be all shortened en masse and slipped on the brass rods before the
as the array is lengthened, and vice versa assembly is bent into shape (figure 24).
when the array is shortened. After assembly, the matching stubs are
silver -soldered to the driven elements and
The W6GD Broadside The extended -expanded the balun and the interconnecting transmis-
Array for 432 MHz broadside array was de- sion line temporarily connected in place. The
signed by the late line is tapped up each stub to attain a low
W6GD of Stanford University and has value of SWR on the coaxial or open -wire
consistently out -performed larger and more transmission line. Placement of the taps is
sophisticated antennas at 432 MHz. The determined by experiment.
W6GD beam is a 16- element beam and A complete discussion of vhf antennas is
has been measured to have 12 decibels power contained in the VHF Handbook, available
gain over a dipole. Extended elements are from Radio Publications, Inc., Wilton,
used with 3/4- wavelength spacing. The array Conn.
CHAPTER TWENTY -FOUR
High -Frequency
RotaryBeam Antennas
The rotatable antenna array has become 24 -1 Unidirectional

almost standard equipment for operation on Parasitic End -Fire Arrays
the 28- and 50 -MHz bands and is common-
ly used on the 14- and 21 -MHz bands and (Yogi Type)
on those frequencies above 144 MHz. The
rotatable array offers many advantages for If a single parasitic element is placed on
both military and amateur use. The direc- one side of a driven dipole at a distance of
tivity of the antenna types commonly em- from 0.1 to 0.25 wavelength the parasitic
ployed (particularly the unidirectional ar- element can be tuned to make the array sub-
rays) offers a worthwhile reduction in inter- stantially unidirectional.
ference from undesired directions. Also, This simple array is termed a two -element
the increase in the ratio of low -angle radia- parasitic beam.
tion plus the theoretical gain of such ar-
rays results in a relatively large increase in
The Two -Element The two -element parasitic
both the transmitted signal and the signal
Beam beam provides the greatest
intensity from a station being received. amount of gain per unit
size of any array commonly used by radio
There are two normal configurations of
amateurs. Such an antenna is capable of a
radiating elements which, when horizontally
polarized, will contribute to obtaining a low signal gain of S db over a dipole, with a
angle of radiation. These configurations are
front -to -back ratio of 7 to 15 db, depend-
the end -fire array and the broadside array. ing on the adjustment of the parasitic ele-
The conventional three- or four -element ro- ment. The parasitic element may be used
tary beam may properly be called a uni- either as a director or as a reflector.
The optimum spacing for a reflector in a
directional parasitic end -fire array, and is two -element array is approximately 0.13
actually a type of yogi array. The flat -top wavelength and with optimum adjustment
beam is a type of bidirectional end -fire ar-
ray. The broadside type of array is also quite of the length of the reflector a gain of
effective in obtaining low -angle radiation, approximately S db will be obtained, with
and, although widely used in f -m and TV a feed -point resistance of about 25 ohms.
broadcasting, has seen little use by amateurs If the parasitic element is to be used as a
in rotatable arrays because of its size. director, the optimum spacing between it
556 High- Frequency Rotary-Beams RADIO
5
50
(71
R 45
S
4 o 40 A `
35 t
z P
m 5 f 30
O N
25
z W
2 20
t, Z ,
oO
F
O 10
00 0
01 0.15 0 2 G25 o 0 1 0.15 0 2 0.25
ELEMENT SPACING (X) ELEMENT SPACING (X)
Figure 1
Figure 2
GAIN VERSUS ELEMENT SPACING FOR A RADIATION RESISTANCE AS A FUNCTION
TWO- ELEMENT CLOSE -SPACED PARASITIC OF THE ELEMENT SPACING FOR A
BEAM ANTENNA WITH PARASITIC ELE- TWO- ELEMENT PARASITIC ARRAY
MENT OPERATING AS A DIRECTOR OR
REFLECTOR
It can be readily observed that operation
of the parasitic element as a reflector pro-
and the driven element is 0.11 wavelength. duces relatively poor front -to -back ratios
The general characteristics of a two -ele- except when the element spacing is greater
ment parasitic array may be seen in figures than 0.15 wavelength. However, at this ele-
1, 2 and 3. The gain characteristics of a ment spacing, the gain of the array begins
two -element array when the parasitic ele- to suffer.
ment is used as a director or as a reflector Since a radiation resistance of 17 ohms is
are shown. It can be seen that the director not unduly hard to match, it can be argued
provides a maximum of 5.3 db gain at a that the best all- around performance may
spacing of slightly greater than 0.1 wave- be obtained from a two -element parasitic
length from the antenna. In the interests of beam employing 0.11 element spacing, with
greatest power gain and size conservation, the parasitic element tuned to operate as a
therefore, the choice of a parasitic director director. This antenna will provide a for-
would be wiser than the choice of a parasitic
reflector, although the gain difference be-
tween the two is small.
Figure 2 shows the relationship between
the element spacing and the radiation resist-
ance for the two -element parasitic array for
both the reflector and the director case.
For either type of array, the radiation re-
sistance falls in the 15- to 25 -ohm region w
for typical spacings.

Figure 3 shows the front -to -hack ratio
for the two -element parasitic array for both 01 0. 5 02 0.25
the reflector and director cases. To produce ELEMENT SPACING (X)
(PARASITIC ELEMENT TUNED FOR MAXIMUM GAIN)
these curves, the elements were tuned for
maximum gain of the array. Better front - Figure 3
to -back ratios may be obtained at the ex- FRONT -TO -BACK RATIO AS A FUNCTION
pense of array gain, if desired, but the gen- OF ELEMENT SPACING FOR A TWO -ELE-
eral shape of the curves remains the same. MENT PARASITIC ARRAY
HANDBOOK The Three -Element Array 557
ward gain of 5.3 db, with a front -to -back 24 -2 The Three - Element
ratio of 10 db, or slightly greater. Closer Array
spacing than 0.11 wavelength may be em-
The three- element array using a director,
ployed for greater front -to -back ratios, but
driven element, and reflector will exhibit as
the radiation resistance of the array becomes much as 30 db front -to-back ratio and 20
quite low, the bandwidth of the array be- db front -to -side ratio for low -angle radia-
comes very narrow, and the tuning becomes tion. The theoretical gain is about 9 db over
quite critical. Thus the Q of the antenna a dipole in free space. In actual practice, the
system will be increased as the spacing be-
array will often show 7 to 8 db apparent
tween the elements is decreased, and smaller
gain over a horizontal dipole placed the
optimum frequency coverage will result. same height above ground (at 28 and 14
Element Lengths When the parasitic element MHz).
The use of more than three elements is
of a two -element array is
desirable when the length of the supporting
used as a director, the following formulas
structure is such that spacings of approxi-
may be used to determine the lengths of the
mately 0.15 wavelength between elements
driven element and the parasitic director,
becomes possible. Four -element arrays are
assuming an element diameter -to- length
ratio of 200 to 400: quite common on the 28- and 50 -MHz
bands, and five elements are sometimes used
Driven element length (feet) - 476
FMwz
for increased gain and discrimination. As
the number of elements is increased the gain
and front -to -back ratio increases but the
Director length (feet) - 450
rail,
bandwidth or frequency range over which
the antenna will operate without reduction
in effectiveness is decreased.
Element spacing (feet) -
120
FNIII
The effective bandwidth taken between

the 1.5 ; 1 standing -wave points of an array
cut to the above dimensions is about 2.5
percent of the operating frequency. This
means that an array precut to a frequency
of 14,150 kHz would have a bandwidth of
350 kHz (plus or minus 175 kHz of the
center frequency) , and therefore would be
effective over the whole 20 -meter band. In
like fashion, a 15 -meter array should be
precut to 21,200 kHz.
A beam designed for use on the 10 -meter
band would have an effective bandwidth of
some 700 kHz. Since the 10 -meter band is
1700 kHz in width, the array should either
be cut to 28,500 kHz for operation in the
low -frequency portion of the band, or to Figure 4
29,200 kHz for operation in the high -fre-
FIVE ELEMENT 28 -MHz BEAM
quency portion of the band. Operation of
ANTENNA AT W6SAI
the antenna outside the effective bandwidth
will increase the SWR on the transmission Antenna boom is made of twenty foot length
of three -inch aluminum irrigation pipe. Spac-
line, and noticeably degrade both the gain ing between elements is five feet. Elements
and front -to -back ratio performance. The are made of twelve foot lengths of 7/8 -inch
height above ground also influences the F 'B aluminum tubing, with extension tips made of
3/4 -inch tubing. Beam dimensions are taken
ratio. from figure S.
558 High- Frequency Rotary -Beams RADIO
Material for The majority of high -fre- 21.45 MHz band, the radiator- to-parasitic
Elements quency beams make use of ele- element spacing may be reduced to 0.12
ments composed of telescoping wavelength, while still maintaining adequate
sections of metal tubing. This configuration array bandwidth for the amateur band in
is easy to construct and avoids the problem question.
of getting sufficiently good insulation at the
ends of the elements. The voltages reach Length of the Experience has shown that
such high values toward the ends of the Parasitic Elements it is practical to cut the
elements that losses will be excessive, unless parasitic elements of a
the insulation is excellent. three -element parasitic array to a predeter-
The elements may be fabricated of thin - mined length before the installation of such
walled steel conduit, or hard -drawn thin - an antenna. A pretuned antenna such as this
walled copper tubing, but durai tubing is will give good signal gain, adequate front -
much better. Dural tubing may be obtained to -back ratio, and good bandwidth factor.
in telescoping sizes from large metal -supply By carefully tuning the array after it is in
houses in many cities. Various manufacturers, position the gain may be increased by a
moreover, supply beam antenna kits of all fraction of a db, and the front -to -back ratio
types and prices. The majority of these by several db. However the slight improve-
beams employ dural elements because of the ment in performance is usually not worth
good weather -capability of this material. the effort expended in tuning time.
The closer the lengths of the parasitic
elements are to the resonant length of the
Element Spacing The optimum spacing for driven element, the lower will be the feed -
a two -element array is, as
point resistance of the driven element, and
has been mentioned before, approximately
the smaller will be the bandwidth of the
0.11 wavelength for a director and 0.13 array. Hence, for wide frequency coverage
wavelength for a reflector. However, when the director should be considerably shorter,
both a director and a reflector are combined and the reflector considerably longer than
with the driven element to make up a three - the driven element. For example, the direc-
element array the optimum spacing is estab- ter should still be less than a resonant half -
lished by the bandwidth which the antenna wavelength at the upper frequency limit of
will be required to cover. Wide spacing (of the range wherein the antenna is to be oper-
the order of 0.25 wavelength between ele- ated, and the reflector should still be long
ments) will result in greater bandwidth for enough to act as a reflector at the lower fre-
a specified maximum standing -wave ratio on quency limit. Another way of stating the
the antenna transmission line. Smaller spac- same thing is to say, in the case of an array
ings may be used when boom length is an to cover a wide frequency range such as the
important consideration, but for a specified amateur range from 28 to 29.7 MHz that the
standing-wave ratio and forward gain the director should be cut for the upper end
frequency coverage will be smaller. Thus the of the band and the reflector for the lower
Q of the antenna system will be increased end of the band. In the case of the 28- to
as the spacing between the elements is de- 29.7 -MHz range this means that the director
creased, resulting in smaller frequency cov- should be about 8 percent shorter than the
erage, and at the same time the feed -point driven element and the reflector should be
impedance of the driven element will be about 8 percent longer. Such an antenna
decreased. will show a relatively constant gain of about
For broad band coverage, such as the 6 db over its range of coverage, and the pat-
range from 28.0 to 29.7 MHz or from 50 tern will not reverse at any point in the
to 54 MHz, 0.2 wavelength spacing from range.
the driven element to each of the parasitic Where the frequency range to be covered
elements is recommended. For narrower is somewhat less, such as the 14.0- to 14.4 -
bandwidth, such as would be adequate for MHz amateur band, or the lower half of
the 14.0- to 14.4 -MHz band or the 21- to the amateur 28 -MHz phone band, the re-
HANDBOOK Feed Systems 559
TYPE
3-ELEMENT
I3-
DRIVEN ELEMENT
LENGTH
473
(No)
FF
REFLECTOR
LENGTH
SOt
501
poll
1ST DIRECTOR
LENGTH
F
445
(ma)
4SOa
- --
2ND DIRECTOR 3RD DIRECTOR SPACING BET- APPROLGAIN APPROX.
LENGTH LENGTH WEENELEMENTS DB
.15 -.15
.25 -.25
7.5
S.S
RADIATIONI
RESISTANCE (A)
20
35
WI
FI7_j
-10W
SO .2 -.2 -.2 5.5 20

I4-ELEMENT F(YNf) F(Wa) F(YNf) F(1Ma)
40
IS-[LEYEN7
47!
F(YNa) (YNf) f (YNaIf 4!O
F (YHa)
.2-.2 -.2-.2 10.0 IS
Figure 5
DESIGN CHART FOR PARASITIC ARRAYS (DIMENSIONS GIVEN IN FEET)
flector should be about 5 percent longer than the two gains, or 20 db. A group of arrays
the driven element, and the director about S of yagi antennas, with recommended spac-
percent shorter. Such an antenna will per- ing and approximate gains, is illustrated
form well over its rated frequency band, in figure 6.
will not reverse its pattern over this band,
and will show a signal gain of 7 to 8 24 -3 Feed Systems for
db. See figure 5 for design figures for Parasitic (Yogi) Arrays
3- element arrays.
The table of figure 5 gives, in addition to
More Than A small amount of additional
Three Elements gain may be obtained through
other information, the approximate radia-
tion resistance referred to the center of the
use of more than two parasitic driven element of multielement parasitic
elements, at the expense of reduced feed - arrays. It is obvious, from these low values
point impedance and lessened bandwidth. of radiation resistance, that special care
One additional director will add about 1 db, must be taken in materials used and in the
and a second additional director (making a construction of the elements of the array
total of five elements including the driven to ensure that ohmic losses in the conductors
element) will add slightly less than 1 db will not be an appreciable percentage of the
more. In the vhf range, where the additional radiation resistance. It is also obvious that
elements may be added without much diffi- some method of impedance transformation
culty, and where required bandwidths are must be used in many cases to match the
small, the use of more than two parasitic low radiation resistance of these antenna ar-
elements is quite practical. rays to the normal range of characteristic
impedance used for antenna transmission
Stocking of Parasitic arrays (yagis) may be lines.
Yogi Arrays stacked to provide additional
gain in the same manner that Impedance A group of possible methods of
dipoles may be stacked. Thus if an array of Matching impedance matching is shown
six dipoles would give a gain of 10 db, the in figures 7, 8, 9, and 10. All
substitution of yagi arrays for each of the these methods have been used but certain
dipoles would add the gain of one yagi ar- of them offer advantages over some of the
ray to the gain obtained with the dipoles. other methods. Generally speaking it is
However, the yagi arrays must be more not mechanically desirable to break the
widely spaced than the dipoles to obtain this center of the driven element of an array
theoretical improvement. As an example, if for feeding the system. Breaking the driven
six S- element yagi arrays having a gain of element rules out the practicability of build-
about 10 db were substituted for the di- ing an all -metal type of array, and imposes
poles, with appropriate increase in the spac- mechanical limitations with any type of
ing between the arrays, the gain of the construction. However, when continuous
whole system would approach the sum of rotation is desired, an arrangement such as
H- 0 2 A - WH--0 2 A --
02 A-04*-O.2A-14-0.2 AtiD-O.2A+i
501 445
F NNI Fun/
FEEDER INE DIRECTIONAL
OGAIN ABOUT 12 DB
WITH 2 SECTIONS
FEEDER LINE
GAIN ABOUT IS DB
WITH 3 SECTIONS
Figure 6
STACKED YAGI ARRAYS

It is possible to attain a relatively large amount of gain over a limited bandwidth with
stacked yogi arrays. The two -section array at A will give a gain of about 12 db, while
adding a third section will bring the gain up to about 15 db. Adding two additional parasitic
directors to each section, as at C will bring the gain up to about 17 db.
shown in figure 9D utilizing a broken The feed systems shown in figure 7 will,
driven element with a rotatable transformer under normal conditions, show the lowest
for coupling from the antenna transmission losses of any type of feed system since the
line to the driven element has proven to be currents flowing in the matching network
quite satisfactory. are the lowest of all the systems commonly
$ R RADIATION
Di FOR Di' D2 irLFo '4
roi D1' 1-
t O FEED
D2 D2 o.
1AD Rs
' 8.9
FOLDED - ELEMENT FOR D1' l'
MATCH D2..23 =10.5
5.1.5"
D1' 1'
FOR
D2'.2s-
S RAD.
16
Figure 7
D FORD 1-R DATA FOR

1 S' s- 11 FOLDED- ELEMENT
T 012 WIRE
FOR
7112
D. ,-
S'
wine
a- ?- RAD.
14
MATCHING SYSTEMS
In all normal applications of
rom D',- the data given the main ele-
S f.s- - 18
ment as shown is the driven
012 WIRE RA D.
FOR Dai- element of a multi element

*2
S 1-
w1RE
'24 parasitic array. Directors and
reflectors have not been shown
FOR D. I- for the sake of clarity.
S. f- 32
012 WIRE RAO.
RIMED . 9
14761
3 -WIRE MATCH
used. The folded -element match shown in necessary to multiply the ratio of feed to
figure 7A and the Yoke match shown in radiation resistance (given in the figures to
figure 7B are the most satisfactory, electrical- the right of the suggested operating dimen-
ly, of all standard feed methods. However, sions in figure 7) by the radiation resistance
both methods require the extension of an of the antenna system to obtain the imped-
additional conductor out to the end of the ance of the cable to be used in feeding the
driven element as a portion of the matching array. Approximate values of radiation re-
system. The folded- element match is best sistance for a number of commonly used
on the 50 -MHz band and higher where the parasitic- element arrays are given in figure 5.
additional section of tubing may be sup- In many cases it will be desired to use the
ported below the main radiator element with- folded -element or yoke matching system
out undue difficulty. The yoke -match is
more satisfactory mechanically on the 28-
with different sizes of conductors or differ-
and 14 -MHz bands since it is only neces- ent spacings than those shown in figure 7.
sary to suspend a wire below the driven ele- Note, then, that the impedance transforma-
ment proper. The wire may be spaced below tion ratio of these types of matching systems
the self- supporting element by means of is dependent both on the ratio of conductor
several small strips of polystyrene which diameters and on their spacing. The follow-
have been drilled for both the main element ing equation may be used for the deter-
and the small wire and threaded on the mination of the impedance transformation
main element. when using different diameters in the two
sections of a folded element:
The Folded- Element The calculation of the
Match Calculations operating conditions of Z,
the folded -element Transformation ratio =
matching systems and the yoke match, as
`l+Z-
shown in figures 7A and 7B is relatively In this equation Z, is the characteristic im-
simple. A selected group of operating con- pedance of a line made up of the smaller of
ditions has been shown on the drawing of the two conductor diameters spaced the
figure 7. In applying the system it is only center-to- center distance of the two con-
L
W-I41% L-t--ux L
pA DELTA MATCH DIMENSIONS SHOWN GIVE

APPROX. MATCH TO 50041
AIN - SPACED LINE
Figure 8 L
I4%L+4sL
AVERAGE DIMENSIONS
FOR THE DELTA AND
"T" MATCH
DI .302
'T' MATCH
ZOO O. OR300 O.
TWIN LINE
ductors in the antenna, and Z_ is the char- transmission line when using these match-
acteristic impedance of a line made up of ing systems, it is common practice to cut
two conductors the size of the larger of the the feed line, after standing waves have
two. This assumes that the feed line will be been reduced to a minimum, to a length
connected in series with the smaller of the which will give satisfactory loading of the
two conductors so that an impedance step - transmitter over the desired frequency
up of greater than four will be obtained. If range of operation.
an impedance step -up of less than four is The inherent reactance of the T -match is
desired, the feed line is connected in series tuned out by the use of two identical reso-
with the larger of the two conductors and nating capacitors in series with each leg of
Z, in the above equation becomes the im- the T -rod. These capacitors should each
pedance of a hypothetical line made up of have a maximum capacity of S pf per meter
the larger of the two conductors and Z, is of wavelength. Thus for 20 meters, each
made up of the smaller. The folded vhf uni- capacitor should have a maximum capaci-
pole is an example where the transmission tance of at least 160 pf. For power up to a
line is connected in series with the larger of kilowatt, 1000 -volt spacing of the capaci-
the two conductors. tors is adequate. These capacitors should be
tuned for minimum SWR on the trans-
The Delta Match mission line. The adjustment of these ca-
The delta match and the
and T -Match T -match are shown in fig- pacitors should be made at the same time
the correct setting of the T -match rods is
ure 8. The delta match has
made as the two adjustments tend to be in-
been largely superseded by the newer T-
match, however, both these systems can be terlocking. The use of the standing -wave
adjusted to give a low value of SWR on meter (described in Test Equipment chap-
ter) is recommended for making these ad-
50- to 600 -ohm balanced transmission lines. justments to the T- match.
In the case of the systems shown it will be
necessary to make adjustments in the tap-
ping distance along the driven radiator un- Four methods of exciting
Feed Systems Using
til minimum standing waves on the antenna a Driven Element the driven element of a
transmission line are obtained. Since it is with Center Feed parasitic array are shown
sometimes impractical to eliminate com- in figure 9. The system
pletely the standing waves from the antenna shown at A has proven to be quite satisfac-
0 COAXIAL CABLE
WITH
DIRECT FEED
QUARTER -WAVE
TRANSFORMER FEED
75 A TWIN LINE
450 -400 A LINE Figure 9
TRANSFORMER ALTERNATE FEED

MATCHING SYSTEM METHODS WHERE THE
DRIVEN ELEMENT MAY
28 441 - 4 TURNS 2" DIA.. 2' LONG
BE BROKEN IN THE
ANT. TAPPED 1 TURN EACH SIDE
500-600A LINE 14 MHz - 8 TURNS 2' DIA., 2" LONG CENTER

ANT. TAPPED 2 TURNS EACH SIDE
COIL SPACED
APPROX. 0.5" . C
COILS 10
DIAMETER
I
0 COUPLING
-LINK
ROTARY
TURN LINKS ARE PARALLEL

C IS 200 PF VARIADLE
50 -400 A LINE
tory in the case of an antenna -reflector two - rotary joint must be made in the feed line.
element array or in the case of a three -ele- One relatively simple method of allowing
ment array with 0.2 to 0.25 wavelength unrestrained rotation of the antenna is to
spacing between the elements of the antenna use the method of rotary -link coupling
system. The feed -point impedance of the shown in figure 9D. The two coupling rings
center of the driven element is close enoueh are 10 inches in diameter and are usually
to the characteristic impedance of the 52- constructed of 1/4-inch copper tubing sup-
ohm coaxial cable that the standing -wave ported one from the rotating structure and
ratio on the 52 -ohm coaxial cable is less one from the fixed structure by means of
than 2 -to -I. B shows an arrangement for standoff insulators. The capacitor (C in
feeding an array with a broken driven ele- figure 9D) is adjusted, after the antenna
ment from an open -wire line with the aid has been tuned, for minimum standing -
of a quarter -wave matching transformer. wave ratio on the antenna transmission line.
The dimensions shown will allow operation
Rotary-Link In many cases it is desirable to with either 14- or 28 -MHz elements, with
Coupling be able to allow the antenna ar- appropriate adjustment of capacitor C. The
ray to rotate continuously with- rings must of course be parallel and must lie
out regard to snarling of the feed line. If in a plane normal to the axis of rotation of
this is to be done some sort of slip rings or the rotating structure.
L 'FLAT. LINE RESONANT

SWR =1.0 SECTION
TO TRANSMITTER ANY ANTENNA

SIMPLE OR COI' ZLEX
o
Dim 3D2
MATCHING STUB
52-OHM
COAX CABLE
Figure 11
Figure 10
IMPEDANCE MATCHING WITH A CLOSED
THE GAMMA MATCHING SYSTEM STUB ON A TWO -WIRE TRANSMISSION
LINE
See text for details of resonating capacitor
The Gomma Match The use of coaxial cable The Matching Stub If an open -wire line is
to feed the driven ele- used to feed a low- imped-
ment of a yagi array is becoming increas- ance radiator, a section of the transmission
ingly popular. One reason for this increased line may be employed as a matching stub as
popularity lies in the fact that the TVI- shown in figure 11. The matching stub can
reduction problem is simplified when coaxial transform any complex impedance to the
feed line is used from the transmitter to the characteristic impedance of the transmission
antenna system. Radiation from the feed line. While it is possible to obtain a perfect
line is minimized when coaxial cable is match and good performance with either
used, since the outer conductor of the line an open stub or a shorted one by observing
may be grounded at several points through- appropriate dimensions, a shorted stub is
out its length and since the intense field is much more readily adjusted. Therefore, the
entirely confined within the outer conductor following discussion will be confined to the
of the coaxial cable. Other advantages of problem of using a closed stub to match a
coaxial cable as the antenna feed line lie in low- impedance load to a high- impedance
the fact that coaxial cable may be run with- transmission line.
in the structure of a building without dan- If the transmission line is so elevated that
ger, or the cable may be run underground adjustment of a "fundamental" shorted
without disturbing its operation. Also, trans- stub cannot be accomplished easily from the
mitting -type low -pass filters for 52 -ohm ground, then the stub length may be in-
impedance are more widely available and are creased by exactly one or two electrical half
less expensive than equivalent filters for two - wavelengths, without appreciably affecting
wire line. its operation.
The gamma -match is illustrated in figure While the correct position of the shorting
10, and may be considered as one -half of a bar and the point of attachment of the stub
T- match. One resonating capacitor is used, to the line can be determined entirely by
placed in series with the gamma rod. The experimental methods, the fact that the two
capacitor should have a capacity of 7 pf adjustments are interdependent, or inter-
per meter of wavelength. For 15 -meter locking, makes such a cut -and -try procedure
operation the capacitor should have a maxi- a tedious one. Much time can be saved by
mum capacitance of 105 pf. The length of determining the approximate adjustments
the gamma rod determines the impedance required by reference to a chart such as
transformation between the transmission figure 12 and using them as a starter. Usual-
line and the driven element of the array, ly only a slight "touching up" will produce
and the gamma capacitor tunes out the in- a perfect match and flat line.
ductance of the gamma rod. By adjustment In order to utilize figure 12, it is first nec-
of the length of the gamma rod, and the essary to locate accurately a voltage node or
setting of the gamma capacitor, the SWR current node on the line in the vicinity that
on the coaxial line may be brought to a very has been decided on for the stub, and also to
low value at the chosen operating frequency. determine the SWR.
HANDBOOK Unidirectional Driven Arrays 565
w1IIII1
.,
x
z
3
<
z3/34
J
J2/ri
C.11
7/]4
1/!6
.. \
,_:'111u
o
w11101
.11111111
wIIIII
'
11111I1
-"111=1=1111111=11...
ROY
111111111
Iw"\\- 111II
.1101
11111
..
.r11111n
:..8'
"11111111:!11111
O I11i="111
It is assumed that the characteristic im-
pedance of the section of line used as a
stub is the same as that of the transmission
line proper. It is preferable to have the
stub section identical to the line physically
as well as electrically.
A Stub Bolan for

a 14 -MHz Yogi Beam
A short, loaded match -
ing stub may be com-
bined with a balun
transformer to provide a good match be-
O
2 3 4 B tween a 50-ohm coaxial line and a low -
SWR
impedance feedpoint of a typical 3- element
Figure 12
20 -meter parasitic beam antenna (figure
SHORTED -STUB LENGTH AND POSITION 13) . The unit shown is designed to match
CHART a load impedance in the range of 17 to 25
from the standing -wave ratio and current or ohms.

voltage null position it is possible to deter- The stub balun is built of two sections
mine the theoretically correct length and of 1/z -inch diameter tubing. One section is
position of a shorted stub. In actual prac-
tice a slight discrepancy usually will be about 40" long, and the other section is
found between the theoretical and the ex- about 44" long and has a coaxial receptacle
perimentally optimized dimensions; therefore on one end. The tubes are separated about
it may be ne ary to "touch up" the di-
mensions after using the above data as a 33/8 ". An adjustable shorting bar is placed
starting point. at the transmission -line end of the assembly.
A short length of RG -8 /U coaxial line, with
Stub adjustment becomes more critical as the outer jacket and braid removed is run
the SWR increases, and under conditions of from the coaxial receptacle, through the
high SWR the current and voltage nulls are longer tube and out the free end. The wire is
more sharply defined than the current and left long enough to cross -connect to the op-
voltage maxima, or loops. Therefore, it is posite balun tube. A variable capacitor is
best to locate either a current null or volt- placed across the free end of the balun, as
age null, depending on whether a current - shown.
indicating device or a voltage- indicating The balun is placed directly at the center
device is used to check the standing -wave of the driven element of the beam antenna.
pattern. Length of the balun, the capacitance setting,
The SWR is determined by means of a and length of the driven element are the
directional coupler, or by noting the ratio variables that determine the impedance
of Em ax to E,,,;,, or 1,,,;,, to 1nh as read on match. Adjustment of these variables can
an indicating device. provide a unity match at the resonant fre-
quency of the array. The variable capaci-
_,7.. tor should be mounted in a waterproof box
1111.
to protect it from moisture.
^TOCENT ER
- C= '00 PF JC . OF DRIVEN
ELEMENT
24 -4 Unidirectional
SO ONU LINE COAXIAL
CONNECTORS
DIA TUBING
Driven Arrays
Figure 13
Three types of unidirectional driven ar-
COAXIAL STUB BALUN rays are illustrated in figure 14. The array
FOR 14 -MHz BEAM shown in figure 14A is an end -fire system
Matching stub and balun are combined to
which may be used in place of a parasitic
provide balanced feed point for a 50 -ohm array of similar dimensions when greater
transmission line to match low -impedance frequency coverage than is available with
driven element. Balun is designed to be
mounted on beam, at the center of driven ele- the yagi type is desired. Figure 14B is a
ment using short, heavy interc ing leads. combination end -fire and collinear system
DIRECTIONAL in a combination which will show wide

H-+ bandwidth with a considerable amount of
forward gain and good front -to-back ratio
over the entire frequency coverage.
A simple driven array is the so- called
ZL Special, which is one -half the array of
figure 14B. The ZL Special is fed at the
center point of the half -wave elements and
OGAIN ABOUT 0 DO FEED LINE
provides a cardioid pattern with a gain of
about 3 decibels.
DIRECTIONAL
J
GAIN ABOUT 0 DB Unidirectional Stacked Three practical types
Broadside Arrays of unidirectional
stacked broadside ar-
rays are shown in figure 15. The first type,
J shown at figure 15A, is the simple lazy -H
type of antenna with parasitic reflectors for
each element. Figure 15B shows a simpler
antenna array with a pair of folded dipoles
FEED LINE spaced one -half wave vertically, operating
with reflectors. In figure 15C is shown a
DIRECTIONAL more complex array with six half waves
GAIN ABOUT 10 OB and six reflectors which will give a very
worthwhile amount of gain.
In all three of the antenna arrays shown
the spacing between the driven elements
and the reflectors has been shown as one -
quarter wavelength. This has been done to
eliminate the requirement for tuning of the
reflector, as a result of the fact that a half -
wave element spaced exactly one -quarter
wave from a driven element will make a
unidirectional array when both elements are
the same length. Using this procedure will
give a gain of 3 db with the reflectors over
the gain without the reflectors, with only a
FEED LINE
moderate decrease in the radiation resistance
Figure 14
of the driven element. Actually, the radia-
tion resistance of a half -wave dipole goes
UNIDIRECTIONAL ALL -DRIVEN ARRAYS down from 73 ohms to 60 ohms when an
A unidirectional all -driven end-Are array is identical half -wave element is placed one -
shown at A. B shows an array with two half quarter wave behind it.
waves in phase with driven reflectors. A A very slight increase in gain for the en-
lazy-14 array with driven reflectors is shown
at C. Note that the directivity is through the tire array (about 1 db) may be obtained at
elements with the greatest total feed -line the expense of lowered radiation resistance,
length in arrays such as shown at B and C.
the necessity for tuning the reflectors, and
decreased bandwidth by placing the re-
flectors 0.15 wavelength behind the driven
which will give approximately the same gain elements and making them somewhat longer
as the system of figure 14A, but which re- than the driven elements. The radiation re-
quires less boom length and greater total sistance of each element will drop approxi-
element length. Figure 14C illustrates the mately to one -half the value obtained with
familiar lazy -H with driven reflectors (or untuned half -wave reflectors spaced one -
directors, depending on the point of view) quarter wave behind the driven elements.
HANDBOOK Unidirectional Driven Arrays 567
-4 - -
r
O
"LAZY H" WITH REFLECTOR
GAIN APPROX. DS
STUD
30-600 it
BROADSIDE HALF -WAVES

WITH REFLECTORS
FOLDED DIPOLES REfLECTOR3 GAIN APPROX 7 DR
Figure 15
sooft LINO
BROADSIDE ARRAYS
WITH PARASITIC
REFLECTORS
"TWO OVER TWO OVER TWC
WITH REFLECTORS The apparent gain of the ar-
rays illustrated will be
GAIN APPROX. 11.3 DS greater than the values
given due to concentration
of the radiated signal at the
lower elevation angles.
Antenna arrays of the type shown in fig- driven elements of the array is much higher
ure 15 require the use of some sort of lat- than the feed -point resistance of a parasitic
tice work for the supporting structure since array. As a consequence of this fact, arrays
the arrays occupy appreciable distance in of the type shown in figure 15 can be ex-
space in all three planes. pected to cover a somewhat greater fre-
quency band for a specified value of stand-
Feed Methods The requirements for the feed ing -wave ratio than the parasitic type of
systems for antenna arrays of array.
the type shown in figure 15 are less critical In most cases a simple open -wire line may
than those for the close- spaced parasitic ar- be coupled to the feed point of the array
rays shown in the previous section. This is without any matching system. The stand-
a natural result of the fact that a larger ing -wave ratio with such a system of feed
number of the radiating elements are direct- will often be less than 2 -to -1. However, if
ly fed with energy, and of the fact that the a more accurate match between the antenna
effective radiation resistance of each of the transmission line and the array is desired a
conventional quarter -wave stub, or a quar-

ter -wave matching transformer of appro- LINE OF
priate impedance, may be used to obtain a ELEMENTS
low standing -wave ratio. BOOM, MADE

OFSECTIONS
OFSTEEL TV
ALUMINUM PLATE MAST OR OF
ALUMINUM
24 -5 Construction of APPROX.Sx,a
IRRIGATION
TUBING
Rotatable Arrays
A considerable amount of ingenuity may
y
lY' ELEMENT HELD
(2 REO'O) OR
TOPLATE WITH U- BOLTS,
MUFFLER CLAMPS
be exercised in the construction of the sup-

porting structure for a rotatable array. SHIM JOINT WITH THIN
STRECSSAU
RADIATOR
A MP
Every person has his own ideas as to the
12' C_NLER SECTION
best method of construction. Often the ADJUSTABLE SLIT CENTER SECTION TUBE ADJUSTABLE
most practical method of construction will TIP 3AT EACH END. TIP
TYPICAL ELEMENT
be dictated by the availability of certain
types of construction materials, but in any Figure 16
event be sure that sound mechanical en-
3- ELEMENT ALL -METAL
gineering principles are used in the design of
the supporting structure. There are few ANTENNA ARRAY
things quite as discouraging as the picking All -metal configuration permits rugged, light
up of pieces, repairing of the roof, etc., assembly. Joints are made with U -bolts and
metal plates for maximum rigidity.
when a newly constructed rotary comes
down in the first strong wind. If the prin-
ciples of mechanical engineering are under-
stood it is wise to calculate the loads and treated for strength and rigidity. However,
torques which will exist in the various mem- these softer alloys, and aluminum electrical
bers of the structure with the highest wind conduit, may be used for short radiating
velocity which may be expected in the elements such as would be used for the 50-
locality of the installation. If this is not MHz band or as interconnecting conductors
possible it will usually be worth the time in a stacked array.
and effort to look up a friend who under-
stands these principles. All -Metal It is characteristic of the con-
Radiating One Construction ventional type of multiele-
thing more or less standard
Elements about the construction of rotat- ment parasitic array, such as
able antenna arrays is the use of discussed previously and outlined, that the
centers of all the elements are at zero r -f
durai tubing for the self- supporting ele-
ments. Other materials may be used but an potential with respect to ground. It is
alloy known as 2024 has proven over a
therefore possible to use a metallic structure
without insulators for supporting the var-
period of time to be quite satisfactory. Cop-
ious elements of the array. A typical three -
per tubing is too heavy for a given strength,
element array of this type is shown in figure
and steel tubing, unless copper plated, is
16. In this particular array, U -bolts and
likely to add an undesirably large loss re-
metal plates have been employed to fasten
sistance to the array. Also, steel tubing, the elements to the boom. The elements are
even when plated, is not likely to withstand made of telescoping sections of aluminum
salt atmosphere (such as is encountered along tubing. The tips of the inner sections of
the seashore) for a satisfactory period of tubing are split, and a tubing clamp is
time. Do not use a soft aluminum alloy for slipped over the joint, as shown in the
the elements unless they will be quite short; drawing. Before assembly of the point, the
2024 is a hard alloy and is noncorrosive. mating pieces of aluminum are given a
Alloy 2017 and 6061 are also satisfactory, thin coat of Penetrox-A compound. (This
cheaper, and easier to obtain. Do not use al- antioxidizing paste is manufactured by
loys 5052, 2014, or 3003 (EMT), as these Burndy Co., Norwalk, Conn. and is dis-
signify alloys which have not been heat tributed by the General Electric Supply
HANDBOOK Tuning The Array 569
ADDER such as the Johnson 135-67 are recom-

mended, since the all- ceramic types may
break at the mounting holes when the array
is subject to heavy winds.
24 -6 Tuning the Array

ELEMENT HELD TO 2 X 4
BY 2 TV-TYPE U- BOLT
Although satisfactory results may be ob-
tained by precutting the antenna array to
!-47F"---22 X4 BOLTED rO LADOER By
PIECES OFANGLE IRON STOCK dimensions given earlier in this chapter, the
occasion might arise when it is desired to
Figure 17 make a check on the operation of the anten-
na before calling the job complete.
ALTERNATIVE WOODEN SUPPORTING
The process of tuning an array may sat-
ARRANGEMENT
isfactorily be divided into two more or less
A wooden ladder may be used to support a
10 or 15 meter array. distinct steps: the actual tuning of the ar-
ray for best front -to -back ratio or for maxi-
mum forward gain, and the adjustment to
Co.) When the tubes are telescoped and obtain the best possible impedance match
the clamp is tightened, an airtight seal between the antenna transmission line and
is produced, reducing corrosion to a mini-
the feed point of the array.
mum. Tuning the The actual tuning of the array
The boom of the parasitic array may be Array for best front -to -back ratio or
made from two or three sections of steel TV maximum forward gain may
mast, or it may be made of a single section best be accomplished with the aid of a low -
of aluminum irrigation pipe. This pipe is power transmitter feeding a dipole antenna
made by Reynolds Aluminum Co., and (polarized the same as the array being
others, and may often be purchased via the tuned) at least four or five wavelengths
Sears, Roebuck Co. mail -order department. away from the antenna being tuned and
Three -inch pipe may be used for the 10- located at the same elevation as that of the
and 15-meter antennas, and the huskier antenna under test. A calibrated field -
four -inch pipe should be used for a 20 -meter strength meter of the remote -indicating type
beam. is then coupled to the feed point of the
Automobile muffler clamps can often be antenna array being tuned. The transmis-
used to affix the elements to the support sions from the portable transmitter should
plates. Larger clamps of this type will fasten be made as short as possible and the call
the plates to the boom. In most cases, the sign of the station making the test should
muffler clamps are untreated, and they be transmitted at least every ten minutes.
should be given one or two coats of rust- One satisfactory method of tuning the
proof paint to protect them from inclement array proper, assuming that it is a system
weather. All bolts, nuts, and washers used with several parasitic elements, is to set the
in the assembly of the array should be of directors to the dimensions given in figure f
the plated variety to reduce corrosion and and then to adjust the reflector for maxi-
rust. mum forward signal. Then the first director
If it is desired to use a split driven ele- should be varied in length until maximum
ment for a balanced feed system, it is nec- forward signal is obtained, and so on if ad-
essary to insulate the element from the ditional directors are used. Then the array
supporting structure of the antenna. The may be reversed in direction and the reflector
element should be severed at the center, and adjusted for best front -to -back ratio. Sub-
the two halves driven onto a wooden dowel. sequent small adjustments may then be
The element may then be mounted on an made in both the directors and the reflector
aluminum support plate by means of four for best forward signal with a reasonable
ceramic insulators. Metal -based insulators, ratio of front -to -back signal. The adjust-
ments in the directors and the reflector will DRIVEN CLEMENT

be found to be interdependent to a certain n MOV ASLE
SHORTING
degree, but if small adjustments are made GAMMA ROD SAR
after the preliminary tuning process a sat- ANTENNASCOPE
RESONATING
CAPACITOR
isfactory set of adjustments for maximum
performance will be obtained. It is usually
best to make the end sections of the ele-
ments smaller in diameter so that they will GRID- DIP METER
slip inside the larger tubing sections. The
smaller sliding sections may be clamped in-
Figure 18
side the larger main sections.
ADJUSTMENT OF GAMMA MATCH BY USE
Matching to the OF ANTENNASCOPE AND GRID -DIP METER
The problem of matching
Antenna Trans- the impedance of the an-
mission Line tenna transmission line to
the array is much simpli- It must be remembered that no adjust-
fied if the process of tuning the array is ments made at the transmitter end of the
made a substantially separate process as just transmission line will alter the SWR on the
described. After the tuning operation is line. All adjustments to better the SWR
complete, the resonant frequency of the must be made at the antenna end of the line
driven element of the antenna should be and to the device which performs the imped-
checked, directly at the center of the driven ance transformation necessary to match the
clement if practical, with a grid -dip meter. characteristic impedance of the antenna to
It is important that the resonant frequency that of the transmission line.
of the antenna be at the center of the fre- Before any adjustments to the matching
quency band to be covered. If the resonant system are made, the resonant frequency of
frequency is found to be much different the driven element must be ascertained, as
from the desired frequency, the length of explained previously. If all adjustments to
the driven element of the array should be correct impedance mismatch are made at this
altered until this condition exists. A relative- frequency, the problem of reactance termi-
ly small change in the length of the driven nation of the transmission line is eliminated,
clement will have only a second -order effect greatly simplifying the problem. The fol-
on the tuning of the parasitic elements of lowing steps should be taken to adjust the
the array. Hence, a moderate change in impedance transformation:
the length of the driven element may be
made without repeating the tuning process 1. The output impedance of the matching
fer the parasitic elements. device should be measured. An Anten-
When the resonant frequency of the an- nascope and a grid -dip oscillator are
tenna system is correct, the antenna trans- required for this step. The Antenna -
mission line, with impedance -matching de- scope is connected to the output ter-
vice or network between the line and minals of the matching device. If the
antenna feed point, is then attached to the driven element is a folded dipole, the
array and coupled to a low -power exciter Antennascope connects directly to the
unit or transmitter. Then, preferably, a split section of the dipole. If a gamma
standing -wave meter is connected in series match or T -match is used, the An-
with the antenna transmission line at a tennascope connects to the transmis-
point relatively much closer to the trans- sion -line end of the device. If a Q-
mitter than to the antenna. section is used, the Antennascope
If the standing -wave ratio is below 1.5 connects to the bottom end of the
to it is satisfactory to leave the installation
1 section. The grid -dip oscillator is cou-
as it is. If the ratio is greater than this range pled to the input terminals of the
it will be best when twin line or coaxial Antennascope as shown in figure 18.
line is being used, and advisable with open - 2. The grid -dip oscillator is tuned to the
wire line, to attempt to decrease the SWR. resonant frequency of the antenna,
HANDBOOK Indication of Direction 571
which has been determined previously, may be raised to rotatable height and the
and the Antennascope control is turned fastening clamps left loose enough so that
for a null reading on the meter of the elements may be slid in by means of a
the Antennascope. The impedance pre- long bamboo pole. After a series of trials a
sented to the Antennascope by the satisfactory set of adjustments can be ob-
matching device may be read directly tained.
on the calibrated dial of the Antenna - The matching process does not require ro-
scope. tation, but it does require that the antenna
3. Adjustments should be made to the proper be located at as nearly its normal
matching device to present the desired operating position as possible. However, on
impedance transformation to the An- a particular installation the standing -wave
tennascope. If a folded dipole is used ratio on the transmission line near the trans-
as the driven element, the transforma- mitter may be checked with the array in the
tion ratio of the dipole must be varied air, and then the array may be lowered to
as explained previously in this chapter ascertain whether or not the SWR has
to provide a more exact match. If a changed. If it has not, and in most cases if
T -match or gamma match system is the feeder line is strung out back and forth
used, the length of the matching rod well above the ground as the antenna is
may be changed to effect a proper lowered they will not change, the last ad-
match. If the Antennascope ohmic justment may be determined, the standing -
reading is lower than the desired read- wave ratio again checked, and the antenna
ing, the length of the matching rod re- installed in its final location.
should be increased. If the Antenna -
scope reading is higher than the de- 24 -7 Indication of Direction
sired reading, the length of the match- The most satisfactory method for indi-
ing rod should be decreased. After cating the direction of transmission of a ro-
each change in length of the matching tatable array is that which uses Selsyns or
rod, the series capacitor in the match- Synchros for the transmission of the data
ing system should be re- resonated for from the rotating structure to the indicating
best null on the meter of the Anten- pointer at the operating position. A num-
nascope. ber of Synchros and Selsyns of various types
are available on the surplus market. Some
Raising and A practical problem always pres- of them are designed for operation on 11$
Lowering ent when tuning up and match- volts at 60 Hertz, some are designed for
the Array ing an array is the physical lo- operation on 60 Hertz but at a lowered volt-
cation of the structure. If the age, and some are designed for operation
array is atop the mast it is inaccessible for from 400 -Hertz or 800 -Hertz energy. This
adjustment, and if it is located on step- latter type of high -frequency Selsyn is the
ladders where it can be adjusted easily it most generally available type, and the high -
cannot be rotated. One encouraging factor frequency units are smaller and lighter than
in this situation is the fact that experience the 60 -Hertz units. Since the indicating
has shown that if the array is placed 8 or Selsyn must deliver an almost negligible
10 feet above ground on some stepladders amount of power to the pointer which it
for the preliminary tuning process, the rais- drives, the high- frequency types will operate
ing of the system to its full height will not quite satisfactorily from 60 -Hertz power if
produce a serious change in the adjustments. the voltage on them is reduced to somewhere
So it is usually possible to make preliminary between 6.3 and 20 volts. In the case of
adjustments with the system located slightly many of the units available, a connection
greater than head height above ground, and sheet is provided along with a recommenda-
then to raise the antenna to a position where tion in regard to the operating voltage when
it may be rotated for final adjustments. If they are run on 60 Hertz. In any event the
the position of the matching device as de- operating voltage should be held as low as it
termined near the ground is marked so that may be and still give satisfactory transmis-
the adjustments will not be lost, the array sion of data from the antenna to the operat-
CONTROL BOX ANTENNA ROTATOR

- TO PROP MOTOR
S.P SOCKET PLUG SOCKET I PLUG
RELAY
8-CONTACT JONES PLUGS SOCKETS
ROTARY -BEAM CONTROL SYNCHRO.

GENERATOR
D.P.D.T. TOGGLE SWITCH r

INDICATOR
SYNCURO.
PILOT
LIGHT
TO 115-V A.C.
TOGGLE
SWITCH
SOCKET PLUG SOCKET L PLUG
J
DIRECTION INDICATOR
Figure 19
SCHEMATIC OF A COMPLETE ANTENNA CONTROL SYSTEM
ing position. Certainly it should not be influence on the element which resonates at
necessary to run such a voltage on the units a frequency determined by the electrical
that they become overheated. length of the configuration, plus a slight de-
A suitable Selsyn indicating system is gree of loading contributed by the traps.
shown in figure 19. At some higher frequency (generally about
Systems using a potentiometer capable of 1.5 times the lowest operating frequency)
continuous rotation and a milliammeter, the outer set of traps is in a parallel reso-
along with a battery or other source of nant condition, placing a high impedance
direct current, may also be used for the in- between the element and the tips beyond
dication of direction. the traps. Thus, the element resonates at a
frequency 1.5 times higher than that deter-
24 -8 Three -Band Beams
A- ISOLATING TRAPS
popular form of beam antenna intro-
A P 1 ti
duced during the past few years is the so-
called three -band beam. An array of this t
.1
FEED POINT
-ii- Li-
type is designed to operate on three adjacent A
amateur bands, such as the 10 -, 15 -, and AT HIGHEST REQUENCY
20 -meter group. The principle of operation t - -- - RESONANT AT
3
of this form of antenna is to employ INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY
parallel -tuned circuits placed at critical RESONANT AT LOWEST FREQUENCY
positions in the elements of the beam which

serve to electrically connect and disconnect
Figure 20
the outer sections of the elements as the
frequency of excitation of the antenna is TRAP -TYPE "THREE BAND"
changed. A typical three -band element is ELEMENT
shown in figure 20. At the lowest operating Isolating traps permit dipole to be self -
frequency, the tuned traps exert a minimum resonant at three widely different frequencies.
HANDBOOK Three -Band Beams 573
The Isolating The parallel -tuned circuit

Trap which serves as an isolating
trap for a multiband anten-
na should combine high circuit Q with good
environmental protection. A highly satis-
factory trap configuration based on the
original design of W3DZZ is shown in fig-
ure 21. The trap capacitor, which has a
value of about 25 pf, is made of two sec-
tions of aluminum tubing which form a
Figure 21 portion of the antenna element. The capaci-
HIGH -Q ISOLATING TRAP tor dielectric is moulded lucite, or similar
This trap has a Q of nearly 300 and is well
suited for multiband antennas. The coil is
plastic material, given a coat of epoxy to
wound of No. 8 aluminum clothesline wire and help resist crazing and cracking caused by
is 3" in diameter and 3" long. The 15 -meter exposure to sunlight. The coil is wound of
trap has seven turns (illustrated) and the 10-
meter trap has five turns. The capacitor is No. 8 aluminum wire and, with the capacitor
made from two lengths of aluminum tubing, placed within it, has a Q of nearly 300.
coaxially aligned in a lucite dielectric. Ca-
pacitor length is about five inches and tubing The leads of the coil are bent around the
sizes are 3/4 inch and -1/4 inch. Capacitance
1 tubing and a small aluminum block is used
is about 25 pf. Lucite projects from end of to form an inexpensive clamp. If desired,
capacitor to form 1/2 -inch collar which is
coated with epoxy to p t deterioration an aluminum cable clamp may be substituted
of the dielectric under exposure to sunlight. for the homemade device.
Similar traps have been made using teflon as
a dielectric material. Ends of aluminum tubes The isolating trap is usually tuned to the
are slotted to facilitate assembly to antenna lower edge of an amateur band, rather than
elements.
to the center, to compensate for the length
of the unit. In general, the 15 -meter trap
is tuned to approximately 20.8 MHz and
mined by the overall length of the element. the 10 -meter trap is tuned near 27.8 MHz.
As the frequency of operation is raised to The trap frequency is not critical within a
approximately 2.0 times the lowest operating few hundred kilohertz. Resonance is estab-
frequency, the inner set of traps becomes lished by squeezing or expanding the turns
resonant, effectively disconnecting a larger of the coil while the trap is resonated on
portion of the element from the driven sec- the bench with a grid -dip oscillator and a
tion. The length of the center section is calibrated receiver.
resonant at the highest frequency of opera- A substitute for the moulded capacitor
tion. The center section, plus the two ad- may be made up of two 40 pf, f -kv ceramic
jacent inner sections are resonant at the capacitors connected in series (Centralab
intermediate frequency of operation, and the 850S -50Z) and mounted in a length of
complete element is resonant at the lowest phenolic tubing of the proper diameter to
frequency of operation. slip within the aluminum antenna sections.
The efficiency of such a system is deter- The trap coil is then wound about the ca-
mined by the accuracy of tuning of both pacitor assembly in the manner shown in
the element sections and the isolating traps. the photograph.
In addition the combined dielectric losses of
the traps affect the overall antenna effi-
ciency. As with all multipurpose devices, 24 -9 Lumped Baluns
some compromise between operating con- for Beam Antennas
venience and efficiency must be made with
antennas designed to operate over more than A broadband coaxial balun was described
cne narrow band of frequencies. Taking into in Chapter 20 of this Handbook. Baluns
account the theoretical difficulties that must having similar broadband characteristics may
be overcome it is a tribute to the designers be wound of wire on either air or ferrite
of the better multiband beams that they cores, as shown in figure 22. The air -core
perform as well as they do. design is rated for 2 kW PEP and maintains
574 High- Frequency Rotary-Beams
BALANCED LOAD
Figure 22
BROADBAND BALUN FOR BEAM ANTENNA

A triAlar balun may be used to match a 50 -ohm coaxial line to a split
driven element having an impedance of 15 to SO ohms. Airwound balun
consists of ten turns #14 Formvar insulated wire, wound on piece of
-1/160 diameter plastic pipe, 4" long. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) pipe used
1
for water pipe is satisfactory. Three windings are made, the wires placed in
parallel, and wound side by side on the form as one, until ten trifilar turns
are on the form.
Ferrite -core balun is composed of 6 turns #14 Formvar win, Millar wound
on Q-1 material, 1/2" diameter. Use Indiano General CF-503 ferrite and
break to proper length by nicking with file around the circumf and
striking a hard blow. (Available Newark Electric Co., Chicago, part number
UNBALANCED LINE 59F- 1521).
a low value of SWR in the antenna system shown in the illustration. The input termi-
over a frequency range of 7 to 29.7 MHz. nals of the balun are nonsymmetrical; point
The balun may also be used at 80 meters, A at the input end being taken as ground.
however, since it only exerts a slight de- Transposition of the input connections will
tuning effect on the antenna. degrade balancing action. Either end of the
The ferrite -core balun is designed for unit may be taken as the input, provided
operation over the range of 3.5 to 29.7 MHz. point A (the common connection of two
While smaller in size than the air-core unit, windings) is ground.
the ferrite -core balun is power limited to When completed, the baluns should be
about 200 watts at the high- frequency end protected from moisture by placing them
of the operational range. within a waterproof, nonmetallic container.
The baluns are trifilar wound, that is, A plastic "squeeze bottle" may be used,
three separate windings are placed on the with wooden discs cut for the ends and
form in parallel and then connected as held in place with small screws.
CHAPTER TWENTY -FIVE
Mobile Equipment
Design and Installation
Mobile operation is permitted on all ama- trasted to the heavy power drain of con-
teur bands. Tremendous impetus to this ventional a -m gear has encouraged the use
phase of the hobby was given by the suit- of relatively high -power sideband equipment
able design of compact mobile equipment. in many mobile installations. The rigid fre-
Complete mobile installations may be pur- quency stability requirement for satisfac-
chased as packaged units, or the whole mo- tory SSB reception, however, has obsoleted
bile station may be home built, according to the once -popular tuned -converter and auto -
the whim of the operator. receiver combination formerly used for a -m
The problems involved in achieving a sat- reception. Transistor, crystal -controlled con-
isfactory two -way installation vary some- verters have attained some measure of popu-
what with the band, but many of the prob- larity when combined with transistor auto
lems are common to all bands. For instance, radios for casual mobile reception of ama-
ignition noise is more troublesome on 10 teur signals. If the converter includes a de-
meters than on 80 meters, but on the other modulating bfo, it may be used for satis-
hand an efficient antenna system is much factory SSB reception.
more easily accomplished on 10 meters than
on 80 meters. Also, obtaining a worthwhile
amount of transmitter output without ex- 25 -1 Mobile Converters
cessive battery drain is a problem on all
bands. A One-Transistor This inexpensive and easily
Specialized mobile equipment is available Converter constructed single- transis-
for operation on the 2- and 6 -meter bands tor, crystal -controlled mo-
and a small amount of mobile use is made bile converter may be used in conjunction
of the 432 -MHz band. The availability of with a transistor auto radio or portable
surplus equipment, moreover, has stimulated transistor radio for a -m reception on fre-
f -m mobile activity, especially on 2 meters, quencies up to 20 MHz or so. The conver-
where the use of fixed f -m repeaters placed ter is powered by a single 9 -volt miniature
on elevated locations has done much to en- battery and provides satisfactory reception
hance vhf mobile operation. when used in conjunction with a mobile whip
The majority of high- frequency mobile antenna.
operation takes place on single sideband. The The schematic of the converter is shown
low duty -cycle of SSB equipment, as con- in figure 1. An inexpensive "entertainment-
576 Mobile Equipment RADIO
Li
TO AUTO
RADIO prevent soldering heat from damaging the
cl transistor.
ANT 140
100
Operation of the mixing oscillator is
checked by monitoring the crystal fre-
Si 9V. quency in a nearby receiver. A test signal
id- at the receiving frequency is then injected
)
in the antenna receptacle and the converter
= 001
temporarily connected to the station receiver.
Figure 1
The input circuit is adjusted for maximum
received signal. Experimentation with the
SINGLE TRANSISTOR MOBILE CONVERTER number of turns in coupling coil L2 will
L, -80 meters; approx. IS H. (J. W. Miller
ensure maximum antenna coupling to the
42A155 -C8I,/5" diem. with powdered- converter.
iron slug).
40 meters; approx. 5 H. (J. W. Miller
42A476 -CBI) A Two-Tube A series of tubes have been
20 meters; approx. 2 H. (J. W. Miller 12 -Volt Converter developed for mobile serv-
42A226 -C81)
15 meters; approx. 1 H. (J. W. Miller ice that allow good gain
424106 -CBI) and high sensitivity with only 12 volts on the
L -Adjust for maximum signal strength. Ap-
proximately 6 turns for 80 meters, 4 turns plate. While these tubes have been largely
for 40 meters, 3 t for 20 meters and replaced by transistors in modern auto
2 turns for 1S meters. Wind around ground
end of L,, using #22 d.c.c. wire. radios, they still provide excellent service
RFC -2.5 mH, National R -100 or equivalent. in h -f converters for those amateurs who
X,-C sion crystal. For amateur band to approach transistors with diffidence.
fall at center of auto radio dial, crystal
should be approximately 1 MHz higher or This crystal -controlled converter may be
lower in frequency than center of band. used on any amateur band between 80 and
Suggested crystal frequencies are: 80
meters, 4.8 MHz; 40 meters, 8.1 MHz; 20 6 meters with excellent results, combining
meters, 13.0 MHz; 15 meters, 20 MHz. circuit simplicity and low cost. The unit
Fundamental- frequency crystals should be uses two high -transconductance 12 -volt
used. For the 20- and 1S-meter bands,
third -overtone crystals of triple the wanted tubes and requires no external high voltage
frequency may be employed, as they will for operation (figure 2). A 12EK6 serves
oscillate on their fundamental frequency
in this circuit. as an r -f amplifier with contact bias ob-
tained from a high -value grid resistor. No
cathode or screen dropping resistors or as-
type" HEP- 2/2N1397 transistor is used in sociated bypass capacitors are required. A
an autodyne converter circuit wherein the 12AD6 pentagrid- converter tube is used
transistor serves both as mixer and local as a crystal -controlled local oscillator and
oscillator. The incoming signal is impressed mixer. The plate circuit is broadly resonant
on the base circuit via L,C, and a funda- to 1.0 MHz by virtue of the 1 mH plate
mental- frequency crystal serves in a base - r -f choke, the 68 -pf coupling capacitor, and
collector Pierce oscillator circuit. Output the capacitance of the auto radio coupling
is taken from the untuned collector circuit. cable, providing good coupling across the
Band selection is accomplished by the choice broadcast band while discriminating against
of proper coil and crystal and the high -fre- noise and image signals that otherwise would
quency limit of operation is determined by tend to overload the car radio.
the highest- frequency fundamental -cut crys- Band selection is accomplished by choice
tal obtainable. The cost of the converter is of coils and crystals, as outlined in the parts
so moderate that it is better to construct list. In addition to amateur band reception,
separate converters for each amateur band the converter may be used for reception of
or desired frequency than to try to make a time signals from WWV or shortwave broad-
band -change system for a single converter. cast signals.
The unit may be built on a section of The converter is built on a piece of cop-
copper - plated phenolic circuit board and per- plated circuit board and placed in a
placed in an aluminum utility box. It is miniature utility box, or a small matching
suggested that a transistor socket be used to aluminum chassis may serve as a base for
HANDBOOK Mobile Converters 577
nais reaching the converter do so via the

antenna receptacle only.
The mixer stage should be tested first.
All coils are tuned to frequency with the
aid of a grid -dip oscillator. A nearby re-
ceiver tuned to the frequency of the crystal
oscillator may serve as a monitor while the
slug of coil L:, is adjusted for reliable oscil-
lation. Once the mixer stage is operating,
the r -f circuits may be peaked for maxi-
mum signal. When the converter is installed
in the automobile and connected to the auto
receiver, the output circuit should be peaked
for maximum gain with the auto receiver
tuned near 1 MHz, and the r -f coils of
Figure 2 the converter repeaked for maximum h -f
TWO -TUBE, 12 -VOLT CONVERTER
signal response. Mixer gain is sensitive to the
value of grid resistance placed across the
C , C_ -20 -pi silver mica capacitors crystal and the value may be experimentally
L L -80 meters: approx. 85 H. 'J. W. Miller
changed from that listed to achieve optimum
,
20A825 -RBI, i. " diam. form with powdered -

iron slug). Antenna coil: 15 turns *24 d.c.c. mixer gain, especially on the 10- and 6-
scramble -wound over ground end of L,.
40 meters: approx. 26 uH 'J. W. Miller meter bands.
20A335 -RBI) Antenna coil: 8 turns #24 d.c.c.
scramble -wound over ground end of L,
20 meters: approx. 6.5 uH (J. W. Miller
20A686 -RBI) Antenna coil: 4 turns #24 d.c.c.
25 -2 Mobile Power
scramble -wound over ground end of L, Sources
15 meters: approx. 2.8 uH. (J. W. Miller
20A336 -RBI) Antenna coil: 3 turns #24 d.c.c.,
as above A small transistor converter for casual
10 meters: approx. 1.5 H (J. W. Miller
20A157 -RBI) 'Antenna coil: 3 turns #24 listening may be run from a 9 -volt battery,
d.c.c., as above but larger mobile receivers, transmitters, and
6 meters: approx. 0.5 uH. (J. W. Miller
20A107 -RBI) Antenna coil: 2 turns #24 d.c.c.,
transceivers require power from the electrical
as above system of the automobile. SSB equipment,
L -80 meters: approx. 180 H. J. W. Millar with its relatively light duty cycle, is ideally
21A224 -RBI)
40 meters: approx. 50 uN. (J. W. Miller suited for mobile use and demands the least
21A475 -RBI) primary power drain for a given radiated sig-
20 meters: approx. 13 H. (J. W. Miller
21A155 -RBI) nal of all the common types of amateur
15 meters: approx. 6 H. J. W. Miller transmission. As a result of the combination
21A686-RBI) of low power requirement and enhanced
10 meters: approx. 3 H. (J. W. Miller
21A336 -RBI) communication effectiveness, SSB has sup-
6 meters: approx. 1 uH. (J. W. Millet planted amplitude modulation for mobile
21A156-RBI)
RFC, -2.5 mH. (National R -100 or equiv.) service on the h -f amateur bands. A.m. on
RFC -100_,,H hash choke. (J. W. Miller 5250) the other hand, is still used (along with
x- Fundamental or overtone crystal. For am- f.m.) for vhf mobile service. In any case, a
ateur band to fall at center of auto-
radio dial, crystal should be approximately total equipment power drain of about 75
MHz removed from amateur band. Sug-
1
watts for a.m. or f.m. and 250 watts for
gested crystal frequencies are: 80 meters,
4.8 MHz; 40 meters, 8.1 MHz; 20 meters, SSB is about the maximum power that may
13.0 MHz; 15 meters, 20 MHz; 10 meters, be taken from the electrical system of an
27 MHz; 6 meters, 49 MHz
P- 12.6 -volt pilot lamp automobile without serious regard to dis-
5,-3-pole, 3- position switch (Centralab PA -2007) charging the battery when the car is stop-
ped for short periods of mobile operation.
the circuit board. Tube shields should be With many SSB mobile -radio installa-
used and a 12 -volt line filter is incorporated tions now requiring 500 to 1000 watts peak
in the converter to keep auto noise out of power from the automotive electrical sys-
the power lead and to ensure that all sig- tem, it is usually necessary to run the car
frequency is six times the frequency de-

DI - DB veloped in one winding. Thus, at a shaft
speed of 4000 r.p.m., the nominal voltage
is 14, output frequency will be 400 Hz, and
TO
STATOR ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM
the ripple frequency is 2400 Hz.
.OIIT (BATTERYI
NEGATIVE
The diode assembly (D,, D) may be
ROTATING GROUND mounted on or behind the rear end -bell of
FIELD
the alternator, in conjunction with an iso-
lation diode (D;) which protects the recti-
FIELD
fier assembly from voltage surges and helps
SL P RINGS GROUND to suppress radio noise.
1 The output voltage of the alternator
system is a function of the shaft speed to
Figure 3 about 5000 r.p.m. or so. Above this speed,
output voltage tends to stabilize because of
THREE -PHASE AUTOMOBILE ALTERNATOR hysteresis losses. In any case, the alterna-
Three -phase output voltage Is e rted to tor output is regulated through adjusting
d-c by full wave rectifier DI, D,. Rectifier D. the current in the field by a mechanical
protects rectifier assembly from transients and
voltage surges in el cal system of auto. voltage regulator or by a solid -state regula-
tor. Because the reverse current through the
rectifier diodes is small, the alternator is
engine when the equipment is operated for usually connected directly to the battery
more than a few minutes at a time to avoid without the use of a cutout relay.
discharging the battery. Fortunately, a
majority of automobiles built since 1965 Using the The automotive alternator may
have a 12 -volt alternator system as stan- Alternator be modified to supply 12 volts
dard equipment in place of the less efficient at 400 Hz for auxiliary equip-
6- or 12 -volt generator charger used in the ment. Many alternators are capable of sup-
past. As a result, most SSB transceivers may plying 350 watts of power which, when the
be run directly from the automotive elec-
battery is charged and the auto accessories
trical system without undue strain on the are not being used, may be employed to run
battery during the course of normal driving. the mobile gear. A diagram of such an
installation is shown in figure 4. Common
The Alternator A typical alternator circuit 60 -Hz transformers may be used, or a spe-
shown in figure 3. The
is cial 400 -Hz three -phase distribution trans-
alternator differs from the classic generator former (figure 5) . Voltage regulation of
in that it uses a rotating field to which the alternator system is very good, although
d.c. is supplied through slip rings and car- the frequency varies with engine speed,
bon brushes. Field current is quite low, of ranging from 100 Hz or so with the engine
the order of 3 amperes or so for many alter- idling to nearly 1000 Hz at top speed. Mod-
nators. The rotating field usually has six ern power transformers, however, even
pairs of poles, and the output of one stator though rated at 60 Hz, are capable of oper-
winding represents six electrical cycles for ating efficiently over this range of frequen-
each revolution of the field. The output fre- cies.
quency in cycles per second is one -tenth The schematic of an 1800 -volt, 3 -phase
the shaft speed expressed in revolutions per intermittent -duty SSB kilowatt power sup-
second. ply for mobile service is shown in figure 6.
The high output current of the alterna- This supply is designed for use with a lkw
tor is supplied directly from the fixed stator PEP linear amplifier using four 811A tubes
windings in the form of three -phase current. or two 572B/T -160L tubes.
The stator is usually connected in a wye A solid -state regulator is recommended
(Y) configuration to an internal rectifier for use with this supply, since mechanical
assembly made up of six silicon diodes which relay regulators interrupt the alternator field
provide full -wave rectification. The ripple current when the battery is fully charged,
HANDBOOK Mobile Power Sources 579
ALTERNATOR 3 0
12.5 V. PER LEG
AUTOMOTIVE
3 0 12 V.D.C. ELECTRICAL
RECTIFIER SYSTEM
30115V.
PER LEG TO
HIGH VOLTAGE
POWER
SUPPLY
30 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
Figure 4
THREE -PHASE MOBILE POWER SYSTEM
Three -phase transformer (T) in delta or wye configuration provides 115 volts a.c. for opera-
tion of mobile equipment.
thus removing the power to the equipment.

If a relay regulator is used, it should be
shorted out, or otherwise disabled during
mobile operation.
Batteries The voltage available at the ter-

minals of a battery is determined
by the chemical composition of the cell.
Many types and sizes of batteries are avail-
able for portable radio and comunication
equipment. The inexpensive carbon -zinc cell
provides a nominal 1.5 volts and, unused,
will hold a charge for about a year. The cur-
rent capacity of the cell depends on the -i,.,,,.r ..
physical size of the electrodes and the com-

position of the electrolyte. A battery may
be made up of a number of cells connected
in series, providing good life under inter-
mittent service. Figure 5
Next to the carbon -zinc cell, the most THREE -PHASE DELTA -WYE
commonly used unit is the alkaline cell
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
(1.2 volts) which has about twice the total
energy capacity per unit size as compared Tranex 4 -1852 transformer provides 715 volts
from nominal 12 -volt source at 1000 watts
to the carbon -zinc cell. This cell is capable average power. (Available from Ken PierceCo.,
of a high discharge rate over an extended Box 877 Palo Alto, Calif. 94302)
36,115V
PER LEG
Figure 6
THREE -PHASE -MOBILE KILOWATT SUPPLY

Three -phase power from o system such as shown in figure 3 may be used to provide high
voltage for mobile transmitting equipment. For 1800 volts, transformers T , T , and T are 115 -
volt primary, 830 -volt secondary (Stancor PC- 8301). For 2400 volts, T T , and T are 11S -volt
,
primary, 1030 -volt secondary (Stancor PC- 8302). Three type 1N7697 or 1N4005 diodes are
used in each stack.
period of time and provides longer life in suring the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
continuous service than does the carbon -zinc Generally speaking, a hydrometer reading of
cell. 1.27 indicates a fully charged cell, whereas
The mercury cell (1.34 volts) is more a reading of 1.Hf or below indicates the
expensive than the previously mentioned cell is in need of charging. The wet cell may
cells, but it has an extremely long working be fast -charged as high as 40 amperes for a
life. In addition, the mercury cell maintains 12 -volt battery, provided that care is taken
full rated voltage until just before expira- to let escaping gases free themselves and
tion; then the voltage drops sharply. Shelf provided that electrolyte temperature is held
life of the mercury cell is excellent and it below 12 f Fahrenheit.
may be stored for long periods of time.
These three types of batteries may be
recharged to some extent by reversing the 25 -3 Transistor Supplies
chemical action by application of a reverse
current to the cell. For best results, the cur- The vibrator -type of mobile supply
rent should be low and should have a small achieves an over -all efficiency in the neigh-
a -c component to provide a more even re- borhood of 70%. The vibrator may be
deposit of material on the negative electrode. thought of as a mechanical switch reversing
Recharged cells have an uncertain operating the polarity of the primary source at a
life, and the recharging cycle may vary repetition rate of 120 transfers per second.
from cell to cell. The switch is actuated by a magnetic coil
The nickel-cadmium (Nicad) cell (1.25 and breaker circuit requiring appreciable
volts) is the most expensive cell in terms of power which must be supplied by the pri-
initial costs, but it may be recharged at a mary source.
slow rate a number of times in reliable One of the principal applications of the
cycles of operation. transistor is in switching circuits. The tran-
The wet cell, (lead-acid) storage battery sistor may be switched from an "off" con-
is in near -universal use in automotive equip- dition to an "on" condition with but the
ment The cell delivers about 2.1 volts and application of a minute exciting signal.
is rechargeable. The lead -acid cell is made of When the transistor is nonconductive it
coated lead plates immersed in a solution of may be considered to be an open circuit.
sulphuric acid and water. The acid content When it is in a conductive state, the in-
of the dielectric varies with the state of ternal resistance is very low. Two transistors
charge, which may be determined by mea- properly connected, therefore, can replace
HANDBOOK Transistor Supplies 581
n
Figure 7
TRANSISTORS CAN REPLACE VIBRATOR IN MOBILE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

A- Typical vibrator circuit.
8- Vibrator can be represented by two single -pole single -throw switches, or transistors.
C-Push -pull square -wave "oscillator" is driven by special feedback windings on power
transformer.
D- Addition of bias in base -emitter circuit results in oscillator capable of starting under full
load.
the single -pole, double -throw mechanical the oscillator causes an increase in input
switch representing the vibrator. The tran- current that is sufficient to supply the re-
sistor switching action is many times faster quired power to the load and the additional
than that of the mechanical vibrator and losses in the transformer windings. Thus,
the transistor can switch an appreciable the over -all efficiency actually increases
amount of power. Efficiencies in the neigh- with load and is greatest at the heaviest load
borhood of 95 percent can be obtained with the oscillator will supply. A result of this is
28 -volt primary-type transistor power sup- that an increase in load produces very little
plies, permitting great savings in primary extra heating of the transistors. This feature
power over conventional vibrators and dyna- means that it is impossible to burn out the
motors. transistors in the event of a shorted load
Transistor The transistor operation resembles since the switching action merely stops.
Operation a magnetically coupled multivi-
brator, or an audio- frequency Transistor The power capability of the
push -pull square -wave oscillator (figure Power Rating transistor is limited by the
7C). A special feedback winding on the amount of heat created by the
power transformer provides 180 -degree current flow through the internal resistance
phase -shift voltage necessary to maintain of the transistor. When the transistor is con-
oscillation. In this application the transistors ducting, the internal resistance is extremely
are operated as on-off switches; i.e., they are low and little heat is generated by current
either completing the circuit or opening it. flow. Conversely, when the transistor is in
The oscillator output voltage is a square a cut -off condition the internal resistance is
wave having a frequency that is dependent very high and the current flow is excremely
on the driving voltage, the primary in- small. Thus, in both the "on" and "off"
ductance of the power transformer, and conditions the transistor dissipates a min-
the peak collector current drawn by the imum of power. The important portion of
conducting transistor. Changes in trans- the operating cycle is that portion when
former turns, core area, core material, and the actual switching from one transistor to
feedback turns ratio have an effect on the the other occurs, as this is the time during
frequency of oscillation. Frequencies in com- which the transistor may be passing through
mon use are in the range of 120 Hz to the region of high dissipation. The greater
3500 Hz. the rate of switching, in general, the faster
The power consumed by the transistors will be the rise time of the square wave
is relatively independent of load. Loading (figure 8) and the lower will be the inter-
that it forward -biases the emitter -base diode

of the transistor that is starting to conduct
collector current, and reverse -biases the other
transistor. The forward -biased transistor will
have a very low input impedance, while
the input impedance of the reverse- biased
transistor will be quite high. Thus, most of
the starting current drained from the pri-
mary power source will flow in R1 and the
base -emitter circuit of the forward- biased
transistor and very little in the other tran-
sistor. It can be seen that R1 must not be
too low in comparison to the input resistance
of the conducting transistor, or it will
Figure 8 shunt too much current from the tran-
sistor. When switching takes place, the trans-
EMITTER -COLLECTOR WAVEFORM former polarities reverse and the additional
OF SWITCHING CIRCUIT current now flows in the base -emitter cir-
Square waveshape produces almost ideal cuit of the other transistor.
switching action. Small 2 -volt "spike" on
leading edge of pulses may be reduced by
proper transformer design. Pulse length is
about 1000 microseconds and rise time is 10 The Power The power transformer in a
microseconds. Transformer transistor -type supply is de-
signed to reach a state of maxi-
nal losses of the transistor. The average tran-
mum flux density (saturation) at the point
sistor can switch about eight times the of maximum transistor conductance. When
this state is reached the flux density drops
power rating of class -A operation of the
to zero and reduces the feedback voltage
unit. Two switching transistors having 5-
watt class -A power output rating can there- developed in the base winding to zero. The
flux then reverses because there is no con-
fore switch 80 watts of power when work-
ing at optimum switching frequency. ducting transistor to sustain the magnetiz-
ing current. This change of flux induces a
voltage of the opposite polarity in the trans-
Self-Starting The transistor supply shown in former. This voltage turns the first transis-
Oscillators figure 7C is impractical be- tor off and holds the second transistor on.
cause oscillations will not start The transistor instantly reaches a state of
under load. Base bias of the proper po- maximum conduction, producing a state of
larity has to be momentarily introduced into saturation in the transformer. This action
the base -emitter circuit before oscillation repeats itself at a very fast rate. Switching
will start and sustain itself. The addition of time is of the order of 5 to 10 microseconds,
a bias resistor (figure 7D) to the circuit and saturation time is perhaps 200 to 2000
results in an oscillator that is capable of microseconds. The collector waveform of a
starting under full load. R, is usually of the typical transistor supply is shown in figure
order of 10 to 50 ohms while R2 is adjusted 8. The rise time of the wave is about S
so that approximately 100 milliamperes flow microseconds, and the saturation time is
through the circuit. 00 microseconds. The small "spike" at the
The current drawn from the battery by leading edge of the pulse has an amplitude
this network flows through R_ and then di- of about 2.5 volts and is a product of
vides between R, and the input resistances switching transients caused by the primary
of the two transistors. The current flowing leakage reactance of the transformer. Prop-
in the emitter -base circuit depends on the er transformer design can reduce this "spike"
value of input resistance. The induced volt- to a minimum value. An excessively large
age across the feedback winding of the trans- "spike" can puncture the transistor junc-
former is a square wave of such polarity tion and ruin the unit.
HANDBOOK Transistor Supplies 583
2N301 A
Figure 9
SCHEMATIC, TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY FOR
12 -VOLT AUTOMOTIVE
SYSTEM
T,- Transistor power transformer.
12 -volt primary, to provide
275 volts at 125 ma. Stancor
DCT -1
D -D- 1N4005 with .01 td and 100K
across each diode
Use 6 amp. fuse in + 12 -volt lead.
The new Stancor (Essex) Corp. series tive terminal of the primary supply. If
of power transformers designed to work the negative of the automobile battery is
in transistor -type power supplies permits grounded to the frame of the car the case of
the amateur and experimenter to construct the transistor may be directly grounded to
efficient mobile power supplies at a fraction the unpainted area of the chassis. If the posi-
of their former price. Described in this sec- tive terminal of the car battery is grounded
tion are two power supplies designed around it is necessary to electrically insulate the
these efficient transformers. The smaller sup- transistor from the aluminum chassis, yet
ply delivers 35 watts (275 volts at 125 mil- at the same time permit a low thermal
liamperes) and the larger supply delivers 85 barrier to exist between the transistor case
watts (500 volts to 125 milliamperes and and the power- supply chassis. A simple
250 volts at 50 milliamperes, simultaneous- method of accomplishing this is to insert
l) ). Both power units operate from a 12- a thin mica sheet between the transistor
volt primary source. and the chassis. Two -mil (0.002 ") mica
washers for transistors are available at many
A 35 -Watt large radio supply houses. The mica is
The 35 -watt power unit uses
Supply placed between the transistor and the chassis
two inexpensive 2N301A/
deck, and fiber washers are placed under
2N2869 power transistors for
the retaining nuts holding the transistors in
the switching elements and four silicon diodes
place. When the transistors are mounted in
for the high -voltage rectifiers. The complete
place, measure the collector-to- ground resist-
schematic is shown in figure 9. Because of
ance with an ohmmeter. It should be 100
the relatively high switching frequency
megohms or higher in dry air. After the
only a single 20 -td filter capacitor is re-
quired to provide pure direct current.
mounting is completed, spray the transistor
and the bare chassis section with plastic
Regulation of the supply is remarkably
Krylon to retard oxidation. Several manu-
good. No -load voltage is 310 volts, drop-
ping to 275 volts at maximum current
facturers produce anodized aluminum wash-
ers that serve as mounting insulators. These
drain of 125 milliamperes.
may be used in place of the mica washers,
The complete power package is built on
if desired.
an aluminum chassis -box measuring 51/4"
X 3" X 2 ". Paint is removed from the
center portion of the box to form a simple An 85 -Watt Figure 10 shows the schematic
heat sink for the transistors. The box there- Supply of a dual -voltage transistor
fore conducts heat away from the collector mobile power supply. A
elements of the transistors. The collector of bridge rectifier permits the choice of either
the transistor is the metal case terminal 250 volts or 500 volts, or a combination of
and in this circuit is returned to the nega- both at a total current drain that limits the
2N278 Figure 10
SCHEMATIC,
85 -WATT
TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY
FOR 12 -VOLT
AUTOMOTIVE
SYSTEM
T, Transistor power trans-
former. 12- volt pri-
mary to provide 275
volts at 125 ma.
Stentor DCT -2.
111-13,-1N4005 with .01 gfd
and 100K across each
diode.
secondary power to 85 watts. Thus, 500 A D -C to A-C Radio and electrical equip -
volts at 170 milliamperes may be drawn, Inverter For ment of all kinds up to
with correspondingly less current as addi- the Cor or Boot about 200 watts intermit-
tional power is drawn from the 250 -volt tent power consumption
tap. may be run from this compact d -c to
The supply is built on an aluminum box a -c power inverter. Designed for use with
chassis measuring 7" X 5" X 30, the layout 12 -volt automotive systems, the inverter
closely following that of the 35 -watt supply. provides a nominal 115 -volt, 60 -Hz square -
Motorola 2N278 or RCA SK3012 transistors wave output, suitable for transformer -
are used as the switching elements and eight powered equipment, lights, or motors.
silicon diodes form the high -voltage bridge The inverter construction is straight-
rectifier. forward, and assembly is on an aluminum
The transistors are affixed to the chassis chassis measuring 8" X 6" X 2 ". A stan-
in conjunction with a homemade alu- dard heat sink for the transistors is speci-
minum heat sink formed from two pieces fied, however, the sink shown in figure 11
of aluminum sheet bent into channels, as may be used. A grounded -collector circuit is
shown in figure 11. Silicon grease is spread
thinly between the transistors, heat sinks,
2N278
and the chassis to permit better heat trans-
fer between the various components of the
assembly.
2N278 12
250 5+ 20A
.o.
25 T
Figure 12
DRILL FOR TRANSISTORS
(TYP.)
TRANSISTORS D -C TO A -C INVERTER FOR THE CAR
T,- Inverter transformer. 12 -volt d-c, tapped
primary, 11S -volt a -c, tapped secondary
NEAT SINK ASSEMBLY (Triad Ty -75A)
Line Filter -J. W. Miller 5521 choke, 4 AH at
Figure 11 20 amperes, bypassed with 0.1 -gfd capaci-
tors on each side (12 -volt circuit). J. W. Mil-
ler 7818 (115 -volt circuit)
HOMEMADE HEAT SINK FOR Heat Sink -Wakefield NC 623A for each tran-
POWER TRANSISTOR sistor
HANDBOOK Antennas for Mobile Work 585
used (negative ground) so the transistors With the trimmer cut out and the con-
need not be insulated from the heat sink verter turned off (bypassed by the "in -out"
or chassis. Silicon grease should be placed switch), peak the regular antenna trimmer
between the transistor, sink sections, and on the auto set at about 1400 kHz. Then
chassis to ensure good thermal conductivity turn on the converter, with the receiver
between the units. The low- voltage primary tuned to 1500 kHz, switch in the auxiliary
circuit should be wired with heavy -duty trimmer, and peak this trimmer for maxi-
flexible line cord, or stranded #12 hookup mum background noise. The auxiliary trim-
wire. mer then can be left switched in at all times
This supply is designed to start under except when receiving very weak broadcast -
full load, and should be turned on loaded, band signals.
since unloaded operation (especially start- Some auto sets employ a high -Q high -
ing and stopping) may give rise to tran- impedance input circuit which is very crit-
sients which may endanger the transistors. ical as to antenna capacitance. Unless the
The supply is capable of 100 watts con- shunt capacitance of the antenna (includ-
tinuous power and about twice this amount ing cable) approximates that of the an-
in intermittent service. Because of the
square -wave output, additional line filtering
may be necessary in the power line to the
equipment, and a suitable line filter is tab-
ulated in the parts list of figure 12.
25 -4 Antennas for
Mobile Work
Auxiliary Antenna One modification of the
Trimmer auto receiver which may
or may not be desirable
depending on the circumstances is the ad-
dition of an auxiliary antenna trimmer ca-
pacitor. If the converter uses an untuned
output circuit and the antenna trimmer on
the auto set is peaked with the converter
cut in, then it is quite likely that the trim-
mer adjustment will not be optimum for
broadcast -band reception when the converter
is cut out. For reception of strong broad-
cast -band signals this usually will not be
serious, but where reception of weak broad-
cast signals is desired the loss in gain often
cannot be tolerated, especially in view of
the fact that the additional length of an-
tenna cable required for the converter in-
stallation tends to reduce the strength of Figure 13
broadcast -band signals.
The difficulty can be circumvented by in- A CENTER -LOADED 80 -METER WHIP
corporation of an auxiliary antenna trimmer USING AIR -WOUND COIL MAY BE USED
connected from the "hot" antenna lead on WITH HIGH -POWERED TRANSMITTERS
the auto receiver to ground, with a switch
An anti- corona loop is placed at the top of
in series for cutting it in or out. The auxil- the whip to reduce loss of power and burning
iary trimmer should have a range of about of tip of antenna. Number of turns in coil
is critical and adjustable, high -Q coil is recom-
3 to 50 pf, and may be of the inexpensive
mended. Whip may be used over frequency
compression mica type. range of about 15 kHz without retuning.
tenna installation for which the set was de-

signed, the antenna trimmer on the auto
set cannot be made to hit resonance with the
converter cut out. This is particularly true
when a long antenna cable is used to reach
a whip mounted at the rear of the car. 10i FT
Usually the condition can be corrected by AR BODY
unsoldering the internal connection to the

antenna terminal connector on the auto set
95n COAX TO RECEIVER
and inserting in series a 100 -pf mica capaci-
tor. Alternatively an adjustable trimmer S.p. D.T.
RELAY
covering at least 50 to 150 pf may be sub-
stituted for the 100 -pf fixed capacitor. 7511 COAX TO XMTR
Figure 14
10 -Meter Mobile The most popular mobile
Antennas
5/16 -WAVE WHIP RADIATOR FOR 10
antenna for 10 -meter op- METERS
eration is a rear- mounted
whip approximately 8 feet long, fed with If a whip antenna is made slightly longer
than one -quarter wave it acts as a slightly
coaxial line. This is a highly satisfactory better radiator than the usual quarter -wave
antenna, but a few remarks are in order on whip, and it can provide a better match to
the antenna transmission line if the reactance
the subject of feed and coupling systems. is tuned out by a series capacitor close to
The feed -point resistance of a resonant the base of the antenna. Capacitor C, may
quarter-wave rear- mounted whip is approx- be a 100 -pf midget variable.
imately 20 to 25 ohms. While the standing -
wave ratio when using 50 -ohm coaxial line the band. This setting then will be sat-
will not be much greater than 2 to 1, it is isfactory over the whole band.
nevertheless desirable to make the line to If an all -band center -loaded mobile an-
the transmitter exactly odd multiples of tenna is used, the loading coil at the center
one -quarter wavelength long electrically at of the antenna may be shorted out for oper-
the center of the band. This procedure will ation of the antenna on the 10 -meter band.
minimize variations in loading over the The usual type of center -loaded mobile an-
band. tenna will be between 9 and 11 feet long,
A more effective radiator and a better including the center -loading inductance
line match may be obtained by making the
whip approximately 10 A feet long and
feeding it with 75 -ohm coax (such as RG-
11/U) via a series capacitor, as shown in CAR BODY
figure 14. The relay and series capacitor are

mounted inside the trunk, as close to the UN SNI EL DCD
LOADING COIL
antenna feedthrough or base -mount insula-
tor as possible. The 10/2-foot length ap-
plies to the over -all length from the tip of
the whip to the point where the lead -in
passes through the car body. The leads inside RG-5B /U LINE
TO TRANSMITTER
the car (connecting the coaxial cable, relay,
series capacitor and antenna lead) should be COAXIAL LA
GROUNDED TO
FRAME OF CAR
as short as possible. The outer conductor of ADJACENT TO BASE
OF ANTENNA
both coaxial cables should be grounded to Figure 15
the car body at the relay end with short,
heavy conductors. THE CENTER-LOADED WHIP ANTENNA
A 100 -pf midget variable capacitor is The center -loaded whip antenna, when pro-
suitable for C1. The optimum setting for vided with a tapped loading eon or a series
lowest SWR at the transmitter should be of tolls, may be used over a wide frequency
range. The loading coil may be shorted for
determined experimentally at the center of use of the antenna on the 10 -meter band.
HANDBOOK Antennas for Mobile Work 587
which is shorted out. Hence such an an- joint, turns may be added to lower the reso-
tenna may be shortened to an electrical quar- nant frequency. Or, if the tapped type of
ter wave for the 10 -meter band by using a coil is used, taps are changed until the proper
series capacitor as just discussed. If a pi net- number of turns for the desired operating
work is used in the plate circuit of the out- frequency is found. This procedure is re-
put stage of the mobile transmitter, any peated for the different bands of operation.
reactance presented at the antenna terminals
of the transmitter by the antenna may be
tuned out with the pi network. Loaded Whip Short vertical antennas have
Antennas low radiation resistance and
high capacitive reactance and
The All -Band The great majority of mo- it is difficult to couple them to practical
Center- Loaded bile operation on the 14- transmitter output circuitry without the
Mobile Antenna MHz band and below is necessity of resonating the antenna to the
with center - loaded whip antennas. These operating frequency. Experience and theory
antennas use an insulated bumper or body have shown that introduction of a loading
mount, with provision for coaxial feed from coil near the center of the whip antenna
the base of the antenna to the transmitter, can simultaneously tune the antenna to
as shown in figure 15. resonance and increase the radiation resist-
The center -loaded whip antenna must be ance (figure 15) . Typically, an unloaded
tuned to obtain optimum operation on the 8 -foot whip has a radiation resistance of
desired frequency of operation. These an- approximately 0.5 ohm at 3.9 MHz, with
tennas will operate at maximum efficiency a capacitive input reactance of about 2000
over a range of perhaps 20 kHz on the 75- ohms. Introduction of a high -Q center -
meter band, covering a somewhat wider loading coil can increase the radiation resist-
range on the 40 -meter band, and covering ance to about one ohm and will cancel the
the whole 20 -meter phone band. The pro- large capacitive reactance of the antenna.
cedure for tuning the antenna is as follows: Ground loss resistance in the automobile
The antenna is installed, fully assembled, and capacitance of the car body to ground
with a coaxial lead of RG -58/U from the have been measured to be about 10 ohms at
base of the antenna to the place where the 3.9 MHz. These radiation and loss resist-
transmitter is installed. The rear deck of ances, plus the loss resistance of a typical
the car should be closed, and the car should loading coil may bring the input impedance
be parked in a location as clear as possible of a typical 80 -meter center- loaded whip
of trees, buildings, and overhead power lines. to about 25 to 30 ohms at the resonant fre-
Objects within 15 or 20 feet of the antenna quency. Over -all radiation efficiency is about
can exert a considerable detuning effect on five to ten percent and operational band-
the antenna system due to its relatively high width (for a 3/1 SWR on the transmission
operating Q. The end of the coaxial cable line) is about 25 kHz when the antenna is
which will plug into the transmitter is properly matched.
terminated in a link of 3 or 4 turns of wire. The relatively low efficiency of the loaded
This link is then coupled to a grid -dip meter whip antenna at the lower frequencies indi-
and the resonant frequency of the antenna cates that attention must be paid to all de-
determined by noting the frequency at tails of the antenna installation. The load-
which the grid current fluctuates. The coils ing coil must be of the highest possible Q
furnished with the antennas normally are and all joints in the antenna system must
too large for the usual operating frequency, be low resistance. To properly match the
since it is much easier to remove turns than 25 -ohm antenna load to a typical 50 -ohm
to add them. Turns then are removed, one transmission line, the matching system of
at a time, until the antenna resonates at the figure 16 may be used. The loaded whip an-
desired frequency. If too many turns have tenna forms a portion of a network whose
been removed, a length of wire may be input impedance over a small frequency
spliced on and soldered. Then, with a length range is close to 50 ohms. The antenna is
of insulating tubing slipped over the soldered made a part of an equivalent parallel -reso-
tion resistance of the antenna are discussed

in Chapter 31 of this Handbook.
Construction of a high -Q center -loading
CENTER
LOADED
coil from available coil stock is shown in
WHIP figure 17.
L=Li+La An SWR Meter This simple reflectometer is

for Mobile Use designed to be used with
mobile equipment over the
3- to 30 -MHz range at power levels up to
1 EQUIVALENT f 00 watts. It may be placed in the 50-ohm
CIRCUIT
coaxial transmission line to the antenna and
mounted under the dash of the automobile
Figure 16
to provide a constant check of transmitter
power output and antenna operation. It is
CENTER -LOADED WHIP ANTENNA also useful for tuneup purposes, since the
A- Center -loaded whip represents large
transmitter stages may be adjusted for maxi-
loss
resistance ,R, which is inverse function of mum forward -power reading of the instru-
coil Q. High -Q coil '300 or better/ provides ment. The circuit is bidirectional; that is,
minimum losses consistent with practical coil
design. 8- Equivalent circuit provides imped- either terminal may be used for either input
ance match between whip antenna and 50 -ohm or output connection.
feed point. The SWR meter is constructed in an
aluminum utility box measuring 4" X 4"
X 2" and the circuit is shown in figure 19.
nant circuit in which the radiation resistance The heart of the device is a 43/4" long pick-
appears in series with the reactive branch of up line made of the inner conductor of a
the circuit. The input impedance of such length of RG -f 8A /U coaxial line and a
a circuit varies nearly inversely with respect piece of %4 -inch copper tubing, which
to the radiation resistance of the antenna, makes a close slip fit over the polyethylene
thus the very low radiation resistance of inner insulation of the line.
the whip antenna may be transformed to a To assemble the pickup line, the outer
larger value which will match the impedance jacket and braid are removed from a length
of the transmission line. of coaxial line. Before the line is passed with-
The radiation resistance of the whip an- in the tubing, the insulation is cut and re-
tenna can be made to appear as a capacitive moved at the center point, which is tinned.
reactance at the feed point by shortening the A small hole is drilled at the center of the
antenna. In this case, this is done by slightly copper- tubing section so that a connection
reducing the inductance of the center -load- may be made to the inner line. The line is
ing coil. The inductive portion of the tuned passed through the tubing, and one lead
network (L,) consists of a small coil placed of a 51-ohm, %z -watt composition resistor
across the terminals of the antenna as shown is soldered to the line at this point. The
in figure 16A. The LC ratio of antenna pickup line is then bent into a semicircle and
and matching coil determine the transforma- the ends of the tubing are affixed to the
tion ratio of the network when the LC coaxial connectors, as shown in figure 20.
product is parallel resonant at the operating Sensitivity of the SWR meter is controlled
frequency of the antenna. by the variable resistance in series with the
In order to conveniently adjust this meter. To check the instrument, power is
matching system, the radiation resistance of fed through it to a matching dummy load
the loaded whip antenna should be known, and the meter switch set to read forward
otherwise it may be necessary to try various power. On reversal of the switch, the meter
combinations of matching inductance and will read reflected power. In the case of
loading coil before a satisfactory value of a good load match, the reflected reading will
resonant frequency SWR on the feedline be near zero, increasing in value with the
is achieved. Methods of measuring the radia- degree of mismatch of the load.
HANDBOOK Construction of Mobile Equipment 589
UPPER WHIP SECTION
COIL WINDING CONNECTED -,

TO WHIP SECTION
PHENOLIC DISC
AIRWOUND COIL PHENOLIC ROD

TAP ENDS TO
UATCN WHIP
SECT IONS
PHENOLIC DISC
D , D -1N34A
COIL WINDING CONNECTED
TO WHIP SECTION
-
L --See text
M -0 -500 A, d -c, Simpson 1212
-LOWER WHIP SECTION
Figure 19
Figure 17 SCHEMATIC, MINI -SWR METER
HIGH -Q MOBILE LOADING COIL

25 -5 Construction of
Efficient loading coil is assembled from sec-
tion of air -wound coil stock (Air -Dux or 8 -W). Mobile Equipment
212" diam coil is recommended. Approximate
inductance for various bands, when used in
center of 8 -foot whip is: 160 meters, 700 ..H; The following measures are recommended
80 meters, 150 I.H; 40 meters, 40 ..H; 20 for the construction of mobile equipment,
meters, 9 H; 15 meters, 2.5 H. Complete an-
.
tenna is grid- dipped to operating frequency either transmitting or receiving, to ensure

and number of turns in coil adjusted for trouble -free operation over long periods:
proper resonance.
Figure 18 Figure 20
MINI -SWR METER FOR INTERIOR, MINI -SWR METER
MOBILE EQUIPMENT
Inexpensive reffectometer is built in 4" X 4" Pickup line is bent in semicircle and tubing is
x 2" aluminum utility box and may be used soldered to loops of wire which connect to cen-
over 3- to 30 -MHz range at power levels up ter pin of SO -239 coaxial receptacles. Center
to 500 watts or so. conductor of line is attached to diodes DI, D,.
PUSH - TO- TALK PUSH -TO -TALK

Use only a stiff, heavy chassis unless the SWITCH ON MIKE RELAY
chassis is quite small.
Use lock washers or lock nuts when
mounting components by means of screws.
Use stranded hookup wire except where rLY
r-f considerations make it inadvisable (such
as for instance the plate tank circuit leads
ALTERNATE MAIN POWER RECEIVER ANTENNA ANY
in a vhf amplifier) . Lace and tie leads wher- CONTROL
SWITCH
RELAY MUTING
RELAY
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
OTHER
RELAYS
ever necessary to keep them from vibrating
or flopping around. Figure 21
Unless provided with gear drive, tuning RELAY CONTROL CIRCUIT
capacitors in the large sizes will require a
Simplified schematic of the recommended re-
rotor lock. lay control circuit for mobile transmitters.
The larger-size carbon resistors and mica The relatively small push -to -talk relay is con-
capacitors should not be supported from trolled by the button on the microphone or
the communications switch. Then one of the
tube socket pins, particularly from minia- contacts on this relay controls the other re-
ture sockets. Use tie points and keep the relays of the transmitter; one side of the coil
of all the additional relays controlled should
sistor and capacitor "pigtails" short. be grounded.
Generally speaking, rubber shock mounts
are unnecessary or even undesirable with
passenger car installations, or at least with transistor power pack with this relay.
full -size passenger cars. The springing is A recommended general control circuit,
sufficiently "soft" that well constructed where one side of the main control relay is
radio equipment can be bolted directly to connected to the hot 12 -volt circuit, but all
the vehicle without damage from shock or other relays have one side connected to the
vibration. Unless shock mounting is properly ground, is illustrated in figure 21.
engineered as to the stiffness and placement When purchasing relays keep in mind
of the shock mounts, mechanical-resonance that the current rating of the contacts is
"amplification" effects may actually cause not a fixed value, but depends on (1) the
the equipment to be shaken more than if voltage, (2) whether it is a.c. or d.c., and
the equipment were bolted directly to the (3) whether the circuit is purely resistive
vehicle. or is inductive. If in doubt, refer to the
To facilitate servicing of mobile equip- manufacturer's recommendations. Also keep
ment, all interconnecting cables between in mind that a dynamotor (if you use one)
units should be provided with separable presents almost a dead short until the arma-
connectors on at least one end. ture starts turning, and the starting relay
should be rated at considerably more than
Control Circuits The send -receive control cir- the normal dynamotor current.
cuits of a mobile installa-
tion are dictated by the design of the equip- Microphones The standardized connections
ment, and therefore will be left to the and Circuits for a majority of hand -held
ingenuity of the reader. However, a few microphones provided with
generalizations and suggestions are in order.
Do not attempt to control too many re-
lays, particularly heavy -duty relays with RING
large coils, by means of an ordinary push - 11
TIP OF
PLUG
MIKE
to -talk switch on a microphone. These con- Y. SHELL

(GROUND)
tacts are not designed for heavy work, and PRESS-TO -TALI(
SWITCH
the inductive "kick" will cause more arc-
ing than the contacts on the microphone Figure 22
switch are designed to handle. It is better to STANDARD CONNECTIONS FOR THE
actuate a single relay with the push -to-talk PUSH -TO -TALK SWITCH ON A HAND-
switch and then control all other relays, HELD SINGLE-BUTTON CARBON
including the heavy -duty contactor for the MICROPHONE
HANDBOOK Vehicular Noise Suppression 591
push -to -talk switch are shown in figure 22. of a noise limiter mandatory. However, the
There is an increasing tendency among limiter should not be given too much work
mobile operators toward the use of micro- to do, because at high engine speeds a noisy
phones having better frequency and dis- ignition system will tend to mask weak sig-
tcrtion characteristics than the single- button nals, even though with the limiter working,
carbon type. The high -impedance dynamic ignition "pops" may appear to be completely
type is probably the most popular with eliminated.
the ceramic- crystal type next in popular- Another reason for good ignition suppres-
ity. The conventional crystal type is not sion at the source is that strong ignition
suitable for mobile use since the crystal unit pulses contain enough energy, when inte-
will be destroyed by the high temperatures grated, to block the avc circuit of the re-
which can be reached in a closed car parked ceiver, causing the gain to drop whenever
in the sun in the summer time. the engine is speeded up. Since the avc cir-
The use of low -level microphones in mo- cuits of the receiver obtain no benefit from
bile service requires careful attention to the a noise clipper, it is important that ignition
elimination of common -ground circuits in noise be suppressed enough at the source that
the microphone lead. The ground connection the avc circuits will not be affected even
for the shielded cable which runs from the when the engine is running at high speed.
transmitter to the microphone should be
made at only one point, preferably directly
adjacent to the input of the first tube or Ignition Noise The following procedure
transistor in the speech amplifier. The use of should be found adequate
a low -level microphone usually will require for reducing the ignition noise of practically
the addition of two speech stages, but these any passenger car to a level which the
stages will take only a milliampere or two clipper can handle satisfactorily at any en-
of current. gine speed at any frequency from 500 kHz
to 148 MHz. Some of the measures may al-
ready have been taken when the auto re-
25 -6 Vehicular Noise ceiver was installed.
Suppression First either install a spark -plug suppressor
on each plug, or else substitute resistor plugs.
Satisfactory reception on frequencies The latter are more effective than suppres-
above the broadcast band usually requires sors and on some cars ignition noise is re-
greater attention to noise -suppression mea- duced to a satisfactory level simply by in-
sures. The required measures vary with the stalling them. However, they may not do
particular vehicle and the frequency range an adequate job alone after they have been
involved. in use for a while, and it is a good idea to
Most of the various types of noise that take the following additional measures.
are present in a vehicle may be broken down Check all high - tension connections for
into the following main categories: gaps, particularly the "pinch -fit" terminal
connectors widely used. Replace old high -
(1) Ignition noise. tension wiring that may have become leaky.
(2) Wheel static (tire static, brake static, Complete substitution of the ignition wiring
and intermittent ground via front with a commercial shielded ignition system
wheel bearings). is recommended in case of severe interfer-
(3) "Hash" from voltage - regulator con- ence.
tacts. Check to see if any of the high- tension
(4) "Whine" from generator commuta- wiring is cabled with low- tension wiring,
tor segment make and break. or run in the same conduit. If so, reroute
(5) Static from scraping connections be- the low- tension wiring to provide as much
tween various parts of the car. separation as practical.
It is best to thoroughly suppress ignition Bypass to ground the 12 -volt wire from
noise in your car, even though ignition the ignition switch at each end with a 0.1-
noise from passing vehicles make the use pfd molded -case paper capacitor in parallel
with a .001 -fd mica or ceramic, using the ground with a special "auto -radio" capacitor
shortest possible leads. of 0.25 or 0.5 fd in parallel with a 0.001-
Check to see that the hood makes good /Ad mica or ceramic capacitor. The former
ground contact to the car body at several usually is placed on the generator when an
points. Special grounding contactors are auto radio is installed, but must be aug-
available for attachment to the hood lacings mented by a mica or ceramic capacitor with
on cars that otherwise would present a short leads in order to be effective at the
grounding problem. higher frequencies as well as the broadcast
If the high- tension coil is mounted on band.
the dash, it may be necessary to shield the When more drastic measures are required,
high- tension wire as far as the bulkhead, special filters can be obtained which are de-
unless it already is shielded with armored signed for the purpose. These are recom-
conduit. mended for stubborn cases when a wide
frequency range is involved. For reception
Wheel Static Wheel static is either static over only a comparatively narrow band of
electricity generated by rota- frequencies, such as the 10 -meter amateur
tion of the tires and brake drums, or is noise band, a highly effective filter can be im-
generated by poor contact between the front provised by connecting a resonant choke be-
wheels and the axles (due to the grease in tween the previously described parallel by-
the bearings). The latter type of noise sel- pass capacitors and the generator armature
dom is caused by the rear wheels, but tire terminal. This may consist of 11 turns of
static may of course be generated by all four No. 10 enameled wire wound on a one -
tires. inch form and shunted with an adjustable
Wheel static can be eliminated by inser- 30 -pf trimmer capacitor to permit resonat-
tion of grounding springs under the front ing the combination to the center of the
hub caps, and by inserting "tire powder" in ten -meter band.
all inner tubes. Both items are available at When generator "whine" shows up after
radio parts stores and from most auto radio once being satisfactorily suppressed, the con-
dealers. dition of the brushes and commutator should
be checked. Unless a bypass capacitor has
opened up, excessive "whine" usually in-
Voltage -Regulator Certain voltage regulators dicates that the brushes or commutator are
"Hash" generate an objectionable in need of attention in order to prevent
amount of "hash" at the damage to the generator.
higher frequencies, particularly in the vhf
range. A large bypass capacitor will affect
Body Static Loose linkages in body or frame
the operation of the regulator and possibly
damage the points. A small bypass can be joints anywhere in the car are
used, however, without causing trouble. A potential static producers when the car is
0.001 -fd mica capacitor placed from the in motion, particularly over a rough road.
field terminal of the regulator to ground Locating the source of such noise is difficult,
with the shortest possible leads often will and the simplest procedure is to give the
produce sufficient improvement. If not, a car a thorough tightening up in the hope
choke consisting of about 60 turns of No. that the offending poor contacts will be
18 d.c.c. wound on a 1/4-inch form can caught up by the procedure. The use of
be added. This should be placed at the braided bonding straps between the various
regulator terminal, and the 0.001 -4d bypass sections of the body of the car also may
placed from the generator side of the choke prove helpful.
to ground.
Miscellaneous There are several other poten-
Generator "Whine"Generator "whine" often tial noise sources on a pas-
can be satisfactorily sup- senger vehicle, but they do not necessarily
pressed from 550 kHz to 148 MHz simply give trouble and therefore require attention
by bypassing the armature terminal to only in some cases.
HANDBOOK Printed -Circuit SSB Transceiver 593
The heat, oil pressure, and gas gauges can Locating Determining the source of
cause a rasping or scraping noise. The gas Noise Sources certain types of noise is made
gauge is the most likely offender. It will difficult when several things
cause trouble only when the car is rocked are contributing to the noise, because elimi-
or is in motion. The gauge units and panel nation of one source often will make little
indicators should both be bypassed with the or no apparent difference in the total noise.
0.1 -fd paper and 0.001 -fd mica or ce- The following procedure will help to isolate
ramic capacitor combination previously de- and identify various types of noise.
scribed. Ignition noise will be present only when
At high car speeds under certain atmo- the ignition is on, even though the engine
spheric conditions, corona static may be en- is turning over.
countered unless means are taken to prevent Generator noise will be present when the
it. The receiving -type auto whips which em- motor is turning over, regardless of whether
ploy a plastic ball tip are so provided in order the ignition switch is on. Slipping the drive
to minimize this type of noise, which is sim- belt off will kill it.
ply a discharge of the frictional static built Gauge noise usually will be present only
up on the car. A whip which ends in a rela- when the ignition switch is on or in the
tively sharp metal point makes an ideal dis- "left" position provided on some cars.
charge point for the static charge, and will Wheel static, when present, will persist
cause corona trouble at a much lower volt- when the car clutch is disengaged and the
age than if the tip were hooded with in- ignition switch turned off, with the car
sulation. A piece of Vinylite sleeving slipped coasting.
over the top portion of the whip and Body noise will be noticeably worse on
wrapped tightly with heavy thread will pre- a bumpy road than on a smooth road, par-
vent this type of static discharge under prac- ticularly at low speeds.
tically all conditions. An alternative arrange-
ment is to wrap the top portion of the whip
with Scotch brand electrical type. 25 -7 A Printed -Circuit
Generally speaking it is undesirable from SSB Transceiver
the standpoint of engine performance to use
both spark -plug suppressors and a distribu-
tor suppressor. Unless the distributor rotor This basic filter -type SSB transceiver -ex-
clearance is excessive, noise caused by spark- citer is designed for minimum cost and
ing of the distributor rotor will not be maximum ease in assembly. It is built on
so bad but that it can be handled satis- a phenolic printed -circuit board* and oper-
factorily by a noise limiter. If not, it is ates on any one of the 160 -, 80 -, or 40-
preferable to shield the "hot" lead between meter bands with a PEP input power of S
ignition coil and distributor rather than watts (figure 23). In conjunction with an
use a distributor suppressor. external vfo and linear amplifier, this
In many cases the control rods, speed- printed- circuit transceiver makes an eco-
ometer cable, etc., will pick up high-tension nomical and reliable "first SSB project" for
noise under the hood and conduct it up either fixed or mobile service. The trans-
under the dash where it causes trouble. If ceiver power requirements are 300 volts at
so, all control rods and cables should be 80 ma and 12.6 volts, a.c. or d.c. at 1.8 am-
bonded to the fire wall (bulkhead) where peres. The transmit -receive control requires
they pass through, using a short piece of only a single -pole switch, which can be
heavy flexible braid of the type used for incorporated in a push -to -talk circuit. Other
shielding. refinements such as VOX and ALC may be
In some cases it may be necessary to bond added after the unit is completed, if desired.
the engine to the frame at each rubber en-
gine mount in a similar manner. If a rear - *A full size drawing of the circuit board and com-
mounted whip is employed, the exhaust tail ponent layout information may be obtained by
pipe also should be bonded to the frame if sending 25 cents to cover the cost of mailing to
supported by rubber mounts. Editors & Engineers, New Augusta, Indiana 46268.
Figure 23
PRINTED -CIRCUIT SSB TRANSCEIVER

Underside of circuit board rests in front of completed exciter. Input circuits and transformers
T , T. and T are at left, with mechanical filter at center. Output transformer and 6AQS
audio tube are at right foreground. Circuit board is mounted on inverted aluminum chassis
used for dust cover.
Transceiver A block diagram of the trans- mixer, the input signal being mixed with
Circuit ceiver is shown in figure 24. the local-oscillator signal to produce a 455-
Eleven tubes are used, and var- kHz intermediate frequency. The oscillator
ious r -f and i -f circuits, the mixing oscilla- stage is common to both transmit and re-
tors, and the crystal filter are common to ceive circuits, the exact tuning range de-
transmit and receive modes. Operation may pending on the band in use. The external
be understood by reference to the schematic oscillator is coupled into the transceiver via
diagram of figure 25. jack J2. Oscillator injection voltage is about
The Receiver Portion -Inthe receiving 4 volts, rms.
mode, the circuit takes the form of a sin- The 455 -kHz intermediate- frequency sig-
gle- conversion superheterodyne having a nal from the mixer stage is coupled via trans-
455 -kHz i -f system. The received SSB sig- former T3 to the 12BA6 first i -f stage
nal is resonated in the antenna input cir- (V -3) . Again, transformer T3 is also used
cuit (T,) which is coupled to a 12BA6 in the transmit mode. The output of the
remote -cutoff r -f amplifier (V -1). The first i -f amplifier passes through the side -
plate circuit of the 12BA6 is coupled to band mechanical filter, FL -1, to a second
the receiver mixer via a bifilar transformer 12BA6 i -f amplifier (V -4) and then to a
(T2) which is also used in the transmission diode detector. At this point in the circuit,
mode. A 12BE6 (V -2) serves as a receiver carrier is injected in the detector from the
VI V2 V3 VP VS VR
ANT. RELAY R-F AMP. NEC MIXER I-F AMP. I -F AMP NEC AUDIO
.
AUDIO OUTPUT SPEAKER
JI
J3
ANT. RELAY LIN. AMP. TRANS. MIX. TRANS -F SAL. MOD.- SPEECH AMP. NI-Z MIC.
VT ve Vs =Y VII
Figure 24
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PRINTED CIRCUIT TRANSCEIVER
Eleven tubes are used in a multipurpose circuit. Common r -f and i -f systems simplify con -
struction and reduce cost. External vio tunes both receiving and transmitting sections.
oscillator section of the 7360 oscillator/ When transmitting, the sideband carrier
balanced modulator (V -10). The resulting is generated by the common crystal oscilla-
audio signal is amplified in a 12AU7 double tor (V -10) a portion of the 7360 balanced
triode (V-5) and the 12AQSA output stage modulator. The triode portion of the 7360
(V -6), which delivers sufficient audio vol- functions as a "hot- cathode" crystal oscil-
ume to overcome car and wind noise en- lator, using a crystal whose frequency is
countered in mobile work. Receiver volume placed at the appropriate point on the pass -
is controlled by gain potentiometer RR. The band slope of the mechanical filter. The de-
transceiver is designed to be used with a flection portion of the 7360 serves as a bal-
4- to 8 -ohm external speaker (the speaker of anced modulator, with the audio signal from
the automobile receiver, for example) . the 12AX7 speech amplifier (V -11) ap-
The Transmitter Portion -In
the trans- plied to one deflection plate of the 7360.
mitting mode, the circuit takes the form The resulting double -sideband, suppressed-
of a single -conversion, mechanical filter carrier signal is coupled into the mechanical
SSB exciter, featuring a 7360 beam -de- filter (FL -1) through the balanced mixer
flection mixer and local oscillator. Switch- transformer (T5) . The mechanical filter sup-
ing the circuitry from receive to transmit is presses the undesired sideband and the car-
accomplished by a single switch which trans- rier, which is already somewhat attenuated
fers the + 300 -volt supply from the plate by the balanced modulator. The desired
and screen circuits of the tubes in the re- sideband is amplified in the transmitter i -f
ceiver section to the corresponding circuits amplifier stage (V -9) and passed through
of the tubes in the transmitter section. No common i -f transformer T5 to the 7360
r -f switching is involved, other than the transmitter mixer (V -8) where it is mixed
use of an external antenna changeover relay. with the conversion oscillator to produce
Both mixing oscillators are common to re- an SSB signal on the same frequency as
ceive and transmit modes and run at all the signal being received. The SSB signal
times, thus helping to reduce short -term is further amplified in the 12BY7A linear
frequency drift. amplifier stage (V -7) The linear stage de-
.
00000)
j I
UT
nmi
;rut:
s ry
a
>N,
Figure 25
SCHEMATIC, PRINTED -CIRCUIT EXCITER :o

Note: Part numbers correspond to callout diagram of printed-circuit board, see text. Audio
ALC may be taken from point A.
PARTS LIST FOR FIGURE 25
C - -See filter specifications T -160 meters: 16 H, 1/2" diam, powdered-

L,- Approx. 80 -100 pH, adjustable. 105 turns iron slug. Resonate with SSO pf (J. W.
*32e., tap 25 turns from ground, 3/8" diam Miller 43A225 -C81)
form, powdered -iron slug (J. W. Miller 80 meters: 8 pH. Resonate with 200 pf (J.
42A825 -CBI) W. Miller 43A105 -C13I)
T,-See text. (J. W. Miller 66A024 -2 form, 40 meters: 4 N. Resonate with 100 pf
1/4" diam, powdered -iron (red) slug) (J. W. Miller 42A476 -CBI)
T -
455 -kHz i -f transformer (J. W. Miller
112 -CI, modify per text)
Links: 160 meters, 8 turns; 80 meters, 6
turns, 40 meters, 4 turns
T , T -Same as T , unmodified PC,, . -10 turns #24e. wire on 47 -ohm
.
T -Same as T , modify as per text 1/4-watt resistor

T -10 k to voice coil. Triad 56 -X
livers about S watts PEP to the antenna chassis which is used as a combined support
through a simple link- coupled output cir- and dust cover. Layout of the major compo-
cuit (Tg). nents may be seen in the photographs. The
parts layout should be studied and under-
Transceiver The major compo- stood before any components are mounted
Layout and Assembly nents of the trans- on the board. All parts are placed atop the
ceiver are assembled board with the exception of the neutralizing
on a phenolic circuit board measuring 7" X capacitor for the 12BY7, the various poten-
13 ". One side of the board has the copper tiometers, and the 1 2BY7 output circuit.
laminate affixed to it which represents the Once the builder is familiar with the cir-
circuitry and the various components are cuit and placement of the components, the
mounted on the opposite side. The board is various parts may be placed on the board
designed to fit atop an inverted aluminum in the following suggested sequence: Tube
sockets and crystal socket, potentiometers,
resistors and capacitors, diodes, r-f trans-
6AH6
125V VISOS REG.
BAND OSC.FRED LI C2, C3 La

\MH2) (MH2) (LM) (Lr) (L11)
1.1-2.0 2.255-2.455 2.5 .003 200
3.6-4.0 4.255-4.455 I .2 .002 SS
7.1-7.3 7.655-7.755 0.4E .002 15
Figure 26 Figure 27
200 -WATT PEP PRINTED - MOBILE VFO FOR SSB EXCITER
CIRCUIT TRANSCEIVER
L, -160 meters (J. W. Miller 42A336 -C81, ce-
Transceiver assembly of figure 23 is mounted ramic, 3/e" diam. with powdered -iron slug)
vertically behind 13" X 5" X 3" aluminum 80 meters (J. W. Miller 42A336 -C81)
chassis which contains vfo and linear ampli- 40 meters (J. W. Miller 42A336 -CBI with
fier. Complete transceiver is covered with turns removed to resonate
wraparound shield to protect tubes and com- Note: Affix core with candle wax to prevent
ponents mounted on printed -circuit board. vibration after final alignment.
Antenna and power receptacles are on near L, -160 meters (J. W. Miller 21A224 -R81, phen-
edge of assembly. 6AH6 and voltage-regulator olic, 3's" diam. with powdered -iron slug)
tubes are in rear compartment, with 61468 80 meters (J. W. Miller 21A47S -RBI)
linear -amplifier tubes in foreground. 40 meters (J. W. Miller 21A155 -R81)
.001 .12
L1 3K V L2 R-FOUT
-100V 12 OV 50250 5l00v.

TO
300 I.
Figure 28
MOBILE LINEAR AMPLIFIER FOR SSB EXCITER
C, -160 meters, 220 pf; 80 meters, 110 pf; 40 meters, 50 pf
C, -160 meters, S00 pf; 80 meters, 250 pl, 40 meters, 125 pf at IkV
C + C-160 meters, 3500 pf; 80 meters, 1800 pf; 40 meters, 1000 pf. Use 3 -gang b -c capaci-
tor plus fixed mica padder
C, -Mica compression trimmer. (J. W. Miller 160 -A)
L, -160 meters, 32 H (J. W. Miller 42A335 -CBI, ceramic, 3/4" diem. with powdered iron slug)
80 meters, 15 H (J. W. Miller 42A155 -C11I)
40 meters, 8 AN (J. W. Miller 42A686 -CBI)
Link windings -160 meters, 8 turns; 80 meters, 6 turns; 40 meters, 4 turns
NC -2 pf. Aluminum plate 1" X 4" mounted adjacent to 6146B's
RFC,,-2.5 #H, 100 ma. (National R -100)
RFC -260 4U. (J. W. Miller RFC 3.5)
PC,-50-ohm, 2 watt composition resistor wound with 5 turns, spaced # 20e. wire
Note: See figure 30, Chapter 1S for operating data for 61468 tube.
formers, filament wiring, leads for external of the same approximate size. The board
connections; and finally, the oscillator coil, may be drilled to accept the chosen filter,
neutralizing capacitor, crystal filter, and with appropriate changes made in filter con-
output coil. A 40 -watt "pencil soldering nections, according to make and model.
iron" should be used to solder the compo-
nent leads to the copper foil.
When mounting the tube sockets, gently Transceiver Coils Data is given for various
press the prongs through the board with a transceiver coils in the
small screwdriver blade until the socket is parts list. Transformers T2, T3 and Ts are
snug with the surface of the board. The rewound from commercial items (f. W.
pins may then be soldered in place. Make Miller type 112 -C -1 midget 455-kHz i -f
sure all of the component leads to a given transformers measuring 1%8" square and 2"
hole on the board are in place before the high).
connection is soldered. A chack mark may be Transformer T2 -This is a modified i -f
made on the schematic diagram as a part is transformer of the type specified, or its
installed to keep track of the numerous physical equivalent. The windings are re-
components. Potentiometer terminals may be moved from the transformer and a new
connected to the board with short lengths of bifilar winding and primary are substituted.
wire. The pentiometers are installed on the The primary winding consists of 34 turns
underside of the board with their shafts of #32 enamel wire closewound. The wind-
available on the top of the board. ing is started about 1/16" from the end
The copper foil area around the mechan- of the coil form away from the tuning
ical filter position is sufficiently large so as capacitors. To start the windings, punch
to accept either the Collins type Y or K two closely spaced holes in the form with
series filter, or other make of 455-kHz filter a needle. Place the holes in line with the
turns of the coil. One coil end may be winding within 3/16" of the other wind-
anchored in these holes by threading the ing. The coil will slip easily when warm
wire through the holes, leaving sufficient wire enough. Check the leads to make sure none
to make a connection to the tuning capaci- are broken by movement of the coil. Reas-
tor. The winding is placed on the form and semble the transformer in its shield can.
two more needle holes are punched in the Transformer T5-This is a standard 455-
form to terminate the winding in the same kHz transformer modified in the following
fashion. The leads of the winding are con- manner: Remove the assembly from the
nected to one of the mica compression shield can and disconnect all four leads at
tuning capacitors on the transformer assem- the mica compression capacitors. Remove
bly. Bring out a blue wire (plate) from and discard black and green leads. Remove
the capacitor terminal having the coil lead 80 turns (about 11' 8 ") of wire from each
farthest away from the capacitor and a red winding, leaving enough length for connec-
lead (B -plus) from the other terminal of tions. Next, wind an 8 -turn link coil of
the capacitor. #32 enameled wire between the two coils.
The bifilar secondary winding is now Twist the leads of the link together and
started 1/8" away from the primary wind- bring out as a twisted pair of wires. These
ing. This coil is made up of 17 turns of may be labeled black and white.
#32 enamel wire composed of two parallel Connect one end of the coil nearest the
wires wound side by side (a total of 34 mica tuning capacitors to the opposite end
turns). Again, use needle holes to anchor of the second coil and then to a solder lug
each of the two wires, leaving leads which which is slipped over the stud used to hold
will be connected later. Wind the two wires the assembly in the shield can. This provides
smoothly and closely for 17 turns simul- a grounded center tap for the secondary
taneously and terminate each wire in a pair winding. The two free ends of the coils are
of needle holes in the coil form. The double connected to the free mica tuning capacitor
winding must now be properly connected to and two connecting leads are brought out,
make the necessary bifilar coil. The leads colored red and blue for easy identification.
nearest the primary coil are called the start
leads, and the leads nearest the mica com-
pression capacitors are called the end leads. Testing the Additional external wiring
Take one start lead of the interlaced coils Transceiver must be done to the circuit
and one end lead of the opposite coil. Con- board before it is ready for
nect these leads together and to a small test. A wire must be run from the poten-
solder lug which is slipped over the bolt tiometer R3 to the junction of R20 /C,9
used to hold the coil assembly in its can. (near V -4) and then to the remote sensi-
This provides the ground point for the tivity termination point. A remote r -f gain
center tap of the bifilar winding. When the control may be placed from this point to
transformer is placed on the board, the can ground, if desired. A second wire must be
and center tap will be grounded. There re- run from R7 (near V -1) to the junction of
mains one start and one end lead which are R,; /C44/R49 (near V -11). Finally, the fila-
to be connected to the remaining mica com- ment wiring should be placed on the board.
pression trimmer capacitor, one lead going to Either 6 -volt or 12 -volt operation may be
each terminal of the capacitor. From each chosen. For 6 -volt operation, the 6 -volt
terminal, bring out two leads (yellow) for counterparts of the 12 -volt tubes are used:
connection to the circuit board. The assem- 6BA6, 6BE6, and 6AQS. The 12AU7 and
bly is now placed in the aluminum can. 12AX7 have centertapped filaments and may
Transformer T,, --This is a standard 455 - be wired in parallel for 6 -volt operation.
kHz transformer with a simple modification. Before applying any voltages, check off
The assembly is removed from the shield the wiring and placement of parts to make
can and the windings are to be closely sure the circuit is in proper shape. Apply
coupled. To do this, gently heat the form the chosen filament voltage and see that all
and winding farthest away from the tuning filaments appear normal. An external oscil-
capacitors until the wax softens. Push the lator, speaker, and 5-watt dummy load are
required. The receiver section should be condition.

checked out first as this will bring coil tun- Initial operation of the transmitter sec-
ing closer for final transmitter tuneup. tion requires removing the voltage from
Apply 300 volts to the B + Receive and B + Receive and applying it to B + Trans-
B + Continuous terminals. The receiver mit. As in any SSB exciter, tuneup requires
section should be operating and tuneable a tone, or carrier signal which may be
by varying the local -oscillator injection fre- achieved by unbalancing the balanced modu-
ouency. Peak transformers T,, T2, T3, and lator. In this case it will be assumed that
T, for maximum audio output using a the modulator is unbalanced by positioning
modulated signal from a test generator. The balance potentiometer R37 near an extreme
frequency of the injection oscillator may clockwise setting. Using the station re-
be either 455 kHz above or below the receiver tuned to the output frequency, trans-
ceived frequency. Being above or below will formers T T2, T:,, and T., can be more
dictate which sideband will be received for closely brought into resonance, using maxi-
a given carrier oscillator crystal. Adjust- mum S -meter reading of the receiver as
ment of oscillator coil L, may be peaked indication of resonance. The 455-kHz modu-
for maximum signal while in the receive lator is now balanced to drop out the car-
Figure 29
200 WATT PEP SIDEBAND TRANSCEIVER FOR 80, 40, AND 20 METERS
Less than a cubic foot in volume, this inexpensive transceiver will fit into today s "compact"
automobile. Unit may also be used with auxiliary 115 -volt a -c supply for the home station.
The major controls on the panel are (I. to ri: sideband switch (S), SSB /a -m selector switch
(S ),audio volume (R ), microphone gain (R,), carrier injection (S ), band- selector switch
S ', microphone jack (J ), r -f gain (R ), meter- selector switch (S), antenna loading capacitor
(C 1, and final amplifier tuning (C. The main frequency -control dial (C 1 is at top center.
Wrap- around, perforated cabinet provides ventilation and acts as TVI shield.
Once adjusted for a particular band, the only tuning required is done with the vfo control.
Bandpass coupling allows large excursions in frequency. The vfo tuning mechanism with
100:1 ratio makes sideband tuning a pleasure.
HANDBOOK 200 -Watt 3 -Band Transceiver 601
CHART 1.
TRANSCEIVER VOLTAGES
TUBE-SOCKET, D -C VOLTAGE CHART
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
TUBE 1
V 12BA6 0 0 FIL FIL 260 75 1.25 - -

V 12BE6 0 0 FIL FIL 210 65 0 - -
V -12BA6 0 0 FIL FIL 23 80 1.3 - -
V 12BA6 0 0 FIL FIL 275 120 2.2 - -
FIL FIL 130 0 6 FIL
V.-12AU7 75 0 2.75
V -12AQ5 0 18 FIL FIL 275 275 0 - -

V. -12BY7 8 0 0 FIL FIL FIL 275 275 0
V-7360 7 200 0 FIL FIL 125 125 39 39
V9-128A6 0 0 FIL FIL 275 110 2 - -

V, 7360 2 245 7 FIL FIL 135 135 24 24
V -12AX7 170 0 1.5 FIL FIL 220 0 1.8 FIL
Note: Input power = 275 volts at 100 ma, gain full on.
rier by adjustment of potentiometers R37

Circuit Description A block diagram of the
and R,,, and the tuning capacitor of trans- transceiver is shown in
former T. Next, potentiometer R -,, should figure 30. Fourteen tubes and two voltage
be adjusted to balance out the oscillator regulators are used. As practically all mobile
injection frequency at the grid of linear operation is done on voice, the tuning range
amplifier V -7. The last step is to neutralize of the transceiver can be limited to the
the 12BY7A linear amplifier. A simple phone segments of the bands used. With
bridge circuit is used, and proper adjustment such a restricted tuning range, bandpass
is described in Chapter 11, Section 6 of this
coupling between low -level r -f stages is
Handbook. practical in both the transmitting and re-
ceiving sections of the unit, thus elimi-
nating the need of variable tuning controls
25 -8 A 200 -Watt 3 -Band for several stages. The variable- frequency
Sideband Transceiver oscillator is common to both transmitting
and receiving sections and tunes only 350
A mobile SSB. transceiver covering three kHz, which is ample range for the 80 -meter
bands can be built utilizing few more parts band and provides full coverage of the 40-
than a single -band unit, and without re- and 20 -meter bands. Although several of the
quiring any great increase in size over a tubes in the unit are common to both trans-
single -band model. This compact and inex- mit and receive sections, the receiver r -f
pensive triband transceiver (figure 29) is de- section is independent of the transmitter
signed for 80 -, 40 -, and 20 -meter operation section to make construction easier and to
at levels up to 200 watts peak envelope pow- facilitate alignment. The final amplifier
er input. Upper sideband, lower sideband, tank circuit, however, is used as the anten-
or amplitude modulation may be transmit- na input circuit for the receiver to take
ted on each band. Push -to -talk circuitry is advantage of the high Q of the circuit and
included and the transceiver may be operated to conserve space. Only two relays are re-
from a six -or twelve -volt d -c power source quired for receive- transmit changeover and
or from a 115 -volt a -c supply. Weighing these relays are actuated by the microphone
only a few pounds, the transceiver measures
only 10 X 12" X 61/2" in size
enough to fit into "compact" cars!
-
small
push -to -talk circuit. One miniature relay
(RY_) grounds the grid of the r -f ampli-
fier in the receiver (V.,) for protection
V, Vs T3 Vs T4 Ve
Pi-
NETWORK
TRANSMITTER SECTION TO RY2
0-3.3MNr OR /6.0-76.3MNr
8998.5210 Ve
Y1
YJ
erwe 27. 5 MN,
PREMIX-
Y
P007.3 kHz 5.0-3.J5MC.
FREQUENCY CONTROL SECTION
RECEIVER SECTION V13, V14

TO PI - NET.
V9 T2 Vio
Cree
V12 AUDIO
DANDPA33
RYz COUPLER EXTERNAL
90 -40 -20 SPEAKER
eroe
AUDIO
Figure 30
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSCEIVER

Frequency -control section of unit is common to both receiver and transmitter sections. beam -
defection type 7360 serves as carrier oscillator and modulator, followed by 9-MM: crystal
sideband filter and i -f amplifier stage. Variable -frequency oscillator and mixing oscillator for
7 -MN: operation are also common to both sections of transceiver. Transmitter section com-
prises microphone amplifier and transmitter mixer followed by two linear amplifier stages.
Receiver section consists of r -f amplifier and mixer followed by additional i -f stage, product
detector, and audio amplifier. Simple push -to -talk circuit switches configuration from transmit
to receive.
during transmissions and a second relay vide a tuneable 16.5 -MHz variable- frequen-
(RY,) switches various voltages between cy injection signal. This, mixing in turn
transmit and receive circuits. Full auto- with the 9 -MHz sideband signal, produces a
matic gain control (agc) is incorported in difference frequency in the 7 -MHz range.
the receiver, together with an auxiliary r -f The Receiver Portion-The receiver por-
gain control. When transmitting, an auto- tion of the unit starts with a 6BA6 remote -
matic level control (alc) system reduces cutoff r -f amplifier (V1,) bandpass -coupled
flat -topping and serious overload distortion. to a 6BE6 mixer (V11I) whose injection
The single panel meter may be switched to grid receives mixing voltage from the com-
read cathode current of the linear amplifier mon 6U6 vfo (V-) via the buffer stage
stage or relative power output at the an- (V,). The 6EA8 buffer functions as a pre -
tenna receptacle. mixer for the vfo on 40 meters when the
The transceiver is designed around the cathode of the triode section is grounded to
McCoy 9 -MHz sideband filter, utilizing the activate the 21.5 -MHz crystal oscillator.
sum and difference products created by mix- The intermediate -frequency output of the
ing with a 5 -MHz vfo signal to cover the 6BE6 receiver mixer is 9 MHz and the -f i
80- and 20 -meter bands. Forty -meter out- signal is link- coupled via L to the input of
put is obtained by premixing the vfo signal the 9 -MHz crystal filter (FL,). A matching
with a 21.5 -MHz crystal oscillator to pro- transformer couples the low output imped-
ance of the filter to the grid circuit of the of the tube functioning as a crystal oscil-
common i -f amplifier (V3). The received lator. Choice of upper or lower sideband is
signal is capacitively coupled from this made by proper crystal selection by means
stage to a second 6BA6 receiver i -f ampli- of sideband -selector switch S1. The balanced -
fier (V11) whose output circuitry is capaci- modulator plate circuit of the 7360 is link -
tively coupled to a 6BE6 product detector coupled to the 9 -MHz filter for rejection
).
( \r Oscillator injection for SSB reception
is from either of the two sideband crystals
of the unwanted sideband and passage of the
desired sideband to the common 6BA6 i -f
in the grid circuit of the 7360 carrier amplifier (V3). The sideband signal is then
oscillator-balanced modulator (V2) which is transformer -coupled to the 6BE6 transmit-
common to receive and transmit sections. ter mixer (V,) . This mixer stage receives
Collector plate voltage is removed from the its mixing voltage from the vfo and buffer
7360 during reception by relay RY,C but premixer stages (V7, Vs) in the same man-
the oscillator section always functions since ner as the receiver. Output of the 6BE6
deflector and screen voltage is applied in transmitter mixer is at either 80, 40, or 20
either mode. meters and is bandpass -coupled on the desired
The 6BE6 product detector (V) may band to a 12BY7 amplifier- driver (V3).
be switched to function as a plate detector This stage, in turn, is bandpass -coupled to
a neutralized 6DQ5 (V6) serving as a
for reception of a -m signals (S,ABC). This
changeover requires disabling the 7360 car- class -AB, linear amplifier. The final tank
rier oscillator, but since this oscillator is re- circuit of the amplifier is a pi- network
quired for transmitting, the a -m change- configuration providing good harmonic at-
tenuation and ease of adjustment.
over switch is routed through the main
changeover relay (RY,B) so voltage is Transceiver Transceiver construction is
applied to the carrier oscillator when trans- Construction straightforward and should
mitting, regardless of the setting of the be no problem for the ad-
SSB /a -m switch (S3). vanced amateur. The vfo is built as a sep-
Mobile operation requires a receiver hav- arate unit and may be tested and aligned
ing a reserve of audio power and the audio before it is installed in the transceiver. The
section is designed to meet this requirement. receiver portion of the unit should be wired
Two 6EB8 triode -pentode tubes (V,:,, V1,) and tested before the various transmitter
are employed, with the pentode sections stages are completed. The transceiver is
used as a push -pull audio stage. One triode constructed on a 10 X 12" X 3" steel
section of the first 6EB8 is used as an audio chassis. Layout of the major components and
phase inverter and the second triode is used shield partitions are observed in the photo-
as the driving amplifier for the phase in- graphs and drawings. The 6DQ5 amplifier
verter. The two dual -purpose tubes take up tube socket is recessed so that panel height
no more space than the usual two -tube am- is only 6". Standard parts are used
plifier stages but produce nearly 5 watts of throughout with the exception of the vfo
high -quality audio. The speaker is not in- tuning capacitor. The vfo is built as a unit
corporated in the transceiver, since use of on the frame of a worm -gear driven capaci-
the speaker in the auto radio is contem- tor removed from the amplifier stage of a
plated. For home use, an auxiliary speaker surplus SCR -274N /ARC -5 transmitter. Only
is incorporated in the 115-volt a -c power the worm gear and frame assembly are used
unit. and the original capacitor plates are re-
The Transmitter Portion -The transmit- moved (figure 32). A double bearing 140 -
ter portion of the unit starts with a 12AX7 pf receiving-type variable capacitor is in-
two -stage speech amplifier (V,) driving a stalled in the frame in place of the original
deflection plate of the 7360 carrier oscilla- capacitor assembly, slipping the spring -
tor-balanced modulator (V2). When trans- loaded drive gear over the shaft of the new
mitting, voltage is applied to the collector capacitor so that it engages the worm gear
plates of the 7360 via relay RY,C and the as did the rotor of the original capacitor.
carrier is generated by the triode section The free space inside the framework is used
Figure 31
SCHEMATIC OF TRANSCEIVER
C, -20 -pf differential capacitor (E. F. Johnson #32 copper wire wound on 47 -ohm, 1-
160 -311) watt resistor placed at cathode terminal
C,, C -12 -pf ceramic variable (Centralab C/11.- of 6DQ5
RFC- 2.5 -mH, 300 -ma. (National R -3000)
827)
C. -50 -pf (Hammarlund MAPC) RY 3POT relay, 12 -volt d -c
coil (Potter -Brum-
C.- 140 -pf (Hammarlund MC -140M) field KM-14D or equiv.)
C, -25 -pf ceramic variable (Centralab CRI -827) RY DPDT relay, 12 -volt d-c coil (Potter -Brum-
C. thru C, S0 -pf ceramic variable (Centralab field KM -11D or equiv.)
CRL -827) S A, B, C -3 -pole, 2- position wafer switch
C,-15 -pf (Hammarlund MAPC). (Centralab CRL PA1007)
C,,- 235 -pf (Bud 1859) S A, B;S A, B; S,A, B; S A, B; 5,-2-pole ceramic
C, -1200-pf, 3 -gang broadcast -type capacitor wafer sections (Centralab PA -2 each,

(J. W. Miller 2113) ganged on Centralab PA -301 index as-
CR, thru CR -Diode, 1N34 or equivalent sembly)
FL, -9 -MHz crystal sideband filter (McCoy SSB- T,- Transformer, 10.7 -MHz TV i -f type, (J. W.
9, McCoy Electronics, Mt. Holly Springs, Miller 1463). (x indicates internal compon-
Pa.) ent)
M -0 -1 d -cmilliammeter, 13/4" square (Cal -Rad, T,, T, T- Transformer, 4.5 -MHz TV interstage
or equiv.). type (J. W. Miller 6270). (c indicates inter-
PC- Parasitic choke. 7 turns #18e. wire on 100 - nal component)
ohm, 1 -watt composition resistor T -Universal output transformer, 10K plate -to-
P,- 8- contact chassis -mounting plug (Cinch- plate (Stancor A -3823)
Jones P- 308AB) Y,- 8898.5 -kHz crystal (furnished with FL,)
R,- 1- megohm potentiometer with switch S, 11,-9001.5-kHz crystal (furnished with FL,)
attached Y- 21.50 -MHz crystal (International Crystal
R -Meter shunt for 300 -ma ronge. Approx. 10" Co. FA -S)
to mount the various components of the receptacle (J:,), power plug (P,) and jack
vfo as shown in the photograph. An alumi- for the external speaker (J_) are placed on
num plate is bolted to the back frame to the rear apron of the chassis and all other
support the tube socket (V;) and an L- major controls are mounted on the front
shaped shield is bolted over the top and panel with the exception of the phase -bal-
end of the frame to inclose the assembly. ance capacitor (C,) and voltage- balance po-
A circular dial cut from 1/16 -inch plastic tentiometer (R_) which are placed on the
or pleviglas is placed on the large gear in chassis to the rear of the 7360 tube socket.
lieu of the original metal dial. The new
These controls need be adjusted only in the
dial is spray -painted white on the front and
calibration marks are lettered with India initial alignment and ordinarily require no
ink. The complete vfo is bolted to a base further attention.
plate of 1/4" thick aluminum, slightly larger The main bandswitch runs down the
in area than the capacitor framework. The center line of the under -chassis area with
completed assembly is then bolted to the wafer sections S, (inclusive) bolted indi-
transceiver chassis with the center of the vidually to the small partitions that act as
dial at the center line of the chassis. The interstage shields. Switch wafer S, for the
plastic dial will extend below the front 6DQ5 amplifier plate tank coil is mounted
apron of the chassis, requiring a slight in the amplifier compartment on the rear
amount of clearance so that it does not rub. apron of the chassis below tank coil L.,,,
The panel is spaced away from the chassis with the connecting wires from the coil
apron by the lock washers and nuts that brought below deck through an oblong hole
fasten the various controls, allowing clear- in the chassis. The shaft of this switch is
ance for the dial. The panel is secured in ganged to the main bandswitch shaft by
place with a second nut on each control. means of a link- and -arm arrangement shown
The upper edge of the panel and the rear in figure 35. Two small lever arms are made
lip of the chassis are bolted to the wrap- by taking apart a flexible shaft coupler.
around cabinet to provide a rigid structure One arm is slipped over the main band -
immune to vibration. switch shaft at the point where it enters
Component Layout -Most of the major the under -chassis shield plate behind the
components are mounted atop the chassis as main panel, and the second arm is attached
shown in figures 33 and 34. The antenna to the fiber extension shaft driving the am-
plifier switch wafer (S.,) mounted on the a separate assembly, it may be aligned and
rear apron of the chassis. The two lever tested before installation on the chassis by
arms are interconnected by a narrow strip of applying voltage to the various terminals
aluminum having a hole at each end for and monitoring the frequency in a well -
small bolts to secure it to the two lever calibrated receiver capable of tuning the
arms. Panel bushings in the shield plate act operating range of the oscillator. A BC -221
as bearings for the switch shafts. frequency meter will aid in this effort. The
The bandpass coils are constructed as in- 21.5 -MHz crystal oscillator (V,) and pre-
dicated in the coil table (figure 36) with mixer stage can be adjusted with a vacuum -
the exception of the coils for the 80 meter tube voltmeter and r-f probe placed at the
band. These are ready -made 4.5 -MHz TV switch arm of S, A. With the bandswitch in
replacement interstage transformers (T,, T3, the 80- or 20 -meter position, a voltage will
and Ti). They are used without alteration be observed at this point and the slug of
and provide the desired bandpass effect by coil L10 adjusted for maximum indication.
virtue of stagger-tuning between 3.8 and This coil is broadly resonant in the 5 -MHz
4.0 MHz. region and is tuned for an output reading
A great deal of the wiring may be done of not over 2 volts r.m.s.
before the shield partitions or switch as- With the bandswitch in the 40 -meter
semblies are put in place. The switch wafers position, the cathode of the triode section
are installed one at a time, beginning with of the 6EA8 premixer is connected to the
the receiver segment at the rear of the cathode of the pentode section, energizing
chassis. The side and front shield plates are the crystal -oscillator stage and changing
made of thin aluminum and are installed the circuit to a cathode- coupled mixer. The
last, being bolted to each other, the switch slug in the crystal -oscillator coil (L,1) is
partitions, and the chassis to make a rigid adjusted for maximum r -f voltage at the
assembly (figure 37). grid of the triode section of V,. The pre -
Terminal boards are used for the small mixer coils (L, and L) are tuned for max-
components of the balanced modulator and imum r -f voltage at the arm of switch
audio systems. Other small components are S,,A. The voltage measured at this point is
mounted to tube- socket terminals and tie - the 16 -MHz product of the crystal and
point terminal strips. vfo frequencies.
Receiver 1 -F and 80 -meter Alignment -
The receiver i -f amplifier is aligned by dis-
abling the vfo and injecting a 9 -MHz signal
Testing and The transceiver will operate at the input grid (pin #7) of the 6BE6
Alignment with any power supply capable receiver mixer (V,,,). The i -f coils (L,, L5,
of delivering between 500 and L;) and the primary only of transformer Ti
800 volts at an intermittent load of 250 are tuned for maximum signal response us-
milliamperes for the final amplifier, and ing avc voltage as indication of resonance.
250 volts at 125 milliamperes for the re- With the bandswitch in the 80 -meter posi-
ceiver and exciter sections. Bias requirement tion and the vfo functioning, a 4.0 -MHz
is -50 volts at 5 milliamperes (adjustable).
signal is injected at the antenna receptacle
For fixed- station use and bench align- and the primary of r-f transformer T,
ment, a voltage -doubler power supply using tuned for maximum signal. This transformer
a TV replacement transformer works very is stagger -tuned by peaking the secondary
well. Two 6.3 -volt windings in series will at 3.8 MHz and checking at several points
provide filament voltage and this may be in between where a further slight adjust-
rectified to provide direct current to operate ment of the slugs should result in a fairly
the relays. A - 50 volt bias supply for the
final amplifier stage is also required.
flat response over the desired 200 -kHz
range. It will be noted that the final am-
Alignment of VFO and premixer -The plifier tank adjustment (which is the input
first step in the alignment procedure is to circuit when receiving) must be peaked
adjust the main vfo to tune the range of slightly when tuning from one end to the
5.0 to 5.35 MHz. Since the vfo is made as other of the 200 -kHz range.
the resonant frequency of the primary wind-

ings so they will not affect the adjustment
of the grid circuitry. The grid coils are
then dipped to 7.0 and 14.0 MHz. With the
r -f tube back in its socket, the transceiver
can be turned on and checked for receiver
operation on each band.
Transmitter Alignment Alignment of the

transmitter section is
done with the high voltage disconnected and
with screen voltage removed from the 6DQ5
amplifier. If the 0A2 screen- regulator tube
is wired so that the dropping resistor goes
to pin #1 and the screen lead to pin #5, the
screen voltage will be disconnected by re-
moving the 0A2 from its socket, since the
0A2 has an internal jumper between these
pins.
Much of the transmitter alignment is
completed once the receiver section has been
adjusted. The 7360 balanced- modulator
plate coil (L,) is tuned first, placing the
r -f probe of the v.t.v.m. at the grid (pin
Figure 32
#7) of the 6BE6 transmitting mixer (V4)
CLOSEUP OF TRANSCEIVER OSCILLATOR to obtain an r -f voltage reading. The trans-
Stable vfo for triband transceiver is made
mitter circuitry is energized by pressing the
from frame of SCR -274N capacitor. Capacitor push -to-talk switch on the microphone
plates are removed and 110 -pf capacitor sub- (with the microphone gain control R,
stituted. A small bracket bolted to the frame
supports padding capacitor C1. Airwound vfo turned down). The carrier control (R:,) is
coil is in foreground, cemented to a 1/4-inch turned on and advanced to provide carrier
thick block of polystyrene which is bolted to injection until a reading is obtained on the
capacitor frame. Oscillator tube socket is
mounted on side of capacitor and tie point v.t.v.m. The slug of coil L, is adjusted for
behind it supports cathode r -f choke and var- maximum r -f indication. The phase -balance
ious mica capacitors. C ctions to vfo unit
ore terminated at lug strip mounted below capacitor (C,) should be set for equal ca-
the tube socket. pacitance and the voltage -balance potenti-
ometer (R2) set near the center of rotation.
Receiver Alignment, 40 and 20 Meters

The tuning of the 40- and 20 -meter band -
- When the carrier control is turned off, the
indicated r -f voltage will drop and balance
potentiometer R2 should be adjusted for a
pass r -f coils is done in a different manner. minimum r -f reading. This is the adjust-
The grid coils (L.,, L2.,) are temporarily ment for carrier suppression and at this
unsoldered from the bandswitch (S,B) to time the phase -balance capacitor should be
remove them from the active circuit and a adjusted slightly to achieve lowest possible
grid -dip oscillator is used to set the fre- r -f reading. Both controls affect carrier sup-
quency of the primary circuits (L22, L2,) by pression and are slightly interlocking and
adjustment of the slugs. The 40 -meter plate should be adjusted in sequence for lowest
coil is adjusted to 7.3 MHz and the 20- reading on the v.t.v.m. The whole process
meter plate coil to 14.35 MHz. The grid may be monitored with a receiver used as
coils are then resoldered to the bandswitch an r -f probe with the antenna lead placed
terminals and the 6BA6 r-f amplifier tube near the socket of the 6BE6 transmitter
(V.,) is removed from its socket. This raises mixer tube (V4).
1YNli:9r9iiir .
e a
r,
4111104TIffl0)
u t,.
U
tl
Figure 33
TOP VIEW OF TRIBAND TRANSCEIVER

Identification of various components may be done by comparison to chassis -layout draw-
ing (figure 34). Variable- frequency oscillator is centered behind panel which is spaced away
from chassis to allow clearance for circular dial. Pilot lamp is atop oscillator compartment,
with oscillator padding capacitor (C,) adjustable from top of compartment. Carrier crystals
and their padding capacitors (C -C;) are visible below panel meter at right. Across the rear
chassis apron are (I. to r.): Antenna coaxial receptacle (J ), power receptacle (P,) and speaker
jack (Jr).
Carrier Oscillator Adjustment-Capaci- decibels, the carrier oscillator should be

tors C, and C2. across the upper- and lower - placed 1500 Hz above or below the 9 -MHz
sideband crystals are used to trim the crystal center frequency of the filter. Carrier sup-
frequencies for proper positioning of the pression is also affected by proper position-
carrier on the slope of the sideband filter. ing of the carrier frequency on the filter
To realize the rated sideband rejection of 40 slope. When making the frequency adjust-
SPEAKER
J2fPLUG
POWER
PLUG, II
f1 n
11 P,
ANTENNAI=1 J3
CONNECTOR -
TOSE
YY"YT
Ls
-
Le
FL,
9 MHz
FILTER O
O T2
Lz2 L 24
L3
L4 T1
o
L13
T3 O
Lis
:- - -
L7
L19
Ta O
L,
La UNDER- CHASSIS SHIELD
PHENOLIC
SHAFT
C1O R20
OLn
O Le
METER ."-PLEXIGLASS
DIAL
Figure 34
PLACEMENT OF MAJOR COMPONENTS ON TRANSCEIVER CHASSIS
CHASSIS DECK
turned off should be very nearly the same
SHIELD PARTITION TO PANEL
ALUMINUM
with either crystal. Final adjustment may
be made with voice modulation, striving for
STRI P
ARM FROM
COUPLER
good audio quality on either sideband as
SHAFT TO FINAL AMPLIFIER SWITCH INDEX SHAFT
SWITCH SEGMENT. monitored in a nearby receiver.
Se SA -ST
Bandpass Adjustment -The bandpass cir-
cuits in the linear amplifier stages of the
transmitter are aligned in the same manner
Figure 35 as the receiver circuits using carrier injec-
tion from either sideband crystal. The 40-
BANDSWITCH ARM DETAIL
and 20 -meter coils are checked with a grid -
dip oscillator as before, but the 80 -meter
ments, carrier suppression should be checked transformers (T;,, TO as well as the second-
on both upper-and lower -sideband positions. ary of Ti, are adjusted with voltage applied
The minimum voltage reading with carrier to the transmitter and the transformer slugs
L -Final amplifier tank coil. 32 turns #16

k POLY TUBE wire, with 16 turns spaced twice wire
GRID diameter; 16 turns spaced wire diameter
GROUND Coil is 1" diam., 21/2" long, tapped at 10
and 18 turns from plate end. (Air -Dux
1+ 820-1310).
Note: L,, L, and L, are mounted in 3/" square
shield cans similar to transformer T,.
PLATE
LS -3 COIL FORM
tuned for uniform 6DQS drive -voltage read-

ing over the 200 -kHz tuning range with the
r-f probe placed at the grid of the 6DQ5. A
BANDPASS COIL maximum of 15 to 20 volts rms can be
obtained with full carrier injection. Under
final operating conditions, the 40- and 20-
meter coils may require some slight adjust-
fN e % S 8
ment for uniform drive across these bands.
.01 Amplifier Neutralization -The last step
COMPONENTS FOR BALANCED
MODULATOR CIRCUIT.
COMPONENTS FOR AUDIO AND PRO
DUCT DETECTOR CIRCUIT.
- is to neutralize the final amplifier stage.
TERMINAL BOARD LAYOUT With plate and screen voltage removed and
grid drive applied to the 6DQS, neutraliza-
tion is accomplished by placing the r -f probe
Figure 36
at the antenna receptacle and adjusting neu-
tralizing capacitor C,;, for minimum r -f
COIL TABLE FOR TRANSCEIVER indication when the 6DQ5 tank circuit is
tuned to resonance.
L, -12biRlar turns (24 in all) #24 enamel wire, Final Amplifier Adjustment- Amplifier
closewound on slug -tuned form, i/3" diam.
(National XR -50). Tune to 9 MHz bias is adjusted to provide SO ma of resting
L; 4 turns #24 hookup wire around center of current. The transceiver should be coupled
L,
L -4 turns #24 hookup wire on "cold" end of to a dummy load and loading and grid drive
L
L,, L,, L.-30 turns #30 enamel closewound on
(carrier insertion) adjusted to provide the
5/16" diameter form. Tune to 9 MHz desired input level.
L,-4 turns #24 hookup wire on "cold" end of Antenna loading requires that a fixed
L,
L, -12 turns #24 enamel closewound on 3/4" ratio of grid drive to plate -load impedance
diam. slug -tuned form (CTC -LS3 or equiv.). be achieved. Maximum drive level is fixed
Tune to 16 MHz
L,-8 turns #24 enamel wire closewound on and loading is accomplished at this level
3/e' length of /2" diam. polystyrene tubing and may be increased until flat -topping is
slipped over top end of coil L,. to make
premixer transformer. Tune to 16 MHz first observed on a monitor oscilloscope.
L,o- Ferrite rod loop- antenna coil ( "loopstick ") Advantage is taken of the high peak- to -av-
with turns removed to resonate to SMHz
(J. W. Miller 6300) erage -power ratio in the human voice, and
L -15 turns #24 enamel wire closewound on
up to 200 watts peak input may be run to
3/e' diam. slug -tuned form (CTC -LS3). Tune
to 21.S MHz. the 6DQ5 without overheating the tube.
7c/2 turns #20, 3/4' diam., 3/4 long (8 & W
L
3011). Tunes 5.0 to 5.35 MHz
Carrier injection and tune -up conditions, on
L,, L,., L-30 turns #30 enamel wire close- the other hand, impose maximum dissipa-
wound on 3/4" diam. slug -tuned form (CTC - tion conditions on the tube and tune -up
LS3). Tune to 7 MHz
L,,, L,,, L55-25 turns #30 enamel wire close - operation at full input should be limited to
wound on 3/8" length of 1/2" diam. poly- periods of 20 seconds or less in one minute
styrene tubing cemented to top of L,,, L,., as tube dissipation runs near 61 watts or so
L., to make bandpass transformer (see
sketch). Tune to 7 MN: under these conditions. With the average
L,,, L,,, L55-14 turns #28 enamel wire close - voice, peak plate- current indication on the
woun on 3/e" diam. slug -tuned form (CTC -
153). Tune to 14 MHz meter will run below 50 percent of the full
L,,, L,,, L,, -12 turns #28 enamel closewound on carrier injection plate current, even taking
3/j' length of 1/2" diam. polystyrene tubing into account the alc action of this circuit.
cemented to top of L,,, L,,, Lc, to make
bandpass transformer. Tune to 14 MHz Thus, under intermittent carrier tune -up
PI ,. OIL III gm Ill In
Figure 37
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF TRANSCEIVER
Placement of shield partitions about tuned circuits may be seen at right side of chassis.
Trimming capacitors for 40- and 20 -meter circuits are mounted on partitions as are switch
decks. First switch segment behind front panel is S The three -gang antenna loading capacitor
.
is bolted to the side apron of the chassis near antenna receptacle and tank switch wafer S.
The opposite side apron is used to mount the audio output transformer (T ) ana two terminal
boards that support most of the resistors and capacitors in the audio and balanced modulator
circuits. Terminal strips and tie points are used to mount small components securely to resist
vibration encountered in mobile work. The antenna relay (RY ) is mounted on the rear apron
above the 68E6 (V) socket. The voltage changeover relay RYA is mounted in the center of
the chassis area between the i -f amplifier tubes and the audio tubes.
at 800 volts plate potential, maximum plate reading. Excessive peak plate current read-
current may run as high as 275 to 300 mil- ings under voice conditions indicate flat -
liamperes, with indicated voice peaks run- topping and consequent distortion of the
ning about 125 to 175 milliamperes meter signal.
612 Mobile Equipment
CHART 2
TUBE SOCKET VOLTAGE CHART
TUBE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
V1 100 -2 0 F F 180 -0.5 1 -

V, 3 150 - F F 220 220 18 18
V3 - 0 F F 220 100 1.8 - -

V, - 2 F F 240 75 0 -
V5 2 -- 0 F F F 240 110 0
V6 -50 F - 150 -50 - F 150 -

V8 100 - 125 F F 200 3 3 -
V9 - 0 F F 220 100 1.8 - -
V1, - 2.5 F F 225 80 0 - -
Vn - 1.8 F F 220 100 1.8 - -
V12 - 0.8 F F 200 35 0.8
V13 1 - 100 F F 3 - 180 240
V14 70 - 175 F F 3 - 180 240
NOTES:
Readings taken with 20,000 ohms -per -volt meter and may vary 10 .
Voltages -0 on pins 6, 7, 8, 9, of V2 on receive.
Voltage -120 on pin 2 of V2 on receive.
R -f gain and audio gain fully advanced.
POWER -SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS

Low voltage -250 volts at 115 ma receive High voltage -60C to 800 volts at 300 ma, xmit only
80 ma xmit Filaments-12.6 volts a.c. or d.c. at 4 A
Bias--50 volts d.c. 5 ma Relay -12 V.D.C. 80 ma, xmit only
Transceiver The triband transceiver output line remains quite high. A better solution is
Antenna circuit is designed for a nominal to make use of an auxiliary impedance-
SO -ohm load. Low -frequency matching coil placed at the base of the an-
whip antennas, particularly 80 -meter loaded tenna, as shown in figure 16A. Typically, a
whips present a low- impedance load which matching coil for 80 meters may consist of
may inhibit proper transceiver loading un- about fifteen turns of No. 12 wire, 1 inch
der certain conditions. If this situation exists, in diameter and about 2 inches long. The
there are several solutions to the problem. number of active turns in the coil are ad-
The easiest one to apply is to change the justed, one by one, and the SWR on the
length of the coaxial line running from the transmission line monitored. A proper im-
transceiver to the antenna. By lengthening pedance match will drop the SWR to a value
the line in five- or ten -foot increments, a less than 1.2/1 at the resonant frequency of
condition of proper load may be achieved, the loaded antenna.
even though the SWR on the transmission
CHAPTER TWENTY -SIX
Receivers and Transceivers
Receiver construction has just about be- the experimenter's instinct, even in those
come a lost art. Excellent general -coverage individuals owning expensive commercial
and ham -band -only receivers are available receivers. These lucky persons have the ad-
on the market in many price ranges. How- vantage of comparing their home -built prod-
ever, even the most modest of these receivers uct against the best the commercial market
is relatively expensive, and most of the re- has to offer. Sometimes such a comparison is
ceivers are designed as a compromise -they surprising.
must suit the majority of users, and they When the builder has finished the wiring
must be designed with an eye to the price. of a receiver it is suggested that he check
It is a tribute to the receiver manufac- his wiring and connections carefully for
turers that they have done as well as they possible errors before any voltages are applied
have. Even so, the c -w man must often pay to the circuits. If possible, the wiring should
for a high -fidelity audio system and S -meter be checked by a second party as a safety
he never uses, and the SSB operator must pay measure. Some transistors can be permanently
for the c -w man's narrow -band filter. For damaged by having the wrong voltages ap-
one amateur, the receiver has too much plied to their electrodes. Electrolytic capaci-
bandspread; for the next, too little. For tors can be ruined by hooking them up with
economy's sake and for ease of alignment, the wrong voltage polarity across the ca-
low -Q coils are often found in the r -f cir- pacitor terminals. Transformer, choke, and
cuits of commercial receivers, making the coil windings may be damaged by incorrect
set a victim of crosstalk and overloading wiring of the high -voltage leads.
from strong local signals. Rarely does the The problem of meeting and overcoming
purchaser of a commercial receiver realize such obstacles is just part of the game. A
that he could achieve the results he desires in true radio amateur should have adequate
a home -built receiver if he left off the frills knowledge of the art of communication. He
and trivia which he does not need but which should know quite a bit about his equipment
he must pay for when he buys a commercial (even if purchased) and, if circumstances
product. permit, he should build a portion of his own
The ardent experimenter, however, needs equipment. Those amateurs who do such
no such arguments. He builds his receiver construction work are convinced that half
merely for the love of the game, and the of the enjoyment of the hobby may be ob-
thrill of using a product of his own creation. tained from the satisfaction of building and
It is hoped that the receiving equipment operating their own receiving and trans-
to be described in this chapter will awaken mitting equipment.
614 Receivers and Transceivers RADIO
Figure 1
COMPONENT NOMENCLATURE
RESISTORS,
CAPACITORS, 1- RESISTANCE VALUES ARE STATED IN OHMS, THOUSANDS
I- VALUES BELOW 999 PF ARE INDICATED IN UNITS. OFOHMS (K). AND MEGOHMS (M ).
EXAMPLE: ISO PF DESIGNATED AS 150. EXXMPL Ei 270 OHMS = 270
700 OHMS =4.7N
2- VALUES ABOVE 999 PF ARE INDICATED IN DECIMALS. 33,000 OH MS = 33 R
EXAMPLE: .005 LIFO DESIGNATED AS .005. OHMS = K OR 0.1 M
3- OTHER CAPACITOR VALUES ARE AS STATED.

]]100.000
33.000.000 OM MS = ]] M
EXAMPLE: 1OLIFD, 0.3PF, ETC. 2- ALL RESISTORS ARE 1 -WATT COMPOSITION TYPE UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED. WATTAGE NOTATION IS THEN INDICATED
4- TYPE OF CAPACITOR IS INDICATED BENEATH THE BELOW RESISTANCE VALUE.
DESIGNATION.
SM. SILVER MICA
C =CERAMIC
VALUE
EXAMPLE S yr
47R
M= MICA
P= PAPER INDUCTORS:
230
EXAMPLE,
C
.01
M
.001 MICROHENRIES= LIN
MILLINENRIES =MN
HENRIES=
5- VOLTAGE RATING Of ELECTROLYTIC OR ^FILTER H
CAPACITOR IS INDICATED BELOW CAPACITY DESIGNATION.
10 zo zs SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS'
EXAMPLE'
430 90 10
OR -.1--T-
1
1:1- THE CURVED LINE IN CAPACITOR SYMBOL REPRESENTS CONDUCTORS JOINED

THE OUTSIDE FOIL -GROUND OF PAPER CAPACITORS,
THE NEGATIVE ELECTRODE OF ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS,
OR THE ROTOR OF VARIABLE CAPACITORS.
CONDUCTORS CROSSING CHASSIS GROUND
BUT NOT JOINED
The Transceiver A popular item of equip- or spots placed on the body of the compo-
ment on "five meters" nent. Several color codes have been used
during the late '30's, the transceiver is in the past, and are being used in modified
making a comeback today complete with form at present to indicate component
modern tubes and circuitry. In brief, the values. The most important of these color
transceiver is a packaged radio station com- codes for resistors, capacitors, power trans-
bining the elements of the receiver and formers, chokes, i -f transformers, etc. can
transmitter into a single unit having a com- be found in the appendix at the end of this
mon power supply and audio system. The Handbook.
present trend toward compact equipment
and the continued growth of single -sideband
techniques combine naturally with the space - 26 -1 A General Purpose
saving economies of the transceiver. Various High- Frequency Converter
transceiver circuits for the higher frequency
amateur bands are shown in this Handbook. This converter is an improved version of
The experimenter can start from these simple the "Antioverload 50- MHz Converter"
circuits, and using modern miniature tubes, featured in the 17th edition of the Radio
transistors, and components, can design and Handbook. The newer version has improved
build his complete station in a cabinet no overload capability, better noise figure, and
larger than a communications receiver. is adapted for use on the 6 -, 10 -, and IS-
meter bands.
Circuitry and It
is the practice of the edi- The problem of overload and cross mod-
Components tors of this Handbook to ulation is acute in metropolitan areas having
place as much usable informa- high density of amateur operation, and many
tion in the schematic illustration as possible. receivers fail to provide adequate reception
In order to simplify the drawing, the compo- when in the presence of a strong nearby
nent nomenclature of figure 1 is used in all signal. This converter provides overload pro-
the following construction chapters. tection to unwanted signals as strong as
The electrical value of many small circuit 100,000 microvolts, removed from the
components such as resistors and capacitors listening frequency by only 50 kHz at
is often indicated by a series of colored bands 21 MHz. With this superior overload per-
HANDBOOK General- Purpose Converter 615
Figure 2
THE GENERAL PURPOSE HIGH -FREQUENCY CONVERTER
Excellent high- signal overload characteristics and freedom from cross modulation are
featured in this simple converter. Antenna receptacle and 6BZ6 r -f amplifier tube are at the
left of the unit. A tube shield should be placed over the 6BZ6. The r -f gain control is on the
front of the aluminum chassis box. The conversion crystal and 6C4 oscillator are at the right,
with the 12AT7 mixer to the rear. The converter is built on a copper- laminate phenolic circuit
board.
formance, the noise figure of the converter modulation effects up to an input level of
is such that it reaches the level of external nearly 0.7 volt. A 6C4 fundamental-fre -
noise, or better, at all operating frequencies, quency mixing oscillator is used. Coupling
exhibiting a noise figure better than f deci- between the r-f amplifier plate coil (L3)
bels at 50 MHz. and the 12AT7 mixer grid coil (L,;) may
be varied to suit the strong -signal situation
Circuit The schematic of the antiover- by adjustment of link coils L, and L.
Description load converter is shown in figure The 6C4 crystal oscillator is capacitively
3. A 6BZ6 semiremote- cutoff coupled to one section of the 12AT7, which
pentode is used as an r-f amplifier, having a acts as a cathode follower for the second
cathode gain control to permit adjustment section, which in turn, is grid -driven by the
cf stage gain in the presence of strong incoming signal. A third -overtone crystal
signals. A 12AT7 double - triode mixer is is used to produce a 7- to 11 -MHz inter-
used, which has an exceptionally large dy- mediate frequency range. Plate voltage for
namic signal range, that provides low cross- the 6C4 oscillator is fed separately from
616 Receiver and Transceivers RADIO
TABLE 1
COIL TABLE FOR GENERAL-PURPOSE H -F CONVERTER
Approx.
Bond Coil L, Coil L,, L,,
Ind.
L ,, L. L.
(H)
8 to 10 turns #16e., Vs" 2 turns
6 diam. X 1" long 0.7 H hookup wire
(Air -Dux 516 -T) at cold end
14 turns #18e., 5/8" 2 turns
10 diam. X 1/2" long 2.2 aH hookup wire
24 turns #18e., 1/2" 3 turns
15 diam. X 3/4" long 4 zH hookup wire
Note: Adjacent cold ends of L, and L. are 3/4" apart.
L.-40 turns #28e., wire closewound on 3/4" diam. slug -tuned form. (J. W. Miller
42A- 000CBI)
L.--3 turns hookup wire over B -plus end of L,.
OSCILLATOR DATA
BAND CRYSTAL (MHz) COIL L,

10 turns #28e., closewound on t/"
6 43 MHz diam. slug -tuned form (1.8H).
(J. W. Miller 41A- OOCBI)
Some as for 6 meters, with

10 21 MHz 50 -pf variable mica capacitor
in parallel
Same as for 6 meters, with

15 14 MHz 100 -pf variable mica capacitor
in parallel
the rest of the converter so that the oscil- in figure 4. A short length of flexible hook-
lator may be turned off during periods of up wire connects the potentiometer terminal
transmission. to a phenolic tie -point mounted on the
plate. The ground terminal of the gain con-
Converter The converter is built on a trol is grounded to the plate by a separate
Construction4" X 6" copper -laminate (two lead so that an electrical connection is made
sides) phenolic circuit board. if the converter is operated outside of the
A 4" X 6" X 2" aluminum chassis box box. This permits the chassis plate to be
serves as a base and as a shield for the swung up and out while the converter is
wiring and components. All components aligned and tested.
except the manual gain control (R1) are The usable area of the chassis plate is 3"
mounted on the chassis plate. The gain X S" since a one -half inch border around
control mounts on the chassis box as shown the plate must be left to clear the chassis
HANDBOOK General- Purpose Converter 617
6BZ6 12AT7
R -F AMP :210 V MIXER
235 V I -F OUTPUT
47 7 -n MH2
C TO
L2 33 Le RECEIVER
ANTENNA ILP J2
J, L+
b1
P Ca
= 470
IW
RI
SM ADJ. GAIN
3
El 2 01
6C4 60v L7
PLUG
P,
HEATERS OSC.
70E 1.5
6626 I2AT7 6C4 0, ZO s:A
e V.
TO AGC PIN 2
PI
1
vi
ATALT gg
22M 470
IA.
C
= rros V.
3 MA.
Figure 3
SCHEMATIC OF GENERAL PURPOSE HIGH -FREQUENCY CONVERTER

C , -10.p miniature capacitors (Johnson 160 -107 or equiv.!
C , C
J,, J -Coaxial receptacle, BNC type UG -625/u
L1-L -See coil table
PI -4 -pin chassis -mounting plug. (Cinch -Jones P -304AB or equiv.,
All resistors 1.j watt unless otherwise noted.
base lip. All parts (except the gain control) used, it would be wise to check the layout
must be located inside the border. Self- before drilling any holes as space is rather
tapping screws secure the chassis -plate to limited in some areas.
the box.
Placement of the major components may Adjustment of A regulated supply voltage
be seen in the under -chassis view (figure 5) the Converter of 105 volts at 3 milliamperes
and the drilling layout (figure 4). The is required for the oscillator
three air -wound coils are made of sections of and 250 volts at about 25 milliamperes for
miniductor coil stock. A heated razor blade the r -f and mixer stages. The 6C4 may be
held with pliers is a good tool to sever the operated from the 250 -volt supply without
plastic ribs when cutting the coil stock to regulation if an additional series dropping
length. The coils are mounted in place by resistor of 50,000 ohms, 2 watts is placed be-
their leads. tween pins 3 and 4 of plug P1. Filament
A small shield is placed across the 6BZ6 power for the converter is 6.3 volts at 0.75
socket to prevent oscillation of the r -f stage. ampere.
The shield is cut from thin "flashing" cop- Wiring should
be rechecked before power
per and measures 2" long by 3/4rr high. It is applied to the converter, and the tuned
is soldered to the chassis plate at either side circuits are resonated with a grid -dip oscil-
of the socket and to the socket center post. lator. The crystal -oscillator stage is checked
The shield should be placed in position be- by listening for oscillation in a nearby
fore wiring is started. receiver or by noticing the change in oscil-
Most of the small components are sup- lator plate current. A milliammeter may be
ported by their leads, between socket pins, inserted in series with pin No. 3 of the
or from socket pin to nearby phenolic tie - power plug for this observation.
point terminals. All leads are short and The 6BZ6 and 12AT7 tubes are now in-
direct. The drilling layout shows the lo- serted in the proper sockets, the converter
cation of the major components. If other is attached to the receiver tuned to the
components are substituted for the ones intermediate- frequency range, and a low-
-13
TOP VIEW, CHASSIS PLATE
TOP
- D
POTIN IOMPTCR
AENO VP
vo
FRONT VIEW OF BOX 6BZ6 SHIELD
Figure 4
DRILLING LAYOUT FOR CONVERTER PLATE, SOCKET SHIELD, AND
CHASSIS BOX
level signal of the desired frequency band lent overload capability.

is injected into the antenna receptacle of For flattest response across the whole 50-
the converter. The various tuning capacitors MHz band, capacitors C,, C2, and C, should
are adjusted for maximum signal response. be stagger- tuned. Capacitor C2 is the
Final adjustment of coupling coils L, and sharpest tuning of the three circuits, and
L., should be done after the user has had should be peaked at the center of the oper-
experience with the converter in the pres- ating range to be covered. Coil L, should be
ence of strong local signals. With all cir- adjusted to provide maximum gain at the
cuits peaked for maximum signal, the link - center of the operating range. As a starter,
coupling coils should be adjusted for mini- capacitor C, should be peaked at 50.5 MHz,
mum signal consistent with good reception capacitor C2 at 51 MHz, and capacitor C3
and the prevailing state of nearby strong at 52 MHz. If the converter is to be used
signals. Too close coupling will limit the only in the lower one megahertz of the
ability of the converter to withstand strong band, all circuits may be peaked at 50.5
local signals and too loose coupling will re- MHz. Adjustment of link coil L, and tun-
sult in an excessive loss of gain. Adjust- ing of input capacitor C, have an effect on
ment of the link coils coupled with experi- the noise figure of the converter. These ad-
mentation with the gain control will achieve justments may be made on a weak signal or
the ultimate in usable sensitivity and excel- with the aid of a noise generator.
HANDBOOK MOSFET Converter 619
Figure 5
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW

OF CONVERTER
Right to left across the upper

edge of the chassis -plate are
tuning capacitors C., C, and C,.
A copper flashing shield strad-
dles the 6BZ6 tube socket at
right. Adjacent ends of coils
L, and L are spaced about
s" apart, with "cold" ends
facing each other (center of
chassis). Interstage coupling is
adjusted by positioning links
inside the coils. A phenolic
tie -point insulator located to
one side and between the two
coils serves to support the
ungrounded link connection.
Other ends of links are
grounded to chassis plate.
26 -2 A Low -Noise polar transistors when used in this service.

MOSFET Converter Circuit The schematic of the 2 -meter
for 2 Meters Description MOSFET converter is given in
figure 7. A 3N140 (Q,) is
The 3N140 dual -gate field -effect (MOS- used as a low -noise unneutralized high -gain
FET) transistor is an N- channel depletion r -f amplifier in a common- source circuit. A
type silicon device that proves very effec- conventional pi- network input arrangement
tive in vhf service. The 2 -meter converter is used to match the high input impedance
described in this section (figure 6) uses two of the MOSFET to a low- impedance coaxial
inexpensive dual gate MOSFETs which transmission line. The drain circuit of tran-
combine high input resistance, low input sistor Q, is resonated to the input frequency
capacitance, very low feedback capacitance, by a high -Q parallel -tuned circuit (C2 -L2)
and low noise figure at very high frequen- which is capacitively coupled to a second
cies. Neutralization is unnecessary in prop- 3N140 MOSFET (Q2) acting as a common -
erly constructed r -f stages since the gate to source mixer. The amplified signal is applied
source capacitance of the 3N140 is only to a resonant circuit (C, -L3) and gate 1
0.03 pf. of the mixer, and the local oscillator is
The MOSFET is relatively insensitive to coupled to gate 2. The resulting intermedi-
temperature variations, making the converter ate- frequency signal is taken from the drain
completely stable under varying conditions circuit. The mixer stage is flexible enough
of use. Typically, the noise figure of this so that the converter may be used with
converter is better than 2.5 decibels and the receivers of various intermediate -frequency
usable passband without tuning readjust- tuning ranges by changing the injection
ment is 1 MHz or more. Best of all, the frequency to the converter and readjusting
MOSFET exhibits a large -signal cross -mod- output circuit L.
ulation characteristic that approaches that For simplicity in construction and maxi-
of a good remote -cutoff vacuum tube, thus mum flexibility in use, the local-oscillator
overcoming the handicap of poor cross - chain is assembled as a separate unit using
modulation characteristics exhibited by bi- bipolar transistors, and the schematic for
Figure 6
COMPACT MOSFET CONVERTER FOR 144 MHZ

This low -noise DX converter employs two MOSFET dual -gate transistors as an r -f
amplifier
and as a mixer. A separate local- oscillator chain is used for maximum flexibility. This con-
verter has been used for successful 2 -meter SSB moonbounce communication between Europe
and the western United States.
At the right of the deck is the antenna receptacle and the r -f amplifier MOSFET with
input -
and output- circuit tuning capacitors adjacent to the MOSFET socket. To the left is the mixer
stage, with the local -oscillator injection receptable in front of the MOSFET socket. The
output receptacle is at the extreme left of the deck. The resistors and r -f choke in the i -f
gate -2 circuit of the mixer MOSFET are mounted atop the chassis at the front.
a typical unit is shown in figure 9. seen in the photographs (figures 6 and 8)

This converter was designed and built and layout drawing (figure 10).
by K6MYC and has been used for successful A small shield measuring 3/4" X 2" is
2 -meter SSB moonbounce contacts between cut out of thin copper shim stock, or of
Europe and the western United States, at- circuit -board material and is soldered in
testing to its superior noise figure and over- place between MOSFET socket Q, and coil
all performance. L2 to reduce unwanted interstage coupling.
A second similar shield measuring 11/4" X
Converter The MOSFET converter is con - 1/4" separates this coil from coil L3. The
Constructionstrutted on a piece of copper - first shield is positioned adjacent to the Q,
clad (2 sides) glass epoxy cir- socket, with the drain lead from the socket
cuit board measuring 6%2" X 31/4". A passing through a small hole drilled in the
matching shield case 11/4" deep is made of shield and on to capacitor C2. Placement
the same material soldered into a small box. of the various small components is not par-
Placement of the major components may be ticularly critical and they are grouped about
r -.- ---r
-F AMP. L-O INPUT MIXER
J3 3N140
02 3N141
1 TRANSISTOR BASE CONNECTIONS
3 N 140
I CS
3-12
I S
Sia 3N159 L I
GATE *2 3 ATE *I
IlHI1y- L2
1 I I
3N159 I 01
L3 4 n
SMT1:11
Iot IJ2
I-F OUTPUT
TO RECEIVER
O
120
q 4 20 A
J1 5M (.74-.
12
0
I
.001
-c-
270 C
I
I
y
b 001
`LC
-
I
I
DRAIN SOURCE
L I _ -L _
12N RFC
2UN
.001 .001 NOTE-ALL RESISTORS 7/! wATT UN-

F"--
I
LESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.

Ca CERAMIC CAPACITOR
SM= SILVER MICA
10011 - * = ADJUST FOR REST NOISE
12 V
Figure 7
SCHEMATIC, 2 -METER MOSFET CONVERTER
C,, C -10 -pf. Johanson 2954 or JFD VAM -010 variable pistol capacitors
C., C.- 20 -pf. JFD -VC27G piston capacitors
C, -12 -pi variable ceramic. JFD -15D
L1, L. -6 turns silver -plated copper strap, 0.125" diam. X 3," long. Strap width is 1/16"
L,-3 turns, some as L.
LI-40 turns *24 e., 14" diam. on slug -tuned form. J. W. Miler 40A- 000CBI
J, J, J -Coaxial receptacles. BNC type UG -625/U
IiiIiiii
ONE INCH
FIGURE 8
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF MOSFET CONVERTER
Placement of the major components may be seen by comparing this photograph with the
underchassis drawing of figure 10. Ground connections are made directly to copper foil of
the printed -circuit board. Input receptacle J is at the lest, and output receptacle J. is at the
right. R -f coils are wound of silver -plated copper strap, but 214 wire may be used, if
desired. Circuits are grid- dipped to frequency before MOSFETs are inserted in sockets. Left
interstage shield is 2" long and 34' high. Right shield of same height, but only 7,4"
long. Both shields are cut from circuit-board material and ioldered to the deck.
Converter One special precaution must

Adjustment be observed when handling a
MOSFET unit; the leads must
be shorted together until the device is
inserted in its socket. Neglect of this pre-
cautionary measure may result in permanent
damage to the transistor from electrostatic
discharge. After the MOSFET is in the
socket, the possibility of damage by electro-
static discharge is remote because of the
relatively low impedance paths between
TRANSISTOR CONNECTIONS MOSFET elements and ground. If it is
e
necessary to remove the MOSFET from the
c 40237 NOTE. ALL RESISTORS 0 S WATT socket, a shorting wire should be replaced
SHIELD (CUT OFFS
about the leads prior to removal of the
transistor from the socket. No power should
FIGURE 9 be applied to the circuit while the transistor
is being inserted into or removed from its
OSCILLATOR CHAIN FOR
MOSFET CONVERTER
socket, and no soldering should be performed
on the converter while the MOSFET is
For i -f passband 28 -32 MHz: plugged in. The general precautions dealing
L1-5 turns #24 e., 3/a" long on 1/4" diem. slug -
tuned form (J. W. Miller 4500 -4. White) with this type of semiconductor are outlined
2 -turn link of hookup wire over cold end in section 4, Chapter 5 of this Handbook.
(tune to 58 MHz) Once wiring is completed, it should be
L -S t #20 e., airwound, 1/4" diam. X /e"
long. 2 -turn link of hookup wire over cold
33
carefully checked against the schematic to
end. (tune to 116 MHz) be sure it is proper. Before the MOSFETs
Y1-58.0-MHz overtone crystal
are placed in their sockets, the various tuned
circuits of the converter should be tuned
to about 145 MHz with the aid of a grid -
the socket as suggested in the layout draw- dip oscillator. Pi- network capacitor C, is
ing. Gate -2 terminal of the MOSFET socket initially set at full capacitance and capacitor
is bypassed with a silver -mica button ca- C, is tuned for indication of resonance as
pacitor soldered on edge to the circuit board observed on the meter of the grid -dip oscil-
adjacent to the socket. In addition, a disc lator. Spacing of the turns on coil L1 may be
ceramic capacitor is placed next to the adjusted slightly to permit a resonance indi-
button mica unit. The source lead of the cation at about half -capacitance setting of
socket is bypassed with a similar button C,. Coupling capacitor C, is set at half -
capacitor mounted in a hole drilled in the capacitance and drain tuning capacitor C2
epoxy board. is adjusted for resonance indication with the
Double bypass capacitors are placed on oscillator coupled to coil L2. Next, the oscil-
the source lead of mixer socket Q2, a .02 -pfd lator is coupled to coil L3 and capacitor C3
ceramic disc capacitor being used in addi- is adjusted for resonance at 145 MHz. The
tion to the vhf bypass capacitor in order to last step is to adjust the output inductor
suppress any tendency toward a low -fre- (L1) for indicated resonance at the center
quency parasitic oscillation. Other stage of the chosen i -f passband.
components are grouped closely about the The MOSFETs may now be placed in their
MOSFET socket. sockets, observing the precautions necessary
Ground connections are soldered directly with this type of semiconductor, and the
to the copper foil of the circuit board and converter is connected to a communications
practically no extra wire is required in as- receiver with a short length of coaxial line.
sembling the converter. A small 15 -watt The converter is designed to be used with
"pencil" soldering iron should be used to a 12 -volt power supply having negative
prevent overheating the parts or the copper ground. The supply should be well filtered
foil, since component density is quite high. and free of switching transients or unwanted
3f
-
bz
Figure 10
UNDER -CHASSIS PARTS LAYOUT FOR CONVERTER
voltage "spikes" that may play havoc with view of obtaining better signal to noise
transistors of any type. Initial testing may ratio, rather than merely greater signal
be done with dry batteries, since converter strength. Exact tuning will depend on cir-
power drain is very low. cuit loading and the reactance of the ex-
After the power supply is connected to ternal antenna system and is best determined
the converter, a coaxial cable from the local - by experiment.
oscillator unit is connected to the injection As a starter, a 50 -ohm carbon resistor is
receptacle (J3) and a low -level mixing sig- used for a dummy antenna, placed across
nal applied to the converter. Local- oscillator the terminals of receptacle J1. The converter
action may be checked in a nearby receiver, is tuned up for maximum noise level. The
and it should be noted that the converter resistor is removed and the S0 -ohm antenna
noise level rises when the injection signal is system is connected in its place. If the noise
applied. level rises appreciably, the external noise is
Since the tuned circuits are roughly in the limiting factor in vhf reception, and any
resonance, 2 -meter signals should be heard receiver system improvement past this point
when the converter is attached to an external must be accomplished by increasing the cap-
antenna. Once the converter is found to be ture area (size) of the antenna and reducing
working, all tuned circuits are adjusted for the receiver passband. Adjustment of all
maximum received -signal level. circuits must be made for the greatest mar-
Final adjustment is accomplished by re- gin of received signal over receiver noise,
adjusting the converter for best signal-to- using weak, received signals for this test.
noise ratio, regardless of converter gain. The The converter should be protected from
noise figure is adjusted by varying the level strong input signals, such as might be gen-
of mixer injection voltage and by proper erated by the station transmitter. Signal
adjustment of the pi- network input circuit. inputs of more than a tenth of a volt or so
This can best be done by listening to a weak might damage one or both MOSFETs. Good
signal, such as a remote crystal oscillator input protection can be achieved by placing
connected to a small antenna. Alternatively, a pair of INI00 germanium diodes in paral-
a noise generator may be employed. All lel, back to back, across antenna receptacle
tuning adjustments are made with the end J, to ground.
Figure 11
2 -METER FET CONVERTER

This compact 144 -MHz converter provides low noise reception and freedom from strong- signal
overload at a modest price. Using four inexpensive FETs and one bipolar transistor, the con-
verter shows a noise figure of 2.5 decibels.
Input receptacle J is at the right of the deck, with neutralizing coil L adjacent to it,
the r -f amplifier FET immediately behind it. Running to the left are the second r -f and
the mixer and the auxiliary i -f amplifier, with output receptacle J. at the far leit. amplifier,
To the rear of the assembly are the crystal -oscillator stage and the
power supply. The power -
line and neon -lamp indicator ore mounted to the side of the aluminum chassis.
26 -3 An FET Converter response is sufficiently broadband so that the

complete 2 -meter band may be covered
for 144 MHz without retuning the various interstage cir-
cuits of the converter. This converter was
The field -effect transistor provides a low designed and built by WA6QIC.
noise figure and effective overload capa-
bility in the vhf region and is well suited The Converter The complete schematic of
for use up to 450 MHz or higher. Described Circuit the converter and power sup-
in this section is an excellent general -pur- ply is shown in figure 12.
pose converter (figure 11) for advanced Four FETS and one bipolar transistor are
2 -meter operation that makes use of inex- used, and the converter features a built -in
pensive Te.vas Instruments field -effect tran- power unit for operation from 115 volts, 50-
sistors in common -source configuration. The 60 hertz. Two TIS -34 FETs are used in a
converter is capable of a noise figure of two -stage neutralized r-f amplifier chain
2.5 decibels or better, and the frequency which provides excellent noise figure and
HANDBOOK FET Converter 625
R-F R -F AMP -2 MIXER i -F AMP
TIS-34 TIS-34 TIS -34 TIS -34
L2 I 001 LS I 001
6-10 MHZ
F44 MHZ
00y' 1
Ja
06yI
L6 330 L9 I-F
JI LI
D
OUTPUT
ANT IRISO TD
SM
16
Dz =
1_ 11
= _
I1iji
T i0 0
r
6.2
ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT

UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
YI
69MHZ
TRANSISTOR CONNECTIONS
001
SW Ti R IN2T0
+
2N3563
C{e eE OS TIS-34
Figure 12
SCHEMATIC, 2 -METER FET CONVERTER

C1, C, -8 -pf piston capacitors (Centralab 829 -10) or JFD -57G
CR 20 -pf mica compression trimmer. (El Menco 402)
NC -25 -pf ceramic ( Centralab 827C)
L,-4 turns #20 e., air -wound, 1/2" diam X 3/e" long. Tap /1/4" turns from ground
L,, L -71/2 turns, 3/16" diam. on slug -tuned form. Spacing adjusted along with slug for
neutralization. Approx. 0.6 H. (J. W. Miller 4300-4)
LI, L,, L,, L. -Some as l , but no top. Adjust spacing and tuning for optimum passband
-
L,, 1.:-Grid-dip to 8MHz (Approx. 40 H) (J. W. Miller 20A475 -R81)
L, Grid-dip to 69 MHz. 7 turns #20 e. (J. W. Miller 4300-4)
L, Grid-dip fo 138 MHz. 4 turns, airwound, 3/16 diam. X 1/2" long. 2 -turn link
R -See text
good freedom from overload resulting from affording optimum noise figure. Use of ran-
nearby strong signals. The input circuit of dom FET's in the r -f stages requires that
the converter is a conventional parallel -tuned source bias be provided for each stage. The
tank, with the tapped antenna connection bias, if used, would consist of a 270 -ohm
protected from excessive r -f input voltage resistor in series with the source -to -ground
by two back -to -back diodes. Each r -f ampli- connection, shunted by a 120 -pf disc ce-
fier stage is individually neutralized by a ramic capacitor.
slug -tuned inductor placed from gate to A third selected TIS -34 FET is used as
drain, forming a parallel- resonant, high - a mixer stage, with the incoming signal ap-
impedance circuit in common with the feed - plied to the gate electrode and the local
through capacitance of the FET and socket. oscillator inductively coupled to the source
The r -f stages are capacitively intercoupled, circuit. The FET is biased so as to operate
each stage having separately tuned input over the lower portion of the transfer curve
and output circuits. for proper square -law detection and optimum
It should be noted that no source bias is large- signal overload capability.
employed on the r-f stages since selected The 2 -meter FET converter is designed
FETs are used. These transistors are chosen to be operated with a receiver tuning the
for lowest value of Ipss, as described later, 6 MHz- to 10 -MHz i -f region, the local
Figure 13
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF 2 -METER CONVERTER

The small components are soldered between each other or are soldered directly to the copper
foil of the circuit board. The power supply and crystal oscillator are at the top of the photo-
graph separated by a small vertical shield. The 69 -MHz overtone crystal is mounted in the
underchassis area, to the right of the multiplier diode and next to the adjustable series
loading capacitor of the diode. The mixer and i -f amplifier are assembled directly below
the oscillator. To the lower left are the two neutralized r -f stages. The antenna input circuit
is to the left of the L- shaped shield which is mounted across the input transistor socket.
The neutralizing coil is to the left of the bend of the shield. The center shield is placed across
the socket of the second FET socket. At the lower right are the sink tuning capacitor (C) of
the mixer and the neutralizing capacitor (NC) of the i -f amplifier stage.
oscillator inductively coupled to the source output circuit of the converter to permit
crystal and a varactor doubler to provide the FET i -f amplifier to operate into a
a 138 -MHz injection signal. A 2N3563 resistive load at all times, regardless of the
serves as an overtone oscillator stage, fol- input circuitry of the receiver used as an
lowed by a diode multiplier (D3) that pro- i -f channel.
vides ample injection voltage for the FET The integral power supply provides 14
mixer stage. volts d.c. from a half -wave rectifier for
I -f output is taken from the drain circuit converter operation. Supply voltage may,
of the mixer and is capacitively coupled to however, be taken from the station receiver
a TIS -34 FET i -f amplifier. The i -f stage or from a car battery for mobile operation.
is broadbanded for optimum response across Converter current drain is about 35 milliam-
the 4 -MHz i -f channel and is neutralized peres.
for circuit stability. Incorporation of the
i -f amplifier ensures that the excellent noise Selecting Field -effect transistors have a wide
figure of the converter is not degraded by the FETs range of conductance which is
the noise figure of the receiver. A simple specified in terms of drain cur-
voltage- divider network is included in the rent, measured when the gate is connected
HANDBOOK FET Converter 627
to the source (Iss). In the case of the second shield fitted across the FET socket
TIS -34, limits of S ma to 20 ma are specified of the second r -f amplifier stage. The width
for Inss. FETs having low values of Iss have cf the crystal oscillator area is 3" and the
lower conductance but exhibit a superior width of the r -f stage area adjacent to it
noise figure, and the FET having the lowest is 3 %z ". A third small 2" L- shaped shield is
value of Iss should be used in the first placed across the socket of the first FET
r -f amplifier stage. The FETs may be bench - r -f amplifier, about 2" to the side of the
tested without damage before they are placed interstage shield. This shield has a bend
in the converter. Each FET has + 9 volts in it to clear the neutralizing coil (L2).
applied to the drain through a low -range Small .001 -,ufd ceramic feedthrough capaci-
d -c milliammeter, with gate and source tors are mounted in the various shields to
electrodes connected to the -9 volt supply. permit the d -c operating voltage to pass
A FET having a measured Inss current of between stages. A miniature feedthrough
7 milliamperes or less should be chosen for insulator is placed in the main longitudinal
the first r -f stage, with the next lowest shield to pass the coupling wire running
measured FET placed in the second r -f from multiplier coil L11 to the sink con-
stage. If no FET is found having an Inss nection of the FET mixer socket. The sec-
figure of 7 milliamperes or less, the lowest ondary winding of coil L1, is tuned by a
measured unit may be used in conjunction variable mica compression capacitor (CO
with sufficient source resistance bias (suit- placed directly at the socket of the FET
ably bypassed) to limit the drain current to mixer. Other components and coils are
about S milliamperes. grouped about their respective stages to
The FET having the highest value of ensure short direct leads.
1i,ss should be used for the mixer stage.
The source bias resistor (shown to be 680 Converter Once the converter is com-
ohms in the schematic) may vary between Adjustment pleted, the wiring should be
500 and 1200 ohms, and should be selected checked against the circuit
to set the drain current to one -quarter of diagram for possible errors before the FETs
the no -bias Inss current value. are inserted in the sockets or power applied
The few minutes spent in selecting the to the unit. The first step is to test the
FETs and the mixer bias resistor for optimum power supply and adjust the series resistor
circuit performance will provide the best (R) for a supply potential of 14 volts under
possible noise figure consistent with maxi- a load of about 35 milliamperes. The 2N3 563
mum converter strong- signal overload transistor and 69 -MHz crystal are now in-
capability. serted in their respective sockets and collec-
tor coil L,,, is adjusted for oscillation. It
Converter The converter is built upon a may be necessary to alter the value of the
Construction sheet of copper-plated circuit emitter bypass capacitor (10 pf) to obtain
board measuring S" X 7" in reliable oscillation. As a starter, a 35-pf
size. This is placed atop an inverted alumi- variable mica compression capacitor may be
num chassis of the same dimensions and 2" used until the optimum value of capaci-
deep which acts as a base and dust shield. tance is determined.
Layout of the major components are shown Next, the r -f circuits are resonated to
in the under -chassis photograph (figure 13) . 145 MHz or so with the aid of a grid -dip
A shield made of circuit board material oscillator. The i -f circuits (Ls and L9) in
measuring 7" X 11/2" in size is run down turn, are grid- dipped to 8 MHz, the center
the center of the board and soldered in of the i -f passband. The field -effect transis-
place. The power supply and crystal oscil- tors may now be placed in their sockets
lator are located on one side of this shield and power applied. The converter is con-
and the various r -f, mixer, and i -f stages nected to the receiver to be used for the
are placed on the opposite side. Two small i -f strip, and the latter is tuned to 8 MHz.
2" shields are placed at right angles to the If the converter is functioning properly,
larger one: the first shield separating the strong local 2 -meter signals, or a nearby
oscillator stage from the power supply, the signal generator should be heard when an
Figure 14
FET CONVERTER FOR 432 MHz

This converter has been used for extensive moonbounce communication in conjunction with
the antenna- mounted FET preamplifier described in this section. The converter is built on a
deck of copper- plated, phenolic circuit board and operates from a 72 -volt supply. The fre-
quency is controlled by a 51.35 MHz overtone crystal. To reduce frequency drift as a func-
tion of temperature, the crystal is mounted in the small can at the rear, made from a
holder for 35 -mm film. The crystal is surrounded by strips of foamed -plastic packing material
to reduce temperature excursions. The antenna receptacle is in the left corner and the i -f
output receptacle is in the foreground. The converter deck is supported on a small inverted
aluminum chassis used for a dust cover.
antenna is connected to the converter and jection are the prime factors in determining
the i -f receiver tuned across the passband. noise figure. The second r -f stage and the
Preliminary alignment is accomplished by i -f amplifier are adjusted for optimum pass -
tuning all r -f circuits for maximum signal band characteristics. If sufficient time is
strength, as read on the S meter of the taken, the converter passband can encom-
receiver. pass the whole 4 -MHz region of the 2 -meter
Once it is determined that the unit is band. It will be found that a 2 -MHz pass -
operating, the converter should be adjusted band is easily obtained, but considerably
for proper bandpass and best noise figure. more time will be spent "tweaking" adjust-
Adjustment of the first r-f stage (includ- ments to achieve the full passband of
ing neutralization) and local- oscillator in- 4 -MHz.
HANDBOOK 432 -MHz Converter 629
Tuning and neutralizing adjustments are mounted at the feed point of a remote,
undertaken to provide satisfactory gain high-gain antenna system. The combination
while maintaining the optimum noise figure. of converter and remote r -f amplifier pro-
It should easily be possible to hear an- vide a superior noise figure and overcome
tenna noise with this converter and adjust- the troublesome problem of line loss that can
ment is best done with a noise generator degrade small- signal reception at this fre-
or a weak signal source. quency.
The first step is to properly adjust the The FET converter described herewith
level of mixer injection from the local oscil- (figure 14) provides a noise figure of about
lator. With the converter in operation, the 5 decibels, mostly determined by mixer
d -c source current of the FET mixer is noise. The r -f stage gain is about 10 deci-
measured by placing a low -range milliam- bels, but this is not sufficient to completely
meter in the ground return of the source override mixer noise. Addition of the second
bias resistor. It will be remembered that the remote r -f amplifier stage at the receiving
bias resistor was chosen to limit the Inss antenna brings the over -all noise figure of
current to one -quarter of the no -bias value the combination down to 3 decibels, or bet-
of the chosen FET. Now, oscillator injec- ter.
tion is adjusted by means of the series vari- The FET converter may be used by itself
able capacitor and the tuning of coil L11 except for the most serious low -noise recep-
until the source current increases to about tion, when the addition of a remote r -f
one -half the original no -bias Inns value. For amplifier stage ahead of the converter unit
example, if Inss was found to be 16 ma, becomes a necessity. The operational flexi-
the mixer source resistor was chosen to pro- bility afforded by the use of a separate
vide a static value of source current of 4 r -f amplifier cannot be overemphasized,
milliamperes. Oscillator injection is therefore since it permits the user to modify the
adjusted until the operating current is in- system when the availability of new and
creased to 8 milliamperes. better transistors or FET devices allow
The next step is to neutralize the r-f superior noise figure to be achieved as the
and i -f stages to achieve optimum noise state of the art advances. Some present bi-
figure. This may be done with a noise gener- polar transistors provide slightly superior
ator or weak signal. The proper point of noise figure at 432 MHz than that of the
neutralization will be found to be the point FET devices used; however, the problem of
of maximum stage gain. This may be checked receiver overload from local signals or radar
after neutralization by varying the supply is ever present at 432 MHz and the use of
voltage of the stages in question. As the FET's is highly recommended for the ser-
voltage is either increased or decreased, ious vhf operator.
the stage gain will drop if the stage is pro-
perly neutralized. Converter The schematic of the 432 -MHz
Circuitry FET converter is shown in fig-
26 -4 An FET Converter ure 15. A 2N4416 FET is used
in a neutralized common-source configura-
and R -F Amplifier tion as a strip -line r -f amplifier. This stage
for 432 MHz is followed by an inductively coupled
2N4416 as a common -source strip -line mixer
Various inexpensive field -effect transistors stage. Both local oscillator and received sig-
(FETs) will perform well as r -f amplifiers nal are mixed in the gate circuit of the FET
far into the vhf spectrum when used in and the resulting i-f signal is taken from
conjunction with a low -noise mixer stage. the drain circuit.
The converter and r -f amplifier described in The local -oscillator chain is an integral
this section uses 2N4416 field -effect transis- part of the converter, using a 51.3 5 -MHz
tors and provides excellent results at 432 fifth -overtone crystal oscillator and har-
MHz. The units were designed and built monic multipliers to generate a 410.8 -MHz
by K6MYC for "moonbounce" operation mixing signal. The intermediate frequency
and the low -noise FET r -f amplifier is for 432 -MHz reception, then, is 21.2 MHz.
R-F AMP 2N4416 2N4416 MIXER
JI
ANT
L D LS NOTE -ALL RESISTORS I/8 WATT
430- UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
433 J2 C., CERAMIC CAPACITOR
I
-F OUTPUT
I
SM. SILVER MICA
MH21
- zr
S
C =
1
TO RECEIVER
TRANSISTOR CONNECTIONS
100 2N4416 253251 2143563

D 8 8
t- l.001 E GE CE C
-
I
C C ' SHIELD
+12 V.
t-
LOCAL
OSCILLATOR MULT.
2.2K 2N325I 2N3251 10

MULT.
2N3563 5
MOLT
2N3563
13
La S SM
RFC 70 RFC
C
47(1
X1 2.2K 120 100 RFC RFC!

31.33 MH2 ( 102.7 MHZ 203. MN 4I0. 8 MH2
70 470 70
'J
I
C1- RFC RFC RFC
1-12 V
Figure 15
SCHEMATIC, 432-MHz FET CONVERTER

C,-C,, C,- C, -10 -pf ceramic piston -type capacitor. (JFD 57G or Centralab 829 -10)
C1 -10 -pf capacitor (Johnson 160 -107 or equiv.)
L,- Copper strap, 1/4" wide X 11/4" long with 5/16" foot at ground end, Silver plated. Grid -dip
to 432 MHz
L,-4 turns #22 e. on 3/16" slug -tuned form (J. W. Miller 4300 -7, blue)
L1 Copper strap, 1/4" wide X 2" long. Supported at "cold" end by
feedthrough capacitor.
Silver plated. Grid -dip to 432 MHz
-Same as L,. Tap 1 -pf capacitor at approx. midpoint of line. Adjust tap for best noise
L
figure. Grid -dip to 432 MHz
L, -Tune to 21.2 MHz. IS turns #22 e. on 1/4" form. (J. W. Miller 4500 -6, purple).
Two-turn
link made of hookup wire
L,-8 turns #20 e., 3/s" diem. X s/s" long. Tap 23/ turns from ground end. (J. W. Miller 4400 -3,
green). Two -turn link made of hookup wire. Grid -dip to 51.35 MHz
L.-4 turns #20 e., 5/16" diem. airwound, 1/4" long. Grid -dip to 102.7 MHz
I.,-2//2 turns #20 e., S/16" diem. airwound, 1/2" long. Grid -dip to 205.4 MHz
L, -Same as L,. 11/4" long. Grid -dip to 410.8 MHz
RFC -S H (J. W. Miller 9340 -14, or equiv.)
J,, J.- Coaxial receptacles, BNC type UG -625/U
8,-Ferrite bead. Stackpole 7D (57 -0180)
X,-Crystal, 51.35 MHz, type HC -6/U
Bipolar transistors are used in the local - the tuned circuits are sufficiently broad so
oscillator chain, two 2N32 5 1 transistors as to permit good reception one or two MHz
serving as oscillator and frequency multi- removed from the frequency of adjustment,
plier to 102.7 MHz, followed by two without further tuning of the converter.
2N3563 multiplier stages to 205.4 MHz
and 410.8 MHz, respectively. The mixing Converter The 432 -MHz FET converter
signal is capacitively coupled to the 2N4416 Construction is constructed on a piece of
FET mixer stage and oscillator coupling is copper -clad glass epoxy circuit
adjustable to provide optimum mixer noise board measuring 5" X 7 ". A matching
figure. While the converter is normally used shield case is made of an aluminum chassis
for spot -frequency operation near 432 MHz, of the same dimensions and 1 %2" deep.
Figure 16
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF CONVERTER

Placement of components may be compared with the layout drawing of figure 17. Interstage
shields are made of strips of circuit -board material. L,cal-oscillator chain is at top of
chassis with the crystal socket at the right. Antenna receptacle Jt is at lower right, with
i -f output receptacle J lower left. Transistors and FET's are mounted in an inverted position
by their leads.
Placement of the major components may cated first, since these determine the place-
be seen in the photographs of figures 14 and ment of other parts and the positioning of
16 and layout drawing of figure 17. the FETs. The lines are made of short
A shield plate measuring 1" X 6" is cut lengths of 1/4-inch wide silver -plated copper
from circuit -board material and soldered strap, and are mounted 5/16" above the
along the center line of the converter, with circuit board. Lines L, and L4 are grounded
a second shield measuring 1" X 2" placed directly to the copper foil of the board and
across the r -f amplifier transistor to reduce lines L3 and Lfl are supported by means of
intrastage coupling and to permit proper silver -mica "button" feedthrough capaci-
neutralization. A small opening is cut in tors. The lines are supported at their high -
the lower edge of the shield and the 2N4416 impedance ends by piston -style tuning ca-
r -f transistor is placed in the opening, sup- pacitors mounted to the circuit board.
ported from the shield plate by soldering The r -f stage neutralizing coil (L2) is
the shield lead of the transistor to the plate. mounted in a vertical position adjacent to
The various other transistor leads go direct- the intrastage shield, one terminal of the
ly to the associated components, no sockets coil being soldered to the junction of ca-
being used in the constuction of the con- pacitor C, and strip line La and the other
verter. terminal lead passing through a small hole
All parts should be laid out on the circuit in the shield to terminate at the 47 -pf
board in a preliminary mockup before holes silver -mica coupling capacitor. This, in turn,
are drilled and assembly started. The quar- is soldered to the barrel of piston capacitor
ter- wavelength strip -line circuits are fabri- C,. The slug of coil L2 may be adjusted
470 , 470
470
2N3251
RFC 2N3563
I 2N3563 1A 7 (152N3251
ry
C7 STANDOFF
470
011WEIM 0 11
C
C6 0 Cs
FC FC
ND-
COAC F
47 SNIELDS-
C3
Ls O^^ 2N4416
C1
L1
C2
J2
L3 Ej 2N4416
].3M 470
C

L2
Figure 17
COMPONENT LAYOUT FOR 432 MHz CONVERTER

Tuned circuits are grid- dipped to resonance before FETs and transistors are soldered in place.
through a hole drilled in the surface of the in the vicinity of strip line L1. Oscillator -
circuit board. chain wiring is conventional, the components
All components in the r -f amplifier and being supported by their leads and several
mixer stages are grouped closely about the midget Teflon standoff insulators, as shown
transistors which are supported by their in the layout drawing.
leads in an inverted position. The positioning
of strip lines L, and L, determine the cou- Testing Upon completion, the wiring
pling between the r -f amplifier and the the Converter should be checked against the
mixer. Coupling is not critical, and an edge - schematic diagram. Before the
to -edge spacing of 1/4" is satisfactory. The transistors are wired in place, it is sug-
outer edge of strip line L3 is located one gested that the various tuned circuits be
inch away from the edge of the circuit grid -dipped to the operating frequencies
board. with the aid of a vhf grid -dip oscillator.
The local -oscillator chain is placed on the Once the circuits are in approximate reso-
opposite of the center shield partition, with nance, the transistors may be wired in the
the 410.8 -MHz strip -line circuit placed circuit. In order to prevent damage to the
about 1 %8" away from the edge of the transistors, it is recommended that the tran-
circuit board, as shown in the layout draw- sistor lead be grasped with long -nose pliers
ing. The mixing signal is coupled through a between the body of the transistor and the
3 -pf capacitor into a short length of min- joint, the pliers acting in the manner of a
iature coaxial line which runs along the heat sink, preventing the transistor element
center shield back to a position near strip from being damaged by the heat of solder-
line L,, at which point the line is coupled ing. The transistors are mounted in an in-
to the mixer stage through a 1 -pf capacitor. verted position in each case, with the leads
The coaxial line is made up of a short length trimmed to about 1/4" length.
of Teflon insulated wire run through a small Converter adjustment follows the pro-
flexible copper braid. The braid is soldered cedure outlined for the previously discussed
to the partition and terminated at a small units. The local -oscillator chain may be
standoff insulator mounted on the partition monitored in a nearby receiver for proper
r that value at which the stage was previously

JZI
IJ ' OUTPUT TOI neutralized. When the drain voltage is
ANTENNA CONVERTER
30 -435 MHZ varied, the reverse transfer capacitance
(drain -to -gate feedback capacitance) is
varied as a first -order effect. Thus, if it is
found that stage gain increases as the drain
voltage is increased or decreased, it is an
indication that the stage is improperly neu-
tralized. When neutralization is achieved,
any change in drain voltage will result in a
decrease in stage gain.
A final check on neutralization may be
Figure 18 made by operating the converter with the
SCHEMATIC 432 -MHz REMOTE R -F AMPLIFIER
input circuit short -circuited and open-cir-
cuited. The converter should remain stable
Tuned circuits and components are the some as under these conditions, without signs of
listed for r -f amplifier of figure 1S.
regeneration, or "burble?' heard in the i -f
strip receiver. The final check, of course,
crystal operation. As the tuned circuits are is determined by proper converter operation
near resonance, it is possible to peak the on weak signals, and the neutralization ad-
circuits on a local signal, while monitoring justment should be considered just one of
the output signal in the receiver used as an several tools used to achieve lowest noise
i -f strip. Preliminary alignment may be figure.
accomplished by peaking all circuits to
achieve maximum signal strength. Frequency After a period of use it was
Once the circuits are in close alignment, Stability found that the received frequen-
the converter should be adjusted for best cy drifted a sufficient amount
noise figure. The various tuned circuits, with change of temperature so as to make
including the neutralizing circuit of the r -f very narrow -band c -w reception difficult.
amplifier are all adjusted with this end view Satisfactory frequency stability was achieved
in mind. The adjustments are best accom- by placing the local oscillator crystal in a
plished with the aid of a noise generator to metal can made from a 35-mm film holder.
achieve lowest internal noise consistent with The can was stuffed with strips of foamed
optimum gain. One accurate but time -con- fiberglas type material to reduce temperature
suming neutralization technique is to inject excursions. The crystal was thus sufficiently
a 432 -MHz signal into the drain circuit of insulated from rapid temperature changes so
the amplifier and monitor the signal in the as to permit good short -term stability nec-
input (gate) circuit with an auxiliary re- essary for serious c -w and SSB reception.
ceiver. A low -level signal from a tone -
modulated signal generator is coupled by a The Remote It was decided to place a
coaxial line into tuned circuit C3 -L4. The R -F Amplifier second r -f amplifier at the
auxiliary receiver, or converter, is coupled receiving antenna to overcome
to the input circuit through receptacle J, transmission -line loss and improve recep-
and the tone -modulated signal monitored. tion. The schematic of the amplifier used is
The strip lines are peaked for maximum shown in figure 18. Essentially, this ampli-
signal transfer, and the neutralizing coil fier is a duplicate of the one used in the
(L2) adjusted for minimum signal transfer. 432 -MHz converter and is built in a small
Lacking a second 432 -MHz receiver, double -compartment brass box measuring
another neutralizing technique is practical 2" X 3" X 1" in size. A brass shield is
and somewhat quicker than the one out- soldered across the center of the box and the
lined above. The converter is tuned for best FET is mounted in a small hole cut in the
noise figure with the aid of a noise meter, shield. The transistor may be easily removed
and system gain is then observed as the sup- and another one substituted in order to
ply voltage to the r -f stage is varied from achieve the best possible noise figure. The
Figure 19
A SOLID -STATE AMATEUR BAND RECEIVER

This advanced communication receiver covers all amateur bands between 80 and 10 meters.
It uses 3 MOSFETs, 5 FETs, 5 transistors, 2 ICs, and 3 hot carrier diodes. Measuring only
10" X 4" (panel size) and 7" deep, the solid -state receiver provides excellent reception of
SSB and c -w signals, combined with exceptional strong signal overload capability.
Panel controls (I. to r.) are: Sideband selector switch (S); bandswitch; peak preselector (C,)
power switch (S ); AGC switch (S ); phone jack (J.) insulated from the panel; r -f gain poten-
tiometer (R ); audio gain control (R ); and signal -strength meter (M).
The main tuning dial is calibrated every 100 KHz, with 5 -kHz markers and is made of a
panel mask (figure 28). The pointer window is cut from a piece of Vd -inch aluminum stock
and has a plastic window insert epoxied to the underside of the frame. The cursor line is
scratched on the rear of the window.
+ 12 -volt supply is run from the station to feasible the design of a compact, completely
the antenna by a separate power lead, al- solid -state amateur band receiver for c -w
though the voltage may be coupled to the and SSB reception that performs as well as
r -f amplifier via the center conductor of or better than an equivalent receiver using
the coaxial line, if desired. conventional vacuum tubes. The advanced
Use of a separate r -f amplifier, even if receiver described in this section (figure 19)
located at the operating position, is a great is completely solid state, making use of im-
advantage at 432 MHz since experimental proved MOSFET and IC devices, and covers
units may be built and tested without the the amateur bands between 80 and 10 meters
necessity of disrupting the station receiver. in SOO -kHz segments. The design goal was
As newer and better FET's and transistors to produce a compact receiver of top -notch
appear, they may readily and easily be tested performance, but one not so small as to be
for operation in simple r-f amplifier "black difficult to assemble and wire, or to operate.
boxes" built especially for transistor evalua- For easy duplication, all components used in
tion. construction of the receiver are "off -the-
shelf" items readily obtainable from the
26 -5 A Solid -State Amateur larger radio parts distributors. The receiver
may be run from a battery power supply or
Band Receiver from an a -c supply so it is well suited for
The introduction of the field -effect tran- either mobile or fixed service. This receiver
sistor and the integrated circuit makes was designed and built by VE3GFN.
HANDBOOK Solid -State Amateur Band Receiver 635
SIDEBAND SELECT
Ciro
BANDSWITCNING CONVERTER
r 2X 2N124
1
C.T.33-3_.
TItio-v2
R -F AMP. MIXER I R -F AMP. R -F AMP. MIXER I -F AMP
I MFE -3006 MPF -IOS I MFE -3006 MFE -3006 MPF -10S FILTER MC -ISSSG
3.3
3 5-26
MHZ
AI017
AIN
TA A-300
SPAR.
Figure 20
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE SOLID-STATE COMMUNICATION RECEIVER

The main portion of the receiver covers the 80 -meter band (3.5 -4.0 MHz) and serves as an
i -f section for a bandswitching converter covering the 40 -, 20 -, 1S -, and 10 -meter bands in
500-kHz segments. The high -frequency converter unit is crystal controlled and the low -
frequency variable oscillator in the 80 -meter section is not switched, permitting a high
degree of electrical and mechanical stability to be achieved.
1 -f gain is provided by an integrated circuit module (MC- 1SSSG) and suitable SSB selectivity
is achieved by a mechanical filter. Audio agc is provided for the various r -f stages and
front -end gain may be separately controlled, if desired. The complete schematic of the
receiver is given in figures 21 and 23.
The Receiver A block diagram of the com- Laboratory measurements taken on the
Circuit plete solid -state receiver is receiver provide the following data on per-
shown in figure 20. The cir- formance. Sensitivity: Less than 1 microvolt
cuit is basically a four -band crystal -con- for a 10- decibel signal-plus -noise to noise
trolled front -end converter, followed by a ratio on all bands. Image ratio: Better than
tunable i -f receiver which covers the fifth 60 decibels on all bands, and as high as 80
band (80 meters). The bandswitching front - decibels. Drift: Less than 100 Hz per hour
end, or converter, is shown in detail in at receiver temperature of 70 F. Spurious
figure 21. This separate assembly covers the Responses: Oscillator harmonics noted at
amateur bands between 7 MHz and 29 MHz, 7.0 MHz and 21.250 MHz.
with allowance in design for out -of -band The R -F Section -The tuned circuits in
coverage, as well as coverage as high as 30 the high- frequency portion of the receiver
MHz, or more. Using a Motorola MFE -3006 are basically 20 -meter circuits, which are
high- frequency MOSFET device in the tun- made resonant in the other high -frequency
able r -f amplifier stages results in high gain bands by means of appropriate shunt im-
and good circuit stability. The r -f amplifier pedances brought into the circuit by the
circuitry does not require neutralization, bandswitch. For 40 -meter operation, the
while permitting AGC (automatic- gain -con- basic tuned circuit is padded to a lower
trol). voltage to be applied to the front end, resonant frequency by means of capacitor
a feature very necessary in solid -state re- C, (figure 22) . For 15- and 10 -meter oper-
ceivers. The dual -gate feature of the MFE- ation, the inductance of the tuned circuit
3006 allows a separation of these functions, is shunted by parallel inductors (L2 and L;,)
the incoming signal being applied to gate 1 thus effectively raising the resonant fre-
of the MOSFET and the agc control voltage quency of the new circuit formed by the
to gate 2 of the device. auxiliary inductors. These tuned circuits are
R -F AMPLIFIER MIXER
MFE -3006 MPF -105
QI 02
D
81 L4 D L7
g
12N
2
1g T
2 OSl AS
CI C_ rr
RFC
I MN
I 6
SM
! D
C
JI
3.5-26.0 MHZ
TINPUT
Ki
c
ci eo ACC-1 C2 60
0 e0 80 J2
3.5-4.0 MHZ
}I
1I33SM oe jIA 1
I
lriSM o SIB o SID

TOUTPUT
!0 /0 i0
L2I = : L3 5 6
_ __ J
ioj"
80
1 p10 OSC.
2N4,24 LB L9
TyTiT T I Y Y3 Y4
Q3 'IIIIII' 'd6Q` R FL 3 1 MN
-1- -f-
T
s
33 2r
/3 9K SM SM -
+12v
J3X 5 390 FROM RECEIVER
NOTE LL FES /SrORS 0.5 W.
Figure 21
CONVERTER PORTION OF COMMUNICATION RECEIVER

B -Ceramic bead (Ferroxcube K5- 001 -038 or Stackpole 7D
C,, C -10 to 60 -pf piston capacitors (Voltronics TM -60C, or equiv.;
J , J -Type BNC receptacles, UG -657/U
K, -Dpdt relay, crystal -can style, 12 -volt coil (Potter -Brumfield SC -11138 or equiv.)
L , L -24 turns /+32 enameled wire, closewound on r)4" diameter form. Approx. 4 vH (Q = 50).
Use J. W. Miller 4500 -2 (red) form, powdered iron core. Link winding is 5 turns #42 e.
around "cold" end of coil
L , L -(15 meters). 20 turns #32 e., closewound on 14" diam. form. Approx. 3.4 H. J. W.
Miller 4500 -3 (green) form, powdered-iron core
L., L -(10 meters). 11 turns #32 e., as L Approx. 1.4 pH .
L -40 rums #32 e., closewound on 4" diameter form. J. W. Miller 4500 -3 (green) form,
r
powered iron core. Tunes to 3.9 MHz. Link winding is 10 turns #32 e. around "cold"
end of coil
L -10 turns
'32 e., closewound on r" diameter form. J. W. Miller 4500 -2 (red) form,
powdered iron core. Resonates to 24.5 MHz.
L-15 turns 1132 e., as L . Resonates to 17.5 MHz
RFC; -1 millihenry. J. W. Miller 9350 -44 or equiv.
.5,I -4 pole, 6 position ceramic switch. Centralab 2021 or equiv.
YI -3.500 MHz crystal, HC -6!U holder
Y -
10.500 MHz, as Y.
Y.-17.500 MHz, as Y,
r:-24.500 MHz, as Y,
designed to have an essentially flat response conversion crystal and auxiliary inductor
over 500 kHz of the band in use, making tuning.
a peaking control unnecessary. The 10 -meter Maximum gain is obtained from the
tuned circuits can be adjusted to pass any MOSFETs in the r -f amplifier stages when
500 -kHz segment of the 10 -meter band, gate 2 has +12 volts applied to it; how-
allowing the receiver to cover the complete ever, this amount of gain has a tendency
band, by the proper choice of local -oscillator to overload the i -f system on any strong
Figure 22
SIMPLIFIED R -F SWITCHING CIRCUIT

The external antenna is coupled to a resonant LC circuit for
20-meter reception. When the bandswitch is changed to 40
meters, the 20 -meter circuit is padded to the lower frequency
by the addition of piston capacitor C , placed in the circuit by
switch section S,,. On 15 meters, the inductance of 20-meter
coil L, is decreased by the added shunting action of coil L..
On 10 meters, coil L. is switched in the circuit. Alignment of the
tuned circuit must first be done on 20 meters before the 15-
and 20 -meter bands are adjusted.
signal. Hence, provision has been made in the -f system is largely established by a
i
the design of the agc system to limit the mechanical filter having a passband (2.1
positive swing of the front -end agc input, kHz) suitable for SSB reception. Intermedi-
eliminating this problem. ate- frequency gain is provided by a Motor-
The Mixer-Oscillator -A 2N5459 (MPF- ola integrated circuit element (MC- 1553G),
10 5) FET is used as a common -source mixer matched to the mechanical filter by a simple
with local oscillator and received signals ap- transformer and resistance network.
plied to the gate element. The crystal -con- The Product Detector -Aproduct detec-
trolled local oscillator is capacitively coupled tor is used to provide good linearity, low
to the gate and the incoming signal is in- insertion loss, and a minimum of beat- oscil-
ductively coupled through transformer L. lator leakthrough into the audio system.
The converter oscillator employs a 2N4124 One -half of a diode quad is used for the
bipolar transistor and uses an r -f choke as a detector, employing 1N2970 hot -carrier di-
broadband collector load on the lower fre- odes, resulting in excellent circuit balance.
quencies (RFC,). Series -connected, parallel - Closely matched 1K load resistors ensure
tuned circuits provide properly selective col- minimum leakthrough while a simple low -
lector loads on the two higher-frequency pass audio filter (T3) placed after the
bands. These circuits exhibit little effect product detector attenuates all residual high -
except when excited by the crystal frequency frequency products. The filter is a parallel-
to which they are resonant. The use of tuned circuit at 455 kHz offering high
tuned collector-load circuits is particularly impedance to the intermediate frequency,
necessary above 20 MHz or so where the and a low impedance to audio frequencies.
common practice is to employ overtone The local oscillator (bfo) consists of sep-
crystals. arate crystal -controlled oscillators with the
The schematic of the tunable 80 -meter outputs selected by switch S2, feeding the
stages and low -frequency i -f section is input of the product detector through
shown in figure 23. The front end of this transformer T2. A switch on the panel of
section of the receiver has two stages of r -f the receiver (SIDEBAND SELECT) turns
amplification using MFE -3006 MOSFETs on one oscillator or the other for upper- or
to provide needed sensitivity and image re- lower -sideband reception. The specified os-
jection. The tuned circuits for these stages cillator crystals should be as close to the
are adjustable from the panel of the receiver target frequency as possible, since reduced
and provide a preselector function (PEAK). detector output will result if one or the
Good electrical isolation between the stages other of the crystals is misplaced on the
is necessary as the gain of this cascade slope of the filter passband. Product-detector
circuitry is considerable. To avoid cross attenuation is only about 6 decibels, which
modulation and overload, these stages are provides an audio output of nearly 10 milli-
followed by an MPF -105 FET mixer (Q3), volts with a 20- millivolt peak i -f signal
using a common -gate circuit proven to be input. Linearity of the i -f circuit and de-
tolerant of high input levels. tector stages is excellent, input signals up to
The intermediate frequency of the receiver 300 millivolts or so being attained before
is 455 kHz and the frequency response of distortion products in the audio signal are
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02
AGC
CONVERTER
agc lines, therefore, are at some positive
potential between ground and + 12 volts,
depending on the setting of the potentiom-
eter, allowing maximum receiver gain to
be established, if desired. When a higher
input signal level requires reduced front -end
receiver gain, rectified audio of a positive
polarity from the agc amplifiers (Q Q..)
is applied to the gate of the control FET,
reducing its conduction. Acordingly, the
52 R2 10A
RE drain element of the FET drops toward
68A
10Ir
GAIN
i - 12 volts, taking the agc lines along with

2V =
01010
12V.
it, thus reducing front -end gain of the
receiver.
Figure 24
The gate element of the control FET
SIMPLIFIED AUDIO- CONTROLLED is connected to an RC circuit having a long
AGC SYSTEM time constant, which prevents gate voltage
three age lines (Q,, Q, and
from changing too rapidly between c -w
The rter) are
terminated at the arm of r -1 gain control R,. characteristics or between spoken syllables
When agc switch S, is off, control voltage may of an SSB signal. This circuit is designed to
be varied between +12 and -3 volts. When
the age system is on, control is switched to the charge quickly when the receiver power is
drain circuit of lET Q,,. Age voltage is now first applied, so that front -end gain is min-
proportional to the audio input signal, varying
between zero and +12 volts under normal imum. A diode across a portion of the time -
conditions. A strong signal will drive the age constant circuit leaks off this charge in less
towards -12 volts, sharply reducing receiver than a minute, and the action can be ob-
gain. Maximum gain is controlled by the
potentiometer. served on the S -meter when the receiver is
first turned on.
A signal- strength meter is incorporated
evident to the ear. as part of of the agc system. The meter is
The audio system is a second integrated - connected so as to measure the current
circuit package (TAA -300) delivering al- drawn by the control FET. The METER -
most a watt of audio power with a 10- milli- ADJUST control (R2) is set so the meter
volt driving signal. Speakers of 3 to 30 ohms indicates full -scale current when the antenna
impedance may be used, and the receiver input terminals are grounded. In operation,
will drive an efficient 10 -inch diameter the R -F GAIN control (R2) is set so that
speaker with impressive results. A jack is a small deflection of the meter (toward zero
provided on the panel for use with low - current) takes place with antenna connected
impedance earphones. but without signal input. At this point, the
The AGC System-The agc network is agc system will control receiver front -end
novel in that the agc lines swing from posi- gain in the proper manner, between near
tive to negative potential with increasing cutoff and maximum usable gain.
input signal level (figure 24). The three con- Power and Switching Circuits -The re-
trol lines are terminated at the arm of the ceiver is operated from a + 12 -volt 200 -ma
R -F GAIN control potentiometer (R2) . One supply. In addition, -12 volts is required
end of the potentiometer (max) is connected
to the + 12 -volt supply line, and the other
for agc action. The drain of the - 12 volt
section is only 20 milliamperes and series
end (min) to about -3 volts when the connected "penlite" cells may be incorpor-
agc switch (S2) is off. When agc is on, ated in the receiver, if desired, for this
the control is switched to the drain circuit function.
of an agc control FET (Q,o). With no input The converter portion of the receiver is
signal, the gate of the control FET is near switched in and out by means of a small
zero potential and the FET conducts, plac- crystal -can relay (K1, figure 21) operated
ing the negative end of the r -f gain control by the bandswitch. The relay is normally
potentiometer close to ground potential. The unenergized in all band positions except 80
assembly specified comes complete with

panel, chassis, and rubber mounting feet.
Other cabinets of the same general configur-
ation, of course, may be used.
General receiver assembly may be seen in
the photographs and drawings. The high -
frequency converter covering 40 through
10 meters is the most complex assembly and
the most compact (figure 2 S) . This unit is
built in an aluminum box measuring 4" X
2" X 2314" and is mounted to the left rear
of the main chassis. The converter band -
switch (S,) is panel driven by means of an
extension shaft as seen in the top -view
photograph. Power and control leads are
brought out through miniature feedthrough
insulators mounted on the side of the box.
Figure 25 The variable- frequency oscillator is a
second subassembly built within an alumi-
OBLIQUE VIEW OF CONVERTER UNIT
num box measuring 31/4" X 2 1/4" X 15/8".
The converter section of the solid -state com- The tuning capacitor used (C,) is a high -
munications receiver covers the amateur bands
between 80 and 10 meters and has an i -f quality unit having full ball -race bearings
output of 80 meters. The unit is built in a front and back and a controlled torque. This
small aluminum box (4" X 2" X 234 ") with unit provides minimum drag on the geared
the major components mounted on the inner,
U- shaped box section. dial. The i -f mechanical filter is mounted
Across the rear of the assembly are the slug to the left of the vfo assembly, with the
tuned r -f coils (I. to ri: 20 -, 15 -, and 10-
meter coils. The 15- and 10 -meter mixer coils receiver r -f stages and mixer to the left.
are immediately to the right. In the right - Both the vfo and the high- frequency con-
hand corner of the box is the mixer output
coil (L ). verter sections are built as separate units and
Along the center line of the converter unit are may be tested and aligned before installation
(I. to ri: The MFE -3006 r -f amplifier socket,
the 20 -meter mixer coil, and the MPF -105
on the main receiver chassis.
mixer socket. At the front of the unit are the The first step in construction of the solid -
conversion crystals )I. to ri: 3.5 MHz, 10.5 state receiver is to lay out the chassis, panel,
MHz, 17.5 MHz, and 24.5 MHz. To the right of
the crystals is the 2N4124 oscillator socket. tuning dial, and other major components in
Along the front section of the assembly are a "mockup" assembly to ensure that the
(1. to ri: the relay feedthrough terminal and
piston capacitor C, bandswitch 5 piston ca- receiver will go together without a physical
pacitor C , agc and voltage feedthrough termi- conflict between the components. Figure 26
nals, and (at the extreme right) oscillator
collector coils L, and L,.
shows placement of the converter and
oscillator assemblies and the i -f filter. The
meters. On this band, the relay removes the exact location of the vfo box behind the
converter from the circuit and bypasses panel and the height of the main tuning
the antenna connections around the con- capacitor on the side of the box are deter-
verter portion of the receiver. mined by the position of the tuning dial on
the main panel. It is suggested that a trial
Receiver A multiband receiver such as panel be cut from heavy cardboard and
Construction this complex device and its
is a used to support the main dial and assembly
construction should only be so that vfo placement may be checked be-
undertaken by a person familiar with solid - fore any holes are cut in the aluminum panel
state devices in general and MOSFETs in or the chassis. The panel is held in place
particular, and who has built and aligned by means of the various hexagonal nuts on
equipment approaching this complexity. the controls and the lower lip of the alu-
The solid -state receiver is built on a minum chassis is cut out to pass the dial
chassis within a wraparound metal cabinet mechanism, as shown in figure 27. Placement
measuring 10" X 7" X 4 ". The cabinet of the remaining components is not par-
Figure 26
TOP VIEW OF RECEIVER ASSEMBLY

Placement of the major receiver components may be observed in this view. The h -f crystal -
controlled converter assembly is at the left with the bandswitch extension shaft running to
the front panel. At the center of the main chassis are the mechanical filter and the variable
oscillator for the 80 -meter portion of the receiver. Directly behind the oscillator are the i -f
amplifier and the bfo stage with the associated sideband -selection crystals. At the right is the
audio IC stage (with heat sink and the "meter- adjust" potentiometer. The agc stages are in
the right front corner of the receiver, with the 80 -meter r -f section located at the front left
corner of the chassis.
ticularly critical, and may be done from a It is suggested that the r -f stages of the
study of the photographs. Use of a paper main receiver section be wired first, followed
template for drilling the chassis is recom- by the oscillator assembly, and then the
mended. product detector and the audio stage. The
Receiver The receiver should be wired in an agc system, S- meter, and power wiring may
Wiring orderly manner, a stage at a time. be done last. A very small pencil soldering
To reduce r -f ground currents, iron, miniature solder, and small diameter
all grounds for a single stage should be re- (No.22) hookup wire are recommended for
turned to that stage, preferably to a com- ease in assembly. The various tuned circuits
mon ground point at or near the transistor are wired and grid -dipped to frequency and
socket. The gate, source, and drain bypass the interstage shields are made up and cut
capacitors, for example, can all be returned to fit (a "nibbling" tool is handy here)
to a common ground point near the tran- as the work progresses. A closeup of the
sistor socket, components being grouped under -chassis r -f stages is shown in figure 27.
about the socket wherever possible, and not A two- section variable mica compression -
"stacked" above the socket, so that the tuning capacitor is used for C, (PEAK
latter can be reached for voltage measure- PRESFLFCTOR) and has an extension shaft
ments. press -fit onto the short tuning stub. The
Figure 27
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF SOLID -STATE COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER
The 80 -meter r -f amplifier and mixer stages are seen in the upper NH corner of the chassis.
The two-section variable mica compression capacitor (C,,) is mounted to the chassis by means
of a small aluminum bracket affixed behind the main panel. The capacitor is driven by a
short extension shaft. An intrastage shield is placed across the first r -f amplifier MOSFET
socket (Q,) and a second similar shield is placed across the second r -f amplifier socket. The
shields may be made of copper -plated circuit board, aluminum, or thin copper shim stock.
The audio circuit and agc components are placed along the right -hand edge of the chassis,
with the bfo, detector, and i -f components strung along the rear of the chassis area (bottom
of the photograph). The two 35-pf capacitors used to adjust the frequency of the bfo
crystals are supported below the chassis by their leads.
Note: The cutout at the front of the chassis is to provide room for the gear- reduction drive
mounted to the panel.
capacitor is supported from a small bracket the converter unit visible at the lower edge
mounted directly behind the panel. of the assembly. To the right is the second
Small shields are mounted across each r -f stage MOSFET socket (Q2), with
MOSFET socket. The shields are cut of the FET mixer socket above and to the
scrap aluminum or brass and have a mount- right. The injection line from the vfo passes
ing foot on them which is held in place by through a Teflon feedthrough insulator
a nearby 4 -40 bolt. The first r-f stage mounted in the chassis immediately behind
MOSFET socket (Q,) is at the left of the the tuning dial and runs to the gate terminal
photograph with the small coaxial line from of the FET socket.
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Figure 28
TUNING DIAL
TEMPLATE FOR
THE SOLID -STATE
RECEIVER
ti0 ii
glow
100000
vm POI"-
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The remainder of the construction and as- several Teflon feedthrough insulators are
sembly on the main chassis is straightfor- mounted in the L- shaped shield partition to
ward. Using 1/4-watt resistors and miniature pass power leads between the stages within
capacitors helps to keep assembly neat and the box. An oblique view of the r-f com-
compact. Liberal use of Teflon feedthrough partment is shown in figure 30. The two -
insulators and terminals assists greatly in section ceramic bandswitch is in the fore-
controlling underchassis "clutter." ground, with the 40 -meter piston tuning
The main tuning dial is made up of a capacitor (C,) mounted to the wall of the
reduction drive, a home -made pointer, and box in the foreground. Directly in front of
a calibrated scale etched on a piece of cop- the bandswitch is the feedthrough insulator
per-plated circuit board of the glass -epoxy
variety. The mask for the negative of the
board is reproduced in figure 28. It may be
photocopied from the page and used to make
a negative for direct reproduction. It should
be noted that in the process of etching the
board, the photoresist material should not
be removed from the board after etching.
it is attractive if left on and will prevent
the dial surface from being corroded by
fingerprints or moisture in the atmosphere.
The Converter Assembly-The general
layout of the converter assembly is shown
in figures 29 through 31. The MOSFETs
and conversion crystals are mounted in
sockets placed atop the converter box, with
the various slug -tuned coils mounted at the Figure 29
rear of the assembly. Figure 29 shows the
rear of the box with the cover removed. REAR VIEW OF CONVERTER ASSEMBLY
The r -f amplifier (Q,) coils are at the right The r -f amplifier and tandswitch are seen at
of the shield partition, with the mixer coils the right of the internal shield partition. R -f
(Q2) at the left. Directly below the mixer coils are (I. to r.): 20, 15 and 10 meters. Note
Teflon feedthrough terminals mounted in the
coils is the crystal -can relay (K1) with the intrastage partition. The mixer stage and
coaxial leads attached to it. The various crystal can relay (K,) are at the left of the
partition. Mixer coils are (I. to r.): 15 and 10
outer shields of the coaxial lines are grounded meters. -f output coil L. is at the extreme
1
at the relay mounting bracket. Note that left.
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Receivers and Transceivers
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RADIO
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Figure 30
THE R -F AMPLIFIER Figure 31
The r -f amplifier coils are in the foreground, SIDE VIEW OF THE CONVERTER UNIT
with the bandswitch and piston capacitor
(C) at the right. The coaxial leads run to the The crystal -can relay is in the lower fore-
crystal -can relay. The outer shields of the ground with the 10 -meter oscillator coil of
various coaxial lines are grounded to a com- the top left and the 15 -meter oscillator coil
mon point near the relay and also at the free at the bottom left. The internal shield (also
ends in the receiver assembly. Note that coils seen in figure 27) is L- shaped and isolates
and bandswitch have been arranged for the oscillator coils from the mixer coils located
shortest possible lead lengths. at the rear of the chassis deck.
for the lead to the coil of the crystal -can instruments. The main receiver chassis is
relay. The bandswitch is positioned to pro- aligned first, so that a proper output indi-
vide the shortest possible leads to the slug - cator will be available for subsequent align-
tuned coils mounted adjacent to it. ment of the converter. All alignment is
An end view of the converter assembly is done with the agc switched off. Before be-
shown in figure 31. The relay is held in ginning the alignment and before power is
position with a small aluminum U -clamp applied to the receiver, the tuning meter
over the body, and the opposite side of the should be disconnected to prevent its pos-
L- shaped intrastage shield is visible. sible damage due to accidental overcurrent.
The Variable Oscillator -The vfo is the The builder should also note the information
only other separate subassembly. Layout of in the transistor chapter of this Handbook
parts (aside from placement of the main regarding the handling procedures to be used
tuning capacitor, mentioned earlier) is not with the MOSFET transistors, which are in-
critical. The components are self -supported serted toward the end of the alignment
around the capacitor using short, direct leads operation.
to prevent vibration. It is possible to build The audio portion of the receiver is tested
the unit in a much smaller box, but the good first. A heat sink is placed over the audio
drift characteristic (100 -Hz total warmup IC (TAA -300) before tests are begun. A
drift) makes the larger box worthwhile. 1000 -Hz, 10- millivolt sine -wave audio signal
Both FET sockets are mounted on the is applied at the arm of the AUDIO -GAIN
vertical front surface of the box, with the potentiometer (R,) and should result in a
oscillator coil (L4) mounted to one end; signal in the speaker when primary power
and the bandset capacitor (C2) mounted is applied to the receiver, indicating the
to the other end of the box. audio stage is working. Check the voltage
at the drain of the 2N4360 agc control
Receiver Alignment of the receiver is not transistor (Q,,,). It should be close to -12
Alignment difficult if done in a systematic volts. Removing the audio signal should
manner and may be done by ear cause it to drop to almost zero volts. This
alone. A quicker and better job may be indicates that the complete agc system is
achieved, however, with the use of proper working.
HANDBOOK Single -Band SSB Transceiver 645
Next, set the METER -ADJUST poten- MOSFETs Q, and Q_ are inserted in their
tiometer (R3) for zero resistance (short respective sockets, a ferrite bead is slipped
circuit) and reconnect the tuning meter. over the gate and drain leads of each device
With the audio signal applied again as be- to suppress any tendency toward vhf para-
fore, adjust the meter current for minimum sitic oscillations. Place the peaking control
deflection (minimum reading). Removing (C,) at half capacitance and apply a 10
the audio signal should cause the meter microvolt, 3750 -kHz signal at the input
current to increase to a full -scale value. terminal (J,) of the main receiver. Tune
Although the agc is off, the system still the receiver to the signal and adjust the
controls the meter and it can now be used three tuning slugs in coils L,, L2, and L3
as an indicator of input signal level to the for maximum signal output. The receiver
receiver. Advance the R -F GAIN control may now be used for 80 -meter reception.
(R_) fully clockwise to Max position. Apply Converter Alignment-The high- frequen-
a 456.5 -kHz modulated signal of 1- millivolt cy converter should now be attached to the
level to the input (pin 1) of the IC i-f main chassis and the various leads connected.
amplifier (MC- 1553G). If the amplifier, the Before the MOSFETs are placed in the
bfo, and the product- detector stages are sockets, the converter tuned circuits should
working, an audio signal should be heard in have been grid- dipped to the approximate
the speaker. Adjust the detector filter cir- working frequencies. Now, the converter
cuit (T,) for minimum hiss in the speaker bandswitch is set to the 20 -meter position
when the audio modulation is turned off. and the main tuning dial of the receiver set
Now, adjust the AUDIO -GAIN control to 14.250 MHz. A 10- microvolt signal at
(R,) back and forth to make sure it func- this frequency is applied to the converter
tions properly. Apply the same r -f signal to input circuit, making sure that the relay
the input of the mechanical filter and adjust K, is properly activated. Adjust the slug
i -f transformer T, for maximum signal in of the mixer coil (L.,) for maximum output
the speaker. Varying the input signal fre- signal, followed by adjustment of r -f coil
quency above and below 456.5 kHz will L1. These adjustments will not be critical
provide an indication of the intermediate - due to the large bandwidth of these circuits.
frequency passband response of the receiver. The converter must be first aligned on 20
Switch the bfo SELECT-SIDEBAND switch meters since the tuned circuits are basically
(S,) to both positions to ensure that both tuned to that band. Once they are aligned,
oscillator circuits are working. Crystal align- do not touch them further.
ment on the filter passband is accomplished The bandswitch is now placed in the 40-
by adjustment of the series capacitors. meter position and a 7.2 -MHz signal applied
The next step is to test the variable to the receiver. Capacitors C, and C2 are
tuning oscillator. The transistors are in- adjusted for maximum signal level. In the
serted in their sockets and the oscillator slow fashion, a midband signal is applied to
tuned circuit should be adjusted to tune the converter for the 15- and 10 -meter
over the range of 3043.5 kHz to 3543.5 bands, aligning them by the slugs in the
kHz between the extreme positions of the shunt coils, as before, mixer circuit first.
dial. The bandset capacitor (C_.) may be Finally, adjust the 10 -meter oscillator cir-
used for this adjustment, along with the cuit (L) for best received signal on that
slug adjustment of coil L.,. After the slug band, then adjust the 15 -meter oscillator
position has been determined, it should be circuit (L) for minimum received signal
fastened in place with a drop of cement to when a 20 -meter signal is injected into the
prevent vibration. receiver. This completes alignment of the
The tuned circuits in the r -f stages and receiver.
the mixer should be adjusted to track
across the 80 -meter band when the PEAK - 26 -6 A Single -Band
PRESELECTOR control is adjusted. Pre- SSB Transceiver
liminary alignment should be done with a
grid -dip oscillator with transistors Q,, Q2, Probably the most popular item of equip-
and Q:, removed from their sockets. When ment for SSB operation is the transceiver-
Figure 32
FRONT VIEW OF TRANSCEIVER
The transceiver panel measures 121/4" wide by 61/4" high. The two large controls at center
are for final amplifier tank and vio tuning. On the left area of the panel are the modulator
balance control (top), r -f gain adjustment, receiver volume, and microphone gain control
(next to the microphone jack). The lower switch is the main power control (S ) and the meter
switch is at the top, right. Below the plate tuning control are the grid tuning adjustment and
the function switch, S . On the right of the panel are the carrier level control, R , and the
antenna loading capacitor, C . The cabinet is a wraparound style made from two pieces of
perforated aluminum sheet bent into a U -shape and riveted together at the sides. Panel and
cabinet are primed and painted with aerosol (spray) paint.
a complete station in one compact package. amateur band from 160 to 20 meters. It
Since many of the tubes and components is relatively simple in design and is an ideal
are common to both the transmitting and "first" project for those amateurs interested
receiving functions, the transceiver can be in building their own sideband gear. While
built compactly and rather inexpensively, a commercial 9 -MHz crystal filter is used,
and it is well suited for both fixed- station substitution of a homemade crystal filter is
and mobile operation. practical, further reducing the cost of the
The most economical and least complex transceiver.
transceiver to build is one designed for use
on a single amateur band. Multiple mixing The Transceiver The transceiver circuit is
schemes and complex coil catacombs are Circuit a proven one that has been
thus eliminated, and the "birdie" problem employed in many com-
is greatly simplified. Shown in this section mercial units and is a version of the original
is a 200 -watt PEP, single -band transceiver W6QKI (Sinan) circuit. Fifteen tubes are
(figure 32) which may be used on any one used, including a voltage regulator and the
VI V2 Ti Va V4 Vs
MIC PI-
NETWORK
Ct
C, Cz
TRANSMITTER
SECTION
Ve Ve TUNE
FREQUENCY CONTROL
SECTION
SEE COIL DATA FOR TUN /NC RANCE
RECEIVER SECTION
Vn Ta Viz VU Vt
EXTERNAL
SPEAKER
Figure 33
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SINGLE -BAND SSB TRANSCEIVER

Fifteen tubes are used in a multipurpose circuit. Common r -f tank circuits and i -f filter sys-
tem simplify construction and reduce cost. A single vfo tunes both receiving and transmitting
sections.
unit is designed to be operated from either is common to both transmit and receive cir-
a 115/230-volt a -c primary supply or a cuits and tunes approximately 200 kHz
12 -volt transistor power pack (external). in the region of S to 8 MHz, the exact
Operation. of the single -band SSB trans- tuning range depending on the band in use.
ceiver and the dual function of some of the A 12AU6 (operated at slightly reduced fila-
tubes and tuned circuits may be seen from ment voltage serves as the oscillator tube
an inspection of the block diagram of fig- (VS).
ure 33. The 9 -MHz i -f signal passes through the
Reception -In the receiving mode, the selective crystal lattice filter (ACF -4) and
circuit takes the form of a single- conversion is amplified in a common i -f stage (V2)
superheterodyne featuring product detection. which is transformer coupled to a second
The received SSB signal is resonated in the (receiving) i -f stage (V11) and then fed
antenna input circuit which, in this case, is to a product detector (V10). At this point
the pi- network of the transmitter portion in the circuit, carrier is injected in the
of the unit. The network is capacitively detector from the 6U8A common crystal
coupled to a 6BA6- remote cutoff r -f ampli- oscillator (V,;) and the resulting audio
fier (V:,). The plate circuit -C1) of the
(L1 product is amplified in one -half of the
6BA6 is common to both receiver and trans- 12AX7 dual triode (V12) and the 6AQSA
mitter circuits. A 12BE6 (V,,,) serves as a output tube (V,4). A portion of the audio
receiver mixer, the input signal being mixed signal returns to the 6AL5 automatic gain
with the local vfo signal to produce a 9- control rectifier (V,:;) to provide an audio -
MHz intermediate frequency. The vfo stage derived agc voltage for the receiver section.
Figure 34
SCHEMATIC, SINGLE -BAND TRANSCEIVER
HANDBOOK A Single -Band SSB Transceiver 649
C,, C2-50-pi each; two Hammerlund Hf -SO RFC,, , -1 mH choke; Miller 4652
ganged RfC -Use Miller RFC -14 for 80 -40-20 meters;
C -20 -pf variable mica trimmer Use Miller RFC -3.5 for 160 meters
C- I5 -pf, type APC. RY -4PDT, 12 -volt coil; Potter -Brumfield KHP-
C -235 -pf. Gap .024 "; Bud 1859 17 -011
C -
C;- 365 -pf per section; J. W. Miller 2113
50 -pi. Centralab 827
C,- 50 -pf, type APC
S -Centralab PA -2007
1; 1,-10.7-MHz i -f transformer; capacitor X is
internal part of unit; Miller 1457
C,- 101 -pf precision capacitor; Miller 2101 r -5000 ohms to 4 ohms; Stanco, A -3877
CR, -1 N34 i,-International Crystal Co types C116 -9LO
J Amphenol80 -PC2F (9001.5 kHz) or CY6 -9H1 (8998.5 kHz) as re-
J,- Coaxial receptacle. SO -239 quired
J,- Chassis receptacle; Cinch -Jones P -308A8 ACE -1- International Crystal Co 9 MHz SS8 Al-
MA- Calrad, meter
0 -1 ma d-c, 13/4" ter
PC-4 turns #18 around 100-ohm, 2 -watt resis- 1- Chassis,10" x 12" x 3 ", Mud AC -413
tor 1-Box, 4" x S" x 3 ", Bud AU -1028
R -Meter shunt for 300 ma. Use #30 enamelled, 1 -Box, 4" x N' x 2"; Sud AU -1083
wire wound on 17 -ohm, t/2 -watt resistor 2- Insulated shaft couplers; Johnson 104 -264
RFC, thru RFC,-2.5 mH subminiature choke; 1 -Dial drive; Eddystone 892
Miller 70E- 253 -AI
A fixed positive voltage taken from the filter which suppresses the undesired side -
cathode of the 6AQSA stage provides delay band and the carrier, which is already some-
voltage for the agc circuit to allow maxi- what attenuated by the balanced modulator
mum receiver sensitivity to be realized with stage. The desired sideband is amplified in
weak signals. Receiver volume is controlled the common 6BA6 i -f stage and passed to
in the grid of the 6AQSA stage instead of the 12BE6 transmitting mixer (V3) where
the low -level audio circuit so that agc action it is mixed with the vfo signal to produce
is independent of the audio volume level. an SSB signal on the same frequency as the
Transmission -Inthe transmitting mode, signal being received. The SSB signal is
the circuit takes the form of a single -con- further amplified in the 12BY7A driver
version, crystal -filter SSB exciter, featuring stage (V,) and the 6DQS linear amplifier
a 7360 balanced modulator and a 6DQS (V-,). When the pi- network plate circuit
linear amplifier. Switching the circuitry of the 6DQS has been properly tuned for
from receive to transmit is accomplished by transmission, it is also tuned for optimum
a single relay (RY) which applies blocking reception and requires no further adjustment
bias ( -100 volts) to inactivate tubes used unless a large frequency excursion is made.
only in the receiving mode. The relay also The same is true of the 12BY7A tuned
applies screen voltage to the 6DQS r -f am- circuit (marked grid lune).
plifier (V5) and grounds the cathode of
the common 6BA6 i -f amplifier stage to
nullify the receiving r -f gain control dur- Transceiver Layout The transceiver measures
ing transmission. The receiver r -f amplifier and Assembly 12%8" wide by 65/8"
stage remains connected to the plate circuit high by 1014" deep. A
of the linear amplifier of the transmitter 10" X 12" X 3" aluminum chassis is used
section, but the 6BA6 amplifier is protected for the assembly, with the vfo components
from strong-signal damage by virtue of the mounted in two 4" X 4" X 2" aluminum
high negative bias applied to it in the trans- utility boxes, one atop and one beneath the
mission mode. chassis. The final amplifier plate circuit com-
When transmitting, the sideband carrier ponents are inclosed in a third utility box
is generated by the common crystal oscillator measuring 4" X S" X 3" in size. Layout of
and buffer stage (V). The carrier is coupled the major components may be seen in the
into #1 grid of the 7360 balanced modula- drawings and photographs (figures 35, 36,
tor (V;) and the audio signal from the and 37) . The cabinet is a homemade wrap -
12AX7 speech amplifier is applied to one around type made of two pieces of perfo-
deflection plate of the 7360. The resulting rated aluminum sheet bent into a U- shaped
double -sideband signal passes into the crystal inclosure and riveted together at the sides.
Figure 35
TOP VIEW OF CHASSIS

The 558 transceiver is compact in size, yet not crowded on the 10" x 12" chassis. The use of
standard aluminum utility boxes for component inclosures provides excellent shielding of low
cost. The box covers have been removed to show interior layout. Ventilation is provided for
the horizontally mounted 6DQ5 linear amplifier tube by making a cutout in the chassis below
the tube and covering the opening with a sheet of perforated aluminum. A new box cover is
made of the some material. The relay to the right of the amplifier box is fully inclosed in
a dust cover. Along the rear apron of the chassis are the coaxial antenna receptacle, the
bias adjustment potentiometer, the power plug and relay terminal strip, with the speaker
jack at the for right.
The 12BY7A driver tube is located between the amplifier box and the front panel, with
the 128E6 transmitter mixer to the right. The 6BA6 receiver r -f stage and 128E6 mixer are
between the relay and the vfo, with the 0A2 regulator behind the relay, adjacent to the
filter capacitor. The 9 -MHz i -f filter strip is at center with the 6BA6 common i -f tube behind it.
At the right, next to the vfo are (going back from the panel): the 9 -MHz crystal, the
6U8A oscillator, the 7360, and the 6AQSA audio amplifier. At the extreme right of the chassis
are the 6L5 agc tube, the 12AX7 speech amplifier stage and the 6BA6 receiver i -f stage.
Data is given in the tables for coils, crys- layout has been planned to allow short r -f
tals and frequencies to be used to build a leads where necessary, and to permit proper
transceiver for 160 -, 80 -, 4,7-, or 20 -meter circuit isolation. In most cases, resistors and
operation using standard components. The bypass capacitors are mounted directly at
the tube -socket pins with liberal use of tie - of the utility box and is bolted to the box
point terminals to achieve solid construction. in line with the capacitor shaft and affixed
The resistor network for balancing the volt- to it with a flexible coupler. A 4%" diame-
age on the deflection plates of the 7360 ter circular piece of sheet plastic is at-
modulator tube is mounted on a separate tached to the drive head to form the tuning
terminal board fastened to the side of the dial. It is spray -painted white and calibra-
chassis, and a second terminal board is used tion marks are lettered on it with India
for mounting the r -f choke in the vfo, ink after final calibration is completed. Suf-
cathode circuit and the associated capaci- ficient clearance is left between the dial and
tors (figure 38) . The power plug, relay ter- the chassis so the plastic does not rub on
minal strip, final amplifier bias potentiometer, the metal.
and speaker jack are placed on the rear The front panel is spaced away from the
apron of the chassis. chassis by virtue of the large nuts holding
Final amplifier components are placed in- the various controls on the front apron of
side the utility box bolted to the top rear the chassis and is affixed in place with a
corner of the chassis. The chassis area be- second set of nuts on the control bushings.
neath the 6DQS tube is cut out and covered The 1/4-inch space thus created provides
with a perforated aluminum sheet, as are room for the dial to rotate freely. A cutout
the top and rear of the box, to achieve prop- is made in the panel in front of the dial
er circulation of air around the tube. to match the appearance of the meter. The
The vfo (figure 39) is placed at the opening is covered with a section of ple.vi-
front -center of the chassis and is constructed glas or Incite inscribed with a hairline
on a 1/4-inch thick plate of aluminum meas- indicator. A pilot light behind the dial pro-
uring 4" X 41/4" in size. The vfo tuning vides proper illumination. The hole in the
capacitor is fastened to this sturdy base by panel for the tuning shaft should be made
mounting bolts from the underside of the sufficiently large so the shaft does not touch
plate. A precision, silver -plated tuning ca- the panel, making the tuning mechanism
pacitor having ball bearings and closely independent of any panel movement.
controlled torque is used in conjunction with
a 10 -to -1 ratio epicyclic driving head to Transceiver Wiring It is suggested that the
achieve a smooth, backlash -free tuning sys- receiver portion of the
tem. transceiver be wired and tested first. The
One aluminum utility box is bolted to sideband filter comes as a wired package
this mounting plate from the bottom side to with matching transformers and requires
serve as a shield compartment for the vfo only a slight modification. The mounting
coil and circuit components. The vfo coil plate is cut down to a width of 11/4" to
is made from airwound inductor stock conserve space and new mounting holes are
(miniductor) securely affixed to a %; -inch drilled along the edges of the plate. The
thick block of plexiglas or other insulating filter assembly is then attached to the trans-
material which, in turn, is bolted to the ceiver chassis over a slot cut just behind
chassis with similar insulating blocks spac- the vfo assembly. The output connection of
ing it away from the metal. the filter assembly goes to the grid of the
Operating voltages are brought into the 6BA6 i -f amplifier tube (V2). The grounded
under -chassis shield box via feedthrough ca- side of the input transformer secondary
pacitors and the vfo output leads are con- is lifted from ground, bypassed and con-
nected to feedthrough bushings on the sides nected to the 1000 -ohm decoupling resistor
of the box nearest the transmitting and rein the supply- voltage circuit. The other end
ceiving mixer tubes. A second utility box of this secondary winding is connected to
is bolted to the top of the vfo plate, spaced the plate of the 12BE6 receiver mixer tube.
about 1/4 inch back from the front apron The primary winding is modified for bal-
of the chassis to permit clearance for the anced input by grounding the junction of
dial and drive mechanism. The drive head the two 75-pf capacitors and connecting
is passed through a 3/4 -inch hole in the front the end of the winding to the plates of the
Oo
QO GROMMET a- VFO
SHIELD
GROMMET
X TAL L4 BOX
CT O o
m o o
C1
Ve Li
V13 Ls
(IF USED)
Ve O V
01
C2
V3 II 1
0 o
V12 3
C4
Vio V9 GROMMET
8 B
O I GROMMET
C
Ta
0
0
RY
III
I I
3K
25W
Vi4 I
I
I
I I I
T3 9MHZ FILTER Vis
8 B
Vii
Ti
v2
9 B
O
tiU
J3 J4 J2
Figure 36
UNDER -CHASSIS LAYOUT OF TRANSCEIVER
7360 balanced modulator tube through the Transceiver Coils and Circuits -Coil and
.001 -pfd coupling capacitors. tuned -circuit data for the various amateur
The driver (grid tune) capacitors (C, bands are given in figure 40. For the 160 -,
C_) are Hamnrarlund HF -50 units ganged 80 -, and 20 -meter bands, the fundamental
together and mounted on the chassis by frequency of the vfo is employed. For 40-
means of the supplied brackets. A flexible meter operation, the plate circuit of the
coupling is used to extend the shaft through vfo doubles the oscillator frequency to the
the front panel. The 12BY7A neutralizing 16 -MHz range. Lower sideband is used for
capacitor (C:,) is soldered directly to the the 160 -, 80 -, and 40 -meter bands, and
stator terminal of the plate- circuit capaci- upper sideband for the 20 -meter band. Sub-
tor (C_) of the amplifier stage. The final stitution of crystal Y, will reverse the side -
amplifier neutralizing capacitor (C,) is bands, as shown in the table. Additional
placed on the side apron of the chassis in loading capacitance may be required for
front of the three -gang antenna loading proper amplifier operation on 160 meters
capacitor (CO. and may take the form of a 1000 -pf (1250-
Figure 37
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF THE TRANSCEIVER
The bottom plate has been removed from the vfo compartment to show internal layout. The
three -gang antenna loading capacitor, C , is bolted to the side apron of the chassis 'right) as
is the audio output transformer (left). Small components are soldered directly to tube socket
terminals and adjacent tie -point strips, leaving the sockets clear for voltage measurements.
See Figure 36 for placement of major components.
volt) mica capacitor placed in parallel with the slider on the 300 -ohm high- voltage drop-
antenna loading capacitor Cr. ping resistor has been adjusted to provide a
tap voltage of about 180, tube- socket volt-
ages should be compared to the voltage
Transceiver Alignment Before starting align- chart (figure 4 1) . The difference noted in
ment of the trans- receive and transmit voltage in some cases
ceiver, it is suggested that a wiring check is due to the cutoff bias being switched in
be made and a voltage check be done with a and out of the circuit by the changeover
suitable power supply. No high voltage is relay. The relay is d -c operated, and for
required to begin with, and the screen power fixed- station service a 12 -volt d -c source
lead of the 6DQS should be temporarily dis- must be used. When operating mobile this
connected at the socket pin and taped until relay terminal is jumpered to the 12 -volt d -c
preliminary alignment is completed. After filament supply.
R4 Figure 40
160 V. R4 CT 160V.
COIL DATA
L1, L2
3/6 DIA. SLUG TUNED COILS
160 METERS- 2201/M MILLER a27A224RI
60 METERS- 2231M MILLER M2 /A22SRBI
40 METERS- 1S.UH MILLER 21A153R9I
20 METERS- 3.31IM MILLER 21336R61
L3
160 METERS - SS TURNS 620 ENAMEL WIRE CLOSE WOUND.
PIN2 PINS PIN9/ 1 1/4 DIA., 13/4 LONG.
V
7360 80 METERS - 24 TURNS SIC TINNED WIRE. AIR -DUX
BALANCED MODULATOR NETWORK 101. 1/4 DIA., 1 3/4 LONG.
1
40 METERS- 14 TURNS 16 TINNED WIRE. AIR -DUX

1014A. 1 1/4 DIA., I LONG.
20 METERS- 11TURNS 616 TINNED WIRE. AIR -DUX
A0608T. I DIA., 1/2 LONG. 1
L4 NOTE: Co TAPPED ON L
RAND TUNING RANGE FOR VARIOUS RANGES.
160 7200 -7000 kHz 9 TURNS 20 TINNED WIRE, 3/4

DIA.,3/4" LONG. TAP TH TURN
FROM GROUND END. AIR -OUX
\-12
PIN7
AU6
PINI
80 5500 -5000 kHz
#616. PAD CAPACITOR 51 -PF SM.
12 TURNS 20
TINNED WIRE, 3/4
DIA. 3 /4LONG. AIR -OVA 616.
VPO COMPONENT MOUNTING BOARD
PADDING CAPACITOR 100 -PF SM.
75 5200 -3000 kHz SAME COIL AS ABOVE. TAP 8TH
Figure 38 PHONE TURN FROM GROUND END. PAD-
DING CAPACITOR 180 -PF SM.
TERMINAL BOARD LAYOUT 40 8000-6150 kHz 9 TURNS *20 TINNED WIRE .3 /4
DIA. 3/4
LONG. TAP 3RD TURN
FROM GROUND END. AIR -DUX
676. NO PADDING CAPACITOR.
The receiver i -f system is aligned first 40 6100 -6150 kHz SAME DATA AS ABOVE, EXCEPT
PHONE TAP 2ND TURN PROM GND END
by injecting a 9 -MHz modulated test signal
at the grid of the receiver i -f amplifier (V
and tuning the slugs in transformer T_ for
) 20
20
PHONE
5000 -5500
5200 -5350
kHz
kHz
SAME DATA AS
SAME DATA AS FOR 75 PHONE.
ADJUST TRIMMER C6 FOR DE-
SIRED RANGE.
FOR 60 METERS.
maximum audio signal in the attached speak- LS

er. The test generator is then moved back 40 16000 -16300 kHz 3/6 DIA. SLUG-TUNED COIL.
ONLY 3.3H. MILLER 21A336R6I
to the input grid of the common i -f am-
CRYSTAL DATA (V,I
160 METERS LOWER SIDEBAND - USE 9001.5 kHz
80 METERS LOWER SIDEBAND - USE 9001.7 kHz
40 METERS LOWER SIDEBAND USE 9001.5 kHz

20 METERS UPPER SIDEBAND - USE 6996.5 kHz
plifier (V_) and transformer T, is adjusted

for maximum signal. A vacuum -tube volt-
meter on the agc line is helpful in alignment.
When the test signal is injected at the
Figure 39
plate terminal of the receiving mixer tube
40 -METER VFO SCHEMATIC (V,I,) tuning becomes rather sharp going
The 40 -meter model of the single -band SS/ through the sideband filter. The filter is
transceiver employs the second harmonic of factory tuned and needs little adjustment
the oscillator frequency. A doubler coil,
is placed in the plate circuit of the vfo in other than peaking the top slugs of the two
place of the 4.7K load resistor. Tuning ca- filter transformers. The secondary of the
pacitor C, is tapped down the grid coil to input transformer should be checked, but
cover the tuning range desired. Tap point and
padding capacitor data are given in Figure should not require adjustment more than
40. one -half turn in either direction.
Figure 41 Alignment of the transmitting circuits is

best done with the v.t.v.m. using an r -f
TUBE-SOCKET VOLTAGE CHART probe for signal indication. The function
TUBE 2 3 4 5 6 7
I 8 9 switch is placed in the tune position and the
VI 12AX7 R-
T-
50
55
0
0
.6
1
0
0
12
12
40
45
0
0
0
0
CT
CT
carrier -level control (RI;) advanced to-
R- 0 0 0 6 175 75 .8
ward maximum. R -f voltage at the plate
V2 B66 T- 0 0 0 6 173 70 .5 of the 6U8 oscillator should measure about
R- -40 220 220 -40
the same value
3 or 4 volts, and about
0 0 12
V3 12BE6 T- -1 6 0 12 210 60 0
Va 12BY7 R- 0 -35 0 0 12 CT 250 160 0 should be observed at the plate of the buffer
T- 4 -S 0 0 250 160
R- -eo 0
12
-60
CT
0 6 0
O
section of this tube. Inasmuch as the filter
Vs 6DQ5 T- -60 6 0 so -e0 O 6 160 transformers and transformer T, have been
V6 6U8 R-
T-
75
75
-40 ISO
0 loo
e
e
0
o
160
35
o
o
o
o
-2
-2 adjusted previously, no further adjustment
7360 R- 0 160 -40 6 0 ISO 160 24 24 of these circuits is required. The r -f probe
V7 T- 0 75 -1 6 0 140 140 24 24
can now be placed at the grid of the 6DQ5
R- R o 0 10 120 n5 0
Vs 12U6 T- * 0 0 10 120 115 0 amplifier tube socket and the slug in coil
V6 6BA6 R- o O o 6 210 60 2 L7 adjusted for maximum r -f voltage read-
T- -70 0 0 6 200 0 0
R- -.5 0 0 12 160 60 -.2 ing. This peaks grid tuning so that coil L.
V10 12BE6 -6
T- 0 0 12 175 0 -107 will track with the previous alignment of
R - 0 0 0 6 175 60 5
VII 6BA6 T- -107 0 0 6 175 140 0 coil L1.
R- 145 0 0 0 12 100 0 .4 CT
V12 12AX7 T- 175 -75 0 0 12 100 0 .4 CT
VIS BALS R- 10 0 6 0 0 0 0 Final Adjustment The 12BY7A stage should

T 0 -140 6 0 0 0 0
R 0 IO 0 6 225 160 0
and Neutralization now be neutralized. To
V14 605 T- 250 160 -60
-$0 0 0 6 i
accomplish this, all pow-
R- 150 0 0 150 O
er is turned off and the screen lead tempor-
O 0
VIS DA 2 T- 150 0 0 0 150 O 0
NOTE: MEASUREMENTS MADE WITH A 20,000 OHM- PER-VOLT

arily removed from the 12BY7A socket.
METER. NO SIGNAL INPUT, R -F GAIN ADVANCED
AUDIO GA /N OFF. FILAMENTS A.C.
TO MAX/MUM, With power again turned on, circuits reso-
nated, and the function switch in the tune
POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS
position, neutralization capacitor C7 is ad-
LOW VOLTAGE- 250 VOLTS AT 110 MA.
BIAS- 110 VOLTS NEGATIVE AT 10 MA.
justed with a nonmetallic screwdriver for
NIGH VOLTAGE - 600 TO 600 VOLTS AT 300 MA. minimum feedthrough of r -f voltage as
FILAMENTS- 12.6 VOLTS A.C. OR D.C. AT 3.7 A.
measured with the v.t.v.m. probe placed at
the #1 grid terminal of the 6DQ5 socket.
Before an "outside" signal is received, The screen lead to the 12BY7A socket is
the variable -frequency oscillator must be replaced when this operation is concluded.
aligned to cover the desired operating range, The same technique is employed with the
as listed in the coil table. The alignment 6DQ5 stage as was used with the driver
procedure is the same for any band; only the stage. With screen (and plate) voltage re-
frequency range is different as indicated on moved from the 6DQ5, but with drive ap-
the chart. Use of a good frequency meter plied, the v.t.v.m. is placed on the antenna
(such as a BC -221) will be helpful at this terminal of the transceiver and neutralizing
point. With the 80 -meter unit as an exam- capacitor C, adjusted for minimum volt-
ple, the vfo must tune from 5.5 to 5.0 -MHz meter indication. The pi- network circuit,
for proper coverage of 3.5 to 4.0 MHz. of course, is in resonance for this operation,
The carrier crystal is at 9001.5 kHz to as determined by a grid -dip oscillator.
properly place the carrier on the slope of Up to this point, all tuning has been done
the filter for lower sideband output. Coil with carrier injection. For proper sideband
L, of the 6BE6 transmit mixer is tuned to operation, the carrier must be removed and
3.5 MHz with the aid of a grid -dip oscil- the unit excited by an SSB signal. The tech-
lator, the slug being adjusted with capaci- nique is to position the carrier crystal fre-
tor C, set near maximum capacitance. The quency properly on the filter "slope' and
entire 80 -meter band can then be covered then to balance out the carrier in the 7360
by peaking the pi- network and grid- circuit modulator stage. Capacitor C7 varies the
tuning controls. frequency of the crystal oscillator a suffi-
656 Receivers and Transceivers
cient amount to find the proper point for loading is done with the function switch in
the carrier on the passband slope of the filter. the tune position. As the carrier control is
The adjustment of this point can best be advanced, the final -amplifier plate current
made by ear, when receiving a sideband will rise in a linear fashion. The amplifier
signal. Adjust capacitor C7 until the re- plate circuit is brought into resonance and
ceived audio of an SSB signal sounds natural the grid circuit adjusted for peak plate cur-
and pleasing. The crystal should be about rent reading. Loading control C,; is adjusted
1500 Hz away from the 9 -MHz filter center for further increase, reestablishing resonance
frequency. The frequency displacement, of with the tuning control until the indicated
course, will remain the same while trans- cathode current reaches a value of 275 to
mitting. 300 milliamperes. Full load current should
Carrier null is accomplished by adjustment not be run for more than 20 seconds at a
of the balance control (R1) on the panel. time to achieve maximum amplifier tube
The r -f probe is placed at the grid of the life. When the function switch is advanced
6DQ5 stage and the function switch turned to transmit, amplifier plate current will
to transmit. No audio signal is desired. The drop back to the original idling value of 25
balance potentiometer is adjusted for min- ma. As the audio level is raised, speech will
imum indicated reading on the v.t.v.m.. kick the indicated current up to values in
which should be 1 volt or less. Operation of the vicinity of 125 to 170 milliamperes
the audio system and balanced modulator depending on the individual voice. Too high
may now be checked by noting the voltage values of peak current will result in dis-
swing while talking into the microphone. A tortion and splatter.
sustained audio tone will swing the meter to The meter may be switched to read rela-
30 or 40 volts peak reading. It is helpful to tive power output which, in some cases,
monitor the signal in a nearby receiver while will simplify loading the amplifier, especially
these adjustments are being made. during mobile operation, as tuning may be
done for maximum output reading under
a controlled level of excitation.
Transmit Operation The screen -voltage lead The 80 -meter version of the SSB trans-
may now be reconnected ceiver is shown in the photographs. The
to the 6DQ5 tube socket and high voltage only difference in a unit designed for a
provided for the plate circuit. Potentials be- different band is modification of the r -f
tween 400 and 800 volts may be used for coils and the vfo circuitry. Alignment and
the 6DQ5, with proportionately higher out- tuneup is the same for all bands. The trans-
put at the higher plate voltages. An antenna ceiver may be used for c.w. by employing
or dummy load must be connected to the block -grid keying. Operation on c.w. is
transceiver to complete the final checkout with carrier control fully advanced and
and bias adjustment. The meter switch is function switch in the tune position while
set for plate current and the function switch transmitting. The switch is manually re-
for transmit. The bias potentiometer on the turned to receive for reception.
rear apron is adjusted for a 6DQ5 resting A discussion of suitable power supplies is
plate current of 25 milliamperes. Antenna given in a later chapter of this Handbook.
CHAPTER TWENTY -SEVEN
Exciters and Station Accessories
The exciter is the "heart" of the station

transmitter. Various forms of amplifiers,
power supplies, and accessory units may be
combined in conjunction with a basic trans-
mitter exciter to form a complete transmit-
ting system which may satisfy a wide range
of needs. Several different types of low -
power exciters and drivers for the h -f and
vhf range are described in this chapter,
along with a 144 -MHz SSB transverter and
200-watt PEP linear amplifier. Efficient audio
filters for improved SSB and c -w reception
are described. For the experimenter who is
interested in the construction phase of ama-
teur radio, these units should offer interest- Figure 1
ing ideas and techniques which might well BASIC SIX -METER EXCITER
fit in with the over -all design of the basic This broadband 50 -MHz exciter delivers 3
station equipment. The component nomen- watts without retuning over a -MHz range
1
clature outlined in figure 1 of the Receiver and is suitable to drive most high -gain tet-
rodes of the 100 -watt power category. The
section is employed in the following chapter. 6U8 oscillator -multiplier is at the left with
the 6CL6 doubler at the right. Directly above
the crystal is the oscillator coil (L.1 and to the
27 -1 A General- Purpose right are the interstage coils (L, and L 1. To
the right is doubler coil (L 1. The output jack
Exciter For 6 Meters (J) is to the right of the 6CL6.
It is convenient to build vhf equipment in uhf gear in the higher- frequency region in
small units to achieve maximum flexibility, addition to being suited for general -purpose
improved shielding, and ease of modification. operation on 6 meters. The exciter delivers
This concept is demonstrated in this broad- about 3 watts which is sufficient to drive
band, packaged exciter designed for c -w, most class -C amplifiers in the 100 -watt
a -m, or SSB use in the 50-MHz amateur power category and some high -power tetrode
band. The unit may be used as a driver for tubes up to the half -kilowatt power level.
658 Exciters and Accessories RADIO
6CL6
(25.0- 27. O MHr) DOUBLER (46 -54 MHf )
lL2
BUBA .001
ALL RESISTORS / wATr UNLESS OTHERWISE

NOTED. 0 -1MA.
ALL .001 LIP ARE DISC CAPACITORS.
acta'
JI
2 4 5 a 7 e
Figure 2 1
SCHEMATIC OF SIX -METER EXCITER

C. thru C -Silver -mica capacitors. See figure 4 for coil data. The 12 -ohm resistor from test point
J to ground shunts meter M to 0- to 5 -ma range. Separation between coils L, and L is about
1/4 inch. Either link coil may have to be reversed to obtain maximum grid drive to 6CL6.
An auxiliary high -power amplifier for this

exciter is also described.
The Exciter Circuit The schematic of the 50-

MHz exciter is shown in
figure 2. The triode section of a 6U8A
(6E8) is a tuned -plate oscillator using
crystals in the range of 6.25 MHz to 9.0
MHz. Figure 4 lists the choice of crystals
for each band and the frequencies to which
the resonant circuits in each stage are tuned
for output in the 50- and 144 -MHz bands.
A fundamental- frequency type crystal oscil-
lator is used instead of an overtone circuit
for improved frequency stability and better
c -w keying. The pentode section of the
6U8A serves as tripler or quadrupler, de-
pending on the crystal frequency and the
band in which output is desired. The third
stage, a 6CL6 pentode, always operates as
a frequency doubler. Inductive coupling is
used between the frequency -multiplier
Figure 3 stages to attenuate the various unwanted
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF
harmonic frequencies generated by the
multipliers. The r -f output of the 6CL6
SIX -METER EXCITER
doubler is link -coupled to the coaxial output
Small components are grouped around tube circuit by means of a small coil wound
sockets. Common ground connection to lug un-
der bolt of each socket is used. Oscillator around the B -plus end of the plate tank coil.
coil is at left, L, and L. at center, and L at Prcper exciter operation is monitored by
right. Link is wound around "cold" end cf grid- current metering in the multipler stages,
coils. For use as a transmitter, it is recom-
mended that output link be series tuned to accomplished by a 1- milliampere d -c meter.
ground with 25 -pf capacitor as is done with The metering circuit provides a full -scale
2 -meter exciter.
HANDBOOK General- Purpose 6 -Meter Exciter 659
reading of 1 ma at test point J, and 5 ma the slug of coil L, for maximum grid cur-
at J. The screen voltage for the multiplier rent using the 8.375 -MHz crystal. Switch-
stages has been brought out to separate pins ing crystals back and forth and adjusting
on the power receptacle so that these cir- the slugs of coils L. and L:, will permit sub-
cuits may be used for power control, or may stantially constant 6CL6 grid current to be
be keyed for c -w operation. The B -plus lead measured at test point J2 across the appro-
to the 6CL6 may also be broken for meter- priate frequency range.
ing purposes, if desired. The next step is to connect a suitable
dummy load, such as four #47 pilot lamps
(6.3 -volt, brown bead) in parallel to output
Exciter The 6 -meter exciter is built on receptacle J;, and apply all screen and plate
Construction a small aluminum chassis box
voltages to the exciter. The slug of plate
which provides good shielding coil L, is adjusted for maximum bulb bril-
and easy access to the under -chassis wiring. liance. Using various crystals in the proper
A 4" X 5" X 3" box is used, with the range, the exciter coils may now be repeaked
major components mounted on the half of to provide nearly constant power output
the box which forms an open -end chassis, as from the exciter across the lower 1 -MHz
shown in the photographs. portion of the 6 -meter band.
Sockets and components are positioned to When the 50 -MHz exciter is coupled to
permit very short interconnections. All disc the grid circuit of a succeeding amplifier
ceramic capacitors are placed in position through a short length of coaxial line, plate
with the shortest possible lead length, and coil L, should be readjusted so that maxi-
those units which bypass the screen -grid mum drive to the amplifier occurs at about
terminals of the 6CL6 and pentode section
of the 6U8A should be connected between
the screen and cathode (ground) pins of
the respective tube socket. Most resistors Figure 4
are soldered between socket pin and tie point COIL AND CRYSTAL TABLES
terminals. Power leads are run close to the FOR VHF EXCITERS
chassis to reduce r -f pickup.
L, 4.2 to 8.7 h. 30 turns No. 30 e. close -
Exciter The exciter may be adjusted for form,
wound, 2Ye" long, wound on We" dia.
Adjustment broadband operation between ironcore. CTC type LS -3, 5 MHz.
50 MHz and 51 MHz. Two L2' L3
1.4 to 2.0 h. 18 turns No. 22 e. close -
crystals at approximately 8.375 wound, 1/2" long, wound on 3/8" dia. form,
ironcore. CTC type LS -3.
and 8.450 MHz (output frequencies of
L4 0.4 to 0.6 h. 11 turns No. 22 e. close -
50.25 and 50.7 MHz, respectively) are used wound, 1/2" long same as 1.2.
for initial adjustment. Link 3 turns No. 16 e., 1/3" dia., wound over
After the wiring has been checked, power B+ end of L4.
is applied to the 6U8A tube. The negative
terminal cf a 0- to 1 -ma d -c meter is con-
nected to test point J, and the positive ter-
OPERATING FREQUENCY CHART
minal of the meter is grounded. The slug
cf oscillator coil L, is tuned for maximum
Output Xtal and Mult. Doubler
meter indication (about 0.3 ma). Adjust MHO , 1, -C, L2 C2, La C4,
the slug so that the oscillator starts imme- L.,-C, L5-Cs
diately each time plate voltage is applied.
6.25-
Screen voltage is next applied to the 50 6.75 MHz 25.0 - 50.0-
multiplier section of the 6U8A and the 8.334- 27.0 MHz 54.0 MHz
6CL6 is placed in its socket. The 8.45 MHz 9.0 MHz
crystal is substituted for the 8.375 -MHz 6.0-
unit and the slug in coil L_ is adjusted for 144 6.166 MHz 24.0- 48.0-
maximum 6CL6 grid current (about 1.3 8.0- 24.66 MHz 49.33 MHz
ma). This step is followed by adjustment of 8.222 MHz
6CL6
MIXER LA 50.3 MHz. If the amplifier grid tank is then
LS resonated for maximum drive at about 50.6
MHz, little variation in drive will be noticed
over the -MHz operating range.
1
A Heterodyne SSB The general - purpose ex-

Exciter for 6 Meters citer may be modified
to serve as a heterodyne
J2 = .2505 ATJI exciter for 6 -meter operation as shown in
figure 5. The exciter is moved in frequency
Figure 5
to 22 MHz and mixed with a 28 -MHz SSB
HETERODYNE MIXER FOR 50 -MHz SSB signal to provide 50 -MHz SSB signal. The
SSB signal is injected in the screen circuit
The 6CL6 doubler stage may be converted to
a heterodyne mixer for SSB by injecting a of the 6CL6 which now serves as a mixer
low- level, 10 -meter SSB signal in the screen and the resulting 6 -meter signal is retrieved
circuit. The grid circuit is tuned to the injection from the plate circuit. The output of the
frequency of 22 MHz. Grid coil L is the some
as in figure 2. Screen coil L is 1.5 ,.H /J. W. mixer is sufficient to drive a two -stage linear
Miller 20A- 156 -RBI). Load resistor R. is 50 amplifier, such as the one illustrated in figure
ohms and of sufficient power capacity to han-
dle the average power output of the 558 6. The 10 -meter injection signal need be only
exciter. about 100 volts or so at the screen of the
6GK6 J2
JI R.F. OUTPUT
3513 iNP. 3 (50 MHZ)
(50 MHZ )
NOTE:ALL RESISTORS I WATT

UNLESS OTHERWISE
1SHII
001 SPECIFIED.
6G1(6 C.
ALL 001 ARE 600 VOLT
DISC CAPACITORS.
001
6146E1
14--a/\.76--H--111
00i 1 N2974 A
61A6R C
Figure 6
200 -WATT PEP LINEAR AMPLIFIER FOR 50 MHz

C, -10 pf, Johnson 160 -107
C -Variable mica compression unit, EI -Mento 306. Adjust to about 470 pf
C -10 pf, Hammarlund HF -15X, 1.4 kV
C -200 pf, Hammarlund MC -200M
L -0.7 ..H, J. W. Miller 20A- 687 -RBI. Line is 2 turns "22 enameled wire
L -0.3 H. Six turns =16, 1/2" diem., 34" long
..
L -0.6 H. Seven turns =12, 3" diam., I" long

NC -8 pf, 7.2 kV. Johnson 160 -104
PC -50 -ohm, 2 -watt composition resistor, shunted with 3 turns r 16 spaced the length of the
resistor
HANDBOOK 40 -Watt 2 -Meter Exciter 661
mixer for more than ample output from addition, is punched with 1/4-inch diameter
the 6CL6, and sufficient excitation level may holes around the tube sockets to provide
be obtained from the intermediate driver of additional ventilation.
many SSB exciters and transceivers. Wiring is straightforward, with most
small components grouped around the respec-
tive tube sockets. Before voltages are ap-
A 200 -Wott PEP This two-stage linear am- plied, all tuned circuits are grid -dipped to
Linear Amplifier plifier package will deliver
frequency after the tubes are placed in their
a maximum power input
sockets.
of 200 to 250 watts PEP. Drive power is
less than 500 milliwatts PEP. It is designed
Amplifier Before the amplifier is placed in
to be driven with the 6CL6 heterodyne mixer Operation operation, the high- voltage lead
described previously, but may be used with
to the screen circuit of the
any 6 -meter low -power SSB exciter. Drive
6146Bs is broken at point X in the sche-
requirements are sufficiently modest so that
matic. The various voltages are applied and
it may be used with a small transistor exciter,
50 -MHz excitation is applied to the 6GK6.
if desired.
The schematic of the two-stage linear Grid and plate circuits of the driver are
tuned to resonance, which can be noted by
amplifier is shown in figure 6. A 6GK6
measuring the d -c grid voltage developed
pentode is used as an intermediate stage
across test points A -B in the amplifier grid
driving two 6146Bs in a neutralized, pi-
section output linear amplifier. If a driving circuit. A high- resistance voltmeter may be
signal of one or two watts PEP is available,
clipped across the points and the tuned cir-
the 6GK6 stage may be omitted and the cuits adjusted for maximum reading, which
input link directly coupled to interstage should be of the order of 60 volts or so,
when the adjust bias potentiometer (R1)
coil L..
Bias for the 6146Bs is obtained from an
is set for a bias voltage of about
as measured at the arm of R1.
- 90 volts
external supply, and a portion of the bias
voltage is regulated by a zener diode to The amplifier is now neutralized by one
obtain -10 volts as bias for the 6GK6. Two of the methods discussed in Chapter 11, Sec-
positive potentials are required, +250 volts tion 6 of this Handbook. Excitation is re-
at 50 milliamperes for the 6GK6 and 6146 moved, operating voltages are applied and
screens, and + 800 volts at a peak current the adjust bias potentiometer is set for a
of about 250 ma for the 6146 plates. An resting plate current of 40 ma. The final
external power unit, such as one used for amplifier stage is tuned and loaded in the
an SSB transceiver will serve as a satisfactory normal manner with carrier injection for
a resonant peak d -c plate current of 250 ma.
supply for the amplifier.
The carrier is now removed and voice modu-
Amplifier
lation applied to the exciter. Plate current
The two -stage linear amplifier on voice peaks may reach 100 to 125 ma
Construction is built upon an aluminum
under full input.
chassis measuring 7" X 12"
X 3 ". The input circuit (L1) is assembled
beneath the chassis in a small aluminum
27 -2 A 40 -Watt Broadband
box to provide proper isolation from the Exciter For 2 Meters
other tuned circuits. The plate circuit of
the 6GK6 is mounted below the chassis, be- This broadband, 40 -watt exciter /trans-
tween driver and amplifier stages. The plate mitter for 144 -MHz operation was designed
circuit components for the 6146Bs, and the by W6ZO and built by W4HHK. Utilizing
tubes themselves, are contained within an coupled interstage transformers, the unit is
aluminum box measuring 5" X 6" X 4" capable of operation over the 144- to 148 -
mounted on the chassis deck. The top of the MHz range without the necessity of retun-
box is removed and a piece of perforated ing the intermediate stages. The only tuning
metal substituted to provide proper ventila- adjustment that is required is for the final
tion for the inclosed tubes. The chassis, in amplifier stage and antenna circuit.
Figure 7
40 -WATT, 2 -METER BROADBAND EXCITER /TRANSMITTER

Two -meter transmitter employs broadband coupled circuits in driver stages to achieve com-
plete coverage of 144 -MHz band w;th,ut retuning. The unit is designed for continuous
service and provides a powerful signal with high attenuation to. unwanted spurious emissions.
A 7984 "Compaction" tube is used in the final amplifier stage (left). Plate tuning capacitor
and output link tuning capacitor are adjacent to 7984. Power output level is adjusted by
screen control potentiometer mounted at left -hand end of chassis. Grid current test jacks are
seen along the front edge of the chassis. Two crystal sockets are at the front right -hand
corner, wired in parallel, to accommodate either FT -243 or HC -6 /U style crystals.
To the right of 7984 is the interstage shield and immediately adjacent to it is the 5763
driver, followed by the two 6CL6 multiplier tubes. At the extreme right is the 6A56 crystal
oscillator tube. Heat -sink tube shields are used on the 6A56 and 6CL6 tubes. To the rear
of the oscillator tube is the voltage regulator.
Designed for continuous -duty operation lator utilizing 8 -MHz fundamental fre-
with moonbounce projects, the broadband quency crystals. Crystal drive level is ex-
exciter is well suited for general vhf opera- ceptionally low with this circuit and fre-
tion. It may be plate -modulated for a -m quency stability is excellent. The screen
service, keyed for c -w or phase -modulated voltage of the 6AS6 is regulated, and a small
for f -m work. The unit is stable in opera- positive voltage is applied to the suppressor
tion, and subharmonic and harmonic radia- element of the tube to enhance the power
tion are held to a minimum by the use of gain. The oscillator is capacitively coupled
multiple interstage tuned circuits. to a 6CL6 tripler to the 24 -MHz region.
Oscillator adjustment may be accomplished
The Transmitter The transmitter circuit is by measuring the rectified grid voltage of
Circuit shown in figure 8. A 6AS6 the 6CL6 at test point 1, with the aid of a
is used as a crystal oscil- high -resistance voltmeter.
6456 100 6CL6 6CL6 5763

05CILLATOR (6 MNZ) SM TRIPLER ( 24 MNZ ) DOUBLER (48 MNZ) TRIPLER (/44MNZ) TO
7964
L3 L7
100
(SEE
1.0101 2,9 BELOW)
C C
Z 470
e-(j)TP
;1H 100?
w T
--j
i 16K
Z SM
TP4
OI - 005 220
-e-
092
.001 1
7984
AMPLIFIER L 6(144 MNZ) J 1
3,4, 5 144 MHZ

1
R.F. OUT
10
7964 FROM
I
L7
IIH
1
RAS6
. n 2.6.6,9
IIH
I 3 12 I
6CL6 ms`s1U T= 470 = 1_ 470
JJII 5M
=
6CL6 "HT, 4 5 1
100
5763
OF--) 22; 4 5 .001
C
'II
IR
OrP
ADJ.
r =Dol
C
10 R
FW
JI
NOTE: ALL RESISTORS O.SWATT
o
2
>
3
>
0
i
4 5
>
UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED.
ALL Te ARE BUTTON
O
8 n
i F t MICA CAPACITORS.
Figure 8
SCHEMATIC, 2 -METER TRANSMITTER
C., C -9 pf, Johnson 160 -104
Note: Coils L -L are wound on Cambien :CTC) ceramic form 1538- 4- 31powdered -iron slug for
50 -200 MHz), t/2" diam., coded white. Coils L and L are wound on J. W. Miller ceramic form
4500 -4 powdered -iron slug for 50 -200 MHz I4" diam., coded white
L,- 46 turns # 30 enamel wire, closewound
L -19 turns =24 enamel, closewound
L -15 turns =24 enamel, closewound
L -6 turns =24 enamel, closewound. Space last turn or two wire diameter, if necessary to
establish proper broadbanding of circuit
L -7 turns *24 enamel, turns spaced wire diameter. Coils L and L are mounted 11/167
apart
L - turns
3 .18 enamel, turns spaced wire diameter
L -2 turns 018 enamel, turns spaced wire diameter. Coils L, and L are mounted 11/16" apart,
center to center
L -2 turns =12 tinned wire, 2" inside diam., turns spaced wire diameter
L -3 turns =18 tinned wire, 2" inside diam., turns close spaced. Optimum spacing between
adjacent ends of coils is about 3/16 ". Adjust spacing for maximum output
RFC -330 L.H. J. W. Miller 70E- 334 -Al
RFC -2 -meter plate choke. Ohmite Z -144, or J. W. Miller X -144 (2,H)
A double -tuned transformer is used in to some degree in the plate circuit of the
the interstage circuit between the 6CL6 second 6CL6.
24 -MHz tripler and the 48 -MHz doubler to A 5763 is used as a tripler from 48 MHz
reduce the residual 8 -MHz energy which to 144 MHz and, in turn, is inductively
might otherwise be fed to the doubler stage. coupled to a 7984 amplifier. A small amount
The 6CL6 doubler plate circuit is broadly of 48 -MHz energy is present in the grid
resonant at 48 MHz, yet provides good re- circuit of the 7984 stage, but it is effectively
jection to 24 -MHz, 32 -MHz, 40 -MHz, and suppressed in the high -Q plate and antenna
54 -MHz energy, all of which are present tuned circuits.
Table 1. Voltage and Power Measurements

(Voltages Measured to Ground. 20,000- ohms /volt Meter used.)
300 -Volt Power Supply
Tube Circuit Voltage Current

6AS6 Oscillator Plate, end of coil L, 150
Screen, pin 6 105
Suppressor, pin 7 0.9
6CL6 Tripler Plate, end of coil L2 300
Screen, pin 3 150
Cathode, pin 1 2.2
Cathode 22 ma
Grid, test point #1 350 A
6CL6 Doubler Plate, end of coil L6 300
Screen, pin 3 90
Cathode, pin 1 8
Cathode 24 ma
Grid, test point #2 4.3 ma
5763 Tripler Plate, end of coil L6 300
Screen, pin 6 245
Cathode, pin 7 10
Cathode 31 ma
Grid, test point #3 2.5 ma
7984 Amplifier Plate, end of RFC 300
Screen, pin 7 110
Screen 1.4 ma
Plate 100 ma
Grid, test point #4 3 ma
Power Input 30 watts

Power Output 22 watts
Filament requirements: 6.3 volts at 2.25 amperes and 12.6 volts at 0.6 ampere
The 7984 has good internal shielding and 40 watts at about 315 plate volts. Sufficient
when used with an external shield separating drive exists, however, to run the higher
it from the exciter stages proves to be input level. For continuous RTTY service,
self- neutralized in the 2 -meter region. the exciter is usually run at about 35 watts
Double screen-terminal bypassing is used input, providing an output of nearly 25
on the 7984 socket to provide the proper watts. This is more than sufficient to drive
low -impedance screen- to-ground path neces- a tetrode amplifier using two 4CX250B's to
sary at this frequency. the 1- kilowatt level. Complete operating data
Power output of the exciter is controlled for the exciter is given in Table 1.
by varying the screen voltage of the 7984 The plate circuit of the 7984 is a parallel -
stage by means of the adjust output poten- tuned configuration having high Q to aid
tiometer (R1). With a maximum plate in suppressing undesired subharmonics. The
potential of 450 volts on the 7984, an input antenna circuit, too, is tuned to resonance
as high as 80 watts may be run. For the by means of a series capacitor in the ground
unit shown, the usual power input is about return path. Only the amplifier plate cir-
cuit and antenna capacitor need be retuned must be left around the circumference of
for frequency excursions within the 2 -meter the circuit board to permit the board to sit
band. flush on the chassis lips. The board is cut
to size and temporarily placed on the in-
verted chassis and the border allocated and
Transmitter The transmitter is constructed marked with a pencil. The board is then
Constructionupon a piece of copper- plated removed for drilling and cutting to mount
(two sides) epoxy circuit board the sockets, coil forms, and other major
measuring 9 %2" X 5". It is placed atop an components.
inverted aluminum chassis used as a base The underchassis vertical shield is made
and dust cover. The chassis measures of copper -coated (one side) circuit board
9 t/" X 5" X 2 t /".
Layouts of the major and measures 4" X 2". It is placed across
components are shown in the photographs the underside of the 7984 tube socket,
and in the chassis drawing of figure 10. It carefully notched to fit snugly over the
must be remembered that a %2 -inch border socket and against the board. It is mounted
Figure 9
UNDER -CHASSIS PARTS LAYOUT

The 7984 plate tank coil is In the lower left -hand corner of the chassis, to the left of the
underchassis shield, mounted across the center of the 7984 tube socket. One co f the
shield is attached to the chassis base.
At the center of the chassis are the coil forms for the bandpass transformers, with the crystal
oscillator stage at the right. A terminal strip at the rear of the chassis is used to terminate the
leads to the main power receptacle placed on the back of the aluminum support chassis.
Placement of major components is shown in figure 10.
off center so that one edge may be affixed between the 7984 envelope and coil L7 tun-
to the aluminum -inclosure by means of a ing screw to mount the shield. Relative
small angle bracket. It is not bolted in place spacing between coil L7 and the 7984 tube
until after the board is wired and attached socket is critical in this respect.
to the chassis. This shield is located on a The 470 -pf mica button capacitor that
line running between pins 8 and 9 and pins bypasses the 7984 screen terminal to ground
12 and 1 of the 7984 socket. (see schematic) is mounted adjacent to pin
The 7984 cathode pins (2, 6, and 9) are 7 and connection is made to it by means of
g-rounded to the circuit board with very a short length of 3/16" -wide copper shim
short, wide straps of flashing copper strap. stock. On the opposite side of the shield,
Cathode pin 8 and filament pin 1 are sol- screen pin 11 must be bypassed to cathode
dered to the shield after all circuit -board pin 9 with a second button capacitor, mak-
wiring is completed and the shield is bolted ing leads as short as possible. This will sta-
in place. The copper side of the shield faces bilize the 7984 by making the screen cir-
pins 8 and 1. cuit self -resonant to ground.
All sockets, coil forms, test -point jacks, Coil spacing is chosen so as to provide
etc. are mounted on the circuit board before adequate intrastage coupling when the cir-
wiring is started. Space is at a premium in cuits are stagger -tuned for 144 MHz and
some areas and components must be care- 148 MHz. The end of antenna coil L
fully located and wired in proper order. The adjacent to plate coil L, connects to the an-
filament wiring, grounding of socket pins, tenna receptacle (J,) and the opposite end
and socket bypass capacitors should be con- of coil L:, connects to the antenna tuning
nected first. Most capacitors are chosen to capacitor (C2). This capacitor is fully
be series resonant at the operating frequency meshed when working into a nonreactive
of the circuit and should be wired in posi- 0 -ohm dummy load.
tion with very short leads. Filament and
d -c voltages are distributed to each stage
from the tie -point strip mounted between Transmitter Adjustment When the wiring is
coil L, and the chassis power plug. A tie - and Tuning completed it should
point strip placed near the 6AS6 oscillator be carefully checked
tube socket serves to terminate power leads against the schematic for possible errors.
to that tube and the OB2 regulator tube Before power is applied, the various coils
associated with it. The + 300 volt line for may be roughly grid -dipped to the fre-
the final amplifier is run in a shielded wire quencies indicated on the schematic. Coil
from the power plug to the 10K resistor and dimensions given are based on the use of
adjust output potentiometer control (R1) heat -sink tube shields on the oscillator
and from there to the 47 -ohm plate circuit (6AS6) and 6CL6 multiplier tubes. There
resistor for the 7984. The potentiometer and is a noticeable detuning effect in the plate
series screen resistor are mounted on the wall circuits of these stages when a tube shield
of the aluminum chassis, while the power is removed. Heat -sink shields are recom-
plug and coaxial receptacle for the antenna mended to reduce bulb temperature and ex-
are mounted to the rear wall of the chassis. tend tube life.
Wiring to the power plug, antenna recep- The 6AS6 and OB2 tubes are plugged in
tacle, and screen potentiometer is done after their respective sockets and coil L, adjusted
the circuit board has been wired and placed for proper oscillation with a crystal in the
atop the chassis. 8 -MHz region. When the 6CL6 tripler is in
A 23/4" X 4" shield made of plated cir- the socket and L1 is tuned for reliable crystal
cuit board is mounted atop the circuit oscillation, about 0.35 volt should be meas-
board between the 7984 envelope and coil ured between test point 1 and ground.
L -. The shield is notched to fit snugly over The 6CL6 tripler is tuned to 24 MHz,
the edge of the mounting nut of coil L, and about -4 volts should be observed at
and the edge of test point 4. Foil side of the hest point 2 in the grid circuit of the 6CL6
board faces the 7984 and almost touches the doubler stage, whose plate circuit is tuned
glass envelope. There is just enough space to 48 MHz. Finally, the 763 tripler is
HANDBOOK 2 -Meter SSB Transverter 667
of
1+-.0-14 -010-1*
i
. +I
Figure 10 DRILL r0
TP-1 Tr-2
I
iFa
# TP-4
FIT
SOCKETS
PARTSPLACEMENT FOR
TRANSMITTER CHASSIS
placed in the socket and its plate circuit just grid drive at either frequency. Once
is peaked at 144 MHz. rough alignment has been achieved, the grid
The adjust output control (R1) is set and plate coils may be adjusted slightly at
to reduce the 7984 screen voltage to zero either end of the band to equalize the out-
(arm at ground end of potentiometer) and put. When properly adjusted, amplifier grid
the amplifier tube is plugged into its socket. drive remains practically constant across the
The plate circuit of the 5763 stage is re- full 4 -MHz bandwidth. Amplifier plate effi-
peaked to provide about 3 volts indication at ciency runs around 70 percent, and plate
test point 4. Screen voltage may now be in- voltages between 300 and 500 may be used,
creased to provide a plate current reading provided the maximum plate dissipation fig-
on a 0 to 200 d -c milliammeter placed in ure of 25 watts (intermittent) is not ex-
series with the B -plus lead to the 7984 (pin ceeded. Power output remains high, even at
4 on the power plug). The amplifier plate excitation levels as low as 1- milliampere
circuit is resonated, with the transmitter grid current to the 7984.
connected to an antenna or dummy load. Ad- The final check is to test for self- oscilla-
justment of the coupling between plate tion in the 7984 stage. With the transmitter
coil L. and antenna coil L9 should permit working into a 50 -ohm load, the crystal may
the amplifier to be loaded to 100 milliam- be removed from its socket briefly. When
peres or more with the adjust output control this is done, the 7984 output should drop
set in an advanced position. to zero and there should be no grid current
Once the transmitter is ascertained to (observed as voltage at test point 4). This
be operating correctly, the intermediate test should be restricted to a second or two,
stages should be adjusted for proper bandpass since plate current of the 7984 is excessive
operation. This requires the use of two crys- when excitation is removed.
tals, one at about 8.02 MHz and one at
about 8.20 MHz. Adjustments are carried
out to ensure that the same power output 27-3 A 2-Meter
is obtained from the final amplifier stage
when either crystal is used, providing the
SSB Transverter
amplifier has been retuned for each fre-
quency in use. Generally speaking, broad - The operating range of a high- frequency
banding may be accomplished by first tuning SSB transceiver or transmitter-receiver may
multiplier plate coils L,, L4, and LB for be extended to include the 6 -meter or 2-
maximum final amplifier grid current using meter band by the addition of a transverter.
the 8.02 -MHz crystal and then tuning grid This is a converter unit that mixes very-high
coils L,, L5, and L7 for maximum grid cur- frequency SSB received signals to a lower
rent using the 8.2 -MHz crystal. The oscil- band that is tunable on the station receiver
lator coil (L1) may be adjusted for smooth and mixes the output of the station SSB
oscillator operation and used to help to ad- transmitter to 2 or 6 meters. Common prac-
Figure 11
2-METER SSB TRANSVERTER

Designed to be used with an h -f SSB exciter or transceiver, this compact transverter mixes
the SSB signal to and from the 144 -MHz band. The transverter may be used to drive a
2 -kW PEP linear amplifier. Built upon a printed circuit board, the transverter consists of a
low -noise converter using nuvistor tubes, and a four -tube SSB- mixer -linear amplifier. SSB
excitation may be applied at 20, 15,or 10 meters.
In the foreground of the transverter is the nuvistor converter. Two 6CW4s are used in a
cascade amplifier (rear) with a third 6CW4 sherving as a mixer (foreground). Across the middle
section of the transverter are the crystal oscillator (6AN8) and multiplier (6AKS). To the left
of the oscillator chain is the 6360 mixer, with the 6360 linear amplifier at the left, rear of
of the chassis deck. Layout of major com is is shown in figure IS.
tice calls for the low -frequency SSB equip- input on the 2 -meter band is 12 watts, and
ment to work on either the 20 -, 1S-, or the receiver noise figure is better than 4
10 -meter band. decibels. The transverter may be used direct-
ly, or as a driver for a high -power linear
The Transverter Circuit Described in this sec- amplifier. Conversion drive power is 2 watts
tion is a simple trans- PEP, maximum.
verter for the 2 -meter band (figure 11) that Transmitter Section -The circuit for the
will operate with most low- frequency SSB transmitter portion of the transverter is
equipment. The conversion frequency used shown in figure 12. A 6360 double tetrode
is 21 MHz, but the unit is adaptable to 14 is used as an SSB mixer to 144 MHz. In
MHz or 28 MHz, if desired. PEP power this example, the SSB signal is at 21 MHz
HANDBOOK 2-Meter SSB Transverter 669
6ANB 6K5 6360

TRIPLER (725MNZ) AMP. %12)MNZ) MIXER (744 MNZ)
35C
41 MNZ 6
YI 2 1L T CI
0.5
_2 IOOK 1C2SL3 5
Mo A7K
-)4 1 TO L6
1 00K1.2
0.5
3 0 5
002
C
=t 002
V=
I
TO
.
e2K
001
IN1527
S1
05
27M 22K IK .:ONV RTER

0 5 0.-5 221 100 'DI 1001
s_
E-9-104
5M 5
001
1 j 1
I
.001
_-1-_
Lg.LYWL..
6360 J
AMP L7 +150 V 21 MNZ
(IIIMNZ) REGUL. 55B IN
Le 6 1
(744 MHZ) 1 JI
ANT.
.dr-S
!I::
FROM L5 . 001
.001 III-) C
0F; ;71n
3
6360 MIR 6AN6
- 100
C
0.5
IK 0 I N2985 7
IH 6360
001 AMP. 6A65
D2
1_ c
I -.01 11
..../yp
270 IS K
+250 V.
nH .ol
c
C = 2W
o v v_1
UNLESS 2 3 4 5
NOTE. ALL RESISTORS / WATT
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED 0150V AND 6.3V. +250V +150V
TO 65V FIL
CONVERTER TO CONVERTER
Figure 12
SCHEMATIC, TRANSMITTER
SECTION OF TRANSVERTER
C 10 -pf piston capacitor
C,-8 pf, Johnson MAC -10
C , C -11 pf, Johnson 160 -211
C -8 pf, Johnson 160 -208
L, -9 turns #20 e. on /I" diam. form. J. W. Miller
1
4500 -3 (green). Resonates in circuit at 41 MN:

L,, L -5 turns rl8, 5/16 diam., airwound. Resonates in circuit at 123 MHz. Link is one -turn
hookup wire
L -14 mHz: (6.5H) 33 turns #26 on 3/e" diam. form, -tapped. J. W. Miller 4400 -3 (green).
21 MHz: (2.8IH) 12 turns tt26, as above
r26, as above
28MHz: (1.50H) 6 turns
L , L -6 turns =16,
diam., oirwound. One inch long (spaced) with 3/16" gap at center
1/4"
turns rl6, 3/e" diam., airwound, 5 " long. Link coils for L and L, one turn each. Link
coil for L. two turns hookup wire
D, -22 -volt, 1 -watt Zener Diode (Motorola)
D, -22 -volt, 10 -watt Zener Diode (Motorola)
and is injected into a tuned circuit which and injected into the cathode circuit of the
provides a balanced signal to the control 6360 mixer. A small zener diode (D1) pro-
grids of the 6360. The input circuit is vides proper bias for the mixer. The resulting
swamped with a 47 -ohm, 2 -watt loading 144 -MHz SSB signal is retrieved in the push -
resistor to provide a uniform load for the pull plate circuit of the mixer and is link -
SSB exciter. The 21 -MHz SSB signal is coupled to a 6360 linear amplifier. A second
mixed in the 6360 stage with a local oscil- zener diode (D7) provides operating bias for
lator signal of 123 MHz. The crystal oscil- this stage. The 6360 provides a PEP power
lator is the triode section of a 6AN8 which output of about 6 watts.
uses a 41 -MHz overtone crystal. The pent- Receiver Section-The receiver portion of
ode section of the 6AN8 functions as a the transverter is shown in figure 13. Three
tripler to 123 MHz. The 123 -MHz mixing 6CW4 nuvictor triodes are used in a reliable,
signal is further amplified in a 6AK stage proven circuit. The first 6CW4 serves as a
6CW4 6CW4 6CW4

R F. AMP. R F AMP. al0 MIXER
9 a LI0 C
+150 V. 63V.
FROM PI FROM Pi
Figure 13
CONVERTER SECTION OF TRANSVERTER

C,, C , C -10 pf, Centralab 829 -10
L,, I-6 turns #I8, /a" diameter, airwound,
1 1/2" long.
Link coil for Ltwo turns hookup wire. Or, antenna may be tapped directly on L,. Tap
is
point chosen for best noise figure
L -5 turns t18, 1/4" diameter, 1/2" long, spaced /_" center with L,. Link coil 2 t
hookup wire
L,,-14 MHz (7N). J. W. Miller 20A- 686 -RBI
21 MHz (4.51.tM). J. W. Miller 20A- 476 -R81
28 MHz (1.50.H). J. W. Miller 20A- 156 -RBI
L, -5 turns #28, 1/4" diam. (0.3N). J. W. Miller 20A- 337-R81
neutralized r -f amplifier which is followed and further amplified by the 6360 output
by a second 6CW4 in grounded -grid, cath- stage.
ode- driven configuration in the manner of Since most high- frequency SSB equipment
a caseode amplifier. A third 6CW4 is used as provides more than 2 watts PEP output, it
a mixer to the intermediate frequency of 21 is necessary to dissipate the extra transceiver
MHz. Mixing voltage is link -coupled to the power in a dummy load. A 50-ohm dummy
grid of the mixer stage from the 6AN8 load of adequate power capacity may be
tripler stage in the transmitting section of used, with a coupling adjustment to the
the unit. exciter, as shown in figure 16.
Transverter Operation -For reception of Either 20 -, 15-, or 10 -meter SSB input
2 -meter SSB signals, the + HO -volt regu- may be used with transverter. The two
lated supply is switched to the converter higher bands, however, are recommended for
section (pin f, plug P,) by an external use, as control of spurious radiation is easier
changeover relay, and high voltage is re- when the SSB injection frequency is rela-
moved from the plate and screen circuit tively high. if a 20 -meter SSB signal is
of the 6360 linear amplifier (pin 4, plug P,). used, for example, weak spurious responses
The local -oscillator portion of the trans - may be found in the 6360 mixer output at
verter operates in both transmit and receive 1 1 6, 130, and 1 S 8 MHz, in addition to the
modes. The received signal, therefore, is desired SSB signal at 144 MHz. The 130 -
mixed down to 21 MHz and applied to the MHz signal is oscillator feedthrough, the
station receiver or transceiver. For 2 -meter 116 -MHz signal is the i -f image, and the
transmission, the voltage is removed from 158-MHz signal is a beat between 130 -MHz
the converter section of the unit and high energy and the second harmonic of the
voltage is applied to the linear amplifier. 14 -MHz SSB signal. When 21 -MHz injec-
The 21 -MHz SSB signal is mixed to 2 meters tion is used, these signals move to 102, 123,
HANDBOOK 2-Meter SSB Transverter 671
Figure 14
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF TRANSVERTER
Three copper shield plates separate the four sections of the transverter. At the left is the
converter section, with the neutralizing coil of the cascade amplifier mounted to a small bracket
between the nuvistor sockets. The link coupling circuit for the mixer stage passes through a
small hole in the shield separating the converter from the oscillator chain. The 6AN8 socket
is at the top of the chassis, with the 6AK5 socket and multiplier tank circuit at the bottom.
To the right is the 6360 mixer compartment, with the low -frequency 55B injection circuit at
the bottom edge of the chassis. The 6360 linear amplifier is at the right, with the antenna
tuning capacitor at the bottom edge of the chassis. A shield plate is placed across the 6360
amplifier socket to provide grid -plate isolation.
and 165 MHz. Finally, when 2R -MHz in- Loose counline between the mixer and the
jection is employed, the spurious signals are linear amplifier provide the best possible
found at R. 116, and 172 MHz. rejection of the spurious frequencies. With
1} Js
t
1
1
1
l1j`
I
i
e
+
I
2 i
2
I
t
i
Figure 15
Z F
scwa
a F.
'ti-
I
z z+ z 1It
Ca}
TRANSVERTER CHASSIS scw
1//l/ R. 1}
o
LAYOUT, BOTTOM VIEW I
Ir I
a
_
_
cs
L{l
II}s
C2 T
MIX.
JzjL '
J f}Y It
2 I
I
i l
JI an aluminum chassis measuring S" X 9 %2" X

NPUT
2 ", which serves as a base and dust cover.
521L DUMMY LOAD Three copper partitions each measuring 41/4"
X 11/4", divide the under -chassis area into
four compartments of approximately equal
Figure 16
size, as shown in the layout diagram of fig-
POWER ADAPTER FOR TRANSVERTER ure 15. The end compartments contain the
nuvistor vhf converter and the 6360 linear-
amplifier stage. The two interior compart-
an injection frequency of 14 MHz, the un-
ments contain the local -oscillator chain and
wanted responses are reduced better than
- 30 decibels below peak signal level. When
the injection frequency is moved to 21
the 6360 mixer stage. Each partition is
bolted to the circuit board with 4 -40 hard-
ware, and each has two feedthrough capaci-
MHz, the rejection of unwanted responses tors mounted at one end to pass filament
is better than -40 decibels. It is prudent,
and B -h connections. Placement of the
therefore, to use an injection frequency of major components may be seen in the photo-
15 or 10 meters to achieve optimum rejec-
graph.
tion of the spurious frequencies. Finally, it The first step in assembly is mounting the
must be remembered that any spurious re- tube sockets and tuning capacitors to the
sponses of the high- frequency SSB equip-
board. Very small soldering lugs are placed
ment may possibly ride through the trans -
under the socket hardware in order to ground
verter unit, appearing in the output in addi- the various socket pins and components, and
tion to the above listed responses.
nearby small phenolic tie -point strips are
In order to reject most of the spurious
used to support small accessory capacitors
signals which may be difficult to separate in
and resistors.
the various mixing processes, it is suggested
It is suggested that a "mock -up" of the
that a high -Q tuned filter be placed after chassis be laid out before any drilling is
the transverter unit, before the antenna or
done and then the larger components
any following amplifier stage. This sharply mounted in place while the builder experi-
tuned circuit will provide a clean, spurious - ments with placement of the smaller parts.
emission -free signal for 2 -meter SSB opera- Short leads are very important, and most of
tion. A suitable strip -line filter is shown in the components are mounted by their leads
figure 17. directly in the circuit, after lead length has
been cut to a fraction of an inch. One
Tronsverter ConstructionThe 2 -meter trans- compartment is wired at a time and should
and Adjustment verter is shown in be tested before work progresses to the next
figures 11 and 14. compartment. It is suggested that the local -
The unit is built on a copper -plated (2 oscillator chain be assembled first.
sides) Fiberglas circuit board measuring The L.O. Chain -The 6AN8 oscillator/
43/4' X 8%2". The board is mounted on tripler and 6AK5 amplifier stages are wired
,' 1 f NAMMA RL UNO RFA /38 W /re ALL

ourJ PLA res REMOVED
8 $ LUGS
Figure 17
144 -MHz HIGH -Q
TOP VIEW
IUD SOX s AC- iJr COAX CONNECTORS
CAVITY FILTER
J2
*I4WIR
ELECTRICAL
EQUIVALENT SIDE VIEW
HANDBOOK 2 -Meter SSB Transverter 673
first. The various bypass capacitors are midpoint of the wire. The tap may be made
mounted directly to the socket pins. Pins 3, by cleaning a short length of wire, then
4, and 9 of the 6AN8 are grounded. The twisting it and soldering the tap. The two
oscillator coil (L1) is placed to the side of ends of the coil are then wound outwards,
the tube socket and adjacent to it on a one side at a time, from the center point.
terminal strip is the 27K dropping resistor. After the coil is wound, the windings may
The tripler coil (L2) is airwound and self - be manipulated into proper tension and
supporting. It is placed between the terminal shape until they are symmetrical on the
of the piston capacitor (CO and a nearby form. When the coil is completed and in
terminal strip. place, the link winding is wound over the
The plate circuit of the 6AK5 tripler center of the coil.
stage (C_ -L,) is placed on the far side of The mixer plate coil (Ls) and amplifier
the socket, away from the tripler grid cir- grid and plate coils are self -supporting and
cuit. The zener diode (D,) for the 6360 are mounted to the stator terminals of the
mixer stage is mounted on a tie point strip miniature split- stator capacitors. The coils
adjacent to coil L,. Once the 6AN8 and are adjusted to 146 MHz with the tubes in
6AKS circuits have been wired, the circuits the sockets and the capacitors about half
may be grid- dipped to frequency and the meshed. Once the stage wiring is completed
stages tested for operation. A 50 -ohm, I/2- and the tank circuits checked, the transmit-
watt resistor may be temporarily placed ter portion of the unit may be tested with
across the link coil of inductor L, to act as an external SSB signal.
a load. A proper crystal is placed in the Plate voltage is applied and the amplifier
holder, along with the two tubes in their is coupled to a suitable dummy load. With
respective sockets. The voltage is applied and no drive, amplifier plate current is about 20
the stages are tuned for maximum output at milliamperes. A few volts of 21 -MHz car-
123 MHz. The output may be measured by rier is injected in the mixer receptacle J,
a high -impedance d -c voltmeter wired in (SSB in) and the 144 -MHz frequency is
series with a 1N34 crystal placed at the monitored in a nearby receiver. The mixer
"hot" terminal of the 50 -ohm load resistor. plate circuit and amplifier circuits are
Once the oscillator/multiplier stages are peaked for maximum signal. The coupling
operating, the crystal should be removed. between L, and L, should be loose, and care
The output of the stages should drop to should be taken that the various circuits are
zero. If a residual signal exists, it may indi- tuned to 144 MHz and not to a spurious
cate a fundamental- frequency oscillation in frequency. Drive level is advanced a bit and
the 6AKS amplifier stage. If such oscillation the linear amplifier may be loaded to about
is noticed, a small copper shield placed 50 milliamperes plate current. Care must
across the 6AKS socket should subdue the be taken to avoid overdriving the mixer
unwanted feedback. If instability still per- stage with the 21 -MHz SSB signal. The
sists, plate coil L, of the 6AKS should be maximum drive may be ascertained by view-
rotated at right angles to the grid coil. In ing the 2 -meter SSB signal on an oscillo-
several transverters built to this plan, how- scope. A condition of overdrive is indicated
ever, no sign of instability in the 6AKS by flattening of voice peaks. Only two
was noted, even without a shield placed watts of drive, or so, is required, the greater
across the socket. percentage of driver output being absorbed
The Mixer and Am plifier Stages-The next in the dummy load at receptacle j,. Antenna
step is to wire the 6360 mixer stage. The coupling is adjusted, along with exciter
21 -MHz balanced input circuit should be microphone gain until proper amplifier op-
assembled carefully and then installed in eration is achieved, along with normal exciter
the mixer circuit, since good balance is nec- loading.
essary in this assembly. The coil (L4) is The 6360 amplifier should be checked for
center tapped, with the two silver -mica stability. Normally, neutralization is not
capacitors mounted across the winding. In required. If instability is found, it may be
order to easily wind the coil, a length of corrected by soldering a Va- inch -long piece
wire is cut and a center tap placed at the of insulated wire to each grid terminal of
the amplifier and passing each lead through a An easily constructed strip -line filter is
suitable hole drilled in the shield so that shown in figure 17. The filter is essentially
the lead reaches the proximity of the plate a closed cavity having a strip line in the
of the 6360. Since the 6360 has internal center which is grounded at one end and
neutralization, auxiliary neutralization must tuned to resonance at the opposite end by a
be from plate to grid of the same section, small variable capacitor. The incoming signal
rather than the more common cross neutral- is fed into the cavity to a coupling loop
ization. which is grounded within the cavity. The
The Nuvistor Converter-Once the trans- circuit Q of the strip line is very high and
mitter section of the unit is adjusted, the currents circulating within the cavity are
converter may be aligned. The two 6360s quite high at resonance. Current is induced
are removed for this alignment. A 144 -MHz in a similar coupling loop on the opposite
test signal is injected into the converter from side of the strip line, which is the output
a nearby oscillator and the various converter coupler. Since the filter is symmetrical, either
tuned circuits are adjusted for maximum loop can be used for input or output. The
signal strength, as observed in the station filter passes a very narrow band of frequen-
receiver, which is used as an i -f strip. Once cies with little loss, yet offers a very high
the converter is working, the tuned circuits impedance to all other frequencies off
should be readjusted for greatest margin of resonance.
signal over noise, using a weak signal. The 2 -meter strip -line filter is built with-
The next step is to properly neutralize in an aluminum box measuring 17" X 4"
the first 6CW4 r-f amplifier. The filament X 3 ". The strip line is made of aluminum
lead is removed from /yin 12 of the nuvistor sheet and measures about 16" long. It is
socket and the neutralizing coil (Ls) is bolted to one end of the box and attached
adjusted for minimum strength of a weak to the variable capacitor at the opposite end.
signal. The filament lead is then reconnected. A shorter line and box may be used (down
Optimum noise figure may finally be to 12" or so) but a larger capacitance
achieved by the use of a suitable noise gen- will be required to achieve resonance. The
erator. line may be tested for resonance with a
Converter response is quite broad. The i -f grid -dip oscillator. The coupling loops are
output coil may be peaked at the center of about 2" long and are spaced 5/8-inch away
the frequency range. The plate circuit of from the strip line.
the r-f amplifier, (C -L -, ) should then be The filter should be connected to the
peaked near 145 MHz, and the detector grid transverter by a length of coaxial transmis-
circuit (Ca -L,,,) peaked near 147 MHz for sion one -quarter wavelength long. In the
flat frequency response across the 2 -meter case of RG -8 /U, the line will be 13.5"
band. long. This length, or odd multiples of a
quarter wavelength are recommended so as
to provide proper input termination for the
The Strip -Line Filter strip-line fil-
A high -Q converter portion of the unit.
ter is useful in keeping The filter may be tuned to frequency by
the spurious responses of a transmitter from placing an SWR meter in the line between
reaching the antenna. In addition, the filter the filter and the antenna. The filter is
will keep nearby high -power f -m and TV adjusted for maximum forward power read-
stations from overloading the converter, or ing on the bridge. Finally, adjust the trans-
from creating unwanted beats and birdies mitter output coupling for maximum for-
in the converter passband. Then, too, various ward power, as read on the bridge. Do not
high -power vhf signals may cause cross - place the bridge between the filter and the
modulation or mix with each other in the transverter, since the presence of the bridge
converter stages to produce annoying will alter the tuning of the filter when the
"ghost signals. Good reasons exist, then, bridge is removed. A bridge may be left
both in receiving and transmitting modes, permanently between the transmitter and
for the incorporation of a strip -line filter the filter provided the electrical length of
after any 2 -meter transmitter or receiver. the bridge is taken into account when the
HANDBOOK 150 -Watt PEP Linear Amplifier 675
electrical quarter -wavelength of the line is same voltages and currents required by many
established. of today's h -f SSB transceivers or exciters.
Thus, the station supply for a h -f trans-
ceiver may be borrowed and used with this
27 -4 A 150 -Watt PEP unit. Operating with a plate potential of
Linear Amplifier 800 volts, the 2 -meter linear amplifier is
For 2 Meters capable of a PEP input of about 150 watts,
but the unit may also be efficiently operated
with a plate potential as low as 400 volts
The power output of the transverter de- at reduced power level.
scribed in the previous section may be
boosted appreciably by the addition of a
suitable linear amplifier. Described in this The Amplifier Circuit The schematic of the
section is a 150 -watt PEP linear amplifier 2 -meter linear ampli-
(figure 18) which can easily be driven by fier is shown in figure 19. This is a push -
the transverter, or by any 2 -meter SSB pull circuit using a lumped -inductance grid
exciter having a PEP output of 2 watts or tank and a parallel -line tuned -plate circuit.
more. This amplifier is designed to use the Two inexpensive 6146B tetrode tubes are
Figure 18
150 -WATT PEP LINEAR AMPLIFIER FOR 2 METERS
Less than one cubic foot in size, this compact linear amplifier delivers a powerful signal for
2 -meter DX operation. Rated at 150 watts PEP input, the unit requires less than 2 watts
driving power.
Antenna tuning control and plate tuning adjustment are on main panel. The grid circuit is
fixed -tuned to 146 MHz. One -inch miniature plate current meter has 100 -microampere move-
ment and is shunted to read 500 ma full scale. Amplifier is housed in perforated metal cabinet
for maximum ventilation.
Ja cuit to a value greater than normally would

61468 ANT
L3
be desired. By proper design of the plate
Li
line, however, this difficulty is overcome and
good plate- circuit efficiency is achieved in a
small space.
The self -neutralizing frequency of a
6146B tube is lower than the 2 -meter band
and thus some form of neutralization is
necessary to achieve good amplifier stability.
A simple and effective method of neutraliz-
ing an amplifier operating in this frequency
region is to employ series screen neutraliza-
tion, wherein the screen circuit is adjusted
so as to establish a low impedance to ground
on the screen structure within the tube.
This circuit is frequency sensitive, and a
sharp neutralization null may be obtained at
one operating frequency by proper choice of
Figure 19 the screen capacitor. If the amplifier is prop-
SCHEMATIC, 2 -METER erly shielded and the power leads adequately
LINEAR AMPLIFIER filtered, the unit may be neutralized at the
middle of the 2 -meter band and the intra-
C , C -60 pf, Centralab 822 -AN or equiv. stage isolation will remain sufficiently high
C. -12 -12 pf, Bud 355 or Hammarlund HFD -15X
NC -60 pf, Centralab 822 -AN so that stable operation takes place over the
L,-4 turns #16, 3/e" diam., %2" long. Link coil entire band without the need for reneutral-
is 2 turns #18 hookup wire.
L. -U- shaped inductor made of 3/16" copper ization at the band edges.
tubing, about 43/4^ long. Spacing is 3/4 ". Since r-f voltage appears on the screen
L -U- shaped inductor, 44.12 wire. about 21/4"
long, /2" wide terminal of the tube, it is necessary to use
RFC,-0.11 H. Ohmite Z -235 a screen isolation circuit made up of an r-f
REC.-1.8 4H. Ohmite Z -144 choke and isolation resistor. In order to
Plate blocking capacitor-.001 at I.SKV. Erie
Filtren #1270-001 establish r -f ground at the screen, filament,
Meter -0 -500 ma d-e and grid circuits, series- resonant 220 -pf
J,- UG- 290A/U coaxial receptacle
J.- UG -S8A /U coaxial receptacle disc ceramic capacitors are used as bypass
P, -Cinch -Jones P- 306 -AB elements. In addition, the power leads are
bypassed with .01 -td disc capacitors to
make sure these leads remain free of low-
used in a neutralized configuration, provid- frequency energy that may be coupled into
ing good stability and high efficiency at mod- the amplifier from the exciter stages.
est cost. The plate circuit of the push -pull ampli-
Tubes of the 6146 category have rather fier is conventional, utilizing a series -tuned
high interelectrode capacitance and appreci- loop for the antenna circuit. The rotor of
able lead inductance. Allowance for these the split- stator tank capacitor is left floating
factors must be included in the circuit de- so that the circuit may assume its own elec-
sign. The effective input capacitance of two trical balance to ground.
6146Bs in push -pull is about 7 pf, plus the
additional socket and lead capacitance to Amplifier Layout The-meter linear ampli-
2
ground. Grid- circuit tuning is not required, and Assembly built within an alu-
fier is
especially if the exciting link winding of minum chassis measuring
the drive circuit is series tuned in the proper 91/2 X frr X 21/2" which serves as an
manner. The effective plate- circuit output r -f inclosure and dust cover. A 3 Ya"
capacitance, while less than that of the grid X 4" cutout in the chassis above the tubes
circuit, is still about 4 pf. This, plus the is covered with perforated metal to permit
minimum capacitance of the plate- tuning proper tube ventilation while still preserving
capacitor, raises the Q of the plate line dr- the electrical continuity of the inclosure.
Figure 20
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF AMPLIFIER
Amplifier chassis is mounted to panel by four spacers and tuning capacitors are driven
through insulated, flexible couplings. Rotor of plate tuning capacitor is "floating" above
ground. High -voltage plate circuit feedthrough capacitor is mounted to chassis at left,
with plate r -f choke seen below end of plate line. The antenna pickup loop is supported from
stator of antenna tuning capacitor and antenna receptacle. Grid and screen circuit components
of 6146Bs are mounted to end of chassis, at right. Performated bottom plate is attached to
bottom of chassis with sheet metal screws.
A bottom plate of perforated metal is placed end of the chassis, with the remaining in-
over the open side of the chassis. Since plate terior space taken up by the tuned plate line
dissipation may rise as high as 50 watts for and antenna coupling circuit. Grid and
the two tubes, it is essential that cooling air screen components are mounted on the outer
circulate freely within the inclosure, or tube end wall of the box. At the opposite end of
life will suffer. the assembly, the high- voltage lead is passed
The perforated metal cabinet measures from the plate circuit via a low- impedance,
11T/4" X 5" X 9" and was obtained from high- voltage feedthrough capacitor mounted
an obsolete "hi -fi" amplifier. A suitable in the wall of the box.
metal cabinet of the same general size may In order to reduce lead inductance to a
be used, provided it is adequately ventilated. minimum, the 6146B sockets are mounted
A general view of parts placement may be to the chassis in a special way. The sockets
seen in the interior photograph of figure 20. used are ceramic and have the terminals
The two 6146B tubes are mounted on one riveted in place, the head of the rivet being
tested as a unit before it is placed in the

shielded inclosure. The plate line (L_) is
bent from a single length of copper tubing.
In order to prevent the tubing from flatten-
ing as it is bent, it should be filled with
dry sand and the ends crushed. It is prudent
to make the line a bit longer than necessary.
The mid point of the line is marked, and the
tubing is bent around a 3/4- inch- diameter
form. The ends of the tubing are stow
trimmed to form the U- shaped inductor
Figure 21
about 5" long, and the sand is removed from
the line.
6146B SOCKET ASSEMBLY It may be necessary to attach short ex-
Ceramic sockets are bolted to copper plates
tension straps of copper shim stock to the
fitted into cutout in aluminum chassis. Socket lugs of the two stator sections of the vari-
grounds are made by soldering assembly able capacitor. These leads join the capacitor
rivets to copper plate. Twin ceramic neutral-
ising capacitors are at corder, with screen sections to the line, and also to the 6146B
chokes and isolating resistors at top of plate caps. Inexpensive receiving -type caps
assembly. are used for the tubes, and short stout leads
should be used to connect the caps to the
recessed in a small shallow spot atop the capacitor terminals. At this point, lead in-
socket. Eight such spots exist, one for each ductance is very critical.
rivet head. When the socket is mounted be- The complete tank circuit may be as-
neath a metal deck, the shortest ground path sembled in place to ascertain the proper
for any individual tube pin is through the spacing and alignment between the plate
rivet to the deck above. Accordingly, each caps and the capacitor. When completed,
socket is mounted on a 21/4" X 2" copper the unit may be removed and tested with
plate having a 1" diameter hole cut in the a grid -dip oscillator. Without the tubes,
middle that will pass the tube base. The and with the assembly in the clear, resonance
edge of the center hole passes within a should be found at about 190 MHz with
fraction of an inch of the various rivets that the capacitor fully meshed. With tubes in
hold the socket terminals in place. It is a place and the line inside the box, the tuning
simple job to solder a short, heavy jumper range should cover 140 MHz to 150 MHz,
made of thin copper shim stock from the or better. The final tuning range may be
rivets of socket pins 1, 4, 6, 7, and 8 to varied slightly by altering the length of the
the copper mounting plate. Two such plate - strap connections to the plate caps of the
and- socket combinations are prepared, and 6 146Bs.
the plates are bolted over a cutout at the end The plate r -f choke (RFC2) is mounted
of the aluminum chassis (figure 21) . so that the choke body is parallel to the
The remainder of the grid and screen plate line and outside the end of it, in order
wiring is placed on the prepared sockets. The to reduce inductive coupling between the
small ceramic variable screen- tuning capaci- choke and plate line to a minimum.
tors (NC) are soldered by their leads be- The antenna loop (L3) is made of a sec-
tween pin 3 and pin 1 of each tube socket. tion of heavy copper wire and is supported
The grid coil (L1) is self -supported between at the ends from the antenna receptacle (J_)
the #5 pins on each socket, while the screen and antenna tuning capacitor C3. Length of
r -f chokes, bypass capacitors, and isolating the loop may have to be determined by ex-
resistors are mounted to adjacent socket pins periment as it is critical as to the SWR on
and nearby tie- points. the antenna system.
Before the amplifier is tested, a bottom
plate made of perforated metal should be
The Plate Circuit The complete plate circuit attached to the chassis with sheet -metal
may be assembled and screws to complete the r -f inclosure.
Testing the The first step in adjusting presented to the amplifier by the antenna
Linear Amplifier the amplifier is to place the system. The loop should be at least %8 -inch
tubes in their sockets and from the plate line so as to prevent flash-
grid -dip the grid coil to about 146 MHz. over from the line to the loop. If sufficient
Adjustment may be accomplished by ex- coupling cannot be achieved, the loop should
panding or contracting the coil length. The be increased in length. If the coupling is
amplifier may be neutralized "cold" by ap- too heavy, the length of the loop may be
plying a small amount of excitation to the reduced.
grid circuit and measuring the r -f output in Once proper coupling has been achieved
the antenna circuit after both plate and and the amplifier neutralized, it will per-
antenna circuits have been resonated. The form in the same manner as a similar unit
screen neutralizing capacitors are adjusted cperating on the lower- frequency bands.
until the feedthrough energy is reduced to While no provision has been incorporated
a minimum. The output voltage may be for balancing the tubes under full load, it
monitored with a 1N34 diode and a high will be found that if unbalance exists, the
impedance d -c voltmeter. Both screen capaci- anode of one 6146B will tend to run hot
tors are adjusted in unison to produce a deep at full input when viewed in a dark room.
null in measured feedthrough power. The Balance may be altered by altering the spac-
actual capacitance of the neutralizing setting ing of one side or the other of the grid
at proper null is of the order of 15 pf or so. inductor until both tubes load evenly.
Once the amplifier has been properly neu-
tralized, bias, screen, and plate voltages may
be applied as summarized in figure 30,
Chapter 16. The bias voltage is adjusted for
the proper resting value of d -c plate current
and a suitable dummy load or antenna is
connected to the amplifier. Adjustment is
much the same as with any low- frequency
amplifier. The input link tuning capacitor
(CO is adjusted for maximum output with
minimum drive, and the antenna tuning
control (C,) and coefficient of coupling be-
tween the plate circuit and antenna loop are
adjusted for maximum power output at a
given input level. Drive level and loading
may be increased in stages as screen and plate
currents are monitored.
When the amplifier is properly loaded,
neutralization may be checked by detuning Figure 22
the plate circuit of the amplifier. Screen
current should drop off evenly on either side 432 -MHz TRIPLER /AMPLIFIER
of resonance. In addition, removing excita- USING 4X150A OR 4CX250B
tion should permit the amplifier plate cur-
This compact unit functions either as a tripler
rent to drop to the static level. A sure sign to 432 MHz, or as an amplifier on that band.
of regeneration is uneven distribution of It uses an external -anode tetrode in a modi-
screen current, possibly rising sharply on one fied cavity plate circuit. Inclosure is made
up of side pieces held together with sheet -
side of plate- circuit resonance, and dropping metal screws or "pop" rivets. In this oblique
sharply on the other side of resonance. A view, the B -plus connector is at the left side
of the unit, with the coaxial antenna recep-
small adjustment to one or the other screen tacle immediately adjacent to it. The antenna
neutralizing capacitor will correct this un- tuning capacitor is mounted to the end piece
of the box, which may be removed by loosen-
balance. ing the holding screws and the capacitor
The size of the antenna coupling loop and nut. At the center of the box is the spring -
loaded tuning capacitor and at the right end
the spacing between it and the plate line is the coaxial input receptacle and the input
depends to some extent on the termination tuning capacitors.
Two units such as described may be built;

4X150A L one acting as a tripler to drive the second
4CX2SOB
L2
!
L3 (SEE ASSEMeGY OWG. )
,
one as an amplifier at a power input up to
500 watts.
The Tripler/ The general schematic of

Amplifier Circuit the amplifier is shown in
figure 23. An easily built
coaxial plate -tank circuit provides high
efficiency at 432 MHz and the unit operates
-B AS V. 4-SCR.
S
FIL.
B+ in the same manner as if it were on the
lower - frequency bands. The circuit consists
RFC 2
BIAS
of a short, loaded resonant cylindrical line
which uses the amplifier case as the outer
JI
INPUT
CI e
conductor. Plate voltage is fed through the
1 line to the anode of the tube, which is in-
ALTERNATIVE GRID CIRCUIT FOR 432 MHZ AMPLIFIER sulated from the cylindrical line by means
of a thin teflon sheet wrapped about the
Figure 23 anode.
For tripler service, the grid circuit is
SCHEMATIC -432 -MHz
tuned to 144 MHz, with the input capaci-
TRIPLER /AMPLIFIER
tance of the tube and tuning capacitor C2
C,, C , C -14 pi, Johnson 160 -107 forming a balanced tank circuit. The isola-
C, -See text
C
Note: Use 8 pf, Johnson 160 -104 for 432 -MHz tion choke (RFC1) is at the center, or
alternative grid circuit "cold" point of the grid inductor. A series -
LI -1 turn hookup wire, s/4" diem, inside L
(432 MHz)
tuned link circuit couples the unit to the
L. -3/2 turns #14, 1" diameter, 3/4 " long external exciter.
(432 MHz) In amplifier service, the grid circuit is
L -See text
L -3/8" -wide copper strap form inductor 3/e" tuned to 432 MHz and takes the form of a
long X /e" high )) half -wavelength line, tuned to resonance by
RFC, -1.7 VN. J. W. Miller RFC -144, or Ohmite
a small capacitor placed at the end of the
Z -144
RFC. -0.2 pH. J. W. Miller RFC -420, or Ohmite line opposite the tube.
Z-420 A special air -system socket designed for
J,- Coaxial receptable. UG- 290A/U
J- Coaxial receptacle. UG -S8A /U the external -anode tetrode must be used. For
Blower -6 ciao at 0.4" back pressure. Use #21/2 tripler service, the builder has the choice of
impeller at 6000 r.p.m.
either the EIMAC SK -600, SK -610, SK -620,
or SK -630 socket, together with the appro-
priate air chimney. The SK -606 chimney is
27 -5 A Tripler/Amplifier to be used with the SK -600 or SK -610 sock-
et, and the SK -626 chimney is to be used
For 432 MHz with the SK -620 or SK -630 socket.
For amplifier service at 432 MHz only,
An efficient tripler or amplifier for 432 - the EIMAC SK -620 or SK -630 sockets are
MHz operation may be designed around the recommended, as the other versions have
4X S 0A or 4CX2 S 0B external -anode te-
1
screen terminals exposed to the plate- circuit
trode. Rated at 250 watts anode dissipation field and exhibit more r -f feedthrough than
(the late production 4X1S0As also have the do the suggested sockets, which have shield-
higher rating) this high -perveance tetrode ed screen terminals. Using the proper sockets,
is one of the few tubes that performs well intrastage feedthrough at 432 MHz is suffi-
as a tripler from 144 MHz or as a straight ciently low so that stage neutralization is
amplifier at 432 MHz. A power output of not required under normal, loaded operating
better than 60 watts may be obtained as a conditions.
tripler, and over 200 watts output may be Not shown in the schematic is the fact
achieved in amplifier service. that an external centrifugal blower is re-
HANDBOOK Triple /Amplifier for 432 MHz 681
quired to adequately cool the filament and and bottom pieces. The end section of the
plate seals of the external anode tube. Ap- box which makes up the plate- circuit as-
proximately 6.4 cubic feet per minute of sembly is made of brass so that the brass
cooling air at a pressure drop of 0.82 inches quarter- wavelength plate line may be sol-
of water is required for full, 250-watt anode dered to it. The opposite end of the box has
dissipation. For operation at reduced voltages a hole drilled off center in it to accept a
and a limitation of 150 watts dissipation, fitting for an air hose or blower orifice
the cooling -air requirement is 3.4 c.f.m. at (figure 24).
a pressure drop of 0.15 inches of water. The plate line is made of a 33/4" length
At a frequency of 432 MHz, cathode of brass tube having a 13/4" outside diameter.
backheating is observed in tubes of this The line is soldered to the brass end to accept
type, and to maintain proper cathode tem- the anode of the 4X150A or 4CX2SOB.
perature, the filament voltage should be re- An internal partition separates the grid
duced to 5.5 volts and held within plus or and plate circuits and supports the socket
minus five percent of this value. for the tetrode. The socket is bolted atop
Finally, it should be noted that under the partition, as shown in figure 24. Con-
certain operating conditions, the screen cur- nection is made to the anode for the supply
rent of a tetrode may become negative. In voltage by means of an extension shaft run
order to protect the tube from excessively from the high- voltage connector mounted on
high screen voltage under certain negative - the top plate of the box. The shaft has a
current conditions, it is mandatory to con- section of spring steel bolted at the end to
nect a bleeder resistor at the tube that will make a press fit to the top of the anode of
draw a value of current greater than drawn the tube.
by the tube under negative- current operating The plate -blocking capacitor is made of
conditions. a length of 3 -mil teflon tape, wrapped twice
around the tube anode. The tape is cut to a
Tripler /Amplifier The tripler /amplifier is width of one inch to allow overlap on both
Construction constructed within a metal sides of the anode. The tape is carefully
box measuring 7" X 23/4" wrapped around the metal anode before the
X 25A". The top and bottom of the box are tube is pressed into the open end of the
flat pieces of aluminum or brass measuring 7" plate line, as shown in figure 26.
X 23/4". The two side pieces are identical The top plate of the box, in addition to
in size with matching holes for sheet -metal the plate -line and high -voltage connector,
screws. Each side has small flanges along supports the antenna receptacle (J2) and the
the edge which match the sides to the top series antenna- tuning capacitor. The antenna
Figure 24
INSIDE VIEW OF TRIPLER /AMPLIFIER

Tetrode tube socket mounts on small partition
placed across interior of box. Plate -tuning
capacitor and antenna capacitor are at right
of assembly. The anode line of the 4X150A
14CX250B) is slotted and slips over the tube,
insulated from it by a teflon wraparound in-
sulator. B -plus passes down through the tube
to a spring that makes connection to the anode
Below the partition are the grid circuit and
various bypass capacitors. Power leads pass
through feedthrough capacitors mounted in the
rear wall of the inclosure (lefti. Aluminum
fitting at the bottom of the box matches
air -hose connection to external centrifugal
blower. Blower should be turned on when
filament voltage is applied to the tube.
MHz is 500 feet of RG -58/U coaxial cable.

The far end should be shorted and water-
proofed and the cable may be coiled up in a
tub of water.
As with any tetrode, plate current is a
function of screen voltage, and screen cur-
rent is a function of plate loading. Screen
voltage, therefore, should never be applied
before plate voltage, and screen current
should be monitored for proper plate loading.
The amplifier should never be tested or
operated without a proper dummy load.
To operate as a tripler, the following elec-
trode voltages are suggested: plate voltage,
1000; screen voltage, 250; grid bias, -90
volts. The bias may be obtained from a small
voltage- regulator tube or zener diode. Cool-
Figure 25 ing air is applied with filament voltage
CLOSEUP OF ANTENNA CIRCUITRY which should be 5.5 volts. When these volt-
ages are applied to the tube, plate current
Small series -tuned loop is made of copper will be near -zero with no drive, and the
strap c ted between coaxial output recep-
tacle and stator rods of antenna tuning capaci- screen current will be about 10 milliamperes,
tor. Coupling is adjusted by setting of capaci- or less. The screen current noted will be the
tor, and link is fixed about 1/4-inch away from
plate line. Plate line is soldered to brass end sum of the positive current flowing through
plate. the bleeder resistor and the negative screen
current of the tube.
A small amount of excitation at 144 MHz
pickup loop (L,) is soldered between the is applied and the grid circuit resonated, as
receptacle and the stator of the capacitor, noted by a small rise in plate current. The
and is spaced away from the plate line about plate circuit should be brought into reso-
Vs inch. nance. Excitation is boosted, and the tripler
Plate- tuning capacitor is a 13/4" disc made tuned for maximum power into the dummy
of brass material soldered to the smooth end load. Loading and grid drive may be in-
of a shaft that is threaded to match a panel creased until a plate current of 250 ma is
bushing. The outer portion of the shaft is achieved. At this level, total screen current
3/4-inch diameter to fit the dial drive. Ten- will be about 15 to 20 ma, and grid current
sion is maintained on the shaft and bearing will be about 12 ma. Power input is about
by placing a spring between the shaft ex- 250 watts and power output, as measured at
tension and the panel bushing, as shown in the antenna receptacle with a vhf wattmeter
the side view photograph. Note: An assem- is about 70 watts. Over -all tripler efficiency
bly drawing of the plate circuit may be is about 28 percent and plate dissipation is
obtained at no cost by writing: Amateur nearly 180 watts.
Service Dept., EIMAC Division of Varian, Screen current is a sensitive indicator of
San Carlos, Calif. 94070. circuit loading. If the screen current falls
below 10 to 12 ma (including bleeder cur-
Tripler /Amplifier After the unit has been as- rent) , it is an indication that plate loading is
Operation sembled, it should be tested too heavy or grid drive too light. Screen
for operation at reduced current readings of over 30 ma indicate
voltages. The first step is to grid -dip the drive is too heavy or plate loading is too
input and output circuits to resonance to light. A plate voltage as low as 800 volts may
make sure they tune properly. An r -f output be used on the tripler stage, with an output
meter or SWR bridge should be used in of about 55 watts at a plate current of 250
conjunction with a dummy load for the ma. Plate voltages below this value are not
initial tests. A good dummy load for 432 recommended as screen current starts to
HANDBOOK 175 -Watt SSB Exciter 683
Figure 26
EXPLODED VIEW OF PLATE -LINE ASSEMBLY
The high- voltage receptacle, plate bypass capacitor, and anode for spring are at left.
The brass end plate of the box and plate- circuit assembly are at the center, with the 4X150A
tetrode at the right. The tube anode is wrapped with teflon tape to form a bypass capacitor,
removing the d -e voltage from the coaxial line. Copper line makes press fit over the anode
of the tube.
climb rapidly at low plate potentials. For equivalent power rating. Physically, the SSB
amplifier service, the alternate grid circuit exciter can be made more compact and
is employed. The amplifier may be operated lighter in weight for an equivalent degree
either class C or class AB,.Operating data for of "talk power" as compared to the a -m
both classes of service are given in the equipment. Only the simplest of test equip-
4X1SOA data sheet. ment is required and the use of a commercial
crystal sideband filter in the exciter elimi-
nates critical circuit adjustment and tinker-
27 -6 A 175 -Watt ing.
SSB Exciter The exciter described in this section (fig-
ure 27) is of a proven design and is recom-
Building a single -sideband exciter or mended to those experimenters wishing to
transmitter is simpler and less expensive build their first piece of sideband trans-
than construction of a -m equipment of mitting equipment.
Figure 27
SIDEBAND EXCITER PACKS PLENTY OF PUNCH

This custom-built exciter provides 175 watts PEP input for 551 or c -w operation between 3.5
and 29.5 MHz. The homemade cabinet is spray pointed light gray while the panel is painted
two-tone gray. The main tuning dial is to the right of the slide -rule dial plate assembly. The
three controls below the dial are (I. to r.): r -f level (R,), amplifier plate tuning (C,4), and
amplifier loading (C,,). The band-selector switch is centered below the plate tuning control,
with the grid tuning control (C,) and key jack on opposite sides. At the lower left is the
sideband -selector switch (S,) with the carrier-Injection potentiometer (R -S:) directly under-
neath. Audio gain control (R,) is above the microphone jack. The a-c power switch is at the
far right, next to the three -position function switch (S). landswitch has two ten -meter posi-
tions for two 500 -kHz segments.
The Exciter This filter -type exciter incorpo- The 9 -MHz SSB signal is coupled to the
Circuit rates all the desirable features of #2 grid of a 6BA7 mixer (Vs), and here it
more expensive exciters, covering is combined with the 5.5- to 5.0 -MHz out-
the amateur bands between 10 and 80 meters put of a very stable vfo. The difference
with a minimum of controls and adjust- product of these two signals is used as the
ments. The output stage utilizes a pair of basic exciter frequency range of 3.5 to 4.0
highly linear 6550 tetrode tubes run at a MHz, which appears in the plate circuit of
PEP input of about 175 watts. A block the mixer stage. All the higher amateur
diagram of the exciter is shown in figure 28. bands are derived by mixing this SSB signal
The sideband generator is designed around with an auxiliary crystal oscillator. The out-
a 9 -MHz crystal lattice filter and consists put from the 6BA7 mixer is bandpass cou-
of a 7360 oscillator/balanced modulator pled to a 12BY7A (V3) which operates as
(V7) with a 12AX7 speech amplifier (V1) an amplifier on the 80 -meter band and as a
modulating one deflection plate of the 7360. second mixer for all the higher- frequency
The filter drives a 6B6 i -f amplifier stage bands. The mixing oscillator is a 6C4 (V10)
(V7) to bring the signal up to the proper whose output is always higher in frequency
mixing level. Two carrier crystals in the than the desired mixer product. A second
grid circuit of the 7360 oscillator section 12BY7A (V4) serves as the driver stage for
permit sideband selection. the two parallel connected 6550 tetrode
MIC. V1-AUDIO
VS
AMP. ANT.
V2 Ve V3 V4
V7 -MOD.. 9MN, FILTER I.F. MIX. MIX. -AMP. AMP.
12BY7 125Y7
Pi-
NE T WORN
0V9 VFO
Via
OSC. Ve
TUNE AMP.
Yt
USB LSB
Y2
B+REG. +800V. +LV
4 4 53A
O--'1_
POWER
SUPPLY o
REG. Y3-- -Y7
V11 xTALS
Figure 28
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE SSB EXCITER

A 9 -MHz crystal lattice Alter and 7360 oscillator /mixer simplify circuitry and provide superior
results in this compact SU exciter. Covering the amateur bands between 80 and 10 meters,
the exciter utilizes two low-distortion type 6550 tubes in the linear amplifier stage. A double -
conversion circuit is used, with the vfo ing the range of S.S to S.0 MHz for 80 -meter
operation. A second, crystal -controlled conversion oscillator mixes the SSA signal for operation
on the higher -frequency bands. A solid -state power supply provides all d -e voltages for the
exciter.
amplifier tubes. The measured third- and Exciter The general layout of the exciter
fifth -order distortion products of these tubes Layout may be seen in the various photo-
under the given operating parameters run graphs (figures 30 and 32). An
better than 30 decibels below one tone of 11" X 17" X 3" steel chassis is used for the
a two -tone test signal.
foundation. The final amplifier assembly
Spurious products are reduced by incor-
above the chassis is inclosed in a three -sided
poration of a low -pass filter (L4, L5, and
inclosure measuring about 71/" long by
associated capacitors) in the output circuit
4 1/2" deep by 6" high. The sides are made
of the vfo stage to suppress the second and
higher order harmonics of the oscillator. from perforated aluminum sheet. A two -
sided L- shaped aluminum dust cover com-
The exciter is activated by two relays
pletes the inclosure.
which are energized by a push -to -talk
switch on the microphone. All tuning ad- Under the chassis, the vfo components are
justments are accomplished with a single inclosed in a U- shaped shield made of light
meter that measures the cathode current of aluminum sheet measuring about 4" square
the final amplifier, plus an auxiliary grid - and 2%' high. The tuned circuits and
current meter. A three-position function 6AU6 socket are mounted on a heavy 1/4"
switch (S7A-B) enables the operator to thick aluminum plate measuring 4" X 5"
zero -in on a chosen frequency without mounted atop the chassis above the alumi-
placing an interfering signal on the air or num shield. The shield has %" lips bent on
without disabling his receiver. The zero all sides to fasten it to the chassis and to
position of switch ST also disables the micro- the side apron of the chassis. The balanced
phone circuit so that the exciter cannot be modulator and speech amplifier tubes are
accidentally turned on in this mode. A sec- at the opposite end of the chassis, and their
ond position (c -w) of the function switch under -chassis components are contained
provides c -w operation (with carrier in- within an L- shaped aluminum inclosure at
jection) and the third position (PTT) places the panel.
the exciter in readiness for push -to -talk The final amplifier tube sockets are
voice operation. mounted on a sheet of perforated aluminum
Figure 29
SCHEMATIC, 175 -WATT SIDEBAND EXCITER
C, -15 -pf differential capacitor. Johnson 160- PC-Parasitic suppressor. 100-ohm, -watt re- 1
308 sistor, wound with 4 turns # 18 enam.

C,, C,, C,, C-12-p/ ceramic capacitor. Centra- RFC, -2.5 mH, 300 ma. National R -3000
lab 822 RFC, RFC,-2.S mH, 100 ma. National R -100
C,, C, -35 pl Hammarlund MAPC RFC, RFC,, RFC -750 uH. National R -33
C,, C -SO pf Hammarlund APC RFC. -1 mH, 100 ma. Miller 4652
C,- 150-p tuning capacitor from ARC -5 trans- S, S., S,, S, Sandswitch. Four Centralab PA -2
mitter ceramic decks, each two-pole six-position,
C,A- B -35 -pf Hammarlund APC ganged with in- with Index Assembly PA -301
sulated coupling T10.7 -MHz i -f transformer (tune to 9 MHz).
C -50-pf ceramic capacitor. Centralab 827 Miller 1463
C, 30-pf ceramic capacitor. Centralab 822 T,- Bandpass transformer (3.5 -4.0 MHz). See
C -50-pf APC padder for 3.S MHz figure 138
C -
C,j250 -pf, 0.024 spacing. Bud 1859
365 -pf per section. Miller 2112
CRS 1N34A
T. -6.3 volts, 1 ampere. Wire in reverse
T.- 800 -volt c.t., 200 ma;
Stanton. PC -8412
6.3 volt, S ampere;
CR,. CR,- 1N1695 (400-v. PRY, 600 ma) Y,- 8998.5 kHz (McCoy)
CRS Eight diodes, four per leg. 1N4005 (600 -v. Y,- 9001.5 kHz (McCoy)
PRY, 1 amp) 7,-11.000 MHz for 40 -meter operation
CH,-5H, 200 ma. Stancor C-1646 7.-18.000 MHz for 20 -meter operation
CHI SH, ISO ma. Stancor C-1710 Y,-25.000 MHz for 15 -meter operation
CH,-Low-inductance choke (primary winding 7,-32.500 MHz for 10 -meter operation (28.5-
of S0L6 output transformer) 29 MHz)
CH,, CH,-Line Alter choke. Miller 5218, or 18 Y.- 33.000 MHz for 10 -meter operation (29.0 -
turns # 16 e. Ye diameter, 1/2 long
1
29.5 MHz)
MA-0 -500 d-c milliommeter. Simpson 2 Wide- Z -18 -volt, 1 -watt
diode. 1N4746A
vest Note: Bandswitch has two 10 -meter positions.
which is bolted above a cutout in the chassis of this unit. The tuning capacitor is taken
to permit good circulation of air past the from the amplifier section of a "surplus"
sockets and envelopes of the tubes. The leads AN /ARC -S (SCR -274N) transmitter (any
from the tap on the amplifier plate coil model). It has wide plate spacing, glass
(L20) pass down through a slot cut in the bead insulation, and a smooth worm -gear
chassis to the ceramic bandswitch segment drive that lends itself very nicely to the
(S5A -B) which is driven by the main band- assembly of a simple home -made slide rule
switch assembly. The switch segment is dial. The vfo coil is a section of miniductor
fastened to the back apron of the chassis stock securely cemented to a 1/4" thick
and is connected to the bandswitch by a square of plexiglas which is solidly
phenolic shaft extension. mounted on two ceramic pillars inside the
A small U- shaped aluminum shield is vfo shield compartment. The coil is placed
placed across the center of the 6S50 sockets to one side of the chassis away from sources
to isolate the plate parasitic chokes and of heat.
leads from the nearby grid wiring. To
minimize heat under the chassis the 40K,
20 -watt, high -voltage bleeder resistors are
The Main The assembly details of
Bandswitch Assembly a typical bandswitch
mounted in a vertical position above the
chassis by means of a long bolt placed ver-
and coil section are
tically in the rear corner of the final am- shown in figure 31A. The coils and asso-
plifier inclosure. The 650 -ohm, 25 -watt re- ciated padding capacitors are preassembled
sistor in the B -plus voltage dropping net- to the shield plate and wired before the
work is mounted in the same manner to the plate is mounted to the chassis. Although
outside of the amplifier inclosure near the the bandswitch shaft is positioned along
high-voltage filter choke. the centerline of the chassis, the switch
The most critical assembly of any good wafers are placed slightly off center on the
SSB exciter is the vfo which must have partition (see illustration) to allow space
rigid construction and use the best available for the ganged APC capacitors (C0A -B).
parts for the job. Silver mica padding ca- These capacitors are insulated from the par-
picitors, a ceramic tube socket and a pre- tition (ground) and from each other, and
cision tuning capacitor ensure the stability are ganged with insulated flexible couplings
to the panel control. As each set of coils is be quite simple to move the unit about as
identical for any one band and is wired to the weight of the exciter (less the trans-
the switch section in an identical manner former) is quite small.
on each partition, a satisfactory degree of After the exciter is assembled and wired,
tracking is achieved by the use of parallel a voltage check should be made. The sche-
padding capacitors. These capacitors are matic shows various voltages derived from
mounted near the top lip of each shield the B -plus divider network. The no -load
partition. The crystal oscillator coils are high voltage is approximately 800 volts,
mounted on the front side of the partition dropping to about 750 volts with a 200 -ma
nearest the panel, with leads from the load. The 12BY7A driver tube operates at
switch wafer left long enough to be at- 300 volts, as do the screens of the 6550
tached to the tube and crystal socket be- tubes. The vfo and crystal oscillator receive
neath the bandswitch catacomb. regulated voltage from the 0A2, and all
other stages are supplied from the 210 volt
tap of the supply network. Bias for the final
The Dial The slide -rule dial is patterned amplifier is regulated at -36 volts by
Assembly after a "short -wave style" dial means of the zener diodes.
and is made from a flat plate of Oscillator Alignment -The vfo may be
aluminum mounted to triangular brackets adjusted to the 5.5- to 5.0 -MHz range by
that fasten it to the chassis. The center of loosely coupling it to the station receiver and
the plate is cut out leaving a rectangular checking the tuning range against the
hole, and a sheet of clear plexiglas (spray - receiver. The values of inductance and
painted white on the front) is fastened to capacitance given for the vfo -tuned circuit
the rear of the plate with 4 -40 bolts or allow slightly more than 500 -kHz coverage
"pop" rivets. A slider moves along the and the optimum frequency placement on
smooth top edge of the plate and carries the the main tuning dial is done by adjusting
pointer over the dial face. A dial cord is at- the padding capacitor (CO in the oscillator
tached to a drum mounted on the large
circuit.
gear of the vfo tuning capacitor and drives
The conversion oscillator is adjusted by
the pointer via small dial pulleys taken from
proper tuning of the plate circuit, checking
an obsolete slide rule dial. As the gear moves
oscillation with a low -range voltmeter placed
almost 360 degrees for 180 degree rotation
at the test point (TP,) in the grid circuit
of the capacitor, a 21/4" diameter drum will
of the 6C4 oscillator. The upper or lower
provide almost 7" of pointer travel. The dial
sideband is selected by sideband switch S,
cord passes around the bottom of the dial
and the trimmer capacitor across the crystal
face on idler pulleys placed at the corners,
in use is adjusted to place the oscillator
then back to the vfo cord drum.
frequency at the correct point on the slope
of the sideband filter. This is done by moni-
Wiring and Testing It is prudent to wire the toring the signal from the filter and adjust-
the Exciter exciter in sections and to ing the proper trimmer for natural sound
get one section at a time of voice modulation.
in working order before proceeding to the Modulator Alignment -The alignment is
next section. It is suggested that the speech accomplished with the aid of a vacuum -tube
amplifier, 7360 stage, and 9 -MHz amplifier voltmeter having an r-f probe. The probe is
be wired and tested first. The next step placed at the input terminal of the sideband
would be to wire and test the vfo, first filter, and the differential capacitor (C,)
mixer, and 12BY7A amplifier. An auxiliary in the 7360 circuit is set for balanced ca-
power supply can be utilized for these tests. pacitance. The balance potentiometer (R,)
Next, the crystal oscillator, driver, and final is set near the center of its range. With the
amplifier stages are wired and tested, fol- carrier -injection potentiometer (R:,) turned
lowed by completion of the power- supply on and advanced, a small reading will be
and control wiring. If the power transform- evident on the v.t.v.m. The slug of the
er is not mounted until the last step, it will balanced modulator coil (L,) is adjusted for
Figure 30
TOP VIEW OF SIDEBAND EXCITER CHASSIS

Layout and placement of the major above -chassis components may be seen in this photo-
graph. The vfo tuning capacitor is mounted at the corner of the chassis with the dial drive
cord passing over idler pulleys placed on the back corners of the dial assembly. Directly
behind the dial assembly are the conversion oscillator and associated crystals. The two tubes
located below the panel meter are the balanced modulator (right) and the speech amplifier,
with the two sideband-selector crystals next to the front panel. Between these components
and the high -voltage filter capacitors are located the screwdriver adjustment of the chassis -
mounted modulator balance controls and the slug adjustment of the balanced modulator plate
coil (L !. The two I2BY7A tubes are in line with the 6C4 crystal oscillator, just in front of the
final amplifier inclosure.
Between the two extension shafts for the final amplifier pi- network capacitors is the 80-
meter bandpass transformer, with the 6BA7 mixer tube to the left. The 6AU6 vto tube is be-
hind the ARC -5 type tuning capacitor, next to the crystal filter, with the 6BA6 i -f amplifier
tube and transformer to the right. The 0A2 voltage- regulator tube is adjacent to the high -
voltage filter choke, with the bias control potentiometer (R) next to it.
maximum reading. The probe is next moved reading should drop considerably) and the
to the #2 grid (pin 7) of the 6BA7 mixer carrier null potentiometer (R2) is adjusted
(V.). Function switch S2 is placed in the for minimum meter reading. Differential
zero position to close the cathode circuit of capacitor C, will affect the suppression, and
the 6BA6 amplifier stage and the slugs of these two controls should be adjusted alter-
transformer T, are tuned to achieve a maxi- nately for the minimum possible meter read-
mum indicated signal level of 6 to 10 volts. ing.
To adjust carrier suppression, the carrier Band pass Transformer Alignment-Band-
switch (S..) is turned off (the v.t.v.m. pass transformer T2 is aligned with the band-
IVE CERAMIC
RIMMERS BOLTED
of the transformer is adjusted for maximum
TO TOP LIP OF meter reading. The probe is now moved to
PARTITION
the grid (pin 2) of the 12BY7A amplifier/
mixer (V3) and the transmitter vfo is adjusted
for a carrier frequency of 4.0 MHz (vfo
frequency of 5.0 MHz). With carrier in-
jection, the secondary capacitor (C5) of the
transformer is tuned for maximum meter
reading. When the dial is tuned across the
80 -meter band the voltmeter reading should
remain relatively constant, indicating proper
TYPICAL BANDSWITCH AND COIL ASS'Y. alignment of the bandpass circuit.
Amplifier Alignment-The plate circuit
of the 12BY7A amplifier /mixer is untuned
for 80 -meter operation and the remaining
alignment on this band is accomplished with
3 -4 MHz
0
BANDPASS TRANSFORMER
the r -f probe placed on the grid (pin S )
of one 65 50 socket. Plate and screen voltages
Figure 31 are removed from the 6550's. The vfo is
set for a carrier frequency of 4.0 MHz and
A- Bandswitch and coil assembly. Two assem-
the ganged capacitors (CPA -B) are set near
blies are required. The partition is made of
light sheet aluminum with 1 %" lips bent on all minimum capacitance. The padding capaci-
sides to mount it to the chassis and side sup- tor across 80 -meter coil L15 in the 12BY7A
ports. The rotor of capacitor C is insulated
from ground and joined to the similar capaci- driver stage is adjusted for maximum meter
tor on the opposite partition with an insulated reading, with the r -f level potentiometer
coupler. The rotor is grounded to a common
ground (ground lug at the bottom of the (R,) advanced about quarter rotation from
partition, below the bandswitch). The switch the minimum voltage position.
segment is mounted with 4 -40 bolts and metal
spacers to the partition with a similar size
The multiple -tuned circuits in the 12BY7A
section of copper -clad phenolic circuit board stage for the higher- frequency bands are
spaced ! i" behind it. The ground connections aligned with the probe positioned at the
of the various coils are returned to this
board, which is grounded to the common grid of one of the final amplifier tubes.
ground lug by a short flexible lead. With the bandswitch in the 40 -meter posi-
B- Bandpass transformer assembly. The two tion and the vfo adjusted for carrier output
MAPC 35 -pf capacitors are mounted on a
phenolic board 13/x" x 11/2 ". The double coil Is at 7.S MHz, the ganged capacitors are set at
wound on two 1/2" diameter lengths of poly- near -minimum capacitance. The 40 -meter
styrene tubing slipped over a 3/e" diameter
polystyrene rod. Each section of tubing is padding capacitors across coils L and L10
1'2" long, and the spacing between the coils is are adjusted for maximum meter reading.
34 ". The primary winding (plate) is 55 turns, It is advisable to double -check frequency
130 enam., bank -wound over 7j" length. The
secondary winding (grid) is 45 turns, #30 with a grid -dip meter to ensure that the
enam., wound in similar fashion. A piece of circuits are resonant at the desired frequen-
phenolic board the same size as the top
mounting board supports the coils by means cy. The conversion oscillator operates on the
of 4 -40 bolts and spacers. Two long 6 -32 high- frequency side of each amateur band
bolts join the sections and secure them to the and it is possible to inadvertently tune the
shield can. The construction is similar to that
of an air -tuned i -f transformer. Adjustment of driver circuits to the crystal frequency in-
the bandwidth is made by varying the spacing stead of the sideband frequency during the
between the two windings.
initial alignment procedure. A check with
the grid -dip meter will disclose this error.
switch placed in the 80 -meter position and As tuning is done with inserted carrier,
with the r -f probe placed at the plate (pin removing the carrier should cause the
9) of the 6BA7 mixer tube (V8). The v.t.v.m. reading to drop to practically zero.
exciter vfo is adjusted for a carrier fre- If this is not the case, the circuits may be
quency of 3.5 MHz (vfo frequency of Si erroneously tuned to the crystal frequency.
MHz) and carrier is inserted to obtain a The multiple tuned circuits may now be
meter reading. The primary capacitor (C4) adjusted on each higher-frequency band,
Figure 32
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF SSB EXCITER

The bandswitch catacomb occupies the front -center of the under -chassis area. The bandswitch
assembly is fastened to the front apron of the chassis with the switch segments mounted on
the shield partitions as shown in figure 31.13 Two sideplates complete the assembly. The final
amplifier pi- network switch segment is mounted on the rear apron of the chassis and is
driven by a phenolic extension shaft and metal coupling. The balanced modulator and speech
amplifier components are placed in an L- shaped shield at the left front of the chassis area.
Connection between the modulator plate tank circuit and the sideband filter (right of chas-
sis) is made via a length of RG -174/U coaxial cable, seen as a black line running across the
chassis. The bottom plate of the vfo compartment has been removed to show the placement
of the oscillator coil and padding capacitor, which may be adjusted from the top of the
chassis.
The silicon -diode rectifiers in the power supply are mounted on a phenolic board placed
on the left apron of the chassis, near the rear corner. The final amplifier tube sockets are
mounted on a small rectangle of perforated aluminum to provide ample ventilation, with a
UP- shaped shield seen on -edge around the plate pints and parasitic chokes. To the right of the
final amplifier bandswitch segment are the two control relays, with the 80 -meter amplifier
padding capacitor between the relays and the bandswitch. The bias transformer and filter
capacitors are at the rear of the chassis to the right of the relays.
with the ganged capacitors set at minimum tube and carrier is inserted. Neutralization
and alignment of the padding capacitors is best done on the 20 -meter range, with
done at the high- frequency end of each driver circuits resonated to provide maxi-
band. mum grid drive to the amplifier stage. The
Final Amplifier Adjustment-Before ap- loading capacitor (C,5) is set to maximum
plying screen or plate voltage to the final capacitance and the tuning capacitor (C14)
amplifier, it must be neutralized. The r-f is adjusted for maximum indicated voltage
probe is placed at the plate pin of one 6550 (resonance). Neutralizing capacitor C,_ is
Li, L2 Balanced modulator coil. 12 bifilar turns proper position for the band in use, and
(24 in all) No. 24 e. 1h" dia., 1jj' long carrier -injection switch S_ is turned off.
on National XR -50 form. When the push -to -talk switch on the micro-
Link: 4 turns No. 24 e around center of L1.
phone is closed, the plate meter will indicate
13
5.0 -5.5 MHz vfo coil. 12 turns No. 20, 3/4" an idling current of about 70 ma. The car-
dia., M/8" long. (Air -Dux 6161.)
rier control is turned on and advanced
L6, L Low -poss filter. Each: 28 turns No. 26 close- slightly, and grid tuning is peaked for a
5
wound on 1/4" dia. fiber rod.
rise in plate current. The plate tank capaci-
L6 11 MHz. 26 turns No. 24 e. Closewound on tor is tuned for current dip and loading
3/e" dia. polystyrene rod, 11/4" long
L7 18 MHz. 18 turns as above
adjustments are made using regular pi -net-
L1 25 MHz. 12 turns as above
work procedure. Maximum loaded plate cur-
1.9 32.5 MHz. 8 turns as above rent with full carrier insertion is 200 to 240
L10 33.0 MHz. 7 turns as above ma and this value is reached by advancing
L1S 80 meters. 60 turns No. 20 closewound on the carrier control, together with an in-
3/e" dia. polystyrene rod. crease in amplifier loading. When the in-
40 meters. 20 turns No. 26 as above serted carrier is removed, the plate current
1.11' L16
(padded with 82 pf.)
L12, L17 20 meters. 18 turns No. 24 as above
will drop back to the original idling level.
1. 15 meters. 9 turns No. 22 as above The final step is to determine the ratio of
13' L15
L14, L19 10 meters. 7 turns No. 20 as above grid drive to plate current loading. If this
Pi- network coil (Pi -Dux 121206) 11/4" dia.,
ratio is improperly set, the exciter will "flat-
L20
9 turns 11/2" long and 14 turns 11/e" long, top" before full output level is reached
No. 14 wire (18.60). (excessive-drive, light -loading condition),
Tap from plate end: 10 meters, 2 turns or transmitter output will be low (insuffi-
15 meters, 3 turns
20 meters,
cient- drive, heavy -loading condition). Ex-
8 turns
40 meters, 12 turns
citation is set by means of the r -f level
control (R4) which may be calibrated for
each band. To do this, it is necessary to place
Table 2
a O to I d -c milliammeter between test
COIL TABLE FOR 175 -WATT
points 2 and 3 in the grid circuit of the
SSB EXCITER
final amplifier stage. No grid current will be
Small coils are wound on homemade coil drawn until the peak of the r -f driving
forms cut from 3/e" diameter polystyrene rod. signal exceeds the bias level (a nominal
Forms are II /4" long, with small holes drilled
2" apart to secure ends of windings. Bottom -36 volts). Maximum power output will
of coil forms are tapped for 4 -40 bolts for be obtained in class -AB1 Service when the
mounting to coil partitions. Commercial 1/4" amplifier tubes are driven just to the point
diameter forms may be substituted at con-
siderable increase in cost. of grid current and with plate loading then
adjusted for maximum power output at a
plate current of 200 to 240 ma. Using car-
adjusted for minimum voltage reading on rier insertion, then, the point of grid current
the meter, with the tuning capacitor re- is monitored on the temporary test meter and
adjusted after each change of the neutral- plate loading is adjusted for the proper
izing capacitor. plate current. The setting of the r -f level
Once the amplifier stage is neutralized control is logged and carrier is removed
and the exciter circuits properly aligned, and the transmitter modulated by voice.
the complete exciter may be tested with a The audio gain control is advanced until,
suitable dummy load for complete opera- with the r-f level control untouched, the
tion. Final- amplifier plate loading and ex- grid- circuit test meter just indicates a
citation level are both indicated on the flicker of grid current: one scale division or
single meter in the cathode circuit of the less. The setting of the audio gain control is
amplifier stage. The tune -up sequence is the then logged. This calibration procedure
same on any band: the function switch (Sr) should be run on each amateur band and the
is placed in the push -to -talk position, the settings of the controls noted for future use.
audio gain control (R1) is turned down, If desired, a small I -inch diameter milliam-
sideband selector switch S, is placed in the meter may be panel mounted on the unit
HANDBOOK Audio Filters 693
for a continual check of the amplifier peak ground noise, high -frequency hiss and ob-
signal driving point. It should be noted jectionable sideband "monkey chatter." It
that under maximum peak voice conditions, is surprising how much objectionable inter-
the plate meter will swing to about 100 ference can pass through the skirts of a good
ma. Operation may be monitored with an i -f filter system. The cumulative effect of
oscilloscope to check "flattopping." such interference is operator fatigue over

The tune -up procedure for c.w. is the extended periods of reception.
same as above except that carrier is inserted Two audio filters are shown herewith that
and the audio gain control turned down. work wonders for serious DX reception of
A -m operation is possible by inserting suffi- SSB or c.w. The SSB filter, to be described
cient carrier for a plate current of about first, is a low -pass configuration, designed ro
100 ma and advancing the gain control reject all audio frequencies above 3000 Hz.
while monitoring the ratio of grid drive to Cutoff is quite sharp, and filter rejection is
antenna loading with an oscilloscope to better than 40 decibels at all frequencies
achieve maximum modulation level without above about 3700 Hz. The c -w filter is de-
distortion. signed for a spot frequency of 810 Hz and
has a passband of 1100 Hz at a reference
level 30 decibels below the signal level at
27 -7 Audio Filters For the design frequency. The nose of the pass -
SSB and C -W Reception band is 90 Hz wide at the -3 decibel ref-
erence points. Both filters are made up of
Customized audio filters can greatly im- inexpensive 88 -mH, high -Q toroid coils that
prove reception on all but the most expen- have been advertised in amateur magazines
sive amateur receivers that incorporate for years. Each toroid has two coils on it,
switchable i -f filters. Even in the case of and they must be connected in series to pro-
the more sophisticated receiver, a good audio vide a total inductance of 88 mH.
filter can remove a large amount of back-
The SSB The SSB filter is designed for
Audio Filter improved voice reception and
should be placed between the
receiver and a pair of low -impedance ear-
phones. Image -parameter design was used to
determine the theoretical constants of the
filter, which were then altered slightly to
fit the available components at hand. The
layout of the filter is shown in figure 33 and
the schematic and passband are shown in
figure 34.
Inexpensive 6 -volt filament transformers
are used to terminate the filter, as 500 ohm/
4 ohm audio transformers are expensive and
hard to obtain. The filter is built on a sec-
tion of punched circuit board and may be
mounted in the speaker cabinet of the re-
ceiver and left permanently in the circuit.
Figure 33 Only two values of capacitors need be pur-
LOW -PASS AUDIO FILTER
chased: .02 fd and .047 fd Mylar capaci-
FOR IMPROVED SSB RECEPTION
tors should be used, if possible, although
paper ones will also serve. If it is possible
Two six -volt filament transformers, two 88 -mH to check a handful of capacitors on a bridge
inductors and a handful of mylar capacitors
make efficient filter assembly for improved before purchase, the target values shown in
SSB reception. Filter cuts out interference and the schematic should be picked out, how-
"monkey chatter" above 3000 Hz. Unit is de- ever, reliance upon random capacitor values
signed to be placed in low- impedance line to
speaker or earphones. will not degrade filter response too greatly.
II
DESIGN
I
-IO
fcaKHz
20
U
Z
W
30
W
K
i
LI L2
IRAP 4 IRRT.
w
m 4a 1
-s0 1 1
m IN
T02;'T0,.'-T0^24 T
(\\
60
70
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .1 .1 1.0 1 S 2 O S 0 4.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 10.0
F (KHz)
Figure 34
PASSBAND OF SSB FILTER
Since the field of the toroidal coils is reception will be immediately noticeable, and
entirely self -contained, the coils may be the improved smoothness of received signals
mounted to the board with brass hardware. will do much to reduce operator fatigue.
Other components are conveniently grouped
around the coils, as shown in the photograph.
Insertion loss of the filter is about 10 The C -W The c -w filter is built up in the
decibels, but this will not usually be ob- Audio Filtersame fashion as the SSB filter.
jectionable, as most receivers have an abun- This filter, however is designed
dance of audio gain. Once in use, the for low- impedance input and high -impe-
rejection of high- frequency chatter in SSB dance output. A pair of high -impedance
DESIGN
rfc5 o Hz
10
20
W
U
Z
w
K 30
W
w
W
0:
;O
J
W
m
SO
m Lo L2
o
61K
60 21 IN I T4 71
T47II1 II SK ONU,
Z
70
.1 .2 .S .4 .S .6 .7 1 .1 1.0 I.S 2.0 3.0 40 5.0 60 10 10.0
F 1KHz)
Figure 35
PASSBAND OF C -W FILTER
HANDBOOK Audio Filters 695
crystal earphones are recommended, or the As the nose of the passband is only about
filter may be run into a small auxiliary am- 90 Hz wide, careful tuning of the station
plifier for low -impedance earphones. Filter receiver is important for best results. The
loss may be made up by increasing the gain receiver should be set for c -w reception with
level of the receiver. the narrowest passband possible. The filter
The toroidal coils serve as tuned circuits is cut in and the bfo of the receiver is slowly
and step -up transformers, providing two varied for maximum noise output from the
high -Q circuits resonating at 810 Hz (fig- filter. C -w signals are now tuned in and
ure 35). The two .47 -pfd capacitors should the bfo slowly and carefully adjusted to pro-
be matched on a bridge to provide optimum vide the most pleasing response. Receiver
passband. The resonant frequency of the tuning should be slow, since it is easy to
filter may be moved higher or lower in fre- miss signals under such selective receiving
quency, if desired, by altering the value of conditions. Audio level should be held low
the shunt capacitors. to reduce possible "ringing" of the filter.
CHAPTER TWENTY -EIGHT
H -F and VHF Power Amplifiers
A power amplifier is a converter that the exciter to run independently of the am-
changes d -c into r -f output. Chapter Seven plifier, if desired, or in combination with
of this Handbook discussed the various the amplifier for maximum power output.
classes of r -f power amplifiers and Chapters For c.w. or RTTY, the amplifier is usually
Eleven and Twelve covered the calculation operated in the linear mode, since conversion
of input and output circuit parameters. This to cliss-C operation is not required.
chapter covers power- amplifier design, con - These practical designs are a natural out-
struction,and adjustment. growth of the importance of vfo operation
Modern h -f amateur transmitters are cap- and the use of SSB and c -w modes in amateur
able of operating on c -w, SSB and often practice. It is not practical to make a rapid
RTTY, on one or more amateur bands be- frequency change when a whole succession
tween 3.5 MHz and 29.7 MHz. Very few of stages must be retuned to resonance, or
pieces of commercially built amateur equip- when bandswitching is not employed. An-
ment have amplitude- modulation capability, other significant feature in station design is
other than some gear designed for 6- and 2- the popularity of 100- to 250 -watt output
meter operation, since the changeover from SSB exciter /transceivers. These provide suf-
a.m. to SSB during the past decade is now ficient drive for high -level linear amplifiers
almost complete. On the other hand, ex- without the need for intermediate stages of
pansion of 160 -meter privileges in the past amplification.
years has not brought about the inclusion of
that band in most amateur equipment. Power-Amplifier Power amplifiers are classi-
The most popular and flexible amateur h -f Design fied according to operating
transmitting arrangement usually includes a mode and circuitry. Thus,
compact bandswitching exciter or transceiver a particular amplifier mode may be class AB',
having 100 to 500 watts PEP input on the class B, or class C; the circuitry can be either
most commonly used h -f bands, followed single -ended or push -pull; and the unit may
by a single linear power- amplifier stage be grid- or cathode- driven. Mode of opera-
having 1 kW to 2 kW PEP input capacity. tion and circuit configuration should not be
In many instances, the exciter is an SSB confused, since they may be mixed in various
transceiver unit capable of mobile operation, combinations, according to the desire of the
while the amplifier may be a compact table- user and the characteristics of the amplifier
top assembly. The amplifier is usually cou- tube.
pled to the exciter by a coaxial cable and High- frequency silicon power transistors
changeover relay combination, permitting are used in some advanced amateur and
Triode Amplifier Design 697
commercial equipment designs up to the power capabilities of the tube. Linear am-
100 -watt PEP power level or so. More gen- plifiers commonly run between 55- and 65-
eral use of solid -state devices in amateur percent plate efficiency, with the majority of
power- amplifier equipment is inhibited be- the remainder of the power being lost as
cause of the relatively high cost of suitable plate dissipation. Class -C service often runs
devices and the problem of achieving good at about 70- to 75- percent plate efficiency.
linearity in solid -state amplifier circuitry. Knowing the plate dissipation rating of the
Undoubtedly solid -state devices will become tube, the approximate maximum power in-
of increasing importance in h -f power am- put and output levels for various modes of
plifiers in the coming decade, as these prob- service may be determined by the methods
lems become solved in an economic manner. outlined in Chapter 7.
Either triode or tetrode tubes may be used Amplification Factor (p.) of a triode
in the proper circuitry in h -f and vhf power expresses the ratio of change of plate voltage
amplifiers. The choice of tube type is often for a given change in grid voltage at some
dependent on the amount of drive power fixed value of plate current. Values of ja
available and, in the case of home -made between 10 and 300 are common for triode
gear, the tube at hand. If an exciter of 100 transmitting tubes. High -p tubes (p. greater
.
to 200 watts PEP output capacity is to be than about 30) are most suitable in cathode -
used, it is prudent to employ an amplifier driven (grounded -grid) circuitry as the
whose drive requirement falls in the same cathode -plate shielding of a high -p. tube is
power range as the exciter output. Triode or superior to that of a comparable low - tube,
tetrode tubes may be used in cathode -driven and because a high -js tube provides more gain
(grounded -grid) circuitry which will pass and requires less driving power than a low -
along an excess of exciter power in the form tube in this class of service. Low -ja triodes,
of feedthrough power to the antenna circuit. on the other hand, are well suited for grid -
l'he tubes mai also be grid -driven in com- driven class -AB, operation since it is pos-
bination with a power absorption network sible to reach a high value of plate current
that will dissipate excess exciter power not with this type of tube, as opposed to the
required by the amplifier. high -p equivalent, without driving the grid
On the other hand, if the power output into the power- consuming, positive region.
of the exciter is only a few watts PEP, either Even though a large value of driving voltage
low- drive, high -gain tetrodes must be used is required for the low -p. tube, little drive
in grid- driven configuration, or an inter- power is required for class -AB, service, since
mediate amplifier must be used to boost the grid always remains negative and never
the drive to that level required by triode draws current.
tubes. Thus, the interface between the ex- As a rule -of- thumb, then, a triode tube
citer and the amplifier in terms of PEP level to be used for linear r -f service in a power
must be reconciled in the design of the amplifier should have a large plate- dissipa-
station transmitting equipment. tion capability, and the output power to be
expected from a single tube will run about
28 -1 Triode Amplifier twice the plate- dissipation rating. High -p
Design triodes, generally speaking, perform better
in cathode- driven, class -B circuitry; whereas
Triode tubes may be operated in either medium- and low -p triodes are to be pre-
grid- or cathode- driven configuration, and ferred in grid- driven, class AB, circuitry.
may be run in class -AB,, class -AB2, class -B Circuit neutralization may often be dis-
or class -C mode. Plate dissipation and am- posed with in the first case (at least in the
plification factor (ja) are two triode char- h -f region), and is always necessary in the
acteristics which provide the information second case, otherwise the circuits bear a
necessary to establish proper mode and cir- striking similarity.
cuitry and to evaluate the tube for linear -
amplifier or class -C service. Grid -Driven Representative grid- and cath-
Plate dissipation is important in that it Circuitry ode- driven triode circuits are
determines the ultimate average and peak shown in figure 1. The classic
698 H -F and VHF Power Amplifier RADIO
TRIODE CIRCUITRY
-BIAS
AO GRID DRIVEN OB GRID DRIVEN
- BIAS 13H V.
CO CATHODE DRIVEN OD GRID DRIVEN, PUSH PULL
Figure 1
REPRESENTATIVE TRIODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

Circuits A, B and C are for the 3 -54 MHz region. Circuit D is intended for the 50 -500 MHz
region. Note that one filament leg is grounded in circuit D to reduce inductance of filament
return Circuit.
C, -Input tuning capacitor. Typically, 3 pf per grid current. Typically, 1 to 2.5 mH for 3 to
meter of wavelength. Spacing 0.03" for 30 -MHz range
power level up to 2 kW, PEP RFC -Plate choke, transmitting type, solenoid.
C.-Output tuning capacitor. Refer to plate - Rated to carry plate current. Typically, 800
circuit design data in Chapter 11. .H. See Chapter 17
Cs-Loading capacitor. Typically, 20 pf per RFC.- Receiving -type choke. 21/2 mH for 3- to
meter of wavelength. Refer to Chapter 11. 30 -MHz range.
C -Plate- blocking capacitor. Typically, 500 pf RFC- Bifilar windings, 15 turns each ft 12 wire
to 1000 pf, S kV on I/2 -inch diameter ferrite core, 3" long for
C , C.- Low -inductance mica or ceramic capaci- 3- to 54 -MHz range
tor, series resonant near operating frequency. PC -Plate parasitic suppressor. Typically, 3
See Chapter 17 turns #18 enamel, 1/2-inch diameter, 1/2-inch
M1-Grid-current meter long, in parallel with 50 -ohm 2 -watt com-
M.- Plate- current meter position resistor. See Chapter 17
RFC, -Grid choke, receiving type rated to carry
grid- driven, grid -neutralized circuit is shown fable and is normally adjustable from the
in illustration A. The drive signal is applied amplifier panel, eliminating the necessity
to a balanced grid tank circuit (L1, C1) with of plug -in coils and access openings into the
an out -of -phase portion of the exciting volt- shielded amplifier inclosure. The grid cir-
age fed through capacitor NC to the plate cuit may also be switched or varied in a
circuit in a bridge neutralization scheme. similar manner.
A pi network is employed for the plate Neutralization may be accomplished in
output coupling circuit. The plate induc- the plate circuit, as shown in figure IB. A
tor (L2) may be tapped or otherwise var- split plate -tank circuit is required in place
HANDBOOK Triode Amplifiers Design 699
of the split grid circuit, making the use bypassed to ground. Control of the grid -
of a single -ended pi- network output circuit to- ground impedance in the cathode -driven
impractical. Theory and adjustment of grid circuit establishes the degree of intrastage
and plate neutralizing circuits are covered feedback, and an increase in grid impedance
in Chapter 11. In either configuration, care may alter stage gain, leading to possible un-
must be taken in construction to make sure controlled oscillation or perhaps making the
that a minimum of stray coupling exists stage difficult to drive. At the higher fre-
between grid and plate tank circuits. When- quencies, stage gain may be controlled by
ever possible, the grid and plate coils should the proper choice of the grid -to- ground
be mounted at right angles to each other, impedance.
and should be separated sufficiently to reduce
coupling between them to a minimum. Un-
wanted coupling will tend to make neutral- Push -Pull Circuitry
A push -pull triode am-
ization frequency- sensitive, requiring that plifier configuration is
the circuit be reneutralized when a major shown in figure 1D. This circuit design is
frequency change is made. now rarely used in the h -f region because
of the mechanical difficulties that ensue
when a large frequency change is desired.
Cathode-Driven A representative cathode - In the vhf region, on the other hand, where
Circuitry driven (grounded -grid) tri- operation of an amplifier is generally re-
ode circuit is shown in fig- stricted to one band of frequencies, linear
ure 1C. A pi- network plate circuit is used, push -pull tank circuits are often employed.
and excitation is applied to the filament Lumped- inductance tank coils are usually
(cathode) circuit, the grid being at r-f avoided in the vhf region since various
ground potential. If the amplification fac- forms of parallel-line or strip -line circuitry
tor of the triode is sufficiently high so as provide better efficiency, higher Q and better
to limit the static plate current to a rea- thermal stability than the coil- and -capaci-
sonable value, no auxiliary grid bias is re- tor combination tank assemblies used at the
quired. A parallel -tuned cathode input cir- high frequencies. Push -pull operation is of
cuit is shown, although pi- network circuitry benefit in the vhf region as unavoidable
may be used in this position. Filament volt- tube capacitances are halved, and circuit
age may either be fed via a shunt r -f choke impedances are generally higher than in the
as shown, or applied through a bifilar series - case of single-ended circuitry. At the higher
fed cathode tank coil. vhf regions, parallel- and strip-line circuitry
While nominally at r -f ground, the grid give way to coaxial tank circuits in which
of the triode may be lifted above ground a the tube structure becomes a part of the
sufficient amount so as to insert a monitor- resonant circuit.
ing circuit to measure d -c grid current. The The output coupling circuit may be de-
grid to ground r -f impedance should re- signed for either balanced or unbalanced
main very low, and proper attention must connection to coaxial or twin -conductor
be paid to the r -f circuit. A considerable transmission line. In many cases, a series
amount of r -f current flows through the capacitor (Cs) is placed in one leg of the
grid bypass capacitor (C7) and this compo- line at the feed point to compensate for the
nent should be rated for r-f service. It should inductance of the coupling coil.
be shunted with a low value of resistance Common h -f construction technique em-
(of the order of 10 ohms or less) and the ploys plug -in plate and grid coils which
d -c voltage drop across this resistor is necessitate an opening in the amplifier inclos-
monitored by the grid voltmeter, which ure for coil- changing purposes. Care must
is calibrated in terms of grid current. Both be taken in the construction of the door
resistor and capacitor aid in establishing a of the opening to reduce harmonic leakage
low -impedance path from grid to ground to a minimum. While variations in layout,
and should be mounted directly at the construction, and voltage application are
socket of the tube. If multiple grid pins are found, the following general remarks apply
available, each pin should be individually to h -f amplifiers of all classes and types.
Circuit Layout The most important consid- value specified by the tube manufacturer
eration in constructing a when measured at the tube sockets. A fila-
push -pull amplifier is to maintain electrical ment transformer having a tapped primary
symmetry on both sides of the balanced cir- often will be found useful in adjusting the
cuit. Of utmost importance in maintaining filament voltage. When there is a choice of
electrical balance is the control of stray having the filament voltage slightly higher
capacitance between each side of the circuit or slightly lower than normal, the lower
and ground. voltage is preferable.
Large masses of metal placed near one side Filament bypass capacitors should be low
of the grid or plate circuits can cause serious internal inductance units of approximately
unbalance, especially at the higher frequen- .01 pfd. A separate capacitor should be used
cies, where the tank capacitance between for each socket terminal. Lower values of
one side of the tuned circuit and ground is capacitance should be avoided to prevent
often quite small in itself. Capacitive un- spurious resonances in the internal filament
balance most often occurs when a plate or structure of the tube. Use heavy, shielded
grid coil is located with one of its ends filament leads for low voltage drop and
close to a metal panel. The solution to this maximum circuit isolation.
difficulty is to mount the coil parallel to the
panel to make the capacitance to ground Plate Feed The series plate -voltage feed
equal from each end of the coil, or to place shown in figure 1D is the most
a grounded piece of metal opposite the satisfactory method for push -pull stages.
"free" end of the coil to accomplish a ca- This method of feed puts high voltage on
pacity balance. the plate tank inductor, but since the r -f
All r -f leads should be made as short and voltage on the inductor is in itself sufficient
direct as possible. The leads from the tube reason for protecting the inductor from ac-
grids or plates should be connected directly cidental bodily contact, no additional pro-
to their respective tank capacitors, and the tective arrangements are made necessary by
leads between the tank capacitors and coils the use of series feed.
should be as heavy as the wire that is used The insulation in the plate supply circuit
in the coils themselves. Plate and grid leads should be adequate for the voltages encoun-
to the tubes may be made of flexible tinned tered. In general, the insulation should be
braid or flat copper strip. Neutralizing leads rated to withstand at least four times the
should run directly to the tube grids and maximum d -c plate voltage. For safety, the
plates and should be separate from the grid plate meter should be placed in the cathode
and plate leads to the tank circuits. Having return lead, since there is danger of voltage
a portion of the plate or grid connections to breakdown between a metal panel and the
their tank circuits serve as part of a neu- meter movement at plate voltages much
tralizing lead can often result in amplifier higher than one thousand.
instability at certain operating frequencies. Parallel plate feed, such as shown in
figures lA and 1B, is commonly used for
single -ended pi- network amplifier configura-
Filament Supply The amplifier filament trans- tions. The plate r -f choke is a critical com-
former should be placed ponent in this circuit, and a discussion of
right on the amplifier chassis in close prox- choke design is covered in Chapter 17. The
imity to the tubes. Short filament leads are plate- blocking capacitor (C4) should be
necessary to prevent excessive voltage drop rated to withstand the peak r -f plate cur-
in the connecting leads, and also to prevent rent (usually about three to four times the
r -f pickup in the filament circuit. Long fila- d -c plate current) and the peak r -f voltage
ment leads can often induce instability in an (un to twice the d -c plate voltage.)
otherwise stable amplifier circuit, especially In the case of the push -pull stage, the
if the leads are exposed to the radiated field amplifier grid and plate circuits should be
of the plate circuit of the amplifier stage. symmetrically balanced to ground. In some
The filament voltage should be the correct instances, a small differential capacitor is
HANDBOOK Tetrode Amplifier Design 701
placed in the grid circuit to effect balance, which usually eliminates the need for neu-
and the grid current of each tube is moni- tralization if proper shielding is used.
tored individually to ascertain correct bal- Plate parasitic suppressors may or may
ance. The rotor of the split- stator plate - not be necessary depending on the oper-
tuning capacitor is usually ungrounded, per- ating frequency of the amplifier and the
mitting the plate tank circuit to establish natural parasitic frequency of the input and
its own r-f balance. output circuits. Both grid- and plate- tuning
The various filament, grid, and plate by- capacitors should be located close to the tube
pass capacitors are often vhf coaxial types elements and not tapped down the tuned
which have inherently low inductance well lines, otherwise unwanted parasitic circuits
into the vhf region. These capacitors should may be created. If oscillations are encoun-
be checked to make sure that their internal tered, they may possibly be suppressed by
self -resonant frequency is well above the placing noninductive carbon resistors across
operating frequency of the amplifier. a portion of the plate (and grid) lines as
in most cases, the push -pull amplifier may shown in figure 2.
be cross -neutralized in the normal manner. The plate choke (RFC) should be
At the higher frequencies (above 150 MHz mounted at right angles to the plate line
or so) it is common practice to operate the and care should be taken that it is not
triode tubes in cathode -driven configuration coupled to the line. In particular, the choke
should not be mounted within the line,
but rather outside the end of the line, as
shown. A resistor (R1) is used to take the
place of a grid choke, thus eliminating any
possibility of resonance between the two
chokes, with resulting circuit instability.
In order to prevent radiation loss from
the grid and plate lines, it is common prac-
tice to completely inclose the input and
output circuits in "r -f tight" inclosures,
suitably ventilated to allow proper cooling
of the tubes.
28 -2 Tetrode Amplifier
-BIAS+ e- nS V
Design
As in the case of triode tubes, tetrodes
Figure 2 may be operated in either grid- or cathode -
TYPICAL PUSH -PULL VHF driven configuration and may (within cer-
TRIODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT tain limits) be run in class -AB,, -AB_, -B,
or class -C mode. Much of the information
C,, C:-Low-capacitance, balanced split-stator on circuit layout and operation previously
capacitor. Typically, 10pl per section for
144 MHz. discussed for triode tubes applies in equal
C, Cs- Loading capacitor. Capacitance chosen to context to tetrodes. Other differences and
series resonate at operating frequency with additional operational data will be discussed
coupling loop
C,, C,-Low inductance mica or ceramic capaci- in this section.
tor, series resonant near operating frequen- Tetrode tubes are widely used in h -f and
cy. See Chapter 17
C., C,- Low-inductance feedthrough capacitor. vhf amplifiers because of their high power
See Chapter 17 gain and wide range of simple neutralization.
C,.- Neutralizing capacitor. Approximately Tetrode circuitry resembles triode circuitry
equal to grid -plate capacitance ei triode
tube in that comparable modes and circuit con-
M,- Grid -current meter figurations may be used. Various popular
M,-Plate-c nt meter
R, -Wire resistor (100 -S00 ohms) to act as and proven tetrode circuits are shown in
low -Q r -f choke figure 3. Illustration A shows a typical
RFC -Vhf choke rated to carry plate current.
See text single-ended neutralized tetrode circuit em-
TETRODE CIRCUITRY current and complete screen -to- ground cir-

cuit. See tube data sheet for details
PC -Plate parasitic suppressor. See Chapter 17
and figure of this chapter. For vhf oper-
1
ation, suppressor may consist of composi-

tion resistor shunted across a short portion
of the plate lead
RFC -Grid choke, receiving type. Typically, 2.5
mH for 3- to 30-MHz range. Vhf -rated choke
for SO MHz and 144 MHz
RFC -Plate choke, transmitting type, solenoid.
Rated to carry plate current. Typically, 800
uH for 3- to 30 -MHz range. Vhf-rated choke
for 50 MHz and 144 MHz.
RFC -Receiving -type choke. 2.5 mH for 3- to
30 -MHz range
-BIAS +St-R. B+M.V. MI- Grid- current meter
M -Plate-current meter
AO GRID DRIVEN M -Screen-current meter
PC
ploying a pi- network output circuit and a
bridge neutralization scheme. Tetrode neu-
tralization techniques are discussed in detail
in Chapter 11.
Tetrode plate current is a direct func-
tion of screen voltage and means must be
employed to control screen voltage under
all conditions of operation of the tetrode.
In particular, if the d -c screen -to- ground
- Si AS f SCR. B. M.V. path is broken, the screen voltage may rise
to equal the plate potential, thus damaging
O GRID DRIVEN
the tube and rupturing the screen bypass
PC J2
ANT
capacitor. It is dangerous, therefore, to re-
duce screen voltage for tuneup purposes by
simply breaking the screen power lead unless
a protective screen bleeder resistor (R2) is
placed directly at the tube socket, as shown
in the illustrations of figure 3. If this resis-
tor is used, the screen supply may be safely
broken at point X for tuneup purposes, or
for reduced -power operation. The value of
-BIAS +SCR St N screen bleeder resistance will vary depending
on tube characteristics, and a typical value
CO CATHODE DRIVEN
is generally specified in the tube data sheet.
Figure 3
For tubes of the 4CX250B family, the value
of resistance is chosen to draw about I5 to
REPRESENTATIVE TETRODE 20 ma from the screen power supply. The
AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS 4CX1000A, on the other hand, requires a
Circuit B is intended for operation above the screen bleeder current of about 70 ma.
self- neutralizing frequency of the tetrodo. In any case, regardless of whether the
Above 30 MHz or so, the screen bypass capaci- screen circuit is broken or not, the use of
tor of circuits A and C is often chosen so as
to be self -resonant at the operating frequency a screen bleeder resistor in the circuit at all
of the amplifier. times is mandatory for those tetrodes which
C,, Le -input tuned circuit. Typically, 3 pf per
meter of wavelength for circuits A and B. produce reverse screen current under certain
20 pf per meter of wavelength for circuit C operating conditions. This is a normal charac-
C,, C., L,- Pi- network plate circuit. Refer to
plate -circuit design data in Chapter 11 teristic of most modern, high -gain tetrodes
C -Plate -blocking capacitor. Typically, S00 pf and the screen power supply should be de-
to 1000 pf at S kV signed with this characteristic in mind so
R,- Wirewound resistor (100 -500 ohms) to act
as low -Q r -f choke that correct operating voltages will be main-
R.-Screen resistor to carry negative screen tained on the screen at all times.
With the use of a screen bleeder resistor, much larger voltage than the control grid.
full protection for the screen may be pro- When the electrodes of these tubes are tied
vided by an overcurrent relay and by inter- together, the control grid tends to draw
locking the screen supply so that the plate heavy current and there is risk of damaging
voltage must be applied before screen volt- the tube. Lower -gain tetrodes, such as the
age can be applied. 813, 4 -400A, and 4 -1000A have a more bal-
Power output from a tetrode is very sen- anced ratio of grid to screen current and
sitive to screen voltage, and for linear serv- may be operated in zero -bias, grounded -grid
ice a well -regulated screen power supply is mode. The best way to employ the higher -
required. Voltage -regulator tubes or a series - gain tetrode tubes in cathode -driven service
regulated power supply are often used in is to ground the grid and screen through
high -power tetrode linear- amplifier stages. bypass capacitors and to operate the ele-
A tetrode neutralizing circuit suitable for ments at their rated class AB, d -c voltages.
the lower portion of the vhf region is shown In all cases, grid and screen current should
in figure 3B. When the operating frequency be monitored so as to keep maximum cur-
of the tetrode is higher than the self -neu- rents within ratings.
tralizing frequency, the r -f voltage developed
in the screen circuit is too great to provide Tetrode Amplifier The most widely used
proper voltage division between the internal Circuitry tetrode circuitry for h -f
capacitances of the tube (see Chapter 11) . use is the single -ended pi-
One method of reducing the voltage across network configuration, variations of which
the screen lead inductance and thus achiev- are shown in figure 4.
ing neutralization is to adjust the inductive A common form of pi- network amplifier
reactance of the screen- to-ground path so is shown in figure 4A. The pi circuit forms
as to lower the total reactance. This react- the matching system between the plate of
ance adjustment may take the form of a the amplifier tube and the low- impedance,
variable series capacitor as shown in illustra- unbalanced, antenna circuit. The coil and
tion B. This circuit is frequency sensitive input capacitor of the pi may be varied to
and must be readjusted for major changes tune the circuit over a 10 to 1 frequency
in the frequency of operation of the ampli- range (usually 3.0 to 30 MHz). Operation
fier. over the 20- to 30 -MHz range takes place
Balanced input and output tuned circuits when the variable slider on coil L_ is ad-
are used in the configuration of figure 3B. justed to short this coil out of the circuit.
In the grid circuit, the split capacitance is Coil L, therefore comprises the tank in-
composed of variable capacitor C, and the ductance for the highest portion of the
grid -cathode input capacitance of the tube. operating range. This coil has no taps or
The coil (L1) is chosen so that C, approxi- sliders and is constructed for the highest
mates the input capacitance. The same tech - possible Q at the high- frequency end of the
nioue is employed in the plate circuit, where range. The adjustable coil (because of the
a split tank is achieved by virtue of capaci- variable tap and physical construction)
tance C, and the output capacitance of the usually has a lower Q than that of the fixed
tetrode tube. coil.
A cathode -driven tetrode amplifier is
The degree of loading is controlled by ca-
shown in illustration C. Many tetrodes do
pacitors C, and C2. The amount of circuit
not perform well when connected in class -B
capacitance required at this point is in-
grounded -grid configuration (screen and
versely proportional to the operating fre-
grid both at ground potential). These tubes
quency and to the impedance of the antenna
are characterized by high perveance, together
with extremely small spacing between the circuit. A loading capacitor range of 100
to 2500 pf is normally ample to cover the
grid bars, and between the grid structure
3.5- to 30 -MHz range.
and the cathode. Tubes of the 4 -65A,
4X15 OA /4CX2 f 0B, and 4CX1000A family The pi circuit is usually shunt -fed to re-
are in this class. For proper operation of move the d -c plate voltage from the coils
these high -gain tubes, the screen requires and capacitors. The components are held at
C2 L L2
L O w-Z
OUTPUT
TC3 S2 C4
EXCI TATION
I
'oc -
C6
Vt C2 L2
LOW -Z
OUTPUT
Vt C2 L2
LOW -Z
OUTPUT
EXCITATION
O
- BIAS r 115V.^.
Figure 4
TYPICAL PI- NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS

A -Split grid circuit provides out -of -phase voltage for grid neutralization of tetrode tube.
Rotary coil is employed in plate circuit, with small, fixed auxiliary coil for 28 MHz.
Multiple tuning grid tank TI covers 3.5 -30 MHz without switching
8-Tapped grid and plate inductors are used with "bridge- type" neutralizing circuit for tetrode
amplifier stage. Vacuum tuning capacitor is used in input section of pi- network
C-Untuned input circuit (resistance loaded) and plate inductor ganged with tuning capacitor
comprise simple amplifier configuration. R, is usually 50 -ohm, 100 -watt carbon resistor.
PC,, PC, -57 -ohm, 2 -watt composition resistor, wound with 3 turns *12 enam. wire
Note: Alternatively, PC. may be placed in the plate lead.
ground potential by completing the circuit to

ground through the choke (RFC,) . Great
stress is placed on the plate- circuit choke
(RFC_). This component must be specially
designed for this mode of operation, having
low interturn capacitance and no spurious
internal resonances throughout the operat-
ing range of the amplifier.
Parasitic suppression is accomplished by
means of chokes PC, and PC, in the screen,
grid, or plate leads of the tetrode. Suitable
values for these chokes are given in the parts
list of figure 4. Effective parasitic suppres-
sion is dependent to a large degree on the
choice of screen bypass capacitor C1. This
component must have extremely low induct- B BIAS SUPPLY
ance throughout the operating range of the S. SCREEN SUPPLY
P. ILOTE SUPPLY
amplifier and well up into the vhf parasitic
range. The capacitor must have a voltage
rating equal to at least twice the screen po-
tential (four times the screen potential for
plate modulation). There are practically no
capacitors available that will perform this PENA rE
difficult task. One satisfactory solution is ruME
to allow the amplifier chassis to form one -COMMON
MINUS
plate of the screen capacitor. A "sandwich" LEAD
is built on the chassis with a sheet of insu- B*G-_

lating material of high dielectric constant
Figure 5
and a matching metal sheet which forms the
screen side of the capacitance. A capacitor GROUNDED -SCREEN -GRID
of this type has very low internal induct- CONFIGURATION PROVIDES HIGH
ance but is very bulky and takes up valuable ORDER OF ISOLATION IN TETRODE
space beneath the chassis. One suitable ca- AMPLIFIER STAG!
pacitor for this position is the Centralab A- Typical amplifier circuit has cathode return
type 858S-1000, rated at 1000 pf at f000 at ground potential. All circuits return to
cathode.
volts. This compact ceramic capacitor has B -All circuits return to cathode, but ground
relatively low internal inductance and may point has been shifted to screen terminal
of tube. Operation of the circuit remains
be mounted to the chassis by a 6 -32 bolt. the same, as potential differences between
Further screen isolation may be provided by elements of the tube are the same as in
a shielded power lead, isolated from the circuit A.
C-Practical grounded- screen circuit. "Common
screen by a .001 -pfd ceramic capacitor and minus" lead returns to negative of plate
a 100 -ohm carbon resistor. supply, which cannot be grounded. Switch
S, removes screen voltage for tune -up
Various forms of the basic pi- network purposes.
amplifier are shown in figure 4. The A con-
figuration employs the so- called "all- band" linear operation. A tetrode tube operating
grid -tank circuit and a rotary pi- network under class -AB, conditions draws no grid
coil in the plate circuit. The B circuit uses current and requires no grid -driving power.
coil switching in the grid circuit, bridge Only r -f voltage is required for proper
neutralization, and a tapped pi- network operation. It is possible therefore to dispense
coil with a vacuum tuning capacitor. Fig- with the usual tuned grid circuit and neu-
ure 4C shows an interesting circuit that is tralizing capacitor and in their place employ a
becoming more popular for class -AB, noninductive load resistor in the grid circuit
across which the required excitation voltage screen and bias supplies below ground po-
may be developed. This resistor can be of tential as shown in figure 5. Meters are
the order of 50 to 300 ohms, depending on placed in the separate- circuit cathode return
circuit requirements. Considerable power leads, and each meter reads only the cur-
must be dissipated in the resistor to develop rent flowing in that particular circuit. Oper-
sufficient grid swing, but driving power is ation of this grounded- screen circuit is nor-
often cheaper to obtain than the cost of the mal in all respects, and it may be applied to
usual grid- circuit components. In addition, any form of grid- driven tetrode amplifier
the low- impedance grid return removes the with good results.
tendency toward instability that is often The Inductively The output capacitance
common to the circuits of figures 4A and 4B. Tuned Tank Circuit of large transmitting
Neutralization is not required of the cir- tubes and the residual
cuit of figure 4C, and in many cases parasit- circuit capacitance are often sufficiently
ic suppression may be omitted. The price
great to prevent the plate tank circuit from
that must be paid is the additional excitation
having the desired value of Q, especially in
that is required to develop operating voltage the upper reaches of the h -f range (28- to
across grid resistor R1.
54 -MHz). Where tank capacitance values
The pi- network circuit of figure 4C is in-
are small, it is possible for the output ca-
teresting in that the rotary coil (L2) and
pacitance of the tube to be greater than the
the plate tuning capacitor (CO are ganged
maximum desired value of tank capacitance.
together by a gear train, enabling the cir-
In some cases, it is possible to permit the
cuit to be tuned to resonance with one panel
control instead of the two required by the circuit to operate with higher- than -normal
circuit of figure 4A. Careful design of the Q, however this expedient is unsatisfactory
rotary inductor will permit the elimination when circulating tank current is high, as it
of the auxiliary high- frequency coil (L1), usually is in high- frequency amplifiers.
thus reducing the cost and complexity of A practical alternative is to employ in-
the circuit. ductile Inning and to dispense entirely with
the input tuning capacitor which usually
The Grounded- Screen For maximum shielding, has a high minimum value of capacitance
Configuration it is necessary to operate (figure 6). The input capacitance of the
the tetrode tube with circuit is thus reduced to that of the out-
the screen at r-f ground potential. As the put capacitance of the tube which may
screen has a d -c potential applied to it (in be more nearly the desired value. Cir-
grid- driven circuits), it must be bypassed cuit resonance is established by varying the
to ground to provide the necessary r -f re- inductance of the tank coil with a movable,
turn. The bypass capacitor employed must shorted turn, or loop, which may be made of
a short length of copper water pipe of the
perform efficiently over a vast frequency
spectrum that includes the operating range proper diameter. The shorted turn is inserted
plus the region of possible vhf parasitic oscil- within the tank coil by a lead -screw mech-
lations. This is a large order, and the usual anism, or it may be mounted at an angle
bypass capacitors possess sufficient inductance within the coil and rotated so that its plane
to introduce regeneration into the screen cir- travels from a parallel to an oblique posi-
cuit, degrading the grid -plate shielding to tion with respect to the coil. The shorted
a marked degree. Nonlinearity and self - turn should be silver plated and have no
oscillation can be the result of this loss of joints to hold r -f losses to a minimum. Due
circuit isolation. A solution to this problem attention should be given to the driving
is to eliminate the screen bypass capacitor,
mechanism so that unwanted, parasitic
by grounding the screen terminals of the shorted turns do not exist in this device.
tube by means of a low- inductance strap.
Screen voltage is then applied to the tube by Push -Pull Tetrode Tetrode tubes may be em-
grounding the positive terminal of the screen Circuitry ployed in push -pull ampli-
supply, and "floating" the negative of the fiers, although the modern
zero grid excitation. Any minute amount of

R -F OUT energy fed back from the plate circuit to the
grid circuit can cause instability or oscilla-
tion. Unless suitable precautions are in-
corporated in the electrical and mechanical
design of the amplifier, this energy feedback
will inevitably occur.
Figure 6
Fortunately these precautions are simple.
The grid and filament circuits must be iso-
INDUCTIVE TUNING ELIMINATES lated from the plate circuit. This is done by
INPUT TUNING CAPACITOR
placing these circuits in an "electrically
tight" box. All leads departing from this
trend is to parallel operation of these tubes. box are bypassed and filtered so that no r -f
A typical circuit for push -pull operation is energy can pass along the leads into the box.
shown in figure 7. The remarks concerning This restricts the energy leakage path be-
the filament supply, plate feed, and grid bias tween the plate and grid circuits to the
in Section 28 -1 apply equally to tetrode residual plate -to -grid capacity of the tetrode
stages. Because of the high circuit gain of tubes. This capacity is of the order of 0.25
the tetrode amplifier, extreme care must be pf per tube, and under normal conditions
taken to limit intrastage feedback to an is sufficient to produce a highly regenerative
absolute minimum. It must be remembered condition in the amplifier. Whether or not
with high -gain tubes of this type that almost the amplifier will actually break into oscil-
full output can be obtained with practically lation is dependent upon circuit loading and
residual lead inductance of the stage. Suffice
to say that unless the tubes are actually neu-
tralized a condition exists that will lead to
circuit instability and oscillation under cer-
tain operating conditions.
Amplifier The push -pull tetrode ampli -

Construction fier should be designed around
"r -f tight" boxes for the grid -
and plate- circuit assemblies (figure 8) . The
tetrodes are mounted on the chassis which
forms the common shield plate between the
boxes. The grid circuit is placed below the
chassis and all power leads into and out of
this area are bypassed and shielded within
the compartment.
The base shells of the tubes are grounded
Figure 7 by spring clips, and short adjustable rods
REPRESENTATIVE PUSH -PULL
project up beside each tube to act as neu-
TETRODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
tralizing capacitors. The leads to these rods
are cross -connected beneath the chassis and
The push -pull tetrads amplifier uses many of the rods provide a small value of capacitance
the same components required by the triode
amplifier of figure 2. Parasitic super to the plates of the tubes. This neutraliza-
may be placed in grid, screen, or plate loads tion is necessary when the tube is operated
A low -inductance screen capacitor Is required
for proper amplifier operation. Capacitor C, with high power gain and high screen volt-
may be .001 Add, S kV. Centralab type 858S- age. As the operating frequency of the tube
1000. Strap multiple screen terminals together is increased, the inductance of the internal
at socket with 3/4-inch copper strap for opera-
tion below 30 MHz and attach PC to tenter of screen support lead of the tube becomes an
strap. Blower required for many medium- and important part of the screen ground- return
high -power tetrad* tubes to cool filament and
plate seals. circuit. At some critical frequency (about
45 MHz for the 4 -250A tube) the screen - In some instances, suppressors are required in
lead inductance causes a series- resonant con- the grid circuit as well. Design of the sup-
dition and the tube is said to be "self -neu- pressor is a cut -and -try process: if the in-
tralized" at this frequency. Above this ductor of the suppressor has too few turns,
frequency the screen of the tetrode tube the parasitic oscillation will not be ade-
cannot be held at ground potential by the quately suppressed. Too many turns on the
usual screen bypass capacitors. With normal suppressor will allow too great an amount of
circuitry, the tetrode tube will have a tend- fundamental frequency power to be ab-
ency to self -oscillate somewhere in the 120 - sorbed by the suppressor and it will overheat
to 160 -MHz region. Low -capacity tetrodes
and be destroyed. From 3 to 5 turns of #12
that can operate efficiently at such a high
frequency are capable of generating robust wire in parallel with a 50 -ohm, 2 -watt
parasitic oscillations in this region while the composition resistor will usually suffice for
operator is vainly trying to get them oper- operation in the h -f region. At 50 MHz, the
ating at some lower frequency. The solution suppressor inductor may take the form of a
is to introduce enough loss in the circuit at length of copper strap (often a section of
the frequency of the parasitic to render the plate lead) shunted by the suppressor
oscillation impossible. resistor.
Parasitic suppression is required with most VHF Push -Pull The circuit considera-
modern high -gain tetrodes and may take Tetrode Amplifiers tions for the vhf triode
place in either the plate or screen circuit. amplifier configuration
apply equally well to the push -pull tetrode
circuit shown in figure 9. The neutralization
techniques applied to the tetrode tube, how-
ever, may vary as the frequency of operation
of the amplifier varies about the self-neu-
tralizing frequency of the tetrode tube. At
or near the upper frequency limit of opera-
tion, the inductance of the screen -grid lead
of the tetrode cannot be ignored as it be-
comes of importance. Passage of r-f current
through the screen lead produces a potential
drop in the lead which may or may not be
in phase with the grid voltage impressed
on the tube. At the self -neutralizing fre-
quency of the tube, the tube is inherently
neutralized due to the voltage and current
divisions within the tube which place the
grid at the filament potential as far as plate -
circuit action is concerned (see Chapter 11,
Section 6). When the tetrode tube is oper-
ated below this frequency, normal neutral-
izing circuits apply; operation at the self -
Figure 8 neutralizing frequency normally does not
require neutralization, provided the input
REAR VIEW OF PUSH -PULL and output circuits are well shielded. Opera-
4 -250A AMPLIFIER tion above the self- neutralizing frequency
The neutralizing rods are mounted on ceramic (in the range of 25 MHz to 100 MHz for
feedthrough insulators adjacent to each tube large glass tubes, and in the range of 120
socket. Low voltage power leads leave the
grid -circuit compartment via Hypass capacitors MHz to 600 MHz for ceramic, vhf tubes)
located on the lower left corner of the chassis. requires neutralization, which may take the
A screen plate covers the rear of the ampli-
fier during operation. This plate was removed form of a series screen- tuning capacitor,
for the photograph. such as shown in the illustration.
HANDBOOK Cathode -Driven Amplifier Design 709
signal is applied to the cathode by means of

a tuned circuit. Since the grid of the tube
is grounded, it serves as a shield between the
input and output circuits, making neutral-
ization unnecessary in many instances. The
very small plate -to- cathode capacitance of
most tubes permits a minimum of intrastage
coupling below 30 MHz. In addition, when
zero -bias triodes or tetrodes are used, screen
or bias supplies are not usually required.
Feedthrough Power A portion of the excit-
ing power appears in the
plate circuit of the grounded -grid (cathode -
driven) amplifier and is termed feedthrough
Figure 9 power. In any amplifier of this type, whether
it be triode or tetrode, it is desirable to have
REPRESENTATIVE VHF PUSH -PULL
a large ratio of feedthrough power to peak
TETRODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
grid- driving power. The feedthrough power
Tuned lines are used in grid and plate tank acts as a swamping resistor across the driving
circuits in place of lumped inductances. Each circuit to stabilize the effects of grid load-
screen circuit is series resonated fo ground by
neutralizing capacitor CN. Wirewound resistor ing. The ratio of feedthrough power to driv-
(Re) is used in the grid -return circuit and fre- ing power should be about 10 to 1 for best
quency -rated r -f chokes in the plate and
screen power leads. Screen resistor Is in- stage linearity. The feedthrough power pro-
cluded to complete screen-to- ground circuit, vides the user with added output power he
as di d in text. Vhf type feedthrough
capacitors are used for maximum suppression would not obtain from a more conventional
of r -f currents in power leads. circuit. The driver stage for the grounded -
grid amplifier must, of course, supply the
Neutralization is frequency sensitive and normal excitation power plus the feed-
the amplifier should be neutralized at the through power. Many commercial sideband
operating frequency. Adjustment is con- exciters have power output capabilities of
ducted so as to reduce the power fed from the order of 70 to 100 watts and are thus
the grid to the plate circuit. The amplifier well suited to drive high -power grounded -
may be driven with a test signal (filament grid linear amplifier stages whose total ex-
and d -c voltages removed) and the signal citation requirements fall within this range.
in the plate tank circuit measured with an
r -f voltmeter. The neutralizing capacitors Distortion Laboratory measurements made
are adjusted in unison until a minimum of Products on various tubes in the circuit
fed -through voltage is measured. A good of figure l0A show that a dis-
null will be obtained provided that intrastage tortion reduction of the order of 5 to 10
feedback is reduced to a minimum by proper decibels in odd -order products can be ob-
shielding and lead- bypassing techniques. tained by operating the tube in cathode -
driven service as opposed to grid -driven
28 -3 Cathode - Driven service. The improvement in distortion varies
Amplifier Design from tube type to tube type, but some
order of improvement is noted for all tube
The cathode -driven, or grounded -grid types tested. Most amateur -type transmit-
amplifier has achieved astounding popularity ting tubes provide signal -to- distortion ratios
in recent years as a high -power linear stage of -20 to -30 decibels at full output in
for sideband application. Various versions of class -AB, grid- driven operation. The ratio
this circuit are illustrated in figure 10. In increases to approximately -25 to -40
the basic circuit the control grid of the tube decibels for class -B grounded -grid operation.
is at r -f ground potential and the exciting Distortion improvement is substantial, but
R -F OUT R -F OUT
ExC
ExC.
R -F OUT F.F. our
EXC.
Figure 10
THE CATHODE -DRIVEN AMPLIFIER

Widely used as a linear amplifier for sideband service, the cathode -driven (g -g) circuit
provides economy and simplicity, in addition to a worthwhile reduction in intermodulation
distortion. A-The basic g -g amplifier employs tuned input circuit. B -A simplified circuit
employs untuned r -f choke in cathode in place of the tuned circuit. Linearity and power
output ore Inferior compared to circuit of figure A. C- Simple high -C pi- network may be used
to match output impedance of sideband exciter to input impedance of grounded-grid stage.
El-Parallel-tuned, high -C circuit may be employed for bandswitching amplifier. Excitation tap
is adjusted to provide low value of SWR on exciter coaxial line.
not as great as might otherwise be assumed high -impedance load over the balance of the
from the large amount of feedback inherent cycle. Linearity of the exciter is thereby
in the grounded -grid circuit. affected and the distortion products of the
A simplified version of the grounded -grid exciter are enhanced. Thus, the driving
amplifier is shown in figure IOB. This con- signal is degraded in the cathode circuit of
figuration utilizes an untuned input circuit, the grounded -grid stage unless the unbal-
circuit of figure 10A. It has inherent limita- anced input impedance can be modified in
tions, however, that should be recognized. some fashion. A high -C tuned circuit, stores
In general, slightly less power output and enough energy over the operating r -f cycle so
efficiency is observed with the untuned -cath- that the exciter "sees" a relatively constant
ode circuit, odd -order distortion products load at all times. In addition, the tuned cir-
run 4 to 6 decibels higher, and the circuit cuit may be tapped or otherwise adjusted so
is harder to drive and match to the exciter that the SWR on the coaxial line coupling
than is the tuned -cathode circuit of figure the exciter to the amplifier is relatively low.
10A. Best results are obtained when the This is a great advantage, particularly in
coaxial line of the driver stage is very short the case of those exciters having fixed -ratio
-a few feet or so. Optimum linearity re- pi- network output circuits designed expressly
quires cathode- circuit Q that can only be for a S0 -ohm termination.
supplied by a high -C tank circuit. Finally, it must be noted that removal of
Since the single -ended class -B grounded - the tuned cathode circuit breaks the ampli-
grid linear amplifier draws grid current on fier plate- circuit return to the cathode, and
only one -half (or less) of the operating r -f plate- current pulses must return to the
cycle, the sideband exciter "sees" a low - cathode via the outer shield of the driver
impedance load during this time, and a very coaxial line and back via the center con-
-SPAS
R - OUT
EXC.
Figure 11
TETRODE TUBES MAY BE USED IN CATHODE- DRIVEN AMPLIFIERS

A- Tetrode tube may be used in cathode-driven configuration, with bias and screen voltages
applied to elements which are at r -f ground potential. B -Grid c t of grounded -grid tube
is easily monitored by RC network which lifts grid above ground sufficiently to permit a
millivoltmeter to indicate voltage drop across -ohm resistor. Meter is a 0 -1 d-c milliammeter
1
in series with appropriate multiplier resistor.
ductor! Extreme fluctuations in exciter load- The grid (or screen) circuit of the tube is
ing, intermodulation distortion, and TVI operated at r -f ground potential, or may
can be noticed by changing the length of have d -c voltage applied to it to determine
the cable between the exciter and the the operating parameters of the stage (figure
grounded -grid amplifier when an untuned- 11A). In either case, the r -f path to ground
cathode input circuit and a long intercon- must be short, and have extremely low in-
necting coaxial line are used. ductance, otherwise the screening action of
Cathode- Driven Design features of the sin - the element will be impaired. The grid (and
Amplifier gle -ended and push -pull am- screen) therefore, must be bypassed to
Construction plifiers discussed previously ground over a frequency range that includes
apply equally well to the the operating spectrum as well as the region
grounded -grid stage. The g -g linear ampli- of possible vhf parasitic oscillations. This is
fier may have either configuration, although quite a large order. The inherent inductance
the majority of the g -g stages are single of the usual bypass capacitor plus the length
ended, as push -pull offers no distinct ad- of element lead within the tube is often suf-
vantages and adds greatly to circuit com- ficient to introduce enough regeneration into
plexity. the circuit to degrade the linearity of the
The cathode circuit of the amplifier is amplifier at high signal levels even though
resonated to the operating frequency by the instability is not great enough to cause
means of a high -C tank (figure l0A). Reso- parasitic oscillation. In addition, it is often
nance is indicated by maximum grid current desired to "unground" the grounded screen
of the stage. A low value of SWR on the or grid sufficiently to permit a metering cir-
driver coaxial line may be achieved by ad- cuit to be inserted.
justing the tap on the tuned circuit, or by One practical solution to these problems
varying the capacitors of the pi- network is to shunt the tube element to ground by
(figure 10C) . Correct adjustments will pro- means of a 1 -ohm composition resistor, by-
duce minimum SWR and maximum ampli- passed with a .01 -pfd ceramic disc capacitor.
fier grid current at the same settings. The The voltage drop caused by the flow of grid
cathode tank should have a Q of 2 or more. (or screen) current through the resistor can
The cathode circuit should be completely easily be measured by a millivoltmeter whose
shielded from the plate circuit. It is common scale is calibrated in terms of element cur-
practice to mount the cathode components rent (figure 11B).
in an "r -f tight" box below the chassis of The plate circuit of the grounded -grid
the amplifier, and to place the plate circuit amplifier is conventional, and either pi -net-
components in a screened box above the work or inductive coupling to the load may
chassis. be used. There is some evidence to support
the belief that intermodulation distortion percent of the previously logged PEP read-
products are reduced by employing plate cir- ings. The exact amount of meter movement
cuit Q's somewhat higher than normally with speech is variable and depends on meter
used in class -C amplifier design. A circuit damping and the peak to average ratio of
Q of 10 or greater is thus recommended the particular voice. Under no circum-
for ground -grid amplifier plate circuits. stances, however, should the voice meter
readings exceed 50 percent of the PEP ad-
Tuning the Since the input and output justment readings unless some form of
Grounded -Grid circuits of the grounded - speech compression is in use.
Amplifier grid amplifier are in series, a To properly load a linear amplifier for
certain proportion of driv- the so- called "two- kilowatt PEP" condition,
ing power appears in the output circuit. If it is necessary for the amplifier to be tuned
full excitation is applied to the stage and the and loaded at the two -kilowatt level, albeit
output circuit is opened, or the plate voltage briefly. It is necessary to use a dummy load
removed from the tube, practically all of to comply with the FCC regulations, or
the driving power will be dissipated by the else a special test signal must be used. To
grid of the tube. Overheating of this ele- achieve a ratio of 2:1 between the tune -up
ment will quickly occur under these circum- condition and the PEP condition an audio
stances, followed by damage to the tube. pulser and single -tone driving signal may
Full excitation should therefore never be be used. Shown in figure 12 is a pulser
applied to a grounded -grid stage unless plate having a duty cycle of about 0.44. For a
voltage is applied beforehand, and the stage d -c meter reading of 880 watts input using
is loaded to the antenna. the pulser and a single audio tone, the PEP
Tuneup for sideband operation consists input level and corresponding amplifier
of applying full plate voltage and sufficient loading adjustments will satisfy the two -
excitation (carrier injection) so that a kilowatt PEP conditions. An oscilloscope and
small rise in resting plate (cathode) current audio oscillator are necessary to conduct this
is noted. The plate loading capacitor is set exercise, but these instruments are required
near full capacitance and the plate tank items for any well- equipped sideband station.
capacitor is adjusted for resonance (mini- For best linearity, the output circuit of
mum plate current) . Drive is advanced until the grounded -grid stage should be over -
grid current is noted and the plate circuit coupled so that power output drops about
is loaded by decreasing the capacitance of 2- percent from maximum value. A simple
the plate loading capacitor. The drive is output r-f voltmeter is indispensable for
increased until about one -half normal grid proper circuit adjustment. Excessive grid
current flows, and loading is continued (recurrent is a sign of antenna undercoupling,
resonating the plate tank capacitor as re- and overcoupling is indicated by a rapid drop
quired) until loading is near normal. Finally, in output power. Proper grounded -grid stage
grid drive and loading are adjusted until operation can be determined by finding the
PEP - condition plate and grid currents are optimum ratio between grid and plate cur-
normal. The values of plate and grid current rent and by adjusting the drive level and
should be logged for future reference. At loading to maintain this ratio. Many manu-
this point, the amplifier is loaded to the facturers now provide grounded -grid oper-
maximum PEP input condition. In most ation data for their tubes, and the ratio of
cases, the amplifier and power supply are grid to plate current can be determined from
capable of operation at this power level for the data for each particular tube.
only a short period of time, and it is not
recommended that this condition be per- Choice of Tubes Not all tubes are suitable
mitted for more than a minute or two. for G -G Service for grounded -grid service.
The exciter is now switched to the SSB In addition, the signal -to-
mode and, with speech excitation, the grid distortion ratio of the suitable tubes varies
and plate currents of the cathode -driven over a wide range. Some of the best g -g
stage should rise to approximately 40 to 50 performers are the 811A, 813, 7094, 4 -125A,
6 J 5 Neutralization At some high frequency

00.5
of the G -G Stage the shielding action of the
uPur
N
DI0
grid of the g -g amplifier
PULSCD AUDIO deteriorates. Neutralization may be neces-
OUTPUT
sary at higher frequencies either because of
the presence of inductance between the ac-
tive grid element and the common returns
ME0/rsP-3045
of the input and output circuit, or because
OR
EOUivALENT
of excessive plate- cathode capacitance.
Neutralization, where required, may be
accomplished by feeding out-of -phase energy
,,5v from the plate circuit to the filament circuit
(figure 13A) or by inserting a reactance in
Figure 12 series with the grid (figure 13B). For values
of plate- cathode capacitance normally en-
AUDIO PULSER FOR HIGH -POWER
countered in tubes usable in g -g service, the
TUNE -UP OF AMPLIFIER residual inductance in the grid -ground path
This simple audio pulser modifies the audio provides sufficient reactance, and in some
signal to the sideband exciter so that it has a
high peak -to- average power ratio. Amplifier cases even series capacitance will be required.
may be thus tuned for two kilowatt PEP Typical tube electrode capacitances are shown
input without violating the one -kilowatt in figure 14A. These can be represented by
maximum steady -state condition.
an equivalent star connection of three ca-
pacitors (figure 14B). If an inductance (L)
4-250A, 4 -400A, and 4- 1000A. In addition, is placed in series with Cc so that a resonant
the 3 -400Z, 3 -500Z, and 3 -1000Z triodes are circuit is formed (figure 14C), point O will
specifically designed for low distortion, be at ground potential (14D) . This prevents
grounded -grid amplifier service. the transfer of energy from point P to point
Certain types of tetrodes, exemplified by K, since there now exists no common cou-
the 4 -65A, 4X150A, 4CX300A, and 4CX- pling impedance. The determination of
1000A should not be used as grounded -grid value Cc and L are shown in figure 14.
amplifiers unless grid bias and screen voltage It is apparent that when the plate- cathode
are applied to the elements of the tube (fig- capacitance of the tube is small as compared
ure 11A). The internal structure of these to the plate -grid and the grid- cathode ca-
tubes permits unusually high values of grid pacitance, Cc is a large value and the re-
current to flow when true grounded -grid quired value of inductance L is small. In
circuitry is used, and the tube may be easily practical cases the value of L is supplied by
damaged by this mode of operation. the tube and lead inductance, and the grid -
The efficiency of a typical cathode -driven to- ground impedance can be closely adjusted
amplifier runs between 55- and 65- percent, by proper choice of the bias bypass capacitor
indicating that the tube employed should
have plenty of plate dissipation. In general,
(figure 13B). Below a certain frequency
the PEP input in watts to a tube operating determined by the physical geometry of the
in grounded -grid configuration can safely tube, neutralization may be accomplished
be about 2.5 to 3 times the rated plate by adding inductance to the grid- return
dissipation. Because of the relatively low lead; above this frequency it may be neces-
average -to -peak power of the human voice sary to series tune the circuit for minimum
it is tempting to push this ratio to a higher energy feedthrough from cathode to plate.
figure in order to obtain more output from Most tubes are sufficiently well screened so
a given tube. This action is unwise in that that series inductive neutralization at the
the odd -order distortion products rise rapid- lower frequencies is unnecessary, but series
ly when the tube is overloaded, and because capacitance tuning of the grid- return lead
no safety margin is left for tuning errors or may be required to prevent oscillation at
circuit adjustments. some parasitic frequency in the vhf range.
R -F OUT.
EXC.
O
Figure 13
NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR CATHODE -DRIVEN STAGES

Neutralisation of the g -g stage may be necessary at the higher frequencies. Energy fed back
in proper phase from plate to cathode is used to neutralise the unwanted energy fed through
the tube (A). Reactance placed in series with the grid return lead (B) will accomplish the
same result. The inductance (L) usually consists of the internal grid lead of the tube, and
capacitor C may be the grid bypass capacitor. A series -resonant circuit at the operating
frequency is thus formed.
28 -4 1-kW Economy sweep tubes must be closely matched in

Linear Amplifier terms of perveance, or an adjustable bias
supply must be provided for each tube. In
addition, when one tube begins to carry less
A vast amount of money can be spent on than its share of the total power, a greater
high -power transmitting equipment. On the burden is thrust on the remaining tubes
other hand, excellent results may be obtained whose operating lives are shortened as a
from proper use of inexpensive components result of the increased load.
and tubes. A multiplicity of TV sweep tubes The use of inexpensive transmitting-type
have often been used in linear- amplifier serv- high -tt triodes such as the 811A is highly
ice at the 1 -kw PEP level, but this interest- recommended in place of the multiple sweep -
ing approach seems to have created more tube approach, since the larger tube has
problems that it has solved. In order to ample plate dissipation and filament emis-
achieve proper distribution of power, the sion to withstand the power level, and pro-
CP-R
Cc (Cp-c xCp-R)t(Cp-K xCC-R)t(Cc-R X Cp-c)

CP-R
L 1
1/42/7,P)- x Cc
Figure 14
Tube electrode capacitances can be rep fed by an equivalent star e ion of three
capacitors. If inductance is placed in series with C, so that a circuit Is formed
(drawing C), point 0 will be at ground potential.
HANDBOOK 1 -KW Economy Linear 715
vides good operating life. The use of four plate dissipation without the need for forced -
811A tubes in parallel, moreover, allows air cooling. At a plate potential of about
ample safety factor at the 1 -kw PEP level 1500 volts and a total plate current of 650
and requires no expensive and complicated ma, the full 1000 -watt PEP input level is
balancing circuits to make them share the reached at a PEP drive level of about 80
power load evenly. watts. The drive requirement is compatible
Shown in this section is a 1000 -watt PEP with the output power of most modern SSB
linear amplifier for use on amateur bands be- exciters and transceivers.
tween 80 and 10 meters which makes use Referring to the schematic of figure 16,
of four 811A triodes connected in grounded - separate tuned input circuits are used for
grid configuration. This inexpensive ampli- each band, and are switched into the fila-
fier is a good "beginners' project" in the field ment circuit by bandswitch Si. A third
of single sideband. winding on the filament choke is used for
neutralization. The plate circuit consists of
The Amplifier The circuit of the 811A a pi network using a commercially available
Circuit linear amplifier is shown in inductor (L6-L7) and an inexpensive cer-
figure 16. A conventional amic bandswitch. On the 80 -meter band
grounded -grid (cathode -driven) configura- position, an additional output capacitor is
tion is used, with provision for neutralization switched in parallel with the loading capac-
added. The four tubes are strapped in par- itor (CO to match the low antenna imped-
allel, providing a total of over 260 watts ances often found on this band.
Figure 15
1 -KW PEP ECONOMY LINEAR AMPLIFIER
Designed for operation between 3.5 MHz and 29.7 MHz this economical linear amplifier uses
four 811A tubes in parallel, operating at 1500 volts. The amplifier may be driven by an SSS
exciter or transceiver having 80 watts PEP output, or more. The amplifier is built within a
homemade cabinet, the top, sides and back of which are made of perforated aluminum. The
front panel and cowl are made of aluminum sheet. The unit is given a spr.y coat of zinc
chromate paint, and an overcoat of gray paint.
At the upper left are the grid and plate milliammeters. One milliampere d -c meters are
used, shunted to the desired range. The grid meter reads 200 ma full scale and the plate meter
reads one ampere, full scale. Below the meters is the cathode circuit bandswitch. At the center
of the panel is the plate tank tuning capacitor dial, with the filament and plate power
switches directly beneath. To the right is the plate bandswitch, with the filament and plate
pilot lamps above. At the lower right is the plate loading capacitor (labelled "Antenna
Loading ").
4X811A'S
PC
INPUT R-F OUT

JI J2
X X B
CrCS
LI- Ls
(
DI
/ 0
01
ii
RFCI
1
RFC2
1360
C6
e
0
L7
RFC3
TUNE .OAST
CATHODE
ci/cuirs y LOAD
.01
C
GRID
Ro-1
CT
PI
GN D. PL. PL. X x
6-
Figure 16
SCHEMATIC, 811A LINEAR AMPLIFIER

C -200 -pf mica capacitor, 500 -volt 80 meters: C-310 pf, C -2000 pf; 40 meters:
C, C -470 -pf mica capacitor, 500 -volt C -150 pf, C-1000 pf; 20 meters: C -75 pf,
C,, C -1000 -pf mica capacitor, 500-volt C -500 pf; 15 meters: C -50 pf, C. -350 pf;
C,- 360 -pf, 2.5 kV Johnson 154 -2 10 meters: C -35 pf, C.-250 pf. Above capaci-
C.-1 ILO-pf, three -section receiving capacitor tances include output capacitance of tubes.
(broadcast type) RFC -16- ampere choke. 20 turns 12 enamel
C- .0015 -fd, 1250 -volt mica capacitor. Sang - wire, bifilar wound (2 windings, 20 turns
amo type H each) on ferrite core (7i -inch diameter. Indi-
NC-Neutralizing capacitor. Approx. 15 pf, 1.25 ana General CF -501, Q -1 material. Cut and
kV. Use 100 -pf midget capacitor with alter- break rod to length). Newark Electronics
nate plates removed to leave six stator catalon number 59F -1519. Neutralizing coil:
plates and seven rotor plates. Seven turns v18 closewound around tube end
L , L_ -(0.15 H) 4 turns #16 on National XR -50 of choke in same direction as bifilar winding.
form, or equiv., 12 -inch diameter. Powdered RFC. -200 pH, ampere. B 8 W 800, or Jen-
1
iron slug removed from both coils. nings Industries RFC -800
L -(0.3 pH) 6 turns #16 on National XR -50
, L RFC -2 mH, 100 ma. National R -100 or equiv.
form, or equiv., slug removed from coil L,. PC -4 turns X18 wound over 47 -ohm 2 -waft
L -(0.15 pH) 13 turns, as L . composition resistor. Turns spaced the length
L,, L -Air-Dux pi- network assembly 195 -1. Mod- of the resistor
ify as per text. Grid -dips as follows: T -6.3 volts at 16 amperes
Each grid of the 811A combination is the exciter. Plate voltage is applied to the
placed at r -f ground potential by a bypass amplifier in the standby condition unless
capacitor mounted on the individual tube the external power supply is switched off.
socket, and d -c grid return is completed
through a simple resistance -capacitance filter Amplifier The general amplifier layout is
network and a meter (M1) to permit grid - Construction shown in the top and bottom
current measurement. The plate- current me- photographs. The unit is built
ter (M,) is placed in the B -minus lead to on an aluminum chassis measuring 10" X
the power supply. 17r' X 3" and fits within a home -made
A built -in VOX relay provides change- cabinet made of a U- shaped dust cover of
over for the antenna circuit and can be perforated aluminum. A bottom plate and
actuated by the VOX control circuitry of back piece are made of the same material.
HANDBOOK 1 -KW Economy Linear 717
Figure 17
REAR VIEW OF 811A
LINEAR AMPLIFIER
The four 811A tubes are
positioned at one end
of the chassis, with the
plate -tuning capacitor
at the center. To the
left is the pi- network
inductor mounted on
ceramic standoff insula-
tors. The plate-circuit
bandswitch and VOX
relay are at the chassis
edge. The shaft of the
neutralizing capacitor
may be seen in the
foreground projecting
through the chassis.
Along the rear lip of
the chassis are I. to r.
coaxial con-
nector (J.), auxiliary
115 -volt power plug,
main power receptacle
(P,), and input recepta-
cle (J,). Filament trans-
former in this amplifier
was mounted in the
nearby power supply
and parallel pin connec-
tions in plug were used
to carry the heavy fila-
ment current.
Layout of parts is not critical, provided opposite ends of the chassis. The distance of
reasonable care is taken to provide short, the capacitor below the deck is adjusted
direct leads in the plate and filament circuits. with metal spacers to make the shaft height
The plate tuning capacitor (C6) is centered the same as that of the cathode bandswitch.
on the chassis, with the tubes grouped at Adjacent to the 811A sockets is the fila-
the corners of a square at one end of the ment r -f choke.
chassis. The plate r-f choke (RFC2) is The Filament Choke-The filament choke
placed at the center of this square, with the (RFC,) is home -made, or a commercial sub-
B -plus bypass capacitor mounted immedi- stitute may be altered to fit the job. The
ately beside the choke, atop the chassis. choke is a bifilar winding of two coils, as
The 811A tube sockets are recessed below described in the parts list, with a third small
the chassis deck on metal pillars to lower winding placed over the choke, the tube
the over -all tube height, while the plate end going to ground, and the opposite end at-
tank -coil assembly is mounted on ceramic tached to the neutralizing capacitor (NC).
insulators to bring the center line of the The capacitor is placed near the rear of the
main coil even with the top terminal of the underchassis area and is mounted on small
plate- tuning capacitor. Adjacent to the coil, ceramic insulators, as it has a very high r -f
the plate-circuit bandswitch (S2) is placed potential to ground. The stator of the ca-
on a small aluminum bracket to align the pacitor is connected to one terminal (B) of
shaft height of the switch with the shaft coil L,;, as shown in the schematic.
height of the plate- tuning capacitor. The The Plate Coil Assembly -The plate in-
switch is driven by an extension shaft to ductor is modified from a commercial unit,
permit the switch to be mounted near the or may be made from ready -wound coil
"hot" end of the coil (at the junction of stock. The 10 -meter coil is separate, and is
coil L and low -frequency coil L7). made of /in -inch wide copper strap. As is,
Below deck, the cathode tank assembly the inductance of the commercial coil is too
and plate -loading capacitor are placed at high for optimum circuit Q at 10 meters.
Figure 18
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF 811A LINEAR AMPLIFIER
The filament choke and 811A tube sockets are at the right, with the tuned cathode circuit
grouped about the bandswitch (S,). At the left is the antenna loading capacitor (C.) and
RFC.. Neutralizing capacitor is mounted on standoff insulators adjacent to main power recepta-
cle at the rear of the chassis. Ample space exists below chassis to mount filament trans-
former, if desired.
About %z inch of strati is cut from one end and the plate caps attached. Proper reso-
and the new end drilled. The diameter of nance for each band may be established by
the coil is squeezed a bit to produce a mod- coupling a grid -dip oscillator to one end of
ified coil of four turns, with an inside diam- the strap coil. The plate bandswitch is set
eter of 13/8 inches. for an appropriate band and the capacitance
The low -frequency coil (L7) must also settings for the band, and the rest of the
be modified for proper operation. The coil band checked against the approximate set-
is cut to 11 turns, trimmed, and the new end tings listed in figure 16. The settings of the
firmly bolted to the plastic support plate capacitors may be estimated, or the units
in the original mounting hole. Taps are now may be disconnected from the circuit and
soldered to the coil as follows: From the measured on a capacitance meter, if one is
junction with the 10 -meter coil; 15 -meter at hand. The value of capacitor C, indicated
tap, turn; 20 -meter tap, 3 turns; 40 -meter
1 is the total capacitance of the capacitor plus
tap, 6 turns. The tap leads may be made the output capacitance of the tubes, the
of thin %8 -inch wide copper strap, or #12 latter figure totalling about 25 pf. It may
copper wire. The tap leads are all dressed be necessary to shrink coil Le, a bit to achieve
to one side of the coil, as seen in the rear resonance at the high end of the 10 -meter
view photograph. The arm of the plate band, because lead length and circuit layout
bandswitch is attached to the output end are critical at this frequency.
of the main coil, and the 80 -meter mica Next, the cathode tanks should be reso-
loading capacitor is placed in a vertical posi- nated to the middle of each amateur band.
tion behind the bandswitch. The grid -dip oscillator is again used, and the
When the plate circuit is completely slug of each cathode coil is adjusted until
wired, the tubes are placed in their sockets resonance is established with the cathode
HANDBOOK KW -1 All -Band Linear Amplifier 719
bandswitch set for the proper band. Target plate current. The power- output meter is
resonant frequencies for each band are: 3.8 monitored and grid drive raised a bit, while
MHz, 7.2 MHz, 14.2 MHz, 21.2 MHz, and tuning and loading are adjusted for maxi-
29 MHz. mum power output. Antenna loading and
grid drive are gradually increased until a
plate current of about 650 ma is achieved
Amplifier Testing After the alignment is at a grid -current reading of 100 to 120 ma.
completed, the unit is The final step is to retune the plate- tuning
ready for an operational check. A 1500-volt, capacitor for minimum plate current at the
600 -milliampere power supply; SSB exciter; 650 -ma region. The goal is to achieve maxi-
and an r -f power- output meter are required; mum output with minimum drive level con-
plus a suitable antenna or dummy load. The sistent with the aforementioned grid- and
plate and cathode bandswitches are set for plate- current figures.
the band in use and neutralization capacitor Under tuneup conditions, plate dissipation
NC is placed in the zero capacitance (open) reaches the maximum level and it is recom-
position. The amplifier cover and bottom mended that tuneup be limited to 15-second
plate are placed on the assembly, and the periods of time every 30 seconds. Once the
amplifier and power supply are bonded to- proper adjustment point has been reached,
gether with a safety ground wire. the dial settings should be logged for future
Filament and plate voltages are applied use. With carrier removed, plate current
and resting plate current should be observed should drop back to the no-signal level.
to be about 125 milliamperes with no drive Under SSB modulation, grid and plate cur-
signal. Grid current should be zero. The rents should kick up to about one half the
setting of the plate- tuning capacitor (C6) carrier values for full 1000 watts PEP input.
should be logged, then the control swung
through the complete tuning range, while
the operator observes the grid and plate 28 -5 The KW -1 All Band
meters. Both meters should remain at their Linear Amplifier Using
original setting. Any variation in current Two 4CX300A's
while either the tuning or loading controls
are adjusted at random (with no drive sig-
nal) indicates some form of instability. This This compact desk -top linear amplifier
test is the most demanding on the 10 -meter (figure 19) is an improved version of the
band, and it is recommended that it be per- popular "Tribander" amplifier featured in
formed at this wavelength. If a fluctuation or the past editions of the Handbook. The
variation of either grid or plate current is newly designed unit includes operation on
noted, neutralization capacitor C6 should be all bands between 3.5 MHz and 29.7 MHz
slowly advanced until the perturbation ceases. with good efficiency. It features an electron
Adjustment should be done with a phenolic tuning tube and loading indicator that
(nonmetallic) screwdriver or rod. If, by permits quick tuneup and adjustment after
chance, adjustment of the neutralization changing bands. The KW -1 amplifier uses
capacitor makes matters worse, it may be an two 4CX300A ceramic tetrode tubes in
indication that the neutralizing coil on the a class -AB, mode, cathode-driven config-
filament choke is incorrectly polarized, and uration. If desired, 4CX2S0B or 4XIS0A
the connections should be reversed. Under tubes may be substituted for the 4CX-
normal circumstances, neutralization is rare- 300A's with no decrease in performance.
ly required, except at the high end of the The KW -1 amplifier is small enough to be
10 -meter band. For lower frequencies, the placed on the operating table next to an SSB
capacitor probably will be set at zero. transceiver or exciter. Provisions are in-
Carrier excitation is now applied to the cluded for operating the exciter without the
amplifier until an indication of about 20 amplifier. At 2000 volts plate potential,
ma grid current is observed. The plate - third -order distortion products of the am-
tuning capacitor is adjusted for an indication plifier are better than - 30 decibels below
of resonance, noted by a dip in amplifier one tone of a two-tone test signal. The am-
Figure 19
THE KW -1 ALL -BAND LINEAR AMPLIFIER
The KW -1 desk -top linear amplifier provides 1 -kW PEP input on amateur bands between 80
and 10 meters. A pair of 4CX300A tetrodes is used in class -AB, cathode- driven service. The
amplifier features an electron tuning eye which permits quick tuneup and adjustment after
changing bands.
Panel controls (I. to r.) are: High -voltage primary circuit breaker and pilot lamp, with filament
switch and pilot lamp below; and current and output meters, with bandswitch below. At the
left of the bandswitch is the plate /screen meter switch and at the right is the forward /reflected
switch for the built -in SWR meter. At the right of the panel are the amplifier tuning control
(top) and loading control (bottom). At the left of the controls is the tune /operate switch.
Directly above the panel meters is the electron tuning tube. The panel mask is cut from a
phenolic sheet and painted black to match the meters. The panel is painted with a flat green
enamel and lettering is applied. The panel is then given a protective spray of clear plastic
(Krylov) paint to protect the lettering. Knobs are General Radio products.
plifier is designed for continuous service, grid and screen d -c operating potentials are
and may be run at full input for RTTY applied to the tubes. The schematic of the
service. KW-1 amplifier featuring this circuit is
shown in figure 20. The driving signal is
The Amplifier A high perveance tetrode such applied to the cathode circuit as is done in
Circuit as the 4CX300A cannot be the more common grounded -grid configura-
used in conventional zero -bias, tion. Grid and screen elements of the tubes
class -B grounded -grid circuitry, since the are at r-f ground, while normal d -c class
element geometry within the tube leads to AB, grid bias and screen potentials are used.
abnormally high values of grid current and Thus, the power gain of the 4CX300A's is
possible destructive values of grid dissipa- quite high, approximately 30 watts PEP
tion. The distortion reduction characteristics drive level being required for 1000 watts
of cathode -driven circuitry, however, may PEP input. Since the amplifier is designed
be retained with these tubes if class -AB, to be connected to the exciter with a very
JI
J2
RFOVT
R-F INPUT
R r l-A L2 L3 Rr
111 111 tie 1
1 I
PC I RFCI SIA METE

J
E
.0I .01
c C CIA
100
I '"Il:.IB SIB
.001
TSMV = C7 -AFC
1500
J3
RFC! 6+
01
T- 2w
.6N pRr2
!JJ
R2
2011 ADJ.
9W DIAS
A
V2
SH LIN
6 2W SCREEN
Sa 223 V. 54A S46
TUNE..- OPERATE
47N =i-16 lICIi I
2 W iT450
PLATE
+10SV
CB
AN = OVERLOAD
PLATE 1!
01
Kv
ISK
S3 FIL. 11101111
1116.
CB
u
I 2 3 4 5 6 6 9
COM. PLATE +IO5 315 GND VC, e-
Figure 20
SCHEMATIC, KW -1 AMPLIFIER
per section, .07"
100 -pf T -460 -volt, center tapped at 50 ma, 6.3 volts
C11, ,,-Split stator,
at P -8155. Remove turns from
amp, Stancor
spacing. La Pointe Industries 108 -12 5
filament winding to provide 6.0 volts under
C -7500 pf, .03" spacing. La Pointe Industries
104 -12, or Jackson 4595/3/380 LLE -3). (M. load
Swedgal, 258 Broadway, N.Y., N.Y. 10007) B- Ripley 81 ;left hand. with 234" impeller,
L, -(10 -meter coil) 4 turns, 3/16" copper tubing, 3100 r.p.m., 58 c.f.m.
21 4" inside diam., 3" long J J- coaxial receptacle, 50Radio
-239
Switch Corp.
L -(15 -20 meter coil) 61 2 turns, 8" copper 1 S I, -2 -pole, 6- position.
tubing, 2" inside diam., 3" long. Tap at Marlboro, N. J. Model 86 with two style A
center rotors standard'
L -(40 -80 meter coil) 20 turns .14 ,6 t.p.i.!, SH -10 ohms, -watt 1
214" diam., 31/4" long. Tap at center SH -500 -ma shunt to match meter movement
RFC , RFC,,-(84 )4N) rated at 600 ma. J.W. Miller CB- 500 -ma circuit breaker Heinemann , 15-
RFC -14 amp service.
RFC -2.5 mH. J. W. Miller 4537 M -0-50 d -c milliamperes. Calibrate scale for
RY -Dpdt, ceramic insulation, 6.3 -volt coil 0 -50 and 0 -500 ma ranges
RY -Spst, 6.3 -volt coil D , D -1N4005, 600-volt PIV, 1 amp
turns "16 spaced around 47 -ohm, Sockets -Eimac 5K -760 for 4CX300A. Eimac
PC, PC -3
2 -watt composition resistor SK -640plus SK -606 chimney for 4X150A
CH, -12 H, 30 ma. Stancor C -2318 and 4CX2508
short length of coaxial line, a tuned -cathode tions between tubes. Adjust bias potentiome-
circuit is not used, the output circuit Q ters R, and R_ allow sufficient variation in
of the exciter being sufficient to preserve the bias to achieve this condition. A built -in bias
waveform of the driving signal. supply provides -225 volts and the VOX
Provisions are included in the KW -1 relay (RY_) permits plate-.current cutoff in
linear amplifier to electrically balance the the receive mode.
two tubes by adjustment of individual grid Filament voltage for the 4CX300As is 6.0
bias, permitting each tube to draw the prop- volts, a special transformer being used to
er plate current regardless of minor varia- provide bias and filament voltage. Separate
Center compartment contains

the main r -f components. At
the rear are the two ICX300A
tubes mounted on a small
chassis adjacent to the blower.
To the right of the tubes is the
small drawn aluminum case
containing the output refiec-
tometer. Plate loading and tun-
ing capacitors are mounted at
the right of the compartment
on the front subpanel. Central
area contains the three plate-
circuit inductors and the band-
switch. Low- and medium -fre-
quency inductors are mounted
to the sides of the compart-
ment with small ceramic stand-
off insulators, and the high -
frequency coil is supported by
bandswitch and tuning capaci-
tor. The plate r -f choke is
placed vertically at the rear
of the compartment with the
plate -blocking capacitor atop it.
The blower, filament trans-
former, and auxiliary compo-
nents are mounted to the left
of the r-f compartment. The
circuit breaker overload po-
tentiometer (R) is mounted to
the outer wall of the lnclo
Figure 21 Electron tuning tube is mounted
TOP VIEW OF KW -1 to the front panel by a bracket
which encircles the tube.
AMPLIFIER
transformers may be substituted at lower the exciter (figure 23). A second rectified
cost, if desired. voltage is used to energize the 6FG6 electron
Amplifier Plate Circuit -The KW -1 am- tuning tube, mounted on the front panel of
plifier plate circuit is a pi- network arrange- the amplifier. The tube is used to establish
ment, with additional plate tuning capaci- proper plate- circuit loading. Under no signal
tance (C,,,) added to the circuit by means conditions, the pattern of the tube is open,
of switch deck S,A on the 80- and 40 -meter gradually closing with increased signal volt-
bands. The plate tank coil is divided into age until at maximum voltage the pattern is
three sections having taps for the various closed, showing a solid green bar in the
ranges. It is designed to couple to a 50 -ohm viewing portion of the tube.
antenna system having an SWR of 3/1 or This indication corresponds to maximum
less. An RL parasitic suppressor is placed in amplifier PEP input. The sensitivity of both
the plate lead of each tube to inhibit vhf the ALC and tuning tube circuits is ad-
oscillation. Neutralization is not required, justable by means of capacitors C, and C4.
and the linear amplifier remains stable over The linear amplifier is biased to plate -
the complete operating range. current cutoff in the standby position by
An SWR meter (M,) is incorporated in relay RY_ which opens the bias return cir-
the amplifier as an aid in tuneup and is a cuit and places maximum negative bias on
duplicate of the instrument described in the tubes. Standby plate current is reduced
Chapter 31 (figures 28 -31) . The compo- to virtually zero, permitting the use of an
nents of the reflectometer are mounted in a IVS -rated power supply (see Power -Supply
small aluminum box in a corner of the am- chapter) with the amplifier. Diode noise in
plifier area of the chassis (figure 21) . a nearby receiver is also eliminated during
The instantaneous r -f plate voltage of the periods of reception.
amplifier is sampled at point E by a capaci-
tive voltage divider. A portion of the volt- Amplifier The amplifier is built on a
age is rectified by diode D, and is used as Construction homemade aluminum chassis
automatic -load- control (ALC) voltage for measuring 14" X 9 Va" in area,
Figure 22
KW -1 LINEAR AMPLIFIER
The main chassis is cut out to
clear loading capacitor (left)
and bandswitch (center). Di-
rectly behind bandswitch are
antenna -changeover and VOX
relays, with bias potentiome-
ters, coaxial receptacles, fuse,
and power plug mounted on
the rear lip of the chassis. At
the right are the two phenolic
strips holding the smaller cir-
cuit components. The strip at
the left is mounted on edge
and holds adjustment capaci-
tors C and C Each -pf cou- . 1
pling capacitor is composed of

two 2 -pf, 3 -kV ceramic capac-
itors connected in series. Wir-
ing between panel controls
and terminal strips is laced
and run along edge of chassis.
The front and back lips of the
chassis are turned under so
that the unit may be bolted
to the ventilated cabinet.
and having a depth of 2I/8". Cutout areas Each board is 13/4" wide. The two variable
in the chassis provide room for the main mica compression capacitors (C, and C4)
bandswitch and the pi- network output tun- are mounted to the vertical board by means
ing capacitor. A box shield above the chassis of small aluminum brackets, and are adjust-
separates the r -f area from the control cir-
cuits, blower and filament transformer. The 0.1 25mN ALC
two 4CX300A tubes and companion air - RFC OUT
system sockets are mounted atop a small oDS T

v IN34A
aluminum box at the rear of the main
chassis. The box measures 51/4" X 31/4" X
2" high. The sockets, bypass networks and
cathode r -f choke are placed in this box, RFC
one end of which has a square hole cut in it 25
N
to match the opening of the blower. The

_ = = 2N
cooling air enters the side of the box and is 2.54111 50N
R4
exhausted through the tube sockets and C
ADI.
ILC
JIS
through a ring of %g -inch diameter holes F
drilled around the perimeter of the socket

(figure 21) The three sections of the plate
.
Figure 23
tank coil are placed in the center area of ELECTRON -EYE PEAK INDICATOR
the chassis behind the bandswitch. AND ALC CIRCUITRY
The 6FG /EM -84 tuning indicator is used for
Placement of the major components bean r -f peak -level indicator in the KW -1 linear
neath the chassis is seen in figure 22. The amplifier. R -f voltage is sampled, rectified, and
rear of the bandswitch and the pi- network applied to the gate (pin 1) of the indicator.
The pattern is formed between the deflection
loading capacitor (Co) are affixed to small elements (pins 6 and 7) and appears as a
angle brackets bolted to the chassis. The horizontal line. Amplitude of indication is
adjustable by means of mica compression ca-
various resistors and capacitors in the aux- pacitor C . ALC control voltage is taken from
iliary control, bias, and screen circuits are plate circuit and magnitude established by
capacitor C . Control point may be set by ad-
mounted on two phenolic terminal boards justing diode bias voltage with "Adjust ALC"
placed near the edge of the chassis deck. potentiometer R,.
able through matching holes drilled in the blower circuits are energized. The high -
bottom of the amplifier cabinet. voltage supply may now be turned on by the
The front panel is spaced 13/4" away from circuit breaker (CB) , whose actuator element
the chassis, providing ample space for the is placed in the negative power- supply lead
6FG6 electron tuning tube and the various in the amplifier. Cutoff bias is applied to the
controls. Flexible, insulated couplings are amplifier until relay RY_ is energized by the
used on the shafts of the amplifier plate tun- auxiliary VOX control circuitry. At the
ing and loading capacitors. The 6FG6 is same time, relay RY, transfers the antenna
mounted horizontally to the rear of the circuit from the SSB exciter to the linear
panel by means of a small clamp that en- amplifier. Screen and plate currents are
circles the tube. Wiring from the panel monitored by meter M5. The overload cur-
controls and meters running to the terminal rent cutout point is adjusted by shunt po-
strips and other under -chassis components is tentiometer R,.
neatly cabled and passes down the side of the The power supply utilizes a bridge circuit
chassis. Connection is made to the anode and provides 2000 volts at 500 ma, plus
of each 4CX300A tube by means of a regulated voltage for the screen circuit.
narrow copper strap encircling the plate Resistor R5, is adjusted to allow the regulator
cap. tubes to draw 3 5 ma with no screen current.
Power Supply and The schematic of the Amplifier Tuning Wiring should be com-
Transmitter Control KW -1 power supply and and Adjustment pletely checked before
control circuits is shown
in figure 24. A multiconductor cable con- power is applied. The ap-
proximate settings of the plate tank -circuit
nects the power supply to the linear ampli-
capacitors should also be determined for each
fier. In the amplifier, switch S, (Filament)
band with the aid of a grid -dip oscillator,
controls the primary power circuit. When
Capacitors C, and C, are set to maximum
this switch is thrown on, the filament and
value, and bias potentiometers are set to pro-
vide the highest value of bias. The plate
P2
M /2W /RE COMMON circuit breaker is turned off and the
1
Tune /Operate switch set in the operate posi-
115V 1
et 12 WIRE PLATE
tion. Filament voltage is applied and the
blower should start. Filament voltage should
be checked at 6.0 volts and a 30- second
./os V I 5
warmup period allowed. The VOX control
Rs
loM IOM
-3/3V circuit is energized, closing the two relays,
100W 100 Ww n -T7 and then released. The high -voltage breaker
10 s-VR10S's GND II a
(CB) is turned on. High voltage is now ap-
1.51(V plied to the amplifier and plate current
VOX CONI
H2 B-
should be zero. Caution: The cabinet should
T2
O
never be open when high voltage is applied
CABLE to the amplifier. A high - voltage interlock
O XD
TO
AMPLI-
C7).-
O
*2000V. FIER circuit is recommended for use that will
0 short the high- voltage terminal to ground
clxn the amplifier lid is raised.
Figure 24
The next step is to balance the plate cur-
KW -1 PLATE AND SCREEN
rent of the 4CX300A tubes. Remove one
POWER SUPPLY
4CX300A (V3), apply plate voltage and
T, -1600 -volt center tap, 500 -ma secondary. energize the VOX circuit. Adjust bias po-
Center tap insulated for 3kV. 117 -volt pri- tentiometer V, for a plate current indica-
mary tion of 100 milliamperes with no drive sig-
D, -D. -Diode bridge. Each leg requires six
1N4005 silicon diodes, 500 -volt Ply at 1 nal. Turn off the plate voltage and remove
ampere in series. Each diode is shunted by the 4CX300A (V1) for which the bias has
a .01 -01d ceramic capacitor and a 470K,
1 -watt resistor just been adjusted. Insert the other 4CX-
HANDBOOK 2 -kW Linear Amplifier 725
300A (V2) in the Vo socket. Energize the Since no cathode tank circuit is used, it is
amplifier and adjust bias potentiometer V2 recommended that the intercoupling coaxial
for 100 milliamperes plate current, as before. line to the exciter be held to a length of
Mark the potentiometer positions with a three feet, or less, especially for 10- and 15-
pencil on the chassis lip. The plate balance meter operation. Line lengths up to six feet
should be checked every six months or so, or so may be tolerated at the lower operating
or whenever the tubes are changed. Insert frequencies.
tube V, and now note that the plate cur- Note that screen current peaks at the
rent meter reads the combined resting plate same resonance point at which plate current
current of 200 milliamperes. When the dips. This relationship is helpful when the
VOX control is released, plate current should amplifier is heavily loaded and plate -current
drop to zero. dip is rather small. For precise tuning, the
screen current peak should always be used as
The KW -1 amplifier is now ready to place
a condition of resonance, rather than the
on the air. After filament warmup, the Tune/
dip of plate current.
Operate switch is placed in the tune position.
Once the amplifier is operating properly,
High voltage is applied and the VOX cir-
the electron tuning tube may be adjusted
cuit energized. A small amount of carrier
so that the visual pattern completely closes
is applied to the amplifier from the exciter
at maximum input level under carrier con-
as a tuning signal until about 200 ma of
ditions by adjustment of capacitor C3. Once
plate current is indicated. The amplifier is
properly set, maximum voice level is noted
now tuned to resonance. The 6FG6 electron -
on the indicator by complete closing of the
beam tube pattern should also start to close.
pattern. If the amplifier is improperly loaded,
Once resonance is established, the tuning and
or overdriven, the pattern will overlap, with
loading controls are adjusted for maximum
a bright green flash.
power output as read on meter M2. The
In similar fashion, the magnitude of the
loading capacitor should be near full- capaci-
ALC voltage may be adjusted by the combi-
tance for 80 meters, about 60- percent
meshed for 40 meters, 30- percent meshed
nation of capacitor C, and ALC Adjustment
for 20 meters, and slightly less for 15 and 10 potentiometer R,. The potentiometer sets the
ALC threshold voltage and the capacitor
meters.
determines the maximum amount of ALC
Carrier injection is now slowly raised voltage. For c -w operation, carrier insertion
until plate current reads about 300 milli- is used, and the amplifier loaded to a plate -
amperes at resonance. Screen current will current value of 500 milliamperes.
run between 10 and 30 milliamperes. Screen
current is a very sensitive indication of load-
ing. Too -low a value of screen current in- 28 -6 The 500Z 2 -kW
dicates the amplifier is either underdriven or PEP Linear Amplifier
overloaded. Conversely, too -high a value of
screen current indicates the amplifier is
for 10 thru 80 Meters
either overdriven or underloaded. Note the
screen meter reads about 10 milliamperes of Two 3 -400Z or 3 -500Z high -p. triode
bleeder current in addition to actual screen tubes form the basis for this compact, multi_
current. "Target" value of screen meter band, high -power desk -top linear amplifier.
reading at full input is 20 ma to 30 ma at a Heavy -duty design combined with rugged
plate current of 500 ma. Power output components permit the amplifier to be run
should be about 650 watts, or more at 1000 at full legal power level for SSB or c -w
watts input. service. Measuring only 16" X 8" X 13"
The carrier is now removed and voice deep the amplifier is small enough to be
modulation applied. A maximum of 1000 placed on the operating table adjacent to
watts PEP input may be achieved under the SSB transceiver or exciter.
these operating conditions. Screen and plate Auxiliary circuitry permits the exciter
current should peak at about 15 ma and to bypass the amplifier, if desired, for low -
2S0 ma, respectively. power operation, and the unit incorporates
3002 AMPLIFIER
Figure 25
TWO -KILOWATT PEP INPUT IS FEATURED IN THIS COMPACT

AMPLIFIER USING ZERO BIAS TRIODES
This desk -top amplifier allows maximum PEP input on all high -frequency amateur bands. Two
zero -bias 3-5001 triodes are used in a cathode -driven, grounded-grid circuit. ALC is Included
as well as a high -efficiency, low -noise fan cooling system.
The amplifier is housed in a perforated aluminum case and is entirely self -contained, except
for the power supply. At the top of the front panel are the grid and plate meters. The antenna
loading control (C.) is at the left and the plate tuning control (C,) at the right. Both capacitors
are driven through small precision planetary vernier drives. The bandswitch is centered at
the lower portion of the panel.
The amplifier cabinet is gray, with light-green panel. After the lettering is applied, the panel
is sprayed with clear Krylon enamel to protect the lettering. The unit is elevated above the
desk top on rubber feet to permit good movement of air about the under -chassis area.
automatic load control (ALC) for optimum able of matching 50 -ohm or 70 -ohm coaxial
voice efficiency in SSB operation. At maxi- antenna circuits. For improved linearity and
mum input level, the third -order intermod- ease of drive, a simple tuned -cathode input
ulation products are better than -33 deci- circuit is ganged to the pi- network ampli-
bels below one tone of a two -tone test signal, fier bandswitch. Separate grid and plate
attesting to the high degree of linearity at- meters are used and a variable ALC circuit
tained without the use of auxiliary feedback is provided for connection to the exciter.
circuitry. Peak drive power is of the order The amplifier is designed for operation over
of 90 watts, and the amplifier may be driven a plate voltage range of 2000 to 2700 volts
by any SSB exciter capable of this power and a plate potential of 2500 volts is rec-
output. ommended.
Amplifier Circuitry-The schematic of
The Amplifier Circuit This 2000 -watt PEP the linear amplifier is shown in figure 26.
linear amplifier em- Two 3 -400Z or 3 -500Z tubes are connected
ploys two zero -bias triode tubes connected in in parallel. Each of the three grid pins of
cathode- driven, grounded -grid configuration. the tube sockets is grounded, and the driving
A pi- network output circuit is used, cap- signal is applied to the filament circuit of
.001 Le
56V
11 1
RrC2 250 1PF CeSie J2

OUTPUT
"HI- _ O-iII o
3-500Z's 001 1100 RFC]
II 4
I II
Il SMV
C71
.0l .01
SIA
eo lo
z L] L4 L5
RFC I 11
750 750
IL IM
= 1=
C 3 CS
I Bt
01
I
GRID PLATE 1N38A
I+
IOM
Cel
1
RFC4T1.ToI
II U 011 00 0T
.0,c ,c
RT MAX M
I5 50K
0W RI
ALC LEVEZ
e+ ALC
ii
ALC OUT
b II 11
T2
C
INTERLOCK
elE
Pz PI
TO 13L0 ER 3 5 6 e
115 ' 15 OND. 66 ALC VOX INT
ALC OUT RELAY
Figure 26
SCHEMATIC OF 500Z LINEAR AMPLIFIER
C -200 pf, 2.5 -kV mica. Sangamo H -5320 *10 e., on ferrite core, S" long 1/2" diam.
C., C -470 pf, 2.5 -kV mica. Sangamo H -5347 (Indiana General CF -503) (Newark Electronics
C , C -1000 pf, 1.25 -kV mica. Sangamo H -2210 catalog #59F -1521) Manufactured choke:
C -250 pf, 3 -kV, .075" spacing. Johnson 154 -9 Jennings Industries J1 -FC32
C -1100 pf, 3- section. Jackson Bros. 143-4595- RFC,- (Approx. 60 H) 90 turns #26 e., space -
380 (M. Swedgal, 258 Broadway, N. Y. 100071 wound wire diameter, 33/e" long, s" diem.
C -350 -pf mica compression capacitor on ceramic or Teflon form. Series resonant
L,, L -(0.15 uH) 4 turns *16 e. on 1/2" diem., at 26 MHz. Jennings Industries J1 -PC800
form, powdered-iron core. National XR -50 or RFC , RFC -2.5 mH. National R -100
equiv. form. (Slug removed from both coils) T -5 volts, 30 amp. Stancor P -6492
L , L -(0.31 uH) 6 turns #14 e. on National T -6.3 volts, amp. Stancor P -8389
1
XR -50 or equiv. form. (Slug removed from RY, -Spst, 6.3 -volt coil
L ). Fan -Ripley SK -4125 or equivalent.
L -(1.3uH) 13 turns # 18 e. on National XR -50 Maters- Calectro
or equiv. form PC -Three 100 -ohm, 2 -watt resistors in par-
L- (10 -15 -20 meters) 10'/2 turns *8 wire, 2" allel. 31/2 turns #18 spacewound about one
diem., 31/2" long. 10 -meter tap is 51/4 turns resistor
from plate end; 1S -meter tap, 71/4 turns. S, 1- Single-pole, 11- position ceramic switch, 30
(40 -80 meters) 16 turns # 10 wire, 21/2"
diameter, 4" long. 40 -meter tap is 8 turns
from "hot' end. Coil wound on lucite plate
5 -
index. Centralab PA -600V
Single -pole, 11-position ceramic switch, 30
index. Radio Switch Corp. Model 86 -A
with edges grooved for proper spacing of Sockets- Johnson 122 -275 -1
turns Dials-General Radio with Jackson Bros. 4511 -
RFC -Willer winding. Each coil is 14 turns OAF Planetary Ball Drive Unit
the tubes, which is isolated from ground by The driving signal is fed in a balanced
a bifilar r -f choke. Neutralization is not manner to the filament circuit of the two
required because of the excellent circuit tubes. Mica capacitors suitable for r -f serv-
isolation provided by the tubes and by the ice are used to properly distribute the driv-
circuit layout. ing signal to the tuned -cathode circuit and
Figure 27
TOP VIEW OF LINEAR AMPLIFIER
Two 3 -5001 tubes are placed at the rear corner of the amplifier chassis. The spacing of sockets
and blower are shown in figure 31. The plate loading and tuning capacitors are mounted to
each side of the pi- network coil assembly. The three stator sections of the output capacitor
are connected in parallel by short lengths of copper strap. Directly below the plate coils is the
aluminum box containing the cathode tuned circuits, with the adjustment slugs of the coils
projecting through the top of the box.
The 500-pf auxiliary 80 -meter loading capacitor is placed above the bandswitch, directly in
front of the 80 -40 meter coil. At the left, the 1 -pf coupling capacitor is attached directly to
the rotor of the main tuning capacitor (see figure 30).
The filament transformer for the two 3 -5001 tubes is at the rear, right corner of the chassis.
The portion of the transformer facing the tubes is painted white to reflect the infra -red radia-
tion from the tubes, which run a cherry -red color at full plate dissipation level. The cooling fan
is mounted to the rear of the cabinet, and is not seen in this view.
the filaments of the tubes. Ceramic -disc choke bypassed at the B -plus end by a low -
capacitors are not recommended for use in inductance, ceramic capacitor. In addition,
this portion of the circuit because the peak the high voltage passes through a length of
r -f current under full amplifier input may shielded cable to the high- voltage connector
be as high as 6 amperes or so. The tuned- at the back of the chassis, and is further
cathode circuits (L, -L;) are fixed -tuned to bypassed to ground at that point. A single
the center of each amateur band and may be .001 -pfd, 5-kV ceramic capacitor is used for
forgotten. the high- voltage plate -blocking capacitor
The Plate Circuit-Plate voltage is ap- and is mounted atop the plate r -f choke.
plied to the tubes through a heavy duty r-f The pi- network coil is divided into two
Figure 28
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF AMPLIFIER
The cathode circuit box is at the center of the chassis, with the connecting load passing through
a feedthrough insulator at the left. The shaft of switch S., passes through the
wall of the
upper section of the box, only about 1116 -inch above the level of the chassis and is joined to
the plate bandswitch (S ) with a brass coupling.
The three grid pins of the tube sockets are grounded to the mounting bolts. The sockets are
lowered below the chassis by means of spacers to permit cooling air to flow about the base of
the tubes. The two .01 - (fd mica coupling capacitors are placed adjacent to the left -hand tube
socket, with the ferrite -core filament choke running parallel to the rear of the chassis. Directly
to the right of the sockets are placed two phenolic terminal strips which support the filament
wiring, the 10K VOX resistor and the 15 -ohm meter safety resistor. The bypass capacitors for
the "cold" end of the filament choke are also located on one terminal strip.
At the right end of the chassis is a small phenolic board that holds mica compression capacitor
C and the components associated with the ALC circuit. The
ALC level potentiometer is a small
34 -inch diameter control mounted on the rear lip of the chassis, adjacent to input receptacle J.
To the right of J. is the high -voltage connector, with the .001 -ufd, 6 -kV disc
capacitor mounted
behind it. The antenna output circuitry is at the right end of the chassis. The connection
from the plate- loading capacitor passes through a ceramic feedthrough insulator near
the panel, and the connection to the coaxial receptacle (J ) at the rear of the amplifier
is made via a short length of RG -8 /U coaxial line. The outer braid of
the line is grounded to
the the chassis at each end.
parts for highest efficiency and ease in as- is a Radio Switch Corp. high -voltage cer-
sembly. The first portion covers 10, 15, and amic- insulated unit mounted to the front
20 meters, and an additional section is added panel of the amplifier.
to the first to cover operation on 40 and 80 A typical circuit Q of 10 was chosen to
meters. Both coils are homemade and air permit a reasonable value of capacitance to
wound at a minimum cost. The bandswitch be used at 80 meters and the number of
cuit capacitance achieved at this frequency.

The pi- network output capacitor is a three -
section, ceramic insulated 1100 -pf unit. It
is sufficiently large for proper operation of
the amplifier on all bands through 40 meters.
For 80 -meter operation, an additional 500 -pf
heavy duty mica capacitor is switched in
parallel with the variable unit to provide
good operation into low- impedance antenna
systems commonly found on this band. The
capacitor is connected to the unused 80-
meter position of the bandswitch.
The instantaneous r -f plate voltage is
sampled by a capacitive voltage divider and
Figure 29 applied to a reverse- biased rectifier (D1).
CATHODE COILS FOR AMPLIFIER Bias level is set by means of an adjustable
The mica capacitor is mounted to the terminals potentiometer (ALC Level). When the r -f
of the slug -tuned coil. The coils may be grid - voltage exceeds the bias level, an ALC pulse
dipped to frequency before they are placed
in the aluminum coil box. is applied to the ALC control circuit of the
exciter. The r -f level applied to the control
circuit is set by adjustment of capacitor C8
turns in the plate coils was adjusted to main- and the voltage is determined by the ratio of
tain this value of Q up through 15 meters. this capacitor to the 1 -pf capacitor coupling
At 10 meters, the Q rises to about 18 and the ALC circuit to the plates of the ampli-
is largely determined by the minimum cir- fier tubes. At a plate potential of 2500 or so,
Figure 30
OBLIQUE VIEW OF
PLATE CIRCUIT
The Eimac HR -6 anode connectors are
used on the 3 -5001 tubes, with the
parasitic suppressor mounted close to
the connector. The plate leads are made
of lengths of flexible copper braid. Both
leads terminate at the plate -blocking
capacitor which is mounted to a small
bracket bolted to the stator terminal of
the plate -tuning capacitor. At the for
side of the tuning capacitor is the -pf1
ALC coupling capacitor, made of two f-

inch diameter copper discs, spaced about
"4 -inch apart. The upper disc is affixed
to the stator terminal of the capacitor
and the lower disc is supported by the
feedthrough insulator mounted directly
beneath it on the chassis deck.
the nominal value of r -f plate voltage swing

is about 1800 volts. If the ratio of the ca-
pacitive divider is 1:200, then about 90 REAR CABINET
WALL
volts of peak pulse is applied to the diode.
Under normal operation, the diode is biased
to about + 30 volts and ALC pulses of
about one -half this value are normal. Thus,
the r -f voltage at the diode should be not
43-
more than 45 volts or so, calling for a
capacitance ratio of about 1:300. This ratio
is well within the range of the mica com-
pression capacitor used for CA.
The Metering Circuit -It is dangerous
practice to place the plate- current meter in SIDE CABINET WALL
the B-plus lead to the amplifier unless the Figure 31
meter is suitably insulated from ground AIR -SYSTEM LAYOUT
and isolated behind a protective panel so The Ripley fan (Ripley Co., Inc., Middletown,
that the operator cannot accidentally re- Conn.) is bolted to the rear of the cabinet be-
hind a 41/2 -inch diameter hole, c d with
ceive a shock from the zero -adjustment fix- 1/4 -inch mesh wire screen. The air blast passes
ture. If the meter is placed in the cathode across the tube envelopes and the warm air
is exhausted out the perforated top of the
return circuit, it will read the cathode amplifier cabinet. The tube sockets are located
current which is the sum of the grid and with respect to the fan to permit maximum
cooling air to envelop the tubes.
plate currents. A better idea is to place the
plate meter in the B -minus lead between the
cathode return circuit and the negative ter- tests have shown that for c -w and SSB oper-
minal of the power supply. The negative of ation at the legal power limits (1 -kW c -w
the supply must thus be left "floating" above input and 2 -kW PEP voice input on SSB)
ground, or the meter will not read properly either the 3 -400Z or 3 -SOOZ may be ade-
(figure 5) A protective resistor is placed
. quately cooled by a lateral air blast blown
across the meter circuit to ensure that the against the tube by a small rotary fan, prop-
negative side of the power supply remains erly spaced from the tube. A drawing of
close to ground potential. A separate ground such an installation is shown in figure 31.
lead is then run between the chassis ground The new Johnson 122 -275 -1 ceramic tube
of the amplifier and that of the supply. socket is used, which permits a minimum
Grid current is measured between grid and amount of lateral pressure to be exerted on
cathode return as shown in the simplified the glass base of the tube. The socket is
schematic, with the grid pins of the tubes mounted below the chassis deck about 1/16"
directly connected to chassis ground. to provide an air path around the base of
The Cooling System -It is necessary to the tube through which under -chassis air
is drawn by convection. The rotary fan is
provide cooling air about the plate seal and
filament seals of either the 3 -400Z or 3 -SOOZ mounted between the tubes, in line with
tubes. Sufficient air is required to maintain the center of the glass envelope and blows
the plate seal at a temperature below 225 C cooling air across the envelope and plate
and the filament seals at a temperature below caps. Under these conditions, maximum
200 C. Common practice calls for the use plate dissipation of about 350 watts per
of special air-system sockets and chimneys, tube is achieved for the 3 -400Z and 450
in conjunction with a centrifugal blower to watts per tube for the 3 -500Z. While max-
maintain air flow requirements to meet imum dissipation rating is not achieved with
these temperature limitations. Considerable either tube, the allowable dissipation is suf-
difficulty with conventional cooling tech- ficiently high so that the maximum amateur
niques has arisen, caused by the noise created power input may be run in either case with
by the blower motor and the movement of adequate safety factor. If it is desired to
air through the cooling system. Extensive operate the amplifier under steady -state
conditions (RTTY, for example), the power the chassis. The flanges of the chassis are
input will have to be reduced to about cut off, and substitute flanges are attached
850 watts in the case of the 3- 500Z's or to the outside of the chassis lips, permitting
750 watts for the 3- 400Z's. The alternative the two units to be bolted together, as
is to install a forced -air cooling system to shown. The various coils and bandswitch
boost the plate dissipation capability to the are mounted to the top chassis box, in line
maximum limit specified in the instruction with the main switch and connected to it
sheet for the tube type in question. The air with a shaft coupler. The cathode coils and
cooling system shown, however, is entirely capacitors are assembled and mounted in a
adequate for c -w and SSB operation under vertical position within the box, as shown
normal operating conditions for extended in the photograph (figure 29). The cathode
periods of time. tank -coil assembly may be wired and the
The perforated metal cabinet provides tuned circuits grid -dipped to the center of
maximum ventilation and, when the lid is each amateur band before the chassis box is
closed, provides good r -f inclosure. In order bolted to the corresponding cutout in the
to permit the air to be drawn into the bot- chassis.
tom of the amplifier chassis, rubber "feet" The pi- network coil assembly is seen in
are placed at each corner of the cabinet, rais- the top view photographs. The 10 -15 -20
ing it about one inch above the surface on meter coil is wound of No. 8 solid copper
which it sits. The top surface of the cabinet wire. Ordinary plastic- covered house wire is
should be kept clear to permit the heat to used, the plastic coating stripped off before
freely escape from the amplifier when it is the coil is close wound on a suitable form.
in use. Once the winding is completed, the coil is
spaced and the taps are soldered in place.
Thin, %8" wide copper strap is used for the
Amplifier The over-all dimensions of the tap leads. Each lead is pretinned at the end
Construction perforated, wraparound cabinet and wrapped around the proper coil turn and
housing the amplifier are 16" soldered in place with a large iron. A good
wide, 8" high, and 13" deep. The amplifier connection is important at this point as the
is built on a shallow chassis bent from a r -f current flowing through the joint is
single sheet of aluminum and measures 151/4" high. Once the coil is cut to size, and the
wide, 121/4" deep and has a 1" lip at the tap leads soldered in place, the coil end con-
rear. Clearance under the chassis is 11/4" to nections are trimmed to length and adjusted
the bottom of the cabinet. An oblique view to the proper position. The coil lead to the
of the chassis and cabinet, including the tuning capacitor terminates in a copper
placement of the major components is shown soldering lug and the opposite end is flat-
in figure 30. The cooling fan is mounted to tened in a vise to make a glove fit with the
the rear of the cabinet and forces air against proper 20 -meter tap point on the band-
the two transmitting tubes through a 4" switch. Once all leads are properly trimmed,
diameter hole cut in the rear panel of the the coil is removed and silver plated.
cabinet. The hole is covered with a piece of The 40 -80 meter coil is wound and tapped
wire mesh having 1/4" squares. in the same fashion. Once completed, it is
Placement of the major components may threaded on a strip of lucite or plastic
be seen in the photographs. Because of the material that has been grooved along both
small depth of the chassis, placement of the edges to fit the spaced winding of the coil.
bandswitch and tuned cathode assembly is The grooves may be easily cut with a small
critical. The various cathode tuned circuits triangular file. The lucite plate is supported
and bandchange switch are mounted in by two plastic posts, cut to size and mounted
an inclosed box placed near the center to the chassis behind the bandswitch.
of the chassis, in line with the main The plate parasitic suppressors for each
band change switch. The cathode inclosure tube are made of three composition resistors
box is made up of two small aluminum chas- wired in parallel, with a small inductor
sis (5" X 31/2" X 1 ") placed back to wound around one resistor. The suppressors
back, one atop and the other underneath are placed immediately adjacent to the anode
connectors of each tube, and flexible leads The VOX relay and auxiliary transformer
made of copper braid are run from the sup- are mounted in a small shield box placed in
pressors to a common terminal of the plate front of the filament transformer. Sufficient
coupling capacitor mounted atop the plate room exists in this area so the box may be
r -f choke. enlarged to also hold a rectifier and filter
The placement of the major components capacitor should it be desired to substitute
beneath the chassis is shown in figure 28. a d -c relay for the a -c unit specified.
A T- shaped opening is cut in the foreward A shield plate measuring 6" X 2" is
area of the chassis to clear the plate band - affixed to the rear of the meters to shield
switch, and an opening is cut in the center the movements from the intense r -f field
of the chassis for the cathode tank assembly. surrounding the plate coils. The shield is
The tube sockets are mounted beneath the held in position by the meter studs, each
chassis by 6 -32 hardware, with several stud passing through a rubber grommet
washers placed on each mounting bolt be- mounted in the shield plate. The plate is
neath the chassis to lower the socket about grounded in each corner by a short, direct
t/ 6 inch, providing additional air passage lead to the meter mounting bolts.
around the base seal of the tube. The grid
pins are grounded to the adjacent socket Amplifier Before the tubes are inserted
bolts. The large filament choke is mounted Adjustment in the amplifier, the main
from a phenolic terminal strip to the parallel - bandswitch should be set to
connected filament pins of the tubes. The the various bands and the plate tank assembly
mica coupling capacitors are placed in close tuned for resonance on each band when the
position to the filament wiring and the loading capacitor is set to about % maxi-
ceramic feedthrough insulator mounted in mum value. The approximate settings should
the side wall of the input coil compartment. be logged for future reference. The two
At the side of the under -chassis area a
small perforated circuit board supports the 1 . WNENSPR
1/2"
/NG /S EXPANDED, ROD EXTENDS
ABOVE TOP OFCAB /NET.
various components of the ALC circuit and
,
the connecting lead to the 1- pf air capaci- .ALUMINUM BRACKET

tor mounted on the main tuning capacitor
I/4- DIA. METAL ROD
passes through a ceramic feedthrough insu-
lator in the chassis deck. GROUNDING BRAID
The connection from the pi- network out-

put capacitor to the coaxial receptacle CABINET
WALL
PIN
mounted on the rear lip of the chassis is EXPANSION SPRING
made via a short length of S0 -ohm coaxial
cable, the outer shield of the cable being I /2 -X I. ALUMINUM PLATE
grounded at both ends to nearby chassis Br WIRE
points. I. CERAMIC STANDOFF PILLAR
The filament transformer is mounted atop
the chassis in a rear corner as seen in the -I /2 -X I. ALUMINUM PLATE
photographs. The bottom area of the trans-

Figure 32
former is cleaned of paint so that the end
HOME -MADE HIGH- VOLTAGE
bells make a good ground connection to the
SAFETY SHORTING SWITCH
chassis to partially shield the windings from
This switch is actuated when the cabinet lid
the r -f field atop the chassis. The end bell is raised, shorting the B -plus lead to ground.
of the transformer nearest the tubes is painted The switch is made up of a short section of
1/4 -inch shaft extension that is spring
-loaded in
white to reflect the infrared radiation the up position. Closing the lid forces the shaft
emitted from the tubes, permitting the down about 1/4 inch, breaking the short con-
transformer to run much cooler than other- nection. When the lid of the cabinet is raised,
the expansion spring pushes the rod upward,
wise would be the case if the end bell was engaging the B -plus terminal. A grounding
left black. The remainder of the transformer braid is used to make good ground connection
to the shaft of the switch. The power supply
is left black so as to radiate the heat gener- should be fused or otherwise protected against
ated within the transformer. the dead short.
Table 1. be achieved with the minimum drive level

Typical Operating Data, 3 -500Z and maximum antenna load level possible.
R -F Linear Amplifier Service, Class -B Under voice modulation, the plate current
(one tube) will kick to about 440 ma and grid current
will kick to about 130 ma. For c -w opera-
D -C Plate Voltage 1500 2000 2500 tion at 2500 volts, plate loading and grid
Zero signal Plate Current (mo) 65 95 130
Single Tone drive are decreased until 400 ma plate cur-
DC Plate Current (ma) 400 400 400 rent and 125 ma grid current are noted on
Single Tone
DC Grid Current (mo) 130 130 120
the meters. As with all grounded -grid ampli-
Two Tone fiers, grid drive should never be applied be-
DC Plate Current (ma) 260 270 280
Two Tone
fore plate voltage, or damage to the tubes
DC Grid Current (mo) 80 80 70 may result.
PEP Useful Output Power
(watts) 330 500 600
Resonant Load Impedance
(ohms) 1600
28 -7 The Triband KW -2
2750 3450
Intermodulation Distortion Linear Amplifier For
Products (db) -46 -38 -33 20, 15, and 10 Meters
tubes are now inserted in their sockets and Many radio amateurs concentrate their
filament voltage applied to the amplifier. effort on the higher- frequency bands for DX
Voltage at the tube sockets should run be- operation. Others are located on small lots,
tween 4.8 and 5.1 volts, as measured with or in apartments where the erection of a
an accurate meter. The amplifier is now large low- frequency antenna for 40 and 80
placed in the cabinet and the cooling fan meters is impractical. This linear amplifier
connected so that it runs whenever the fila- is designed for the amateur whose principal
ment circuit is energized. An interlock interest lies in the 14- to 29.7 -MHz portion
switch atop the cabinet should be immedi- of the spectrum. An amplifier built specially
ately wired so that it opens the high -voltage for this range can be made smaller, simpler,
control relay in the power supply. In addi- and more inexpensively than one covering
tion, a high- voltage shorting switch, such as the complete 3.5 -to 29.7 -MHz range.
shown in the illustration (figure 32), is The unit described in this section (figure
suggested as an integral part of the ampli- 33) is a deluxe 2- kilowatt PEP class AB.,
fier, since lethal voltages are exposed when grid- driven linear amplifier using a 4CX-
the lid of the cabinet is raised unless pre- 1SOOB tube. This tube is a ceramic -and-
cautions are taken. metal, forced-air cooled tetrode with a
Typical operating voltages and currents maximum plate dissipation of 1500 watts.
for the 3 -SOOZ tube are tabulated in Table It is designed for exceptionally low inter-
1. An operating plate potential of 2500 is modulation distortion in SSB service. Typi-
recommended with an intermittent- service cally, at a plate potential of 2750 volts
power supply capability of 800 milliam- and a plate current of 730 ma (2 -kW
peres. PEP input) the third -order intermodulation
Initial adjustment is greatly facilitated products are better than -40 decibels be-
with the aid of an SWR meter or other low one tone of a two-tone test signal. This
output indicating device. Plate voltage is is an order of magnitude better than the
applied to the amplifier and the resting majority of SSB exciters on the amateur
plate current is noted. A small amount of market. Under these conditions, the useful
grid drive is introduced into the amplifier output power is better than 1100 watts,
and resonance established in the plate cir- allowing for normal tank- circuit.losses.
cuit. Drive and loading are gradually in-
creased, holding a ratio of about 3:1 be- The Amplifier The 4CX1 S00B is used in a
tween indicated plate and grid current. In Circuit passive -grid circuit, of the
the case of the 3- S00Zs, maximum indicated type shown earlier in this
grid current should be about 240 ma for chapter (figure 4). While the grid -drive
a plate current of 800 ma. This ratio should requirement of the 4CX1SOOB is only about
HANDBOOK Triband KW -2 Linear Amplifier 735
Figure 33
THE KW -2 TRIBAND LINEAR AMPLIFIER

Designed for 2 -kW PEPoperation on the 20 -, 15 -, and 10- meter amateur bands, the KW -2
features an Eimac 4CX15008 tetrode in a passive -grid circuit. A pi -L output tank circuit provides
maximum harmonic attenuation.
The amplifier is contained within a standard perforated metal cabinet. The multimeter (left)
and plate -current meter (right) are centered on the panel, with the tuning and loading controls
at the right. The bandswitch is centered below the meters. At the left of the panel are the
peak -level tuning tube, mounted in a horizontal position behind a panel cutout; the multimeter
selector switch, and the three control switches.
The panel is spray- painted and decals are applied before a final coat of clear Krylon is
sprayed on.
1.5 watts PEP, the output of modern SSB or composition resistors because the input
exciters is usually of the order of 100 to impedance of the tube presents a capacitive
200 watts PEP. A low -impedance passive reactance. and the slight inductive react-
input circuit will provide the proper load ance of the resistors tends to provide a more
for the exciter and permit the excess drive uniform load for the SSB exciter across
power to be safely dissipated (figure 34). the operating range of the amplifier.
In this case, the input circuit is composed Grid bias is applied to the 4CX1500B in
of four 200 -ohm, 10 -watt "noninductive" shunt with the passive grid resistor and pro-
resistors connected in parallel to provide 50 visions are incorporated for monitoring grid
ohms at a total dissipation of 40 watts. This current, as well as for setting the resting
is sufficient capacity to handle over 100 plate current (R, adjust bias potentiometer) .
watts PEP of drive signal under voice con- A pi -L network is used in the output cir-
ditions. The wirewound "noninductive" re- cuit of the amplifier since it provides nearly
sistors are chosen in preference to carbon 15 decibels more harmonic attenuation than
4CX1500B 001 J3
PCI SXV 2 R -F OUTPUT
J1 02
INPUT M
Il RFC
(, /0. 2020% 0/O
3 T
50 IH t 001 so SIA SIB
40 w 2w flXV
001
ALCI
TO C z
= 500
TO
AL C R 2
2w
29J RFC 2
.001
01 01
5MV
7 C
D01
2 B+
TI
EA.
E (TOeOARDi2)
5H
A + METER SWITCH
SHz SH3 OilI- GRID (0 -2 MA)
B + D O 2 -SCR (0- 700MA.)
3-OUTPUT10-2144 )
R I ADJ BIAS
2 X!
SW TO TO
BOARD2
S
001 T BOARD R2
PLATE\SS S61\OPERATE
PI
115 V.A.0
3
-BIAS
4
+B AS
- SCR.
B-
6
OND. +SCR.
7
A
8
PLATE
A
9
OPERATE VOX
RELAY
10 i
ALC OUT
I
VOX (Ro I) (Rrl)
Figure 34
SCHEMATIC, TRIBAND LINEAR AMPLIFIER
C, -50 pf, 4.5 kV. Johnson 154 -12 T, -6.3 volts of 10 amperes. UTC H -134. Adjust
C,-500 pf, 2 kV. Johnson 154 -3 20 -watt series primary resistor to provide
C , C ,C -.01 -.,fd mica capacitor in parallel 6.0 volts under load
with .001-ofd silver mica capacitor PC -47 -ohm, 2 -watt composition resistor
L1 -10 turns, 17/e" diam., 4" long of 14-inch shorted across 114" of plate strap
copper tubing (2.5 Of). 15 -meter tap: 77/4 J -Receptacle, UG- 290/U, type BNC
active turns (1.8 0H). 10 -meter tap: 51t/2 J -Receptacle, high- voltage, UG- 496/U, type
active turns (1.2 Ulf) HN
L -12 turns #10, 1" diam.,21/4" long(1.6 #H). J -Receptacle, UG- 58A /U, type N
15 -meter tap: 914 active turns (7.2 NH). 10- SH1 -2-
milliampere shunt (resistance equal to
meter tap: 614 active turns (0.8 VM) that of meter movement)
5,, -, -2 -pole, 6- position ceramic switch. Radio SH , SH -100 ohms, 2 watts
Switch Corp. Model 86 -B SH -100 -ma shunt
RFC, -72 turns #20 e., 34" diam., 23 // long. Blower- Ripley 81 (left hand), 23/4" impeller,
26 t.p.i. Series resonant at 25 MHz when 3100 rpm. 22 c.f.m. at static pressure of
mounted in place 0.4" water
RFC, -2 H, 700 ma. National R -60 or Ohmite Socket -Eimer Y -149A
1444 Chimney -Eimac SK -816
does the conventional pi network. A design Incorporated in the amplifier is an ALC

Q of 15 is used and since the low -fre- circuit and an electron tuning tube, such as
quency bands are not included in the design, used in the amplifier described in section 5
only two small, self- supporting air-wound of this chapter. The reader is referred to
coils are required. In addition, the size of that section for a description of the electron
the pi -L network loading capacitor (CO tuning circuit.
is considerably smaller than a capacitor In order to achieve maximum shielding
necessary for all -band operation. and good amplifier stability, the screen ele-
The 4CX1500B is mounted at the

rear of the main amplifier inclo-
sure on a separate subchassis. To
the right of the tube are the plate
r -f chokes and bypass capacitors.
The MC coupling capacitor is
directly behind the main plate
tuning capacitor.
At the center of the inclosure is
the pi portion of the tank coil,
with the L section mounted at
right angles below it, on a level
with the ceramic bandswitch. Out-
side the inclosure, at the left, are
the blower, filament transformer,
and various MC components,
which are mounted to a phenolic
board at the front panel. A small
board atop the blower supports
the 10 -watt wirewound resistors.
The 6FG6 electron tuning tube is
mounted flush with the panel by
means of a small aluminum brack-
et which also supports one end
of the phenolic component board.
The ALC coupling approx. 1 pfl
is composed of two 1" diameter
copper discs, spaced about 7J-inch
apart. One disc is mounted to the
stud of the plate -blocking capaci-
tor, and the other is supported
on a copper strap bolted to a
ceramic feedthrough capacitor
mounted on the subchassis.
Figure 35
TOP VIEW OF KW -2
AMPLIFIER
ment of the tetrode tube is run at r -f ground the screen supply and "floating" the screen
potential. Screen voltage is applied to the and bias supplies below ground, as shown
tube by grounding the positive terminal of in figure 36. A special socket is used for the
4C x1500e
4CXI SOOB which provides a low- inductance
screen to ground path.
A multipurpose meter (M,) measures grid,
screen, and relative r -f output of the ampli-
3K
fier tube and a separate meter (M2) meas-
ures the plate current.
ioK Rr Sn CruNE
Amplifier screen voltage is removed for
- + OPERATE
BIAS ADJUST tuneup by means of tune-operate switch S,.
The positive lead of the screen power supply
is broken, however, the screen- to-cathode
path is maintained by the 3K bleeder resis-
tor. Inclusion of this resistor is imperative,
Figure 36 since the screen voltage must be maintained
MAIN POWER- CIRCUIT WIRING positive for any values of screen current that
The screen of the 4CX15008 is operated at may be encountered. As with most high -
r -f around-potential and screen and bias sup-
plies are operated below chassis ground by gain tetrode tubes, the 4CX1SOOB exhibits
the amount of the screen voltage. All supplies negative screen current under certain oper-
return to a common B -minus point at the ating conditions (notably, when plate load-
cathode of the tube. To drop standby plate
current, the VOX relay introduces a 10K ing is insufficient). Dangerously high values
cathode -bias resistor, which is shorted out on of plate current may flow if the screen volt-
closure of the relay. The screen circuit retains
n d -c path to the cathode via the 3K resistor, age rises under conditions of low or negative
thus permitting the screen voltage to be re- screen current. Screen- circuit control is
moved for tuneup purposes.
accomplished by the 3K bleeder resistor
which stabilizes the screen voltage under any ents for the electron tuning indicator. The
operating conditions, even when the screen 6FG6 tube is mounted behind a panel cut-
lead to the supply is broken and external out on a small aluminum bracket (figure
screen voltage is zero. 35).
The rated heater voltage for the 4CX- The pi- portion of the plate tank coil
1500B is 6.0 volts and the voltage, as meas- (L, ) is self -supporting between the stator
ured at the tube socket, should be maintained terminal of tuning capacitor C, and a one -
between 5.8 and 6.0 volts to achieve maxi- inch ceramic standoff insulator fastened to
mum tube life. In no case should the volt- the side wall of the inclosure near the band-
age be allowed to exceed 5- percent above switch. The L- section coil (L2) is placed
or below the rated value. The cathode and at right angles to the larger coil and is posi-
one side of the heater are connected inter- tioned below it, being supported by one
nally within the tube. terminal of the bandswitch and a short
length of RG -8 /U coaxial line that reaches
Amplifier Assembly The amplifier is built on from the coil to the antenna receptacle
a special open frame- (J:,) on the rear panel of the assembly.
work that fits within a standard perforated The ALC and 6FG6 electron tuning tube
metal cabinet. The r -f components are con- components are mounted to two phenolic
tained within an inclosure measuring 91/4" boards (figure 37). Board No. 1 is mounted
wide, 57/8" high and 12 1/4" deep. The top and vertically inside the r -f inclosure, between
bottom of the box are covered with perfor- the loading capacitor (C2) and the antenna
ated aluminum stock for proper ventilation. receptacle. Four shielded leads run from this
The 4CX1S00B socket is placed off- center board toward the front of the amplifier
on a small aluminum chassis (figure 35) and pass out of the box via .001 -fd feed -
measuring 61/4" long, 41/4" wide and 11/4" through capacitors mounted in the front
high. The center of the socket falls on the wall of the inclosure. Each feedthrough
center line of the amplifier panel and is about capacitor is double bypassed with a .01 -fd
21/4" from the rear of the inclosure. The disc ceramic capacitor within the box. Once
forward area of the inclosure is clear, and outside, the four leads again run through
the amplifier plate tank coil, bandswitch, shielded wire to board No. 2 placed behind
and plate -tuning capacitor are placed in this the left side of the front panel (figure 35).
area. The tuning and loading capacitors are The 200 -ohm noninductive resistors which
affixed at the rear to an L- shaped bracket make up the passive input circuit are
that fills the space between the tube -socket mounted within the tube -socket chassis (fig-
inclosure and the wall of the main inclosure. ure 38). The filament bypass capacitors (Cs,
A space about 2" deep is left between C,, Ca) are composed of a .01 -fd, 600 -
the r -f inclosure and the main amplifier volt mica capacitor placed in parallel with
panel. The two panel- mounted meters recess a .001 -pfd silver-mica capacitor. Each fila-
into this space, and the main amplifier tun- ment lug is bypassed with this combination.
ing control shafts pass through this area to In addition, .001 -fd ceramic feedthrough
the control dials. capacitors are used to conduct the filament
To the left, the blower, filament trans- leads outside the chassis, and each feed -
former, and main terminal strip are mounted through capacitor is further bypassed with
to the wall of the inclosure. A rectangular a .01 -fd ceramic capacitor on the inside of
hole is cut in the side of the tube compart- the chassis. Additional disc -ceramic capaci-
ment to accommodate the mouth of the tors are placed at the terminals of the fila-
blower, which is mounted to the box with ment transformer, as shown in the schematic
short sections of aluminum angle stock. The diagram.
filament transformer is supported on a small The multimeter (M,) has an off- center
(shelf, which also holds the adjust bias poten- movement and the scale is calibrated
tiometer (R1) and the adjust ALC poten- -25 to + 75 milliamperes. Negative screen
tiometer (R_). To the front of the shelf is current may be measured by this modified
a phenolic terminal board, supported by the meter. Unless means are at hand to make
front panel, which holds the various compon- this modification, a zero-center - 50 to + 50
ALCiI ALC 2
in the manner shown in figure 36. The con-
E DAROe1
trol circuits should be arranged so that bias
.
E
imo +IN34A
arc
4 INS4A and filament supply come on before the
IlC SOK
S40 ISO RiC - LQl U

` 1N]4A
419.1
2w screen and plate supply, and a time delay
relay providing a waiting period of 3 min-
R
ZW utes is recommended.
jTfY 7491-
For preliminary tuneup, the filament of
the 4CX 1 S 00B should be energized for about
nho 'll-0 ill-0 ll
5 minutes with the bias supply adjusted
for maximum bias. During this time, the
001 .001
plate -tank circuit should be adjusted, using
a grid -dip oscillator to set the main tuning
I capacitor. The loading capacitor may be set
at half -scale. Tune -operate switch S3 should
be set in the operate position. The VOX
OUTPUT
ALC ALC SIAS INDICATOR METER relay should be closed.
Operating voltages are applied and the bias
voltage adjusted for a resting plate current
of 300 milliamperes. Switch S3 is now set to
RFC II the tune position and the multimeter switch
set to the grid position. A small amount of
drive power is applied until an indication of
ISO K
plate current is apparent and the plate -tank
capacitor tuned for resonance. The operate
0lusr
ALC switch is now reset to the operate position
R2
2SK
and grid drive advanced until about one -half
56K milliampere of grid current is noted. Plate
nv loading is increased until about 700 milliam-
120
ALC OUT TO PI -22Sv TO P1
01
si peres are indicated on the plate meter. Grid
drive and loading are adjusted until the
Figure 37 operating data outlined in Table 2 are
AUXILIARY POWER WIRING achieved.
Circuit board #1 (top) is mounted near output With carrier removed and voice modula-
receptacle (J,) of amplifier and holds the 540 - tion applied, the plate current will rise to
pf ALC adjustment capacitor. Circuit board #2
(bottom) is mounted behind the 6FG6 electron about 400 milliamperes maximum, and screen
tuning tube. ALC and electron -tube range are current will peak at about -8 milliamperes.
set by adjustment of ALC capacitor. Range of Grid current should be limited to about 0.03
ALC control is set by adjust ALC potentiometer
(R,). Electron -eye anodes operate at ground milliampere.
potential with cathode 225 volts below When the VOX relay opens, resting plate
ground. Filament voltage for 6FG6 may be
taken from transformer T.. All r-f chokes are current will drop to only a few milliamperes,
2.5 mN (National R -100), or equivalent.
Table 2.
4C11 500B Typical Operation, Class -AB,
R -F Linear Amplifier
meter having a one milliampere movement
may be used (see parts list). D-c plate voltage 2750 2900 volts
D -c screen voltage 225 225 volts
D -c grid voltage 34 34 volts
Amplifier A power supply delivering the Zero -signal d -c plate current 300 300 ma
Single -tone d -c plate current 755 710 ma
Adjustment following voltages is required Two -tone d -c plate current 555 542 mo
for amplifier operation: 2700 Single -tone d -c screen current 14 15 ma
to 3000 volts at an IVS current rating of
Two -tone d -c screen current 11 11 ma
Single -tone d -c grid current 0.95 0.53 mo
&00 milliamperes, 225 volts at a CCS cur- Two-tone d -c grid current 0.20 0.06 ma
rent rating of 100 milliamperes, and 50
volts at 25 milliamperes. Three separate sup-
- Peak r-f grid voltage
Driving power
Resonant load impedance
45
1.5
1900
41 volts
1.5 watts
2200 ohms
plies may be used, connected to the amplifier Useful output power 1100 1100 watts
Figure 38
KW -2 AMPLIFIER
The bottom of the socket chas-
sis has been removed to show
placement of major compo-
nents within the chassis. The
squirrel -cage blower mounts
to the side of the inclosure,
with the air blast going di-
rectly into the small chassis.
The air is exhausted through
the tube socket and out the
anode of the 4CX 15008.
At the right is the double
terminal strip to which the
main power cable is attached.
The arrangement of the I,
section coil is visible at the
center of the main inclosure.
as sufficient resistor bias is added to produce operation, and for 1.5 -MHz coverage at the
near -cutoff conditions. high end of the range. Used for heavy -duty
Operation of the amplifier should be mon- service, the amplifier is capable of key -down
itored with an oscilloscope to make sure that (RTTY) service at the 2 -kW power input
"flattopping" does not occur at maximum level. Choice of rugged components and an
input level. When the proper maximum efficient cooling system assure reliable, trou-
voice level has been established, the mica ble -free, around - the -clock service.
compression capacitor on board No. 1 may be The amplifier consists of a two -stage cir-
adjusted to allow the tuning indicator to cuit, employing a 4CX2SOB ceramic tetrode
completely close at this signal level. operating class AB, to drive a 3 -1000Z
grounded -grid, class -B linear stage. For those
amateurs having an SSB exciter capable of
28 -8 A Two -Stage High - about 70 watts PEP output, the driver stage
may be eliminated, and the 3 -1000Z stage
Gain Amplifier Using can be driven directly by the exciter. This
The 3 -1000Z may be accomplished by breaking the inter-
connecting coaxial cable between the stages
This sturdy amplifier (figure 39) is de- at point X (figure 40). The 4CX2S0B stage
signed to operate at the 2 -kW PEP input may then be omitted, or a switch installed
level when driven by an SSB signal of not at this point to allow the amplifier to be
more than 500 milliwatts PEP level. Ampli- used at two widely different drive levels.
fier gain is better than 33 decibels, and When operated under normal conditions,
operation is stable under all normal condi- the third -order intermodulation distortion
tions. The amplifier is designed for single - figure of the two -stage amplifier is better
band operation at any frequency between than -33 decibels below one tone of a two -
3.5 MHz and 30 MHz, and specific data is tone test signal.
included for operation on any one of the
amateur bands between 80 and 10 meters. Amplifier Circuitry The circuit of the two -
Tank circuits are designed for a coverage of stage, high -gain linear
500 kHz at the low end of the range of amplifier is shown in figures 40 and 43. The
Figure 39
TWO -STAGE LINEAR AMPLIFIER WITH 3 -1000Z
This rugged, high -gain linear amplifier is designed for continuous- service operation at the 2 -kW
power level. Less than -watt PEP drive is required for full input. The amplifier is designed for
1
single -band operation on any range of frequencies between 3.5 and 30MHz.
The amplifier uses two tubes; a 4CX2508 tetrode driver operating class A8. and a 3 -I000Z
high -..triode in grounded -grid circuitry. For use with exciters having a power output of 100
watts PEP or so, the driver stage may be omitted. The amplifier is designed for mounting
in a standard 19" cabinet. The top of the shielded enclosure is removable, with top, sides and
back being perforated to allow proper circulation of air within the amplifier.
Panel meters are II. to r. : Multimeter M , grid -current meter M , and plate- current meter M .
In a vertical position below the left -hand meter are the input and output tuning controls for
the driver stage, with the ALC Adjust, Adjust output, and meter- switch knobs to the right.
Primary filament and plate circuit switches and pilot lamps are at the bottom of the panel.
At the right are the plate -tuning control 'top and antenna -loading control bottom). The panel
is painted a hammertone gray and lettering is placed in position, then panel is given a spray
coat of clear Krylon to protect the finish.
3 -1000Z high - triode is operated in cath- The 3 -1000Z is coupled to the driver by
ode- driven, grounded -grid service in the a short length of coaxial line. The driver, a
zero -bias mode. A pi -L network (C5, C6, L4, 4CX2 f 0B tetrode, is bridge neutralized for
L;) is used in the plate circuit to achieve proper stability and the grid circuit is loaded
maximum harmonic suppression. The net- by a resistor (R1) to establish the system
work is designed to match a 50 -ohm load drive level at about 1.5 watt PEP. Without
having a maximum SWR figure of 3/1, or the resistor, the typical drive level is about
less. To restrict overload and "flattopping," 500 milliwatts PEP for full output of the
a portion of the instantaneous r -f plate volt- two -stage amplifier at 3.8 MHz.
age is sampled and rectified for use as ALC The 4CX2SOB has a relatively high -Q
control, and applied to the exciter. plate -tank circuit that is designed to work
4CX250B 3 -1000Z TO ALC

t 001 J2
PCI PC2 SKV LS R-F OUT
111 RGSe.0
Sk
11111 11s11
1JI LI
f
IR -F
PUT
IN3A SK
2w
3.
RFC 2
C
ADJUST
I
RI OUTPUT
Z
J3
= B+
SSA 53B
A
C e-
a-
S i E
01 _
001 MULTIMETER
A -B GRID
G -D SCREEN
E-F -PLATE
PLATE G -N OUTPUT
001 001
GP/0 -
S2 PL ATE ON PL
ALC OUT
fI
4 Y tP2
-00V. +350V. +1000V. IISVA.C. GND PLATE PLATE VOX VOK GAO ALC
CONTROL PILOT
CIRCUIT
Figure 40
SCHEMATIC OF TWO -STAGE HIGH -GAIN AMPLIFIER

Note: See tables 4 and 5 for coil and capacitor data.
J,- UG- 290/U, type BNC connector inch diem., spaced 41/2" long, 40 t.p.l. Series
J,- UG- 58A /U, type N connector resonant at 24 MHz. (15 meters): 130 turns,
J-UG- 496B/U, type HN connector as above, 31/4" long. Series resonant at 28
PC, -3 turns #14, spaced around a 47 -ohm, 2- MHz. (Remove turns from B&W 800) (10
watt composition resistor meters): 70 turns # 16, 3 -inch diam., 3"
PC,- (80 -40 meters): 7 turns #12, /f"
3 diem., long. Series resonant at 40 MHz.
around 50 -ohm, 5 -watt resistor. Ohmite RFC -2 H. Ohmite Z -144
P -300 T, -6.3 volts, 3 amps. Chicago-Stancor P -6466
(20 -15 meters): 3 turns #72, as above. T -7.5 volts, 21 amps. Chicago -Stancor P -6457
Ohmite P -300 with turns removed N -850 -pf, mica compression capacitor. ARCO
(10 meters): 2 turns #12, as above. Ohmite 306M
P -300 with turns removed Blower -20 cu ft. /min. Dayton 1C -180 or Ripley
RFC, -(80 meters): 1 -mH, 600-ma. National R- LR -81
154 SH., SH,, SW-Meter shunts. Wind resistance
(40 -10 meters): 44 -uH, 600 -ma. Ohmite Z -14 wire around 47K, -watt resistor to provide
1
RFC, -B&W FC-30A. Home -made substitute: 14 proper meter ranges, as shown above
bif,lar turns #10 e. wire on ferrite core, M -0 -1 d -c milliammeter, Simpson 1327
112" diem., 3" long. (Indiana General CF -503 M -0-500 d -e milliammeter, Simpson 1327
core. Newark Electronics catalog no. 59F- M -0 -1000 d -c milliammeter, Simpson 1327
1521). Notch core with file and snap to Socket for 4CX2508 -5K -600
break to length. Chimney for 4CX2508 -SK-606
RFC -(80-20 meters): 200 .,H, 800 ma. B&W 800. Socket for 3- 10002 -SK -510
Home -made substitute: 180 turns #20, 3 - Chimney for 3- 1000Z -SK-516
into a S0 -ohm load. To combine high gain to isolate the input and output circuits with-
with maximum stability, the driver grid and in the inclosure by the use of multiple bypass
plate circuits are carefully shielded from capacitors and proper shielding of the power
each other. In addition, the chassis is arranged and metering leads. The majority of small
Figure 41
TOP VIEW OF HEAVY -DUTY AMPLIFIER
An interior view of the 40 -meter amplifier.
Inclosed 4CX2508 stage is at the side of the
assembly, with centrifugal blower directly be-
hind it. Pi -L plate -circuit components are at
the left, with 3 -10002 tube and chimney on
center line of chassis.
On the rear apron of the inclosure are (I. to
r.): antenna, high-voltage, power, and input
receptacles. The last three connectors are in-
closed in a small aluminum box beneath the
chassis to shield the leads from the r -f cir-
cuitry. Layout of major components is identi-
cal for all amplifiers.
components are removed from the r -f in- Both the 4CX2S0B and the 3 -1000Z re-
closure and are mounted on phenolic ter- quire forced -air cooling at 25 c.f.m. A
minal boards between the inclosure and the si-igle centrifugal blower provides this air
amplifier panel. flow, at a back pressure of about 0.4 inch of
Amplifier operation is monitored by three water.
panel meters. Meter M1 is a multimeter
which reads grid, screen, or plate current Amplifier Proper interstage shielding in
of the 4CX2S0B, in addition to monitoring Construction this amplifier contributes to the
relative power output of the amplifier. Meter high degree of stability. The
M_ measures grid current of the 3- 1000Z, unit is built within an aluminum inclosure
and meter M, measures plate current in the measuring 18" wide, 12" high, and 15" deep.
B -minus return lead to the power supply. Sides and back of the inclosure are perforated
Figure 42
10 -METER AMPLIFIER
The 3 -10002 socket is near chassis cen-
ter, with the filament choke directly
below it, and the cathode tuned circuit
at one side. To the right of the socket
s the electrical conduit and shield box
tor the power receptacles and wiring.
Air inlet from the blower is seen at
lower left, with exit hole for passing
cooling air to the 4CX2508 buffer stage
at the upper left. The air opening is
covered with screening. Filament trans-
former for the 4CX2508 is at extreme
left, with primary -circuit terminal strip
adjacent to it. The shaft of 4CX2508
loading capacitor projects through the
bottom of the chassis directly above the
transformer. Filament "Hypass" capaci-
tors for the 3 -10002 are at the right of
the filament choke, and the short coaxial
lead for high voltage posses toward the
back of the amplifier at the right side.
Power wiring to the panel is extra length
so that the panel may be removed for
test purposes.
4350V FROM PI TO 3 -10002 PLATE CAT

31
SMV
IN34A 57K 330K

IOOK RFC
2 5MM
001
ALC
ADJUST I`
ADJUST
51K FOR T /AIE
CONSTANT
=
ro P2
ALC OUT
Figure 43
ALC CIRCUIT FOR AMPLIFIER
to provide proper ventilation, as is the area

of the top plate over the 3- 1000Z. The in-
closure is bent out of flat plate and riveted
together with "pop" rivets. The centrifugal
blower is mounted atop the chassis in a
corner and draws air in through the rear of
the inclosure and exhausts it into the under -
chassis area, which serves as a plenum
chamber. The under - chassis pressurized air Figure 44
is exhausted through the 3 -1000Z air -system OBLIQUE VIEW OF 10 -METER PI -L
socket, and also passes into the driver box, PLATE -TANK CIRCUIT
providing proper cooling for the 4CX250B The rear frames of the pi-L capacitors are con-
tube. Air chimneys are used with both the nected together with an aluminum strap and
the front frames are attached to the panel
3 -1000Z and 4CX250B tubes to direct the with I7 -inch metal spacers. The plate coil is
flow of cooling air over the tube seals and attached to both stator terminals of each
capacitor to evenly distribute the current
anodes. through the capacitor frame. Two .001 -pf 5 -kV
Regardless of the operating frequency, ceramic capacitors are placed in series for the
amplifier layout follows the arrangement plate- blocking capacitor in this particular am-
plifier. The ALC capacitor (I pf) is shown as a
shown in the photographs (figure 41 and ceramic unit. It was replaced at a later date
42). The 3 -I000Z socket is near the center with a capacitor made up of two -inch diam-
1
eter copper discs spaced about 3,8 -inch apart,

of the chassis deck, toward the front of the because several ceramic units failed in the 10-
inclosure, with the plate -circuit components meter unit over a period of time. The 250 -pf
bridge capacitor (figure 43) is a mica feed -
and coils to one side of the tube (figure 44) . through "button" capacitor mounted to the
The driver inclosure is on the opposite side wall of the amplifier inclosure.
Note that the plate parasitic suppressor of the
of the 3- I000Z. To the side of the chassis, 10 -meter amplifier has been reduced to two
the amplifier coils are directly behind the turns of wire around the resistor.
tank capacitors which are affixed to the front
of the inclosure, and the filament trans-
former is mounted directly behind the shown in the photograph of figure 45. Both
3 -1000Z socket. sides of the box are removable for ease in
The exciter inclosure measures 8" X 8" wiring the stage. The portion of the box to
X 3 V2" in size and is bolted in position the rear of the bracket holds the various
atop the chassis deck of the amplifier. Power plate- circuit components of the 4CX250B.
leads pass through feedthrough capacitors Cooling air is introduced into the box
mounted in the front wall of the inclosure. through a 11/4" hole in the bottom of the
The 4CX250B socket mounts on an L- box which aligns with a similar hole cut
shaped bracket that incloses one-quarter of in the deck of the main inclosure. The sides
the internal area of the box. The grid- circuit and top of the box are perforated to permit
components are contained in this area, as the air to pass out of the box after its pas-
for various small components; and the panel

meters, switches, and controls recess into
this area.
The pi- network loading capacitor for
the driver stage (C:,) may be set for a
50 -ohm load and forgotten. Accordingly,
it is not brought out to the panel, but is
mounted in a vertical position, with the
shaft projecting into the under -chassis area
(figure 42). It may be adjusted, if desired,
by placing an adjustment hole in the bottom
chassis plate, and covering the hole with a
snap botton when it is not in use. The
4CX2SOB neutralizing capacitor (NC, fig-
ure 45) is adjustable through a hole drilled
in the side panel of the subassembly. This
adjustment hole, too, is covered when not
in use to maintain the proper pressurized
air system.
Amplifier Tuning The 4CX2SOB driver stage

Figure 45 and Adjustment should be adjusted sepa-
rately on the bench before
INTERIOR VIEW OF DRIVER STAGE it is placed within the amplifier. Temporary
The ICX25011 driver h mounted within a
cooling air may be applied to the unit, and
separate compartment atop the main ampli- it can be operated into a dummy load. The
fier chassis. The sides and top panel of the 4CX2SOB requires 1000 volts at 220 ma for
compartment are removable. The lower in-
closure holds the driver grid circuit compo- the plate, 350 volts (regulated) at SO ma
nents, with the variable compression mica
neutralizing capacitor in the foreg d. The
for the screen and - 80 volts (adjustable)
pi- network plate circuit of the 4CX2505 is at at 10 ma for the bias supply. Bias, plate,
the right. and screen voltages to the 4CX250B are
applied in that order. Bias is adjusted for a
resting plate current of 100 ma.
sage through the socket and anode cooler Before voltages are applied, the 4CX250B
of the 4CX2SOB. should be neutralized according to the pro-
The 3 -1000Z cathode tuned circuit and cedures outlined in Chapter 11. Operating
filament choke are mounted under the ampli- voltages are then applied through the
fier deck, as is the 4CX250B filament trans- metering circuits of the amplifier, making
former. Power and metering connectors sure the 10K screen bleeder resistor is in
are placed on the rear apron of the chassis the circuit. When properly loaded and
and the various leads pass through the un- driven, the plate current of the 4CX2SOB
der- chassis area to the front -panel controls will run about 200 to 250 ma, screen current
and components via a short length of V2- about 15 ma or less, and grid current
inch diameter electrical conduit pipe, should be less than one division on the 0 -1
grounded at both ends. A solid bottom plate ma meter range. Proper neutralization is indi-
completes the r -f shielding and also pres- cated by maximum power output, maximum
surizes the under-chassis area. The small screen current and minimum plate current all
joints, seams and holes in the chassis are filled coinciding at one setting of tuning capaci-
with caulking compound to make the tor C. Once the amplifier has been properly
plenum chamber air tight. adjusted, it may be permanently placed in
The complete amplifier assembly is sup- the amplifier compartment and wired in
ported from the front panel by means of place. Power output should be 100 to 120
two U- channels made of aluminum. The watts, single tone with less than 1.5 watts
intervening 2" space holds the circuit boards driving power.
746 H -F and Power Amplifier RADIO
Table 4.
4CX250B Driver-Circuit Data
Band L, C, L. C, C,
(11 #H) J. W. Miller
80 43A105CB1, /z" diam. 1 200 pf (13 9H) 28 turns # 12, 200 pf 1500 pf
Primary = 15t #22 e. 11/4" diam., 2" long 1.6 kV
(6.5 H) J. W. Miller
40 42A68CB1, /z" diam.
1 100 pf (7.5 9H) 14 turns # 12, 100 pf 1000 pf
Primary = 10t #22 e. I" diom., 2" long 2 kV
(3.3 AH) J. W. Miller

20 42A336CBI, 1/2" diam 25 pf (3.7 H) 16 turns # 12, 75 pf 600 pf
Primary = 5t #22 e. 1" diam., 11/2" long 2 kV
(2.2 9H) J. W. Miller

15 42A226CB1, 1/2" diam. 15 pf (2.0 9H) 6 turns # 10, 50 pf 300 pf
Primary = 4t # 22 e. 2" diam., 3" long 2 kV
(1.2 9H)
8 turns # 18, Ye" diam.
10 1/2" long. Pri. = 4 turns 15 pf (1.5 9H) 6 turns #10, 35 pf 200 pf
# 18, 1/4" diom., 11/4" diam., 11/8" long 2 Kv
1/z" long
Voltage requirements for the 3 -1000Z 3 -1000Z draws 500 ma plate current at
are: 3000 volts at 670 ma (SSB) or 2000 resonance at a grid current of about 200 ma.
volts at 500 ma (c.w.). For tune -up pur- Excitation and antenna loading are inter-
poses, the VOX terminals on power plug P2 locking, and are varied until this ratio of
should be shorted together. Plate voltage is currents is achieved. The output circuit of
applied, with the amplifier first being ad- the 4CX250B stage is re- resonated (and
justed for c -w operation. Using a dummy perhaps loading adjusted slightly) until the
load, excitation is slowly raised until the proper drive level is reached at the desired
Table S. 3-1000Z Circuit Data
Bond L, C. L. Cs Ls C.
12 turns #10, 3/4" 1600 pf (9 H) 14 turns #6, 500 pf (6.5 4H) 20 turns 1500 pf
80 diom., 11/2" long XMTG. 31/2" diam., 5" long 3.5 kV #12, 11/4" diam.
(1.25 4H) MICA Johnson 2" long
153 -6
4 turns #10, 13(4" 1000 pf (4.5 4H) 8 turns #6, 150 pf (3.2 4H) 11 turns, 1000 pf
40 diam., 11/2" long XMTG. 31/2 "diam., 31/2" long 4.5kV #12, 11/4" diam.,
(0.6 9H) MICA Johnson 1" long
153 -12
4 turns #10, 11/e" 400 pf (2.2 4H, 10 turns 100 pf (1.5 4H) 15 turns 500 pf
20 diom., 11/3" long XMTG. 1/4" tubing, 7/s"
1 7 kV #12,3/4" diam.,
(0.3 4H) MICA diam. , 41/4" long Johnson 2" long
153 -14
3 turns #10 1" 250 pf (1.3 9H) 6 turns 75 pf (0.9 H) 10 turns 250 pf
15 diam., 1" long XMTG. 3(," tubing, 2" diam., 4.5 kV #10, y2" diam.,
(0.2 4H) MICA 4" long Johnson 11/2" long
154 -13
4 turns #12, 1/2" 200 pf (1.2 4H) 6 turns 35 pf (0.6 4H) 41/2 turns 250 pf
10 diam., 3/4" long XMTG. Xi" tubing, 11/2" 4.5 kV #10, sr" diam.,
(0.15 9H) MICA diam., 3" long Johnson 11 /e" long
154 -11
HANDBOOK 6 -Meter kW Linear 747
input to the 3- 1000Z. Power output of the

amplifier will be 650 watts, or better at
1 -kW input.
In order to go from a one -kilowatt state
to a 2 -kW PEP state under the same load
conditions, it is necessary to raise the plate
voltage of the tube to 3000. At this plate
potential, resting plate current should be
about 220 ma when the VOX terminals are
shorted. When the terminals are open, the
bias provided by the 10K cathode resistor
will drop the plate current to a few milli-
amperes. At the 3 -kV potential, then, exci-
tation is gradually raised to achieve a plate
current of 665 ma at a grid current of 180 Figure 46
to 200 ma. Tuning adjustments need not be
3 -400Z LINEAR AMPLIFIER PACKS
changed from the c -w condition.
KILOWATT PUNCH FOR THE
If it is found that grid current to the
when plate current SIX -METER OPERATOR
3 -1000Z is too low
reaches 665 ma at resonance, it is an indica- This compact kilowatt linear amplifier is suited
tion that antenna loading istooheavy for the for SSB, -w or a -m service in the 50 -MHz
c
band. Utilizing the 3 -4002 in a grounded -grid
degree of grid drive. Conversely, if grid circuit, the amplifier requires neither bias nor
current is too high, it is an indication that screen voltage. The homemade cabinet is an
"r -f tight" inclosure which helps to reduce TVI
excitation is too high for the amount of problems. Meters are shielded and are In the
antenna loading. A proper balance of drive circuit at all times so no extra switching cir-
cuits are required. Panel size is only 83/4" X
level and antenna loading will permit the 13 ". Panel components are (I. to r.): Grid
proper ratio of grid current-to -plate current meter, r -f output meter, and plate meter. ln
to be achieved. When the proper ratio is met, the line below the meters are: r -f output cali-
bration control, plate tuning, and antenna
it will be found that when plate voltage is loading. Across the bottom of the panel are:
dopped to 2000 for c -w operation, the power input tuning, filament pilot light, and high -
voltage pilot light.
input will automatically drop to 1 kW, and
the only adjustment necessary to the ampli-
fier may be a slight "touchup" of the driv- input for sideband and c -w service, and will
ing level from the auxiliary exciter. deliver a fully modulated carrier of about
Once proper operation at 2000 and 3000 200 watts as an a -m linear amplifier. A
volts has been completed with a single -tone single Eimac 3 -400Z zero -bias triode is used
driving signal, the amplifier may be driven in this efficient, compact unit which is cap-
with a voice signal. Because of meter inertia able of delivering full output from an ex-
and the relatively low power in the human citer providing 35 watts peak drive (or 15
voice, peak grid and plate current readings watts carrier, amplitude-modulated). The
will average about one -half of the single- cathode -driven (grounded -grid) configura-
tone readings. Proper peak conditions for SSB tion is utilized and neutralization is unneces-
may be monitored with an oscilloscope. Op- sary.
eration at 1 -kW d -c input at 3000 volts
plate potential is not recommended because The Amplifier The schematic of the six -
efficiency is low due to the limited r -f plate - Circuit meter amplifier is shown in
voltage swing. figure 47. A tuned-cathode
circuit (L, -C,) is used to preserve the wave-
28 -9 A Kilowatt Linear form of the driving signal and to reduce
Amplifier for Six Meters harmonic distortion that may cause TVI.
Described in this section is a high -power The plate circuit of the amplifier utilizes
amplifier expressly designed for six -meter a pi-L network to achieve a high order of
operation. It is capable of 1- kilowatt PEP harmonic suppression and a simple diode
3 -400Z RECEIVER
PC
001 ANT.
PLATE STRAP 5 NV 3 RELAY ANTENNA
50
2W
I1 RFC 1 50 190 RFC 2 A
TC2 ' IC3 Z -50 CR11
B
11.134.
.001 C
5KV
.001
C1 3KV J1 TOEXCIT. CALIBRATE
140
0
SRV
TORY O-1 MA
GRID
0 -200 MA
71 PLATE 01
0 -500 MA

C
500 500
fG
RFC 3 RFC4
Z -5O 2-50
500
3V1, -H
c?
sao
+5 V
6=
K
500
ONO. V 115 V 1,
J5 J3 J4
Figure 47
SCHEMATIC OF SIX -METER LINEAR AMPLIFIER

B- Blower. 13 cubic feet per minute at 0.13 inches of water. Dayton 2C -782 or equivalent
C -140 pf Bud 1856
C -50 pf, 0.07" spacing. Hammarlund MC -505X

C -190 pf. Bud 1858
J -TV -type chassis -mount cord socket
L- Bifilar coil. 3 turns, 18 -inch diameter copper tubing spaced to 2 ", tapped 3 turn from
grounded end. Inner conductor is No. 12 insulated or formvar wire (see text)
L -Pi- section coil. 5 turns, 3/16 -inch copper tubing, spaced to 3 ". Inside diameter is 11/4".
L -L- section coil. 4 turns, 18 -inch tubing, 3$ -inch inside diameter, spaced to 21/2"
RFC, -3 pH choke. 48 turns No. 16 formvar wire closewound on 12" diameter standoff insulator.
RFC Ohmite Z -50 choke
RY- Coaxial antenna relay. Dow Key DK60 -G2C
T -5 volts at 15 A. Stancor P -6433
Note: 0.1 Alf, 600 -volt feedthrough capacitors are Sprague 80P -3. Meters are Simpson Wide -Vue.
voltmeter is used to monitor the r -f output rent, therefore, is measured in the cathode -
voltage. An antenna relay (RY) is incor- return circuit of the amplifier by meter M,.
porated in the amplifier, and an alternative
circuit is shown for using the linear ampli- TO EXCITER
OR TRANSCEIVER
fier with a transceiver (figure 48).
Metering and It is necessary to measure

Suppression Circuits both grid and plate cur-
rent in a cathode- driven
amplifier to establish the proper ratio of grid 001
3KVT
1
to plate current. At the higher frequencies
TO LI Figure 48 TO L3
it is desirable to directly ground the grid of
the amplifier tube and not to rely on ques- SUGGESTED ANTENNA -RELAY CIRCUIT
tionable bypass capacitors to insure that the FOR USING AMPLIFIER WITH
grid remains at ground potential. Grid cur- TRANSCEIVER
bottom plate. The rear of the cabinet is a

3 -4002 o-
Rs
sheet of perforated aluminum fastened to

the cabinet with 1/4-inch aluminum angle
stock. Additional angle stock is cut to
length and fastened to the front edge of
the cabinet to secure the panel. A 4 -inch
hole is cut in the cabinet directly above
the 3 -400Z and is covered with a small
sheet of perforated aluminum. This shielded
vent permits the heated air from the tube to
escape from the inclosure.
A meter shield is used to protect the
panel meters from the r -f field of the plate
-e +e circuit and to suppress r -f leakage from
POWER SUPPLY the cabinet via the meter faces. The box-
like shield is attached to the panel by means
of aluminum angle stock which is held to
Figure 49
the panel by the meter mounting bolts. All
METERING CIRCUITS FOR KILOWATT paint is removed from the rear of the panel
AMPLIFIER to provide a good ground connection to the
meter shield and to the chassis and cabinet.
A -D -c meter circuit showing grid and plate
meters placed in law -potential return The 3 -400Z tube requires forced -air cool-
leads. The B -minus of the power supply ing during operation and a blower (B) is
"floats" above ground by virtue of the 50- mounted on the chassis and activated with
ohm resistor, which may be placed in the
power supply, if desired. application of filament voltage. An F.imac
B -Peak- responding voltmeter circuit useful for SK -410 air-system socket and SK -416 air
adjusting linear for a -m service. chimney are used to achieve proper air flow
around the filament and plate seals of the
Plate current is measured in the B -minus lead tube.
to the power supply by meter M2. A simpli- Layout of the major components may be
fied metering circuit is shown in figure 49. seen in the photographs. The air- system
This amplifier was checked for parasitics socket is mounted on the underside of the
and it was found that the usual plate para- chassis in a 31/4-inch diameter cutout. The
sitic choke was not required for stable oper- spring clips that hold the chimney in place
ation. A variation in circuit layout, how- fasten with the same bolts used to mount
ever, or changes in ground- return currents the socket, which is oriented so that filament
may allow weak parasitic oscillation to take pins 1 and S are facing the front of the
place. If this condition is found, placement chassis. The cathode tuning capacitor (CO
of a parasitic choke in the plate lead will is mounted on the front apron of the chassis
suppress the unwanted parasitic. A practical with insulated washers as the rotor is above
parasitic choke is shown in the schematic ground by the amount of the filament volt-
and is made by merely shunting a portion age. The cathode coil is a dual winding, made
of the plate strap with a composition resistor. of copper tubing having an insulated center
conductor. A section of %B -inch soft -
Amplifier The amplifier is inclosed in an drawn copper tubing about a foot long is
Construction "r -f tight" cabinet measuring needed to make the coil. Before the coil is
13" X 83/4" X 10 ". A stand- wound, the ends of the tubing are smoothed
ard 12" X 10" X 3" aluminum chassis is with a file and a length of No.12 cotton -
used, along with an 83/4" X 13" panel (cut covered (or formt'ar- insulated) wire is
from a standard aluminum relay rack pan- passed through the tubing. The coil is then
el) . The cabinet is made by bending a sheet wound about a 3/4 -inch diameter wood dowel
of light aluminum (31" X 11 ") to fit rod used as a temporary form, spacing the
around the panel. It is riveted to 13" X 11" three turns to a length of two inches. The
tubing is trimmed, and the inner wire is the stud of the high -voltage bypass capaci-
left projecting about ten inches from each tor at the lower end of the plate r -f choke.
end. The coil is mounted close to the tube The shafts of the variable capacitors are
socket (figure 51) with one end supported driven with insulated couplers to prevent
by the filament pins of the tube socket. The ground -loop currents from flowing through
inner conductor is trimmed to length and the shafts into the panel.
soldered to one filament pin, and the tubing The plate r -f choke is homemade, and is
is connected to the other filament pin by wound on a % -inch diameter ceramic in-
means of a short length of copper strap about sulator. A commercial choke may be used, if
1A-inch wide, cut from copper "flashing" desired. The base of the choke screws on
material. The end of the coil is equidistant the bolt of the high -voltage feedthrough
from the filament pins. The strap encircles insulator on the chassis, and is bypassed at
one end of the tubing and is soldered in this point with a ceramic capacitor.
place, with the other end soldered to the The coaxial antenna relay is mounted on
pin. The filament bypass capacitor is sol- the top of the chassis positioned so the
dered directly between the filament pins of output lead from the L- section of the tank
the socket. A second short length of copper
strap jumpers the first strap to the stator
of the cathode tuning capacitor.
The opposite end of the cathode coil is
bypassed to ground by a ceramic capacitor
which also supports the coil. The inner con-
ductor is bypassed to the outside tubing at
this point, and a length of copper strap
makes a connection to the rotor of the
tuning capacitor. The inner conductor con-
tinues over to the filament transformer and
a second length of No. 12 wire is run from
the copper tubing to the second transformer
terminal.
The three grid pins of the 3 -400Z socket
are grounded by passing a %q -inch wide
copper strap through the slot in the socket
adjacent to each grid pin and soldering the
strap directly to- the flat tab on the pin.
The straps are then bolted to the chassis
just clear of the socket.
The Plate- Figure 50

Layout of the components
Circuit Assembly above the chassis are shown TOP VIEW OF 3 -400Z LINEAR
in figure 50. The plate AMPLIFIER FOR 50 MHz
tuning and loading capacitors (C_ and C3)
Placement of the major components above the
are mounted on 1,',-inch ceramic insulators. chassis may be seen in this photograph. The
The tuning capacitor is rotated 90 degrees meter shield has been removed for the photo-
on its side and held in position with small graph. Leads to the meter compartment are
shielded, and bypass capacitors are mounted
aluminum brackets. A common ground con- at the meter terminals.
nection made of a length of 1,/,-inch wide Across the rear apron of the chassis (1. to r.)
are: receiver receptacle (J ); terminal strip
copper strap connects the rear rotor terminals (J ); Millen high-voltage connector (J ); Sprague
of the capacitors. In addition, the capacitor feedthrough capacitors; and r -f exciter recep-
tacle (J,). At the bottom edge of the chassis
rotor wipers are connected to the common are a ground connection and the relay voltage
ground strap. terminal (J ).
A second strap grounds the rotors to a The copper ground strap betw,.en the plate
circuit tuning capacitors may be seen just
common ground point on the chassis under behind the antenna relay.
circuit can be connected directly to the

input receptacle. The connection is made by
trimming down a coaxial connector and
soldering a short length of #10 wire to the
center terminal to make the connection to
the coil. The antenna receptacle of the relay
extends beyond the rear apron of the chassis
and through the rear of the cabinet. The
receive receptacle is fed with a length of
RG -58 /U coaxial cable which terminates
at the coaxial receptacle on the rear apron of
the chassis. An auxiliary set of contacts on
the relay are used to short out the 50K
self -bias resistor in the cathode circuit of
the 3 -400Z when transmitting. The resistor
serves to bias the tube to near cutoff during
periods of reception to prevent noise being Figure 51
generated which may interfere with recep-
tion of weak signals and also to reduce the
LINEAR AMPLIFIER
standby drain on the power supply. The
relay is actuated by the control or VOX The cathode circuit is mounted on the filament
terminals of the air system socket (upper left),
circuit of the exciter, and the relay coil with the tuning capacitor (C,) insulated from
should be chosen to match the voltage de- the panel. Filament leads run from the tuned
livered from the exciter control circuit. circuit to the filament transformer mounted to
the rear apron of the chassis. At the right Is
A diode r -f voltmeter is mounted beneath the small aluminum box (cover removed)
the chassis in a small aluminum box posi- holding the components for the r -f output
voltmeter. The blower outlet is at the left
tioned over the r -f feedthrough insulator corner of the chassis next to the feedthrough
which supports the end of the L- network capacitors.
above the chassis. The lead from the volt-
meter circuit to the calibrate potentiometer should show resonance with the cathode
on the panel is run in shield braid, as are tuning capacitor about two- thirds meshed.
the leads from the center tap of the filament The plate tank circuit is now tested, with
transformer. Tight rubber grommets are the tuning capacitor about one -half meshed
used in all chassis holes to restrict air leaks. and the loading capacitor about two - thirds
meshed. Grid -dip resonance at these settings
Amplifier When the amplifier has been for 50 MHz may be achieved by slight al-
Adjustment wired and inspected, it is ready terations in the spacing of the pi- network
for initial checks. Air is di- coil. The L- section should also show a dip
rected into the tube socket by means of a around 50 MHz.
temporary bottom plate (cardboard) taped Once resonance of the tank circuits has
to the chassis. Filament voltage is applied been verified, the S0 -ohm resistors are re-
and the blower motor should start. A strong moved and the amplifier attached to the
blast of air out of the tube chimney should exciter and coaxial antenna lead. A separate
be noted. Tube filament voltage should be ground lead is run from the amplifier to the
adjusted to 5.0 volts at the socket with an power supply. A plate potential of 2500 volts
accurate meter. Filament voltage is now re- is recommended as a maximum (key -down)
moved and the input and output coaxial re-
value, and good operation can be obtained
ceptacles are temporarily terminated in S0-
ohm, 1 -watt composition resistors, which
down to 2000 volts. At the higher potential,
may be soldered across the receptacles for the resting plate current will be about 80
this test. A grid -dip meter is tuned to 50 ma. Random variations in resting plate cur-
MHz and brought near the cathode coil rent, or a show of grid current when the
(the 3 -400Z being in the socket). The meter controls are tuned (with no grid drive) is
752 H -F and VHF Power Amplifier
an indication of parasitic oscillation and a 1000 -Hz audio oscillator is used for the
plate parasitic choke should be installed. following adjustments.
After plate voltage is applied, grid drive Fcr preliminary tuneup, the a -m driver
is slowly injected until a plate current of is modulated 100 percent with the 1000 -Hz
about 150 ma is noted. The cathode circuit tone. A driver capable of about 15 watts
is resonated for maximum grid current and carrier is required. The 3 -400Z amplifier is
the plate tuning capacitor adjusted for plate- loaded and drive level adjusted to 600 watts
current dip. Grid drive is increased and input under this condition. Amplifier output
loading adjustments made in the normal is monitored with the peak- responding volt-
manner for pi- network operation to achieve meter, which is adjusted to full -scale reading
a single tone (carrier) plate current of 400 at the 600 -watt input level. Grid current
ma at a grid current of about 140 ma. will run about %4 the plate- current value, or
Proper loading is indicated by the ratio of approximately 60 ma. Once this condition
plate current to grid current, which should is reached, the modulation of the driver is
be about 3:1. removed, leaving only carrier excitation. If
For operation as a linear amplifier for the linear amplifier is properly adjusted, the
SSB, carrier injection is used as described for indication of the peak- responding voltmeter
tuning and loading. The relative -voltage should drop to one -half scale, corresponding
output meter is very useful in the tuning to an output drop to one -quarter power.
process and provides a continuous check on If the peak -voltage drop when modulation
proper operation as it increases in proportion is removed is less than one -half, the plate
to grid current. Maximum carrier input con- circuit loading and grid -drive level of the
ditions are as stated above, and under these linear amplifier must be adjusted to provide
conditions, the anode of the 3 -400Z will be the correct ratio. This is an indication that
a cherry red in color. With carrier removed antenna loading is too light for the given
and SSB voice modulation applied, drive is grid drive. If this process is monitored with
advanced until voice peaks reach about 200 an oscilloscope, the point of flat -topping can
ma plate current and about 70 ma grid cur- be noted and drive and loading adjusted to
rent. For c -w operation, the full 400 ma remove the distortion on the peaks of the
plate current value may be run. signal. Under voice modulation, plate and
grid current will flicker a small amount
A -M Linear The amplifier may be used for upward.
Operation a -m linear service when prop- The combination of a peak- responding
erly adjusted. The amplifier ef- voltmeter, an oscilloscope, and an audio
ficiency at the peak of the modulation cycle oscillator used with tune -up under 100 per-
is about 66 percent and efficiency under cent single-tone modulation of the exciter
carrier conditions (no modulation) is about affords a relatively easy and accurate method
33 percent. As maximum plate dissipation of achieving proper a -m linear amplifier
is 400 watts, the total a -m carrier input to service.
the 3 -400Z is limited to about 600 watts As with any cathode- driven amplifier,
(200 volts at 240 ma) . In order to prop- drive should never be applied to the ampli-
erly load the amplifier to this condition for fier in the absence of plate voltage, as dam-
a -m linear service, an oscilloscope and peak - age to the grid of the tube may result. The
responding voltmeter are necessary. The r -f proper sequence is to always apply plate
output voltmeter in the amplifier may be voltage before drive, increasing the drive
converted to a peak -responding instrument level slowly from a minimum value as tun-
as shown in figure 49B. In addition, a simple ing adjustments are made.
CHAPTER TWENTY -NINE
Speech and
Amplitude -Modulation Equipment
Amplitude modulation of the output of a percent of the d -c input to the final stage.
transmitter for radiotelephony may be ac- A detailed discussion of the relative advan-
complished either at the plate circuit of the tages of the different methods for accom-
final amplifier, commonly called high -level plishing amplitude modulation of the output
amplitude modulation or simply plate modu- of a transmitter is given in an earlier chap-
lation of the final stage, or it may be accom- ter.
plished at a lower level. Low -level modula- Two trends may be noted in the design of
tion is accompanied by a plate- circuit systems for obtaining high -level amplitude
efficiency in the final stage of 30 to 45 per- modulation of the final stage of amateur
cent, while the efficiency obtainable with transmitters. The first is toward the use of
high -level amplitude modulation is about tetrodes in the output stage of the high -
twice as great, running from 60 to 80 per- power audio amplifier which is used as the
cent. Intermediate values of efficiency may modulator for a transmitter. The second
be obtained by a combination of low -level trend is toward the use of clipping and
and high -level modulation; cathode modula- limiting circuits to control the maximum
tion of the final stage is a common way of level of modulation.
obtaining combined low -level and high -level
modulation.
High -level amplitude modulation is char- 29 -1 Modulation
acterized by a requirement for an amount of
peak audio power approximately equal to
one -half the d -c input to the plate circuit of Tetrode In regard to the use of tetrodes,
the final stage. Low -level modulation, as for Modulators the advantages of these tubes
example grid -bias modulation of the final have long been noted for use in
stage, requires only a few watts of audio modulators having from 10 to 100 watts
power for a medium -power transmitter and output. The 6AQ5, 6L6 and 6146 tubes
10 to 15 watts for modulation of a stage have served well in providing audio power
with one kilowatt input. Cathode modula- outputs in this range. Recently the
tion of a stage normally is accomplished higher-power tetrodes such as the 813, and
with an audio power capability of about 20 4 -250A, and the zero -bias triodes such as the
754 Speech and A -M Equipment RADIO
3 -400Z have come into more general use as the radiated signal is concerned, at least so
high -level audio amplifiers. The beam tet- long as the linear modulation capability of
rodes offer the advantages of low driving the final amplifier is not exceeded. So the
power (even down to zero driving power problem becomes mainly one of constructing
for many applications) as compared to the a modulator/final-amplifier combination so
high driving -power requirements of the that negative -peak clipping (modulation in
usual triode tubes having equivalent power - excess of 100 percent in a negative direc-
output capabilities. tion) cannot normally take place regardless
On the other hand, beam -tetrode tubes of any reasonable speech input level.
require both a screen -voltage power supply
and a grid -bias source. So it still is expedient Assymetrieol The speech waveform of the
in many cases to use zero -bias triodes or Speech normal male voice is charac-
even low -p. triodes such as the 340TL in terized, as was stated before,
many modulators for the medium -power by high -amplitude peaks of short duration.
and high -power range. A list of suggested But it is also a significant characteristic of
modulator combinations for a range of pow- this wave that these high- amplitude peaks
er output capabilities is given later in this are polarized in one direction with respect to
chapter. the average amplitude of the wave. This is
the "lopsided" or assymetrical speech which
Increasing the It has long been known has been discussed and illustrated in an
Effective Modu- that the effective modu- earlier chapter.
lation Percentage lation percentage of a The simplest method of attaining a high
transmitter carrying un- average level of modulation without nega-
altered speech waves was necessarily limited tive -peak clipping may be had merely by
to a rather low value by the frequent high - ensuring that these high -amplitude peaks
amplitude peaks which occur in a speech always are polarized in a positive direction at
waveform. Many methods for increasing the the secondary of the modulation transform-
effective modulation percentage in terms of er. This adjustment may be achieved in the
the peak modulation percentage have been following manner: Couple a cathode -ray
suggested in various publications and subse- oscilloscope to the output of the transmitter
quently tried in the field by the amateur in such a manner that the carrier and its
fraternity. Two of the first methods sug- modulation envelope may be viewed on the
gested were automatic modulation control scope. Speak into the microphone and note
and volume compression. Both these meth- whether the sharp peaks of modulation are
ods were given extensive trials by operating polarized upward or whether these peaks
amateurs; the systems do give a degree of tend to cut the baseline with the "bright
improvement as evidenced by the fact that spot" in the center of the trace which de-
such arrangements still are used in many notes negative -peak clipping. If it is not
amateur stations. But these systems fall short obvious whether or not the existing polarity
of the optimum, because there is no essen- is correct, reverse the polarity of the mod-
tial modification of the speech waveform. ulating signal and again look at the envel-
Some method of actually modifying the ope. If a push-pull modulator is used, the
speech waveform to improve the ratio of easiest way of reversing signal polarity is to
peak amplitude to average amplitude must reverse either the leads which go to the
be used before significant improvement is grids or the leads to the plates of the modu-
obtained. lator tubes.
It has been proved that the most serious When the correct adjustment of signal
effect on the radiated signal accompanying polarity is obtained through the above pro-
overmodulation is the strong spurious -side- cedure, it is necessarily correct only for the
band radiation which accompanies negative- specific microphone which was used while
peak clipping. Modulation in excess of 100 making the tests. The substitution of an-
percent in the positive direction is accom- other microphone may make it necessary to
panied by no undesirable effects as far as again reverse the polarity, since the new
HANDBOOK Modulation 755
MODULATOR -F FINAL
microphone may be connected internally in R
the opposite polarity to that of the original

one.
Low -Level The low -level speech clip-

Speech Clipping per is, in the ideal case, a
very practical method for
obtaining an improved ratio of average-to-
peak amplitude. Such systems, used in con- +5 .e
junction with a voice- frequency filter, can MOD. R F
FINAL
11! VAC
give a very worthwhile improvement in the Figure 1
effective modulation percentage; but in the

HIGH -LEVEL SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
normal a -m transmitter their operation
is often less than ideal. The excessive phase The high-vacuum diode acts as a series lim-
iter to suppress negative -peak clipping in
shift between the low-level clipper and the the modulated r -f amplifier as a result of
plate circuit of the final amplifier in the large amplitude negative -peak modulating
transmitter results in a severe alteration signals. In addition, the low -pass filter fol-
lowing the diode suppresses the transients
in the square -wave output of the clip- which result from the peak -clipping action of
per -filter which results from a high degree the diode. Further, the Alter attenuates all
harmonics generated within the modulator
of clipping. The square -wave output of the system whose frequency lies above the cut-
clipper ends up essentially as a double saw - off frequency of the filter. The use of an
tooth wave by the time this wave reaches appropriate value of capacitor, determined
experimentally as dis d in Chapter Thir-
the plate of the modulated amplifier. The teen, across the primary of the modulation
net result of the rather complex action of transformer (C,) introduces further attenua-
tion to high -frequency modulator harmonics.
the clipper, filter, and the phase shift in Chokes suitable for use at L are manufactured
the succeeding stages is that the low -level by Chicago-Stancor Co. The correct values of
speech clipper system does provide an im- capacitance for C,, C,, C , and C1 are specified
on the installation sheet for the splatter-
provement in the effective modulation per- suppressor chokes for a wide variety of oper-
centage, but it does not insure against ating conditions.
overmodulation. An extensive discussion of
these factors, along with representative wave- to the d -c voltage being applied to the
forms, is given in Chapter Thirteen. Circuits plate of the final amplifier stage. A single -
for some recommended clipper -filter sys- section low -pass filter serves to filter out the
tems will also be found in the same chapter. high- frequency components resulting from
the clipping action.
Tube V1 may be a receiver rectifier with
High -Level One practical method for a 5 -volt filament for any but the highest
Splatter Suppressor the substantial elimination power transmitters. The 5U4 -GB is good
of negative -peak clipping for 250 ma plate current to the final stage,
in a high -level a -m transmitter is the so- the 5V3 -A is satisfactory for up to 350
called high -level splatter suppressor. As fig- ma. For high -power high- voltage transmit-
ure 1 shows, it is only necessary to add a ters the best tube is the high- vacuum trans-
high- vacuum rectifier tube socket, a fila- mitting tube type 836. It is a high- vacuum
ment transformer, and a simple low -pass rectifier and utilizes a large -size heater -
filter toan existing modulator/final-ampli- type dual cathode requiring a warmup time
fier combination to provide high -level sup- of at least 40 seconds before current should
pression. be passed. The tube is rated at an average
The tube (V,) serves to act as a switch current of 250 ma. For greater current
to cut off the circuit from the high -voltage drain by the final amplifier, two or more
power supply to the plate circuit of the 836 tubes may be placed in parallel.
final amplifier as soon as the peak a -c volt- The filament transformer for the cathode
age across the secondary of the modulation of the splatter- suppressor tube must be in-
transformer has become equal and opposite sulated for somewhat more than twice the
TO AMP
I2AX7
004
I KV
* = MATCHED RES /S TORS +250 V
A 10 -WATT 6AQ5 MODULATOR
Plate -to -plate load impedance of the output stage is 10K.
operating d -c voltage on the plate -modu- livering about 10 watts of audio power. A
lated stage, to allow for a factor of safety simple negative- feedback circuit from the
on modulation peaks. A filament transform- secondary of the modulation transformer to
er of the type normally used with high - the cathode of the second speech amplifier
voltage rectifier tubes will be suitable for stage smooths the audio response, and pro-
such an application. vides improved regulation of the audio
output voltage. The capacitor across the
secondary winding of the modulation trans-
29 -2 General -Purpose former is part of the feedback circuit, re-
Tetrode Modulators ducing any tendency of the circuit to oscil-
late at the higher audio frequencies.
A number of representative designs for It is important that the feedback be
speech amplifiers and modulators are given in properly phased. If the amplifier oscillates,
this chapter. Still other designs are included either the primary or secondary connections
in the descriptions of other items of equip- of the output transformer should be re-
ment in other chapters. However, those per- versed. With a 250 -volt plate supply the
sons who wish to design a speech amplifier 6AQ5 tubes should have a bias of about
or modulator to meet their particular needs - 15 volts and a resting plate current of
are referred to Chapter Six, Vacuum -Tube about 70 ma. At full power output, plate
Amplifiers, for additional data. current will rise to about 80 ma or so.
Maximum -signal cathode current is about
95 ma. For 12 -volt operation, the filament
A 10 -Watt This compact modulator is well sections of the 12AU7 should be wired in
Modulator suited for portable or mobile series. The 6AQ5's may be series connected,
operation since it may be run or 12AQ5 tubes used. The 6C4 requires a
from a6- or 12 -volt primary supply (figure series filament resistor to operate on 12
2). A 12AX7 two-stage speech amplifier volts.
drives a 6C4 hot -cathode phase inverter, in
which a proportion of the output voltage 10- to 120 -Watt It is difficult to surpass
is developed across a cathode load resistor, Modulator with the capabilities of the
out of phase with the plate signal. Matched Beam -Power Tubes reliable beam -power tube
cathode and plate -load resistors ensure that when an audio power out-
the output signals from the 6C4 stage are put of 10 to 120 watts is required of a
equal in amplitude. Two 6AQ5 tetrodes are modulator. A pair of 6L6 -G tubes operating
used in the class AB, modulator stage, de- in such a modulator will deliver good plate-
HANDBOOK General- Purpose Tetrode Modulators 757
60U6A 6C4 12AU7A r, V, T2

o
C i4/N v
01
CRYSTAL
MIC
J1 4 76
e 220k
,000FI
50
COLF ,7 K 1 101JF
aso Z Tse C
POWER CONNECTIONS S1 SIA

A- GROUND - esV
6- 6.3V
C-B.250-300 V
D-RIAS
E-Bf2S0-750 V
* =MATCHED PAIR OF RESISTORS, 1%
PLI ::isr,
A
1
B C D E 5+
FINAL
TO
Figure 3
SCHEMATIC OF MEDIUM -POWER MODULATOR
M -0 -250 d-c milliammeter T.- Modulation transformer

T,- Driver transformer. Sta A-4701, or UTC 60 -watt level = Stancor A -3893, or UTC S -10
S -10 125 -watt level = Stancor A -3894
circuit efficiency, require only a very small Listed in Table 1 are a group of recom-
amount of driving power, and impose no mended operating conditions for different
serious grid -bias problems. Included on the tube types in the output stage of the modu-
chassis of the modulator shown in figure 3 lator. In certain sets of operating conditions
are the speech amplifier, the driver and the tubes will be operated class AB,, that is
modulation transformers for the output
tubes, and a plate- current milliammeter. with increased plate current with signal but
The power supply has not been included. with no grid current. Other operating con-
The 6AU6A pentode first stage is coupled ditions specify class-AB, operation, in which
through the volume control to the grid
of a 6C4 phase inverter. The output of the Table 1.
phase inverter is capacitively coupled to the
grids of a 12AU7A which acts as a push -
Recommended Operating Conditions for
pull driver for the output tubes. Trans-
Modulator of Figure 3 for Different Tube Types
former coupling is used between the driver
Plate -
stage and the grids of the output tubes so Plata Power
Tubes Plate Screen Grid
that the output stage may be operated either V, V, To CurrentOutput
Class Volts Volts Bios
Load
as a class -AB, or class -AB2 amplifier. (E) (C) (D) (Ohms) (MA) (Watts)
6V6GT AB 250 250 -15 10,000 70 -80 10
6V6GT AB, 285 285 -19 8,000 70 -95 15
The Output Either 6L6, 6L6 -G, or 807 6L6 AB, 360 270 -23 6,600 85 -135 27
Stage tubes may be used in the out- 6L6 AB, 360 270 -23 3,800 85 -205 47
put stage of the modulator. As 807 AB, 600 300 -34 10,000 35 -140 56
a matter of fact, either 6V6 -GT or 6F6 -G
807 AB, 750 300 -35 12,000 30 -140 75
tubes could be used in the output stage if
somewhat less power output is required. 807 AB2 750 300 -35 7,300 30-240120
the plate current increases with signal and make use of triodes such as the 809, 811,
grid current flows on signal peaks. 8005, 805, or 810 tubes with operating plate
voltages between 750 and 2000. Figure 4
A High -Power Modulator Listed in Table 2 illustrates a general -purpose modulator
with Beam Tetrodes representative
are unit designed for operation in this power
operating conditions range. The size of the modulation trans-
for various tetrode tubes providing power former will of course be dependent on the
levels up to 840 watts of audio. Complete amount of audio power developed by the
operating data on these tube types may be modulator. In the case of the 500 -watt mod-
obtained from the manufacturer. In the case ulator the size and weight of the components
of the 4 -250A and 4 -400A, both class AB1 require that the speech amplifier be mounted
and AB_ data are given. These tubes are on a separate chassis. For power levels of
electrically similar except that the 4 -400A 300 watts or less it is possible to mount the
has greater plate dissipation. Class AB1 oper- complete speech system on one chassis.
ation of the modulator is recommended
since it places less demand on the driver Circuit Description
stage, and a simple transformer- coupled modulator unit
The
of General Purpose shown in figure 4 is
voltage amplifier may be used, such as the Modulator
one shown in the circuit of figure 3.
complete except for the
Because of the power level involved and
high -voltage supply re-
the design of the external -anode tube, the quired by the modulator tubes. A speech
4X150A /4CX250B tubes must be forced - amplifier suitable for operation with a crys-
air cooled in this application. It is recom- tal microphone is included on the chassis
mended that the 813, 4 -250A, and 4 -400A along with its own power supply. A 6AU6
is used as a high -gain preamplifier stage
tubes be convection cooled with a small
fan. The modulator may be checked for cor- resistance coupled to a 12AU7 phase in-
rect operation as described in the next sec- verter. The audio level is controlled by a
tion. potentiometer in the input grid circuit of the
12AU7 stage. Push -pull 2A3 low -p triodes
29 -3 General Purpose serve as the class -B driver stage. The 2A3's
Triode Class -B Modulator are coupled to the grids of the modulator
tubes through a conventional multipurpose
High level class -B modulators with power driver transformer. Cathode bias is em-
output in the 125- to 500 -watt level usually ployed on the driver stage which is capable
of providing 12 watts of audio power for
the grid circuit of the modulator.
Table 2. Table 3.
Recommended Operating Conditions for Suggested Operating Conditions
Tetrode Tubes for 400- to 800 Watt For General- Purpose Modulator
Power Level Plate- Sine
To- Wave
Plate-to Grid Plate Plate Power
Plate Screen Grid Plate Plate Power Tubes Plate Bias Current Load Output
Tubes Volts Volts Bias Load Current Output
V1 VI Class E C D (ohms) (ma) (watts) V1, V Voltage (Volts) (Ma) (Ohms) (Watts)
811 -A 750 0 30 -350 5,100 175

813 AB2 2500 750 -95 17,000 316P0 650
811 -A 1000 0 45 -350 7,400 245
4 -125A AB, 2500 350 -43 22,000

%p 400 811 -A 1250 0 50 -350 9,200 310
120 to
r 811 -A 1500 -4.5 32 -315 12,400 340
4 -250A AB, 300 -51 10,900 500 840
2500 805 1250 0 148 -400 6,700 300
4-400A AB2 600 -110 11,400 120 to
430
625 805 1500 - 16 84 -400 8,200 370
810 2000 -50 60 -420 12,000 450
4X150A
4CX250B AB 2000 350 -55 9,500 200 ta 600 810 2500 -75 50 -420 17,500 500
4CX300A 1 500
HANDBOOK Triode Clas -B Modulator 759
6AU6 I2AU7 2A 3 VI T2
-
T1
005
GAIN
CRYSTAL
'21,1
R
470K ] l
MIC.
00 K
J1 .7K
e K
A IeK
100 K I,
- - 22M
WV".
01
470K 3
-0.1
T 2A3 v2
r-. ,
10LF1
a50 Z`
rVN
4.7K 10
450
1J trf
2
dHN
511
2 L+
1 C 8 e+
/AS SUPPLY IF (ISEO,
OTNERw/SE SNORT
TERMINALS.
CH1
A
5Y3-GT _fSSCV
nO, Y Y
M v MATCHED PAIR
25K RESISTORS, 736
sU2 +
TOLF
+
20UF
4S0 4S0
II M
VC
3 T.
150
115V.1.
Figure 4
SCHEMATIC OF GENERAL PURPOSE MODULATOR

M -0 -500 ma. 1 -Suitable for tubes used.
1,- Driver transformer. Stancor A -1761 For 811 -A's = 6.3 volt, 8 amp. Stancor P -6308
Tp"Poly-pedance" Modulation transformer. For 810's = 10 volt, 10 amp. Stance, P -6461
300 -watt rating, Stancor A -3898 CM, -14 henry, 100 ma. UTC S -19. Stancor C -1001
S00 -watt rating, Stancor A -3899 R IK, 10 watts, adjustable. Set for plate
T,- 360 -0 -360 volts, 150 ma. Stancor PC -8410 e t of 80 ma. (no signal) to 2A3 tubes
(approximately 875 ohms).
V,, 1/,-See Table 3.
For c -w operation the secondary of the oscilloscope should be grounded to the com-
class -B modulation transformer is shorted mon ground point of the modulator.
out and the filament and bias circuits of the The listed plate voltage is now applied
modulator are disabled. to the modulator, and bias is adjusted for
proper resting plate current.
Modulator When the modulator has been Beextremely caref ullduringtheseadjustments,
Adjustment wired and checked, it should be since the plate supply of the modulator is a
tested before being used with
an r -f unit. A satisfactory test setup is
shown in figure 5. A common ground lead
should be run between the speech amplifier
and the modulator. A number of 1000 -ohm
100 -watt resistors are connected in series and
placed across the high -voltage terminals of
the modulator unit to act as an audio load.
Bias should be adjusted to show the indi-
cated value from grid terminal to ground
as measured with a high -resistance voltmeter. 8+
2500 v
TO
OSCILLOSCSC OPE
If an oscilloscope is available, it should be
Figure 5
coupled to point "A" on the load resistor
through a 500 -pf ceramic TV capacitor TEST SETUP FOR 500 -WATT
of 10,000 volts rating. The case of the MODULATOR
lethal weapon. Never touch the modulator unit delivers 15 watts of heavily clipped
when the plate voltage supply is on! Be sure audio.
you employ the TV blocking capacitor be- A 12AX7 tube is used as a two -stage mi-
tween the oscilloscope and the plate-load crophone preamplifier and delivers approxi-
resistors, as these load resistors are at high- mately 20 volts (rms) audio signal to
voltage potential! If a high- resistance a -c the 6AL5 series clipper tube. The clipping
voltmeter is available that has a 2000 -volt level is adjustable between 0 db and 15 db
scale, it should be clipped between the high - by clipping control R_. Amplifier gain is
voltage terminals of the modulator, directly controlled by R, in the grid circuit of the
across the dummy load. Do not touch the second section of the 12AX7. A low -pass
meter when the high - voltage supply is in filter having a 3500 -Hz cutoff follows the
operation! An audio oscillator should be 6AL5 clipper stage, with an output of 5
connected to the audio input circuit of the volts peak audio signal under maximum clip-
exciter- transmitter and the audio excitation ping conditions. A double- triode 12AU7
to the high -level modulator should be in- cathode- follower phase inverter follows the
creased until the a -c voltmeter across the clipper stage and delivers a 100 -volt rms
dummy -load resistor indicates an rms read- signal to the push -pull grids of the 2A3
ing that is equal to 0.7 (707, ) of the plate audio driver tubes. The 2A3 tubes operate
voltage applied to the modulator. If the at a plate potential of 330 volts and have a
modulator plate voltage is 2500 volts, the -68 volt bias voltage developed by a small
a -c meter should indicate 1750 volts devel- diode rectifier supply applied to their grid
oped across the 6000 -ohm dummy -load re- circuit. An audio output of 15 watts is de-
sistor. This is equivalent to an audio output veloped across the secondary terminals of
of 500 watts. Under these conditions, the the class -B driver transformer with less than
oscilloscope may be used to observe the audio 5 percent distortion under conditions of no
waveform of the modulator when coupled clipping. A 5U4 -G and a choke -input filter
to point "A" through the 10,000 volt cou- network provide unusually good voltage reg-
pling capacitor. ulation of the high -voltage plate supply.
When the frequency of the audio oscillator The resistors in the 12AU7 phase -in-
is advanced above 3500 Hz the output level verter plate circuit and the grid circuit of
of the modulator as measured on the a -c the 2A3 tubes should be matched to achieve
voltmeter should drop sharply indicating best phase- inverter balance. The exact value
that the low -pass audio network is function- of the paired resistors is not important, but
ing properly (if low -pass network is used). care should be taken that the values are
equal. Random resistors may be matched on
29 -4 A 15 -Watt an ohmmeter to find two units that are alike
Clipper - Amplifier in value. When these matched resistors are
soldered in the circuit, care should be taken
The near -ultimate in "talk power" can that the heat of the soldering iron does not
be obtained with low -level clipping and fil- cause the resistors to shift value. The re-
tering combined with high -level filtering. sistors should be held firmly by the lead to
Such a modulation system will have real be soldered with a long -nose pliers, which
"punch," yet will sound well rounded and will act as a heat sink between the soldered
normal. The speech amplifier described in joint and the body of the resistor. If this
this section makes use of low -level clipping precaution is taken the two phase -inverter
and filtering and is specifically designed to outputs will be in close balance.
drive a pair of push-pull 810 modulators.
Adjustment of When the wiring of the
Circuit The schematic of the speech the Speech speech amplifier has been
Description amplifier -clipper is shown in Amplifier completed and checked, the
figure 6. A total of six tubes, unit is ready to be tested.
including a rectifier are employed and the Before the tubes are plugged in the amplifier,
HANDBOOK Auxiliary Clipper -Amplifiers 761
1 2AX7 6AL5 12AU7 2A3 Tz

HOS 0.1
CRYSTAL PF-
MIC.
JACKSK
#0.5 V.
2
330 TO
CLASS-5
MODULATOR
UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED; GRID CIRCUIT
ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT
ALL CAPACITORS IN OF
RESISTORS MARKED WITH ASTERISK !
ARE BALANCED PAIRS.
5U4 -G
FILS. eoo.2W
TI -450 -0 -450VOLTS AT IOS MA.
CHICAGO TRANSFORMER PSR -105 221(.2W.
eo;
T2 -CLASS 5 DRIVER TRANSFORMER 450 V 22K,2W
CHICAGO TRANSFORMER COS-1
T3 -123 V. AT IS MA.
STA PICOR PS -8415
LPF -2 -LOW PASS FILTER UNIT

CHICAGO TRANS. LPF -2
LI -12 N, ISOMA.
CHICAGO TRANS. RC -12100
SR -50 MA. REPLACEMENT TYPE

2 A.
SAG
T3 fno
SILICON RECTIFIER
110V1.
O
GND. 0Lia
Figure 6
SCHEMATIC, 15 -WATT CLIPPER- AMPLIFIER
the bias supply should be energized and the 29 -5 Auxiliary

voltage across the 600 -ohm bleeder resistor Clipper -Amplifiers
should be measured. It should be 68 volts. -
If it is not, slight changes in the value of
the series resistor (R3) should be made until
Simple, compact clipper- amplifiers may
the correct voltage appears across the bleeder be added to existing a -m equipment to pro-
resistor. The tubes may now be inserted in vide a higher level of modulation and greater
the amplifier and the positive and cathode "talk power." Shown in figure 7 is a single-
voltages checked in accordance with the stage clipper- amplifier designed to be placed
measurements given in figure 6. After the between the microphone and the input of a
unit has been tested and is connected to the speech amplifier. Clipping is accomplished in
modulator, R_, should be set so that it is the collector circuit of the transistor and
impossible to overmodulate the transmitter clipping level is set by means of variable
regardless of the setting of R1. The level of threshold bias applied to the clipping diode.
clipping is, of course, dependent on the set- Proper adjustment of clipping bias and
ting of R2. speech amplifier gain will provide a moder-
2N5355 1N34A ately heavy level of speech clipping that will
add "punch" to the modulation of the a -m
transmitter.
A more complex clipper -amplifier is shown
in figure 8. Two stages of amplification pro-
vide ample gain for the diode clippers which
start to conduct at an audio level of about
0.6 volt peak. The modulation level is con-
V
trolled by the gain potentiometer and the
Figure 7 clipping level is set by the adjust -clip poten-
SINGLE -STAGE CLIPPER /AMPLIFIER tiometer in the emitter circuit of the first
762 Speech and A -M Equipment
2N3391 2N2925/HEP -54 2N2925/HEP-54
DYNAMIC
OR XTAL
MIC
/
ATN o
IOo
220 N
Figure 8
MORE COMPLEX CLIPPER /AMPLIFIER
2N3391 transistor. It is recommended that

either clipper be adjusted for maximum
performance with an oscilloscope attached
To
to the transmitter. DRi VER
STAGE
29 -6 Zero Bias
Tetrode Modulators
Class -B zero bias operation of tetrode
tubes is made possible by the application of Figure 9
the driving signal to the two grids of the
tubes as shown in figure 9. Tubes such as ZERO BIAS TETRODE MODULATOR
the 6AQ$, 6L6, 807, 803, and 813 work ELIMINATES SCREEN AND BIAS
well in this circuit and neither a screen sup-
SUPPLIES
ply nor a bias supply is required. The drive
requirements are low and the tubes operate Low driving power and simplicity are key
features of this novel modulator. Tubes rang-
with excellent plate circuit efficiency. The ing in size from 6AQ5's to 813's may be
series grid resistors for the small tubes are employed in this circuit.
required to balance the current drawn by T1-Class-B driver transformer
T- Modulation transformer
the two grids, but are not needed in the case V,, V: -6AQS, 6L6, 807, 803, 813, etc.
of the 803 and 813 tubes. R., R -Not used with 803 and 813
CHAPTER THIRTY
Power Supplies
Vacuum tubes and solid -state devices rein such a manner that it is capable of de-
quire an essentially pure direct current power livering the required current at a specified
supply for proper operation. Primary power voltage, that it has a degree of regulation
is usually taken from the home electrical consistent with the requirements of the ap-
system which, in the United States, is nom- plication, that its ripple level at full current
inally 117/240 volts, 60 hertz, in a 3 -wire, is sufficiently low for the load which will be
grounded - neutral circuit. For mobile or fed, that its internal impedance is sufficient-
portable operation, the primary power source ly low for the job, and that none of the
is often a 6- or 12 -volt automotive system. components shall be overloaded with the
In the common case of the home elec- type of operation contemplated.
trical system, the various d -c voltages re- The meeting of all the requirements of
quired for communication equipment are the previous paragraph is not always a
supplied by a transformer, rectifier and filter straightforward and simple problem. In
network used in conjunction with a control many cases compromises will be involved,
and overload protection device. particularly when the power supply is for an
In view of the high cost of iron -core amateur station and a number of compo-
components which make up the bulk of a nents already on hand must be fitted into
power supply, it is well to carefully consider the plan.
the design of a power supply in terms of The arrival at the design for the power
minimum requirements which will permit supply for use in a particular application
desired performance to be obtained from the may best be accomplished through the use
supply. Thus, the a -c primary power must of a series of steps, with reference to the
be economically converted to high and lower
data in this chapter by determining the
d -c voltages for the proper operation of the
values of components to be used. The first
various circuits in the equipment. In addi- step is to establish the operating require-
tion, certain circuits require voltage control
ments of the power supply. In general these
or voltage regulation for proper operation.
,are:
This Chapter covers the design and assembly L Output voltage required under full
of suitable power supplies and control cir- load.
cuits for amateur communication equipment. 2. Minimum, normal, and peak output
30 -1 Power -Supply current.
3. Voltage regulation required over the
Requirements current range.
A power supply for a transmitter or for a 4. Ripple voltage limit.
unit of station equipment should be designed S. Rectifier circuit to be used.
764 Power Supplies RADIO
The out put t oltage required of the power peak signal will rise to 500 ma. However,
supply is more or less established by the the rectifier system should be capable of
operating conditions of the tubes which it handling the full 500 ma.
will supply. The current rating of the sup- The iron -core components of a power
ply, however, is not necessarily tied down by supply which feeds an intermittent load
a particular tube combination. It is always (such as demanded by an SSB transmitter)
best to design a power supply in such a man- may be chosen on the basis of the current
ner that it will have the greatest degree of averaged over a period of several minutes,
flexibility; this procedure will in many cases since it is the heating effect of the current
allow an existing power supply to be used which is of greatest importance in estab-
without change as a portion of a new trans- lishing the rating of such components. Since
mitter or other item of station equipment. iron -core components have a relatively large
amount of thermal inertia, the effect of an
Current- Rating The minimum current drain
intermittent heavy current is offset to an
Considerations which will be taken from a
extent by a resting period between words
and syllables, or by key -up periods in the
power supply will be, in
case of c -w transmission. However, the cur-
most cases, merely the bleeder current. There rent rating of a rectifier tube is established
are many cases where a particular power
by the magnitude of emission available from
supply will always be used with a moderate the filament of the tube, and the rating
or heavy load on it, but when the supply is of a semiconductor rectifier is established
a portion of a transmitter it is best to con-
by the maximum temperature limit of the
sider the minimum drain as that of the rectifier element, both of which cannot be
bleeder. The minimum current drain from exceeded even for a short period of time or
a power supply is of importance since it, the rectifier will be damaged.
in conjunction with the nominal voltage of The above considerations are predicated,
the supply, determines the minimum value however, on the assumption that none of
of inductance which the input choke must the iron -core components will become sat-
have to keep the voltage from soaring when urated due to the high level of intermittent
the external load is removed. current drain.
The normal current rating of a power
supply usually is a round -number value Voltage Regulation Since the current drain
chosen on the basis of the transformers and of a power supply can
chokes on hand or available from the catalog vary over a large magnitude, it is important
of a reliable manufacturer. The current to determine what happens to the output
rating of a supply to feed a steady load such voltage of the supply with regard to change
as a receiver, a speech amplifier, or a con- in current. Power -supply regulation may be
tinuously operating r-f stage should be at expressed in terms of static and dynamic
least equal to the steady drain of the load. regulation. Static regulation relates to the
However, other considerations come into regulation under long -term conditions of
play in choosing the current rating for a change in load whereas dynamic regulation
keyed amplifier, an amplifier of SSB signals, relates to short -term changes in load condi-
or a class -B modulator. In the case of a tions. Regulation is expressed as a change in
supply which will feed an intermittent load output voltage with respect to load:
such as these, the current ratings of the
transformers and chokes may be less than
the maximum current which will be taken; Percent Regulation - (E1 - E2) X 100
E2
but the current ratings of the rectifier sys-
tem to be used should be at least equal where,
to the maximum current which will be E, is no -load voltage,
taken. That is to say that 300 -ma trans- E_ is full -load voltage.
formers and chokes may be used in the sup-
ply for a modulator whose resting current Thus static regulation concerns itself with
is 100 ma but whose maximum current at the "on" and "off" voltages of the power
HANDBOOK Power -Supply Requirements 765
1250 and, at the same time, greatly improve the

INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE
static regulation of the power supply.
1000
Static and dynamic regulation values of
FULL LOAD VOLTAGE
about 10 percent or so are considered to be
W
limits of good design practice in amateur
-- INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE C transmitting equipment, as illustrated by
voltage curve B in figure 1.
Ripple Voltage The alternating component of

D250
o the output voltage of a d -c
power supply is termed the ripple voltage.
05 015 It is superimposed on the d -c voltage, and
o 0
TIME IN SECONDS
0
-- the effectiveness of the filter system can be
Figure 1 expressed in terms of the ratio of the rms
STATIC AND DYNAMIC REGULATION value of the ripple voltage to the d -c output
voltage of the supply. Good design practice
A- Dynamic regulation illustrates voltage
calls for a ripple voltage of less than 5 per-
peaks caused by transient oscillations in
Alter network. cent of the supply voltage for SSB and c -w
B- Static regulation is expr d in terms of
no -load and full-load curr.Ms and voltages.
amplifier service, and less than 0.01 percent
of the supply voltage for oscillators and low -
level speech amplifier stages.
Ripple frequency is related to the num-
supply and dynamic regulation concerns it- ber of pulsations per second in the output of
self with syllabic or keyed fluctuations in the filter system. A full -wave rectifier, hav-
load. Static regulation is expressed in terms ing two pulses of 60 Hz, for example, pro-
of average voltages and currents, whereas duces a 120 -Hz ripple wave. A simple capa-
dynamic regulation takes into account in- citive filter will reduce 120 -Hz ripple as
stantaneous voltage variations caused by shown in figure 2. Ripple is an inverse
peak currents, or currents caused by un- ratio with capacitance, so doubling the
desired transient oscillations in the filter capacitance will halve the ripple.
section of the power supply. In particular,
c -w and SSB transmissions having a high Ripple Filter Circuits The percentage of rip-
peak -to- quiescent ratio of current drain are ple found in representa-
affected by poor dynamic regulation in the
power system.
5000
Examples of static and dynamic regula-
tion are shown in figure 1. In example A,
the no -load power- supply voltage is 1000
4000
and the full -load voltage is 875. Static reg-
ulation is therefore 14.3 percent. If an oscil- IB MEO
loscope is used to examine the supply voltage
3000
during the first fractions of a second when
the full load is applied, the instantaneous
voltage follows the erratic plot shown in
2000
curve A of figure 1. The complex pattern
of voltage fluctuations, or transients, are
related to resonant frequencies present in 1000
the power- supply filter network and are of
sufficient magnitude to distort the wave- 2 a 4 S 6 7 0 v 10
form of c -w signals, or to appreciably in- RIPPLE, PER CENT'
crease intermodulation distortion and alter Figure 2

the first syllable of speech in an SSB system.
Proper design of the filter system can reduce 120 -Hz RIPPLE ON 16 -FD CAPACITOR
dynamic voltage fluctuations to a minimum AS FUNCTION OF LOAD RESISTANCE
tive LC filter circuits is shown in figure 3.

The approximate ripple percentage for filter Filter reduction factor - LC
1.76
- 1
components may be calculated with the aid
of the following formulas, assuming the where LC again is the product of the in-
power line frequency to be 60 Hz and the ductance and capacitance of the filter sec-
use of a full -wave or full- wave -bridge rection. The reduction factor will turn out to
tifier circuit. The ripple at the output of be a decimal value, which is then multiplied
the first section of a two -section choke input by the percentage ripple obtained from the
filter is: use of the preceding formula.
As an example, take the case of the filter
Percent Ripple - 118
(L X C) -1 diagramed in figure 4. The LC product of
the first section is 16. So the ripple to be
expected at the output of the first section
where, will be: 118/(16 -1) or 118/15, which
L is the input choke inductance in gives 7.87 percent. Then the second section,
henrys (at the operating current to be with an LC product of 48, will give a
used) , reduction factor of: 1.76/(48 -1) or 1.76/
C is the capacitance which follows the 47 or 0.037. Then the ripple percentage at
choke, expressed in microfarads. the output of the total filter will be: 7.87
times 0.037 or slightly greater than 0.29
In the case of a two -section filter, the per- percent ripple.
cent ripple at the output of the first section Resistance-
is determined by the foregoing formula.
In many applications where
This percentage is multiplied by the
Capacitance current drain is relatively small,
Filters so that the voltage drop across
filter reduction factor of the following sec-
tion of filter. This reduction factor is deter- the series resistor would not be
mined through the use of the following excessive, a filter system made up of resistors
formula: and capacitors only may be used to advan-
tage. In the normal case, where the reactance
of the shunting capacitor is very much
TOFULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
RIPPLE IN TERMS OF C AT FULL LOAD smaller than the resistance of the load fed
CAPACITANCE, C PERCENT RIPPLE by the filter system, the ripple reduction per
2 OF 13.1
5-25 3 1/F 6.5 section is equal to 1 /(27rRC). In terms of
NY 25000 6.2
4 OF
6 OF 4.0
the 120 -Hz ripple from a full -wave rectifier
the ripple- reduction factor becomes: 1.33/
o RC where R is expressed in thousands of
TO FULL -WAVE RIPPLE IN TERMS OF LOAD RESISTANCE ohms and C in microfarads. For 60 -Hz rip-
RECTIFIER
LOAD, OHMS PERCENT RIPPLE ple the expression is: 2.66/RC with R and
25000 (EILEEDER ONLY) 0.02
15000 0.04
C in the same quantities as above.
25000 10000 0.06
5000 0.1
3000 0.17 Filter- System Many observers have noticed
2000 0.25 R ncc that at some value of load
o current the power supply will
TO FULL-WAVE RIPPLE IN TERMS OF C1 AND C2 AT FULL LOAD
RECTIFIER
C1 C2 PERCENT RIPPLE HY 12 NY
2 2 1.2 TOFULL-WAVE
S 2 0.7 RECTIFIER
25000 4 4 0.25
6 6 0.06
o
Figure 3 Figure 4
VALUES OF RIPPLE VOLTAGE FOR SAMPLE FILTER FOR
STANDARD POWER- SUPPLY CIRCUITS CALCULATION OF RIPPLE
HANDBOOK Power -Supply Components 767
begin to hum excessively and mercury - chokes. These components normally will be
vapor rectifier tubes (if used) will tend to purchased especially for the intended appli-
flicker or one tube will seem to take all the cation, taking into consideration the factors
load while the other tube dims out. This discussed earlier in this chapter.
condition, as well as other less obvious
phenomena such as eventual filter capacitor Filter There are two types of filter ca-
breakdown or short rectifier life are brought Capacitors pacitors: (1) paper- dielectric
about by a resonant condition in the filter type, (2) electrolytic type.
system. Paper capacitors consist of two strips of
A 120 -Hz resonance is achieved when metal foil separated by several layers of
the product of inductance and capacitance special paper. Some types of paper capaci-
is 1.77. Thus, a 1 -pfd capacitor and a 1.77 - tors are wax -impregnated, but the better
henry choke will resonate at 120 Hz. The ones, especially the high -voltage types, are
LC product for resonance at 60 Hz is about oil-impregnated and oil-filled. Some capaci-
7.1. This latter value may occur when a tors are rated both for flash test and normal
2 -pfd capacitor is used with a 3.55 -henry operating voltages; the latter is the impor-
choke, for example. The LC products of tant rating and is the maximum voltage
1.77 and 7.1 should be avoided to prevent which the capacitor should be required to
resonance effects, which can result in de- withstand in service.
structive transient voltages in the power - The capacitor across the rectifier circuit
supply system. In particular, the use of a in a capacitor -input filter should have a
swinging choke (one whose inductance working -voltage rating equal at least to 1.41
varies with current) may lead to resonance times the rms voltage output of the rectifier.
effects, because the inductance of such a The remaining capacitors may be rated
device may vary over a 5 -to-1 range. It is more nearly in accordance with the d -c
possible for 60 -Hz resonance to occur at a voltage.
low value of current drain, and then for
The electrolytic capacitor consists of two
120 -Hz resonance to occur at near -full load
aluminum electrodes in contact with a con-
current. When a swinging -type input choke ducting film which acts as an electrolyte. A
is used in the filter system, the LC product
very thin film of oxide is formed on the
must be greater than 7.1 at maximum cur-
surface of one electrode, called the anode.
rent drain to eliminate unwanted supply This film of oxide acts as the dielectric. The
resonances.
electrolytic capacitor must be correctly con-
nected in the circuit so that the anode al-
Back EMF is possible to place the filter
It ways is at a positive potential with respect
choke in the B -minus lead of the to the electrolyte, the latter actually serv-
power supply, reducing the voltage poten- ing as the other electrode (plate) of the
tial appearing from choke winding to capacitor. A reversal of the polarity for any
ground. However, the back -em f of a good length of time will ruin the capacitor.
choke is quite high and can develop a dan- The high capacitance of electrolytic ca-
gerous potential from center tap to ground pacitors results from the thinness of the
on the secondary winding of the plate trans- film which is formed on the plates. The max-
former. If the transformer is not designed to imum voltage that can be safely impressed
withstand this potential, it is possible to across the average electrolytic filter capacitor
break down the insulation at this point. is between 450 and 600 volts; the working
voltage is usually rated at 450. When elec-
30-2 Power -Supply trolytic capacitors are used in filter circuits
of high- voltage supplies, the capacitors
Components should be connected in series. The positive
The usual components which make up a terminal of one capacitor must connect to
power supply, in addition to rectifiers which the negative terminal of the other, in the
have already been discussed, are filter ca- same manner as dry batteries are connected
pacitors, bleeder resistors, transformers, and in series.
Electrolytic capacitors can be greatly re- the surrounding air. But an unsealed trans-
duced in size by the use of etched aluminum former which is inactive for an appreciable
foil for the anode. This greatly increases the period of time in a highly humid location
surface area, and the dielectric film cover- can absorb enough moisture to cause early
ing it, but raises the power factor slightly. failure.
For this reason, ultramidget electrolytic ca-
pacitors ordinarily should not be used at full Filter Choke Filter inductors consist of a
rated d -c voltage when a high a -c compo- Coils coil of wire wound on a lami-
nent is present as would be the case for nated iron core. The size of
the input capacitor in capacitor -input filter. wire is determined by the amount of direct
current which is to flow through the choke
Bleeder A heavy -duty resistor should be coil. This direct current magnetizes the
Resistors connected across the output of a core and reduces the inductance of the
filter in order to draw some load choke coil; therefore, filter choke coils of
current at all time. This resistor avoids the smoothing type are built with an air
soaring of the voltage at no load when gap of a small fraction of an inch in the
swinging -choke input is used, and also pro- iron core, for the purpose of preventing
vides a means for discharging the filter ca- saturation when maximum current flows
pacitors when no external vacuum -tube cir- through the coil winding. The "air gap" is
cuit load is connected to the filter. This usually in the form of a piece of fiber in-
bleeder resistor should normally draw ap- serted between the ends of the laminations.
proximately 10 percent of the full load The air gap reduces the initial inductance of
current. the choke coil, but keeps it at a higher value
The power dissipated in the bleeder resistor under maximum load conditions. The coil
can be calculated by dividing the square of must have a great many more turns for the
the d -c voltage by the resistance. This power same initial inductance when an air gap is
is dissipated in the form of heat, and, if the used.
resistor is not in a well -ventilated position, The d -c resistance of any filter choke
the wattage rating should be higher than should be as low as practical for a specified
the actual wattage being dissipated. High - value of inductance. Smaller filter chokes,
voltage, high-capacitance filter capacitors
such as those used in radio receivers, usually
can hold a dangerous charge if not bled off,
have an inductance of from 6 to 15 henrys,
and wirewound resistors occasionally open
and a d -c resistance of from 200 to 400
up without warning. Hence it is wise to
place carbon resistors in series across the ohms. A high d -c resistance will reduce the
regular wirewound bleeder. output voltage, due to the voltage drop
Several small resistors may be connected in across each choke coil. Large filter choke
series, if desired, to obtain the required watt- coils for radio transmitters and class -B
age and voltage rating. amplifiers usually have less than 100 ohms
d -c resistance.
Transformers Power transformers and fila-
ment transformers normally
will give no trouble over a period of many 30 -3 Rectification
years if purchased from a reputable manu- Circuits
facturer, and if given a reasonable amount
of care. Transformers must be kept dry; There are a large variety of rectifier cir-
even a small amount of moisture in a high - cuits suitable for use in power supplies. Fig-
voltage unit will cause quick failure. A ure f shows the three most common cir-
transformer which is operated continuously, cuits used in supplies for amateur equipment.
within its ratings, seldom will give trouble
from moisture, since an economically de- Half -Wave A half -wave rectifier (figure
signed transformer operates at a moderate Rectifier SA) passes current in one direc-
temperature rise above the temperature of tion but not in the other. Dur-
HANDBOOK Rectification Circuits 769
f
CATHODE TO EDC =O45 ' O+5 halves of the a -c cycle, connected in such a
FILTER EPEK 41 ERMS
ANODE SYSTEM EPRV
=
=
1
1 4' [ RMS manner that each portion of the rectified

ERMS wave is combined in the output circuit, as
shown in figure 6. A transformer with a
center -tapped secondary is required. The
transformer delivers a.c. to each anode of
each rectifier element; one anode being
positive at any instant during which the
TO EDc .0 9 ERMS other anode is negative. The center point of
FILTER EPEAK 1.41 ERMS
SYSTEM EPRV
=
= 2 82 ERMS the high -voltage winding of the transformer

is taken as the negative (B- minus) connec-
tion.
The cathodes of the rectifier units are al-
ways positive in polarity with respect to the
anode of this type of circuit, and the output
current pulsates 120 times per second for
TO Eoc =0.9 ERMS a 60 -Hz supply. The peak output voltage
FILTER EPEAK=1.4I ERMS is 1.4 times the rms transformer voltage
SYSTEM E PRV = 1 .41 E RM5
and the inverse voltage across each recti-
fier unit is 2.8 times the rms voltage of the
transformer (as measured across one half
of the secondary winding). For a given
value of ripple, the amount of filter re-
Figure 5 quired for a full -wave rectifier is half that
COMMON RECTIFIER CIRCUITS required for a half-wave rectifier, since the
ripple frequency of the former is twice
A- Nall -wave rectifier.Ripple is 121 %. that of the latter.
B-Full-wave rectifier. Ripple is 48 %.
C- Bridge rectifier. Ripple is 48 %.
Bridge RectifierA bridge rectifier (figure
ing one half of an applied a -c cycle when SC) has four rectifier ele-
the anode of the rectifier is positive with ments operated from a single a -c source.
respect to the cathode the rectifier is in a During one half -cycle of the applied a -c
state of conduction and current flows voltage, point A becomes positive with re-
through the rectifier. During the other half spect to point C and conduction takes place
of the cycle, when the anode is negative through rectifiers 4 and 2. During the other
with respect to the cathode, the rectifier does half of the cycle, conduction takes place
not conduct and no current flows in the cir- through rectifiers 3 and 1 when point C
cuit. The output current, therefore, is of a is positive with respect to point A. On one
pulsating nature which can be smoothed half of the cycle, therefore, rectifiers 4 and
into direct current by means of an appro- 2 are in series with the output circuit and
priate filter circuit. The output of a half - on the other half -cycle, rectifiers 3 and 1
wave rectifier is zero during one -half of each are in series with the circuit. The bridge
a -c cycle; this makes it difficult to filter the circuit is a full -wave system since current
output properly and also to secure good flows during both halves of a cycle of the
voltage regulation for varying loads. The alternating current.
peak inverse voltage with a resistive or One advantage of a bridge- rectifier con-
inductive load is equal to the peak a -c volt- nection over a full -wave, two-rectifier sys-
age of the transformer (1.41 X E,.R,K) and tem is that with a given transformer voltage
is equal to twice the peak a -c voltage with the bridge circuit produces a voltage output
a capacitive load. nearly twice that of the conventional full -
wave circuit. In addition, the peak inverse
Full -Wave A full wave rectifier (figure 5B) voltage across any rectifier unit is half the
Rectifier consists of a pair of half -wave peak inverse voltage impressed on a recti-
rectifiers working on opposite fier in the full -wave circuit. Maximum out-
L core is inadequate. Lack of insulation at

this point does no harm in a full -wave cir-
cuit when the center tap is grounded, but
may cause breakdown when the transformer
is used in bridge configuration.
CHOKE INPUT FILTER
Rectifier Circuits Choke input is used in
many filter systems because
it gives good utilization of both rectifier
and power- transformer capability (figure
6A). In addition, it provides much better
CI,,: c.- RL voltage regulation than does a capacitor
Gil input system. A minimum value of choke
1
inductance exists, and this critical value
CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER is equal to RL/ 1000, where R. is the load
resistance. Inductance above the critical
value will limit the no -load output voltage
TRANSFORMER to about the average value (Ed.,..) in con-
O SECONDARY
VOLTAGE trast to the capacitor -input filter circuit
(figure 6B) wherein the no -load output
+
voltage may rise as high as the peak value
of the transformer voltage. The capacitor -
RECTIFIEDPVOLTACE
input filter, at full load, provides a d -c out-
o neo
PLATE
VOLTAGE
N2
put voltage that is usually slightly above
the rms voltage of the transformer.
When capacitor input is used, considera-
COMBINE RECTIFIED tion must be given to the peak value of the
PLATES N' 1 E a -c voltage impressed on the filter capaci-
O
tor, which usually runs equal to the peak
AFTER FIRST
VOLT transformer voltage (1.41 E,.,,,,) The input
.
O
OF FILTER
capacitor, therefore, must have a voltage
rating high enough to withstand the peak
D.C. VOLTAGE
AVAILABLE FOR
voltage if breakdown is to be avoided. A
D
RADIO USE complete discussion of capacitor- and choke -
input filter systems is contained in the Ra-
diotron Designer's Handbook, published by
Figure 6 the Radio Corporation of America, Harrison,
RECTIFICATION AND FILTER ACTION
New Jersey.
Showing transformer secondary voltage, the

rectified output of each diode, the combined Special Single- Figure 7 shows six cir-
output of the rectifiers, the smoothed voltage Phase Rectification cuits which may prove
after the choke -input Alter, and the d -c output
voltage of the capacitor input filter. Circuits valuable when it is de-
sired to obtain more than
one output voltage from one plate trans-
put voltage into an inductive or resistive former or where some special combination of
load is about 0.9 times the rms transformer voltages is required. Figure 7A shows a more
voltage. or less common method for obtaining full
The center point of the high-voltage voltage and half voltage from a bridge recti-
winding of the bridge transformer is not fication circuit. With this type of circuit,
at ground potential. Many transformers hav- separate input chokes and filter systems are
ing a center - tapped high voltage winding are used on both output voltages. If a trans-
not designed for bridge service and insula- former designed for use with a full -wave
tion between this point and the transformer rectifier is used in this circuit, the current
pA HALF-AND FULL -VOLTAGE BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY O TWO -VOLTAGE BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY
LILA
LA
orEt-E:
TWO -TRANSFORMER POWER SUPPLY OD CENTER- TAPPED METHOD FOR UNTAPPED TRANSFORMERS
TWO -VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY SPECIAL FILTER CIRCUIT FOR BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Figure 7
SPECIAL SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFICATION CIRCUITS

A description of the application and operation of oath of these special circuits is given in
the accompanying text.
drain from the full- voltage tap is doubled voltage contribution of the added trans-
and added to the drain from the half -voltage former T, may be subtracted from or
tap to determine whether the rating of the added to the voltage produced by T, simply
transformer is being exceeded. by reversing the double -pole double -throw
Figure 7B shows a system which may be switch (S). A serious disadvantage of this
convenient for obtaining two voltages which circuit is the fact that the entire secondary
are not in a ratio of 2 to 1 from a bridge - winding of transformer T must be insulated
type rectifier; a transformer with taps along for the total output voltage of the power
the winding is required for the circuit how- supply.
ever. With the circuit arrangement shown,
An arrangement for operating a full -wave
the voltage from the tap will be greater
rectifier from a plate transformer not
than one -half the voltage at the top.
equipped with a center tap is shown in fig-
An interesting variable -voltage circuit is
ure 7D. The two chokes (L,) must have
shown in figure 7C. The arrangement may
be used to increase or decrease the output
high inductance ratings at the operating cur-
voltage of a conventional power supply, as rent of the plate supply to hold down the
represented by transformer T,, by adding alternating current load on the secondary of
another filament transformer to isolate the the transformer since the total peak voltage
filament circuits of the two rectifier tubes output of the plate transformer is impressed
and adding another plate transformer be- across the chokes alternately. However, the
tween the filaments of the two tubes. The chokes need only have half the current rat-
ing of the filter choke (L2) for a certain rangement is also of advantage in holding
current drain from the power supply since down the "key-up" voltage of a c -w trans-
only half the current passes through each mitter since both L, and L_ are in series, and
choke. Also, the two chokes (L1) act as their inductances are additive, insofar as the
input chokes so that an additional swinging "critical inductance" of a choke -input filter
choke is not required for such a power sup- is concerned. If 20 -td capacitors are used
ply. at both C, and C_ adequate filtering will be

A conventional two- voltage power supply
obtained on both plate supplies for hum -
with grounded transformer center tap is free SSB operation.
shown in figure 7E. The output voltages
from this circuit are separate and not addi- Polyphase It is usual practice in com-
tive as in the circuit of figure 7B. Rectification mercial equipment installa -
A special bridge rectifier is shown in figure Circuits dons when the power drain
7F. Both L, and L_ should be swinging from a plate supply is to be
chokes but the total drain from the power greater than about one kilowatt to use a
supply passes through L, while only the drain polyphase rectification system. Such power
of the final amplifier passes through L_. Ca- supplies offer better transformer utilization,
pacitors C, and C_ need be rated only half less ripple output and better power factor
the maximum output voltage of the power in the load placed on the a -c line. However,
supply, plus the usual safety factor. This ar- such systems require a source of three -phase
=
111
[o C- Eo
PRIMARY
Eo1.17Es
IS0.577IOC.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY 3F
RIPPLE PERCENT 16.3
PEAK INVERSE 2.06 Eo
TUBE VOLTAGE 2.44 Es
3 -PHASE STAR
I ac Figure 8
COMMON
POLYPHASE -
RECTIFICATION
PRIMARY Eo 1.35 Es
Is 0.406 I o.C. CIRCUITS
RIPPLE FREQUENCY 6F
RIPPLE PERCENT 4.2 These circuits are used
PEAK INVERSE -N. EO when polyphase power is
TUBE VOLTAGE 2.63 ES available for the plate
supply of a high -power
transmitter. The circuit
at B is also called a
OB 6 -PHASE STAR
_- LD.C+
+Eo
three -phas full -wave
rectification system. The
circuits are described in
the accompanying text.
PRIMARY Eo2.34Es
Is o.sis I0.c.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY OF
RIPPLE PERCENT 4.2
PEAK INVERSE -N 1.05 Eo
TUBE VOLTAGE E3 2.4
6 -PHASE BRIDGE
(or two -phase with Scott connection) ener- relations between peak inverse voltage, total
gy. Several of the more common polyphase transformer voltage, and filter output volt-
rectification circuits with their significant age depend on the characteristics of the fil-
characteristics are shown in figure 8. The ter and rectifier circuits (whether full- or
increase in ripple frequency and decrease half wave, bridge, single-phase or polyphase,
in percentage of ripple is apparent from the etc.).
figures given in figure 8. The circuit of fig- Rectifier tubes are also rated in terms of
ure 8C gives the best transformer utilization peak plate current. The actual direct load
as does the bridge circuit in the single -phase current which can be drawn from a given
connection. The circuit has the further ad- rectifier tube or tubes depends on the type
vantage that there is no average d -c flow of filter circuit. A full -wave rectifier with
in the transformer, so that three single -phase capacitor input passes a peak current several
transformers may be used. A tap at half - times the direct load current.
voltage may be taken at the junction of the In a filter with choke input, the peak cur-
star transformers, but there will be d -c flow rent is not much greater than the load cur-
in the transformer secondaries with the rent if the inductance of the choke is fairly
power -supply center tap in use. The circuit high (assuming full -wave rectification).
of figure 8A has the disadvantage that there
is an average d -c flow in each of the wind-
Mercury -Vapor The inexpensive mercury -
ings.
Rectifier Tubes vapor type of rectifier tube
is often used in the high -
Rectifiers Rectifying elements in high -volt-
voltage plate supplies of amateur and
age plate supplies are usually elec-
commercial transmitters. Most amateurs
tron tubes of either the high- vacuum or
mercury-vapor type, although silicon recti- are quite familiar with the use of these tubes
fier stacks containing a large number of ele- but it should be pointed out that when new
ments are often used. Low -voltage high -cur- or long- unused mercury-vapor tubes are
rent supplies may use argon gas rectifiers first placed in service, the filaments should
(Tungar tubes), silicon rectifiers, or other be operated at normal temperature for ap-
types of solid -state rectification elements. proximately twenty minutes before plate
voltage is applied, in order to remove all
traces of mercury from the cathode and to
Peak Inverse Plate In an a -c circuit, the clear any mercury deposits from the top of
Voltage and Peak maximum peak voltage the envelope. After this preliminary warm -
Plate Current or current is 2, or 1.41 up with a new tube, plate voltage may be
times that indicated by applied within 20 to 30 seconds after the
the a -c meters in the circuit. The meters time the filaments are turned on, each time
read the root mean square (rms) values, the power supply is used. If plate voltage
which are the peak values divided by 1.41 should be applied before the filament is
for a sine wave. brought to full temperature, active material
If a potential of 1000 rms volts is ob- may be knocked from the oxide-coated fila-
tained from a high voltage secondary wind- ment and the life of the tube will be greatly
ing of a transformer, there will be 1410 shortened.
volts peak potential from the rectifier plate Small r -f chokes must sometimes be con-
to ground. In a single-phase supply the nected in series with the plate leads of mer-
rectifier tube has this voltage impressed on cury-vapor rectifier tubes in order to pre-
it, either positively when the current flows vent the generation of radio- frequency hash.
or "inverse" when the current is blocked on These r -f chokes must be wound with suf-
the other half- cycle. The inverse peak volt - ficiently heavy wire to carry the load cur-
ge which the tube will stand safely is used rent and must have enough inductance to
as a rating for rectifier tubes. At higher attenuate the r -f parasitic noise current to
voltages the tube is liable to arc back, prevent it from flowing in the filter supply
thereby destroying or damaging it. The leads and then being radiated into nearby
receivers. Manufactured mercury-vapor Tronsformerless Figure 9 shows a group of

rectifier hash chokes are available in various Power Supplies five different types of trans -
current ratings from various manufacturers. formerless power supplies
\!hen mercury -vapor rectifier tubes are which are operated directly from the a -c
operated in parallel in a power supply, small line. When circuits such as shown in A and
resistors or small iron -core choke coils should B are operated directly from the a -c line,
he connected in series with the plate lead of the rectifier element simply rectifies the line
voltage and delivers the alternate half cycles
each tube. These resistors or inductors tend
of energy to the filter network. The d -c
to create an equal division of plate current voltage output of the filter will be slightly
between parallel tubes and prevent one less than the rms line voltage, depending
tube from carrying the major portion of on the particular type of rectifier employed.
the current. When high-vacuum rectifiers With the introduction of the miniature
are operated in parallel, these chokes or silicon rectifier, the transformerless power
resistors are not required. supply has become a very convenient source
of moderate voltage at currents up to per-
haps 500 ma. A number of advantages are
_LINE VOLTS - HEATER VOLTS
HEATER AMPERES offered by the silicon rectifier as compared to
the vacuum -tube rectifier. Outstanding
among these are the factors that the silicon
LINE RECTIFIER
rectifier operates instantly, and that it re-
.
quires no heater power in order to obtain
emission. The amount of heat developed by
C,2
., C
SILICON
LINE RECTIFIER
the silicon rectifier is very much less than
that produced by an equivalent vacuum -
O tube type of rectifier.
In the circuits of figure 9 A, B, and C,
capacitors C, and C_ should be rated at ap-
VOLTAGE
FULL -WAVE
DOUBLER proximately 150 volts, and for a normal
degree of filtering and capacitance, should
be between 15 to 60 pfd. In the circuit of
figure 9D, capacitor C, should be rated at
150 volts and capacitor C_ should be rated
QD
at 300 volts. In the circuit of figure 9E,
capacitors C, and C2 should be rated at
VOLTAGE DOUBLER
HALF -WAVE 150 volts and C, and C, should be rated at
300 volts.
The d -c output voltage of the line recti-
fier may be stabilized by means of a VR
tube. However, due to the unusually low
SILICON internal resistance of the silicon rectifier,
RECTIFIER
VOLTAGE
transformerless power supplies using this
QUADRUPLER type of rectifying element can normally be
expected to give very good regulation.
Voltage- Doubler Figures 9C and 9D illus-

Figure 9 Circuits trate two simple voltage -
TRANSFORMERLESS POWER- SUPPLY doubler circuits which will
CIRCUITS deliver a d -c output voltage equal approxi-
mately to twice the rms value of the power
Circuits such as shown above are also fre-
quently called line -rectifier circuits. Silicon line voltage. The no -load d -c output volt-
rectifiers, v m diodes, or gas diodes may age is equal to 2.82 times the rms line volt-
be used as the rectifying elements in these age value. At high current levels, the output
circuits.
HANDBOOK The Silicon Rectifier 775
voltage will be slightly under twice the line current density depends on the general con-
voltage. The circuit of figure 9C is of ad- struction of the unit and the ability of the
vantage when the lowest level of ripple is heat sink to conduct heat from the crystal.
required from the power supply, since its The small size of the crystal is illustrated
ripple frequency is equal to twice the line by the fact that a rectifier rated at 15 d -c
frequency. The circuit of figure 9D is of amperes, and 150 amperes peak surge current
advantage when it is desired to use the has a total cell volume of only .00023 inch.
grounded side of the a -c line in a permanent Peak currents are extremely critical because
installation as the return circuit for the the small mass of the cell will heat instan-
power supply. However, with the circuit of taneously and could reach failure tempera-
figure 9C the ripple frequency is the same tures within a time lapse of microseconds.
as the a -c line frequency. The assembly of a typical silicon cell is
Voltage
shown in figure 10.
The circuit of figure 9E illus-
Quadrupler trates a voltage- quadrupler cir-
cuit for miniature silicon recti- Operating The reverse direction of a
fiers. In effect this circuit is equivalent to Characteristics silicon rectifier is character-
two voltage doublers of the type shown in ized by extremely high re-
figure 9D with their outputs connected in sistance, up to 10" ohms below a critical
series. The circuit delivers a d -c output voltage point. This point of avalanche t oll-
voltage under light load approximately equal age is the region of a sharp break in the
to four times the rms value of the line resistance curve, followed by rapidly decreas-
voltage. The no -load d -c output voltage ing resistance (figure 11A). In practice, the
delivered by the quadrupler is equal to 5.66 peak inverse working voltage is usually set
times the rms line -voltage value and the at least 20c/r below the avalanche point to
output voltage decreases rather rapidly as provide a safety factor.
the load current is increased. A limited reverse current, usually of the
order of 0.5 ma or less flows through the
silicon diode during the inverse -voltage
30-4 The Silicon Rectifier cycle. The reverse current is relatively con-
stant to the avalanche point, increasing rap-
Silicon Of all recent developments in the idly as this reverse -voltage limit is passed.
Rectifier field of semiconductors, silicon The maximum reverse current increases as
rectifiers offer the most promising
range of applications; from extreme cold to
high temperature, and from a few watts of - TERMINAL
output power to very high voltage and
currents. Inherent characteristics of silicon CERAMIC
allow junction temperatures in the order of
200 C before the material exhibits intrinsic METAL SHELL
COPPER ANODE
properties. This extends the operating range - SILICON P-N PELLET

of silicon devices beyond that of any other
PEA
efficient semiconductor and the excellent
thermal range coupled with very small size
per watt of output power make silicon recti-
fiers applicable where other rectifiers were Figure 10
previously considered impractical.
SILICON RECTIFIER
Silicon The current density of a Silicon pellet is soldered to copper stud to
Current Density silicon rectifier is very high, provide low thermal resistance path between
PN junction and heat sink. Copper anode Is
and on present designs soldered to top of junction. Temperature of
ranges from 600 to 900 amperes per square junction must be held to less than 200 C, as
a result of increasing temperature on reverse
inch of effective barrier layer. The usable ru flow through junction.
100
730 C
00
to
a,/
wsri
700C
ssC
MIIIIIIIii
0 25 SO 75 100 123 150 0 0.5 1.0 1.3 2.0
PERCENT RATED PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP
VOL rs, 0-C
0 Figure 11
SILICON RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

A- Reverse direction of silicon rectifier is characterized by extremely high resistance up to
point of avalanche voltage.
8- Threshold voltage of silicon cell is about 0.6 volt. Once device starts conducting the current
increases exponentially with small increments of voltage, then nearly linearly on a very
steep slope.
diode temperature rises and, at the same Maximum RMS Input Voltage -The max-
time, the avalanche point drops, leading to imum rms voltage that may be applied to a
a "runaway" reverse- current condition at specific diode type for a resistive or induc-
high temperatures which can destroy the tive load. The PIV across the diode may be
diode. greater than. the applied rms voltage in the
The forward characteristic, or resistance case of a capacitive load and the maximum
to the flow of forward current, determines rms input voltage rating must be reduced
the majority of power lost within the diode
at operating temperatures. Figure 11B shows
the static forward current characteristic
accordingly.
Marii nn t Average Forward Current
The maximum value of average current al-
-
relative to the forward voltage drop for a lowed to flow in the forward direction for
typical silicon diode. A small forward bias a specified junction temperature. This value
(a function of junction temperature) is re- is specified for a resistive load.
quired for conduction. The power loss of a
Peak Recurrent Forward Current -The
typical diode rated at 0.5 ampere average
forward current and operating at 100 C, maximum repetitive instantaneous forward
for example, is about 0.6 watt during the current permitted to flow under stated con-
conducting portion of the cycle. The for- ditions. This value is usually specified for
60 Hz and a specific junction temperature.
ward voltage drop of silicon power rectifiers
is carefully controlled to limit the heat
dissipation in the junction.
Maxinluln Single -Cycle Surge Current
The maximum one -cycle surge current of a
-
60 -Hz sine wave at a specific junction tem-
Diode Ratings Silicon diodes are rated in perature. Surge currents generally occur
and Terms terms similar to those used when the diode- equipped power supply is
for vacuum -tube rectifiers. first turned on, or when unusual voltage
Some of the more important terms and their transients are introduced in the supply line.
definitions follow: Peak Inverse Voltage Derated Forward Current -The value of
(PIV). The maxmium reverse voltage that direct current that may be passed through a
may be applied to a specific diode type be- diode for a given ambient temperature. For
fore the avalanche breakdown point is higher temperatures, less current is allowed
reached. through the diode.
HANDBOOK Series Diode Operation 777
Maxintuin Reverse Current -The maxi- remaining diodes if care is not taken to
mum leakage current that flows when the prevent this disaster. Forced voltage distri-
diode is biased to the peak -inverse voltage. bution in a stack is necessary when the in-
Silicon diodes may be mounted on a con- dividual diodes vary appreciably in reverse
ducting surface termed a heat sink that, characteristics. To equalize the steady -state
voltage division, shunt resistors may be
because of its large area and heat dissipating
placed across the diodes in a stack (figure
ability, can readily dispose of heat generated 12A). The maximum value of the shunt
in the diode junction, thereby safeguarding resistor to achieve a 10- percent voltage bal-
the diode against damage by excessive tem- ance, or better is:
perature.
Diode Noise The silicon diode, widely used
Shunt resistance - 2
PI V
X Max. Reverse
in power supplies, exhibits a Current
forward- conduction characteristic as shown
in figure 11B. The diode does not conduct Six - hundred -volt PIV diodes, for example,
until the applied forward potential exceeds having a reverse current of 0.3 ma at the
the threshold voltage, which is about 0.5 maximum PIV require a shunt resistance of
volt. At this voltage the diode conducts I megohm, or less.
abruptly, creating a steep wavefront, cap-
able of generating radio- frequency inter- Transient Diodes must be protected from
ference. The interference is often eliminated Protection voltage transients which often
if a transient suppression capacitor is placed are many times greater than
across the diode (figure 12). In some cases,
especially with the use of controlled-ava-
lanche diodes, the capacitor is omitted and
the white -noise interference generated by the
diode may be found as an annoying "rush"
on the sidebands of the transmitted signal, 417, Rt'o
or as an annoying noise in the receiver. Sup-
pression capacitors and additional lead filter-
ing in the power supply may be required to
eliminate the interference created by the
abrupt conduction characteristic of the diode
rectifier.
Figure 12
30 -5 Series Diode Operation PROTECTION CIRCUITS FOR

SEMICONDUCTOR POWER SUPPLIES
Series diode operation is commonly used A -Peak inverse voltage should be distributed
when the peak- inverse voltage of the source equally between series -connected diodes.
If diodes do not have matched reverse
is greater than the maximum PIV rating of characteristics, shunt resistors should be
a single diode. For proper series operation, it placed across the diodes.
B- Series -connected diodes are protected
is important that the PIV be equally divided against high-voltage switching transients
among the individual diodes. If it is not, by shunt capacitors which equalize and
absorb the transients uniformly along the
one or more of the diodes in the stack will stack.
be subjected to a PIV greater than its max- C- Transient suppressor placed across the sec-
imum rating and, as a result, may be de- ondary of the high -voltage transformer
protects diode stack from transients often
stroyed. As most failures of this type result found on the a -c power line or created
in a shorted junction, the PIV on the re- by abrupt change in the magnetizing
current of the power transformer.
maining diodes in the stack is raised, making D- Su ?apressor network across series filter
each diode subject to a greater value of PIV. choke absorbs portion of energy released
when magnetic field of choke collapses,
Failure of a single diode in a stack can lead thus p ting the surge c from
to a "domino effect" which will destroy the destroying the diode stack.
LXIz
the permissible peak- inverse voltage. Tran-
sients can be caused by d -c switching at the Capacitance (fd) - 10 X E2
load, by transformer switching, or by shock
excitation of LC circuits in the power sup- where,
ply or load. Shunt capacitors placed across L is the maximum choke inductance
the diodes will equalize and absorb the (henrys),
transients uniformly along the stack (figure I is the maximum current passing through
12B) . The shunt capacitor should have at the choke (amperes),
least 100 times the capacitance of the diode E is the maximum d -c supply voltage.
junction, and capacitance values of 0.01
fd or greater are commonly found in diode The resistance in series with the capacitor
stacks used in equipment designed for ama- should equal the load impedance placed
teur service. across the supply.
Controlled avalanche diodes having
matched zener characteristics at the ava- 30 -6 Silicon Supplies
lanche point usually do not require RC
shunt suppressors, reducing power- supply for SSB
cost and increasing over-all reliability of
the rectifier circuit. Shown in figure 13 are three semiconduc-
In high -voltage stacks, it is prudent to tor power supplies. Circuit A provides 500
provide transient protection in the form of volts (balanced to ground) at 0.5 ampere.
an RC suppressor placed across the second- If the supply is isolated from ground by a
ary of the power transformer (figure 12C). 1:1 transformer of 250 watts capacity point
The suppessor provides a low- impedance A may be grounded and point B will provide
path for high -voltage transients often found half- voltage. Circuit B is a half -wave tripler
on a -c power lines, or generated by an that delivers 440 volts at 0.5 ampere. In this
abrupt change in the magnetizing current circuit, one side of the power line is common
of the power transformer as a result of to the negative side of the output. Circuit C
switching primary voltage or the load. The is a 900 -watt, 0.5 ampere supply composed
approximate value of the surge capacitor of two voltage doublers supplied from a
in such a network is: "distribution" transformer having dual 117/
240 -volt windings.
X E X I
Capacitance Odd) =
1 5
Power Supply Rating The duty cycle (ratio
e
e2 for SSB Service of duration of maxi-
where, mum power output to
total "on" time) of a power supply in
E is the d -c supply voltage, SSB and c -w service is much smaller than
1 is the maximum output current of the that of a supply used for a -m equip-
supply in amperes, ment. While the power supply must be
e is the rms voltage of the transformer capable of supplying peak power equal
secondary winding. to the PEP input of the SSB equipment
for a short duration, the average power de-
manded by SSB voice gear over a period of
High -voltage transients can also be caused time usually runs about one -half or less of
by series filter chokes subject to abrupt load the PEP requirement. Then, too, the inter-
changes. An RC suppressor network placed vals between words in SSB operation provide
across the winding of the choke can absorb periods of low duty, just as the spaces in
a portion of the energy released when the
c -w transmission allow the power supply to
magnetic field of the choke collapses, thus "rest" during a transmission. Generally
preventing the current surge from destroy- speaking, the average power capability of a
ing the diode stack (figure 12D). The ap- power supply designed for intermittent voice
proximate value of the transient capacitor service (IVS) can be as low as 25 percent
is: of the PEP level. C -w requirements run
HANDBOOK Silicon Supplies for SSB 779
somewhat higher than this, the average c w high- voltage power supplies suitable for SSB
power level running close to 50 percent of and c -w service.
the peak level for short transmissions. Rel-
atively small power transformers of modest The Design of IVS The low duty of SSB
capability may be used for intermittent voice Power Supplies and c -w modes can be
and c -w service at a worthwhile saving in used to advantage in the
weight and cost. The power capability of a design of high -voltage power supplies for
transformer may be judged by its weight,
as shown in the graph of figure 16. It must
be remembered that the use of alc or voice
these services.
The Power Transformer Relatively
low- voltage transformers may be used in
-
compression in SSB service raises the duty, voltage- doubler service to provide a kilo-
thus reducing the advantage of the IVS watt or two of peak power at poten-
power rating. The IVS rating is difficult tials ranging from one to three thousand
to apply to very small power transformers, volts. Most suitable power transformers are
since the d -c resistance of the transformer rated for commercial service and the IVS
windings tends to degrade the voltage regu- rating must be determined by experiment.
lation to a point where the IVS rating is Figure 14 shows a relationship between var-
meaningless. Intelligent use of the IVS rating ious services as determined by extensive
in choosing a power transformer, stacked tests performed on typical transformers.
silicon rectifiers, and "computer" type elec- The data illustrates the relationship between
trolytic capacitors can permit the design transformer weight and power capability.
and construction of inexpensive, lightweight Transformer weight excludes weight of the
6011F
T ,oW 250v Dz Dz
+265 V. +t800V.
150 MA. 500 MA.
+
8011 F
SUT
D2
80LF + 60 MF
25V.V. Da 0 V.
265 V.
150 MA
AO DUAL- VOLTAGE DOUBLER
WITH COMMON B -MINUS
3
tow
sLfTS870
eH S0 MA
.} M+ i+T,oa+D25V. eSOMA Dz
+
ISOLF 60-UF
250V T TS T SOVT 250 V. D2
+ I 117V.1,
Da
pB HIGH- CURRENT SUPPLY 900 -WATT HIGH- VOLTAGE SUPPLY
Figure 13
SEMICONDUCTOR POWER SUPPLIES

A- Voltage -quadrupler circuit. If point "A" is taken as ground instead of point "B," supply
will deliver 530 volts at ISO ma from 117 -volt a-c line. Supply is "hot" to line.
B- Voltage tripler delivers 325 volts at 430 ma. Supply is "hot" to line.
C- 900 -watt supply for sideband service may be mode from two voltage quadruple's working
in series from inexpensive "distribution- type" transformer. Supply features good dynamic
voltage regulation.
DI, D., D -1N4005. Use .01 -td capacitor and 100K resistor across each diode.
7, Power distribution transformer, used backwards. 240/460 primary, 117/240 secondary, 0.75
KVA. Chicago PCB- 24750.
45
Most small power transformers work re-
o liably with the center tap of the secondary
5
winding above ground potential. Some of the
larger transformers, however, are designed
30 to have the center tap grounded and lack
sufficient insulation at this point to permit
their use in either a bridge or voltage dou-
zo
bling configuration. The only way of de-
termining if the center -tap insulation is
sufficient is to use the transformer and see
10
if the insulation breaks down at this point!
It is wise to ground the frame of the trans-
o
former so that if breakdown occurs, the
10 12 1.4 1C 2.0
.a .4 0 e , 8
frame of the tranformer does not assume
POWER CAPACITY (KW)
the potential of the secondary winding and
Figure 14 thus present a shock hazard to the operator.
INTERMITTENT VOICE SERVICE IN SSB
The Silicon Rectifier-A bewildering vari-
ety of "TV- type" silicon rectifiers exists and
PERMITS LARGE PEAK POWER TO BE
new types are being added daily. Generally
DRAWN FROM POWER TRANSFORMER.
speaking, 600 -volt PIV rectifiers, having an
PEAK -TO- AVERAGE RATIO OF NEARLY
FOUR TO ONE MAY BE ACHIEVED WITH
average rectified current rating of 1 ampere
MAXIMUM IVS RATING. POWER CA-
at an ambient temperature of 75 C with a
PACITY OF TRANSFORMER MAY BE
maximum single -cycle surge- current rating
DETERMINED FROM WEIGHT
of 15 amperes or better are suitable for use
in the power supplies described in this sec-
case and mounting fixtures. Thus, a plate tion. Typical rectifiers are packaged in the
transformer weighing about 17 pounds that top -hat configuration as well as the epoxy-
is rated for 400 watts commercial or in- encapsulated assembly and either type costs
dustrial service should have an 800 -watt less than a dollar per unit. In addition, potted
peak capacity for c -w service and a 950 - stacks utilizing controlled-avalanche recti-
watt peak capacity for intermittent SSB fiers are available at a cost less than that of
service. A transformer having a so- called building a complete RC stack of diodes. The
"two- kilowatt PEP" rating for sideband may silicon rectifier, if properly used, is rarely
weigh as little as 22 pounds, according to the limiting factor in the design of steady -
this graph. state IVS power supplies, provided proper
Not shown in the graph is the effect of transient protection is incorporated in the
amplifier idling (standby) current taken supply.
from the supply, or the effect of bleeder The Filter Capacitor-Recently developed
current. Both currents impose an extra, con- "computer" -type aluminum-foil electrolytic
tinuous drain on the power transformer and capacitors combine high capacitance per
quickly degrade the IVS rating of the trans- unit of volume with moderate working volt-
former. Accordingly, the IVS curves of fig- age at a low price. Capacitors of this type
ure 14 are limited to the bleeder current can withstand short -interval voltage surges
required by the equalizing resistors for a of 15 percent over their d -c working volt-
series capacitor filter and assume that the age. In a stack, the capacitors should be
idling plate current of the amplifier is cut protected by voltage-equalizing resistors, as
to only a few milliamperes by the use of a shown in the power supplies in this section.
VOX -controlled cathode bias system. If the The capacitors are sheathed in a Mylar
idling plate current of the amplifier assumes jacket and may be mounted on the chassis
an appreciable fraction of the peak plate or adjacent to each other without addi-
current, the power capability of the supply tional insulation between the units. The
decreases to that given for c -w service. stack may be taped and mounted to a metal
HANDBOOK Silicon Supplies for SSB 781
circuit when the power supply is turned on,

but is shorted out by relay RY after a suf-
ficient time has elapsed to partially charge
the filter capacitors of the power supply.
The relay coil is in a simple time -delay cir-
cuit composed of R1 -C1. The delay may be
adjusted by varying the capacitance value,
INRUSH CURRENT PROTECTION and need only be about one -half second or
FOR POWER SUPPLY so. Surplus 24 -volt d -c relays used in dyna-
motor starting circuits work well in this
Charging current of capacitor filter may be
limited by series impedance of the power device, as they have large low -resistance
supply. In voltage- doubler circuit shown here, contacts and reasonable coil resistance (250
primary resistor R limits inrush current to ohms or so) .
within the capability of the diodes. Limiting
resistor is shorted out after sufficient time
has elapsed to partially charge the filter Practical An IVS voltage -doubler power
capacitors. Delay time of 0.5 second is usually lys Supplies supply may be designed with
sufficient. R, -C, combination determines time
delay. Secondary surge suppression (R -C,) is the aid of figures 14 and 16.
used, and shunt RC equalizing networks are A typical doubler circuit, such as shown in
employed across each diode stack. Filter ca-
pacitors (C,, C,) are "computer- grade" elec- figure 15 is to be used. The full -wave volt-
trolytic capacitors in series with 10K, 10 -watt age doubler is preferred over the half -wave
wirewound resistor placed across each ca-
pacitor. type, as the former charges the filter ca-
pacitors in parallel and discharges them in
chassis with a metal clamp, as is done in series to obtain a higher d -c voltage than
some of the units described here.
Inrush Current Protection - When the
power supply is first turned on, the filter
the peak voltage of the secondary winding
of the power transformer. This saves trans-
former weight and expense.
capacitors are discharged and present a near Referring to figure 15, filter capacitors
short circuit to the power transformer and C., and C6 are charged on alternate half
rectifier stack. The charging current of a cycles, but since the capacitors are in series
high- capacitance stack may exceed the across the load, the ripple frequency has
maximum peak- recurrent current rating twice the line frequency.
of the rectifiers for several cycles, thus dam- A second advantage of the full -wave
aging the diodes. Charging current is doubler over the half -wave type is that the
limited only by the series impedance of former tends to be self -protecting against
the power -supply circuit which consists switching transients. One diode stack is al-
mainly of the d -c circuit resistance (pri- ways in a conducting mode, regardless of
marily the resistance of the secondary wind- the polarity of a transient, and the transient
ing of the power transformer) plus the is therefore discharged into the filter-capaci-
leakage reactance of the transformer. Trans- tor stack.
formers having high secondary resistance The filter- capacitor stack is rated for the
and sufficient leakage reactance usually limit peak no -load voltage (plus a safety factor),
the inrush current so that additional in- while the diode rectifiers must be able to
rush protection is unnecessary. This is not withstand twice the peak no-load voltage
the case with larger transformers having (plus a safety factor). Good engineering
low secondary resistance and low leakage practice calls for the d -c working voltage
reactance. To be on the safe side, in any of each portion of the capacitor stack to be
case, it is good practice to limit inrush cur- equal to the peak a -c voltage of the power
rent to well within the capability of the transformer (1.41 X rms secondary volt-
diode stack. A current -limiting circuit is age) plus 15 percent safety factor.
shown in figure 15 which can be added at The R' Factor -The a -c secondary volt-
little expense to any power supply. The cur- age, secondary resistance, circuit reactance,
rent- limiting resistor (R) is initially in the and IVS capability of a transformer will
determine its excellence in voltage- doubler 100
service. The end effect of these parameters W i naauuul u

II IIIII111...
.
may be expressed by an empirical R' factor _ )o
aal
111111111111111111 1111111111111 1111111111111111111111111111
IIIa1111111111111111IIlIIlIl111I....ll
as shown in figure 16. As an example, as- o so a1111111111111111111111111111111111111II IIIIIIII..EN1111
a 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111.01,111
sume a power transformer is at hand weigh- W
!0 11111I1111111I11111111111111111111111111111111111II111
Illlllll
a
ing 25 pounds, with a secondary winding of CC
0
11111I1I1I111111111111111111171111111111111111111.001111111
840 volts (rms) and a d -c secondary resis- 40 IIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

tance of 8 ohms. The IVS rating of this <
11111111111111111111111111111101111111111111111 I111111111
CC
I- 30 111111111111111111 11111111011 :11111111 111111111111111111
transformer (from figure 14) is about 1.5 LL
kW, PEP, or more. The appropriate d -c 0 IIIIIIOIIIII 1111111111011000:111111111111111111111111

W
no-load voltage of an IVS supply making u
ao 110111111111111111111011111111111e11111111111111111111
use of this unit in voltage -doubler service,
such as the circuit of figure 15, is: 17)
W 1!
CC
:s
a7101--
..M.
ENO LOAD = 2.81 X e
<
z Io II
.II III
...
._--
101I..-
where, U .....
....
MUM
1... U
I.
e
IIIlllllllll1ll11l111111111111
e is the rms secondary voltage. 11 11
lnnnl Ill ulnmul uunu 11...I
.11uuwnul 11111111111111111111111111 uul101 1111
For this transformer, then, the no -load a01111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111.11RR11

o Is ao 25 30 40 so so 70 60 so 100
d -c supply voltage is about 2360 volts. The R- FAC TOR
full load voltage will be somewhat less than Figure 16
this value. For a maximum power capability
R' FACTOR GRAPH FOR IVS
of 1.5 kW, a full -load current of about
POWER SUPPLIES
0.75 ampere is required if the full load d -c
voltage is in the vicinity of 2000. This is a The full load d-c voltage of an IVS -rated
voltage-doubler power supply may be de-
realistic figure, so a "target" full -load volt- termined with the aid of this graph. The sec-
ondary resistance of the transformer is
age of 2000 is hopefully chosen. measured and the R' Factor is found. For ex-
The projected full -load voltage for a ample, a transformer having o dary re-
sistance of 20 ohms has an R' Factor of about
doubler-type supply may be determined 40. The factor is used in formula 7 to cal-
with the aid of the R' factor and is calcu- culate the full load d-c voltage of the power
lated from: supply. For use with bridge circuits, the R'
Factor derived here should be divided by 2.5
before being used in the formula.
F. LOAD = E\o LOAD -R' (I X R)
where, The total PIV for the diode stack is
R' isdetermined from figure 16, twice the peak rectified voltage and is 4720
/ is the full load current in amperes, volts. A 100 -percent safety factor is recom-
R is the secondary resistance of the trans- mended for the complete stack, whose PIV
former. should thus be about 9440 volts. The num-
ber of individual diodes in a suitable stack
For this example, R' is about 60 for the sec- is:
ondary resistance of 8 ohms, and the full -
load d -c voltage of the supply is found Number of diodes - l 1.2 X rms
Diode PIV
collage
to be just about 2000.
The peak rectified voltage across the For this example, 600 -volt PIV rectifiers
complete filter- capacitor stack is equal to are chosen and 16 are required, eight in each
the no -load d -c voltage and is 2360 volts. half of the stack.
Six 450 -volt "computer" -type 240 -pfd elec- The charging current of the capacitor
trolytic capacitors in series provide a 40 -pfd stack may be safely ignored if the power
effective capacitor, with a working voltage supply is energized through a series primary
of 2700 (peak voltage rating of 3000), a resistor (R) such as shown in figure 15.
sufficient margin for safety. Each capacitor One -ampere diodes having a single -cycle
is shunted with two 100K, 2 -watt resistors surge- current rating of 15 to 30 amperes
in parallel. are recommended for general use. The dif-
HANDBOOK 1 -kW IVS Power Supply 783
fused silicon rectifiers (1N3195 and 1N- the above data. This supply is based on a
4005, for example) have a single -cycle 40- percent duty cycle and may be used
surge- current rating of 30 amperes and are for c -w service at 1- kilowatt level, or
no more expensive than the older style alloy up to 1200 watts PEP or so for SSB
junction rectifiers (1N547 and 1N1492, service. The regulation of the supply is
for example) having a much lower single - shown in the graph (figure 19), and the
cycle surge current rating. unit is capable of delivering 2300 volts
at 0.5 ampere in IVS operation. The no-
Capacitor Power supplies for SSB service load voltage rises to 2750. The power sup-
Filters whose current requirements have ply is suitable for running a single -
a large peak -to- average ratio 400Z at maximum rating, or it may be
often make use of capacitor filters (figure used for a pair of 813, 4CX250B, or 4CX-
17). This simple circuit eliminates the reson- 300A tubes at the kilowatt level. A trans-
ant transients that are often found in LC former having less secondary resistance and
filter systems and, if the capacitance is suf- slightly less secondary voltage would provide
ficiently large, provides adequate voltage improved voltage regulation. The 840 -volt
regulation. In the case of a 2 -kW PEP sup- transformer having an 8 -ohm secondary
ply (2500 volts at 0.8 ampere) the load winding discussed earlier would be ideal in
resistance is 3100 ohms and the required this application.
capacitance for 5-percent regulation is 55 The power supply is constructed on a
5d. Dynamic regulation of this degree steel amplifier foundation chassis and dust
is satisfactory for SSB and c -w service, as cover. The diode stack is mounted on a per-
well as for amplitude modulation. As dis- forated phenolic board under the chassis.
cussed earlier, the rectifier and power trans- The electrolytic capacitors are taped to-
former must be protected from the inrush gether and held in position atop the chassis
charging current of the filter capacitor. by a clamp cut from an aluminum sheet.
30 -7 A 1- Kilowatt IVS The interior of the clamp is lined with a
piece of plastic material salvaged from a
Power Supply package of frozen vegetables. The voltage -
Shown in figures 18 and 19 is a typical equalizing resistors are wired across the
power supply designed from
1- kilowatt IVS
terminals of the capacitors. Normally, it
takes 10 seconds or so to fully discharge the
5000 filter capacitors when no external load is
connected to the supply. It is recommended
000 1 FRON RECTIFIER'

that the supply be discharged with a 1000 -
ohm, 100 -watt resistor before any work is
done on the unit. Power -supply components
C
and all terminals should be well protected
3000 against accidental contact. The voltage de-
livered by this supply is lethal and the filter
capacitors hold a considerable charge for a
2000 surprising length of time. This is the price
one pays for an intermittent -duty design,
000 111111 and care should be exercised in the use of
this equipment
20 40 60 60 100 120 110 ,60 ,60 200
To reduce the standby current and power
C - CAPACITANCE (Iwo) consumption, it is recommended that cath-
ode bias be applied to the linear amplifier
Figure 17
stage shown in various designs in this Hand-
CAPACITOR FILTER book. During transmission, the cathode re-
Capacitor Alter is often used for SSA linear - sistor may be shorted out by contacts of
amplifier power supplies. For S- percent regu-
lation, chart shows capacitance required for the VOX relay, restoring the stage to proper
various values of d-c plate -load resistance. operation.
Figure 18
COMPACT ONE -KILOWATT IVS SUPPLY FOR SSB AND C -W SERVICE

This power supply delivers 2250 volts at 500 ma for SSB operation and 2400 volts at 400
ma for c -w operation. The supply is constructed on a covered foundation unit measuring
12" X 7" X 9" high (Bud CA- 17511. The electrolytic capacitors are held in position by a
bracket cut from aluminum sheet. Primary power receptacle, power switch, and neon pilot
light are on the front apron of the chassis, with primary fuse and Miller high- voltage con-
nector on the rear apron. High- voltage diode stack is mounted beneath the chassis on a
phenolic board.
Using the alternative 1100 -volt trans- td effective capacitance at 3600 volts
former, the supply delivers 2600 volts at a working voltage. The voltage across the
c -w rating of 380 ma. Peak IVS voice rating "bottom" capacitor in the stack is moni-
is 500 ma (1.25 KW, PEP) . No -load volt- tored by a 0 -to -1 d -c milliammeter recali-
age is about 3100, and eight electrolytic ca- brated 0 to 4 KV and which is used with a
pacitors are required in the stack instead of series multiplier to provide a 0 to 5000 -volt
six. full -scale indication. A 0 -to -1 d -c ammeter
is placed in series with the negative lead to
30 -8 A 2- Kilowatt PEP the high -voltage terminal strip.
Supply for SSB The supply is built on a steel amplifier
foundation chassis in the same style as the
1 -kW supply described previously. All safety
The power supply described in this section precautions outlined earlier should be ob-
is designed for the maximum power rating served with this supply.
for amateur service. It is capable of 1.2 kilo-
watts power for c -w (50 percent duty
cycle) and 2 kilowatts IVS for SSB service. 30 -9 IVS Bridge- Rectifier
The supply is ideally suited for a grounded - Supplies
grid amplifier using a single 3- 1000Z, 4-
1000A, or a pair of 3- 400Z's. Regulation The bridge- rectifier circuit is somewhat
of the supply is shown in figure 21. A more efficient than the full -wave circuit in
voltmeter is incorporated in the supply to that the former provides more direct current
monitor the plate voltage at all times. The per unit of rms transformer current for a
supply makes use of the circuit of figure 17. given load than does the full -wave circuit.
Twenty 600 -volt PIV diodes are used in Since there are two rectifiers in opposite
the rectifier stack to provide a total PIV arms of the bridge in the conducting mode
of 12 KV, which allows an ample safety when the a -c voltage is at its peak value,
factor. Eight 240 -pfd, 450 -volt capacitors the remaining two rectifiers are back -biased
are used in the filter stack to provide 30- to the peak value of the a -c voltage. Thus
HANDBOOK IVS Bridge- Rectifier Supplies 785
3000
2600
2600
000 00000
000000000000
CMIIII0NIVIEEISIIIIMICELE)00
MMNrwMr00/wyrMsow)
around an inexpensive "TV- replacement"
type power transformer. The secondary
winding is 1200 volts center -tapped at a
ElEiiiar-
RATING
2400
MAX. VS
NG
current rating of 200 ma. The weight of
2200
000OOOa
OOONOOOOOO
SSe
(1tSaW)
the transformer is 8 pounds, and the maxi-
mum IVS rating is about 500 watts or so.
2000
OOOa000ao0
000OOOOOOlO Secondary resistance is 100 ohms. Used in
OOONOOOOOO
OOONOOOOOO bridge service, the transformer makes prac-
---11111---
000OOOOOOO OOO
OOOwO0000MBE- tical an inexpensive power supply providing
about 1250 volts at an IVS peak current
OOONO0000o0
000OOOOOOO rating of 380 ma. The no -load voltage is
OOONOOOOOO about 1600. For c -w use, the current rating
is 225 ma at 1400 volts (about 300 watts).
2 .3 .4 .5
LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES)
Maximum PIV is nearly 1700 volts so each
Figure 19 arm of the bridge must withstand this
REGULATION CURVE OF ONE
KILOWATT IVS SUPPLY
The power supply uses the circuit of figure
15. Primary surge resistor )R) is 5 ohms, 50
watts. Secondary surge -voltage resistor ,R )
is 200 ohms, 10 watts. Surge capacitor C is
.02 .:fd, 3 KV (Aerovox P89 -M). Sixteen type
1N2071 (600 -volt PIV/ diodes are used in an
assembly such as shown in figures 25 and 26.
The diode shunt capacitors are .01 -.pfd, 600 -
volt ceramic discs, and the shunt resistors are
470K, I2 -watt units. Six 450 -volt (working),
240 -.,fd filter capacitors are used in series,
each capacitor shunted with two 100K, 2-
watt resistors in parallel. The time delay re-
lay (RY) has a 24 -volt d -c coil with a re-
Y
sistance of about 280 ohms Potter- Brumfield
PRS-DY). Contacts are rated at 25 amperes.
Delay time is about 0.5 second and is deter-
mined primarily by the time constant of
R -C .Suggested values are 800.. fd (50 work-
ing volts, for C and 600 ohms, 10 watts for
R. Diode D may be a 7N2070. The power
transformer shown is a surplus unit having a Figure 20
115 /230 -volt primary and a 960-volt second-
ary. The transformer weight is 18 pounds and COMPACT COMPONENTS FOR
it has an IVS rating of 7.2 KW. (A commercial MODERN POWER SUPPLIES
alternative is Hill Magnetics Co., 2201 Bay
Road, Redwood City, Calif. =HMP- 1939A. This Recent developments in compact components
compact, 825 -volt, wound -core transformer allow construction of ultracompact power
has improved regulation and is rated at 1 KW supplies of unusually great capability. In
continuous duty 12 KW IVS rating) and pro- foreground are three controlled -avalanche
vides 2000 volts at a continuous load of 500 rectifier modules that take the place of power
ma.) rectifiers and their accompanying filament
transformer. At left is voltage -doubler module
that provides 3000 volts d.c. at 1 ampere.
Center: Bridge rectifier module for rms input
the bridge- rectifier circuit requires only voltages up to 1400 at a load current of 1.5
half the PIV rating for the rectifiers as ampere. Right: Bridge -rectifier module for rms
input voltages up to 10,000 at a load current
compared to a center -tap full -wave recti- of 1.5 ampere. Because of controlled- avalanche
fier. The latter circuit applies the sum of characteristic of these modules, no surge net-
work is necessary across individual diodes of
the peak a -c voltage plus the stored capaci- the module.
tor voltage to one rectifier arm in the maxi- At the left is a 240 -.,fd, 450 -volt "computer -
mum inverse -voltage condition. type" electrolytic capacitor suitable for stack-
ing in high -voltage power supplies Mallory
type CG'. The power transformer (rear, has a
A 500 -Watt IVS Shown in figure 22 wound, hypersil core and provides 2000 volts
Bridge Power Supply d.c. of 500 ma continuous service in a
is a 500 -watt bridge doubler configuration. (Hill Magnetics, Inc.,
power supply designed Redwood City, Calif.)
3200
MMMMMMMMM t.2AX.C-W RATING value. Allowing a 100 -percent safety factor
MMMMMMr MAXNW)IVS MMM
3000
MMMMMM
2800 =iMOViIZCLIINsse(2KW) II
RATING requires 3400 volts PIV per arm, which may
MMMMMMMMNMMlr be made up of six 600 -volt PIV diodes in
series with an appropriate RC network
2800
MMMMMMMMMMMMMM7
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM across each diode. The diode assembly is
f] 2400
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMIM
u,
I- 2200
J
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMo
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
constructed on two phenolic boards, one of
which is shown in figures 24 and 25. A total
o
>
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMO
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMiM of 24 rectifiers are required. Four 120 -pfd,
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMf 450 -volt electrolytic capacitors in series
MMMMM1111MMMMMMMMMI provide 30 pfd at a working voltage of
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMt
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMTM 1800. The negative of the supply is above
.2 .3 .4 .S .6
LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES) ground by virtue of the 10 -ohm, 10 -watt
resistor which permits plate -current meter-
Figure 21 ing in the negative power lead while the
supply and amplifier remain at the same
REGULATION CURVE OF
ground potential.
2- KILOWATT IVS SUPPLY
This supply is designed for use with two
The power supply uses the circuit of figure 811 A's in grounded -grid service. The tubes
15. Surge components are as given in figure
19, except that the surge capacitor (C) has a are biased to plate- current cutoff in standby
rating of 5 kV. Twenty type- IN2071 (600 -volt mode by a cathode resistor which is shorted
PIV) diodes are used in an assembly similar
to that shown in figures 24 and 25. Eight 240
out by contacts on the push -to -talk or VOX
fd, 450- working -volt (500 -volt peak) ca- circuitry. The power supply is built in an
pacitors are used to provide 30 ,,fd effective inclosed amplifier cabinet, similar to the one
capacitance. Two 100K, 2 -watt resistors are
shunted across each capacitor. Time -delay shown in figure 18. The B -plus lead is made
circuit components are as suggested in fig- of a length of RG -8 /U coaxial cable, used
ure 15. The transformer used has a 117/240 - in conjunction with a high -voltage coaxial
volt primary and an 1100 -volt secondo, y, with
an 'CAS rating of 1.2 kW. (Berkshire Trans- connector.
former Corp., Kent, Conn. *BTC- 49058).
Figure 22
SCHEMATIC OF 500 -WATT IVS BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY

Diode package (C. -D, -R , etc.) is composed of one each: 1N2071 diode in parallel with .01
fd, 600 -volt ceramic capacitor and a 470K, I2 -watt resistor. Each bridge arm requires six
packages, made as shown in figures 24 and 25. The secondary voltage -surge network (C -R )
is a 100 -ohm, 10 -watt resistor in series with a .02 ufd, 3 k V capacitor Aerovox P89 -M). The
(
power transformer has a 1200 -volt center tapped 200-ma rating. (Stancor PC -8414 or Thordarson
22R36'. The filter stack uses four 120 -ufd, 450 -volt electrolytic capacitors in series, with 10K,
10 -watt resistors across each capacitor. Meter (M) is a 0 -500 d -c milliammeter. A 10- ampere
fuse IF( is used. Transformer core is grounded as a safety measure.
HANDBOOK Regulated Power Supplies 787
1600
U 1400
1/) 1200 MAX. VS RATING

1
(480 w. -+I
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5
LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES)
Figure 23
VOLTAGE- REGULATION CURVE OF
500 -WATT BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY
30 -10 Regulated Figure 25

Power Supplies
REAR VIEW OF HIGH- VOLTAGE
Voltage -Regulator A roltage- regulator tube DIODE STACK
Tubes (VR tube) is a gaseous The shunt capacitors and resistors are mounted
on the rear of the phenolic board. Each diode -
device which maintains a resistor- capacitor package has an individual
constant voltage across its electrodes under pair of mounting terminals, which are jump -
conditions of varying current. A number of ered together to connect the diodes in series.
This arrangement provides greatest available
tube types are available which stabilize the heat sink for the components. The assembly
voltage across their terminals at 75, 90, 105, is mounted an inch or so away from the chas-
sis by means of 4 -40 machine screws and
ceramic insulators placed in corners of the
board.
or 150 volts. The regulator tube is con-

nected in series with a current -limiting
resistor of such value that will permit the
regulator tube to draw from 8 to 40 ma
under normal operating conditions. The tube
must be supplied from a potential source
that is higher than the starting, or ignition
voltage of the tube (figure 26). Regulator -
tube currents greater than 40 ma will
shorten the life of the tube and currents
lower than 5 ma or so will result in un-
stable regulation. A voltage excess of about
15 percent is required to ignite the tube and
Figure 24 this is usually taken care of by the no -load
ASSEMBLY OF HIGH -VOLTAGE
voltage rise of the source supply.
DIODE STACK The value of the limiting resistor must
permit minimum tube current to flow, and
Inexpensive "TV- type" diodes may be con-
nected in series to provide a high value of at the same time allow maximum regulator -
peak- inverse voltage. Shown here are twelve tube current to flow under conditions of no
type- )N2071 diodes mounted on a Vector - load current, as shown in the illustration.
bord (64AA32 cut to size). The diodes are
soldered to Vector terminals (T9.6) mounted When a VR tube is to be used to regulate
in the prepunched holes in the phenolic
board. A pair of long -nose pliers should be the voltage applied to a circuit drawing less
used as a heat sink when soldering the diode than 15 ma normal or average current, the
leads. Grasp the diode lead between the simplest method of adjusting the series resist-
diode body and the joint, permitting the pliers
to absorb the soldering heat. ance is to remove the load and vary the
s ER A.0 REGULATED
SOURCE POWER TRAN.
UNREGULATED
-Ca RECTIFIER
AND
SERIES
CONTROL
TUBE
D.C.OUTPUT
D-C SUPPLY L
IE)
O -C COMPARISON
AMPLIFIER
Rs- (E-ER)
CIRCUIT
S ER
VR TUBE VOLTAGE
REFERENCE
UNREGULATED
O-C SUPPLY
IE)
VR TUBE SERIES CONTROL TUBE
AMPLIFIER
Figure 26
REGU-
UNREGULATED LATED
VOLTAGE- REGULATOR TUBE CIRCUITS D -C
SUPPLY
D -C
OUTPUT
A- Single regulator tube stabilizes voltage at
discrete intervals between 90 and 300 volts. VOLTAGE
fl- Series -connected tubes offer stabilization up REFERENCE
to 300 volts. Series resistor (R,) is a function
of supply voltage (E) and regulated voltage
(Ek). Figure 27
SERIES -REGULATED D -C POWER SUPPLY

D -camplifier compares the output voltage of
series resistor until the VR tube draws about power supply to a voltage reference source.
40 ma. Then connect the load, and that is Voltage drop through series control tube is
adjusted to balance circuit, providing voltage
all there is to it. This method is particularly regulation of I% or better
recommended when the load is a heater -type
vacuum tube, which may not draw current
for several seconds after the power supply The d -c amplifier compares the output
is turned on. Under these conditions, the
voltage to that of the reference source.
When the output voltage drops, the d -c
current through the VR tube will never ex-
ceed 40 ma even when it is running unloaded
amplifier is unbalanced and the tube draws
less plate current, thus raising the grid volt-
(while the heater tube is warming up and
age on the series- connected control tube. The
the power -supply rectifier has already reached
voltage drop through the control tube be-
operating temperature).
comes less and the output voltage from the
supply is raised, compensating for the origi-
Electronic Voltage regulation may be ac- nal voltage reduction.
Regulation complished by the use of series Practical electronic regulated supplies usu-
control tube and a voltage sen- ally employ tetrode tubes in the d -c ampli-
sing and comparison circuit, as shown in fier for higher amplifier gain and low -jz series
figure 27. The series tube must be capable control tubes for better control of regulation,
of dissipating power represented by the dif- providing regulation of the order of plus or
ference between the input voltage from the minus 1 percent or so.
supply and the output voltage from the
regulator at the maximum current flow to A 400 -Volt This heavy -duty regulated
the load. In many cases, tubes are operated Regulated Supply power supply provides reg-
in parallel to obtain the required plate dissi- ulated voltage over the
pation. The output voltage of the electron- range of 325 to 450 volts. Above 400 volts,
ically regulated supply may be changed over the maximum current rating is 250 ma.
a wide range by varying the grid voltage of A 6AS7G is employed as the series control
the d -c amplifier tube. The reference voltage element, and type -816 mercury-vapor recti-
may be supplied from a battery or voltage - fiers are used in the power supply section.
regulator tube. The 6AS7G acts as a variable series resist-
HANDBOOK Regulated Power Supplies 789
ance which is controlled by a separate reg- of 26 watts of the 6AS7G series regulator
ulator tube much in the manner of avc is not exceeded at maximum current out-
circuits or inverse feedback as used in re- put from the supply. The total dissipation
ceivers and a -f amplifiers. A 6SH7 controls in the 6AS7G is equal to the current through
the operating bias on the 6AS7G, and there- it (output current plus the current passing
fore controls the internal resistance of the through the two bleeder strings) multiplied
6AS7G. This, in turn, controls the output by the drop through the tube (voltage
voltage of the supply, which controls the across the filter capacitor minus the out-
plate current of the 6SH7, thus completing put voltage of the supply).
the cycle of regulation. It is apparent that
under these conditions any change in the A Shunt -Regulated Many the popular
of
output voltage will tend to "resist itself," Bias Supply class -B modulator and
much as the avc system of a receiver resists (20 to 80 V) grounded -grid linear am-
any change in signal strength delivered to plifier tubes require a
the detector. few volts of well- regulated negative bias.
Because it is necessary that there always Shown in figure 29 is an electronic bias
be a moderate voltage drop through the supply which will provide a regulated bias
6AS7G in order for it to have proper con- voltage variable over the range of 20 to 80
trol, the rest of the power supply is de- volts. Regulation is 0.001 volt /ma, which
signed to deliver as much output voltage as is remarkable for a supply as simple as this.
possible. This calls for a low- resistance full - Between 30 and 80 volts, the supply will
wave rectifier, a high -capacitance output regulate grid current up to 200 ma. Be-
capacitor in the filter system and a low -
resistance choke.
Reference voltage in the power supply is 6AS7G
obtained from a VR1S0 gaseous regulator. 39n.2 vi
Note that the 6.3 -volt heater winding for
the 6SH7 and the 6AS7G tubes is operated 0 n, W.W.
at a potential of plus 150 volts by connect-
ing the winding to the plate of the VR1 5 0.
This procedure causes the heater -cathode 22K
2w
voltage of the 6SH7 to be zero, and permits
an output voltage of up to 450 since the
300 -volt heater -to-cathode rating of the
6AS7G is not exceeded with an output volt-
age of 450 from the power supply.
816's
If the power supply is to be used with an
E.3 V. HEATER
output voltage of 400 to 450 volts, the full
615 volts each side of center should be ap-
plied to the 816's. However, the maximum
plate dissipation rating of the 6AS7G will
be exceeded, due to the voltage drop across /SW.
JUPER
VR
M
T UBE
IN
the tube, if the full current rating of 250 0

n
ma is used with an output voltage below I 115 V. PLATE 15v cils da5J T0 GNOD.
400 volts. If the power supply is to be used

with full output current at voltages below Figure 28
400 volts the 520 -volt taps on the plate
transformer should be connected to the SCHEMATIC OF VOLTAGE -
816's. Some variation in the output range of REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
the power supply may be obtained by vary- T. -615 or 520 volts each side of c.t., 300 ma.
ing the values of the resistors and the po- Stancor P -8041
T -5 volts at 3 amp., 6.3 volts at 6 amp.
tentiometer across the output. However, be Stancor P -5009
sure that the total plate dissipation rating CH -4 -henry at 250 ma. Stancor C -1412
Ti 330-o-3S0
AT MA.
SO
V. ALL RESISTORS 7 -WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
2V. AT 2 A.
6.3V. AT SA.
Figure 29
SCHEMATIC, LOW- VOLTAGE REGULATED BIAS SUPPLY
tween 20 and 30 volts, maximum grid cur- well suited to this task. The unit delivers
rent is restricted to 100 ma. 250 volts at 60 ma and may be controlled
Basically, the regulated supply consists of down to 150 volts, at which point the max-
a small power supply which delivers plate imum current is limited to 40 ma. A single
voltage to a low -p. 6AS7G triode. The volt- 6JZ8 Conlhartron tube serves as a series
age drop across the triode is used as the regulator and d -c amplifier. A small NE -2
regulated bias voltage. Associated with the neon lamp connected in the cathode circuit
triode is a d -c amplifier and a voltage - cf the triode section of the 6JZ8 provides
regulator tube which serves to vary the grid reference voltage and may be used as a pilot
voltage of the triode regulator tube so that light.
a constant voltage is maintained across it.
The 5K variable potentiometer is adjusted
to produce about 20 ma current through 30 -11 General- Purpose
the first regulator tube. Power Supplies
A Low -Voltage stable, voltage -regu-
A Power supplies may either be of the choke -
Regulated Supply lated power supply is a input type illustrated in figure 31, or the
(150 to 250 volts) useful adjunct to the ex- capacitor -input type, illustrated in figure 32.
perimenter's workshop for Capacitor-input filter systems are character-
use with receivers, test equipment, and other ized by a d -c supply output voltage that
devices requiring controlled voltage. Shown runs from 0.9 to about 1.3 times the rms
in figure 30 is a small power supply that is voltage of one -half of the high -voltage sec-
01 .01
Figure 30
LOW-VOLTAGE
REGULATED SUPPLY
D, thru D -1N4005
or equivalent
r,-480 volts,
c.t. at 70 ma,
6.3 volts at 3 amps
L,-8 henrys, 75 ma
HANDBOOK General- Purpose Power Supplies 791
TI VI
n5V
50-601.
O
6 3 v
O
IMATE
COMPONENTS DUTPUT VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
MAX. 6.3 V.
NO FULL CURRENTFILAMENT
Ti VI CHI CH 2 C 1 Co R I
LOAD LOAD
10 M. 1051
450 V.
101JF, 20F,50 V.
350-0 -350 573-GT STANCOR STANCOR
CORNELL- CORNELL- 35N,N14 310 240 SOMA. ]A.
STANCOR PC-8401 DUI ICIER DUI ICIER
C-1001 C-I00/ 8R-r045 IR -2045
-I] 450v. 20 UF, 450V.
DUI
101J F,
375 -0 -373
3 w 7M. CORNELL- CORNELL-
STANCORKN /1 5T3-CT /L /ER DUI /L /ER 35K,104 330 230 140 MA 4.5 A.
C-171 Cr 1421
9R
I4 -7045 IR -2045
IO UF 450 V. 1010,450 V.
400 -0 -400 51.141-G STANCOR STANCOR CORNELL- CORNELL51.141-G
3611104 360 270 2O MA. SA.
STANCOR PC-1413 -102 C -1412 DUI /L /ER 0418/L /ER
C
IR -7045 IR -1045
IO11F,600v. 600 V.
1011F,
525 -0 -525 !U4 -GI 5 -25 M. 20 M.
MALLORY MALLORY 36N,10W 460 375 240MA. A.
UTC 5 -10 ITC 5-3t UTC 5-37 TC-112 TC -92
600 -0 -600
6LIF.600 V. UF, GOO V.
47C S-41 SR4 G7 UTC S3t UTC S-31
SPRAGUE
CR -1I
SPRAGUE
CR -I 3511,254 540 410 200MA. 4 A.
100 -0 -600 5 -25 H. 20M. 4F, INV 6F, NV. 1
-G7 SPRAGUE SPRAGUE 50 M,25W 630 ISO 175MA.

UTC S-45 5114
7C S -32 UTC S-7l
iR -41 CR -II
Figure 31
DESIGN CHART FOR CHOKE -INPUT POWER SUPPLIES
Full wave solid -state rectifier may be substituted for V, providing improved voltage regulation.
Ti VI
1IS V.
SO -60%
O
6.3 V.
`
APPROXIMATE
COMPONENTS OUTPUT VOLTAGE MAX. 4.3V.
NO FULL CURRENT FILAIINT
T 1 V I CHI C I C2 11 1
LOAD LOAD
20 UF, 450 V. 201IF. 450 V.
10 N.
260 -0-260
STANCOR PC -1404
573 -8T STANCOR
C-1001
CORNELL-
Dual LIER
CORNELL-
DUO/LIER ]! Kqw 340 240 SOMA. 3A.
OR-2045 OR-2045
10111600 IO.UF, 600 V

]7l -0 -]73 7 M.
MALLORY
V.
MALLORY 356,10W 460 350 125MA. .S A.
STAN5 -0-37 411 673-GT STANCOR
'C-1427 TC-62 TC -I2
435 -0 -435 M. $LIF,600V. 610,600 V.

SU4 -G STANCOR SPRAGUE SPRAGUE 351,23W 600 00 225 MA. SA.
CR -16 CR -II
600 -0-600 4M. 31F, 1 RV 6F, I NV.
664 -G7 STANCOR SPRAGUE SPRAGUE 5011,254 600 600 200MA. SA.
STANCOR PC-8414 C -112 CR -41 CO-l
900 -0 -900
UTC S -4! 5114 -GV
20 N.
UTC 5 -7/
4F, 1.6 NV
SPRAGUE
CR -415
SUT, I 6 NV.
SPRAGUE
OR -175
751125W 1200 910 150 MA. -
Figure 32
DESIGN CHART FOR CAPACITOR -INPUT POWER SUPPLIES
Full wave solid -state rectifier may be substituted for V, providing improved voltage regulation
Ta
APPROXIMATE
COMPONENTS OUTPUT VOLTAGE MAX.
CURRENT
Ti Ta V1-V2 CHI CH2 NO FULL Ous)
CI C2 RI
1150-0-1130 2.SV,10A. 6X. IOM. 4111%1.50V. 6UF,I.5 KV
CHICAGO TRANS.
666-A
CN/ THAN 11166-A
CN/. THAN CNI. THAN. SANGAPO SANGAPO 400,73W 1130 1000 330 MA.
P-107 P-210 R-03 R-103 7113-1 7113-6
1710-0-1710 2.SV.,10A
CN/CACOTRANS. CN/ TRAN. N6-A M. ION. 411F, 2 K 6LF, 2KV.
P-1312 P- 21011 666-A CNI.TRAN.
R-63
CHI. THAN. SANGAPO SANGAPO 300,73W
R-103 7120-1 7120-8
1700 1300 425MA.
2600-0-2600 3V., 10A. 6H. 6X. 1/F,3KV. 4NF,3KV.

CNICAiOTRANS. CNI. TRAN. 672A CHI THAN CN/ TRAN. SANGANO SANGAPO 75 K
2730 2300 700 MA.
P-2126 f-S/0N 512-A R-67 R-67 7130-1 7130-1 200 W
3300-0-3500 5 V.,10A. 10 M. 10X. 411F,4KV. 111I 4KV.

U7C
672-A UTC UT CORNELL- CORELC- 100 3400 3000 1000 MA.
UTC CC-309 OUO/LIER OUCH LIEN 200w
LS-02 CC-IS
CS- C6-75 TIO040-A T100/0-A
4600-0-4600 SV.,20A. 10M. 10N. L/f, DKV. 410,3 KV
(ITC Ci-310 375-A 100 K
CN/CACO TRANS. UTC 375-A UTC UTC AEROVOX AEROVOX 300 W
400 4000 600 MA.
P-13l3 LS-63 Ci-1S CS-IS JP-09 JP-06
Figure 33
DESIGN CHART FOR CHOKE -INPUT HIGH -VOLTAGE SUPPLIES
ondary winding of the transformer. Capaci- will provide both of these voltages from a
tor -input filter systems are not recommended simple broadcast "replacement- type" power
for use with mercury-vapor rectifier tubes, transformer. It is to be noted that separate
as the peak rectifier current may run as high filament transformers are used for rectifier
as five or six times the d -c load current of tubes V, and V_, and that one leg of each
the power supply. filament is connected to the cathode of the
Choke -input filter systems are character- respective tube, which is at a high potential
ized by lower peak -load currents (1.1 to with respect to ground. The choke CH, in
1.3 times the average load current) than the the negative lead of the supply serves as a
capacitor -input filter, and by better voltage common filter choke for both output volt-
regulation. Design charts for capacitor and ages. Each portion of the supply may be
choke -input filter supplies for various volt- considered as having a choke -input filter
ages and load currents are shown in figures system. Filaments of V, and V_ are energized
31, 32, and 33. before the primary voltage is applied to TI.
The construction of power supplies for Bridge supplies may also be used to ad-
transmitters, receivers, and accessory equip- vantage to obtain relatively high plate volt-
ment is a relatively simple matter electrically ages for high- powered transmitting equip-
since lead lengths and placement of parts are ment. Type 866A and 872A rectifier tubes
of minor importance and since the circuits will serve in supplies delivering up to 3500
themselves are quite simple. volts in a full -wave circuit. Above this volt-
age, the peak inverse -voltage rating of the
mercury -vapor tube will be exceeded, and
Bridge Supplies Some practical variations of danger of flashback within the tube will be
the common bridge- rectifier present. However, with bridge circuits, the
circuit of figure 7 are illustrated in figure same tubes will deliver up to 7000 volts d.c.
34. In many instances a transmitter or mod- without exceeding the peak inverse -voltage
ulator requires two different supply voltages, rating.
differing by a ratio of about 2:1. A simple The modern trend is to employ solid -state
bridge supply such as shown in figure 34 rectifiers in high -voltage circuits, as dis-
CH2
TI + N.V. 2
Figure 34
DUAL -VOLTAGE
+ N V. I
INTERMITTENT -SERVICE
.
BRIDGE POWER SUPPLIES
o
{.sv.
(C' O
COMPONENTS PULL LOAD VOLT. MAX. CURRENT

VI
(c.
Ti VI-V2 VI C1-C2 Cs-C4 CHI CH2 Ri-ii 2 RI Nv41 NV2 *1 *2
Tp2 S{O-O-sso 1{LF. 1{Lf. 10N. {N. 100N 240 {OMA. 4091A.
lrs V2 S UNCAP PC-{410
5x5.G1' 5V4-G
450 V. 450 V. 120 MA 50MA.
20N,IOW.
I W
600
400-0-400 1{Lf.
Mx5y7 5U46e 450 V.
1{Lf. 10 N. 61.1
20K tOW.
100
625 260 150 MA. 50 MA.
T2,T5 {.S V., A. 1 STANCOAPC-{4/2 450 V. 225MA. 75MA. 1W
STANCOR P-5154
15V.
50 -{01.
cussed earlier, and special full -wave and Transistor Experimenters interested in
bridge rectifiers may be obtained which are Power Supplies solid -state circuitry have
suitable for operation up to three or four need of a low- voltage, well -
thousand volts d -c output at currents in ex- filtered power supply that has low internal
cess of one ampere. impedance. Shown in this section are two
Commercial plate transformers intended supplies designed for this type of service.
for full wave rectifier service may also be The simple regulated power supply shown
used in bridge service provided that the in figure 35 will deliver a nominal 9 volts
insulation at the center -tap point of the at a maximum current rating of 300 ma.
high- voltage winding is sufficient to with- Over the current range of zero to 300 ma,
stand one -half of the rms voltage of the the output voltage of the supply varies from
secondary winding. Many high- voltage trans- 9.5 to 8.5 volts. The supply incorporates
formers are specifically designed for opera- transient and surge protection in addition to
tion with the center tap of the secondary having a very low internal impedance. A
winding at ground potential; consequently 2N376A is used as a series regulator and a
the insulation of the winding at this point 1N960B is a zener diode which establishes
is not designed to withstand high voltage. reference bias for the transistor. A 1N2974B
It is best to check with the manufacturer zener diode serves as a transient suppressor
of the transformer and find out if the in- and is normally nonconducting.
sulation will withstand the increased voltage Shown in figure 36 is a current -limited
before a full -wave type transformer is util- power supply that provides a nominal 10,
ized in bridge- rectifier service. 20, or 30 volts at a maximum current rating
Figure 35
I TI 2N376A
HEP -230 REGULATED 9 -VOLT
GE -3
*9v. POWER SUPPLY
1N2974B 2,-72.6 volts, amp 1
9v D, thru D -IN2482 or equivalent

I,-12-volt pilot lamp consisting
of style
GN D.
Note: chassis used as heat sink
for transistor.
2000 2500
IOW 5W
2A Ti 1N539
1000 1014 Figure 36
25W
CURRENT
CURRENT-LIMITED
POWER SUPPLY
T,-117-117 volts, 3S watts.
Triad N -S 1 X
Note: Zoner diodes mounted
on 2 -inch square aluminum
plates for heat sinks.
1 OGND
of 10, 25, 50, 100, or 300 milliamperes. Transceiver Single -sideband transceivers
Regulation is accomplished by interconnec- Power Supplies require power supplies that
tions of two zener reference diodes by means provide several values of
of voltage selector switch S. Switch S, high voltage, bias voltage, filament voltage,
selects various values of series resistance and d -c control -circuit voltage. The supply
which serve as current regulators. When the may provide up to 600 watts of d -c power in
load current exceeds the limit selected by intermittent voice service. The use of high -
switch S the voltage drops below zener storage "computer" -type electrolytic capaci-
voltage and the supply acts as a constant - tors permits maximum power to be main-
current source. The zener diodes should be tained during voice peaks, while still per-
mounted on 2 -inch insulated heat sinks. mitting the power transformer to be oper-
ated within an average power rating of
about 50- percent peak power capabality,
even for extended periods of time.
Two transceiver power supplies are shown
in this section. The first is designed around
a power transformer specially built for SSB
service. The second supply is designed around
a heavy -duty "TV replacement" type power
transformer. The former supply is capable
of a PEP power level of better than 600
watts, while the latter design is limited to
about 300 watts PEP.
A schematic of the 600 -watt PEP power
supply is shown in figure 38. A multiple -
winding transformer is used which has suf-
ficient capacity to run the largest transceiv-
ers on a continuous voice -operated basis.
The transformer weighs 16 pounds and has
great reserve capacity. The power supply
Figure 37 provides 800 volts at an intermittent current
of 800 milliamperes, 250 volts at an inter-
600 -WATT IVS POWER SUPPLY mittent current of 200 milliamperes, an
FOR SSB TRANSCEIVERS adjustable bias voltage at a continuous cur-
Special transceiver power supply provides rent of 100 milliamperes, and either 6.3
heavy -duty capacity to run largest of SSA volts or 12.6 volts filament supply at 12 or
transceivers. Power transformer and Alter 6 amperes, respectively. An additional cir-
choke are to the left, with bias -adjustment
potentiometer in foreground. Muitiwire cable cuit provides 12 volts d.c. for operation of
connects supply to transceiver. Semiconductor auxiliary VOX or switching relays. Con-
rectifiers are assembled as shown in figures
24 and 25 and placed beneath the chassis. trolled- avalanche diodes are used in the
TB
o 8+ B00 V.
50 SW
B (ONO.)
)17V
OAB 16nV
CHI
40 *
CH2
0 * 66K
8+ 250 V.
01 I N1
4004 450 450 2w
1 6RVQ BLU +
= B 1001+ 30
90V
T 2W 150
BLU N o BIAS(ADJ)
ADJ. BIAS
o 12 6V 1.
4. 7 6 A.
6.3V
G
.+ 2W
+ 12V.
(200 MA )
1N 4004 + 100
LINE SW.
J.
Figure 38
SCHEMATIC, 600 -WATT TRANSCEIVER SUPPLY

T, -600volts, 400 ma; 250 volts, 100 ma; 6.3 volts, 6 amps; 6.3 volts, 6 amps, 117 -volt primary.
Triad P-31A
CH, -1 henry, 300 ma
CH -3 henrys, 300 ma
bridge- rectifier circuit, in conjunction with transceiver. The leads carrying the filament
RC shunt networks and transient suppression voltage should be doubled up, using two
across the power- supply secondary winding. wires for each lead to reduce voltage drop
Additional transient protection is afforded within the cable to a minimum. The 6.3 -volt
by large bypass capacitors placed on the filament windings of the transformer may
primary winding of the power transformer. be arranged in either series or parallel con-
The supply is actuated by a remote- power- figuration, according to the requirements of
line switch, usually located in the trans- the transceiver.
ceiver. Complete filter -capacitor discharge takes
The construction of the supply is shown about 10 seconds once the supply is turned
in figure 37. The aluminum chassis is small off, and it is recommended that the capacitor
enough to fit within the speaker cabinet of stack be shorted with a 1000 -ohm 100 -watt
the transceiver, and parts layout is not resistor before any work is done on the
critical. The rectifier bridge is assembled supply.
on a phenolic board, in the manner shown An inexpensive utility power supply may
in figures 24 and 25 and mounted below be constructed about a "TV replacement"
the chassis in a clear area. The filter capaci- transformer, using auxiliary transformers,
tors are mounted to a phenolic board, their as needed, for filament and bias supplies, as
terminals protruding into the under -chassis shown in figure 39. The filament voltage
area. is stepped up to 117 volts by a reverse -con-
All voltage connections are terminated on nected filament transformer (T_) and is
.1 connector strip, and a single power cable rectified to provide adjustable bias voltage.
may be run from the power supply to the The power supply delivers 600 to 750 volts
796 Power Supplies
5A. Ti D1
115v. 1, .O I
T1.6NV
0
O
100
2W
TB
11 1 y CA-
Y
O B+750
t+ V.
Tie NV T. 02
NV q
40
4s0--
I+
550:
240 SO N
470 T SW 2
0 GND.
3N-300 MA. CH1 CH2 IN-300MA.
3
8 +250 V.
ADJ.
0/AS
4
-0 BIAS (ADJ.)
SN 40
W T 450
D2
S
1W I +100
25
-0 +12V. (RELAY SUPPLY)
6
O 12.6V 'b
ILINE SW.
Figure 39
SCHEMATIC, 300 -WATT IVS TRANSCEIVER POWER SUPPLY
Various replacement power transformers may be used with this power supply. Suggested
units are: (1( 650 -volt c.t. at 225 ma.; 12.6 -volt at 5.25 amp. (Stancor P- 8339), for 650 -volt
d -c output. 2) 750 -volt c.t. at 325 ma.; 12.6 volt at 6.0 amp. (Stancor P- 8365), for 750 -volt
d -c output. (3, 540 -volt c.t. at 260 ma.; 6.3 -volt at 8.8 amp. (Stancor P- 8356), for 600 -volt
d -c output and 6.3 volt filament supply.
Transformer T 6.3 volts at amp. (Stancor P-8389). CH,: 3 henrys at 300 ma Stancor C- 2334).
1
i
CH,: 1 henry at 300 ma %Stancor C -2343 D,: Diode bridge, 1400 -volt rms, 1.5 amp (2000 -volt
.
Ply). Diodes Inc. .BR-820A. D , D : 1N2070.
This compact IVS -rated

power supply provides
all operating voltages necessary fo operate
most popular SS8 transceivers. The supply
uses a "TV-replacement" power transformer
in conjunction with a bridge -rectifier circuit.
The unit is designed to be placed in the
speaker cabinet of the transceiver, and the
chassis should be shaped to custom -fit the
particular speaker cabinet in use. If desired,
the supply may be built on a chassis with a
dust cover and placed beneath the station
console.
The power transformer is to the left, with
the 240 -Ad, 450 -volt filter capacitors in the
foreground. The capacitors are mounted to
a phenolic plate which is bolted to the chas-
sis. The two filter chokes are to the rear,
along with the low -voltage filter capacitors
and the "adjust-bias" potentiometer. The
Figure 40 reverse -connected filament transformer is at
the rear of the chassis. Semiconductor recti-
300 -WATT IVS POWER SUPPLY fiers are placed beneath the chassis.
FOR SSB TRANSCEIVERS
at 400 milliamperes peak current, and about for operation of VOX or control relays.
250 volts at 200 milliamperes peak current. Layout of the supply is shown in figure 40.
Depending on choice of power transformer, The unit is constructed on a home -made
either 6.3- or 12.6 -volt filament supply may aluminum chassis contoured to fit within a
be provided, in addition to low -voltage d.c. speaker cabinet.
CHAPTER THIRTY -ON E
Electronic
Test Equipment
All amateur stations are required by law or f -m transmission, and are a necessity if
to have certain items of test equipment single -sideband operation is contemplated.
available within the station. A c -w station A calibrated signal generator is almost a
is required to have a frequency meter or necessity if much receiver work is con-
other means, in addition to the transmitter templated, although a frequency meter of
frequency control, for ensuring that the LM or BC -221 type, particularly if it in-
transmitted signal is on a frequency within cludes internal modulation, will serve in
one of the frequency bands assigned for place of the signal generator. Extensive an-
such use. A phone station is required in tenna work invariably requires the use of
addition to have a means of determining some type of standing -wave meter. Lastly,
that the transmitter is not being modulated if much construction work is to be done, a
in excess of its modulation capability, and simple grid -dip meter will be found to be
in the case of an a -m transmitter, not more one of the most used items of test equipment
than 100 percent. Further, any station oper- in the station.
ating with a d -c power input greater than
900 watts is required to have a means of
determining the exact input to the final Voltage and
31 -1
stage of the transmitter, so as to ensure that
the d -c power input to the plate circuit of Current
the output stage does not exceed 1000 watts.
The additional test and measurement The measurement of voltage and current
equipment required by a station will be de- in radio circuits is very important in proper
termined by the type of operation contem- maintenance of equipment. Vacuum tubes
plated. It is desirable that all stations have and transistors of the types used in commu-
an accurately calibrated voltohmmeter for nications work must be operated within
routine transmitter and receiver checking rather narrow limits in regard to filament
and as an assistance in getting new pieces of or collector voltage, and they must be
equipment into operation. An oscilloscope operated within certain maximum limits in
and an audio oscillator make a very desir- regard to the voltage and current on other
able adjunct to a phone station using a -m electrodes.
798 Electronic Test Equipment RADIO
+10 +100 +250 +1000

ment. The calculation of shunts for extend-
ing the range of d -c milliammeters and am-
meters is discussed in Chapter Two.
A direct current voltmeter is merely a d -c
milliammeter with a multiplier resistor in
+100 +zso 1000
series with it. If it is desired to use a low -
o o o range milliammeter as a voltmeter the value
of the multiplier resistor for any voltage
range may be determined from the following
formula:
R - 1000 E
I
1000
10
where,
0-1 D.0 100 zw R equals multiplier resistor in ohms,
90K 150K 75011
E equals desired full -scale voltage,
I equals full -scale current of meter in ma.
The sensitivity of a voltmeter is com-

Figure 1
monly expressed in ohms per volt. The higher
MULTIVOLTMETER CIRCUITS the ohms per volt of a voltmeter the greater
its sensitivity. When the full -scale current
A shows a circuit whereby individual multi-
plier resistors are used for each range. B is drain of a voltmeter is known, its sensitivity
the more economical "series -multiplier" cir- rating in ohms per volt may be determined
cuit. The same number of resistors is re-
quired, but those for the higher ranges have by:
less resistance, and hence are less expensive
when precision wirewound resistors are to be
used. C shows a circuit essentially the same
as at A, except that a range switch is used.
Ohms per volt - 1000
I
With a 0-500 d-c microammeter substituted
for the 0 -1 milliammeter shown above, all re- where,
sistor values would be multiplied by two and I is the full -scale current drain of the in-
the voltmeter would have a "2000-ohms -per
volt" sensitivity. Similarly, if a 0 -50 d -c micro - dicating instrument in milliamperes.
ammeter were to be used, all resistance values
would be multiplied by twenty, and the volt-
meter would have a sensitivity of 20,000
ohms per volt.
0-1 o C.
0
O
Both direct current and voltage are most TAP SWITCH O
commonly measured with the aid of an 0 4 11
instrument consisting of a coil that is free

to rotate in a constant magnetic field
(d'Arsonval type instrument). If the instru- PIN JACAS
ment is to be used for the measurement of Figure 2

current it is called an ammeter or milliam-
meter. The current flowing through the cir- VOLTOHMMETER CIRCUIT
cuit is caused to flow through the moving With the switch in position 1, the 0 -1 milliam-
coil of this type of instrument. If the cur- meter would be connected directly to the
terminals. In position 2 the meter would read
rent to be measured is greater than 10 mil- from 0- 100,000 ohms, approximately, with a
liamperes or so, it is the usual practice to resistance value of 4500 ohms at half scale.
(Note: The half -scale resistance value of an
cause the majority of the current to flow ohmmeter using this circuit is equal to the
through a bypass resistor called a shunt, resistance in series with the battery inside
only a specified portion of the current flow- the instrument.) The other four taps are volt-
age ranges with 10, 50, 250, and 500 volts
ing through the moving coil of the instru- full scale.
HANDBOOK Voltage and Current 799
Multirange It iscommon practice to con - Medium- and Most ohmmeters, including

Meters nect group of multiplier re-
a Low -Range the one just described, are not
sist9rs in the circuit with a
single indicating instrument to obtain a
multirange voltmeter, or mnitiroitmeter.
Ohmmeter adapted for accurate measure-
ment of low- resistances
the neighborhood of 100 ohms, for instance.
-
in
There are several ways of wiring such a The ohmmeter diagramed in figure 3 was
meter, the most common ones of which are especially designed for the reasonably accu-
indicated in figure 1. With all these methods rate reading of resistances down to 1 ohm.
of connection, the sensitivity of the meter in Two scales are provided, one going in one
ohms per volt is the same on all scales. With direction and the other scale going in the
a 0 -1 milliammeter, as shown, the sensitivity other direction because of the different man-
is 1000 ohms per volt. ner in which the milliammeter is used in
each case. The low scale covers from 1 to
100 ohms and the high scale from 100 to
Voltohmmeters An extremely useful piece of 10,000 ohms. The high scale is in reality a
test equipment which should medium -range scale. For accurate reading
be found in every laboratory or radio sta- of resistances over 10,000 ohms, an ohm-
tion is the roltobntmeter (1.0.m.). It con- meter of the type previously described
should be used.
sists of a multirange voltmeter with an
additional fixed resistor, a variable resistor, The calibration scale will depend on the
and a battery. A typical example of such an internal resistance of the particular make of
instrument is diagramed in figure 2. Tap 1 1.5-ma meter used. The instrument can be
is used to permit use of the instrument as a
calibrated by means of a Wheatstone bridge
0 -1 d -c milliammeter. Tap 2 permits accurate or a few resistors of known accuracy. The
reading of resistors up to 100,000 ohms; latter can be series -connected and parallel -
taps 3, 4, 5, and 6 are for making voltage connected to give sufficient calibration
measurements, the full -scale voltages being points. A hand -drawn hand -calibrated scale
10, 50, 250, and 500 volts respectively. can be cemented over the regular meter
scale to give a direct reading in ohms.
The 1000 -ohm potentiometer is used to Before calibrating the instrument or us-
bring the needle to zero ohms when the tering it, the test prods should always be
minals are shorted; this adjustment should
always be made before a resistance measure-
ment is taken. Higher voltages than 500 can D P D T
SWITCH
be read if a higher value of multiplier re-

sistor is added to an additional tap on the
switch. The proper value for a given full -
scale reading can be determined from
Ohm's Law.
Resistances higher than 100.000 ohms
cannot be measured accurately with the cir-
cuit constants shown; however, by increas-
ing the ohmmeter battery to 45 volts and Figure 3
multiplying the 4000 -ohm resistor and 1000 -
ohm potentiometer by 10, the ohms scale also SCHEMATIC OF A LOW -RANGE
OHMMETER
will be multiplied by 10. This would per-
mit accurate measurements up to 1 meg- A description of the operation of this circuit
is given in the text. With the switch in the
ohm. left position the half -scale reading of the
meter will occur with an external resistance
For home-made voltohmmeters, good qual- of 1000 ohms. With the switch in the right
ity carbon resistors whose actual resistance position, half -scale deflection will be obtained
with an external resistance equal to the d-c
has been checked may be used as multipliers resistance of the milliammeter (20 to SO ohms
where less accuracy is required. depending on the make of instrument).
silicon rectifier is usually used. Radio -fre-

quency voltage measurements are usually
made with some type of vacuum -tube or
solid -state voltmeter, while r -f current mea-
surements are usually made with an instru-
ment containing a thermocouple to convert
the radio -frequency current into direct cur-
rent for the meter movement.
Since an alternating- current wave can
Figure 4
have an almost infinite variety of shapes,
SLIDE -BACK V -T VOLTMETER it can easily be seen that the ratios between
By connecting a variable source of voltage in the three fundamental quantities of the
series with the input to a conventional v -t wave (peak, rms,effective, and average after
voltmeter, or in series with the simple triode rectification) can also vary widely. So it
voltmeter shown above, a slide-back a-c volt-
meter for peak voltage measurement can be becomes necessary to know beforehand just
constructed. Resistor R should be about 1000 which quality of the wave under measure-
ohms per volt used at battery B. This type of
v -t voltmeter has the advantage that it can ment our instrument is going to indicate.
give a reading of the actual peak voltage of For the purpose of simplicity we can list
the wave being measured, without any cur- the usual types of alternating- current meters
rent drain from the source of voltage.
along with the characteristic of an alternat-
ing- current wave which they will indicate:
touched together and the zero adjuster set
accurately. Iron -vane, thermocouple -rms.
Rectifier type (copper -oxide selenium,
etc.)- average after rectification.
Measurement of
Alternating Current
and Voltage
The measurement of al-
ternating current and
voltage is complicated
Vacuum -tube or solid -state voltmeter
rms, average, or peak, depending on
-
by two factors; first, design and calibration of the meter.
the frequency range covered in ordinary
communication channels is so great that
calibration of an instrument becomes ex- 31 -2 The Vacuum -Tube
tremely difficult; second, there is no single Voltmeter
type of instrument which is suitable for all
a -c measurements -as the d'Arsonval type
of movement is suitable for d -c. The A vacuum -tube voltmeter is essentially a
d'Arsonval movement will not operate on detector in which a change in the signal
alternating current since it indicates the placed on the input will produce a change
average value of current flow, and the in the indicating instrument (usually a
average value of an a -c wave is zero. d'Arsonval meter) placed in the output
As a result of the inability of the reliable circuit. A vacuum -tube voltmeter may use
d'Arsonval type of movement to record an a diode, a triode, or a multielement tube
alternating current, either this current must (or it may be transistorized) and it may be
be rectified and then fed to the movement. and it may be used either for the measure-
or a special type of movement which will ment of alternating or direct current.
operate from the effective value of the cur- When a vtvm is used in d -c measure-
rent can be used. ment it is used for this purpose primarily
For the usual measurements of power - because of the very great input resistance
frequency alternating current (25 -60 Hz), of the device. This means that a v.t.v.m.
the iron -vane instrument is commonly used. may be used for the measurement of avc,
For audio frequency alternating current afc, and discriminator output voltages
(50- 20,000 Hz) a d'Arsonval instrument where no loading of the circuit can be
having an integral copper- oxide, selenium, or tolerated.
HANDBOOK Vacuum -Tube Voltmeter 801
A -C V -T There are many different types S. With the constants shown, the voltmeter
Voltmeters of a -c vacuum -tube voltmeters, has two ranges-500 and 1500 volts peak
all of which operate as some full scale.
type of rectifier to give an indication on a Capacitors C, and Co should be able to
d -c instrument. There are two general types: withstand a voltage in excess of the highest
those which give an indication of the rms peak voltage to be measured. Likewise, R,
value of the wave (or approximately this and R2 should be able to withstand the same
value of a complex wave) , and those which amount of voltage. The easiest and least
give an indication of the peak or crest expensive way of obtaining such resistors
value of the wave. is to use several low- voltage resistors in
Since the adjustment and calibration of a series, as shown in figure 5. Other voltage
wide -range vacuum -tube voltmeter is rather ranges can be obtained by changing the
tedious, in most cases it will be best to pur- value of these resistors, but for voltages less
chase a commercially manufactured unit. than several hundred volts a more linear
Several excellent commercial units are on calibration can be obtained by using a re-
the market at the present time; also kits for ceiver -type diode. A calibration curve
home construction of a quite satisfactory should be run to eliminate the appreciable
v.t.v.m. are available from several manu- error due to the high internal resistance of
facturers. These feature a wide range of a -c the diode, preventing the capacitor from
and d -c voltage scales at high sensitivity, charging to the full peak value of the volt-
and, in addition, several feature a built -in age being measured.
vacuum -tube ohmmeter which will give A direct- reading diode peak voltmeter of
indications up to 500 or 1000 megohms. the type shown in figure 5 will load the
Peak A -C V -T There are two common types source of voltage by approximately one-
Voltmeters of peak -indicating vacuum - half the value of the load resistance in the
tube voltmeters. The first is circuit (R,, or R, plus R_, in this case) .
the so- called slide -back type in which a sim- Also, the peak voltage reading on the meter
ple v.t.v.m. is used along with a conven- will be slightly less than the actual peak
tional d -c voltmeter and a source of buck- voltage being measured. The amount of
ing bias in series with the input. With this
2X2
type of arrangement (figure 4) leads are
connected to the voltage to be measured and
A -C
the slider resistor R across the bucking volt- VOLTAGE
FROM
age is backed down until an indication on SOURCE
the meter (called a false zero) equal to that RETURN

PATH
value given with the prods shorted and the
bucking voltage reduced to zero, is obtained.
Then the value of the bucking voltage (read Figure 5
on V) is equal to the peak value of the
voltage under measurement. The slide -back SCHEMATIC OF A HIGH -VOLTAGE PEAK
voltmeter has the disadvantage that it is VOLTMETER
not instantaneous in its indication-adjust- This peak voltmeter is convenient for the
ments must be made for every voltage measurement .sf peak voltages at fairly high
measurement. For this reason the slide -back power levels from a source of moderately low
impedance.
v.t.v.m. is not commonly used, being sup- C,-.001 -ufd high -voltage mica
planted by the diode -rectifier type of peak C -1.0 -ufd high -voltage paper
R,-500,000 ohms (two 0.25 -megohm ' 2 -watt in
v.t.v.m. for most applications. series)
R -1.0 megohm (four 0.25 -megohm /2-watt
in series)
High- Voltage A diode vacuum -tube volt- T -2.5 v., 1.75 amp filament transformer
Diode Peak meter suitable for the measure- M -0 -1 d -c milliammeter
Voltmeter ment of high values of a -c (Note: C, is a bypass around C , the induc-
tive reactance of which may be appreciable
voltage is diagramed in figure at high frequencies.)
lowering of the reading is determined by the

ratio of the reactance of the storage capac-
itance to the load resistance. If a cathode -
ray oscilloscope is placed across the terminals ZERO-ADJUST
of the v.t.v.m. when a voltage is being
measured, the actual amount of the lower-
ing in voltage may be determined by in-
spection of the trace on the cathode -ray Figure 7
tube screen. The peak positive excursion of D -C VACUUM -TUBE VOLTMETER
the wave will be slightly flattened by the
action of the v.t.v.m. Usually this flatten-
ing will be so small as to be negligible. sitivity of the d -c voltmeter used with the
An alternative arrangement, shown in rectifier, the smaller will be the amount of
figure 6, is quite convenient for the meas- flattening of the a -c wave as a result of the
urement of high a -c voltages such as are en- rectifier action.
countered in the adjustment and testing of
high -power audio amplifiers and modula- Basic D-C Vacuum- A simple v.t.v.m. is
tors. The arrangement consists simply of a Tube Voltmeter shown in figure 7 . The
2X2 rectifier tube and a filter capacitor of plate load may be a me-
perhaps 0.25 -1.fd capacitance, but with a chanical device, such as a relay or a meter,
voltage rating high enough that it is not or the output voltage may be developed
likely to be punctured as a result of any across a resistor and used for various control
tests made. Cathode -ray oscilloscope capaci- purposes. The tube is biased by Ee and a
tors, and those for electrostatic- deflection fixed value of plate current flows, causing a
TV tubes often have ratings as high as 0.25 fixed voltage drop across plate -load resistor
fd at 7500 to 25,000 volts. The indicating R4. When a positive d -c voltage is applied to
instrument is a conventional multiscale d -c the input terminals it cancels part of the
voltmeter of the high- sensitivity type, pref- negative grid bias, making the grid more
erably with a sensitivity of 20,000 or positive with respect to the cathode. This
50,000 ohms per volt. The higher the sen- grid -voltage change permits a greater
amount of plate current to flow, and de-
velops a greater voltage drop across the
plate -load resistor. A negative input voltage
would decrease the plate current and de-
A -c
VOLTAGE
crease the voltage drop across R. The vary-
FRON
SOURCE
ing voltage drop across R, may be employed
WITH
o -c CONVENTIONAL
as a control voltage for relays or other de-
RETURN
PATH
HIGH-SENSITIVITY
VOLTMETER vices. When it is desired to measure various
voltages, a voltage range switch may pre-
cede the vtvm. The voltage to be mea-
Figure 6 sured is applied to voltage divider (R
PEAK -VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT R2, R3) by means of the voltage range
CIRCUIT switch. Resistor R4 is used to protect the
meter from excessive input voltage to the
Through use of the arrangement shown above
it is possible to make accurate measurements v.t.v.m. In the plate circuit of the tube
of peak a-c voltages, such as across the sec- a battery and a variable resistor (zero ad-
ondary of a modulation transformer, with a justment) are used to balance out the
conventional d-c multivoltmeter. Capacitor C
and transformer T should, of course, be in- meter reading of the normal plate cur-
sulated for the highest peak voltage likely to rent of the tube. The zero -adjustment po-
b. encountered. A capacitance of O.25 -Aid at tentiometer can be so adjusted that the
C has been found to be adequate. The higher
the sensitivity of the indicating d-c voltmeter, meter (M) reads zero current with no input
the smaller will be the error between the voltage to the v.t.v.m. When a d -c input
indication on the meter and the actual peak
voltage being measured. voltage is applied to the circuit, current
HANDBOOK Vacuum -Tube Voltmeter 803
Figure 9
HEATHKIT PEAK -TO -PEAK V.T.V.M.

MODEL IM -13
flows through the meter, and the meter read- trol is the same. Under this condition of bal-
ing is proportional to the applied d -c volt- ance the meter will read zero. When a volt-
age. age is applied to the first grid, the balance in
the cathode circuits is upset and the meter
The Bridge -type Another important use of a indicates the degree of unbalance. The re-
V.T.V.M. d -c amplifier is to show the lationship between the applied voltage on
exact point of balance be- the first grid and the meter current is linear
tween two d -c voltages. This is done by and therefore the meter can be calibrated
means of a bridge circuit with two d -c am- with a linear scale. Since the tube is limited
plifiers serving as two legs of the bridge in the amount of current it can draw, the
(figure 8) . With no input signal, and with meter movement is electronically protected.
matched triodes, no current will be read on The maximum test voltage applied to the
meter M, since the IR drops across R, and 12AU7 tube is about 3 volts. Higher applied
R_ are identical. When a signal is applied to voltages are reduced by a voltage divider
one tube, the IR drops in the plate circuits which has a total resistance of about 10
become unbalanced, and meter M indicates megohms. An additional resistance of 1-
the unbalance. In the same way, two d -c megohm is located in the d -c test probe,
voltages may be compared if they are applied thereby permitting measurements to be made
to the two input circuits. When the voltages in high- impedance circuits with minimum
are equal, the bridge is balanced and no cur- disturbance.
rent flows through the meter. If one voltage The rectifier portion of the vtvm is
changes, the bridge becomes unbalanced and shown in figure 10. When a -c measurements
indication of this will be noted by a reading are desired, a 6AL5 double diode is used as
of the meter. a full -wave rectifier to provide a d -c voltage
A Modern V.T.V.M. For the purpose of an- proportional to the applied a -c voltage. This
alysis, the operation of a d -c voltage is applied through the voltage
modern v.t.v.m. will be described. The divider string to the 12AU7 tube causing
Heathkit IM -13 is a fit instrument for such the meter to indicate in the manner pre-
a description, since it is able to measure posi- viously described. The a -c voltage scales of
tive or negative d -c potentials, a -c rms the meter are calibrated in both rms and
values, peak -to -peak values, and resistance. peak -to -peak values. In the 1.5, 5, 15, 50,
The circuit of this unit is shown in figure and 150 volt positions of the range switch,
9. A sensitive 0 to 200 d -c microammeter the full a -c voltage being measured is ap-
is placed in the cathode circuit of a 12AU7
plied to the input of the 6ALS full -wave
twin triode. The zero -adjust control sets up rectifier. On the 500 and 1500 volt positions
a balance between the two sections of the of the range switch, a divider network re-
triode such that with zero input voltage ap- duces the applied voltage in order to limit
plied to the first grid, the voltage drop the voltage input to the 6L5 to a safe
recommended level.
e
across each portion of the zero -adjust con-
The a -c calibrate control (figure 9) is
used to obtain the proper meter deflection
for the applied a -c voltage. Vacuum tubes
develop a contact potential between tube
Miss
DCINPUTIS elements. Such contact potential developed
in the diode would cause a slight voltage to
D{ be present at all times. This voltage is can-
celled out by proper application of a buck-
ing voltage. The amount of bucking voltage
is controlled by the a -c balance control. This
eliminates zero shift of the meter when
switching from a -c to d -c readings.
Figure 8 For resistance measurements, a 1.5 -volt
BRIDGE -TYPE VACUUM -TUBE
battery is connected through a string of
VOLTMETER
multipliers and the external resistance to be
HANDBOOK Solid -State Voltmeters 805
.02 6AL5
A -C INPUT o---I
150v FMS TO VTVM
D C INPUT
MAX JACK
Figure 10
FULL -WAVE RECTIFIER Figure 12

FOR V.T.V.M.
FET SOLID -STATE VOLTMETER
Two low -cost transistors provide highly linear,

measured, thus forming a voltage divider high -impedance voltmeter. Meter M is 0 -50 cl-c
across the battery, and a resultant portion of microammeter.
the battery voltage is applied to the 12AU7
twin triode. The meter scale is calibrated in on the other hand, exhibits a sufficiently
resistance (ohms) for this function. high input impedance to make it an accept-
Test Probes Auxiliary test probes may be able substitute for a vacuum tube in com-
used with the v.t.v.m. to ex- mon voltohmmeter circuits.
tend the operating range, or to measure
radio frequencies with high accuracy. Shown FET Voltmeter A popular and economical
in figure 11 is a radio -frequency probe which FET d -c voltmeter circuit
provides linear response to over 100 MHz. is shown in figure 12. A Motorola MPF -105
A 1N34A is used as a rectifier, and d -c N- channel FET affords an input impedance
isolation is provided by a .005 -pfd capacitor. of about 10 megohms. A voltage divider
The components of the detector are mounted permits a maximum of 0.5 volt to be applied
within a shield at the end of a length of to the gate of the FET which is connected
coaxial line, which terminates in the d-c in- as a source follower directly coupled to an
put jack of the v.t.v.m. The readings ob- inexpensive 2N2925 transistor. With no
tained are rms, and should be multiplied by signal, the drop across the 10K emitter
1.414 to convert to peak readings. resistor is about 1.6 volts, rising to about 2.1
volts when a .05 -volt calibrating signal is
applied to the arm of the voltage- divider
31 -3 Solid -State switch. The 2N2925 is one arm of a bridge
Voltmeters circuit whose state of balance is indicated
on meter M. Bridge balance is set by the
Solid -state devices are commonly used in zero balance potentiometer, and full -scale
electronic test equipment, although the rela- calibration is adjusted by the 10K potenti-
tively low input impedance of many bipolar ometer in series with the meter.
transistors has limited their use in measuring The linearity of this simple instrument is
circuits. The popular field -effect transistor, largely controlled by the value of the 10K
emitter -to -minus resistor. Calibration should
be checked at full scale with .05-volt input,
SHIELDED PROBE CASE and at one -tenth full scale. If the meter
reading is low at the lower reading, the 10K
COAXIAL LINE ., MEC .005
1(=PROBE TIP resistor should be increased in value.
INSTA
A MOSFET The insulated gate field -

A-C Voltmeter effect (MOS) N- channel
Figure 11
transistor is suitable for use in an inexpen-
R -F PROBE SUITABLE FOR USE sive and accurate a -c voltmeter, such as the
IN 1 kHz -100 MHz RANGE circuit shown in figure 13. The instrument
SIGNAL INPUT
0 -10 MV.
Figure 13
MOSFET A -C VOLTMETER
Instrument response is 20 Hz-

20 kHz. Meter M is 0-1 d-c mil-
liammeter. Transistor leads
should be shorted together
until units are In circuit.
Jumper leads should be across
sockets until wiring is com-
pleted and transistors In place.
has an input impedance of over 1 megohm. conventional voltage divider circuit to ex-
a full -scale sensitivity of 10 millivolts and tend the range of the meter may be placed
a flat frequency response over the range of ahead of the protection device.
20 to 20,000 Hz. Total current consumption for the instru-
Four stages of amplification are used to ment is less than 3 milliamperes from a
drive a rectifier -bridge circuit utilizing an 22.5 -volt battery.
inexpensive 1- milliampere d -c meter. The
first MOSFET stage is operated as a source
follower, presenting a very low input capaci- 31 -4 Power Measurements
tance to the input -signal voltage divider.
Two common -source amplifier stages pro- Audio and Audio -frequency or radio -fre-
vide a gain of about 200, with the ultimate R -F Power quency power in a resistive cir-
gain controlled by varying the amount of cuit is most commonly and most
negative feedback voltage by means of a easily determined by the indirect method,
1K potentiometer placed in the source cir- i.e., through the use of one of the following
cuit of the third stage. With a 10- millivolt formulas:
signal at the input of the first stage, the
maximum output voltage at the drain of the
P = El, P = E2 /R, P = 12R
third stage should be about 2.8 volts, rms. These three formulas mean that if any two
The fourth stage is a source follower to of the three factors determining power are
approximate the low input impedance of the known (resistance, current, voltage) the
meter rectifier circuit. A series diode and power being dissipated may be determined.
potentiometer arrangement are used to com- In an ordinary 117 -volt a -c line circuit the
pensate for the nonlinear rectification char- above formulas are not strictly true since
acteristic of the rectifier diodes at the low the power factor of the load must be mul-
end of the meter scale. The 10K series tiplied into the result -or a direct method of
resistor should be adjusted for best meter determining power such as a wattmeter may
scale linearity. be used. But in a resistive a -f circuit and in
A 100 -to -1 voltage divider is placed ahead a resonant r -f circuit the power factor of
of the input coupling capacitor of the first the load is taken as being unity.
stage to protect the gate of the 40461 For accurate measurement of a -f and r -f
MOSFET from overload. A hush -to -rend power, a thermogalvanometer or thermocou-
(normally closed) switch removes this special ple ammeter in series with a noninductive
attenuator network from the circuit. A resistor of known resistance can be used.
HANDBOOK Power Measurements 807
The meter should have good accuracy, and of variations in lamp efficiency due to un-
the exact value of resistance should be even heating of the filament.
known with accuracy. Suitable dummy - Finally, r -f power may be measured by
load resistors are available in various resist- means of a directional coupler, as discusssed
ances in both 100 -and 250 -watt ratings. later in this chapter.
These are virtually noninductive, and may
be considered as a pure resistance up to 30 Dummy Loads Lamp bulbs make poor dum-
MHz my loads for r -f work, in
Sine -wave power measurements (r -f or general, as they have considerable reactance
single- frequency audio) may also be made above 2 MHz, and the resistance of the lamp
through the use of a vtvm and a resistor varies with the amount of current passing
of known value. In fact a vtvm of the through it.
type shown in figure 9 is particularly suited A suitable r -f load for power up to a
to this work. The formula, P = E2 /R few watts may be made by paralleling 2-
is used in this case. However, it must be watt composition resistors of suitable value
remembered that a vtvm of the type to make a 50 -ohm resistor of adequate dis-
shown in figure 9 indicates the peak value sipation.
of the a -c wave. This reading must be con- A 2- kW dummy load having an SWR of
verted to the rms or heating value of the less than 1.05 to 1 at 30 MHz is shown in
wave by multiplying it by 0.707 before sub- figures 14, 15, and 16. The load consists of
situting the voltage value in the formula. twelve 600 -ohm, 120 -watt Globar type CX
The same result can be obtained by using noninductive resistors connected in parallel.
the formula P = E2 /2R. (Note: Some A frequency -compensation circuit is used
vtvm's are peak reading but are calibrated
rms on the meter scale).
Power may also be measured through the
use of a calorimeter, by actually measuring
the amount of heat being dissipated.
Through the use of a water -cooled dummy -
load resistor this method of power output
determination is being used by some of the
most modern broadcast stations. But the
method is too cumbersome for ordinary
power determinations.
Power may also be determined photometri-
cally through the use of a voltmeter,
ammeter, incandescent lamp used as a load
resistor, and a photographic exposure
meter. With this method the exposure meter
is used to determine the relative visual out- Figure 14
put of the lamp running as a dummy -load
2- KILOWATT DUMMY LOAD
resistor and of the lamp running from the
FOR 3 -30 MHz
117 -volt a -c line. A rheostat in series with
the lead from the a -c line to the lamp is Load is built in case measuring 22" deep, 11"
used to vary its light intensity to the same wide and S" high. Meer is calibrated in watts
against microampere scat. as follows: (1),
value (as indicated by the exposure meter) 22.3 a. (S), SO a. (10), 70.S a. (15), 86.S
as achieved as a dummy load. The a -c a. (20), 100 a. Seale may be marked off as
shown in photograph. Calibration technique is
voltmeter in parallel with the lamp and discussed in text. Alternatively, a standing -
ammeter in series with it is then used to wave bridge (calibrated in watts) such as
"Micromatch" may be used to determine
determine lamp power input by: P = El. power input to load.
This method of power determination is sat- Vents in top of case, and 1/4-inch holes in
isfactory for audio and low- frequency r.f. chassis permit circulation of air about re-
sistors. Unit should be fan-cooled for Con-
but is not satisfactory for vhf work because ti dissipation.
VENTILATED SHIELD COVER

tiometer is adjusted for a meter reading of
REIN
X
PROBE WATTS
200 watts. The excitation frequency is
.CYLINDER SWIT
F L _ -
- HOOW now changed to 29.7 MHz and the 17.6 -
DSR
volt level re- established. Adjust the fre-
I quency- compensating capacitor until meter
again reads 100 watts. Recheck at 3.5 MHz
and repeat until meter reads 100 watts at
15-1 CHASSIS
ERIE *557 each frequency when 17.6 -volt level is
ROTE FIXED RESISTORS ARE 0//M /TE
COMPOSITION UNITS.
L /TTLE DEVIL' maintained.
Figure 15
31 -5 Measurement
SCHEMATIC, KILOWATT DUMMY
LOAD
of Circuit Constants
The measurement of the resistance, ca-
pacitance, inductance, and Q (figure of
to balance out the slight capacitive react- merit) of the components used in com-
ance of the resistors. The compensation cir- munications work can be divided into three
cuit is mounted in an aluminum tube 1" general methods: the impedance method, the
in diameter and 25/8" long. The tube is substitution or resonance method, and the
plugged at the ends by metal discs, and is bridge method.
mounted to the front panel of the box.
The resistors are mounted on aluminum The Impedance The impedance method of
T -bar stock and are grounded to the case at Method measuring inductance and
the rear of the assembly. Connection to the capacitance can be likened
coaxial receptacle is made via copper strap. to the ohmmeter method for measuring re-
The power meter is calibrated using a sistance. An a -c voltmeter, or milliammeter
v.t.v.m. and r -f probe. Power is applied to in series with a resistor, is connected in
the load at 3.5 MHz and the level is adjusted series with the inductance or capacitance to
to provide 17.6 volts at "Calibration point." be measured and the a -c line. The reading of
With the Watts Switch in the 200 -watt posi- the meter will be inversely proportional to
tion, the potentiometer is adjusted to pro- the impedance of the component being
vide a reading of 100 watts on the meter. measured. After the meter has been cali-
in the 2000 -watt position, the other poten- brated it will be possible to obtain the ap-
Figure 16
DUMMY -LOAD
ASSEMBLY
Twelve Globar resistors
(surplus) are mounted
to aluminum "Tee"
stock, six to o side, in
fuse clips. Right end is
supported by ceramic
pillars from front panel.
Probe, meter, and po-
tentiometers are at
right.
HANDBOOK Bridge Measurements 809
proximate value of the impedance directly

from the scale of the meter. If the compon-
ent is a capacitor, the value of impedance
may be taken as its reactance at the meas-
urement frequency and the capacitance
determined accordingly. But the d -c re- 52
52
sistance of an inductor must also be taken
1,15.
R Rs Rx- RB
Rs
into consideration in determining its in- RA
ductance. After the d -c resistance and the

impedance have been determined, the re-
actance may be determined from the for-
Figure 17
mula: XI, = \/
Z2 -R2. Then the induct-
ance may be determined from: L equals TWO WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUITS
X1,12irf. These circuits are used for the measurement
of d -e resistance. In A the "ratio arms" R
The Substitution The substitution method is and R are fixed and balancing of the bridge
is accomplished by variation of the standard
Method a satisfactory system for R,. The standard in this case usually consists
obtaining the inductance or of a decade box giving resistance in 1 -ohm
steps from 0 to 1110 or to 11,110 ohms. In
capacitance of high- frequency components. B a fixed standard is used for each range and
A large variable capacitor with a good dial the ratio arm is varied to obtain balance, A
having an accurate calibration curve is a calibrated slide wire or potentiometer cali-
brated by resistance in terms of degrees is
necessity for making determinations by this usually employed as R4 and R5. It will be
method. If an unknown inductor is to be noticed that the formula for determining the
unknown resistance from the known is the
measured, it is connected in parallel with same in either case.
the standard capacitor and the combination
tuned accurately to some known frequency.
This tuning may be accomplished either by above. A tuned circuit including a coil, the
using the tuned circuit as a wavemeter and unknown capacitor and the standard ca-
coupling it to the tuned circuit of a refer- pacitor, all in parallel, is resonated to some
ence oscillator, or by using the tuned circuit convenient frequency. The capacitance of
in the controlling position of a two termi- the standard capacitor is noted. Then the
nal oscillator such as a dynatron or transi- unknown capacitor is removed and the cir-
tron. The capacitance required to tune this cuit re- resonated by means of the standard
first frequency is then noted as C,. The cir- capacitor. The difference between the two
cuit or the oscillator is then tuned to the readings of the standard capacitor is then
second harmonic of this first frequency and equal to the capacitance of the unknown
the amount of capacitance again noted, this capacitor.
time as C. Then the distributed capaci-
tance across the coil (including all stray 31 -6 Measurements
capacitances) is equal to: Co = (C, - with a Bridge
4C2) /3.
This value of distributed capacitance is The Wheatstone Experience has shown that
then substituted in the following formula Bridge one of the most satisfac-
along with the value of the standard ca- tory methods for measur-
ing circuit constants (resistance, capacitance,
pacitance for either of the two frequencies and inductance) at audio frequencies is by
of measurement: means of the a -c bridge. The Wheatstone
(d -c) bridge is also one of the most ac-
L - 421112
1
(C, + Co) curate methods for the measurement of d -c

resistance. With a simple bridge of the type
The determination of an unknown capaci- shown in figure 17A it is entirely practical
tance is somewhat less complicated than the to obtain d -c resistance determinations ac-
curate to four significant figures. With an

a -c bridge operating within its normal rat-
ing as to frequency and range of measure-
ment it is possible to obtain results ac-
curate to three significant figures.
Both the a -c and the d -c bridges consist
of a source of energy, a standard or refer-
ence of measurement, a means of balancing
this standard against the unknown, and a
means of indicating when this balance has Z =
R AZs XA=-RXs RA=Rs
been reached. The source of energy in the
Zx= IMPEDANCE BEING MEASURED, Rs RESISTANCE COMPCNENTOP Zs
d -c bridge is a battery; the indicator is a Z3 IMPEDANCE OF STANDARD. As REACTANCE COMPONENT Or Zx
sensitive galvanometer. In the a -c bridge RA. RESuSTANCE COMPONENT OF Z,,, Xs REACTANCE COMPONENT OF Zs
the source of energy is an audio oscillator
(usually in the vicinity of 1000 Hz), and
the indicator is usually a pair of headphones.
The standard for the d -c bridge is a resist-
ance, usually in the form of a decade box.
Standards for the a -c bridge can be re-
sistance, capacitance, and inductance in
varying forms.
Figure 17 shows two general types of the
Wheatstone or d -c bridge. In A the so- called
"ratio arms" (RA and RB) are fixed (usual-
ly in a ratio of -to -1, 1- to -10, 1 -to-100, or
1 Figure 18
1 -to -1000) and the standard resistor (Rs) is TWO A -C BRIDGE CIRCUITS
varied until the bridge is in balance. In The operation of these bridges Is essentially
the same as those of figure 17 except that
commercially manufactured bridges there a-c Is fed into the bridge instead of d-c and
are usually two or more buttons on the gal- a pair of phones Is used as the indicator in-
vanometer for progressively increasing its stead of the galvanometer. The bridge shown
at A can be used for the measurement of re-
sensitivity as balance is approached. Figure sistance, but it Is usually used for the meas-
urement of the impedance and reactance of
17B is the slide -wire type of bridge in which coils and capacitors at frequencies from 200
fixed standards are used and the ratio arm is to 1000 Mx. The bridge shown at I Is used
continuously variable. The slide wire may for the measurement of small values of ca-
pacitance by the substitution method. Full
actually consist of a moving contact along description of the operation of both bridges
a length of wire of uniform cross section in is given in the accompanying text.
which case the ratio of RA to RB may be
read off directly in centimeters or inches, or and inductance standard for inductance
in degrees of rotation if the slide wire is determination.
bent around a circular former. Alternative-
ly, the slide wire may consist of a linear- The Wagner
wound potentiometer with its dial calibrated For measurement of capaci-
Ground tances from a few picofarads
in degrees or in resistance from each end.
to about 0.001 pfd, a Wag-
Figure 18A shows a simple type of a -c ner- grounded substitution capacitance bridge
bridge for the measurement of capacitance of the type shown in figure 18B will be
and inductance. It can also, if desired, be found satisfactory. The ratio arms RA and
used for the measurement of resistance. It RA should be of the same value within 1
is necessary with this type of bridge to use percent; any value between 2500 and
a standard which presents the same type of 10,000 ohms for both will be satisfactory.
impedance as the unknown being measured: The two resistors Ro and RD should be
resistance standard for a resistance measure- 1000 -ohm wirewound potentiometers. C8
ment, capacitance standard for capacitance, should be a straight -line capacitance ca-
HANDBOOK R -F Bridges 811
pacitor with an accurate vernier dial; 500 The "General An r -f bridge suitable for use
to 1000 pf will be satisfactory. Cc can be Radio" Bridge up to about 60 MHz is shown
a two- or three -gang broadcast capacitor in figure 19. The bridge can
from 700 to 1000 pf maximum capacitance. measure resistances up to 1000 ohms and
The procedure for making a measurement reactances over the range of plus or minus
is as follows: The unknown capacitor Cx is 5000 ohms at 1 MHz. The reactance range
placed in parallel with the standard capaci- varies inversely as the frequency, and at
tor Cs. The Wagner ground (RI,) is varied other frequencies the reactance reading must
back and forth a small amount from the be divided by the frequency in MHz.
center of its range until no signal is heard Measurements are made by a series- substitu-
in the phones with the switch (S) in the tion method in which the bridge is first bal-
center position. Then the switch (S) is anced by means of capacitors Cp and CA
placed in either of the two outside posi- with a short -circuit across the unknown
tions, Cc is adjusted to a capacitance some- terminals. The short is then removed, the
what greater than the assumed value of the unknown impedance connected in its place,
unknown Cx, and the bridge is brought into and the bridge rebalanced. The unknown
balance by variation of the standard capac- resistance and reactance values are then read
itor (CO. It may be necessary to cut some from the difference between the initial and
final balances.
resistance in at Rc and to switch to the A vhf variation of the r -f bridge pro-
other outside position of S before an exact vides direct measurements up to 500 MHz
balance can be obtained. The setting of Cs by sampling the electric and magnetic fields
is then noted, Cx is removed from the cir-
in a transmission line. Two attenuators are
cuit (but the leads which went to it are controlled simultaneously; one receives en-
not changed in any way which would alter ergy proportional to the electric field in the
their mutual capacitance), and Cs is read- line, and the other receives energy propor-
justed until balance is again obtained. The tional to the magnetic field. The magnitude
difference in the two settings of Cg is equal
to the capacitance of the unknown capaci-
tor Cx. (RES/STANCE)
CA
31 -7 R -F Bridges
NULL
The basic bridge circuits are applicable DETECTOR
to measurements at frequencies well up into R -F P

(REACTANCE)
GENERATOR
the uhf band. While most of the null cir-
cuits used from d.c. to about 100 MHz N
are adaptations of the fundamental Wheat-

UNMNOWN (R.X)
stone Bridge circuit, many other types of
networks that can be adjusted to give zero
transmission are employed at higher fre- RESISTANCE RA = Rex (CAZCN
quencies.
At very-high frequencies, where imped- REACTANCE X
CP2- CvI )
ances can no longer be treated as lumped
elements, null circuits based upon coaxial Figure 19
line techniques are used. The upper fre-
THE "GENERAL RADIO" R -F BRIDGE
quency limit of conventional bridge cir-
cuits using lumped parameters is determined This bridge Is suitable for r m oments up
to 60 MHz or so. Calibrated reactance (C,.) and
by the magnitude of the residual impedance resistance (CA) dials allow direct measure-
of the elements and the leads. The correc- ments at I MHz. At other frequencies reac-
tions for these usually become unmanage- tance reading must be divided by the fre-
quency in MHz. Wide -band balun Input trans-
able at frequencies higher than 100 MHz or former allows bridge to be driven from signal
so. generator via a coaxial line.
of the unknown impedance is detemined by rTOSfIAIK.

TAPER PROSE INNER DUCTOR TAPER COAL!
FITTING
adjusting this combination for equal output
from each attenuator. The two equal sig-
nals may also be applied to opposite ends CARRIER
FOR PROSE
R
SLIDER
SLOT IN OUTER
CONDUCTOR
of another transmission line, and phase angle CARRYING
PROSE
can be determined from their point of
cancellation.
Above 500 MHz, impedance measure-
ments are normally determined by inserting
a detector probe in a slotted section of
Figure 20
transmission line, as discussed in the next
section of this chapter. THE UHF SLOTTED LINE
The conductor ratios in the slotted line, in-

cluding the tapered end sections should be
31 -8 Antenna and such that the characteristic impedance of the
equipment is the same as that of the trans-
Transmission -Line mission line with which the equipment is to
be used. The indicating instrument may be
Instrumentation operated by the d-c output of the rectifier
coupled to the probe, or it may be operated
by the a-c comp is of the rectified signal
The degree of adjustment of any amateur if the signal generator or transmitter is am-
antenna can be judged by a study of the plitude- modulated at a constant percentage.
standing -wave ratio on the transmission line
feeding the antenna. Various types of in-
struments have been designed to measure the instrument frequently used. Such an instru-
ratio of forward to reflected power by ment, shown in figure 20, is an item of test
sampling the r -f incident and reflected waves equipment which could be constructed in a
on the transmission line, or to measure the home workshop which includes a lathe and
actual radiation resistance and reactance of other metal-working tools. Commercially
the antenna in question. The most important built slotted lines are very expensive since
of these instruments are the slotted line, they are constructed with a high degree of
the directional coupler, and the r-f imped- accuracy for precise laboratory work. The
ance bridge. slotted line consists essentially of a section of
air- dielectric line having the same character-
The Slotted Line
istic impedance as the transmission line into
The relationship between which it is inserted. Tapered fittings for the
the incident and the retransmission line connectors at each end of
flected power and standing wave present on
the slotted line usually are required due to
a transmission line is expressed by:
differences in the diameters of the slotted line
and the line into which it is inserted. A nar-
-f- R
K= 1
-R row slot from 1/4-inch to 1/4-inch in width

1 is cut into the outer conductor of the line.
A probe then is inserted into the slot so that
where,
it is coupled to the field inside the line.
K = Standing -wave ratio, Some sort of accurately machined track or
R= Reflection coefficient, or ratio of
lead screw must be provided to ensure that
relative amplitude of reflected sig-
the probe maintains a constant spacing from
nal to incident signal.
the inner conductor as it is moved from
When measurements of a high degree of one end of the slotted line to the other.
accuracy, are required, it is necessary to The probe usually includes some type of rec-
insert an instrument into a section of line tifying element whose output is fed to an
in order to ascertain the conditions existing indicating instrument alongside the slotted
within the shielded line. For most vhf line.
measurements, wherein a wavelength is of The unfortunate part of the slotted -line
manageable proportions, a slotted line is the system of measurement is that the line must
HANDBOOK Antenna and Line Instrumentation 813
be somewhat over one -half wavelength long cf transmission line voltage must be deter-
at the test frequency, and for best results mined and construction of a simple, com-
should be a full wavelength long. This re- pact r -f voltmeter that presents a linear
quirement is easily met at frequencies of reading over a wide frequency range and
420 MHz and above where a full wave- at various power levels is not simple.
length is 28 inches or less. But for the lower In order to sample forward and reverse
frequencies such an instrument is mechani- power, it is necessary to reverse the orien-
cally impractical. tation of the directional coupler in the line,
The Directional The r -f voltage on a trans-

Coupler mission line may be consid-
ered to have two compo-
nents. The forward component (incident
component) and the reverse component (re-
flected component). The reverse component
is brought about by operation of the line
when terminated in a load that is unequal
to the characteristic impedance of the line.
A directional coupler is an instrument that
can sense either the forward or reflected
components in a transmission line by taking
advantage of the fact that the reflected
components of voltage and current are 180
degrees out of phase while the forward
components of voltage and current are in
phase.
The directional coupler is inserted in the
transmission line at an appropriate location. e3=fi+e2
For a coaxial line, the instrument consists of
a short section of line containing a small
loop coplanar with the inner conductor
(figure 21) . The loop is connected through
a resistor to the outer conductor, and this
resistor is capacitively coupled to the inner
conductor of the line. The voltage appearing
across the series arrangement of loop and
resistor is measured when the voltage across Figure 21
:he resistor and the voltage induced in the THE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
'oop are aiding and again when they are in
opposition to each other. By rotating the The directional coupler ( reAectometer) Is a
coaxial -line section containing an r -f volt-
loop through 180 degrees, the readings may meter which reads the incident or reflected
be used to determine the amount of mis- component of voltage, depending on the posi-
tion of the pickup device in the line.
match and the power carried by the line. A- Voltage relationships for a series resist-
Operation is substantially independent of ance- capacitance combination placed be-
load impedance and meter impedance at any tween the conductors of a coaxial line; e,
is proportional to e.
frequency within the useful range of the B -Loop coupled to inner conductor will give
instrument. voltage (e) proportional to c t flowing
in line (i).
When the directional coupler is used to C- Representation of reflectometer. Capacitance
measure the SWR or the reflection coefficient is provided by proximity of loop to inner
conductor.
on the line, the value obtained for these D- Double ref provides simultaneous
quantities depends only on the ratio of the measurement of incident and reflected volt-
two measured voltages. Power measurements ages. Ferrite core is placed around center
conductor, with secondary winding acting as
are more stringent, since the absolute value loop M.
or to employ two couplers built in one unit

but oriented oppositely. It is necessary, more-
over, to have both couplers identical in FOR Z ZS
SOURCE BALANCE Z2 Z4
coupling factor and directivity.
The fraction of forward power that is
sampled by the coupler is termed the cou-
pling factor, and the directivity is the ability
of the coupler to discriminate between op-
posite directions of current flow. If, for ex-
ample one percent of the power is coupled R -F
SOURCE
out, the coupling factor is 20 decibels. If the
coupler is now reversed to sample the power
in the reverse direction, it may couple out,
say 0.001 percent of the forward power even
though there may be actually no reflected
power. It is thus coupling out an amount of
power 50 decibels below the power in the O R
SOURCE
r
line. The discrimination between forward
and reverse power is the difference between
the coupled values, or 30 decibels. A direc-
tivity, of 30 db is common for better types
of reflectometers and SWR measurements
derived from the measured reflection coeffi-
cient are sufficiently accurate for adjust- O R-F
SOURCE
ment of simple beam antennas. It should be
noted, however, that it is difficult to make
measurements with any degree of accuracy
at low SWR values with inexpensive direc-
Figure 22
tional couplers, because the directivity power
ratio at SWR values below about 1.5/1 or THE BRIDGE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
so falls within the error limits of directivity
A -When r -f bridge is balanced any change In
capability of all but the best and most load (Z,) will result in bridge unbalance and
expensive reflectometers. cause a reading on meter M. Reading is due
to reflected voltage. SWR may be derived
from:
The SWR Bridge The SWR bridge is a - E,
t
E
useful device for deter- SWR = E,
go
mining the standing -wave ratio on, and the
where,
power transmitted along, a transmission E equals incident voltage,
line. When the SWR on a given line is E,. equals reflected voltage.
unity, the line is terminated in a pure re- II- Equivalent bridge circuit. Bridge must be
individually calibrated since performance
sistance equal to the characteristic impedance differs from formula due to nonlinearity of
of the line. If the line and terminating load voltmeter, circuit loading, and line discon-
tinuity introduced by p f bridge.
are made part of an r -f bridge circuit, the C, D- Practical bridge circuits having one side
bridge will be in a balanced condition when of meter grounded to line.
the SWR is unity (figure 22). A sensitive
r-f voltmeter connected across the bridge and only if, the transmission line is prop-
will indicate balance and the magnitude of erly terminated in Z, so that Z, = Z of
bridge unbalance, and may be calibrated in the line, so as to have unity standing-wave
terms of SWR, power, or both. It may be ratio.
seen in figure 22A that the meter reading Various forms of the SWR resistance
is proportional to bridge unbalance, and is bridge exist as shown in the illustration, but
thus proportional to the reflected power and all of them are based on the principle of
is not influenced by the forward power in measurement of bridge balance by means of
the circuit. The meter will read zero if, a null- indicating meter. Circuit B consists
HANDBOOK Antenna and Line Instrumentation 815
i1 R -F
SOURCE
LOAD potential. Circuit D is similar, except that
one of the voltage dividers of the bridge is
capacitive instead of resistive.
SWR Bridge Designs Various forms of the

SWR bridge are shown
in figure 23. Circuit A is the Micromatch
capacitance bridge. In order to pass appre-
ciable power through the bridge, the series
resistor is reduced to one ohm, thus requiring
the capacitance divided to maintain about the
Ri
R
SOURCE
-r LOAD same ratio as set in the resistive arm. For a
S0 -ohm transmission line, the transforma-
tion ratio is 50/1, and the 25-pf variable
capacitor must be set at a value correspond-
ing to about fifty times the reactance of the
820 -pf capacitor. The power- handling capa-
bility of the bridge is limited by the dissipa-
tion capability of the 1 -ohm resistor.
Circuit B incorporates a differential ca-
-r pacitor to obtain an adjustable bridge ratio.
LOAD
1@ SOURCE
R
The capacitor may be calibrated in terms of
the unknown load and may be used to in-
dicate resistive loads in the range of 10 to
500 ohms. The bridge has an advantage
over the circuits of illustrations A and C
in that it may be used in the manner of a
simple impedance bridge to determine the
radiation resistance of a resonant antenna.
("n;) R-r LOAD
The bridge is placed at the antenna termi-
SOURCE
nals, and the frequency of the driving source
and the setting of the differential capacitor
are varied to produce a null indication on
the meter. The null occurs at the resonant
frequency of the antenna, and the radiation
resistance at that frequency may be read
from the instrument.
A less -expensive variation of the variable
Figure 23
r -f bridge is shown in illustrations C and D
SWR BRIDGES and is called the Antennascope. The An-
tennascope is a variable bridge making use
A- Micromatch bridge.
I-Capacitance ratio bridge. of a (relatively) noninductive potentiometer
in one leg. These simple instruments are
C-Antennaseope.
D- Antennascope with calibrating resistor in
useful in antenna adjustment as they indicate
active leg of bridge.
Note: Meter M may be 0 -500 d-e microam- the resonant frequency of the antenna and
meter. the approximate radiation resistance of the
driven element at this frequency. At other
of two resistive voltage dividers across the than the resonant frequency, the antenna
r-f source, with an r -f voltmeter reading exhibits a reactive component and the null
the difference of potential across the points of the instrument will not be complete.
A and B. Circuit C is identical, but redrawn Even so, at the low values of impedance en-
so as to show a practical layout for measure- countered in most amateur beam antennas,
ment in a coaxial system with one side of the readings obtained at frequencies off
the generator and the r -f voltmeter at ground resonance approximate the resistive compo-
nent of the radiation resistance of the an-

tenna.
Construction information for a practical
Antennascope and other SWR instruments
will be described in the following section of
this Handbook.
31 -9 Practical SWR
Instruments
Simple forms of the directional coupler
and the SWR bridge are suited to home con-
struction and will work well over the range
of 1.8 to 148 MHz. No special tools are
needed for construction and calibration may
be accomplished with the aid of a handful of
1 -watt composition resistors of known d -c
value resistance.
The Antennoseope The Antennas cope is a

modified SWR bridge in
which one leg of the bridge is composed of a Figure 24
noninductive variable resistor (figure 23D). THE ANTENNASCOPE
This resistor is calibrated in ohms, and when
its setting is equal to the radiation resistance The antennascope may be used to measure the
resonant radiation resistance of antennas at
of a resonant antenna under test, the bridge frequencies up to 150 MHz. Grid -dip oscillator
is in a balanced state. If a sensitive volt- is coupled to input loop of antennascope and
antenna under test is connected to output
meter is connected across the bridge, it will terminals with short, heavy leads.
indicate a voltage null at bridge balance.
The radiation resistance of the antenna may new value by varying the setting on the
then be read directly from the calibrated potentiometer, which is calibrated in ohms.
dial of the instrument. Building the Antennascope -The Anten-
When the test antenna is nonresonant,
nascope is constructed within an aluminum
the null indication on the Antennascope box chassis measuring about 4" X 2" X
will be incomplete. The frequency of the
11/4", and placement of the major compo-
exciting signal must then be altered to the
resonant frequency of the antenna to obtain nents may be seen in the photographs. A
11/4 -inch diameter hole is drilled in the lower
accurate readings of radiation resistance. The
resonant frequency of the antenna, of course, portion of the panel and the variable poten-
is also determined by this exercise.
The circuit of the Antennascope is shown
in figure 25. A 100 -ohm noninductive po-
tentiometer (R1) serves as the variable leg
of the bridge. The other legs are composed of PlcnuP
TO
ANTENNA
the 200 -ohm composition resistors and the LOOP FE EDPOINT
radiation resistance of the antenna. If the

radiation resistance of the antenna or ex- Figure 25
ternal load under test is 50 ohms, and the
potentiometer is set at midscale, the bridge SCHEMATIC, ANTENNASCOPE
is balanced and the diode voltmeter will read
R -100 -ohm composition potentiometer. Ohmite
zero. If the radiation resistance of the anten- AB or Allen- Bradley type J linear taper
na is any other value between about 10 and t. -2 turns brass wire to fit gdo coil. See
photos
100 ohms, the bridge may be balanced to this M -0 -100 :.a d -c meter
HANDBOOK SWR Instruments 817
which is tapped at each end for 6 -32

machine nuts. The loop is bent and posi-
tioned so as to slip over the coil of a grid -
dip oscillator used as the driving source.
Testing the Antennascope-When the in-
strument is completed, a grid -dip oscillator
may be coupled to the input link. The os-
cillator should be set somewhere in the 10-
MHz to 20 -MHz range and coupling is
adjusted to obtain a half -scale reading on
the meter of the Antennascope. Various
values of precalibrated 1 -watt composition
resistors ranging from 10 to 90 ohms should
be placed across the output terminals of
the Antennascope and the potentiometer
adjusted for nulls on the indicating meter.
The settings of the potentiometer may then
be marked on a temporary paper dial and,
Figure 26 by interpolation, 5 -ohm points can be
marked on the scale for the complete rota-
INTERIOR OF ANTENNA SCOPE tion of the control. The dial may then be
Strap connection is made between common removed and inked.
input and output terminals. Grid -dip oscillator This calibration will hold to frequencies
coupling loop is at right.
well above the 2 -meter band, but as the
internal lead inductance of the Antennascope
tiometer is mounted in this hole on a thin starts to become a factor, it will no longer
piece of insulating material such as micarta be possible to obtain a complete null on the
or bakelite. The terminals of the potenti- indicating meter. Wired as shown, the meter
ometer and the case are at r -f potential, so it null begins to rise off zero in the region of
is essential for proper bridge operation to 150 MHz.
have a minimum of capacitance between Using the Antennascope-The Antenna -
the potentiometer and ground. scope is coupled to a grid -dip oscillator by
The two 200 -ohm, 1/4-watt resistors should means of the input link. Additional turns
be matched on an ohmmeter, and a number may need to be added to the link to obtain
of the f 00 -pf capacitors should be checked sufficient pickup below 7 MHz or so. Enough
on a bridge to find two units of equal ca- coupling should be obtained to allow at least
pacitance. The exact value of resistance and 3A -scale reading on the meter with no
capacitance in either case is not critical, it load connected to the measuring terminals.
is only necessary that the companion units For general use, the measuring terminals of
be equal in value. Care should be taken the instrument are connected across the
when soldering the small resistors in the antenna terminals at the feedpoint. Either
circuit to see that they do not become over- a balanced or unbalanced antenna system
heated, causing the resistance value to per- may be measured, the "hot" lead of the un-
manently change. In like manner, the ger- balanced antenna connection to the un-
manium diode should be soldered in the grounded terminal of the Antennascope.
circuit using a pair of long-nose pliers as a Excitation is supplied from the grid -dip
heat sink to remove the soldering heat from oscillator and the frequency of excitation
the unit as rapidly as possible. and the Antennascope control dial are varied
As shown in the photographs, copper strap until a complete meter null is obtained. The
cut from flashing stock is used for wiring frequency of the source of excitation now
the important r-f leads. The output leads indicates the resonant frequency of the an-
terminate in an insulated terminal strip on tenna under test, and the approximate radi-
one side of the box and the input coupling ation resistance of the antenna may be read
loop is made of a section of brass rod, upon the dial of the Antennascope.
TO TO
TO TRANSMITTER ANTENNA sion line (figure 27) . The heart of the
COAXIAL RECEPTACLES Monimatch is a pickup line made from a
14 -inch length of RG -8A /U coaxial cable.
The coupling loop of this special section is
a piece of No. 22 enamel or formvar cov-
ered wire slid under the flexible outer shield
of the coaxial line for a distance of about
eight inches. The coaxial pickup line is then
conveniently wound around the inside walls
of the mounting box so that the protruding
ends of the coupling loop fall adjacent to
the simple switching circuit. The coupling
loop and center conductor of the coaxial
line form a simple reflectometer terminated
at either end by a noninductive potenti-
ometer. Choice of termination is determined
by the panel switch. When the potentiometer
is adjusted to the balance point, the bridge
is calibrated and ready for use. The selector
switch permits reading forward or reverse
power in the coaxial line and an SWR of
Figure 27 unity is indicated by a null reading on the
meter of the instrument.
MONIMATCH The special coaxial pickup loop is easily
R1-100-ohm composition potentiometer. Ohmite made. A 14 -inch length of RG -8A /U cable
A!, or Allen Bradley type J, linear taper is trimmed square at the ends and the outer
S, -Dpdt rotary switch. Centrale', 1462
Case -S" X 7" X 2" chassis with back plate. vinyl jacket is carefully removed. Two
holes to pass the pickup wire are carefully
made in the outer braid of the section with
On measurements made on 40- and 80- the aid of an awl or needle. Be careful not
meter antennas it may be found impossible to break the fine wires of the braid. The
to obtain a complete null on the Antenna - holes are made 8 inches apart, and centered
scope. This is usually caused by pickup of on the section. The outer shield is next
a nearby broadcast station, in which case the bunched up a bit to loosen it and a .length
.
rectified signal of the station will obscure of No. 22 wirejis; threaded under, the braid, in
the null action of the Antennascope. This and out of the holes. A stiff copper wire may
action is only noticed when antennas of large be threaded through the holes and used as a
size are being checked. needle to pass the flexible copper wire under
The Antennascope is designed to be used the braid. Finally, the braid is smoothed out
directly at the antenna terminals without to its original length and the pickup wire
an intervening feedline. It is convenient to checked with an ohmmeter to make sure
mount the instrument and the grid -dip os- that no short exists between the braid and
cillator as a single package on a strip of the wire. The braid is then wrapped with
wood. This unit may then be carried up the vinyl tape at the two holes. The last step is
tower and attached to the terminals of the to solder connector hoods and coaxial re-
beam antenna. It is also possible to make ceptacles on each end of the line, making
remote measurements on an antenna with the assembly "r -f tight."
the use of an electrical half- wavelength of The special line may now be mounted in
transmission line placed between the An- the instrument case, along with the various
tennascope and the antenna terminals. other components, as shown in the illustra-
tion. The calibrating potentiometer is
The Monimatch The Monimatch is a dual mounted on an insulating plate in the center
reflectometer constructed of a one -inch hole to reduce the capacity
from a length of flexible coaxial transmis- of the unit to ground. The coaxial line
HANDBOOK SWR Instruments 819
should be grounded only at the coaxial

receptacles, and should otherwise be wrapped
with vinyl tape to prevent it from shorting
to the case or other components.
A noninductive 52 -ohm dummy load is
attached to the output of the Monimatch
and it is driven from an r -f source. Place
the panel switch in the Calibrate position
and adjust the sensitivity control for a half -
scale reading of the meter. Now switch to
the Read position and adjust the sensitivity
control for full -scale reading. Adjust the
Calibrate potentiometer in the back of the SEr FULL
SCALE
Monimatch for a null in the meter reading
-it should be very close to zero on the
scale. Switch back to Calibrate again and
Figure 28
once again adjust the sensitivity control for
full -scale meter reading. Finally, switch REFLECTOMETER
once again to Read and re -null the meter C,-Sleeve formed of 828 tinned wire wrapped
with the Calibrate potentiometer. The around inner dielectric of line for 1/4-inch
Monimatch is now ready for use. length. See text
T,-40 turns #28 insulated wire equally spaced
Using the Monimatch -The Monimatch around toroid core, Q-1 material. Indiana-
is inserted in the coaxial line to the antenna, General Cf -114, 1.25" diameter X 0.38"
power is applied and the switch set to Cali- thick. See figure 30 for assembly
brate position. The sensitvity control is ad-
justed for full -scale reading and the switch mission line is the ratio of these two com-
is thrown to the Read position. Adjustments ponents.
to the antenna may now be made to reach The upper frequency limit of the reflec-
an SWR of unity, at which point the meter tometer is determined by the dimensions of
reading will be at maximum null, or close the pickup loop which should be a small
to zero. If desired, the Monimatch may be fraction of a wavelength in size. When used
calibrated in terms of SWR by observing the to measure SWR, the resultant figure de-
reading when various values of noninductive pends on the ratio of two measured voltages
composition resistors of known value are which are usually valid figures regardless of
measured with the device. variations in load impedance and frequency.
When used as a wattmeter, the absolute
A Practical The reflectometer is an ac- transmisssion -line voltage must be measured
Reflectorneter curate, inexpensive and easily and the detection devices must have a flat
constructed instrument for frequency response with diodes operating
the experimenter. Shown in this section is a in the square -law region for widest fre-
practical reflectometer made from a short quency coverage.
section of coaxial transmission line. It is When used for SWR measurements, cali-
designed for use with output power of up bration of the reflectometer is not required
to 2000 watts and at frequencies up to 150 since relative readings indicate the degree
MHz. An easily wound toroid transformer of mismatch and all system adjustments are
is used for a pickup element, in conjunction conducted so as to make this ratio as high
with two reverse -connected diode voltmeters, as possible, regardless of the absolute values.
affording quick indication of forward and Power measurements may be made if the
reverse conditions within the transmission instrument is calibrated against a known
line. The instrument is of the type shown dummy load in both the forward and re-
in figure 21D. One voltmeter reads the inci- verse directions. The refiectometer may be
dent component of voltage and the other left in the transmission line to indicate SWR
reads the reflected component. The magni- and relative power output of the transmit-
tude of standing -wave ratio on the trans- ter.
Figure 29
INTERIOR VIEW OF
REFLECTOMETER
Complete assembly including accessory

components is placed in cast aluminum
box, 4 X 27/2" X 1!2" (Pomona Elec-
tronic *2904). Calibrating capacitor is
adjustable through small hole drilled in
box.
Building the Refleclo neler- Assembly of the inner conductor. A short length of in-
the reflectometer is shown in figure 31. A sulated wire is soldered to the sleeve (lead
short length of coaxial line of the chosen A) . The capacitor is now wrapped with
impedance is trimmed to length. The outer vinyl tape. Next, a short section of thin
insulation and outer braid are cut with a copper shim stock is wrapped over the tape
sharp knife for a distance of about 3/4 of an to form a simple Faraday shield which en-
inch at the center of the line, exposing a sures that the coupling between the primary
section of the inner dielectric. Around the of T, (the inner conductor of the coaxial
dielectric a length of No. 28 tinned wire is line) and the secondary (the winding on the
wound to form a sleeve about % -inch long ferrite core) is inductive and not capacitive.
for S0 -ohm cable. If 70 -ohm cable is used, One end of the shield is carefully soldered
the sleeve should be about 5A-inch long. The to the outer braid of the coaxial line and
sleeve is tinned and forms capacitor C, to the other end is left free.
The ferrite core is now wrapped with
vinyl tape and 40 turns of No. 28 insulated
wire are evenly wrapped around the core.
LEAD
FROM Ci TIN WIRES TO OUTER BRAID
The core is then slipped over the cable sec-
FORM CI DIELECTRIC- tion and positioned directly above capacitor
COAX L INE
C,. The reflectometer section is then com-
pleted by forming a copper shield around
the toroid assembly. In this case, the shield
E
INNER CONDUCTOR-
is made up of two copper discs soldered to
the cable braid, over which is slipped a cop-
per cylinder made of thin shim stock. The
CYLINDRICAL SHIELD
CAN cylinder and end rings are soldered into an
o inclusive shield, as shown in the photograph,
with the three pickup leads passing through
COAX LINE
small holes placed in the cylindrical end sec-
tions.
The reflectometer and associated compo-
- FARADAY SHIELD nents are placed in an aluminum box (figure
TOROID T1
29) having a terminal strip attached for
connection to an external reversal switch
and meter. Final adjustment is accomplished
Figure 30
by feeding power through the reflectometer
into a dummy load having a low value of
A- Assembly of coaxial capacitor C.. SWR and adjusting capacitor C., for mini-
B- Assembly of capacitor, Faraday shield and
toroid transformer T leads A, B, and C
.
mum meter indication when the instrument
connect as shown in figure 28. is set for a reflected -power reading.
HANDBOOK Frequency and Time Measurements 821
Figure 31
ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE OF
REFLECTOMETER UNIT
Left -to- Right-Toroid -core transformer 7.,

coaxial capacitor assembly, Faraday
shield, completed unit, outer shield,
transformer with attached leads.
31 -10 Frequency and the time scale derived from the zero-field
Time Measurements resonance of cesium. The U. S. Frequency
Standard at Boulder, Colorado, is maintained
by reference to the A.1 time scale.
All frequency and time measurements
within the United States are based on data Rodio Time Signals High- and low - frequency
transmitted from the National Bureau of time signals are broadcast
Standards. Several time scales are used for in the United States by the National Bureau
time measurement: (1)- Universal Time of Standards over radio stations WWV (lo-
(UT) . Universal time, or Greenwich Mean cated near Fort Collins, Colorado) and
Time (GMT), is a system of mean solar time WWVH (located in Hawaii). These sta-
based on the rotation of the earth about tions operate continuously on frequencies
its axis relative to the position of the sun. of 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 MHz. (WWVH
Several UT scales are used: uncorrected = 5, 10, and 15 MHz). In addition, WWVL
astronomical observations are denoted UO ; (20 kHz) and WWVB (60 kHz) transmit
the UT time scale corrected for the earth's c -w signals without time ticks. The hourly
polar variation is denoted UT1; the UT1 broadcast schedules of WWV, WWVH,
scale corrected for annual variation in the WWVB, and WWVL are shown in the
rotation of the earth is denoted UT2. Time chart of figure 32. Generally speaking, the
signals tansmitted by standard stations h -f signals are modulated by pulses at 1
are generally based on the UT2 time scale. Hz, and also by standard audio frequencies
Although UT is in common use, it is non- alternating between 440 Hz and 600 Hz.
uniform because of changes in the earth's The tones are interrupted at the beginning
speed of rotation. (2)- Ephemeris Time of the 59th minute of each hour and each
(ET). Scientific measurements of precise five minutes thereafter for a period of one
time intervals require a uniform time scale. minute. Greenwich Mean Time is given in
The fundamental standard of constant time code during these intervals, followed by a
is defined by the orbital motion of the earth voice announcement. After the announce-
about the sun and is called Ephemeris time, ment, propagation notices applying to trans-
and is determined from lunar observations. mission paths over the North Atlantic are
(3)- Atomic Time (AT). Molecular and transmitted from WWV. Transmission fre-
atomic resonance characteristics can be quencies from WWV and WWVH are ac-
used to provide time scales which are ap- curate to 5 parts in 10 ".
parently constant and nearly equivalent to Technical information about the services
ET. The designation A.1 has been given to of the NBS Standards Stations can be ob-
SECOND PULSES -
MUS. WWVN - CONTIUA ZS EXCEPT FOI SPTIL
SECOND OF EACH MINUTE AND
DURING SIUM PERIODS.
WWI - SPECIAL TIM CODE
WW1. - NOTE
WO- MORSE CODE - CALL TITTERS, UNIVERSAL TIRE.

PROPAGATION FORECAST
VOICE-GREERWICR MEAN TIME

MOISE CODE - FREOEMCY OFFSET
ION THE NOIR ONLY)
MIMI - MORSE CODE GUI TITTERS. UNIVERSAL TIME

VOICE-WHEW ICH KM TIME
MORSA CORE - FIEDUOICY OFFSET
ION TRE MOOR ORNI
W MORSE CODE - GUI IITTERS.FREODON.Y OFFSET
STATION ANNOUNCEMENT
Em PPS IRMA MODULATIOIWWV TIMING CODE
TOE MODULATION KEW
TOME MOOIUTIMI AOIR
CURLEWS
IDIDENTIFICATIOI PHASE SOFT
UT-O TIME CORRECTION
BSPECIAL TIME COOL
Figure 32
HOURLY BROADCAST SCHEDULES OF WWV, WWVH, WWVB, AND WWVL
tained from NBS Miscellaneous Publication. tion, a variable- frequency interpolation oscil-
236, Standard Frequency and Time Service lator may be used in conjunction with the
of the NBS, available for 15 from the secondary standard to measure frequencies
Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Gov- at any point in the radio spectrum.
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Simple Marker Shown in figure 33 are four
20402. Oscillators simple frequency standards
In addition to the NBS broadcasts, the
Dominion Observatory of Canada transmits that may be used with the
station receiver. All units provide marker
time ticks and voice announcements via
signals up to 60 MHz or better. The circuit
CHU on 3.333, 7.335, and 14.670 MHz.
Many other countries of the world also of illustration C incorporates a series diode
in the output lead to further enhance the
transmit standard frequency signals, par-
ticularly on 10 and 15 MHz. higher harmonics of the 500 -KHz crystal.
Frequency correction, if required, may be
The standard- frequency transmissions may
achieved by either a series or parallel capaci-
be used for accurately determining the
limits of the various amateur bands with
tor in the crystal circuit.
the aid of the station receiver and a secon-
The marker oscillator may be assembled
dary frequency standard which utilizes an in a small metal minibox and is loosely
accurate low- frequency crystal oscillator. coupled to the antenna of the receiver, or
The crystal is zero -beat with WWV by built on a printed -circuit board for perma-
means of its harmonics and then left with
nent installation near the input circuit of
the receiver.
only an occasional check to see that the
frequency has not drifted off with time. 31 -11 Instruments for
Accurate signals at smaller frequency inter-
vals may be derived from the secondary fre- Shop and Station
quency standard by the use of multivibra- A Silicon Diode The limiting factor in sig-
tor or divider circuits to produce markers Noise Generator nal reception above 25 MHz
at intervals of 25, 10, 5, or 1 kHz. In addi- is usually the thermal noise
HANDBOOK Shop and Station Instruments 823
2 2M *22I5 v.
3.3K
005
.0015
100 KHZ
IO K al
4.7K
2N3564 1N34A uHi
TOP VIEW or -C1
Figure 33
SECONDARY FREQUENCY STANDARDS

A- Vacuum -tube unit withfrequency- ion capacitor. 11-Transistorised 100 -kHz unit. Fre-
quency may be adjusted by capacitor across crystal. C- Transistarised 500 -kHz oscillator with
series diode to enhance harmonics. D-IC, 1 -MHz oscillator.
generated in the receiver. At any frequency, generated. The voltage necessary to generate
however, the tuned circuits of the receiver this noise may be obtained from a few flash-
must be accurately aligned for best signal - light cells. The noise generator is a broad-
to -noise ratio. Circuit changes (and even band device and requires no tuning. If built
alignment changes) in the r -f stages of a with short leads, it may be employed for
receiver may do much to either enhance or receiver measurements well above 150 MHz.
degrade the noise figure of the receiver. It The noise generator should be used for com-
is exceedingly hard to determine whether parative measurements only, since calibra-
changes of either alignment or circuitry are tion against a high -quality commercial noise
really providing a boost in signal -to-noise generator is necessary for absolute measure-
ratio of the receiver, or are merely increas- ments.
ing the gain (and noise) of the unit. A Practical Described in this section is
A simple means of determining the degree Noise Generator a simple silicon crystal noise
of actual sensitivity of a receiver is to inject generator. The schematic
a minute signal in the input circuit and
then measure the amount of this signal that
is needed to overcome the inherent receiver
noise. The less injected signal needed to
override the receiver noise by a certain,
fixed amount, the more sensitive the receiver
is.
A simple source of minute signal may be
obtained from a silicon crystal diode. If a
small d -c current is passed through a silicon
crystal in the direction of higher resistance, Figure 34
a small but constant r -f noise (or hiss) is A SILICON DIODE NOISE GENERATOR
NOISE RECE IV!R

An Inexpensive This inexpensive and com-
GENERATOR
Transistor Tester pact transistor checker will
}}}}-----------OO o-
ANT. Sf'RR measure the d -c parameters
of most common transistors. Either NPN or
LTlRMINATING
RESISTOR
PNP transistors may be checked. A six -
position test switch permits the following
Figure 35 parameters to be measured: (1) Ico -D
-c
TEST SETUP FOR NOISE GENERATOR collector current when collector junction
is reverse -biased and emitter is open cir-
cuited; (2) Ico-so- collector current when
of this unit is illustrated in figure 34. The base current is 20 microamperes; (3) Ico -loo
1N21 crystal and .001 -td ceramic capaci-
tor are connected in series directly across
-collector current when base current is
100 microamperes; (4) IcEo -collector cur-
the output terminals of the instrument. rent when collector junction is reverse -
Three small flashlight batteries are wired in biased and base is open circuited; (5) ICES
series and mounted inside the case, along
with the 0 -2 d -c milliammeter and the
-collector current when collector junction
is reverse -biased and base is shorted to emit-
noise -level potentiometer.
ter; (6) IEo-emitter current when emitter
To prevent heat damage to the 1N21 junction is reverse- biased and collector is
crystal during the soldering process, the open circuited.
crystal should be held with a damp rag, and Using the data derived from these tests,
the connections soldered to it quickly with
the static and a -c forward- current transfer
a very hot iron. Across the terminals (and
ratios (hFE and lire respectively) may be
in parallel with the equipment to be at-
computed as shown in figure 37. This data
tached to the generator) is a 1 -watt carbon may be compared with the information
resistor whose resistance is equal to the im-
pedance level at which measurements are to
be made. This will usually be either 50 or
300 ohms. If the noise generator is to be
used at one impedance level only, this resis-
tor may be mounted permanently inside of
the case.
Using the The test setup for use of

Noise Generator the noise generator is
shown in figure 3 5. The
noise generator is connected to the antenna
terminals of the receiver under test. The
receiver is turned on, the avc turned off, and
the r -f gain control placed full on. The
audio volume control is adjusted until the
output meter advances to one -quarter scale. Figure 36
This reading is the basic receiver noise. The
TRANSISTOR CHECKER
noise generator is turned on, and the noise-
level potentiometer adjusted until the noise An expanded -scale meter provides accurate
measurement of transistor parameters in this
output voltage of the receiver is doubled. easily built instrument. Six d -c parameters
The more resistance in the diode circuit, the may be measured and with the data derived
from these tests, the a -c forward-current trans-
better is the signal -to -noise ratio of the refer ratios may be computed. Two transistor
ceiver under test. The r -f circuit of the sockets are mounted at the left of the tester,
with the three selector switches to the right.
receiver may be aligned for maximum signal - Six -position test switch is mounted to bot-
to -noise ratio with the noise generator by tom side of box. Tip jacks are placed in par-
aligning for a 2/1 noise ratio at minimum allel with transistor socket terminals to per-
mit test of transistors having unorthodox
diode current. bases.
PUSH TO READ
IZK By making the sum of the internal resist-
ance of the meter plus series resistor R1
equal to about 6K, the meter scale is corn-
6V pressed only one microampere at 20 micro-
amperes. Meter adjust potentiometer R, is
set to give 10 milliamperes full -scale meter
deflection. The scale may then be calibrated
by comparison with a conventional meter.
If the NPN -PNP switch (S,) is in the
wrong position, the collector and emitter
METER ADJUST
junctions will be forward biased during the
leo and IEo tests (switch positions 1 and 6).
TO ADJUST
ST
TEST
T WHEN RESULT The high resulting current may be used as
ICO VC6'6V. I READ METER DIRECT a check for open or intermittent connections
IC IBP20J1A a
IC I6=I0O11A 3 e,
within the transistor.
ICED VCE'6V. 4 The transistor checker also measures hFE
ICES VCE =6V. 5
with 20 microamperes and 100 microam-
IEO VEO =6V. 6 "
CALCULATE. peres base current. Depressing the fife switch
hFE III 20 LA 2 hFE- - METER READING
=
la
IC 20 DA (S,) decreases the base drive about 20 per-
IB'IOOLA
CALCULATE.
cent, permitting hfe to be estimated from
hFE 3 hFE- IC - METER READING
le IOOLA the corresponding change in collector cur-
CALCULATE: WHERE:
rent (formulas 1 and 2). All tests are con-
.
ht. I B. 20LA 2 _ ICI-1.C2 ICI =METER

hh 41-T11:71' READING ducted with a 330 -ohm resistor limiting the
CALCULATE. IC2 =METER
ICI -IC2 READING WITH collector current to about 12 milliamperes
-
h, IB'IDDL A 3 h, 261)-41- 54 CLOSED and the maximum transistor dissipation to
WITH 15011 RESISTOR CON - about 20 milliwatts. The checker therefore
6 V. NECTED TO C -E OF TEST
4 SOCKET. FULL -SCALE METER
DEFLECTION WILL RESULT cannot harm a transistor regardless of how
WHEN SS IS PRESSED. it is plugged in or how the test switches are
set.
Figure 37
SCHEMATIC OF TRANSISTOR CHECKER

SA, B, C- Three -pole, 6- position. Centralab
1021
S , S , S -Centralab type 1400 nonshorting
lever switch
M -0 -200 d -c microammeter. General Electric
or Simpson (412 ")
listed in the transistor data sheet to deter-

mine the condition of the transistor under
test.
The transistor parameters are read on a
0 -100 d -c microammeter placed in a diode
network which provides a nearly linear scale
to 20 microamperes, a highly compressed Figure 38
scale from 20 microamperes to one milliam- INTERIOR VIEW OF
pere, and a nearly linear scale to full scale TRANSISTOR CHECKER
at 10 milliamperes. Transistor parameters Components of meter diode circuit are
may be read to within 10 percent on all mounted to phenolic board attached to meter
terminals. Other small resistors may be wired
transistor types from mesas to power alloys directly to switch lugs. The four 172-volt bat-
without switching meter ranges and with- teries are held in a small clamp at the rear
out damage to the meter movement or of the case. Chassis is cut out for lever-action
switches and opening is covered with three -
transistor. position switch plate.
The battery test provides full -scale meter

deflection of 10 milliamperes when the bat-
tery potential is 6 volts. This is achieved by
connecting a 150-ohm resistor from collector
to emitter of a test socket.
Test Set The transistor checker is built

Construction in an aluminum box measur-
ing 3" X S" X 7 ", as shown
in the photographs. Test switch S1 is
mounted on the end of the box; and the
transistor sockets, microammeter, and the
various other switches are placed on the
top of the box. Three insulated tip jacks
are wired to the leads of one transistor test
socket so that transistors having unorthodox Figure 39
bases or leads may be clipped to the tester
by means of short test leads. Four 1'A -volt TRANSISTORIZED CAPACITANCE METER
flashlight cells are mounted to the rear of This small, inexpensive test instrument meas-
the case by an aluminum clamp. Potenti- ures capacitance directly up to 0.1 fd. Using
a small self- contained battery, the tester em-
ometer R2, the meter diode, and associated ploys a single unijunction transistor in a
components are fastened to a phenolic simple oscillator counter circuit. The "un-
known" terminals are at the right of the
board attached to the meter terminals. panel, with the range switch and the push -
Switch S, has an indicator scale made of to -test button to the left. Two jack plugs are
heavy white cardboard, lettered with India made up with "standard" capacitors. The top
plug has two alligator clips soldered to jack
ink and a lettering pen. tips which may be inserted in the tester.
Calibration potentiometers are adjusted
through the small holes in the side of the cos..
A Transistorized Described in this section
Capacitance Meter is a simple and inexpen-
sive transistorized capaci- in order to achieve full -scale meter deflection
tance meter using a single unijunction tran- on the 100 -pf range.
sistor (figure 39). The instrument measures
capacitance values ranging in size from a few
pf up to 0.1 fd in four ranges. 22e
The capacitance meter uses a simple RC IOC
17.4
relaxation oscillator to generate square audio- CORRECTOR
h PUSH TO
TEST
frequency pulses (figure 40). The unknown I1
capacitor is pulse -charged through a diode IK

(D1) and is discharged through the indi-
cating meter and its series resistance. The
B2
2N1671
I.
45V.
BI x
discharge current is directly proportional to
the value of capacitance under test provided
the frequency and amplitude of the charging
pulses are held constant.
The frequency of the RC oscillator is
switched to provide four capacitance ranges: ALL RES /STORS 1/2 WATT -
100 pf, 1000 pf, .01 fd and .1 fd. A Figure 40
0 to 50 d -c microammeter serves as a read-
out device so the reading of the meter must SCHEMATIC OF CAPACITANCE METER
be multiplied by two to obtain the value of S A, B, C- Three -pole, 4- position. Centralab
measured capacitance. The base resistance PA -1007
M -0 -50 d -c microamperes. Simpson model 49
of the unijuncticn transistor is switched (4! 2 ")
terminals of the capacitance meter (marked

X on the schematic) and the meter switch
is set to the 100 -pf range. The press to test
button is depressed and the corrector poten-
tiometer is adjusted for full -scale meter
deflection. The 1000 - pf capacitor is now
used on the next range to achieve full -scale
deflection when the 100K range- calibration
potentiometer is properly adjusted. The two
higher ranges are adjusted in a like manner
with standard capacitors of .01d and .1
1cfd.The corrector potentiometer should be
adjusted only on the 100 -pf range and
should not be retouched until recalibration
is necessary as a result of low battery volt-
age. Normal battery drain is about f milli-
amperes.
Figure 41 A Two -Tone To examine linearity of an
Audio Generator amplifier by observation of
INTERIOR VIEW OF
CAPACITANCE METER the output signal some
means must be provided to vary the output
The smaller components are mounted to signal level from zero to maximum with a
phenolic terminal strips held in place by angle
brackets fastened to the meter bolts. The regular pattern that is easily interpreted. A
battery is bolted to the rear of the box and simple means is to use two audio tones of
connections to the instrument are made via
the battery clip in the foreground. equal amplitude to modulate the SSB trans-
mitter. This is termed a two -tone test. This
procedure causes the transmitter to emit
Capacitance Meter The instrument is built two steady signals separated by the frequency
Construction in an aluminum box meas- difference of the two audio tones. The
uring 3" X $" X 7" resultant, or beat, between the two r -f
(figures 39 and 41). Small components are signals produces a pattern which, when ob-
mounted on two phenolic boards which are served on an oscilloscope has the appearance
supported on either side of the meter by of a carrier 100- percent modulated by a
small metal angle brackets. The three 100K series of half sine waves, as previously shown
calibration potentiometers and the 10K in chapter 16, figure 6B.
corrector potentiometer are mounted on With a two -equal -tone test signal, the
these boards so that the slotted shafts may following equations approximate the rela-
be adjusted through small holes drilled in tionships between two-tone meter readings,
the sides of the case. The unijunction tran- peak envelope power, and average power for
sistor is mounted in place by its leads. The class -AB or class -B operation:
battery is clamped to the rear half of the
D -c plate current:
case with a small aluminum bracket.
Meter When the wiring has been corn - - 2 X ipm

2
Calibration pleted and checked, the capaci-

tance meter may be calibrated Plate Power Input (watts) :
with the aid of capacitors of known value. 2 XipmXEb

Ten -percent tolerance paper or mica capaci- Pin
a
tors that have been checked on a capacitance
bridge of good accuracy may be used, or a Average Power Output (watts) :
set of one -percent tolerance capacitors may

be used as "standards." A 100 -pf standard fpm X ep
capacitor is placed between the "unknown" 8
828 Electronic Test Equipment
Plate efficiency: +9 V.
(L)2x e
NP
where,
i,,, equals peak of the plate current pulse,

e equals peak value of plate voltage swing,
E,, equals d -c plate voltage,
7r equals 3.14
Finally, peak- envelope -power output under Figure 42
these conditions is twice the average -power TWO -TONE AUDIO OSCILLATOR
output. Thus, using a two-tone test signal,
a linear amplifier may be tuned up at a Relative amplitude of oscillators may be lev-
eled by adjusting 100 -pf capacitor. For f, =
power- output level of half that normally 900 Hz, C, = C. = .005 Add, and C = .01 fd.
achieved at the so- called "two kilowatt For f. = 1300 'Hz, C, = C = .003 fd and C,
PEP" input level. Power-input level, on the = .006 Aid.
other hand, of the two -tone test condition
is about two -thirds that of the single -tone The Tuo -tone Test -The test oscillator
condition. is connected to the audio system of the SSB
Shown in figure 42 is a transistor two - transmitter which is tuned up into a dummy
tone generator that may be used in conjunc- load with an oscilloscope coupled to the
tion with SSB equipment for appropriate load to show a typical test pattern. The
tests. Two high -beta silicon NPN planar transmitter is adjusted for maximum power
transistors are used in a twin -T dual oscil- output without waveform flattopping.
lator circuit. With the values specified, fre- Under these conditions, the power input is:
quency f, is about 900 Hz and frequency
f, is about 1300 Hz. Increasing the capaci- PEP Input (watts) = 1,, X E X
tors C C_, and C:, will lower the oscillator
frequency. Capacitor C, should always equal
\1.57
- 0.57
C_ and C:, should have a value twice that of
C, or C,. Resistor R:, normally falls between where,
8K and 12K and is adjusted for best oscilla- E,, equals d -c plate voltage,
tor waveform. The oscillators should be I,, equals two -tone d -c plate current,
tested separately and their waveform viewed
on an oscilloscope.
Iequals idling plate current with no test
signal.
CHAPTER THIRTY -TWO
Workshop Practice
With a few possible exceptions, such as excellent results may be accomplished with
cabinets, brackets, neutralizing capacitors few tools, if one has the time and patience.
and transmitting coils, it hardly pays one to The investment one is justified in mak-
attempt to build the components required for ing in tools is dependent upon several fac-
the construction of an amateur transmitter. tors. If you like to tinker, there are many
This is especially true when the parts are of tools useful in radio construction that you
the type used in construction and replace- would probably buy anyway, or perhaps al-
ment work on receivers and TV, as mass ready have, such as screwdrivers, hammer,
production has made these parts very in- saws, square, vise, files, etc. This means that
expensive. the money taken for tools from your radio
Those who have and wish to spend the budget can be used to buy the more spe-
necessary time can effect considerable mon- cialized tools, such as socket punches or hole
etary saving in their transmitters by building saws, taps and dies, etc.
them from the component parts. The neces- The amount of construction work one
sary data is given in the construction chap- does determines whether buying a large
ters of this handbook. assortment of tools is an economical move.
To many builders, the construction is as It also determines if one should buy the less
fascinating as the operation of the finished expensive type offered at surprisingly low
transmitter; in fact, many amateurs get so prices by the familiar mail order houses, "five
much satisfaction out of building a well - and ten" stores, and chain auto- supply stores,
performing piece of equipment that they or whether one should spend more money and
spend more time constructing and rebuilding get first -grade tools. The latter cost consid-
equipment than they do operating the equip- erably more and work but little better when
ment on the air. new, but will outlast several sets of the
cheaper tools. Therefore they are a wise
investment for the experimenter who does
32 -1 Tools lots of construction work (if he can afford
the initial cash outlay). The amateur who
Beautiful work can be done with metal constructs only an occasional piece of appa-
chassis and panels with the help of only a ratus need not be so concerned with tool
few inexpensive tools. The time required for life, as even the cheaper grade tools will last
construction, however, will be greatly re- him several years, if they are given proper
duced if a fairly complete assortment of care.
metal -working tools is available. Thus, while The hand tools and materials in the ac-
an array of tools will speed up the work, companying lists will be found very useful
830 Workshop Practice RADIO
around the home workshop. Materials not 1 Wood chisel (%Z inch tip)
listed but ordinarily used, such as paint, 1 Pair wing dividers
can best be purchased as required for each 1 Coarse mill file, flat 12 inch
individual job. 1 Coarse bastard file, round, %z or 3/4 inch
Set nutdrivers (1/4i hila, 11 )
1
ESSENTIAL HAND TOOLS AND
4 Small "C" clamps
MATERIALS
6 or 8 Assorted small files; round, half -
1 Good electric soldering iron, about 100
watts; or soldering gun round or triangular, flat, square, rat -tail
Sandpaper and emery cloth, coarse, medium,
1 Spool rosin -core wire solder
1 Each large, medium, small, and midget and fine
Epoxy cement
screwdrivers
File brush
1 Good hand drill (eggbeater type) , prefer-
ably two -speed USEFUL TOOLS
1 Pair regular pliers, 6 inch AND MATERIALS
1 Pair long-nose pliers, 6 inch 1 Jig or scroll saw (small) with metal -cut-
1 Pair cutting pliers (diagonals), f inch or ting blades
6 inch 1 Aerosol can, contact cleaner
1 1/4-inch socket punch 1 Wiss metal snips
1 "Boy Scout" knife 1 Wire stripper
1 Combination square and steel rule, 1 1 "Pop" rivet gun
foot 1 Tap and die set for 6 -32, 8 -32, 10 -32
1 Yardstick or steel pushrule and 10 -24 machine screw threads
1 Scratch awl 4 Medium size "C" clamps
1 Center punch 1 Metal "nibbling" tool
1 Dozen or more assorted round shank 1 Set alignment tools
drills (as many as you can afford between 1 Electric drill, 1/4-inch, variable speed
No. 50 and 1/4 or 1/4 inch, depending 1 DYMO label embosser
upon size of hand drill chuck) 1 Can paint thinner
1 Set Allen and spline -head wrenches 1 Drill press
Set Phillips screwdrivers
1
1 Shop vacuum cleaner
1 Hacksaw and blades Aerosol spray paints.
I Medium file and handle Dusting brush
1 Cold chisel (%2 inch tip) Paint brushes
1 Wrench for socket punch Sheet Lucite, or polystyrene
1 Hammer
Light machine oil (in squirt can) Not listed in the table are several special -
Vinyl electrical tape purpose radio tools which are somewhat of a
HIGHLY DESIRABLE HAND TOOLS luxury, but are nevertheless quite handy,
AND MATERIALS such as various around -the -corner screw-
1 Bench vise (jaws at least 3 inch) drivers and wrenches, special soldering iron
1 Carpenter's brace, ratchet type tips, etc. These can be found in the larger
1 Square -shank countersink bit radio parts stores and are usually listed in
1 Square-shank taper reamer, small their mail order catalogs.
1 Square -shank taper reamer, large (the
two reamers should overlap; %z inch and Metal Chassis Though quite a few more
7/8inch size will usually be suitable) tools and considerably more
1 1/4-inch socket punch time will be required for metal- chassis con-
1 7/8-inch socket punch struction, much neater and more satisfac-
1 Adjustable circle cutter for holes to 3 tory equipment can be built by mounting
inch the parts on sheet metal chassis or circuit
1 Set small, inexpensive, open -end boards instead of "breadboards." This type
wrenches of construction is necessary when shielding
1 Set jewelers screwdrivers of the apparatus is required. A front panel
HANDBOOK The Material 831
Figure 1
SOFT ALUMINUM
SHEET MAY BE CUT
WITH HEAVY
KITCHEN SHEARS
and a back shield minimize the danger of Breadboard and Experimental circuits may
shock and complete the shielding of the Brassboard be built up in a temporary
inclosure. fashion termed breadboard-
ing, a term reflecting the old practice of the
The Material "twenties" when circuits were built on
32 -2 wooden boards. Modern breadboards may be
Electronic equipment may be built on a built upon circuit board material or upon
foundation of circuit board, steel, or alumi- prepunched phenolic boards. The prepunched
num. The choice of foundation material is boards contain a grid of small holes into
governed by the requirements of the electri- which the component leads may be anchored
cal circuit, the weight of the components of for soldering.
the assembly, and the financial cost of the A brassboard is an advanced form of as-
project when balanced against the pocket- sembly in which the experimental circuit is
book contents of the constructor. built up in semipermanent form on a metal
Figure 2
CONVENTIONAL
WOOD EXPANSION
BIT IS EFFECTIVE IN
DRILLING SOCKET
HOLES IN SOFT
ALUMINUM
Figure 3
SOFTALUMINUM
TUBING MAY BE
BENT AROUND
WOODEN FORM
BLOCKS. TO PREVENT
THE TUBE FROM
COLLAPSING ON
SHARP BENDS, IT IS
PACKED WITH
WET SAND
chassis or copper-plated circuit board. Man- instead special metal frameworks and brac-
ufacture and use of printed -circuit boards kets which they design specially for the parts
is covered later in this chapter. which they intend to use. These are usually
arranged to give the shortest possible r-f
Special For high -powered r -f stages, leads and to fasten directly behind a panel by
Frameworks many amateur constructors means of a few bolts, with the control
prefer to discard the more con- shafts projecting through corresponding
ventional types of construction and employ holes in the panel.
COMPONENT PARTS.
1 Legs and slnngers-
aluminum angle WOE-
DESK 2 Top -flush door
3. Shelves - 1G" plywood
BP
Ir
CNN"
CM"
Figure 4
0' --i
Figure 5
A WOODWORKING PLANE MAY BE USED INEXPENSIVE OPERATING DESK MADE
TO SMOOTH OR TRIM THE EDGES OF FROM ALUMINUM ANGLE STOCK, PLY-
ALUMINUM STOCK. WOOD AND A FLUSH -TYPE DOOR
HANDBOOK TVI-Proof Inclosures 833
tor will find the assembly of aluminum in-

closures an easy task. This section will show
simple construction methods, and short cuts
in producing inclosures.
The simplest type of aluminum inclosure
is that formed from a single sheet of per-
forated material as shown in figure 6. The
top, sides, and back of the inclosure are of
one piece, complete with folds that permit
the formed inclosure to be bolted together
along the edges. The top area of the inclosure
should match the area of the chassis to en-
sure a close fit. The front edge of the in-
Figure 6
TVI INCLOSURE MADE FROM
closure is attached to aluminum angle strips
SINGLE SHEET OF
that are bolted to the front panel of the
PERFORATED ALUMINUM
unit; the sides and back can either be bolted
Reynolds Metal Co. "Do- it- yourself" aluminum to matching angle strips affixed to the chassis,
sheet may be cut and folded to form TVI - or may simply be attached to the edge of the
proof inclosure. One -half inch lip on edges is chassis with self- tapping sheet -metal screws.
bolted to center section with 6 -32 machine
screws. A more sophisticated inclosure is shown
in figure 7. In this assembly aluminum angle
stock is cut to length to form a framework
Working with The necessity of employing on which the individual sides, back, and top
Aluminum "electrically tight inclos- of the inclosure are bolted. For greatest
ures" for the containment of strength, small aluminum gusset plates
TVI -producing harmonics has led to the gen- should be affixed in each corner of the in-
eral use of aluminum for chassis, panel, and closure. The complete assembly may be held
inclosure construction. If the proper type of together by No. 6 sheet -metal screws or
aluminum material is used, it may be cut "pop" rivets.
and worked with the usual woodworking Regardless of the type of inclosure to be
tools found in the home shop. Hard, brittle made, care should be taken to ensure that all
aluminum alloys such as 2024 and 6061 joints are square. Do not assume that all
should be avoided, and the softer materials prefabricated chassis and panels are absolutely
such as 1100 or 3003 should be employed. true and square. Check them before you start
Reynold's Do- it- Yourself aluminum, which to form your shield because any dimensional
is being distributed on a nationwide basis errors in the foundation will cause endless
through hardware stores, lumber yards, and patching and cutting after your inclosure is
building material outlets, is an alloy which bolted together. Finally, be sure that paint
is temper selected for easy working with or- is removed from the panel and chassis at
dinary tools. Aluminum sheet, bar, and angle the point the inclosure attaches to the foun-
stock may be obtained, as well as perforated dation. A clean, metallic contact along the
sheets for ventilated inclosures. seam is required for maximum harmonic
Figure s I through 4 illustrate how this soft suppression.
material may be cut and worked with ordi-
nary shop tools, and figure S shows a simple 32 -4 Inclosure
operating desk that may be made from Openings
aluminum angle stock, plywood, and a flush -
type six -foot door. Openings into shielded inclosures may be
made simply by covering them by a piece of
32 -3 TVI -Proof shielding held in place by sheet -metal screws.
Openings through vertical panels, how-
Inclosures ever, usually require a bit more attention to
Armed with a right -angle square, tin - prevent leakage of harmonic energy through
snips and a straight edge, the home construc- the crack of the door which is supposed to
should provide a good electrical connec-

tion to the stock.
32 -5 Summation
of the Problem
The creation of r -f energy is accompanied
by harmonic generation and leakage of fun-
damental and harmonic energy from the gen-
erator source. For practical purposes, radio
frequency power may be considered as a
form of both electrical and r -f energy. As
electrical energy, it will travel along any
convenient conductor. As r -f energy, it will
radiate directly from the source or from any
conductor connected to the source. In view
of this "dual personality" of r -f emanations,
there is no panacea for all forms of r -f
energy leakage. The cure involves both fil-
tering and shielding: one to block the paths
of conducted energy, the other to prevent
the leakage of radiated energy. The proper
combination of filtering and shielding can
reduce the radiation of harmonic energy
from a signal source some 80 decibels. In
most cases, this is sufficient to eliminate in-
Figure 7 terference caused by the generation of un-
TVI -PROOF INCLOSURE BUILT OF desirable harmonics.
PERFORATED ALUMINUM SHEET
AND ANGLE STOCK
32 -6 Construction
Practice
seal the opening. A simple way to provide a
Chassis The chassis first should be covered
panel opening is to employ the Bud venti- Layout with a layer of wrapping paper,
lated door rack panel model PS -814 or 815. which is drawn tightly down on
The grille opening in this panel has holes all sides and fastened with scotch tape. This
small enough in area to prevent serious har- allows any number of measurement lines
monic leakage. The actual door opening, and hole centers to be spotted in the correct
however, does not seal tightly enough to be positions without making any marks on the
called TVI -proof. In areas of high TV signal chassis itself. Place on it the parts to be
strength where a minimum of operation on mounted and play a game of chess with
28 MHz is contemplated, the door is satis- them, trying different arrangements until
factory as -is. To accomplish more complete all the grid and plate leads are made as short
harmonic suppression the edges of the open- as possible, tubes are clear of coil fields, r -f
ing should be lined with preformed contact chokes are in safe positions, etc. Remember,
finger stock. Eimac finger stock is an ex- especially if you are going to use a panel,
cellent means of providing good contact that a good mechanical layout often can
continuity when using components with ad- accompany sound electrical design, but that
justable or moving contact surfaces, or in the electrical design should be given first
acting as electrical "weatherstrip" around consideration.
access doors in inclosures. Harmonic leak- All too often parts are grouped to give a
age through such a sealed opening is reduced symmetrical panel, irrespective of the ar-
to a negligible level. The mating surface to rangement behind. When a satisfactory ar-
the finger stock should be free of paint, and rangement has been reached, the mounting
HANDBOOK Construction Practice 835
each of the inside corners and tangential to

the edges. After burring the holes, clamp
the piece and a block of cast iron or steel
in the vise. Then, take your burring chisel
and insert it in one of the corner holes. Cut
DRILL HOLES SLIGHTLY BREAK OUT
IL
PILE
out the metal by hitting the chisel with a
INSIDE DASHED OUTLINE
OP DESIRED HOLE.
PIECE INSIDE
DRILL HOLES.
SMOOTH hammer. The blows should be light and
numerous. The chisel acts against the block
Figure 8 in the same way that the two blades of a
MAKING A RECTANGULAR CUTOUT pair of scissors work against each other. This
same process is repeated for the other sides.
A file is used to trim up the completed
holes may be marked. The same procedure cutout.
now must be followed for the underside,
always being careful to see that there are no
Figure 9
clashes between the two (that no top
NUMBERED DRILL SIZES
mounting screws come down into the mid- Correct for
Tapping
----
dle of a paper capacitor on the underside, Di-
DRILL ameter Clears Steel or
that the variable capacitor rotors do not hit NUMBER (in.) Screw Brasst
anything when turned, etc.). 1 .228
2 .221 12 -24
When all the holes have been spotted, they 3 .213 14 -24
should be center -punched through the paper 4 .209 12 -20
-
----
into the chassis. Don't forget to spot holes S .205
for leads which must also come through the
chassis.
6
7
8
.204
.201
.199
-
-
9 .196
For transformers which have lugs on the 10' .193 10 -32
bottoms, the clearance holes may be spotted 11 .191 10 -24
by pressing the transformer on a piece of 12'
13
.189
.185 -
-
paper to obtain impressions, which may then
he transferred to the chassis.
14
15
.182
.180 -
-
--
16 .177 12 -24
Punching In cutting socket holes, one can

use either a fly -cutter or socket
17
18'
19
.173
.169
.166
8 -32 -
12 -20
--
20 .161
punches. These punches are easy to operate 21 .159 10 -32
and only a few precautions are necessary.
The guide pin should fit snugly in the guide
22
23
24
.157
.154
.152
-
hole. This increases the accuracy of location 25
26
.149
.147 -
10 -24
---
of the socket. If this is not of great im- 27 .144
portance, one may well use a drill of Pat inch 28 .140 6 -32
larger diameter than the guide pin. 29 .136 8 -32
30 .128
The male part of the punch should be 31 .120
----
32 .116
placed in the vise, cutting edge up and the
female portion forced against the metal with
a wrench. These punches can be obtained in
33'
34
35
.113
.111
.110
4 -36 4-40
- 6 -32
36 .106
- ---
sizes to accommodate all tube sockets and 37 .104
even large enough to be used for meter holes. 38 .102
In the large socket sizes they require the 39 .100 3-48
40 .098
use of a 3j -inch center hole to accommodate 41 .096
the bolt. 42' .093 4 -36 4-40
43 .089 2 -56
44 .086
Transformer Cutouts for transformers and 45' .082 3-48
Cutouts chokes are not so simply han- 'Sizes most commonly used in rodio construc-
tion.
dled. After marking off the TUse next size larger for tapping bakelite
part to be cut, drill about a 1/4-inch hole on and similar composition materials (plastics, etc.).
Another method is to drill the four corner thoroughly, until fresh metal is laid bare.
holes large enough to take a hack saw blade, It is not enough to make a few streaks;
then saw instead of chisel. The four holes scrape until the part to be soldered is bright.
permit nice looking corners. Make a good mechanical joint before ap-
Still another method is shown in figure 8. [lying any solder. Solder is intended pri-
When heavy panel steel is used and a drill marily to make a good electrical connection;
press or electric drill is available, this is the mechanical rigidity should be obtained by
most satisfactory method. bending the wire into a small hook at the
end and nipping it firmly around the other
Removing In both drilling and punching, a part, so that it will hold well even before
Burrs burr is usually left on the work. the solder is applied.
There are three simple ways of Keep your iron properly tinned. It is im-
removing these. Perhaps the best is to take possible to get the work hot enough to take
a chisel (be sure it is one for use on metal) the solder properly if the iron is dirty. To tin
and set it so that its bottom face is parallel your iron, file it, while hot, on one side until
to the piece. Then gently tap it with a ham- a full surface of clean metal is exposed. Im-
mer. This usually will make a clean job with mediately apply rosin core solder until a thin
a little practice. If one has access to a layer flows completely over the exposed, sur-
counterbore, this will also do a nice job. A face. Repeat for the other faces. Then take a
countersink will work, although it bevels clean rag and wipe off all excess solder and
the edges. A drill of several sizes larger is a rosin. The iron should also be wiped fre-
much used arrangement. The third method quently while the actual construction is
is by filing off the burr, which does a good going on; it helps prevent pitting the tip.
job but scratches the adjacent metal surfaces Apply the solder to the work, not to the
badly. iron. The iron should be held against the
parts to be joined until they are thoroughly
heated. The solder should then be applied
Mounting There are two methods in gen- against the parts and the iron should be held
Components eral use for the fastening of in place until the solder flows smoothly and
transformers, chokes, and sim- envelops the work. If it acts like water on a
ilar pieces of apparatus to chassis or bread- greasy plate, and forms a ball, the work is
boards. The first, using nuts and machine not sufficiently clean.
screws, is slow, and the manufacturing prac- The completed joint must be held per-
tice of using self- tapping screws or rivets fectly still until the solder has had time to
is gaining favor. For the mounting of solidify. If the work is moved before the
small parts such as resistors and capacitors, solder has become completely solid, a "cold"
"tie points" are very useful to gain rigidity. joint will result. This can be identified im-
They also contribute materially to the ap- mediately, because the solder will have a dull
pearance of finished apparatus. "white" appearance rather than one of shiny
Rubber grommets of the proper size "silver." Such joints tend to be of high re-
placed in all chassis holes through which sistance and will very likely have a bad effect
wires are to be passed, will give a neater ap- on a circuit. The cure is simple, merely
pearing job and also will reduce the possi- reheat the joint and do the job correctly.
bility of short circuits.
Soldering Making a strong, low- resistance Finishes If the apparatus is constructed on
solder joint does not mean just a painted chassis (commonly avail-
dropping a blob of solder on the two parts to able in black wrinkle and gray wrinkle),
be joined and then hoping that they'll stick. there is no need for application of a protec-
There are several definite rules that must be tive coating when the equipment is finished,
observed. assuming that you are careful not to scratch
All parts to be soldered must be absolutely or mar the finish while drilling holes and
clean. To clean a wire, lug, or whatever it mounting parts. However, many amateurs
may be, take your pocket knife and scrape it prefer to use unpainted (zinc or cadmium
HANDBOOK Construction Practice 837
START
0) ))
SPOOL OF WIRE
FINISH
h PIPE OR ROO USED AS
FORM Or BARELITE OR
OTHER GOOD INSULATING
MATERIAL.
FINISHED
COIL
HOLD TIGHTLY
se,
WIND TURNS CLOSE TOGETHER
AND SPACE LATER.
Figure 10
WINDING COIL ON INSULATING FORM
Figure 11
plated) chassis, because it is much simpler WINDING "AIR- SUPPORTED" COIL
to make a chassis ground connection with
this type of chassis. In localities near the sea
coast it is a good idea to lacquer the edges of ing a coil. If the winding is to be spaced, the
the various chassis cutouts even on a painted spacing can be done either by eye or a string
chassis, as rust will get a good start at these or another piece of wire may be wound
points unless the metal is protected where the simultaneously with the coil wire and re-
drill or saw has exposed it. If too thick a moved after the winding is in place. The
coat is applied, the lacquer will tend to peel. usual procedure is to clamp one end of the
It may be thinned with lacquer thinner to wire in a vise, attaching the other end to the
permit application of a light coat. A thin coil form and with the coil form in hand,
coat will adhere to any clean metal surface walk slowly toward the vise winding the
that is not too shiny. wire but at the same time keeping a strong
An attractive dull gloss finish, almost vel- tension on the wire as the form is rotated.
vety can be put on aluminum by sand- blast- After the coil is wound, if there is any pos-
ing it with a very weak blast and fine sibility of the turns slipping, the completed
particles and then lacquering it. Soaking the coil is either spot- coated with epoxy or
aluminum in a solution of lye produces model airplane cement.
somewhat the same effect as a fine -grain Vhf and uhf coils are commonly wound
sand blast. of heavy enameled wire on a form and then
Metal panels and inclosures may be painted removed from the form as in figure 11. If
an attractive color with the aid of aerosol the coil is long or has a tendency to buckle,
spray paint, available in many colors. After strips of polystyrene or a similar material
the panel is spray -painted, press -on decals may be cemented longitudinally inside the
may be used to letter the panel. Once the coil. Due allowance must be made for the
decals have dried, the panel may then be coil springing out when removed from the
given a spray coat of clear plastic or lacquer form, when selecting the diameter of the
to hold the decals in position and to protect form.
the surface. On air -wound coils of this type, spacing
To protect brass from tarnish, thoroughly between turns is accomplished after removal
cleanse and remove the last trace of grease from the form, by running a pencil, the
by the use of paint thinner. The brass shank of a screwdriver or other round object
must be carefully rinsed with water and spirally between the turns from one end of
dried; but in doing it, care must be taken the coil to the other, again making due
not to handle any portion with the bare allowance for spring.
hands or anything else that is greasy. Then Air -wound coils, approaching the appear-
apply an acrylic aerosol spray. ance of commercially manufactured ones,
can be constructed by using a round wooden
Winding Coils Coils are of two general types, form which has been sawed diagonally from
those using a form and "air- end to end. Strips of insulating material are
wound" types. Neither type offers any par- temporarily attached to this mandrel, the
ticular constructional difficulties. Figure 10 wire then being wound over these strips
illustrates the procedure used in form wind- with the desired separation between turns
and cemented to the strips. When dry, the Homemade Circuit boards may be easily
split mandrel may be removed by unwedging Circuit Boards constructed for electronic as-
it. semblies without the need of
photographic equipment. The method is
simple and fast and requires few special
32 -7 Printed Circuits materials. The circuit board is made from
a full -scale template of the circuit. Precut
Etched or printed circuits were developed board is available from large radio supply
to apply mass -production techniques to elec- houses as are the etchant and resist used in
tronic assemblies, utilizing the processes of this process. This is how the board is pre-
the graphic arts industry. On a large- volume pared:
basis, the etched -circuit technique provides -A
Step 1 full -scale template of the de-
uniformity of layout and freedom from sired circuit is drawn. Lead placement must
wiring errors at a substantial reduction in be arranged so that the conductors do not
assembly time and cost. In this assembly cross each other except at interconnection
scheme, the methods of the photoengraving points. Holes for component leads and ter-
process are used to print photographic pat- minals are surrounded by a foil area for the
terns representing electronic circuitry on cop- soldered connection. It is suggested that a
per -foil clad insulating board. By using an trial layout be drawn on a piece of graph
etc/- resistant material (impervious to acid) paper, making the conductors about %c-
for the pattern of conductors, the unmasked inch wide and the terminal circles about
areas of the foil may be etched away, leaving 1/4-inch in diameter. When conductors must
the desired conducting pattern, conforming cross, a point is selected where a component
to the wiring harness of the electronic as- may be used to bridge one conductor; or a
sembly. wire jumper may be added to the circuit.
The etched board is drilled at appropriate Step 2 -The template is transferred to
r laces to accept lead wires, thus permitting the foil -clad board. The board should be
small components such as resistors and ca- unsensitized, foiled on one side only, and cut
pacitors to be affixed to the board by insert- somewhat oversize. For simple circuits, the
ing the leads in the matching holes. Larger complete layout can be traced on the board
components, such as sockets, inductors, and by eye, using a ruler and a pencil. For more
small transformers, are fitted with tabs complicated circuits, the template should
s. hich pass through matching holes in the be applied directly to the copper side of the
board. The various components are inter- laminate by the use of rubber cement. The
connected by the foil conductors on one or board is then lightly centerpunched at all
both sides of the board. All joints are soldered drill points. The punched points provide
at one time by immersing one side of the convenient references for the application of
board in molten solder. the resist material. The template and cement
The foil -clad circuit board is usually made are now removed.
of laminated material such as phenolic, sili- Step 3 -Once the board has been punched,
con, teflon, or Fiberglas, impregnated with the board is cleaned to remove copper oxide.
resin and having a copper foil of 0.0007- to A bright, uniform finish is required to ensure
0.009 -inch thickness affixed to the board proper adhesion of the resist and complete
under heat and pressure. Boards are available etching. Kitchen cleaning powder may be
in thicknesses of rr to IA inch. used for this operation, followed by a thor-
While large production runs of etched - ough washing of the board in water. Care
circuit boards are made by a photographic should be taken to avoid touching the copper
process utilizing a master negative and foil from this point on. Now, to etch out
photosensitive board, a simpler process may the circuit on the copper foil, the resist
be used by experimenters to produce circuit material is applied to areas where the copper
boards in the home workshop through the will remain, and the areas that are not
use of tape or ink resist, plus a chemical so- covered with resist will be etched away.
lution which etches away all unmasked cop- Step 4 -The conductors and interconnect-
per, without affecting the circuit board. ing points are laid down on the copper
HANDBOOK Printed Circuits 839
laminate using resist material (figure 12) .
One form of resist is liquid and is applied

from a resist marking pen. A second form
of resist is thin vinyl tape having adhesive
TERMINAL
backing. In an emergency, India Ink or nail POINT FOR
COMPONENT
polish may be used for resist. Using the LEAD
original templates as a visual guide, the

resist is applied to the clean foil and allowed
to dry.
Step 5- Suitable etchants are ferric chlor-
ite or ammonium persulfale. The etchant
may be liquid, or a powder which is mixed
with hot water according to directions. A
Pyrex kitchen measuring glass may be used Figure 12
to mix and hold the etchant. A Pyrex or LIQUID RESIST MAKES
plastic tray is satisfactory for the mixing PRACTICAL PRINTED CIRCUIT
process and also for the etching. Drop a few
Liquid resist is applied to copper foil of
glass marbles into the etching container to circuit board to protect conductor areas from
keep the circuit board from laying flat on the etchant. Each lead hole is circled, the circle
being about four times the diameter of the
bottom. Immerse the circuit board in the hole. After the holes have been circled, lines
etchant, and rock the tray easily back and are drawn between them in accordance with
forth so that the etching process proceeds the circuit sketch. Junctions are marked with
a solid circle. Connecting path should be about
evenly and smoothly over all exposed areas 1/16 -inch wide, ample to carry a current of
of the board. Etching time will vary from about 10 amperes, if required. Tape or a
"transfer" resist material provides professional
10 to 30 minutes, depending on the strength appearance to board. Placement of components
of the etchant and thickness of the copper may be marked on reverse of board in India
Ink.
foil. The process may be speeded by heating
the solution or by warming the immersed
board with an infrared (sun -lamp) bulb.
Once etching is complete, the board is re- leads are passed through the appropriate
moved from the solution and thoroughly holes, bent slightly to hold the component
washed in water to eliminate all traces of the in place, and then clipped close to the con-
etchant. Any remaining etchant may react ductor surface. After checking placement
with moisture in the air over a period of time and observing polarity where necessary, the
to cause unwanted etching of the copper leads may be individually soldered to the
conductors. conductor with a small pencil -tip iron. Use
Step 6 -The resist material is left on the small diameter (0.032 -inch diameter or
board to protect the conductors until the smaller) solder and take care not to overheat
board is cut to final size. The board is the board or components during this opera-
clamped between soft wood blocks in a vise tion. The last step is to wash the circuit
and trimmed with a fine hacksaw blade. The side of the board with solvent to remove
resist is then removed with carbon tetra- any soldering flux and then to give the board
chloride solvent and a soft cloth. (CAUTION: a coating of clear acrylic (Krylon) plastic
Do not breathe the fumes of the carbon spray from an aerosol can.
tetrachloride.) The completed circuit is
cleaned with fine steel wool to provide a
clean surface for soldering. The center - 32 -8 Coaxial Cable
punched points are now drilled with a pilot Terminations
hole (use No. 54 drill) and may be drilled
out to a larger size as required for compo- Commercial electronic equipment usually
nent leads. The board is now complete and employs series N and series BNC coaxial
ready for parts assembly. connectors, whereas the majority of amateur
The components are mounted to the board equipment employs the older UHF series
on the side opposite the conductors. The coaxial connectors. Shown in figure 13 is a
remains. Mark the cutting line with a pencil

and place the cutting wheel over the mark.
Tighten the wheel and revolve the cutter
about the cable. The unwanted braid end
may be removed, using wire cutters as snips.
Next, trim the inner polyethylene insula-
tion with the utility knife so that 1/m inch
remains exposed beyond the braid. Using a
circular cut, slice the insulation and pull the
slug free with a twisting motion. Tin the
inner conductor. The last step is to push the
shell of the PL-259 plug on the prepared
cable end. Screw it on with your fingers
until the tinned braid is fully visible through
the solder holes of the plug. Using an iron
with a small point, solder the plug to the
braid through the four holes, using care that
the solder does not run over the outer threads
of the plug. Lastly, run the coupling ring
down over the plug and solder the inner
conductor to the plug tip.
Figure 13
CABLE PREPARATION FOR PL -259
32 -9 Shop Layout
COAXIAL PLUG The size of your workshop is relatively
Midget tubing cutter and utility knife are used
to prepare RG -B /U or RG -11/U cable for unimportant since the shop layout will de-
uhf -type plug. Cable jacket is removed and termine its efficiency and the ease with which
outer braid tinned with hot iron. Braid is you may complete your work.
then cut with tubing cutter and inner insula-
tion trimmed with knife. PL-259 shell is twisted Shown in figure 14 is a workshop built
on cable and soldered in position through holes into a 10' X 10' area in the corner of a
in shank.
garage. The workbench is 32" wide, made up
of four strips of 2" X 8" lumber supported
simplified and quick method of placing the on a solid framework made of 2" X 4"
UHF plug (PL -259) on RG -8A /U or lumber. The top of the workbench is cov-
RG -11 /U coaxial line. The only special tools ered with hard -surface Masonite. The edge of
needed are a Stanley 99A (or equivalent) the surface is protected with aluminum
shop knife and a General Hardware 123 "counter edging" strip, obtainable at large
(or equivalent) midget tubing cutter. hardware stores. Two wooden shelves 12"
The first step is to slide the coupling ring wide are placed above the bench to hold the
of the PL -259 plug over the coaxial line. various items of test equipment. The shelves
Next, the utility knife is used to circum- are bolted to the wall studs with large angle
scribe a cut in the outer, black vinyl jacket brackets and have wooden end pieces. Along
of the cable 1' inches back from the end. the edge of the lower shelf a metal "outlet
The cut should be square, and the free strip" is placed that has a 117 -volt outlet
jacket piece is slit and removed from the every six inches along its length. A similar
cable. strip is run along the back of the lower shelf.
Next, using a hot iron or soldering gun, The front strip is used for equipment that
quickly tin the exposed braid of the cable. is being bench- tested, and the rear strip
Do this quickly so the inner polyethylene powers the various items of test equipment
insulation does not soften. Clean the flux placed on the shelves.
from the braid with paint thinner after the At the left of the bench is a storage bin
solder cools. for small components. A file cabinet can be
The next step is to cut the solid, tinned placed at the right of the bench. This nec-
braid with the tubing cutter so that ia inch cessary item holds schematics, transformer
HANDBOOK Components and Hardware 841
Figure 14
GOOD SHOP LAYOUT AIDS CAREFUL WORKMANSHIP
Built in a corner of a garage, this shop has all features necessary for electronic work. Test
instruments are arranged on shelves above bench. Numerous outlets reduce "haywire" pro-
duced by tangled line cords. Not shown in picture are drill press and sander at end of left
bench.
data sheets, and other papers that normally house inventories of components or have fa-
are lost in the usual clutter and confusion. cilities for obtaining them at short notice.
The area below the workbench has two It is recommended, therefore, that the ex-
storage shelves which are concealed by slid- perimenter have at hand catalogs from some
ing doors made of 1/4-inch Masonite. Heavier of the larger supply houses which distribute
tools, and large components are stored in to the electronics industry. The following
this area. On the floor and not shown in the industrial catalogs of large mail -order dis-
photograph is a very necessary item of shop tributors are suggested as part of your tech-
equipment: a large trash receptacle. nical library:
Allied Electronics Co., 100 No. Western
Ave., Chicago, Ill. 60680; Lafayette Radio
32 -10 Components and Electronics, 111 Jericho Turnpike, Syosset,
Hardware N.Y. 11791; Newark Electronics, 500 No.
Pulaski Rd., Chicago, III. 60624.
Procurement of components and hardware A complete 1700 -page catalog of elec-
for a construction project can often be a tronic parts and components (The Radio
time consuming and vexing task as smaller Electronic Master Catalog) may be obtained
radio parts stores often have limited or in- from United Technical Publications, 645
complete stocks of only the most fast - Stewart Ave., Garden City, N.Y. 11530.
moving items. Larger distributors carrying Copies of this master catalog are often avail-
industrial stocks, however, maintain ware- able at large radio supply houses.
CHAPTER THIRTY -THREE
Radio Mathematics
and Calculations
Radiomen often have occasion to cal- four tens, plus three units, which could be
culate sizes and values of required parts. This written as follows:
requires some knowledge of mathematics. The
following pages contain a review of those parts 8 thousands I l O x 10 x 101
of mathematics necessary to understand and 1 hundreds (10 x 10 )
4 tens
apply the information contained in this book.
3 units
It is assumed that the reader has had some
mathematical training; this chapter is not in- 8143
tended to teach those who have never learned
anything of the subject. The number in the units position is some-
Fortunately only a knowledge of fundamen- times referred to as a first order number, that
tals is necessary, although this knowledge must in the tens position is of the second order, that
include several branches of the subject. Fortu- in the hundreds position the third order, etc.
nately, too, the majority of practical applica- The idea of letting the position of the sym-
tions in radio work reduce to the solution of bol denote its value is an outcome of the aba-
equations or formulas or the interpretation of cus. The abacus had only a limited num-
graphs. ber of wires with beads, but it soon became
apparent that the quantity of symbols might
Arithmetic be continued indefinitely towards the left,
Notation of In writing numbers in the Ara - each further space multiplying the digit's
Numbers bic system we employ ten dif- value by ten. Thus any quantity, however
ferent symbols, digits, or fig- large, may readily be indicated.
ures: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0, and place It has become customary for ease of reading
them in a definite sequence. If there is more to divide large numbers into groups of three
than one figure in the number the position of digits, separating them by commas.
each figure or digit is as important in deter-
mining its value as is the digit itself. When we 6,000,000 rather than 6000000
deal with whole numbers the righthandmost
digit represents units, the next to the left rep- Our system of notation then is characterized
resents tens, the next hundreds, the next thou- by two things: the use of positions to indicate
sands, from which we derive the rule that ev- the value of each symbol, and the use of ten
ery time a digit is placed one space further to symbols, from which we derive the name dec-
the left its value is multiplied by ten. imal system.
Retaining the same use of positions, we
8
thousands
1
hundreds
4 3
tons units
might have used a different number of sym-
bols, and displacing a symbol one place to the
left might multiply its value by any other fac-
tor such as 2, 6 or 12. Such other systems have
It will be seen that any number is actually a been in use in history, but will not be discussed
sum. In the example given above it is the sum here. There are also systems in which displac-
of eight thousands, plus one hundred, plus ing a symbol to the left multiplies its value by
Decimal Fractions 843
0 0.5 1 7 4
0.7 -4 b
Figure 1.
AN ILLUSTRATION OF LINEAR FRACTIONS.
varying factors in accordance with complicat- being the clearer. Every time a digit is placed
ed rules. The English system of measurements one space further to the right it represents a
is such an inconsistent and inferior system. ten times smaller part. This is illustrated in
Figure 1, where each large division represents
Decimal Fractions Since we can extend a a unit; each unit may be divided into ten parts
number indefinitely to although in the drawing we have only so di-
the left to make it bigger, it is a logical step to vided the first part. The length ab is equal to
extend it towards the right to make it smaller. seven of these tenth parts and is written as 0.7.
Numbers smaller than unity are fractions and The next smaller divisions, which should be
if a displacement one position to the right di- written in the second column to the right of
vides its value by ten, then the number is re- the decimal point, are each one -tenth of the
ferred to as a decimal fraction. Thus a digit small division, or one one -hundredth each.
to the right of the units column indicates the They are so small that we can only show them
number of tenths, the second digit to the right by imagining a magnifying glass to look at
represents the number of hundredths, the third, them, as in Figure 1. Six of these divisions is
the number of thourandths, etc. Some distin- to be written as 0.06 (six hundredths). We
guishing mark must be used to divide unit from need a microscope to see the next smaller divi-
tenths so that one may properly evaluate each sion, that is those in the third place, which will
symbol. This mark is the decimal point. be a tenth of one one -hundredth, or a thou-
A decimal fraction like four- tenths may be sandth; four such divisions would be written
written .4 or 0.4 as desired, the latter probably as 0.004 (four thousandths).
A e
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
G F

o d d
K J 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
,w_
d d d
D H E C
Figure 2.
IN THIS ILLUSTRATION FRACTIONAL PORTIONS ARE REPRESENTED IN THE
FORM OF RECTANGLES RATHER THAN LINEARLY.
ABCD = 1.0; GEED = 0.1; KJEH = 0.01; each small section within KJEH equals 0.001
844 Radio Mathematics and Calculations RADIO
It should not be thought that such numbers The result of the operation is called the
are merely of academic interest for very small product.
quantities arc common in radio work. From the examples to follow it will be obvi-
Possibly the conception of fractions may be ous that there are as many partial products
clearer to some students by representing it in as there are digits in the multiplier. In the fol-
the form of rectangles rather than linearly lowing examples note that the righthandmost
(see Figure 2). digit of each partial product is placed one
space farther to the left than the previous one.
Addition When two or more numbers are
to be added we sometimes write 834 834
them horizontally with the plus sign between X 26 X 206
them. + is the sign or operator indicating ad-
dition. Thus if 7 and 12 are to be added to- 5004 5004
1668 000
gether we may write 7 +12 =19. 1668
But if larger or more numbers are to be added 21684
together they are almost invariably written one 171804
under another in such a position that the deci-
mal points fall in a vertical line. If a number In the second example above it will be seen
has no decimal point, it is still considered as that the inclusion of the second partial prod-
being just to the right of the units figure; such uct was unnecessary; whenever the multiplier
a number is a whole number or integer. Ex- contains a cipher (zero) the next partial prod-
amples: uct should be moved an additional space to
the left.
654 0.654 654
Numbers containing decimal fractions may
32 3.2 32
53041 53.041 5304.1 first be multiplied exactly as if the decimal
point did not occur in the numbers at all; the
53727 56.895 5990.1 position of the decimal point in the product is
determined after all operations have been com-
The result obtained by adding numbers is pleted. It must be so positioned in the product
called the rum. that the number of digits to its right is equal
to the number of decimal places in the multi-
Subtraction Subtraction is the reverse of
addition. Its operator is (the
minus sign) . The number to be subtracted is
- plicand plus the number of decimal places in
the multiplier.
This rule should be well understood since
called the subtrahend, the number from which many radio calculations contain quantities
it is subtracted is the minuend, and the result which involve very small decimal fractions. In
the examples which follow the explanatory
is called the remainder.
notations "2 places," etc., are not actually
minuend
written down since it is comparatively easy to
-subtrahend determine the decimal point's proper location
mentally.
remainder 5.43 2 places
Examples: X 0.72 2 places
65.4 65.4
-32 -32.21 1086
3 801
33.4 33.19
3.9096 2 + 2 =4 places
Multiplication When numbers are to be mul-
tiplied together we use the x 0.04 2 places
which is known as the multiplication or the X 0.003 3 places
times sign. The number to be multiplied is 0.00012 2 +3=5 places
known as the multiplicand and that by which
it is to be multiplied is the multiplier, which Division Division is the reverse of multi-
may be written in words as follows: plication. Its operator is the =,
which is called the division sign. It is also com
multiplicand mon to indicate division by the use of the frac-
X multiplier tion bar (/) or by writing one number over
the other. The number which is to be divided
partial product
is called the dividend and is written before
partial product
the division sign or fraction bar or over the
product horizontal line indicating a fraction. The num-
HANDBOOK Division 845
ber by which the dividend is to be divided is Another example: Divide 0.000325 by 0.017.
called the divisor and follows the division Here we must move the decimal point three
sign or fraction bar or comes under the hori- places to the right in both dividend and di-
zontal line of the fraction. The answer or visor.
result is called the quotient. 0.019
17 TirlilB
quotient 17
divisor dividend
155
or 153
dividend -divisor= quotient
2
or
dividend In a case where the dividend has fewer deci-
= quotient
mals than the divisor the same rules still may
divisor
be applied by adding ciphers. For example to
Examples: divide 0.49 by 0.006 we must move the
126 49 decimal point three places to the right. The
0.49 now becomes 490 and we write:
834 15084 49 2436
834 196
81
2168 476 61790
1668 441 48
5004 35 remainder 10
5004 6
4
Note that one number often fails to divide
into another evenly. Hence there is often a
quantity left over called the remainder. When the division shows a remainder it is
The rules for placing the decimal point sometimes necessary to continue the work so
are the reverse of those for multiplication. as to obtain more figures. In that case ciphers
The number of decimal places in the quotient may be annexed to the dividend, brought down
is equal to the difference between the number to the remainder, and the division continued
as long as may be necessary; be sure to place
of decimal places in the dividend and that in
a decimal point in the dividend before the
the divisor. It is often simpler and clearer
to remove the decimal point entirely from the ciphers are annexed if the dividend does not
divisor by multiplying both dividend and di- already contain a decimal point. For ex-
visor by the necessary factor; that is we move ample:
the decimal point in the divisor as many places 80.33
to the right as is necessary to make it a whole 6 482.00
number and then we move the decimal point 48
in the dividend exactly the same number of
20
places to the right regardless of whether this
18
makes the dividend a whole number or not.
When this has been done the decimal point 20
in the quotient will automatically come di- 18
rectly above that in the dividend as shown in
the following example. 2
Example: Divide 10.5084 by 8.34. Move the
decimal point of both dividend and divisor This operation is not very often required
two places to the right. in radio work since the accuracy of the mea-
surements from which our problems start
1.26 seldom justifies the use of more than three
834 1050.84 significant figures. This point will be cov-
834 ered further later in this chapter.
2168 Fractions Quantities of less than one

1668 (unity) are called fractions. They
may be expressed by decimal notation as we
5004
5004 have seen, or they may be expressed as vulgar
fractions. Examples of vulgar fractions:
numerator 3 6 1 the numerator is added. That is in the above

denominator 4 7 5 example we multiply 2 by 7 and then add 3
to obtain 17 for the numerator. The denomi-
The upper position of a vulgar fraction is nator is the same as is the denominator of
called the numerator and the lower position the original fraction. In the following ex-
the denominator. When the numerator is the ample we have added two mixed numbers.
smaller of the two, the fraction is called a
proper fraction; the examples of vulgar frac-
tions given above are proper vulgar fractions. 2
3
7+ 3
3
4=
17
7+
4= r17x4
15
7x4 + 4x7
15x71
When the numerator is the larger, the ex-

pression is an improper fraction, which can
be reduced to an integer or whole number
- 611
211 +
105
211 =
173
211 = 6
5
211
with a proper fraction, the whole being called Multiplying All vulgar fractions are multi -
a mixed number. In the following examples Fractions plied by multiplying the nu-
improper fractions have been reduced to merators together and the de-
their corresponding mixed numbers. nominators together, as shown in the follow-
ing example:
7
4 - 1
4 3 - 1
3 3
4 X
2
S - r 4x5 l -20 -10
3 x 2
J
6 3
Adding or Subtracting Except when the

Fractions fractions are very As above, the step indicated in brackets is
simple it will usual- usually not written down since it may easily
ly be found much easier to add and subtract be performed mentally. As with addition and
fractions in the form of decimals. This rule subtraction any mixed numbers should be
likewise applies for practically all other oper- first reduced to improper fractions as shown
ations with fractions. However, it is occa- in the following example:
sionally necessary to perform various opera-
tions with vulgar fractions and the rules 23 X 4 3 -23 X 7 -69 -23
should be understood.
When adding or subtracting such fractions Division of Fractions may be most easily
the denominators must be made equal. This Fractions divided by inverting the di-
may be done by multiplying both numerator visor and then multiplying.
and denominator of the first fraction by the Example:
denominator of the other fraction, after
which we multiply the numerator and de-
nominator of the second fraction by the de-
2
S
3
4 - 2
5 X 3-
4 11
1S
nominator of the first fraction. This sounds In the above example it will be seen that to
more complicated than it usually proves in divide by 3/4 is exactly the same thing as to
practice, as the following examples will show. multiply by 4/3. Actual division of fractions
is a rather rare operation and if necessary is
usually postponed until the final answer is se-
2+
1 1 1 x3 1x2
2x3+3x2]- 6+
3
6- 2 5
6 cured when it is often desired to reduce the
resulting vulgar fraction to a decimal frac-
3xs _2x4
3
4
2
5 - 4x5 5x4]-
15
20 - - 20
e 7
20
tion by division. It is more common and
usually results in least overall work to re-
Except in problems involving large numbers duce vulgar fractions to decimals at the be-
the step shown in brackets above is usually ginning of a problem. Examples:
done in the head and is not written down. 5z
Although in the examples shown above we = 0.375 = 0.15625
have used proper fractions, it is obvious that
0.15625
the same procedure applies with improper
fractions. In the case of problems involving 32 5.00000
mixed numbers it is necessary first to convert
32
_--
them into improper fractions. Example: 1 80
1 60
273 2x7+3 17 200

192
80
The numerator of the improper fraction is 64
equal to the whole number multiplied by the 160
denominator of the original fraction, to which 160
HANDBOOK Division of Fractions 847
It will be obvious that many vulgar fractions In general terms, when a number is to be
cannot be reduced to exact decimal equiva- multipled by itself we speak of raising to a
lents. This fact need not worry us, however, power or involution; the number of times
since the degree of equivalence can always be which the number is to be multiplied by it-
as much as the data warrants. For instance, self is called the order of the power. The
if we know that one -third of an ampere is standard notation requires that the order of
flowing in a given circuit, this can be written the power be indicated by a small number
as 0.333 amperes. This is not the exact written after the number and above the line,
equivalent of 1/3 but is close enough since it called the exponent. Examples:
shows the value to the nearest thousandth of
an ampere and it is probable that the meter 2' = 2 X 2, or 2 squared, or the second
from which we secured our original data was power of 2
not accurate to the nearest thousandth of an 2' = 2 X 2 X 2, or 2 cubed, or the third
ampere. power of 2
Thus in converting vulgar fractions to a
decimal we unhesitatingly stop when we have 2' = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2, or the fourth pow-
er of 2
reached the number of significant figures war-
ranted by our original data, which is very Sometimes it is necessary to perform the
seldom more than three places (see section reverse of this operation, that is, it may be
Significant Figure, later in this chapter). necessary, for instance, to find that number
When the denominator of a vulgar fraction which multiplied by itself will give a product
contains only the factors 2 or 5, division can of nine. The answer is of course 3. This
be brought to a finish and there will be no process is known as extracting the root or
remainder, as shown in the examples above. evolution. The particular example which is
When the denominator has other factors cited would be written:
such as 3, 7, 11, etc., the division will seldom
come out even no matter how long it is con- =3
tinued but, as previously stated, this is of
no consequence in practical work since it may The sign for extracting the root is IT,
be carried to whatever degree of accuracy is which is known as the radical sign: the order
necessary. The digits in the quotient will of the root is indicated by a small number
usually repeat either singly or in groups, al- above the radical as in d7 which would mean
though there may first occur one or more the fourth root; this number is called the
digits which do not repeat. Such fractions index. When the radical bears no index, the
are known as repeating fractions. They are square or second root is intended.
sometimes indicated by an oblique line (frac- Restricting our attention for the moment
tion bar) through the digit which repeats, or to square root, we know that 2 is the square
through the first and last digits of a repeating root of 4, and 3 is the square root of 9. If
group. Example: we want the square root of a number between
3 and 9, such as the square root of 5, it is
= .... =0.

1 0.3333 obvious that it must lie between 2 and 3. In
general the square root of such a number can-
= 0.142857142857 . . . . = 0714285/ not be exactly expressed either by a vulgar
fraction or a decimal fraction. However, the
The foregoing examples contained only re- square root can be carried out decimally as
peating digits. In the following example a far as may be necessary for sufficient accur-
non -repeating digit precedes the repeating acy. In general such a decimal fraction will
digit: contain a never -ending series of digits with-
out repeating groups. Such a number is an
a = 0.2333.... =0.2/3 irrational number, such as
While repeating decimal fractions can be = 2.2361 . . . .
converted into their vulgar fraction equiva-
lents, this is seldom necessary in practical The extraction of roots is usually done by
work and the rules will be omitted here. tables or logarithms the use of which will
be described later. There are longhand meth-
Powers and When a number is to be mul- ods of extracting various roots, but we shall
Roots tiplied by itself we say that give only that for extracting the square root
it is to be squared or to be since the others become so tedious as to make
raised to the second power. When it is to be other methods almost invariably preferable.
multipled by itself once again, we say that Even the longhand method for extracting the
it is cubed or 'aired to the third power. square root will usually be used only if loga-
rithm tables, slide rule, or table of roots are found and annex the cipher (2 x 75 or 150
not handy. plus the cipher, which will give 1500). 1500
will go into 5391 3 times. Replace the last
Extracting the First divide the number the cipher with a three and multiply 1503 by 3 to
Square Root root of which is to be ex- give 4509. Place 3 above the third group.
tracted into groups of two Subtract to find the remainder of 882. The
digits starting at the decimal point and going quotient 75.3 which has been found so far is
in both directions. If the lefthandmost group not the exact square root which was desired;
proves to have only one digit instead of two, in most cases it will be sufficiently accurate.
no harm will be done. The righthandmost However, if greater accuracy is desired groups
group may be made to have two digits by of two ciphers can be brought down and the
annexing a zero if necessary. For example, process carried on as long as necessary.
let it be required to find the square root of
5678.91. This is to be divided off as follows: 7 5. 3
V56' 78.91
J56' 78.91 49
140 7 78
The mark used to divide the groups may 145 X 5= 7 25
be anything convenient, although the prime-
sign (') is most commonly used for the 1500 53 91
purpose. 1503 X 3 = 45 09
Next find the largest square which is con-
tained in the first group, in this case 56. The 8 82
largest square is obviously 49, the square of 7.
Place the 7 above the first group of the num- Each digit of the root should be placed di-
ber whose root is to be extracted, which is rectly above the group of the dividend from
sometimes called the dividend from analogy which it was derived; if this is done the
to ordinary division. Place the square of this decimal point of the root will come directly
figure, that is 49, under the first group, 56, above the decimal point of the dividend.
and subtract leaving a remainder of 7. Sometimes the remainder after a square
has been subtracted (such as the 1 in the fol-
7 lowing example) will not be sufficiently large
to contain twice the root already found even
156' 78.91
after the next group of figures has been
49
brought down. In this case we write a cipher
7 above the group just brought down and bring
down another group.
Bring down the next group and annex it to
the remainder so that we have 778. Now to 7. 0 8 2
the left of this quantity write down twice the J50.16' 00' 00
root so far found (2 X 7 or 14 in this ex- 49
ample), annex a cipher as a trial divisor, and
see how many times the result is contained 1400 1 16 00
in 778. In our example 140 will go into 778 1408 X 8 = 1 12 64
5 times. Replace the cipher with a 5, and 14160 3 36 00
multiply the resulting 145 by 5 to give 725. 14162 X 2 = 2 83 24
Place the 5 directly above the second group
in the dividend and then subtract the 725 52 76
from 778.
In the above example the amount 116 was not
7 5
sufficient to contain twice the root already
J56' 78.91 found with a cipher annexed to it; that is,
49
it was not sufficient to contain 140. There-
140 7 78 fore we write a zero above 16 and bring down
145X5= 7 25 the next group, which in this example is a
pair of ciphers.
53
Order of One frequently encounters prob-
The next step is an exact repetition of the Operations lems in which several of the fun-
previous step. Bring down the third group damental operations of arithme-
and annex it to the remainder of 53, giving tic which have been described are to be per-
5391. Write down twice the root already formed. The order in which these operations
HANDBOOK Order of Operations 849
must be performed is important. First al: pow-

ers and roots should be calculated; multipli-
cation and division come next; adding and
subtraction come last. In the example
2 +3X4'
In the foregoing example it is obvious that the
we must first square the to get 16; then we
4 3 in the numerator goes into the 6 in the de-
multiply 16 by 3, making 48, and to the nominator twice. We may thus cross out
product we add 2, giving a result of 50. the three and replace the 6 by a 2. The 2
If a different order of operations were fol- which we have just placed in the denominator
lowed, a different result would be obtained. cancels the 2 in the numerator. Next the 5
For instance, if we add 2 to 3 we would ob- in the denominator will go into the 25 in the
tain and then multiplying this by the square
5, numerator leaving a result of 5. Now we
of 4or 16, we would obtain a result of 80, have left only a 5 in the numerator and a 7
which is incorrect. in the denominator, so our final result is 5/7.
In more complicated forms such as frac- If we had multiplied 2 x 3 x 25 to obtain
tions whose numerators and denominators may 150 and then had divided this by 6 x 5 x 7
both he in complicated forms, the numerator or 210, we would have obtained the same re-
and denominator are first found separately sult but, with considerably more work.
before the division is made, such as in the
following example: Algebra
Algebra is not a separate branch of mathe-
3X4+SX2 12+10 22=2 matics but is merely a form of generalized
2 X 3+ 2+ 3- 6+ 2+ 3- 11 arithmetic in which letters of the alphabet and
occasional other symbols are substituted for
Problems of this type are very common in numbers, from which it is often referred to as
dealing with circuits containing several in- literal notation. It is simply a shorthand meth-
ductances, capacities, or resistances. od of writing operations which could be spelled
The order of operations specified above does out.
not always meet all possible conditions; if a The laws of most common electrical phe-
series of operations should be performed in a nomena and circuits (including of course ra-
different order, this is always indicated by dio phenomena and circuits) lend themselves
parenthefe, or bracket f. for example: particularly well to representation by literal no-
tation and solution by algebraic equations or
2+3 X4==2+3 X 16=2+48=50 formulas.
(2 + 3) X4'=5X4'=5 X 16 = 80 While we may write a particular problem in
Ohm's Law as an ordinary division or multi-
2+13 X 4)'=2+ 12'=2+ 144 = 146 plication, the general statement of all such
problems calls for the replacement of the num-
In connection with the radical sign, brackets bers by symbols. We might be explicit and
may be used or the "hat" of the radical may write out the names of the units and use these
be extended over the entire quantity whose names as symbols:
root is to be extracted. Example:
volts = amperes X ohms
V4 +5= f4 +5 =2 +5 =7 Such a procedure becomes too clumsy when
V(4 +5) = V4 + 5 = f9 =3 the expression is more involved and would be
unusually cumbersome if any operations like
multiplication were required. Therefore as a
It is recommended that the radical always be
short way of writing these generalized rela-
extended over the quantity whose root is to be
extracted to avoid any ambiguity. tions the numbers are represented by letters.
Ohm's Law then becomes
Cancellation In a fraction in which the E I X R
numerator and denominator
consist of several factors to be multiplied, con- In the statement of any particular problem
siderable labor can often be saved if it is the significance of the letters is usually indi-
found that the same factor occurs in both cated directly below the equation or formula
numerator and denominator. These factors using them unless there can be no ambiguity.
cancel each other and can he removed. Ex- Thus the above form of Ohm's Law would he
ample: more completely written as:
E = 1 X R Similarly, we have:
where E = e.m.f. in volts
I = current in amperes
a+ -b) =a ( - b
R = resistance in ohms When a minus sign is in front of an expres-
sion in brackets, this minus sign has the effect
Letters therefore represent numbers, and for of reversing the signs of every term within the
any letter we can read "any number." When brackets:
the same letter occurs again in the same ex-
- - = -
- +-
(a b)
pression we would mentally read "the same
number," and for another letter "another num-
ber of any value."
- (2a + 3b - 5c) =
a
2a
b
3b + 5c
These letters are connected by the usual op- Multiplication. When both the multiplicand
erational symbols of arithmetic, +, x, -, and the multiplier are negative, the product is
positive. When only one (either one) is nega-
and so forth. In algebra, the sign for division
is seldom used, a division being usually written tive the product is negative. The four possible
as a fraction. The multiplication sign, x, is cases are illustrated below:
usually omitted or one may write a period
only. Examples: +
-
X + _ +
- +
-
X - _ -
2XaXb =tab
X + _ X - _ +
2.3.4.5a= 2X3X4X5Xa Division. Since division is but the reverse of
multiplication, similar rules apply for the sign
In practical applications of algebra, an ex- of the quotient. When both the dividend and
pression usually states some physical law and the divisor have the same sign (both negative
each letter represents a variable quantity which or both positive) the quotient is positive. If
is therefore called a variable. A fixed number they have unlike signs (one positive and one
in front of such a quantity (by which it is to negative) the quotient is negative.
be multiplied) is known as the coefficient.
Sometimes the coefficient may be unknown, yet
to be determined; it is then also written as a
letter; k is most commonly used for this pur-
pose.
The Negative In ordinary arithmetic we

Sign seldom work with negative Powers. Even powers of negative numbers
numbers, although we may are positive and odd powers are negative. Pow-
be "short" in a subtraction. In algebra, how- ers of positive numbers are always positive.
ever, a number may be either negative or pos- Examples:
itive. Such a thing may seem academic but a
negative quantity can have a real existence.
- 2' = -2X -2- = +4
-2'=-2X-2X
We need only refer to a debt being considered
a negative possession. In electrical work, how-
-2 = -8
=+ 2 4 X
ever, a result of a problem might be a negative
number of amperes or volts, indicating that the
Roots. Since the square of a negative num-
direction of the current is opposite to the di- ber is positive and the square of a positive
rection chosen as positive. We shall have il- number is also positive, it follows that a posi-
lustrations of this shortly. tive number has two square roots. The square
Having established the existence of negative root of 4 can be either +2 or -2 for ( +2)
quantities, we must now learn how to work x ( +2) = +4 and ( -2) X ( -2) = +4.
with these negative quantities in addition, sub-
traction, multiplication and so forth. Addition and Polynomials are quantities
In addition, a negative number added to a
positive number is the same as subtracting a
Subtraction like 3ab' + 4ab' 7a'b' -
which have several terms of
positive number from it. different names. When adding polynomials,
7
only terms of the same name can be taken to-
7
-3
4
(add) is the same as
- 3
4
(subtract)
gether.
7a' +8 ab' +3a'b +3
or we might write it a' - 5 ob' - b'
7+ -3) =( 7 - 3 = 4 8a' +3 ab' +3o'b -b' +3
HANDBOOK Division 851
Collecting terms. When an expression con- a' 4 ob - lb'

+
tains more than one term of the same name,
these can be added together and the expression
2o - 3b ) 2a'
24s'
+
- -
5a'b
3o'b
26 ab' + 21b'
+ 8a'b - 26ob'
made simpler:
5 x' + 2 xy + 3xy' - 3 x' + 7xy = + 8a'b - 12ab'
5x'- 3x' +2xy+ 7xy+ 3xy'=

-- 14ab' + 21b'
14ob' + 21b'
2x' +9xy+ 3xy'

Another example: Divide x' - y' by x -y
Multiplication Multiplication of single terms
them together.
is indicated simply by writing x - y) x'x' +0
- s'y+0 -y' +xy+y'
(x'
+ s'y
a X b is written as ab s'y - xy:
a X b' is written as ab' + xy-
xy'
-- y'y'
Bracketed quantities are multiplied by a
single term by multiplying each term:
Factoring Very often it is necessary to sim-
a(b+c+d) =ab+ac + ad plify expressions by finding a fac-
tor. This is done by collecting two or more
When two bracketed quantities are multi- terms having the same factor and bringing the
plied, each term of the first bracketed quantity factor outside the brackets:
is to be multiplied by each term of the second
bracketed quantity, thereby making every pos- 6ab + 3oc = 3o (2b + c)
sible combination.
In a four term expression one can take to-
gether two terms at a time; the intention is to
(o+b) (c + d) -oc+od + bc + bd
try getting the terms within the brackets the
same after the factor has been removed:
In this work particular care must be taken
to get the signs correct. Examples:
30ac - 18bc + l0od - 6bd =
+ - = - - = 6c (50 - 3b) + 2d (5a - 3b) =
(a b) (a b)
a' -
a' +
b'
ob ab b'
(50 - 3b1 (6c + 2d)
= Of course, this is not always possible and

(o + b) (o + b) = a' + ab + ob + b'
the expression may not have any factors. A
a'+2ob+ b' similar process can of course be followed when
la - b) (a -o'-2ab+b'
=a'-ab-ab+b'=
b)
the expression has six or eight or any even
number of terms.
A special case is a three -term polynomial,
which can sometimes be factored by writing
Division It is possible to do longhand divi- the middle term as the sum of two terms:
sion in algebra, although it is
somewhat more complicated than in arithme- x' - 7xy + 12y' may be rewritten as
tic. However, the division will seldom come x' - 3xy 4xy + 12y'- =
out even, and is not often done in this form. x(x -3y) -4y (x- 3y) =
The method is as follows: Write the terms of
the dividend in the order of descending powers
(x -
4y) (x 3y) -
of one variable and do likewise with the di-
visor. Example:
The middle term should be split into two
in such a way that the sum of the two new
Divide 5a'b + 216' + 2a' - 26ab' by
ternis equals the original middle term and that
their product equals the product of the two
2a - 3b outer terms. In the above example these condi-
tions are fulfilled for - 3xy -- -t xy - 7xy -
Write the dividend in the order of descending and (- 3xy) ( Ixy) 12 x'y'. It is not al-
- -
powers of a and divide in the sanie way as in ways possible to do this and there arc then no
arithmetic. simple factors.
Working with When two powers of the Roots may be written as fractional powers.
Powers same number are to be mul- Thus Vi may be written as a'' because
and Roots
a'Xa'=aaXaaa=
tiplied, the exponents are
added.
=a'or and, ay'

X =a
Xo"=a1/2'1/2=a'=a
a' a' ''." = a' Any root may be written in this form
b' X b = b'
Vi =b1/2 'b = b1/2 AT =b
e,
e c The same notation is also extended in the
negative direction:
Similarly, dividing of powers is done by
subtracting the exponents. b-+ _!b _- C-1/2 = 1
- 1
oT au - O or
a
- = " -' =
O o' =a
Following the previous rules that exponents
b' - bbbbb
bbb = b or b' -b
b' (`.3
= b
' add when powers are multiplied,
a c'
Now we are logically led into some impor- ro- =
tant new ways of notation. We have seen that but also a" X a" = a;`
when dividing, the exponents are subtracted. therefore a% = d
This can be continued into negative exponents.
In the following series, we successively divide Powers of powers. When a power is again
by a and since this can now be done in two raised to a power, the exponents are multi-
ways, the two ways of notation must have the plied;
same meaning and be identical.
(a')' = a' (b-')' = b-'
a' (a'I' au
(b-')_'= b'
a' a' -e This same rule also applies to roots of roots
and also powers of roots and roots of powers
o' a = 1
because a root can always be written as a frac-
tional power.
These examples illustrate two rules: (1) any
number raised to "zero' power equals one or
unity; (2) any quantity raised to a negative
= for (o1/2)''b =a%
power is the inverse or reciprocal of the same Removing radicals. A root or radical in the
quantity raised to the same positive power. denominator of a fraction makes the expres-
sion difficult to handle. If there must be a rad-
n = 1 o ' _ ical it should be located in the numerator
rather than in the denominator. The removal
Roots. The product of the square root of of the radical from the denominator is done
two quantities equals the square root of their by multiplying both numerator and denomina-
product. tor by a quantity which will remove the radi-
rX = ab cal from the denominator, thus rationalizing it:
a V
Also, the quotient of two roots is equal to the Ye
root of the quotient.
t
-vxv- 1
Suppose we have to rationalize

VI; b
3a
Note, however, that in addition or subtrac-
tion the square root of the sum or difference is
/ + Vb
In this case we must multiply
not the same as the sum or difference of the numerator and denominator by the V-
square roots. same terms but with the second having the
opposite sign, so that their product will not
Thus, - ),/ 4 = 3 - 2 = 1 contain a root.
-
Likewise
but V9
+
4 =
Vis not the some as
= 2.2361
Va b +f 3a 30( -0-0
(+./To(v-vrbl
_]a(v-Vb)
a-b
HANDBOOK Power, Roots, Imaginaries 853
Imaginary a negative
Since the square of be accounted for separately, has found a sym-
Numbers number is positive and the bolic application in vector notation. These are
square of a positive number is covered later in this chapter.
also positive, the square root of a negative
number can be neither positive nor negative. Equations of the Algebraic expressions usu-
Such a number is said to he imaginary; the First Degree ally come in the form of
most common such number \ -1) is often I
equations, that is, one set
represented by the letter i in mathematical of terms equals another set of terms. The sim-
work or j in electrical work. plest example of this is Ohm's Law:
1 = i or j ond
Imaginary numbers do not exactly corre-

r orj'= -1 E = IR
One of the three quantities may be unknown

spond to anything in our experience and it is
but if the other two are known, the third can
best not to try to visualize them. Despite this
be found readily by substituting the known
values in the equation. This is very easy if it
fact, their interest is much more than academ-
is E in the above example that is to be found;
ic, for they are extremely useful in many cal-
but suppose we wish to find I while E and R
culations involving alternating currents.
are given. We must then rearrange the equa-
The square root of any other negative num-
ber may he reduced to a product of two roots, tion so that I comes to stand alone to the left
one positive and one negative. For instance:
of the equality sign. This is known as solving
57 = f -1 =
the equation /01 1.
Solution of the equation in this case is done
simply by transposing. If two things are equal
then they must still be equal if both are multi-
or, in general
plied or divided by the same number. Dividing
f-a = ifir both sides of the equation by R:
Since i =
following values:
\"i, the powers of i have the
E
R =1orI=
If it were required to solve the equation for
i' = -1 R, we should divide both sides of the equation
by I.
= - 1 X i = -i
= R or R = E
i' = + 1
A little more complicated example is the

i'=+1 X i = i
equation for the reactance of a condenser:
Imaginary numbers are different from either
positive or negative numbers; so in addition or
X _ 2n1fC
subtraction they must always be accounted for
separately. Numbers which consist of both real To solve this equation for C. we may multi-
and imaginary parts are called comp/ex num- ply both sides of the equation by C and divide
bers. Examples of complex numbers: both sides by X
X
3 + 4i = 3 + 4 x= 2ntfC or
o +bi =a +b\/-- 1 C =- nfX

t 2
Since an imaginary number can never be This equation is one of those which requires
equal to a real number, it follows that in an a good knowledge of the placing of the deci-
equality like mal point when solving. Therefore we give a
a + bi = c + di few examples: What is the reactance of a 2S
a must equal c and bi must equal di LAW. capacitor at 1000 kc.? In filling in the
given values in the equation we must remem-
Complex numbers are handled in algebra ber that the units useu are farads, cycles, and
just like any other expression, considering r ohms. Hence, we must write 25 Add. as 25
as a known quantity. Whenever powers of i millionths of a millionth of a farad or 25 x
occur, they can he replaced by the equivalents 10 -12 farad; similarly, 1000 kc. must be con -
given above. This idea of having In one equa- verted to 1,000,000 cycles. Substituting these
tion two separate sets of quantities which must values in the original equation, we have
X - 2x3.14x1,000,000x25 x10-"
1 It is, however, simpler in this case to use
the elimination method. Multiply both sides of
= 1
6.28 x 10" x25 x 10 -u

= 6360 ohms
- 6.28 x 25
1a the first equation by two and add it to the
second equation:
6x +IOy =14
A bias resistor of 1000 ohms should be by- 4x- l0y= 3
passed, so that at the lowest frequency the re- odd
actance of the condenser is 1 /10th of that of 10x = 17 x = 1.7
the resistor. Assume the lowest frequency to be
50 cycles, then the required capacity should
Substituting this value of x in the first equa-
have a reactance of 100 ohms, at 50 cycles: tion, we have
C =
1
2 x 3.14 x 50 x J00
farads
5.1 + 5y = 7 .. 5y
=
=7
0.38
- 5.1 = 1.9 ..
y
C - 6.28 x 5000 microforads
C = 32 pfd.
In the third possible case, it may be that the

frequency is the unknown. This happens for
instance in some tone control problems. Sup-
pose it is required to find the frequency which
makes the reactance of a 0.03 pfd. condenser
equal to 100,000 ohms.
First we must solve the equation for f. This
is done by transposition. C
X
1
2nfC f - 2nCX
1
Figure 3.
In this simple network the current divides
through the 2000 -ohm and 3000 -ohm resistors.
The current through each may be found by
Substituting known values using two simult s linear equations. Note
that the arrows indicate the direction of elec-
- 2 x 3.14 x 0.03 x
1
10sx 100,000 cycles

tron flow as explained on page 18.
f = 0.01884
cycles = 53 cycles An application of two simultaneous linear
equations will now be given. In Figure 3 a
These equations are known as first degree simple network is shown consisting of three re-
equations with one unknown. First degree, be- sistances; let it be required to find the currents
cause the unknown occurs only as a first power. I, and 12 in the two branches.
Such an equation always has one possible so- The general way in which all such prob-
lution or root if all the other values are known. lems can be solved is to assign directions to
If there are two unknowns, a single equa- the currents through the various resistances.
tion will not suffice, for there are then an infi- When these are chosen wrong it will do no
nite number of possible solutions. In the case harm for the result of the equations will then
of two unknowns we need two independent be negative, showing up the error. In this sim-
simultaneous equations. An example of this is: ple illustration there is, of course, no such dif-
ficulty.
3x +Sy =7 4x -10y =3 Next we write the equations for the meshes,
in accordance with Kirchhoff's second law. All
Required, to find x and y. voltage drops in the direction of the curved
This type of work is done either by the sub-
stitution method or by the elimination method. arrow are considered positive, the reverse ones
negative. Since there are two unknowns we
In the substitution method we might write for write two equations.
the first equation:
3x-7-Sy.'.x- 7 -5y + I,) + 2000 I, =

1000 (I, 6
3
-2000 I, + 3000 I, = 0
(The symbol .'. means. therefore or hence).
This value of x can then be substituted for x Expand the first equation
in the second equation making it a single equa-
tion with but one unknown, y. 3000 I. + 1000 I, = 6
HANDBOOK Quadratic Equations 855
Multiply the second equation by 2 and add

it to the third equation
(b)
6000 1, + 9000 I, - 10 = 0
Now we have but two equations with two

unknowns.
Multiplying equation (a) by 6 and adding
to equation (b) we have
Figure 4.
A MORE COMPLICATED PROB- -27000 - = I, 10 0
LEM REQUIRING THE SOLUTION
OF CURRENTS IN A NETWORK.
13 = - 10/27000 = -0.00037 amp.
This problem is similar to that in Figure 3 but
requires the usa of throe simultaneous linear Note that now the solution is negative
equations. which means that we have drawn the arrow
for L in Figure 4 in the wrong direction. The
current is 0.37 ma. in the other direction.
Multiply this equation by 3
Second Degree or A somewhat similar
9000 1, + 3000 I, = 18 Quadratic Equations problem in radio would
be, if power in watts
Subtracting the second equation from the first and resistance in ohms of a circuit are given,
to find the voltage and the current. Example:
11000 I, = 18 When lighted to normal brilliancy, a 100 watt
I, = 18/11000 = 0.00164 amp. lamp has a resistance of 49 ohms; for what
line voltage was the lamp designed and what
Filling in this value in the second equation current would it take.
Here we have to use the simultaneous equa-
3000 I, = 3.28 I, = 0.00109 amp. tions:
P =EI and E =IR
A similar problem but requiring three equa-
tions is shown in Figure 4. This consists of an Filling in the known values:
unbalanced bridge and the problem is to find
the current in the bridge- branch, I,. We again P= EI- 100 and E =IR =1X49
assign directions to the different currents,
guessing at the one marked L. The voltages Substitute the second equation into the first
around closed loops ABC (eq. (1) ) and BDC equation
(eq. (2)] equal zero and are assumed to be
= EI = =491'=
positive in a counterclockwise direction; that
from D to A equals 10 volts [eq. (3)).
(1)
1000 I, = 0 -
P
.
1
(I) X
49
I
=
X 49
t = 1.43 amp.
100
-1000 I, + 2000 I, Substituting the found value of 1.43 amp. for

(2) / in the first equation, we obtain the value of
the line voltage, 70 volts.
-1000 (I,- I, ) +1000 I, + 3000 ( I, + I,) =0 Note that this is a second degree equation
(3) for we finally had the second power of /. Also,
1000 I, + 1000 (I, - I,) - 10 = 0 since the current in this problem could only be
positive, the negative square root of 100/49
Expand equations (2) and (3) or -10/7 was not used. Strictly speaking,
however, there are two more values that sat-
(2) isfy both equations, these are -1.43 and -70.
-1000 1, + 3000 I, + 5000 I, = 0 In general, a second degree equation in one
unknown has two roots, a third degree equa-
(3) tion three roots, etc.
2000 I, - 1000 I, - 10 = 0
The Quadratic Quadratic or second degree
Subtract equation (2) from equation (1) Equation equations with but one un-
known can be reduced to the
general form
-1000 I, -(a)6000 I, = 0 ex' +bx+e=0
where x is the unknown and a, b, and c are

constants.
Also: (XL - Xo)' =Z' -R'
This type of equation can sometimes be and (XL -Xc)= Z' - R'
solved by the method of factoring a three -
term expression as follows: But here we do not know the sign of the so-
lution unless there are other facts which indi-
2x'+7x +6 =0 cate it. To find either XL or Xc alone it would
have to be known whether the one or the other
2x' +4x +3x +6 =0 is the larger.
factoring:
2x(x +2) +3(x +2) =0 Logarithms
Definition A logarithm is the power (or ex-
(2x + 3) (x + 2) = ond Use ponent) to which we must raise
one number to obtain another.
There are two possibilities when a product Although the large numbers used in logarith-
is zero. Either the one or the other factor mic work may make them seem difficult or
equals zero. Therefore there are two solutions. complicated, in reality the principal use of
logarithms is to simplify calculations which
2x,+3=0 x,+2=0 would otherwise be extremely laborious.
x, = -2
2x, = -3
We have seen so far that every operation
in arithmetic can be reversed. If we have the
x, = -11/2 addition:
o +b=e
Since factoring is not always easy, the fol-
lowing general solution can usually be em- we can reverse this operation in two ways. It
ployed; in this equation a, b, and c are the co- may be that b is the unknown, and then we
efficients referred to above. reverse the equation so that it becomes
X - b
2a
- 4ae e - a = b
It is also possible that we wish to know a, and

Applying this method of solution to the pre- that b and c are given. The equation then be-
vious example: comes
X _ -7 V49
4
- 8 X 6= -7th _- -71
4 4
e - b = a
We call both of these reversed operations sub-

X,= -741 = -1t/: traction, and we make no distinction between
the two possible reverses.
X,
-7 4-= -2 1 Multiplication can also be reversed in two
manners. In the multiplication
A practical example involving quadratics is
the law of impedance in a.c. circuits. However, ab = c
this is a simple kind of quadratic equation
which can be solved readily without the use we may wish to know a, when b and c are
of the special formula given above. given, or we may wish to know b when a and
c are given. In both cases we speak of division,
Z =1/R'+ (XL -Xo)' and we make again no distinction between the

two.
This equation can always be solved for R. In the case of powers we can also reverse
by squaring both sides of the equation. It the operation in two manners, but now they
should now be understood that squaring both are not equivalent. Suppose we have the equa-
sides of an equation as well as multiplying tion
both sides with a term containing the unknown a=c
may add a new root. Since we know here that
Z and R are positive, when we square the ex- If a is the unknown, and b and c are given,
pression there is no ambiguity. we may reverse the operation by writing
Z'=R'+ (Xr.-Xo)' =a
and R' = Z' - (X, - X0)' This operation we call taking the root. But
there is a third possibility: that a and c are
orR= - - Xo)'
(XL given, and that we wish to know b. In other
HANDBOOK Logarithms 857
words, the question is "to which power must log 10 = log 10' = 1
we raise a so as to obtain c? ". This operation

is known as taking the logarithm, and b is the log 100 = log 10`' = 2
logarithm of c to the base a. We write this
operation as follows: log 1,000 = log 10' = 3
log. e = b
log 10,000 = log 10' = 4
Consider a numerical example. We know 2' =8. log 100,000 = log 10' = 5
We can reverse this operation by asking "to log 1,000,000 = log 10' = 6
which power must we raise 2 so as to obtain
8?" Therefore, the logarithm of 8 to the base This table can be extended for numbers less
2 is 3, or than 10 when we remember the rules of pow-
log, 8 = 3 ers discussed under the subject of algebra.
Numbers less than unity, too, can be written
Taking any single base, such as 2, we might as powers of ten.
write a series of all the powers of the base next
to the series of their logarithms: log 1 = log 10" = 0
Number: 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 log 0.1 = log 10 -'= -1
Logarithm: 21 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
log 0.01 = log 10 = -2
We can expand this table by finding terms
between the terms listed above. For instance, log 0.001 = log 10 ' = -3
if we let the logarithms increase with 1/2 each
time, successive terms in the upper series log 0.0001 = log 10 -' _ -4
would have to be multiplied by the square root
of 2. Similarly, if we wish to increase the log- From these examples follow several rules:
arithm by 1 /10 at each term, the ratio between The logarithm of any number between zero
two consecutive terms in the upper series and + 1 is negative; the logarithm of zero is
would be the tenth root of 2. Now this short minus infinity; the logarithm of a number
list of numbers constitutes a small logarithm greater than + 1 is positive. Negative num-
table. It should be clear that one could find ber; have no logarithm. These rules are true
the logarithm of any number to the base 2. of common logarithms and of logarithms to
This logarithm will usually be a number with any base.
many decimals. The logarithm of a number between the
powers of ten is an irrational number, that is,
Logarithmic The fact that we chose 2 as it has a never ending series of decimals. For in-
Boles a base for the illustration is stance, the logarithm of 20 must be between
purely arbitrary. Any base 1 and 2 because 20 is between 10 and 100; the
could be used, and therefore there are many value of the logarithm of 20 is 1.30103.. . .
possible systems of logarithms. In practice we The part of the logarithm to the left of the
use only two bases: The most frequently used decimal point is called the characteristic, while
base is 10, and the system using this base is the decimals are called the mantissa. In the
known as the system of common logarithms, case of 1.30103 . ., the logarithm of 20, the
or Briggs' logarithms. The second system em- characteristic is 1 and the mantissa is .30103 ..
ploys as a base an odd number, designated by
the letter e; e = 2.71828.... This is known Properties of If the base of our system is
as the natural logarithmic system, also as the Logarithms ten, then, by definition of a
Napierian system, and the hyperbolic system. logarithm:
Although different writers may vary on the
subject, the usual notation is simply log a for 10'' =a
the common logarithm of a. and log. a (or
sometimes In a) for the natural logarithm of or, if the base is raised to the power having an
a. We shall use the common logarithmic sys- exponent equal to the logarithm of a number,
tem in most cases, and therefore we shall ex- the result is that number.
amine this system more closely. The logarithm of a product is equal to the
sum of the logarithms of the two factors.
Common In the system wherein 10 is the
Logarithms base, the logarithm of 10 equals log ob = log a + log b
1; the logarithm of 100 equals 2,
etc., as shown in the following table: This is easily proved to be true because, it
040000
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HANDBOOK Logarithm Tables 859
was shown before that when multiplying to logarithm tables, it has become the rule that
powers, the exponents are added; therefore, the mantissa should always be positive. Such
.
notations above as -
1.918555 really mear.
a X b = 101' X 101oD = 10 rl " Io(D)
( +0.918555 -1) and -2.981555 means
;
-
(+ 0.918555 2). There are also some other
Similarly, the logarithm of a quotient is the notations in use such as
difference between the logarithm of the divi-
dend and the logarithm of the divisor. 1.918555 and 2.918555
= log a - log b olso 9.918555 - 10 8.918555 - 10
This
log
b
is so because by the same rules of ex-

7.918555 - 10, etc.
ponents: When, after some addition and subtraction

of logarithms a mantissa should come out neg-
a
b - 10101
101st D
= 1011oF - lop D)
ative, one cannot look up its equivalent num-
ber or anti -logarithm in the table. The man-
We have thus established an easier way of tissa must first be made positive by adding and
multiplication and division rince these opera- subtracting an appropriate integral number.
tions have been reduced to adding and rub - Example: Suppose we find that the logarithm
tracting.
The logarithm of a power of a number is
of a number is -
0.34569, then we can trans-
form it into the proper form by adding and
equal to the logarithm of that number, multi- subtracting 1
plied by the exponent of the power.

1 -1
log a' = 2 log a and log o' = 3 log o -0.34569
or, in general: 0.65431 -1 or -1.65431
log o" = n log a
Using Logarithm Tables
Also, the logarithm of a root of a number Logarithms are used for calculations involv-
is equal to the logarithm of that number di- ing multiplication, division, powers, and roots.
vided by the index of the root: Especially when the numbers are large and for
higher, or fractional powers and roots, this be-
log _ log o comes the most convenient way.
Logarithm tables are available giving the
It follows from the rules of multipliation, logarithms to three places, some to four places,
that numbers having the same digits but dif- others to five and six places. The table to use
ferent locations for the decimal point, have depends on the accuracy required in the result
logarithms with the same mantissa: of our calculations. The four place table,
printed in this chapter, permits the finding of
log = 2.918555
829 answers to problems to four significant figures
which is good enough for most constructional
log 82.9 = 1.918555 purposes. If greater accuracy is required a five
place table should be consulted. The five place
log 8.29 = 0.918555
table is perhaps the most popular of all.
Referring now to the four place table, to
log 0.829 = -1.918555
find a common logarithm of a number, pro-
log 0.0829 = -2.918555 ceed as follows. Suppose the number is 5576.
First, determine the characteristic. An inspec-
log 829 = log (8.29 X 100) = log 8.29 + tion will show that the characteristic should
log 100 = 0.918555 + 2 be 3. This figure is placed to the left of the
decimal point. The mantissa is now found by
Logarithm tables give the mantissas of log- reference to the logarithm table. The first two
arithms only. The characteristic has to be de- numbers are 55; glance down the N column
termined by inspection. The characteristic is until coming to these figures. Advance to the
equal to the number of digits to the left of the right until coming in line with the column
decimal point minus one. In the case of loga- headed 7; the mantissa will be 7459. (Note that
rithms of numbers less than unity, the charac- the column headed 7 corresponds to the third
teristic is negative and is equal to the number figure in the number 5576.) Place the mantissa
of ciphers to the right of the decimal point 7459 to the right of the decimal point, making
plus one. the logarithm of 5576 now read 3.7459. Impor-
For reasons of convenience in making up tant: do not consider the last figure 6 in the
N L. O ' I 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 P. P. the logarithm is -2.39811 but this is the loga-
250 39 794 811 829 846 863 881 890 915 933 950
rithm of 0.025010 and we want the logarithm
251 967 985 002 019 037 054 "071 088 106 923 18
252 40 140 157 175 192 209 226 243 261 278 295 11.8 of 0.025013. Here we can interpolate by ob-
253 346 364 398 415 432 449 466 serving that the difference between the log of
-
312 329 381 2 3.6
254 483 500 518 535 552 569 586 603 620 637 3 5.4 0.02501 and 0.02502 is 829 811 or 18, in
4 7.2
255 654 671 688 705 722 739 756 773 790 807 etc.
the last two significant figures. Looking in the
P.P. table marked 18 we find after 3 the num-
Figure 6. ber 5.4 which is to be added to the logarithm.
A SMALL SECTION OF A FIVE PLACE
LOGARITHM TABLE. -2.39811
Logarithms may be found with greater accu- 5.4
racy with such tables, but they are only of
use when the accuracy of the original data -2.39816, the logarithm of 0.025013
warrants greater precision in the figure work.
Slightly greater accuracy may be obtained for
intermediate points by interpolation, as ex- Since our table is only good to five places,
plained in the text. we must eliminate the last figure given in the
P.P. table if it is less than 5, otherwise we
must add one to the next to the last figure,
rounding off to a whole number in the P.P.
number 5576 when looking for the mantissa table.
in the accompanying four place tables; in
fact, one may usually disregard all digits be-
Finding the anti -logarithm is done the same
way but with the procedure reversed. Suppose
yond the first three when determining the man-
it is required to find the anti -logarithm of
tissa. (Interpolation. sometimes used to find a
0.40100. Find the first two digits in the column
logarithm more accurately, is unnecessary un-
less warranted by unusual accuracy in the
headed by L. Then one must look for the next
three digits or the ones nearest to it, in the
available data.) However, be doubly sure to
include all figures when ascertaining the mag- columns after 40 and on the lines from 40 to
41. Now here we find that numbers in the
nitude of the characteristic.
To find the anti -logarithm, the table is used neighborhood of 100 occur only with an aster-
isk on the line just before 40 and still after 39.
in reverse. As an example, let us find the anti-
logarithm of 1.272 or, in other words, find The asterisk means that instead of the 39 as
the first two digits, these mantissas should
the number of which 1.272 is the logarithm.
Look in the table for the mantissa closest to
have 40 as the first two digits. The logarithm
0.40100 is between the logs 0.40088 and
272. This is found in the first half of the table
and the nearest value is 2718. Write down the 0.40106; the anti -logarithm is between 2517
first two significant figures of the anti -loga- and 2518. The difference between the two
rithm by taking the figures at the beginning of logarithms in the table is again 18 in the
the line on which 2718 was found. This is 18; last two figures and our logarithm 0.40100
add to this, the digit above the column in differs with the lower one 12 in the last
which 2718 was found; this is 7. The anti-log- figures. Look in the P.P. table of 18 which
arithm is 187 but we have not yet placed the number comes closest to 12. This is found
decimal point. The characteristic is 1, which to be 12.6 for 7 x 1.8 = 12.6. Therefore
we may add the digit 7 to the anti -logarithm
means that there should be two digits to the
left of the decimal point. Hence, 18.7 is the already found; so we have 25177. Next,
place the decimal point according to the rules:
anti -logarithm of 1.272.
For the sake of completeness we shall also There are as many digits to the left of the
describe the same operation with a five -place decimal point as indicated in the characteris-
tic plus one. The anti -logarithm of 0.40100 is
table where interpolation is done by means of
2.5177.
tables of proportional parts (P.P. tables).
Therefore we are reproducing here a small In the following examples of the use of log-
part of one page of a five -place table. arithms we shall use only three places from the
Finding the logarithm of 0.025013 is done as tables printed in this chapter since a greater
follows: We can begin with the characteristic, degree of precision in our calculations would
which is -2. Next find the first three digits in not be warranted by the accuracy of the data
the column, headed by N and immediately given.
after this we see 39, the first two digits of the In a 375 ohm bias resistor flows a current
mantissa. Then look among the headings of of 41.5 milliamperes; how many watts are dis-
the other columns for the next digit of the sipated by the resistor?
number, in this case 1. In the column, headed We write the equation for power in watts:
by 1 and on the line headed 250, we find the
next three digits of the logarithm, 811. So far, P = PR
HANDBOOK The Decibel 861
and filling in the quantities in question, we

have: Power
db Ratio
P = 0.0415' X 375
0 1.00
1 1.26
Taking logarithms, 2 1.58
3 2.00
log P = 2 log 0.0415 + log 375 4 2.51
S 3.16
= -2.618
log 0.0415 6 3.98
7 5.01
8 6.31
So 2 X log 0.0415 = -3.236 9 7.94
10 10.00
log 375 = 2.574 20 100
30 1,000
log P = -1.810 40 10,000
50 100,000
antilog = 0.646. Answer = 0.646 watts 60 1,000,000
70 10,000,000
Caution: Do not forget that the negative 80 100,000,000
sign before the characteristic belongs to the
characteristic only and that mantissas are al- Figure 7.
u'ayr positive. Therefore we recommend the A TABLE OF DECIBEL GAINS VERSUS
other notation, for it is less likely to lead to POWER RATIOS.
errors. The work is then written:
The Decibel
log 0.0415 = 8.618 -10
2 X log 0.0415 = 17.236 -20 = 7.236 -10 The decibel is a unit for the comparison of
log 375 = 2.574 power or voltage levels in sound and electrical
work. The sensation of pur ears due to sound
logP = 9.810 -10 waves in the surrounding air is roughly pro-
portional to the logarithm of the energy of the
Another example follows which demon- sound -wave and not proportional to the energy
strates the ease in handling powers and roots. itself. For this reason a logarithmic unit is used
Assume an all -wave receiver is to be built, so as to approach the reaction of the ear.
covering from 550 kc. to 60 mc. Can this be The decibel represents a ratio of two power
done in five ranges and what will be the re- levels, usually connected with gains or loss due
quired tuning ratio for each range if no over- to an amplifier or other network. The decibel
lapping is required? Call the tuning ratio of is defined
one band, x. Then the total tuning ratio for
five such bands is x8. But the total tuning ratio
Neb = 10 log P
for all hands is 60/0.55. Therefore: where PO stands for the output power, P, for
the input power and N,,, for the number of
X" = 60 or
o.ss
: x- ' s0
0.55
decibels. When the answer is positive, there is
a gain; when the answer is negative, there is
Taking logarithms: a loss.
The gain of amplifiers is usually given in
log x _ log 60 - log 0.55 decibels. For this purpose both the input power
S
and output power should be measured. Ex-
ample: Suppose that an intermediate amplifier
log 60
log 0.55 - 1.778
1.740
subtract
is being driven by an input power of 0.2 watt
and after amplification, the output is found to
2.038 be 6 watts.
Remember again that the mantissas are posi-
tive and the characteristic alone can be nega-
Po
P - 6
0.2
-30
tive. Subtracting -1 is the same as adding +1. log 30 = 1.48
log x - 2'
S
6
_ 0.408 Therefore the gain is 10 X 1.48 = 14.8
decibels. The decibel is a logarithmic unit;
x = antilog 0.408 = 2.56 when the power was multiplied by 30, the
power level in decibels was increased- by 14.8
The tuning ratio should be 2.56. decibels, or 14.8 decibels added.
TUBE STEP -UP Example: In the circuit of Figure 8, the gain

GAIN =A PATIO 3.5
in the stage is equal to the amplification in the
tube and the step -up ratio of the transformer.
If the amplification in the tube is 10 and the
step -up in the transformer is 3.5, the voltage
gain is 15 and the gain in decibels is:
20 x log 35 = 20 x L54 = 30.8 dh
Decibels os The original use of the decibel

Figure 8. Power Level was only as a ratio of power
STAGE GAIN. levels-not as an absolute
The voltage gain in decibels in this stage is measure of power. However, one may use the
equal to the amplification in the tube plus the decibel as such an absolute unit by fixing an
step -up ratio of the transformer, both ex- arbitrary "zero" level, and to indicate any
pressed in decibels.
power level by its number of decibels above or
below this arbitrary zero level. This is all very
When one amplifier is to be followed by good so long as we agree on the zero level.
another amplifier, power gains are multiplied Any power level may then be converted to
but the decibel gains are added. If a main am- decibels by the equation:
plifier having a gain of 1,000,000 (power ratio Nab = 10 log P
is 1,000,000) is preceded by a pre -amplifier
with a gain of 1000, the total gain is 1,000,- where Nab is the desired power level in deci-
000,000. But in decibels, the first amplifier has bels, P. the output of the amplifier, Pref. the
a gain of 60 decibels, the second a gain of 30 arbitrary reference level.
decibels and the two of them will have a gain The zero level most frequently used (but not
of 90 decibels when connected in cascade. always) is 6 milliwatts or 0.006 watts. For this
(This is true only if the two amplifiers are zero level, the equation reduces to
properly matched at the junction as otherwise
there wil? be a reflection loss at this point N,Ib = 10 log P
0.006
which must be subtracted from the total.)
Conversion of power ratios to decibels or Example: An amplifier using a 6F6 tube
vice versa is easy with the small table shown should be able to deliver an undistorted output
on these pages. In any case, an ordinary loga- of 3 watts. How much is this in decibels?
rithm table will do. Find the logarithm of the
power ratio and multiply by ten to find deci-
bels.
P
Prrr. _
3
.o - 500
Sometimes it is more convenient to figure 10 X log 500 = 10 X 2.70 = 27.0

decibels from voltage or current ratios or gains Therefore the power level at the output of
rather than from power ratios. This applies the 6F6 is 27.0 decibels. When the power level
especially to voltage amplifiers. The equation to be converted is less than 6 milliwatts, the
for this is
Nab = 20 log [ or 20 log
where the subscript, , denotes the output volt-

level is noted as negative. Here we must re-
member all that has been said regarding loga-
rithms of numbers less than unity and the fact
that the characteristic is negative but not the
age or current and the input voltage or cur-
I
mantissa.
rent. Remember, this equation is true only if A preamplifier for a microphone is feeding
the voltage or current gain in question repre- 1.5 milliwatts into the line going to the regu-
sents a power gain which is the square of it lar speech amplifier. What is this power level
and not if the power gain which results from expressed in decibels?
this is some other quantity due to impedance
changes. This should be quite clear when we decibels = 10 log
o.006 -016
consider that a matching transformer to con-
nect a speaker to a line or output tube does
not represent a gain or loss; there is a voltage
10 log
e.o.00o6 - 101log 0.25
Log 0.25 = -1.398 (from table). There-

change and a current change yet the power re- fore, 10 X -1.398 = (10 x -1 = -10)
mains the same for the impedance has changed. + (10 x .398 = 3.98) ; adding the products
On the other hand, when dealing with volt- algebraically, gives -6.02 db.
age amplifiers, we can figure the gain in a The conversion chart reproduced in this
stage by finding the voltage ratio from the grid chapter will be of use in converting decibels to
of the first tube to the grid .of the next tube. watts and vice versa.
i.l -
HANDBOOK Decibel -Power Conversion 863
60
50 iittl
M=aaiiW t
M11111111
ti1111ta111Ota.rM1[1.11e1m--
amaaii.i
aaaiiar
. E
a
Ns 50
I
60
!IN
MAIM
40 ITWM En 40
araaiIIIIIMnr11
1E
tatatata l Ea
30
20
aiiii
"-.7wlimata.-
MMaaia
MEN= IIIIIIII
tatatatatata.ta!
ara
III11111
a
EN
30
20
!
IN
1111 a
10
1i11 a
o
i%ii1-
a
.La AIM:
NO
I1=aaii.!
IMIiaIIIIIIIIIM
1..=ZZINEMi.
MI
Ell
NM
11111fi11i11i_a:r
MIN11 '=
taratati... eliO.YI:"".
MMiii
:
=
-20
J -30
W ::r
az
tatataaf.fai-_GU.1'/slMEi
iiaaaiaR"
at.aaaR1 :' t:1=1lSlkAiY >,-
MII
:fiE
Ti
20
0 >
W
J
W
iiaaaaiiu-
araraIMIIl
W
al.aaaia.-
-1NsNa.
s.Mi.
i
-1-40
atataaala.MIIIIIIItel:lel'
raraarara.wc -, ' NO
-50
aaaa..iiaaokr
MIMEO
M2i1
aa i.
iii:
-60 E
-70
faalfafas
aaaa.aR
ai a i i.
tarafafaia
m!!!:.=r:anlI.
a1 fa
e e : .
al1.l'LifJrir0ett.
. at SIM
a a -70
ai a t t a.
-80 IMINIMa=11a -80
al o l yd : te
-90 -- 9 1 2 6
-90
POWER
9e..4 e, .006 wale d ..n Yee/
Figure 9.
CONVERSION CHART: POWER TO DECIBELS
Power levels between 6 mlcromicrowatts and 6000 watts may be referred to corresponding decibel
levels between -90 and 60 db, and rice versa, by means of the above chart. fifteen ranges are
provided. Eachcuir begins at the same point where the preceding one ends, enabling uninterrupted
coverage of the wide db and power ranges with condensed chart. for example: the lowermost curve
ends at -80 db or 60 micromicrowatts and the next rang starts at the same level. Zero db fetal Is
taken as 6 milliwatts (.006 watt).
Converting Decibels is often convenient

It Solution:
to Power to he able to convert a
decibel value to a pow-
-- 17.3
2.7 + 2.7
er equivalent. The formula used for this oper-
ation is - 20 + 2.7
-20 +
P = 0.006 X antilog N' Nnb
lo j0 -_ -2.27
2.7
where P is the desired level in watts and Nib

the decibels to be converted.
Antilog - 2.27 = 0.0186
To determine the power level P from a dec- 0.006 X 0.0186 = 0.000 16 watt or
1 1
ibel equivalent, simply divide the decibel value 0.1116 milliwott

by 10; then take the number comprising the
antilog and multiply it by 0.006; the product input voltages: To determine the required
gives the level in watts. input voltage, take the peak voltage necessary
Note: In problems dealing with the conver- to drive the last class A amplifier tube to max-
sion of ntinnr decibels to power, it often hap- imum output, and divide this figure by the to-
pens that the decibel value -
Na.. is not tal overall voltage gain of the preceding stages.
divisible by 10. When this is the case, Computing Specifications: From the preced-
the numerator in the factor - Non.
must be ing explanations the following data can be
computed with any degree of accuracy war-
made evenly divisible by 10, the negative signs ranted by the circumstances:
must be observed, and the quotient labeled ac- (I ) Voltage amplification
cordingly. (2) Overall gain in db
To make the numerator evenly divisible by (3) Output signal level in db
10 proceed as follows: Assume, for example, (4) Input signal level in db
that -NM, is some such value as -38; to (5) Input signal level in watts
make this figure evenly divisible by 10, we (6) Input signal voltage
must add -2 to it, and, since we have added When a power level is available which must
a negative 2 to it, we must also add a positive
be brought up to a new power level, the gain
2 so as to keep the net result the same.
required in the intervening amplifier is equal
Our decibel value now stands, -40 + 2. to the difference between the two levels in dec-
Dividing both of these figures by 10, as in the ibels. If the required input of an amplifier for
equation above, we have -
4 and +0.2. Put-
full output is -30 decibels and the output
ting the two together we have the logarithm from a device to be used is but -45 decibels,
-4.2 with the negative characteristic and the the pre -amplifier required should have a gain
positive mantissa as required. of the difference, or 15 decibels. Again this is
The following examples will show the tech- true only if the two amplifiers are properly
nique to be followed in practical problems. matched and no losses are introduced due to
(a) The output of a certain device is rated mismatching.
at -74 db. What is the power equivalent?
Solution: Push -Pull To double the output of any cas -
N0
evenly divisible by 10) Amplifiers cade amplifier, it is only neces-
= 10` (not sary to connect in push -pull the
Routine: last amplifying stage, and replace the inter -
-- 746 +6
stage and output transformers with push -pull
types.
To determine the voltage gain (voltage ra-
- 80 +6 tio) of a push -pull amplifier, take the ratio of
one half of the secondary winding of the push -
-BO+6= 86
Ndl.
10 - 10
pull transformer and multiply it by the of
one of the output tubes in the push -pull stage;
antilog -8.6 = 0.000 000 04 the product, when doubled, will be the voltage
.006 X 0.000 000 04 = amplification, or step -up.
0.000 000 000 24 watt or
240 micro- microwatt
Other Units and When working with deci-
Zero Levels bels one should not im-
(b) This example differs somewhat from mediately take for granted
that of the foregoing one in that the mantissas that the zero level is 6 milliwatts for there are
are added differently. A low - powered amplifier other zero levels in use.
has an input signal level of -17.3 db. How In broadcast stations an entirely new system
many milliwatts does this value represent? is now employed. Measurements made in
HANDBOOK Trigonometry 865
acoustics are now made with the standard zero

level of 10-' watts per square cm.
Microphones are often rated with reference SECOND FIRST
to the following zero level: one volt at open QUADRANT QUADRANT
circuit when the sound pressure is one millibar.
In any case, the rating of the microphone must
include the loudness of the sound. It is obvious
that this zero level does not lend itself readily
THIRD FOURTH
for the calculation of required gain in an am- QUADRANT QUADRANT
plifier.
The VU: So far, the decibel has always re-
ferred to a type of signal which can readily be
measured, that is, a steady signal of a single Figure 10.
frequency. But what would be the power level THE CIRCLE IS DIVIDED INTO
of a signal which is constantly varying in vol- FOUR QUADRANTS BY TWO PER-
ume and frequency? The measurement of volt- PENDICULAR LINES AT RIGHT
age would depend on the type of instrument ANGLES TO EACH OTHER.
employed, whether it is measured with a The "northeast" quadrant thus formed is
known as the first quadrant; the others are
thermal square law meter or one that. shows numbered consecutively in a counterclockwise
average values; also, the inertia of the move- direction.
ment will change its indications at the peaks
and valleys.
After considerable consultation, the broad- Trigonometry
cast chains and the Bell System have agreed Definition Trigonometry is the science of
on the VU. The level in VU is the level in and Use mensuration of triangles. At first
decibels above i milliu art zero level and meas- glance triangles may seem to
ured with a carefully defined type of instru- have little to do with electrical phenomena;
ment across a 600 ohm line. So long as we however, in a.c. work most currents and volt-
deal with an unvarying sound, the level in VU ages follow laws equivalent to those of the
is equal to decibels above 1milliwatt; but various trigonometric relations which we are
when the sound level varies, the unit is the about to examine briefly. Examples of their
VU and the special meter must be used. There application to a.c. work will he given in the
is then no equivalent in decibels. section on Vectors.
The Neper: We might have used the natural Angles are measured in deg,ees or in radi-
logarithm instead of the common logarithm ans. The circle has been divided into 360
when defining our logarithmic unit of sound. degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, and each
This was done in Europe and the unit obtained minute into 60 seconds. A decimal division of
is known as the neper or napier. It is still the degree is also in use because it makes cal-
found in some American literature on filters. culation easier. Degrees, minutes and seconds
1 neper = 8.686 decibels are indicated by the following signs: , ' and "
1 de_ihel = 0.1151 neper Example: 6 5' 23" means six degrees, five
minutes, twenty -three seconds. In the decimal
notation we simply write 8.4' , eight and
AC Meters With Many test instruments
Decibel Scales are now equipped with
forty -seven hundredths of a degree.
When a circle is divided into four quadrants
scales calibrated in deci-
by two perpendicular lines passing through
bels which is very handy when making meas-
the center (Figure 10) the angle made by the
urements of frequency characteristics and gain.
These meters are generally calibrated for con-
two lines is 90 degrees, known as a right angle.
nection across a 500 ohm line and for a zero
Two right angles, or 180 equals a straight
angle.
level of 6 milliwatts. When they are connected
The radian: If we take the radius of a circle
across another impedance, the reading on the
meter is no longer correct for the zero level of and bend it so it can cover a part of the cir-
6 milliwatts. A correction factor should be
cumference, the arc it covers subtends an angle
applied consisting in the addition or subtrac- called a radian (Figure 11). Since the diam-
tion of a steady figure to all readings on the eter. of a circle equals 2 times the radius,
meter. This figure is given by the equation: there are 2^r radians in 360. So we have the
following relations:
db to be added = 10 log sZ 1 radian =57 17'45 " = 57.2958 IT= 3.14159
1 degree = 0.01745 radians
where Z is the impedance of the circuit under it radians = 180 7/2 radians = 90
measurement. ar /3 radians= 60
In the angle A, Figure 13A, a line is drawn

from P, perpendicular to b. Regardless of the
point selected for P, the ratio a/c will always
be the same for any given angle, A. So will all
the other proportions between a, b, and c re-
main constant regardless of the position of
point P on c. The six possible ratios each are
named and defined as follows:
a b
sine A = -c cosine A = -c
a b
Figure 11. tangent A = cotangent A = -a
THE RADIAN.
A radian is on angle whose arc is exactly equal C c
to the length of either side. Note that the secant A = cosecant A = -a
angle is constant regardless of the length of
the side and the arc so long as they are equal.
A radian equals 57.2958'. Let us take a special angle as an example.
For instance, let the angle A be 60 degrees as
In trigonometry we consider an angle gen- in Figure 13B. Then the relations between the
erated by two lines, one stationary and the sides are as in the figure and the six functions
other rotating as if it were hinged at 0, Figure become:
12. Angles can be greater than 180 degrees and
even greater than 360 degrees as illustrated in a r/2V-3"_
sin. 60 _ = 1/2
this figure.
Two angles are complements of each other b
when their sumis 90 , or a right angle. A is cos 60 _ = =
1/2
= 1/2
the complement of B and B is the complement
of A when V -3
A= (90 -B) tan 60 = b
a 1/2
1/2
-
and when
B= (90 -A)
cot 60 _ 1
1/2
/2f -- f 1
-1/31/1
Two angles are supplements of each other sec 60 = = T72-2

when their sum is equal to'a straight angle, or
c 1
180 . A is the supplement of B and B is the
supplement of A when
csc 60 _ -
a 1/2V, -2/3V3
A= (180 -B) Another example: Let the angle be 45, then
and the relations between the lengths of a, b, and
c are as shown in Figure 13C, and the six
B= (180 -A) functions are:
Figure 12.
AN ANGLE IS GENERATED BY TWO LINES, ONE STATIONARY AND THE OTHER
ROTATING.
The line OX is stationary; the line with the small arrow at the far end rotates in a counterclockwise
direction. At the position illustrated in the lefthandmost section of the drawing it makes an angle,
A, which is less than 90 and is therefore in the first quadrant. In the position shown in the second
portion of the drawing the angle A kas increased to such a value that it now lies in the third
quadrant; note that an angle can be greater than 180'. In the third illustration the ongle A is in
the fourth quadrant. In the fourth position the rotating vector has made more than one complete
revolution and is hence in the fifth quadrant; since the fifth quadrant is an exact repetition of the
first quadrant. its values will be the same as in the lefthandmost portion of the illustration.
HANDBOOK Trigonometric Relations 867
C=e
90"
_
b ='/2 b= I
Figure 13.
THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.
In the right triangle shown in (A) the side opposite the angle A is a, while the adjoining sides are
b and c; the trigonometric functions of the angle A are completely defined by the ratios of the
sides a, b and c. In (B) are shown the lengths of the sides a and b when angle A is 60 and side c
is I. In (C) angle A is IS`; a and b equal 1, while c equals VI
In (D) note that c equals a for a
right angle while b equals O.
1 Relations Between It follows from the defi-

sin 45 1/2
V2 Functions nitions that
1
cos 45 _ = 1/2 vi sin A = cosec A
1
cos A
1
sec A
tan 45 = 1 = 1 cot 45 = =1 and tan A =cot
1
sec 45 _- - = Nri From the definitions also follows the relation

VT cos A =sin (complement of A) =sin (90 -A)
cosec 45 _ _
because in the right triangle of Figure 15,
There are some special difficulties when the
cos A =b /c = sin B and B =90 -A or the
angle is zero or 90 degrees. In Figure 13D an complement of A. For the same reason:
angle of 90 degrees is shown; drawing a line
perpendicular to b from point P makes it fall cot = tan (90 -A)
on top of c. Therefore in this case a = c and
b = 0. The six ratios are now: cscA = sec (90 -A)
a
sin 90 = = 1 cos 90=6==0 C C
Relations in In the right triangle of
a a
Right Triangles Figure 15, sin A =a /c and
tan 90 = 90 = = by transposition
b -0 Cot
a
0
a =c sin A
c c c
sec 90 = = = m cosec 90 = = 1
For the same reason we have the following
b U a
When the angle is zero, a =0 and b =c. The identities:
values are then: tan A = a/b a = b tan A
a 0 b cot A = b/a b = a cot A
sin 0 = C
=
C
= 0 cos 0 =
C
= 1
In the same triangle we can do the same for

tan 0 =
b -B--
-0 cot 0 =
a 0 - functions of the angle B
Angle Sin Cos. Tan Cot Sec. Cosec.

=7
\
sec 0 = = cosec 0
b
1
0 -m 0 0 1 0 m 1 co
In general, for every angle, there will be defi-

nite values of the six functions. Conversely,
when any of the six functions is known, the
30
45
60
1/2
1/2V
1/2 VI
/2 1/2
1
VI
1/2
1/3
V,
v
1
, VT
1/3
1
VT
2/3
V[
2
V[
2/3
2
VT
angle is defined. Tables have been calculated 90 1 0 0 W 1
giving the value of the functions for angles.
From the foregoing we can make up a small Figure 14.
table of our own (Figure 14), giving values of Values of trigonometric functions for common
the functions for some common angles. angles in the first quadrant.
POSITIVE FUNCTIONS
SECOND QUADRANT FIRST QUADRANT
sine, cosec all functions
Figure 15.
In this figure the sides a, b, and e are used
to define the trigonometric functions of angle
B as well as angle A.
sin B = b/c b = c sin B tan. cot ofin.. secant

cos B --a/c a = c cos B
tan B = b/a b = a tan B
cot B = a/b a = b cot B
Functions of Angles In angles greater than

THIRD QUADRANT FOURTH QUADRANT
Greater than the values
90 degrees,
90 Degrees of a and b become neg- Figure 17.
ative on occasion in ac- SIGNS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC
cordance with the rules of Cartesian coordi- FUNCTIONS.
nates. When h is measured from 0 towards The functions listed in this diagram are posi-
the left it is considered negative and similarly, tive; all other functions are negative.
when a is measured from 0 downwards, it is
negative. Referring to Figure 16, an angle in
the second quadrant (between 90 and 180 )
has some of its functions negative:
sec A =
-
c
bb
= neg. cosec A = -=
-a neg.
sin A = -=
a
pos. cos A - -b = neg.
And in the fourth quadrant (270 to 360 ):
-a = neg.
tan A = = neg. cot A
-=b = neg. sin A = C cos A
b
pos.
c
-=
a
c tan A =
-a = neg. cot A
b
A = A = neg.
sec
-b neg. cosec
a
pos. b -a
For an angle in the third quadrant (180 to
270 ), the functions are
sec
c
A = -17 = pos. cosec A =-
-a = neg.
Summarizing, the sign of the functions in

sin A =
-a = neg. cos A =
-b = neg. each quadrant can be seen at a glance from
Figure 17, where in each quadrant are written
tan A =
-a =
-6 pos. cot A = -=
-b
-a pos.
the names of functions which are positive;
those not mentioned are negative.
SECOND
QUADRANT
FOURTH
THIRD
QUADRANT
QUADRANT
Figure 16.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS IN THE SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH QUADRANTS.
The trigonometric functions in these quadrants are similar to first quadrant values, but the
signs of the functions vary as listed in the text and in Figure 17.
HANDBOOK Trigonometric Curves 869
IA1
Figure I8.
SINE AND COSINE CURVES.
In (Al we have a sine curve s
:'
drawn in Cartesian coordinates. o 20- d7!- fi
This is the usual representation S
of an alternating current wave
I80 270" 360' 450' 540 630 720'
without substantial harmonics. In
(BI we have a cosine wave;
note that it is exactly similar
A.
to a sine wave displaced by
90 or IT 2 radians.
IBI
O1d__=_egs 2 71' 6_1' 37r ssr
2
17l
Graphs of Trigone- The .Fine wave. When 3. Cos x = -cos (180 -x) or
metric Functions we have the relation -cos (ir -x)
y= Jin x. where x is an 4. Cos x= cos (360 -x) or cos (27-x)
angle measured in radians or degrees, we can The graph of the tangent is illustrated in
draw a curve of y versus x for all values of Figure 19. This is a discontinuous curve and
the independent variable, and thus get a good illustrates well how the tangent increases from
conception how the sine varies with the mag- zero to infinity when the angle increases from
nitude of the angle. This has been done in zero to 90 degrees. Then when the angle is
Figure 18A. We can learn from this curve the further increased, the tangent starts from
following facts. minus infinity going to zero in the second quad-
1. The sine varies between +1 and -1 rant, and to infinity again in the third quadrant.
2. It is a periodic curve, repeating itself after 1. The tangent can have any value between
every multiple of 27 or 360 +00 and
3. Sin x = sin (180 -x) or sin Or -x) 2. The curve repeats and the period is s?
4. Sin x = -sin (180 + x), or radians or 180 , not 27 radians
3. Tan x = tan (180 +x) or tan (ar +x)
-sin (7r + x) 4. Tan x = -tan (180 -x) or
The cosine Crave. Making a curve for the
function y = cos x, we obtain a curve similar
-tan (z -x)
The graph of the cotangent is the inverse of
to that for y = sin x except that it is displaced that of the tangent, see Figure 20. It leads us
by 90 or 7/2 radians with respect to the to the following conclusions:
Y -axis. This curve (Figure 18B) is also peri- 1. The cotangent can have any value be-
odic but it does not start with zero. We read
from the curve:
tween + m and m -
2. It is a periodic curve, the period being
1. The value of the cosine never goes be- a radians or 180
yond +1 or -1 3. Cot x = cot (180 +x) or cot (a +x)
2. The curve repeats, after every multiple 4. Cot x = -
cot (180 x) or -
of 27 radians or 360 - cot (sr -x)
7 ere
7
0' 180 360' 540 720' 90 270' 450 630'

180' 360 540 720'
90' 270 450 630
Figure 19. Figure 20.

TANGENT CURVES. COTANGENT CURVES.
The tangent curve increases from 0 to with Cotangent curves ore the inverse of the tan-
an angular increase of 90 In the next 180 gent curves. They vary from + to In -
-
.
it increases from to } each pair of quadrants.
Figure 22.
Vectors may be added as shown in these
sketches. In each case the long vector repre-
sents the vector sum of the smaller vectors.
For many engineering applications sufficient
accuracy can be obtained by this method
COSINE which avoids long and laborious calculations.
Figure 21.
ANOTHER REPRESENTATION OF velocity of 50 miles per hour, we speak of a
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS. vector quantity.
If the radius of a circle is considered as the
Vectors, representing forces, speeds, dis-
unit of measurement, then the lengths of the
various lines shown in this diagram are numer- placements, etc., are represented by arrows.
ically equal to the functions marked adjacent They can be added graphically by well known
to them. methods illustrated in Figure 22. We can make
the parallelogram of forces or we can simply
The graphs of the secant and cosecant are draw a triangle. The addition of many vectors
of lesser importance and will not be shown can be accomplished graphically as in the same
here. They are the inverse, respectively, of the figure.
cosine and the sine, and therefore they vary In order that we may define vectors algebra-
-
from +1 to infinity and from -1 to infinity.
Perhaps another useful way of visualizing
ically and add, subtract, multiply, or divide
them, we must have a logical notation system
the values of the functions is by considering that lends itself to these operations. For this
Figure 21. If the radius of the circle is the unit purpose vectors can be defined by coordinate
of measurement then the lengths of the lines systems. Both the Cartesian and the polar co-
are equal to the functions marked on them. ordinates are in use.
Trigonometric Tables There are two kinds of Vectors Defined Since we have seen how the
trigonometric tables. by Cartesian sum of two vectors is ob-
The first type gives the functions of the angles, Coordinates tained, it follows from Fig-
the second the logarithms' of the functions. ure 23, that the vector Z
The first kind is also known as the table of equals the sum of the two vectors x and y. In
natural trigonometric functions. fact, any vector can be resolved into vectors
These tables give the functions of all angles along the X- and Y -axis. For convenience in
between 0 and 45 . This is all that is necessary working with these quantities we need to dis-
for the function of an angle between 45 and
90 can always be written as the co- function
of an angle below 45 . Example: If we had to
find the sine of 48 , we might write
sin 48 = cos (90 -48 ) = cos 42
Tables of the logarithms of trigonometric
functions give the common logarithms (logis)
of these functions. Since many of these logar-
ithms have negative characteristics, one should
y4
A
add -10 to all logarithms in the table which
have a characteristic of 6 or higher. For in-
o
s=3
s
stance, the log sin 24 = 9.60931 -10. Log
3
tan 1 = 8.24192 -10 but log cot 1 =

1.75808. When the characteristic shown is less
than 6, it is supposed to be positive and one
should not add -10.
Figure 23.
Vectors
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS.
A calar quantity has magnitude only; a Any vector such as Z may be resolved Into
Vector quantity has both magnitude and direc- two vectors, x and y, along the X- and Y-
tion. When we speak of a speed of 50 miles axes. If vectors are to be added, their respec-
per hour, we are using a scalar quantity, but tive x and y components may be added to
find the x and y components of the resultant
when we say the wind is Northeast and has a vector.
HANDBOOK Vectors 871
Addition of Vectors An examination of Fig-

} ure 24 will show that
the two vectors
R = x,
Z = xs j Y=
can be added, if we add the X- components

Figure 24.
and the Y- components separately.
ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS. R Z = x, + xs + j Y =)
Vectors may be added or subtracted by

adding or subtracting their x or y com- For the same reason we can carry out sub-
ponents separately. traction by subtracting the horizontal compo-
nents and subtracting the vertical components
tinguish between the X- and Y- component, R -Z = x, - xs (Y, - Y =)

and so it has been agreed that the Y- compo-
nent alone shall be marked with the letter j. Let us consider the operator j. If we have a
Example (Figure 23) :
vector a along the X -axis and add a j in front
of it (multiplying by j) the result is that the
Z =3 +4j direction of the vector is rotated forward 90
degrees. If we do this twice (multiplying by
Note again that the sign of components j') the vector is rotated forward by 180 degrees
along the X -axis is positive when measured and now has the value -a. Therefore multi-
from 0 to the right and negative when meas- plying by f is equivalent to multiplying by -1.
ured from 0 towards the left. Also, the compo- Then
nent along the Y -axis is positive when meas-
ured from 0 upwards, and negative when j' = -1 and j =
measured from 0 downwards. So the vector,
R, is described as This is the imaginary number discussed be-
fore under algebra. In electrical engineering
=5 -3j the letter j is used rather than i, because i is
already known as the symbol for current.
Vector quantities are usually indicated by
some special typography, especially by using a Multiplying Vectors When two vectors are
point over the letter indicating the vector, as to be multiplied we can
R. perform the operation just as in algebra, re-
membering that j' = -1.
Absolute Value The absolute or scalar
of a Vector value of vectors such as Z RZ = (x, + jy,) (x, + jy,)
or R in Figure 23 is easily
found by the theorem of Pythagoras, which
= x, X, + jx, + x= Yl + l' Ys
Ys 1
states that in any right -angled triangle the

square of the side opposite the right angle is
= x, xs - y' + i (x, ys + x= y,
Y= )
equal to the sum of the squares of the sides Division has to be carried out so as to re-
adjoining the right angle. In Figure 23, OAB move the j -term from the denominator. This
is a right -angled triangle; therefore, the square can be done by multiplying both denominator
of OB (or Z) is equal to the square of OA and numerator by a quantity which will elimi-
(or x) plus the square of AB (or y). Thus the nate j from the denominator. Example:
absolute values of Z and R may be determined
as follows: R x, +jy,_lx, +jy,) (x, -jyr)
IZI -
='+y' Z x= + iv' (x= + iy2) lx= - jY =)
121= V3' +4' =5 yiy= + j (x =y,

ye
- x,y,)
x= +
IR = V5' +3'=
I 34 =5.83
Polar Coordinates A vector can also be de-
The vertical lines indicate that the absolute fined in polar coordi-
or scalar value is meant without regard to sign nates by its magnitude and its vectorial angle
or direction. with an arbitrary reference axis. In Figure 25
a
Figure 26.
Vectors can be transformed from Cartesian
into polar notation as shown In this figure.
which flows due to the alternating voltage is

Figure 25. not necessarily in step with it. The rotating
IN THIS FIGURE A VECTOR HAS current vector may be ahead or behind the
BEEN REPRESENTED IN POLAR voltage vector, having a phase difference with
INSTEAD OF CARTESIAN CO- it. For convenience we draw these vectors as
ORDINATES.
if they were standing still, so that we can indi-
In polar coordinates a vector is defined by
a magnitude and an angle, called the vec- cate the difference in phase or the phase angle.
torial angle, instead of by two magnitudes In Figure 28 the current lags behind the volt-
as in Cartesian coordinates. age by the angle 8, or we might say that the
voltage leads the current by the angle e.
the vector Z has a magnitude 50 and a vector- Vector diagrams show the phase relations
ial angle of 60 degrees. This will then be between two or more vectors (voltages and
written currents) in a circuit. They may be added and
Z = 50/60 subtracted as described; one may add a voltage
vector to another voltage vector or a current
A vector a + jb can be transformed into vector to a current vector but not a current
polar notatim very simply (see Figure 26) vector to a voltage vector (for the same reason
that one cannot add a force to a speed). Figure
Z =a +jb= Nia +b2Ltan' 28 illustrates the relations in the simple series
circuit of a coil and resistor. We know that the
In this connection tan' means the angle of current passing through coil and resistor must
which the tangent is. Sometimes the notation he the same and in the same phase, so we draw
arc tan b/a is used. Both have the same mean- this current I along the X -axis. We know also
ing. that the voltage drop IR across the resistor is
A polar notation of a vector can be trans- in phase with the current, so the vector /R rep-
formed into a Cartesian coordinate notation in resenting the voltage drop is also along the
the following manner (Figure 27) X -axis.
The voltage across the coil is 90 degrees
Z = pLA = p cos A + jp sin A ahead of the current through it; /X must
A sinusoidally alternating voltage or cur- therefore be drawn along the Y -axis. E the
rent is symbolically represented by a rotating applied voltage must be equal to the vectorial
vector, having a magnitude equal to the peak sum of the two voltage drops, IR and /X, and
voltage or current and rotating with an angular we have so constructed it in the drawing. Now
velocity of 2v-f radians per second or as many expressing the same in algebraic notation, we
revolutions per second as there are cycles per have
second. IR IX
The instantaneous voltage, e, is always equal
to the sine of the vectorial angle of this rotat- IZ=IR+IX
ing vector, multiplied by its magnitude. Dividing by I
e = E sin 2-ft Z =R +jX
The alternating voltage therefore varies with Due to the fact that a reactance rotates the
time as the sine varies with the angle. If we voltage vector ahead or behind the current
plot time horizontally and instantaneous volt- vector by 90 degrees, we must mark it with a
age vertically we will get a curve like those j in vector notation. Inductive reactance will
in Figure 18. have a plus sign because it shifts the voltage
In alternating current circuits, the current vector forwards; a capacitive reactance is neg-
HANDBOOK Graphical Representation 873
----IR- - -+'
p COS A
Figure 28.
Figure 27.
Vectors can be transformed from polar into VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF A
Cartesian notation as shown in this figure. SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUIT.
The righthand portion of the illustration shows
the vectors representing the voltage drops In
ative because the voltage will lag behind the the coil and resistance illustrated at the left.
Note that the voltage drop across the coil XL
current. Therefore: leads that across the resistance by 90 .
X,. = + j 217fL
Graphical Representation
X = - j 2+[fC
t Formulas and physical laws are often pre-
sented in graphical form; this gives us a
In Figure 28 the angle e is known as the "bird's eye view" of various possible conditions
phase angle between E and I. When calculat-
due to the variations of the quantities involved.
ing power, only the real components count.
In some cases graphs permit us to solve equa-
The power in the circuit is then
tions with greater ease than ordinary algebra.
P = I (IR)
Coordinate Systems All of us have used co-
but IR = E cos 9 ordinate systems with-
out realizing it. For instance, in modern cities
.' P = El cos e we have numbered streets and numbered ave-
nues. By this means we can define the location
This cos e is known as the power factor of of any spot in the city if the nearest street
the circuit. In many circuits we strive to keep crossings are named. This is nothing but an
the angle 8 as small as possible, making COI e application of Cartesian coordinates.
as near to unity as possible. In tuned circuits, In the Cartesian coordinate system (named
we use reactances which should have as low a after Descartes), we define the location of any
power factor as possible. The merit of a coil point in a plane by giving its distance from
or condenser, its Q. is defined by the tangent of each of two perpendicular lines or axes. Figure
this phase angle: 30 illustrates this idea. The vertical axis is
called the Y -axis, the horizontal axis is the
Q = ton e = X/R X -axis. The intersection of these two axes is
called the origin, O. The location of a point,
For an efficient coil or condenser, Q should P, (Figure 30) is defined by measuring the
be as large as possible; the phase -angle should respective distances, x and y along the X -axis
then be as close to 90 degrees as possible, mak- and the Y -axis. In this example the distance
ing the power factor nearly zero. Q is almost along the X -axis is, 2 units and along the Y-
but not quite the inverse of cos 8. Note that in axis is 3 units. Thus we define the point as
Figure 29
Q =X /R and cos e = R/Z Q - TAN 0. R
When Q is more than 5, the power factor is POWER FACTOR =COS 9 -

less than 20%; we can then safely say Q =
1/cos e with a maximum error of about 21/2
percent, for in the worst case, when cos 8 =
Figure 29.
0.2, Q will equal tan e = 4.89. For higher
The figure of merit of a coil and its resistance
values of Q, the error becomes less. is rep ted by the ratio of the inductive
Note that from Figure 29 can be seen the reactance to the resistance, which as shown
simple relation: X.
in this diagram is equal to which equals
Z=R+jX,. tan 0. For large values of 0 (the phase angle)
this is approximately equal to the recipr000l
IZI = + Xtr of the cos O.
Y
2000
7 1600
SECOND
II
FIRST 1600
QUADRANT 6 QUADRANT
o
1400
4 1700
3 P
'is=
1000
2
$00
X
f c 600
100 200 100 400
B- 7- 6- 5- 4 -3 -2 -I 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2
Figure 31.
R 3
REPRESENTATION OF A SIMPLE
-
FUNCTION IN CARTESIAN CO-
il 5 ORDINATES.
TH RD
QUADRANT 6 .. FOURTH
QUADRANT
In this chart of the function ilk, -
300,000
X
distances along the X axis represent wave-
I I I
length in meters, while those along the Y
7
axis represent frequency in kilocycles. A curve
Y such as this helps to find values between
Figure 30. those calculated with sufficient accuracy for
CARTESIAN COORDINATES. most purposes.
The location of any point can be defined by
its distance from the X and Y axes.
f is said to be a function of X. For every value
of f there is a definite value of X. A variable is
P 2, 3 or we might say x = 2 and y = 3. The said to be a function of another variable when
measurement x is called the absci.ua of the for every possible value of the latter, or inde-
point and the distance y is called its ordinate. pendent variable, there is a definite value of
It is arbitrarily agreed that distances measured the first or dependent variable. For instance,
from 0 to the right along the X -axis shall be if y = 5x5, y is a function of x and x is called
reckoned positive and to the left negative. Dis- the independent variable. When a = 3b3 + 5b'
tances measured along the Y -axis are positive -25b + 6 then a is a function of b.
when measured upwards from 0 and negative A function can be illustrated in our coordi-
when measured downwards from 0. This is nate system as follows. Let us take the equa-
illustrated in Figure 30. The two axes divide tion for frequency versus wavelength as an
the plane area into four parts called quadrants. example. Given different values to the inde-
These four quadrants are numbered as shown pendent variable find the corresponding values
in the figure. of the dependent variable. Then plot the points
It follows from the foregoing statements, represented by the different sets of two values.
that points lying within the first quadrant have
both x and y positive, as is the case with the f k.
point P. A point in the second quadrant has a 600 500
negative abscissa, x, and a positive ordinate, y. 800 375
This is illustrated by the point Q, which has 1000 300
th^ coordinates x = -4 and y = +1. Points 1200 250
in the third quadrant have both x and y nega- 1400 214
tive. x = -5 and y = -2 illustrates such a 1600 187
point, R. The point S, in the fourth quadrant 1800 167
has a negative ordinate, y and a positive ab- 2000 150
scissa or x.
In practical applications we might draw Plotting these points in Figure 31 and draw-
only as much of this plane as needed to illus- ing a smooth curve through them gives us the
trate our equation and therefore, the scales curve or graph of the equation. This curve
along the X -axis and Y -axis might not start will help us find values of f for other values
with zero and may show only that part of the of X (those in between the points calculated)
scale which interests us. and so a curve of an often -used equation may
serve better than a table which always has
Representation of In the equation: gaps.
Functions When using the coordinate system described
300,000 so far and when measuring linearly along both
axes, there are some definite rules regarding
HANDBOOK Representation of Functions 875
Figure 32.
Only two points are needed to define func-
tions which result in a straight line as shown
in this diagram representing Ohm's Law. Figure 33.
A TYPICAL GRID - VOLTAGE
PLATE -CURRENT CHARACTER-
ISTIC CURVE.
the kind of curve we get for any type of The equation represented by such a curve is
so complicated that we do not use it. Data
equation. In fact, an expert can draw the curve for such a curve is obtained experimentally,
with but a very few plotted points since the and intermediate values can be found with
equation has told him what kind of curve to sufficient accuracy from the curve.
expect.
First, when the equation can be reduced to
the form y = mx + b, where x and y are the If the resistance were 4 ohms, we should get
variables, it is known as a linear or first degree the equation E =A4I and this also represents
function and the curve becomes a straight line. a line which we can plot in the same figure.
(Mathematicians still speak of a "curve" when As we see, this line also passes through the
it has become a straight line.) origin but has a different slope. In this illus-
When the equation is of the second degree, tration the slope defines the resistance and we
that is, when it contains terms like x' or y' could make a protractor which would convert
or xy. the graph belongs to a group of curves, the angle into ohms. This fact may seem incon-
called conic sections. These include the circle, sequential now, but use of this is made in the
the ellipse, the parabola and the hyperbola. In drawing of loadlines on tube curves.
the example given above, our equation is of Figure 33 shows a typical, grid -voltage,
the form plate- current static characteristic of a triode.
xy = e, c being equal to 300,000 The equation represented by this curve is
rather complicated so that we prefer to deal
which is a second degree equation and in this with the curve. Note that this curve extends
case, the graph is a hyperbola. through the first and second quadrant.
This type of curve does not lend itself read- Families of curves. It has been explained
ily for the purpose of calculation except near that curves in a plane can be made to illustrate
the middle, because at the ends a very large the relation between two variables when one
change in X represents a small change in f and of them varies independently. However, what
vice versa. Before discussing what can be done are we going to do when there are three vari-
about this let us look at some other types of ables and two of them vary independently. It
curves. is possible to use three dimensions and three
Suppose we have a resistance of 2 ohms axes but this is not conveniently done. Instead
and we plot the function represented by Ohm's of this we may use a family of curves. We
Law: E = 21. Measuring E along the X -axis have already illustrated this partly with Ohm's
and amperes along the Y -axis, we plot the Law. If we wish to make a chart which will
necessary points. Since this is a first degree show the current through any resistance with
equation, of the form y = mx + b (for E _ any voltage applied across it, we must take the
y, m = 2 and 1 = x and b = 0) it will be a equation E = IR, having three variables.
straight line so we need only two points to We can now draw one line representing a
plot it. resistance of I ohm, another line representing
2 ohms, another representing 3 ohms, etc., or
I E
as many as we wish and the size of our paper
(line passes through origin) 0 0 will allow. The whole set of lines is then
5 10 applicable to any case of Ohm's Law falling
within the range of the chart. If any two of
The line is shown in Figure 32. It is seen to the three quantities are given, the third can be
be a straight line passing through the origin. found.
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Radio Mathematics and Calculations
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AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS
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Figure 34. Figure 35.

A FAMILY OF CURVES. "PLATE" CURVES FOR A
An equation such as Ohm's Law has three TYPICAL VACUUM TUBE.
variables, but can be represented in Cartesian In such curves we have three variables, plate
coordinates by a family of curves such as voltage, plate current, and grid bias. Each
shown here. If any two quantities are given, point on a grid bias line corresponds to the
the third can be found. Any point in the plate voltage and plate current represented
chart represents a definite value each of E, by its position with respect to the X and Y
I, and R, which will satisfy the equation of axes. Those for other values of grid bias may
Ohm's Law. Values of R not situated on an R be found by interpolation. The loadline shown
line can be found by interpolation. in the lower left portion of the chart is ex-
plained in the text.
Figure 34 shows such a family of curves to

solve Ohm's Law. Any point in the chart rep- set of curves is illustrated in Figure 35. Each
resents a definite value each of E, I, and R point in the plane is defined by three values,
which will satisfy the equation. The value of which belong together, plate voltage, plate
R represented by a point that is not situated current, and grid voltage.
on an R line can be found by interpolation. Now consider the diagram of a resistance -
It is even possible to draw on the same chart coupled amplifier in Figure 36. Starting with
a second family of curves, representing a the B- supply voltage, we know that whatever
fourth variable. But this is not always possible, plate current flows must pass through the
for among the four variables there should be resistor and will conform to Ohm's Law. The
no more than two independent variables. In voltage drop across the resistor is subtracted
our example such a set of lines could represent from the plate supply voltage and the remain-
power in watts; we have drawn only two of der is the actual voltage at the plate, the kind
these but there could of course be as many as that is plotted along the X -axis in Figure 35.
desired. A single point in the plane now indi- We can now plot on the plate family of the
cates the four values of E. I, R, and P which
belong together and the knowledge of any
two of them will give us the other two by
reference to the chart.
Another example of a family of curves is
the dynamic transfer characteristic or plate
family of a tube. Such a chart consists of sev-
eral curves showing the relation between plate
voltage, plate current, and grid bias of a tube.
Since we have again three variables, we must
Figure 36.
show several curves, each curve for a fixed
value of one of the variables. It is customary PARTIAL DIAGRAM OF A RESIS-
TANCE COUPLED AMPLIFIER.
to plot plate voltage along the X -axis, plate
The portion of the supply voltage wasted
current along the Y -axis, and to make different across the 50,000 -ohm resistor is represented
curves for various values of arid bias. Such a in Figure 35 as the loadline.
-.,,"1"I"'III
HANDBOOK Logarithmic Scales 877
tube the loadline, that is the line showing

which part of the plate supply voltage is across
3000
2500
--mm,u11lmai
\I1
the resistor and which part across the tube for
Ru
11
any value of plate current. In our example, let 2000
us suppose the plate resistor is 50,000 ohms.

,.,1'11""1III1I
.1'l'llllllll
Then, if the plate current were zero, the volt- 1500
age drop across the resistor would be zero and
the full plate supply voltage is across the tube.
Our first point of the loadline is E = 250, 1000
I = 0. Next, suppose, the plate current were 900

..
1 ma., then the voltage drop across the resistor
would be 50 volts, which would leave for the
B00
700 BBlBBIBl8.8
BBBIBBB\OIBtBIB1eB1
aa
tube 200 volts. The second point of the load - BOO
line is then E = 200, 1 = 1. We can continue 500

like this but it is unnecessary for we shall find
that it is a straight line and two points are ......111111111111111011111
sufficient to determine it. MINIMIIMMIMM1MI1111
1111MIN11111111111110
This loadline shows at a glance what hap-
pens when the grid -bias is changed. Although
300
-.,,,1"'111I'I
there are many possible combinations of plate
voltage, plate current, and grid bias, we are 200 .,'111'11II'lll
now restricted to points along this line as long
as the 50,000 ohm plate resistor is in use. This 11.11111111111111111
line therefore shows the voltage drop across
the tube as well as the voltage drop across the
load for every value of grid bias. Therefore, if
we know how much the grid bias varies, we 8
"l'I"IIII,1
8 8
can calculate the amount of variation in the --S WAVELENGTH IN METERS
plate voltage and plate current, the amplifi- Figure 37.

cation, the power output, and the distortion.
A LOGARITHMIC CURVE.
Many functions become greatly simplified and
Logarithmic Scales Sometimes it is conven- some become straight lines when plotted to
ient to measure along logarithmic scales such as shown in this
the axes the logarithms of our variable quan- diagram. Here the frequency versus wavelength
curve of Figure 31 has been replotted to con-
tities. Instead of actually calculating the logar- form with logarithmic axes. Note that it is
ithm, special paper is available with logarith- only necessary to calculate two points in
mic scales, that is, the distances measured order to determine the "curve" since this type
along the axes are proportional to the logar- of function results in a straight line.
ithms of the numbers marked on them rather
than to the numbers themselves.
trast to the graph made with linear coordi-
There is semi -logarithmic paper, having nates.
logarithmic scales along one axis only, the This last fact is a great advantage of logar-
other scale being linear. We also have full ithmic scales in general. It should be clear that
logarithmic paper where both axes carry log- if we have a linear scale with 100 small divi-
arithmic scales. Many curves are greatly sim- sions numbered from 1 to 100, and if we are
plified and some become straight lines when able to read to one tenth of a division, the
plotted on this paper. possible error we can make near 100, way up
As an example let us take the wavelength - the scale, is only 1 /10th of a percent. But near
frequency relation, charted before on straight the beginning of the scale, near 1, one tenth of
cross- section paper. a division amounts to 10 percent of 1 and we
300,000 are making a 10 percent error.
X In any logarithmic scale, our possible error
in measurement or reading might be, say 1/32
Taking logarithms: of an inch which represents a fixed amount of
log f = log 300,000 - log X the log depending on the scale used. The net
result of adding to the logarithm a fixed quan-
If we plot log f along the Y -axis and log X tity, as 0.01, is that the anti -logarithm is mul-
along the X-axis, the curve becomes a straight tiplied by 1.025, or the error is 21/2%. No mat-
line. Figure 37 illustrates this graph on full ter at what part of the scale the 0.01 is added,
logarithmic paper. The graph may be read the error is always 21/2%.
with the same accuracy at any point in con- An example of the advantage due to the use
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.1
0
15 10 5 0 5 IO 15
KC. OFF RESONANCE
Figure 38.
A RECEIVER RESONANCE CURVE.
This represents the output of a re-
ceiver versus frequency when plotted to linear
coordinates.
of semi- logarithmic paper is shown in Figures

38 and 39. A resonance curve, when plotted on
linear coordinate paper will look like the curve
in Figure 38. Here we have plotted the output
of a receiver against frequency while the ap-
plied voltage is kept constant. It is the kind of
curve a "wobbulator" will show. The curve -20 -I0 0 +10 +20
does not give enough information in this form
for one might think that a signal 10 kc. off KC. OFF RESONANCE
resonance would not cause any current at all Figure 39.

and is tuned out. However, we frequently have A RECEIVER SELECTIVITY CURVE.
off resonance signals which are 1000 times as This curve represents the selectivity of a re-
strong as the desired signal and one cannot ceiver plotted to logarithmic coordinates for
read on the graph of Figure 38 how much any the output, but linear coordinates for fre-
quency. The reason that this ppears
signal is attenuated if it is reduced more than inverted from that of Figure 38 is explained
about 20 times. in the text.
In comparison look at the curve of Figure
39. Here the response (the current) is plotted
in logarithmic proportion, which allows us to be used because now our unit is logarithmic.
plot clearly how far off resonance a signal has An example of full logarithmic paper being
to be to be reduced 100, 1,000, or even 10,000 used for families of curves is shown in the re-
times. actance charts of Figures 40 and 41.
Note that this curve is now "upside down ";
it is therefore called a selectivity curve. The Nomograms or An alignment chart con -
reason that it appears upside down is that the Alignment Charts sists of three or more sets
method of measurement is different. In a se- of scales which have been
lectivity curve we plot the increase in signal so laid out that to solve the formula for which
voltage necessary to cause a standard output the chart was made, we have but to lay a
off resonance. It is also possible to plot this in- straight edge along the two given values on
crease along the Y -axis in decibels; the curve any two of the scales, to find the third and
then looks the same although linear paper can unknown value on the third scale. In its sim-
Reactance Chart
`'
HANDBOOK 879
Figure 40.
REACTANCE-FREQUENCY CHART FOR AUDIO FREQUENCIES
See text for applications and instructions for use.
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HANDBOOK Polar Coordinates 881
/ P
//
RADIUS
VECTOR
PNG
c1051
b
X
AXIS
Figure 43.
o o
THE LOCATION OF A POINT BY
POLAR COORDINATES.
Figure 42.
In the polar coordinate system any point is
THE SIMPLEST FORM OF NOMOGRAM. determined by its distance from the origin
and the angle formed by a line drawn from
it to the origin and the O -X axis.
plest form, it is somewhat like the lines in Fig-
ure 42. If the lines a, b, and c are parallel and
equidistant, we know from ordinary geometry, by the angle A the vectorial angle. We give
that b = 1/2 (a + c). Therefore, if we draw a these data in the following form
scale of the same units on all three lines, start-
ing with zero at the bottom, we know that by P =3LO
laying a straight -edge across the chart at any
place, it will connect values of a, b, and c. Polar coordinates are used in radio chiefly
which satisfy the above equation. When any for the plotting of directional properties of mi-
two quantities are known, the third can be crophones and antennas. A typical example of
found. such a directional characteristic is shown in
If, in the same configuration we used loga- Figure 44. The radiation of the antenna rep-
rithmic scales instead of linear scales, the rela- resented here is proportional to the distance of
tion of the quantities would become the characteristic from the origin for every
possible direction.
log b = 1/2 (log a + log c) orb = N
By using different kinds of scales, different
units, and different spacings between the scales,
charts can be made to solve many kinds of
equations.
If there are more than three variables it is
generally necessary to make a double chart,
that is, to make the result from the first chart
serve as the given quantity of the second one.
Such an example is the chart for the design of
coils illustrated in Figure 45. This nomogram
is used to convert the inductance in microhen-
ries to physical dimensions of the coil and vice
versa. A pin and a straight edge are required.
The method is shown under "R. F. Tank Cir-
cuit Calculations" later in this chapter.
Polar Coordinates Instead of the Cartesian

coordinate system there Figure 44.
is also another system for defining algebraical- THE RADIATION CURVE OF AN
ly the location of a point or line in a plane. In ANTENNA.
this, the polar coordinate system, a point is de- Rotor coordinates are used principally in radio
termined by its distance from the origin, O, work for plotting the directional characteris-
and by the angle it makes with the axis O -X. tics of an antenna where the radiation is
represented by the distance of the from
In Figure 43 the point P is defined by the the origin for every possible direction.
length of OP, known as the radius vector and
Reactance Calculations it intersects the 100 -hy. line, the resonant fre-
In audio frequency calculations, an accuracy quency being determined by projecting the in-
to better than a few per cent is seldom re- tersection horizontally back on to the chart.
quired, and when dealing with calculations in- To determine the reactance, the logarithmic
volving inductance, capacitance, resonant fre- ohms scale must be extended.
quency, etc., it is much simpler to make use of
reactance- frequency charts such as those in R. F.Tank When winding coils for use in
figures 40 and 41 rather than to wrestle with a Circuit radio receivers and transmit -
combination of unwieldy formulas. From these Calculations ters, it is desirable to be able to
charts it is possible to determine the reactance of determine in advance the full
a condenser or coil if the capacitance or induc- coil specifications for a given frequency. Like-
tance is known, and vice versa. It follows from wise, it often is desired to determine how much
this that resonance calculations can be made capacity is required to resonate a given coil so
directly from the chart, because resonance that a suitable condenser can be used.
simply means that the inductive and capacitive Fortunately, extreme accuracy is not re-
reactances are equal. The capacity required to quired, except where fixed capacitors are used
resonate with a given inductance, or the induc- across the tank coil with no provision for trim-
tance required to resonate with a given capac- ming the tank to resonance. Thus, even though
ity, can be taken directly from the chart. it may be necessary to estimate the stray cir-
While the chart may look somewhat formid- cuit capacity present in shunt with the tank
able to one not familiar with charts of this capacity, and to take for granted the likelihood
type, its application is really quite simple, and of a small error when using a chart instead of
can be learned in a short while. The following the formula upon which the chart was based.
example should clarify its interpretation. the results will be sufficiently accurate in most
For instance, following the lines to their in- cases, and in any case give a reasonably close
tersection, we see that 0.1 hy. and 0.1 pfd. in- point from which to start "pruning."
tersect at approximately 1,500 cycles and 1,000 The inductance required to resonate with a
ohms. Thus, the reactance of either the coil or certain capacitance is given in the chart in
condenser taken alone is about 1000 ohms, and figure 41. By means of the r.f. chart , the
the resonant frequency about 1,500 cycles. inductance of the coil can be determined,
To find the reactance of 0.1 hy. at, say, or the capacitance determined if the induc-
10,000 cycles, simply follow the inductance tance is known. When making calculations, be
line diagonally up towards the upper left till it sure to allow for stray circuit capacity, such as
intersects the horizontal 10,000 kc. line. Fol- tube interelectrode capacity, wiring, sockets,
lowing vertically downward from the point of etc. This will normally run from 5 to 25 micro -
intersection, we see that the reactance at this microfarads, depending upon the components
frequency is about 6000 ohms. and circuit.
To facilitate use of the chart and to avoid To convert the inductance in microhenries
errors, simply keep the following in mind: The to physical dimensions of the coil, or vice
vertical lines indicate reactance in ohms, the versa, the nomograph chart in figure 45 is
horizontal lines always indicate the frequency, used. A pin and a straightedge are required.
the diagonal lines sloping to the lower right The inductance of a coil is found as follows:
represent inductance, and the diagonal lines The straightedge is placed from the correct
sloping toward the lower left indicate capaci- point on the turns column to the correct point
tance. Also remember that the scale is loga- on the diameter -to- length ratio column, the
rithmic. For instance, the next horizontal line latter simply being the diameter divided by the
above 1000 cycles is 2000 cycles. Note that length. Place the pin at the point on the plot
there are 9, not 10, divisions between the heavy axis column where the straightedge crosses it.
lines. This also should be kept in mind when From this point lay the straightedge to the cor-
interpolating between lines when best possible rect point on the diameter column. The point
accuracy is desired; halfway between the line where the straightedge intersects the induc-
representing 200 cycles and the line represent- tance column will give the inductance of the
ing 300 cycles is not 250 cycles, but approxi- coil.
mately 230 cycles. The 250 cycle point is ap- From the chart, we see that a 30 turn coil
proximately 0.7 of the way between the 200 having a diameter -to- length ratio of 0.7 and a
cycle line and the 300 cycle line, rather than
diameter of 1 inch has an inductance of ap-
halfway between. proximately 12 microhenries. Likewise any one
Use of the chart need not be limited by the of the four factors may be determined if the
physical boundaries of the chart. For instance, other three are known. For instance, to deter-
the 10 -Ed. line can be extended to find where mine the number of turns when the desired in-
HANDBOOK Coil Calculator 883
Figure 45. COIL CALCULATOR NOMOGRAPH

For single layer solenoid coils, any wire size. See text for instructions.
DIAMETER DIAMETER
N OF PLOT INDUCTANCE IN RATIO LENGTH INCHES
TURNS AXIS MICROHENRIES
8 -S
- 400
6
- 20000 5
-4
- 300
- 10000
4
-_- 8000
6000
3
- 200
-- 4000
3000 -3
- 150
- 2000 2
-- 1000
800
- 600
- 100
90
-- 400
- 80
-
300
-2
- 70
200
- 60 --- 100
- 50 -60
80
.8
- 40
- 40
30
-1.5
20 - .8
30-
-
- 6
8 .5
- 20 -4
3 .4
1
- 15
- 2
--- 1
.8
.3
- 10 - .6
-.4
-.3
-.2
-.1
.2
-5
.- 4
ductance, the D/L ratio, and the diameter are given than the accuracy of the measurement
known, simply work backwards from the ex- permits. Thus, if the measurement is good to
ample given. In all cases, remember that the two places, we would write, for instance, 6.9
straightedge reads either turns and D/L ratio, which would mean that the true value is
or it reads inductance and diameter. It can somewhere between 6.85 and 6.95. If the meas-
read no other combination. urement is known to three significant figures,
The actual wire size has negligible effect we might write 6.90 which means that the true
upon the calculations for commonly used wire value is somewhere between 6.895 and 6.905.
sizes (no. 10 to no. 30). The number of turns In dealing with approximate quantities, the
of insulated wire that can be wound per inch added cipher at the right of the decimal point
(solid) will be found in a copper wire table. has a meaning.
There is unfortunately no standardized sys-
tem of writing approximate figures with many
Significant Figures ciphers to the left of the decimal point. 69000
does not necessarily mean that the quantity is
In most radio calculations, numbers repre- known to 5 significant figures. Some indicate
sent quantities which were obtained by meas- the accuracy by writing 69 x 10' or 690 x 10'
urement. Since no measurement gives absolute etc., but this system is not universally em-
accuracy, such quantities are only approximate ployed. The reader can use his own system, but
and their value is given only to a few signifi- whatever notation is used, the number of sig-
cant figures. In calculations, these limitations nificant figures should be kept in mind.
must be kept in mind and one should not fin- Working with approximate figures, one may
ish for instance with a result expressed in more
obtain an idea of the influence of the doubtful
significant figures than the given quantities at figures by marking all of them, and products
the beginning. This would imply a greater ac- or sums derived from them. In the following
curacy than actually was obtained and is there- example, the doubtful figures have been under-
fore misleading, if not ridiculous.
lined.
An example may make this clear. Many am- 603
meters and voltmeters do not give results to 34.6
closer than 1/4 ampere or 1/4 volt. Thus if we
0.120
have 21/4 amperes flowing in a d.c. circuit at
61/4 volts, we can obtain a theoretical answer 637.720 answer: 638
by multiplying 2.25 by 6.75 to get 15.1875
watts. But it is misleading to express the an- Multiplication:
swer down to a ten - thousandth of a watt when
the original measurements were only good to 654 654
1/4 ampere or volt. The answer should be ex- 0.342 0.341
pressed as 15 watts, not even 15.0 watts. If
1308 19612
we assume a possible error of 1/8 volt or am-
pere (that is, that our original data are only 2616 26116
correct to the nearest 1/4 volt or ampere) the 196f 1 1308
true power lies between 14.078 (product of 223.668 answer: 224 224
21/8 and 65/8) and 16.328 (product of 23/8 and
67/8). Therefore, any third significant figure It is recommended that the system at the
would be misleading as implying an accuracy right be used and that the figures to the right
which we do not have. of the vertical line be omitted or guessed so as
Conversely, there is also no point to calcu- to save labor. Here the partial products are
lating the value of a part down to 5 or 6 sig- written in the reverse order, the most impor-
nificant figures when the actual part to be used tant ones first.
cannot be measured to better than 1 part in In division, labor can be saved when after
one hundred. For instance, if we are going to each digit of the quotient is obtained, one fig-
use 1% resistors in some circuit, such as an ure of the divisor be dropped. Example:
ohmmeter, there is no need to calculate the
value of such a resistor to 5 places, such as 1.28
1262.5 ohm. Obviously, 1% of this quantity 5271-PT-
is over 12 ohms and the value should simply 527
be written as 1260 ohms.
There is a definite technique in handling
53 rra
106
these approximate figures. When giving values $ nr5
obtained by measurement, no more figures are 40
HANDBOOK 885
Appendix
STANDARD COLOR CODE- RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS
AXIAL LEAD RESISTOR INSULATED FIRST RING SECOND RING THIRD RING DISC CERAMIC RMA CODE
UNINSULATED BODY COLOR END COLOR DOT COLOR
FIRST FIGURE SECOND FIGURE MULTIPLIER S -DOT 3 -DOT
DROWN- INSULATED COLOR
BLACK-NON- INSULATED BLACK
BROWN
O
I
O
I
NONE
0
- CAPACITY
RED 2 2 00 MULTIPLIER
ORANGE 3 3 .000 TOLERANCE
YELLOW 0.000
TOLERANCE 00,000 TEMPERATURE
-- MULTIPLIER GREEN
BLUE
S
0
S
e 000.000 COEFFICIENT
IST& 2ND SIGNIFICANT FIGS VIOLET 7 7 0.000,000
GRAY e e 00,000.000
WIRE-WOUND RESISTORS NAVE /ST WHITE 9 5 000.000,000
DIGIT BAND DOUBLE WIDTH.
RADIAL LEAD DOT RESISTOR 5- DOTRADIAL LEAD CERAMICCARICITOR EXTENDED RANGE TC CERAMIC HICAP
MULTIPLIER CAPACITY
TOLERANCE 1 D
2 INGURE COEFF

IJII II COEPF
1
LSIALJI
T MII'
-'-IST FIGURE TOLERANCE TOLERANCE
MULTIPLIER MULTIPLIER
TC MULTIPLIER
RADIAL LEAD (BAND) RESISTOR BY-PASS COUPLING CERAMICCAR4CITOR AXIAL LEAD CERAMIC CAPACITOR
MULTIPLIER CAPACITY TEMP. COEFF. CAPACITY
TOLERANCE
Jar],
gC S
I-IST FIGURE
FIGURE
I
EJIILJJ -
;1
\\U
TOLERANCE
V(OPT.E ,
MULTIPLIE
IsI I
TOLERANCE
-
MULTIPLIER
MICA TYPE CAPACITORS

CURRENT STANDARD CODE RMA 3 -DOT (OBSOLETE) BUTTON SILVER MICA CAPACITOR
SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
RATED 500 V.O.C. 2090 TOL.
2ND} CLASS
WHITE (RMA) JAN B TOLERANCE e Es - IST DIGIT
III
BLACK(AN)
CLASSA
T
t -MULTIPLIER
TOLERANCE
/94D RNA
CODE
MULTIPLIER
?3T SIGNIFICANT
FIG.
MULTIPLIER
3RD DIGIT
2ND DIGIT
RMA 5 -DOT CODE (OBSOLETE) RMA 6 -DOT (OBSOLETE) RMA 4 -DOT (OBSOLETE)
} ,
1
MULTIPLIIERTr T- LERANCE
} SIG. FIGURE
FRONT y(lift MVLTI Pl1ER
ND SIG. FIG.
3RD WORK. VOLTAGE
MOIIM. VOLT. MULTIPLIER MULTIPLIER

ill
TOLERANCE
TOLERANCE 1 Z3 SIG. FIGURE
EAR VOLTAGE I
WORK. 1LBLANK
TOLERANCE VOLT.
MOLDED PAPER TYPE CAPACITORS

TUBULAR CAPACITOR MOLDED FLAT CAPACITOR JAN CODE CAPACITOR
NORMALLY STAMPED
FOR VALUE IST
2N0} SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
COMMERCIAL CODE
ORKING VOLTS
SILVER IST
2ND
l SIGNIFICANT FIG.
MULTIPLIER BLACK
I'I%
TOLERANCE
litl?-} 2ND
BODr
-MULTIPLIER % MULTIPLIER
1ST SIG. VOLTAGE FIG. 2NOl SIGNIFICANT TOLERANCE

1ST r FIGURE CHARACTERISTIC
A 2 -DIGIT VOLTAGE RATING INDICATES MORE THAN
900 V. A00 2 ZEROS TO END OF Z DIGIT NUMBER.
STANDARD COLOR CODE FOR RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS

The standard code provides the necessary information required to properly identify color
coded resistors and capacitors. Refer to the color code for numerical values and the number
of zeros (or multiplier) assigned to the colors used. A fourth color band on resistors deter-
mines the tolerance rating as follows: Gold = 5 %, silver = 10 %. Absence of the fourth band
indicates a 20% tolerance rating.
Tolerance rating of capacitors is determined by the color code. For example: Red = 2 %,
green = 5 %, etc. The voltage rating of capacitors is obtained by multiplying the color value
by 100. For example: Orange = 3 X 100, or 300 volts.
886 Appendix RADIO
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HANDBOOK Copper Wire Table 887
m .OmOmMOhP.OrP.OmPmr'OOrhhO
d F P r N N d`D m N M m m 0 r O d r r M M M O d d O r N d0 r P O N h M O P O.
Eid
m E ddNmNr.0.0OmOyNNN0NNrNdhrNOyDN0NNOh,OdN.00F
M002.-.0..VN00MOm,OdNr0PmF000adMMNNNN.r...+.+.+00
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fj
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O m U h r O h O N m O h P N d N h N h M.-.m V N d M N N r r r 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O a O NdNhNhM..m.DNdMNN.-.+.+
V NdMNNrr...
..NO..
G d
y , PPMNNm NF
h m d N N d M 0 0 N. O ,d N
E 0U r NOmONDONNrOdhrOOd N. m.
M. O. 0. 0. 0. d O +
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888 Appendix
CONVERSION TABLE - UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
MICRO = (A) ONE- MILLIONTH KILO = (K) ONE THOUSAND

MILLI = (m) ONE- THOUSANDTH MEGA = (M) ONE MILLION
TO CHANGE
FROM TO OPERATOR
UNITS MICRO-UNITS X 1,000,000 or X 106

MILLI -UNITS X 1,000 or X
KILO -UNITS - 1,000 or X
103
10 -3
MEGA -UNITS = 1,000,000 or X 10 -6
MICRO -UNITS MILLI -UNITS 1,000 or X 10 -3

UNITS - 1,000,000 or X 10 -e
MILLI -UNITS MICRO -UNITS X 1,000 or X 103

UNITS 1,000 or X 10 -3
KILO -UNITS MEGA -UNITS 1,000 or X 10-3

UNITS X 1,000 or X 103
MEGA -UNITS KILO -UNITS X 1,000 or X 103

UNITS X 1,000,000 or X 106
COMPONENT COLOR CODING

POWER TRANSFORMERS
PRIMARY LEADS BLACK
F TAPPED:
COMMON BLACK
TAP BLACK /YELLOW
END BLACK /REO
HIGH VOLTAGE WINDING RED

CENTER TAP RED /YELLOW
RECTIFIER FILAMENT WINDING- YELLOW

CENTER -TAP YELLOW /BLUE
FILAMENT WINDING N I GREEN

CENTER -TAP GREEN /YELLOW
FILAMENT WINDING N 2 BROWN

CENTER -TAP BROWN /YELLOW
FILAMENT WINDING N 3 SLATE
CENTER -TAP SLATE /YELLOW
I -F TRANSFORMERS
PLATE LEAD BLUE
B+ LEAD RED
GRID (ORO/ODE) LEAD GREEN
A-V.0 (OR GROUND) LEAD BLACK
AUDIO TRANSFORMERS
PLATE LEAD (PR /.) BLUE OR BROWN
B+ LEAD (PR /.) RED
GRID LEAD (SEC.) GREEN OR YELLOW
GRID RETURN (SEC.) BLACK
Index
A variable- efficiency, 312 T-match, 495
A -f power amplifiers, 160-165 Amplitude-modulation transmission lines, 533
Addition, 844, 850 equipment, 753 -762 Triplex beam, 529
Airwound inductors, 886 clipper- amplifier, 760 -762 tuner, single -wire, 507 -511
Algebra, 849 -856 modulation, 753 -756 Vee, 515
Alternating current, 50-64 modulators, 756 -760 vertical, 477
alternators, 51 tetrode, 756 -758 vertical -polarized, 536
capacitive reactance, 56 triode class -B, 758 -760 vhf and uhf, 532 -554
complex quantities, 59-62 Anode, 83 vhf dimensions, 535
addition, 59 Antenna and transmission-line vhf horizontal rhombic, 544
multiplication, 60 instrumentation, 812-821 voltage feed, 495
Ohm's law, 60 Antennascope, 816 -818 water -pipe ground, 480
cycle, 50 directional coupler, 812 X- array, 522
equivalent circuit, 63 monimatch, 818 yagi, 547 -554
frequency, 50 refiectometer, 819 Antenna radiation, 447,458
frequency spectrum, 50 r -f impedance bridge, 812 bandwidth, 449
generation of, 51 slotted line, 812 directivity, 455
impedance, 57 SWR bridge, 814 -816 efficiency, 454
impedance diagram, 58 Antennas, 473 -511, 512 -531, feed -point impedance, 453
induction, 51 532 -554 general characteristics, 488
inductive reactance, 55 broadside arrays, 521-526 ground losses, 454
j operator, 58 combination, 529 -531 ground resistance, 454
Ohm's law, 55 corner -reflector, 542 -544 harmonic resonance, 451
parallel RLC circuit, 63 coupling, 502 -507 impedance, 453
peak, RMS, effective, 55 Cubical Quad beam, 526 -528 length-to- diameter ratio, 450
phase, 57 current feed, 495 Marconi, 453
polar notation, 58 dipole- array, 547 physical length of, 449
radian notation, 53 directive, 512 -514 polarization, 448
reactances in combination, 57 Discone, 539 resonance, 451
rectified, 54 double-Bruce array, 523 Antennas, horizontal, 473 -477
resistance and reactance, 62 double-Skelton cone, 537 center -fed, 474-477
series RLC circuit, 59 end -fire directivity, 528 end -fed, 473
sine wave, 52 flat -top beam, 529 multiwire doublets, 476
vector, 52 ground connection, 479 tuned doublet, 474
voltage dividers, 63 ground -plane, 478 Zepp system, 474
Alternators, 51 helical beam, 540 Antennas, mobile work, 585 -591
Aluminum, working with, 833 horizontal, 473 -477 all -band, 587
Amateur bands, 16 -18 horizontally polarized, 535 antenna trimmer, 585
Amateur radio, 13 horn -type, 542 -544 loaded whip, 587-589
Ampere, 28 insulation, 502, 534 Antennas, rotary-beam, 555 -574
Amplifier calculations, linear r -f transformers, 496 broadside array, 555
class-C, 175 -180 log-periodic, 545 -548 indication of direction, 571
Amplitude distortion, 145 long -wire radiators, 514 lumped baluns, 573
Amplitude modulation, 309, Marconi, 479 parasitic beam, 555 -557
312 -318 matching nonresonant lines, 493 rotatable arrays, 568
cathode- follower, 316 multiband, 483 -493 three -band beams, 572
constant -efficiency, 312 multiwire doublets, 494 three -element array, 557 -559
grid, 314 polarization, 534 element length, 558
high -efficiency, 325 radiator cross section, 533 material, 558
impedance, screen -grid, 316 requirements, 532 spacing, 558
linear amplifier, 313 rhombic, 517 -519 stacking of yagi arrays, 559
screen -grid, 315 space-conserving, 481 -483 tuning the array, 569
speech clipping, 317 stacked -dipole, 519-521 unidirectional arrays, 565 -568
suppressor -grid, 318 stacked -sleeve, 537 -539 yagi arrays, 559-565
tuning, 315 supports, 499 -502 Antennascope, 816 -818
889
Appendix, 885 -888 phosphors, 105 Decimal fractions, 843 -84.1
Arithmetic, 842 -849 trace, 105 Demodulator, 220
Atomic number, 26 Chassis layout, 834 Detector, 220, 243 -246
Atoms, 26 Circuit boards, homemade, 838 Dielectric, 37 -39
Audio amplifiers, 158 Circuit constants Differential keying circuits, 442
Audio peak limiting, 211 -213 measurements, 808 -812 Diffused junction transistor, 116
Autodyne detector, 21 impedance method, 808 Diode, 88
Automatic gain control, 243 r -f bridges, 811 characteristics, 88
Autotransformer, 75, 431 substitution method, 809 electron energy dissipation, 89
B Wagner ground, 810 plate -current saturation, 88
Bandwidth, 310, 458 Wheatstone bridge, 809 power law, 88
Balanced modulator, 368 Circuits Diode limiters, 211
Beam -power tubes, 95 parallel, 31 Diode mixer, 98
B -H curve, 44 series, 31 Distortion products, 382
Bias stabilization, 122 series -parallel, 31 intermodulation distortion, 383
Blocking oscillator, 216 Circulating tank current, 68 r -f amplifier nonlinearity, 382
Brassboard, 831 Clamping circuits, 214 vacuum -tube nonlinearity, 383
Breadboarding, 831 Clapp oscillator, 261 Division, 844 -846, 851
Bridge rectifier, 769 Closed -loop feedback, 219 Doherty and Terman-Woodyard
Broadband balun, 472 Coaxial cable terminations, 839 amplifiers, 323 -325
Broadcast interference, 421 -425 Code practice sets, 25 E
blanketing, 421 Coercive force, 45 Eccles- Jordan circuit, 215
classification, 421 Color codes, 855, 888 Eddy current, 46
image interference, 423 Colpitts oscillator, 260, 270 Effective alternating current, 55
low -pass filters, 424 Components, 841 Electric current, 27
phantoms, 421 -423 Compounds, 26 Electric filters, 76-78
power -line interference, 426 Condenser, 36 Electrical potential, 27
receivers, 423 conductance, 31 Electrolytic capacitors, 42
stereo interference, 425 Conductors, 29 Electrolytic conduction, 83
telephone interference, 425 Constant-current curves, 173 Electromagnetic energy, 37
volume -control shafts, 423 Constant -k filter, 78 Electromagnetism, 42 -47
C Continental Code, 18 -25 Electromotive force, 27
Cancellation, 849 Controlled -warmup tubes, 107 Electron emission, 83
Capacitance, 36-42 Conversion conductance, 98 Electron Flow, 28
Capacitances, tank -circuit, 284 -288 Conversion tables, 888 Electron -ray tubes, 107
Capacitive reactance, 56 Converter, 614 -634 Electrostatic energy, 37
Capacitors, 36-42, 398 -400 adjustment, 617-619 Electrostatics, 36-42
bypass, 398 circuit, 615 Elements, 26
variable air, 399 construction, 616 Emission equation, 87
Carrier, 258 FET, 624 -634 Energy, 36
modulating, 258 MOSFET, 619-624 Epitaxial transistors, 116
radiating, 258 r -f amplifier, 629 -634 Equations, 853 -856
Cathode, 83 Coordinate systems, 873 -874 first -degree, 853 -855
Cathode bias, 144 Copper wire table, 887 quadratic, 855 -856
Cathode -driven amplifier Core material, 46 Equivalent series circuit, 63
design, 709 -714 Coulomb, 28 Error cancellation, 219
Cathode -follower power Counting circuits, 216 Exciters, 386-390, 657 -695
amplifiers, 165 Coupling, coefficient of, 46 audio filters, 693-695
Cathode keying, 438 Coupling effect on impedance, 68 c -w filter, 694
Cathode modulation, 323 Crystal filters, 371 SSB filter, 693
Cathode -ray tube, 102 -105 Crystal oscillator circuits, 267 -273 broadband, 40-watt, 661 -667
accelerating anode, 103 Current flow, 28, 96 circuit, 662 -665
construction, 103 Current measurement, 797-812 transmitter adjustment, 666
electromagnetic CRT, 104 Cycle, 50 transmitter construction, 665
electromagnetic deflection, 105 D general- purpose, 657 -661
electrostatic deflection, 103 D -c amplifiers, 151 adjustment, 659
operation, 102 Decibel, 861 -865 amplifier construction, 661
890
amplifier operation, 661 F-m signals, reception, 345 -352 Hardware, 841
circuit, 658 adapter unit, 350 Harmonic radiation, 414 -416
construction, 659 design, 348 isolating source of, 416
heterodyne SSB, 660 Foster-Seeley discriminator, 346 nature of, 415
PEP linear amplifier, 661 frequency detector, 345 Hartley oscillator, 259
linear amplifier, 150 -watt, limiters, 348 Heat exchanger, 115
675 -680 mobile relays, 351 Heat sink, 115
circuit, 675 pre- emphasis and Heater cathode, 86
layout and assembly, 676-678 de- emphasis, 349 Heating effect, 36
plate circuit, 678 ratio detector, 347 Henry, 45
testing, 679 receiver circuitry, 350 Hertz, 51
SSB, jr., 386 Travis discriminator, 346 Hysteresis, 45, 138
SSB, 175 -watt, 683 -693 Forced -air cooling, 411 Hysteresis losses, 46
bandswitch assembly, 686 Forward bias, 110 I
Fractions, 846, 847 1 -f alignment, 205
circuit, 684
Franklin oscillator, 263 I -f circuits, radio, 236 -244
dial assembly, 686
layout, 685 Frequency distortion, 145 Imaginary numbers, 853
wiring and testing, 686 -693 Frequency divider, 216 Impedance, 57, 58, 65, 75
Ten -A, 387 Frequency modulation, 334 diagram, 58
transistorized, 389 bandwidth required, 338 series -resonant circuits, 65
transverter, 2 -meter SSB, carrier -wave distortion, 335 transformation, 75
667 -675 f -m terms, 336 Inductance, 45
circuit, 668 -672 modulation, 335 Inductance unit, 45
construction and adjustment, narrow -band transmission, 338 Induction, 51
672 -674 Frequency multipliers, 281 -284 Inductive reactance, 55
strip -line filter, 674 Frequency of resonance, 65 inductor, 46, 400 -402
tripler /amplifier, 680-683 Frequency-shift keying coil placement, 401
construction, 681 353, 356, 358 insulation, 401
operation, 682 Frequency spectrum, 50 r -f chokes, 401
two -tube, 390 Full -wave rectifier, 769 Input modulation system, 318 -323
F Functions of angles, 868-870 Heising, 319
Factoring, 851 G plate, 319
Farad, 37 Gas tubes, 105 -107 plate- and -screen, 321
Feedback, 218 -220 ion action, 105 power relations, 320
Feedback amplifiers, 166 -168 mercury- vapor, 106 Insulator, 27, 29
Field -effect transistor (FET), 116 thyratron, 106 Instantaneous voltage, 53
Filters vacuum -tube classifications, 106 Integrated circuits, 135
assembly, 77 premium, 106 interelectrode capacitance, 142
basic, 76 voltage -regulator, 106 lntermodulation distortion, 193
constant -K, 78 Germanium, 108 internal resistance, 31
design techniques, 77 Grid -bias, 292 -294 international Morse Code, 18 -25
electric, 76 -78 cathode, 293 interstage coupling, 296
m- derived, 80-82 class -C, 292 capacitive, 296
operation, 76 safety, 293 inductive, 297
sections, 76 self, 292 link, 297
Filter -system resonance, 766 separate supply, 293 unity, 297
Finishes, 836 series screen supply, 294 Ion, 28
Fixed bias, 144 zener, 294 iron -core inductors, 47
Flux, 43 Grid- circuit keying, 439 J
Flywheel effect, 69 Grid -current effect, 97 j operator, 58
F-M circuits, direct, 339 -342 Grid limiters, 213 Joule, 36
adjusting phase shift, 340 Grown -junction transistor, 116 Junction capacitance, 112
diode modulator, 341 Grid -screen factor, 96 Junction transistor, 117
linearity test, 341 Grounded-grid amplifiers, 281
Grounds, 402 K
reactance modulators, 339
reactance-tube modulators, 340 H Kirchoff's Laws, 34
stabilization, 340 Half -wave rectifier, 768 Klystron, 99-101
891
L Modulation, mechanics of, 310 frequency multipliers, 281 -284
L and pi networks, 288 -292 capability, 311 angle of flow, 282
L/C ratio, 68 measurement, 311 push-pull, 283
Lead inductance effects, 98 percentage, 309, 311 push-push, 283
Licenses, International waveform dissimilarity, 312 grounded -grid, 281
regulations, 16 Modulation percentage, 309, 311 Hartley, 259
Licenses, operator, 14 -16 Molecules, 26 L- and pi networks, 288 -292
Licenses, station, 14 -16 Monimatch, 818 negative- resistance, 262
Limiting circuits, 211 -214 Morse Code, 18 -25 neutralizing procedures, 277
audio peak limiting, 211 -213 Mounting components, 836 cancellation of screen -lead
diode limiters, 211 Multivibrators, 214 -216 inductance, 280
grid limiters, 213 Mutual inductance, 45 passive, 277
Linearity tracer, 209 N problems, 281
Lissajous figures, 201 Net reactance, 57 screen -grid, 278 -280
Loaded and unloaded Q, 69 Noise factor, radio, 226 -228 quartz -crystal, 264 -267
Loaded whip antennas, 587 -589 Noise generator, 822 -828 crystal drive level, 267
Logarithmic scales, 819 -820 audio generator, 827 crystal holders, 265
Logarithms, 856 -861 capacitance meter, 826 overtone-cut crystals, 266
bases, 857 silicon crystal, 823 piezoelectric effect, 264
common, 857 silicon diode, 822 practical quartz crystals, 265
definition, 856 test set, 826 resonance, 267
properties, 857 -859 transistor tester, 824 -826 r -f amplifiers, 273
tables, 858 -861 use of, 824 cathode-driven, 276
Low -pass filters, 416 -421 Noise suppression, radio, 246-250 classes, 273
construction of, 417 -420 Nomographs, 878 -884 grid excitation, 273
high -power filter, 420 Nonmetallic, 26 grid -modulated, 273
half -wave filter, 420 Nonsinusoidal waves, 70-73 grid neutralization, 275
M miscellaneous inputs, 73 neutralization, 274
Magnetic circuit, 43 other waveforms, 71 push -pull neutralization, 275
Magnetic fields, 42 peaked wave, 71 shunt or coil, 276
Magnetism, 42-47 RC differentiator, 72 split- stator, 275
Magnetomotive force, 43 sawtooth wave, 71 Seiler oscillator, 262
Magnetron, 101 sawtooth -wave input, 72 stability, 264
Mercury-vapor tubes, 106 square wave, 70 t.p.t.g., 260
Metallic, 27 square-wave input, 72 transitron, 262
Microwave electron tubes, 99 -102 square-wave test, 73 Vackar oscillator, 262
magnetron, 101 transient circuits, 71 VFO transmitter controls, 264
power Klystron, 99 wave composition, 70 Oscilloscope, 195 -210
reflex Klystron, 100 Notation of numbers, 842 i -f alignment, 205
traveling -wave tube, 102 O linearity tracer, 209

Miller effect, 142, 238 Ohm, 28, 29, 31, 32, 44, 55, 60 Lissajous figures, 201
Miscellaneous tube types, 107 Operator licenses, 14 -16 modulated -wave pattern, 205
controlled -warmup, 107 Oscillators, 258 power supply, 199
electron -ray, 107 Clapp, 261 resonance curve, 206
Mixer and converter tubes, 97 Colpitts, 259 single sideband, 208
conversion conductance, 98 crystal oscillator, sweep amplifier, 199
diode mixers, 98 circuits, 267 -273 sweep generator, 198
pentode mixers, 98 crystal switching, 270 time -base circuitry, 197
triode mixers, 98 inductive loading, 272 blanking circuit, 197
Mobile converters, 575 -577 pentode harmonic sweep-trigger circuit, 197
Mobile equipment, 589 -591 crystal, 268 trapezoidal pattern, 205
Mobile power sources, 577 -580 6CL6 oscillator, 270 waveforms, 199, 204
alternator, 578 triode overtone, 271 Oxide-coated filament, 86
batteries, 579 tuned- plate, 267 P
Mobile work, antennas tuning 270 Parallel circuits, 31
for 585 -591 electron -coupled, 261 Parallel resistance and
Modulated -wave pattern, 205 Franklin, 263 reactance, 62
892
Parallel resonance, 67 economy, 714-719 Radio receiver, 220 -2S7
Parallel RLC circuit, 63 SOOZ 2KW, 725 -734 autodyne detector, 221
Parallel tube circuits, 298 kilowatt, 747 -752 demodulator, 220
Parametric oscillation, 138 KW -1, 719 -725 detector, 220, 243 -246
Parasitic oscillation, 405-111 triband KW -2, 734-740 a-c loading
checking for, 409 Power -line interference, 426 audio amplifiers, 246
elimination of vhf, 407 Power measurements, 806 -808 automatic gain control, 243
in r -f amplifiers, 405 calorimeter, 807 avc in SSB, 245
low- frequency, 406 dummy load, 807 bfo- equipped AVC, 244
test for, 410 thermocouple, 806 detectors, 243
tetrode screening, 409 thermogalvanometer, 806 signal -strength indicators, 245
with beam tetrodes, 407.409 Power supply, 199, 763 -796 i -f circuits, 236 -244
with triodes, 407 components, 767 beat -frequency oscillators,

Parasitic resonances, 404 bleeder resistors, 768 242
Peak alternating current, 55 filter capacitors, 767 bilateral amplifier, 243
Peaked wave, 71 filter -choke coils, 768 crystal filters, 238
PEP supply for SSB, 784 transformers, 768 i -f transformers, 236
Permeability, 44 general- purpose, 790-796 mechanical filter, 240
Pentode, 95 4VS bridge- rectifier, 784 -787 Miller effect, 238
Pentode amplifiers, 157 PEP supply for SSB, 784 practical filters, 239
Pentode mixers, 98 rectification circuits, 768 -775 rejection notch, 239
Phase distortion, 1 is regulated, 787 -790 shape factor, 237
Phase inverters, 152 -154 requirements, 763 -767 transfilter, 241
cathode -coupled, 153 series diode operation, 777 noise, 226 -228
floating paraphase, 152 silicon rectifier, 775 -777 blocking, 229
hot- cathode, 152 silicon supplies for desensitization, 229
voltage- divider, 153 SSB, 778 -784 factor, 226
Phase modulation, 334, 342-115 Powers and roots, 847 -849, first tuned circuit, 226
measurement of deviation, 852.853 grid circuit, 226
343 -345 Powerstat, 431 images, 230
phase modulator, 343 Primary transformer, 73 injection voltage, 229
Phase -shift oscillator, 218 Printed circuits, 838 mixer noise, 229
Phasing SSB exciter, 372 -377 Printed -circuit SSB plate-circuit coupling, 228
a-f phasing, 376 transceiver, 593 -601 spurious products, 228
r -f phasing, 375 circuit, 591 -597 triode mixers, 229
Photoelectric emission, 83 coils, 598 tube-input loading, 227
Pierce harmonic circuit, 269 layout and assembly, 597 noise suppression, 246-250
Piezoelectric effect, 264 testing, 599 -601 alternative limiter
Plate circuit, radio, 228 -230 Punching holes, 835 circuit, 249
Plate- modulation system, 318 Push -pull audio amplifiers, 158 audio limiters, 248
Point-contact transistor, 116 Push -pull tube circuits, 298 Bishop limiter, 248
Polar coordinates, 871 -873, 881 Q full -wave limiter, 249
Polar notation, 58 Quartz- crystal oscillators, 264-267 Lamb limiter, 247
Potential difference, 27 Q variation with frequency, 67 noise blanker, 250
Potential energy, 37 R peak limiter circuits, 248
Power, 35 Radian, 865 -867 power -line filters, 246
Power amplifier, hi -fi and Radian notation, 53 peak noise limiters, 247
vhf, 696 -752 Radiation, 447 TNS limiter, 249
design, 296-714 directivity, 448 radiotelephony demodulation,
cathode -driven, 709 -714 from an antenna, 447 220
tetrode, 701 -709 from other sources, 447 radiotelegraphy reception, 221
triode, 697 -701 polarization, 448 receiving accessories, 256
high -gain amplifier, 740.717 resistance, 418, 452 -158 product detector, 256
circuitry, 740 -743 Radio -frequency amplifiers, 273 Q multiplier, 256
construction, 743 -747 Radio -frequency chokes, 297 receiver adjustment, 254-256
linear amplifier, 713 -740, Radio mathematics and bfo adjustment, 255
747 -752 calculations, 842 -888 front -end alignment, 256
893
i-f alignment, 255 skip distance, 463 loaded and unloaded Q, 69
i-f with crystal filter, 255 sky wave, 459 parallel resonance, 67
instruments, 251 space wave, 459 skin effect, 67
superheterodyne stratospheric reflection, 461 "tank" circuit, 67, 70
alignment, 255 surface wave, 459 variation of Q, 67
TRF alignment, 255 tropospheric propagation, 460 voltage across coil, 66
regeneration, 221 Radiotelegraphy reception, 221 Resonant frequency, 64
r -f stages, 230 Radiotelephony demodulation, 220 Retentivity, 45
cascade amplifier, 231 Radioteletype, 353 Reverse bias, 111
common -base amplifier, 231 RC circuit, 47 R -f energy, generation of, 258 -300
double conversion, 232 RC- coupled pentode stages, 147 R -f feedback, 301 -308
nuvistors, 230 RC- coupled triode stages, 146 amplifier check, 303
r -f amplifier, 230 RC differentiator, 72 circuits, 301
vhf range, 230 Reactance calculations, 882 -884 neutralization, 303
superheterodyne receivers, Receivers, 613, 634-645 neutralization procedure,
221 -226 amateur band, 634-645 306 -308
arithemtical selectivity, 223 alignment, 644 one -stage amplifier, 304
advantages, 223 circuit, 635 -640 parasitic oscillations, 306
converter stage, 224 wiring, 641 tests for neutralization, 305
diode mixers, 225 construction, 640 two-stage amplifier, 302, 304
frequency choice, 223 Receiver adjustment, radio, R -f power amplifiers, 169 -173
operation principle, 222 254 -256 cathode tank, 186
superregenerative receivers, 221 Receiving accessories, radio, 256 class AB, 187 -190
tuned circuits, 233 -236 product detector, 256 class B, 180-183
bandspread tuning, 235 Q multiplier, 256 class C, 169 -180
frequency range, 235 Reception, SSB, 391-394 grid voltage, 171
impedance and Q, 233 automatic gain control, 392 grounded- cathode, 183
input resistance, 234 beam- deflection tube, 393 grounded -grid, 183-187,
stray circuit capacitance, 235 receiver circuitry, 391 190 -193
superheterodyne tracking, 234 receivers, 391 plate voltage, 171
uhf design, 250 -254 Rectified alternating current, 54 tuned -cathode circuit, 193
butterfly circuit, 253 Rectifier circuits, 770 Right triangles, 867 -869
germanium rectifiers, 254 Rectifiers, 773 Ripple voltage, 765
receiver circuits, 253 Reflectometer, 819 RL circuit, 47
resonant cavities, 251 -253 Regeneration, 221 RTTY system, 353
transmission line circuits, 250 Relaxation oscillator, 214 Ruggedized or premium tubes, 106
tuning short lines, 251 Reluctance, 43 S
vhf transistors, 254 Remote -cutoff tubes, 95 Safety precautions, station, 434
vhf tubes and transistors, 253 Reperforator, 358 d -c relay operation, 436
Radio station layout, 427 Residual magnetism, 45 exposed wires, 434
autotransformers, 431 Resistance, 28, 31 grounds, 434
contactors and relays, 429 Resistance -capacitance filters, 766 "hot" adjustments, 435
outlet strips, 429 Resistance -capacitance protective interlocks, 435
power-line standards, 428 oscillators, 217 relay sequence, 436
power systems, 427 Resistors, 32, 41, 396 -398 safety bleeders, 435
safety precautions, 434 Resonance, 64 safety signal and switch, 434
transmitter power output, 430 Resonance curve, 206 Saturation, 44
Radio waves, propagation of, Resonance, sharpness of, 66 Saturation point, 44
458 -466 Resonant circuits, 64 -70 Sawtooth wave, 71
duct formation, 461 circuit Q, 66 Sawtooth -wave input, 72
E layer, 463 circulating tank current, 68 SCR devices, 114
F, layer, 425 -426 coupling effect, 68 Screen -grid keying, 440
fading, 464 current and voltage, 66 Screen -grid tubes, 94 -97
ground wave, 459 flywheel effect, 69 beam- power, 95
ionospheric propagation, 462 frequency, 64 coefficients, 97
meteors and "burst," 466 impedance, 65 current flow, 96
scattered reflections, 465 L/C ratio in parallel circuits, 68 effect of grid current, 97
894
Mu factor, 96 mixer stages, 377 heater cathode, 86
pentode, 95 problems, 381 oxide -coated filament, 86
remote -cutoff, 95 selective tuned circuits, 379 secondary, 87
tetrode, 94 twin- triode mixer, 378 space- charge effect, 87
Self- inductance, 45 Skin effect, 67 tungsten filament, 84
Secondary emission, 87 Soldering, 836 Thyratron tubes, 106
Secondary transformer, 74 Solid -state voltmeters, 805 Thyristor, 114
Seiler oscillator, 262 Space- charge effect, 87 Time -base circuitry, 197
Self- controlled oscillators, 258 -264 Speech clipping, 325 -330 Time constant, 47
Semiconductors, 27, 108 -141 clipper circuits, 329 Time measurements, 821
atomic structure, 108 high -level filters, 330 Atomic Time, 821
conduction mechanism, 109 phase -shift correction, 327-329 Ephemeris Time, 82k
extrinsic, 110 Speech compression, 330 -333, Greenwich Mean Time, 821
forward bias, 110 383.386 marker oscillators, 822
intrinsic, 110
junction capacitance, 112
PN junction, 109
ALC circuit, 384
automatic load control, 383-385
bass suppression, 332
radio time signals, 821
Universal Time, 821
Transceiver, SSB, 394, 614,
-J
point -contact, 113 modulated- amplifier distortion, 645 -656
reverse bias, 111 332 single -band SSB, 645-656
SCR devices, 114 Square root, 848, 849 adjustment, 655
thermal considerations, 115 Square wave, 70 alignment, 653 -655
thyristor, 114 Square -wave input, 72 circuit, 646 -649
tunnel-diode, 113 Square -wave test, 73 layout and assembly, 649 -651
varactor, 112 Station licenses, 14 -16 transmit operation, 656
zener- diode, 111 Step- counter, 217 wiring, 651
Series circuits, 31 Stereo interference, 425 Transformer coupling, 149
Series-diode gate clipper, 211 Subtraction, 844, 850 -851 Transformer cutouts, 835
Series- parallel circuits, 31 Superheterodyne alignment, 255 Transformers, 73 -76
Series resonance, 66 Superheterodyne receivers, ampere turns, 75
Series RLC circuit, 59 222-226 autotransformer, 75
Shop layout, 840, 841 Superregenerative receivers, 221 impedance transformation, 75
Sideband filter, 368, 370 -372 Sweep amplifier, 199 leakage reactance, 75
crystal filters, 371 Sweep generator, 198 primary, 73
mechanical filters, 372 Sweep -trigger circuit, 197 secondary, 74
Sidebands, 309 T transformation ratio, 74
Significant figures, 884 "Tank" circuit, 67, 70, 284 -288 types of, 74
Silicon, 108 capacitances, 284 -288 Transients, 70 -73
Silicon power transistors, 1 16 air gap, 288 Transient circuits, 71
Silicon rectifier, 775 -777 effect of loading, 287 Transistor, 108, 116-141
Sine wave, 52 optimum Q, 287 analysis, 120
Single -sideband, 208 -359 harmonic radiation, 285 audio circuitry, 125
linear amplifier, 366 effective Q, 284 bias stabilization, 122
medium, 359 Tank -circuit efficiency, 70 bootstrap circuit, 128
peak envelope power, 365 Tape perforator, 358 characteristics, 120
sideband filter, 362 Telephone interference, 425 circuitry, 124
source, 359 Teleprinter code, 353 classes, 116
translator, 359 Teleprinting, 353 complementary- symmetry
transmission band, 359 Tetrode, 94 -97 circuits, 126
transmitter, 367 Tetrode amplifier design, 701-709 configurations, 121
balanced modulator, 368 Tetrode transmitting tube, constant - power, 124
carrier oscillator, 367 294 -296 cutoff frequencies, 118
linear amplifier, 368 clamp tube, 295 diffused junction, 116
sideband filter, 368 grid protection, 296 digital and linear IC's, 136
speech amplifier, 367 screen protection, 295 epitaxial, 116
Single sideband, frequency screen supply, 295 equivalent circuit, 121
conversion, 377 -382 Thermionic emission, 83 -87 field -effect (FET), 116,133 -135
coupled tuned circuits, 381 equation, 87 grown junction, 116
895
handling transistors, 119 Triode amplifiers, 154 -157, generator "whine," 592
hysteresis, 138 697 -701 ignition noise, 591
input circuits, 139 Triode mixer, 98 locating noise sources, 593
integrated circuits, 135 Triode overtone oscillators, 271 voltage -regulator "hash ", 592
junction, 117 Tube circuits, 298 wheel static, 592
junction field -effect (JFET), parallel, 298 Vertical amplifier, 196
133 push -pull, 298 Vertical antennas, 477
low-frequency oscillation, 138 Tungsten filament, 81 Vhf and uhf antennas, 532-554
mode of operation, 140 Tunnel diode, 113 Video -frequency amplifiers, 149
nomenclature, 117 TV interference, in radio, Volt, 29
oscillators, 131 412 -414 Voltage decay, 49
output circuits, 139 blocking from 50 -MHz, 414 Voltage divider, 33
output curves, 122 -124 high -pass filters, 413 Voltage gradient, 47
parametric oscillation, 138 spurious emissions elimination, Voltage measurement, 797-806
point contact, 116 414 a -c, v -t voltmeter, 801
r -f circuitry, 128 -131 taking out signal, 413 ammeter, 798
silicon power transistors, 136 TV -set overload, 412 bridge -type v.t.v.m., 803 -805
symbols, 119 uhf receiver design, 250 -254 d -c, v -t voltmeter, 802
transition region, 119 units of measurements, 888 diode peak voltmeter, 801
Transistor supplies, 580 -585 multirange meter, 799
operation, 581 V solid- state, 805
power rating, 581 Vackar oscillator, 262 FET, 805
power transformer, 582 Vacuum -tube amplifiers, 142 -168 MOSFET, 805
self -starting oscillators, 582 a -f power amplifiers, 160 -165 vacuum -tube voltmeter, 800
Transit time effect, 99 amplifier response, 147 voltmeter, 798
Transmission lines, 467-472 audio amplifiers, 158 voltohmmeters, 799
coaxial line, 469 biasing methods, 144 Voltage regulation, 764
line discontinuities, 471 cascaded, 147 Voltage- regulator tubes, 106
nonresonant, 466 -470 cathode-follower amplifiers, 165 Volume compression, 330
resonant, 466, 470 classes and types, 143 VOX circuitry, 444-446
Transmitter control methods, 432 constants, 142 bias control, 446
Transmitter- distributor unit, 357 d -c amplifier circuit, 154 control, 444 -446
Transmitter keying, 437, 443 distortion, 145 transistor circuit, 446
Transmitters, 829 feedback amplifiers, 166 -168 W
grid -resistor bias, 147 Watt, 36
Transmitting tubes, cooling, 299
interelectrode capacitances, 142 Wave composition, 70
Trapezoidal pattern, 205
Loftin -White circuit, 154 Waveforms, 71, 199, 204
Traveling -wave tube, 102
Miller effect, 142 Winding coils, 837
Triband sideband transceiver, 601
parameters, 142 Wire, 400 -402
Transmitter alignment, 607-612
pentode amplifiers, 157 coil placement, 401
testing and alignment, 604 -607
phase inverters, 152 -154 insulation, 401
construction, 603
RC- coupled, 146 r -f chokes, 401
circuit, 601 -603 resistance- capacitance coupled, Wire table, 887
Trigonometric functions, 868 -870 145 -149 Work, 36
Trigonometric tables, 870 symbols, 142 Workshop tools, 829
Trigonometry, 865-873 transformer coupling, 149 -152
Triode, 89-94
Y
triode amplifiers, 154 -157 Yagi antenna, 547-554
amplification factor, 90 video -frequency amplifiers, 149 element lengths, 548
current flow, 90 voltage gain per stage, 146 construction of array, 550 -552
curves, 91 Vacuum -tube classification, 106 tiltable, 550
grid action, 89 Vacuum -tube modulators, 370 Yagi arrays, 559 -565
interelectrode capacitance, 94 Varactor, 112 delta match, 562
load line, 91 Variac, 431 impedance matching, 559
plate resistance, 90 Vectors, 870 -882 rotary-link coupling, 563
polarity inversion, 93 Vehicular noise suppression, stub balun, 565
transconductance, 90 591.593 Z
tube characteristics, 93 body static, 592 Zener diode, 111
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Radio Handbook 18 1970

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radio

EDITORS and ENGINEERS, LTD.

Copyright ^c, 1970 by Editors and Engineers, Ltd., New Augusta,

All rights reserved. Reproduction or use, without express

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 40 -33904

"Radio Handbook" is also available on special order in Spanish.

WILLIAM I. ORR, W6SAI

Chapter One. INTRODUCTION TO RADIO 13

Chapter Two. DIRECT- CURRENT CIRCUITS 26

Chapter Three. ALTERNATING -CURRENT CIRCUITS 50

Chapter Four. VACUUM -TUBE PRINCIPLES 83

Chapter Five. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 108

Chapter Six. VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 142

Chapter Seven. RADIO- FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 169

Chapter Eight. THE OSCILLOSCOPE 195

Chapter Nine. SPECIAL CIRCUITRY FOR VACUUM TUBES

Chapter Eleven. GENERATION OF RADIO -FREQUENCY ENERGY 258

Chapter Twelve. R -F FEEDBACK 301

Chapter Thirteen. AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND AUDIO PROCESSING 309

Chapter Fourteen. FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION 334

Chapter Sixteen. SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 359

Chapter Seventeen. EQUIPMENT DESIGN 396

Chapter Eighteen. RADIO INTERFERENCE 412

Chapter Nineteen. STATION ASSEMBLY AND CONTROL . 427

Chapter Twenty. RADIATION, PROPAGATION, AND TRANSMISSION LINES 447

Chapter Twenty -One. ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA MATCHING 473

Chapter Twenty -Two. HIGH -FREQUENCY DIRECTIVE ANTENNAS 512

Chapter Twenty -Three VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 532

Chapter Twenty -Four. HIGH -FREQUENCY ROTARY -BEAM ANTENNAS 555

Chapter Twenty -Five. MOBILE EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION 575

Chapter Twenty -Six. RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS 613

Chapter Twenty -Seven. EXCITERS AND STATION ACCESSORIES 657

Chapter Twenty -Eight. H -F AND VHF POWER AMPLIFIERS 696

Chapter Twenty -Nine. SPEECH AND AMPLITUDE -MODULATION

Chapter Thirty- POWER SUPPLIES 763

Chapter Thirty -One. ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 797

Chapter Thirty -Two. WARKSHOP PRACTICE 829

Chapter Thirty- Three. RADIO MATHEMATICS AND CALCULATIONS

Symbol Notation Symbol Notation

A Amperes (a -c, rms, or d -c) fil Filament

The field of radio is a division of the available spectrum, it becomes necessary to

1 -2 Station and development of the higher frequencies

PARENTHESIS O e es es INTERNAT. DISTRESS SIG. (SOS) IMP eses

a MI While various automatic code machines,

Sound - Each letter and figure must be

Be particularly careful of letters like B.

THE SIMPLEST CODE PRACTICE

CODE- PRACTICE OSCILLATOR SUITABLE

The key should be rugged and have

Direct -Current Circuits

All naturally occurring matter (exclud- elliptical orbits at an incredible rate of

voltage is the unknown quantity, it can be 1 is the current in amperes,

Figure 2 The two resistors R, and R, are said to be in

be a potential difference between the two

G =R,R= -G or I =EG with current flowing is the load voltage.

Until it divides at A, the entire current

of 1.1 amperes is flowing through the con-

OTHER COMMON SERIES -PARALLEL

where, Resistors in To find the total resistance of

The equation (E = 1 X R) gives the

Power in In order to cause electrons

Kirchhoff's second law is concerned with I1

-12) +3i O (FIRST LOOP)

positive, while IR drops taken in the direc- 4. SIMPLIFY