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NATURAL RESOURCES NATURAL RESOURCES
Anything obtained from nature or environment (Atmosphere,
Hydrosphere, Lithosphere) to meet human needs and wants can be
called as natural resource.
Some resources such as solar energy, fresh air, wind, fresh surface
water, fertile soil and wild edible plants are directly available for use.
Other resources such as petroleum, iron, ground water, modern crops
become useful only with some efforts & technological transformations.
For meeting needs from natural resource base, human being is
involved in the activities like:
Gathering, hunting, harvesting and mining for extracting natural
resources from nature.
Agricultural activity for producing biological resources from
different natural resources.
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Perpetual, renewable & non renewable resources
On a human time scale, a perpetual resource is renewed
continuously. Solar energy is a perpetual resource and it is expected
to last at least 6 billion years as the sun completes its life cycle.
Renewable resources can be maintained and replenished fairly
rapidly as long as they are not used up faster than they are replaced.
Forests, grasslands, wild animals, fresh water, fresh air and fertile
soils are renewable resources.
The highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used
indefinitely without reducing its available supply is called
sustainable yield.
Renewable resources can be depleted or degraded by
excessive and unwise use. If we exceed resources natural
replacement rate, the available supply begins to shrink, a process
known as environmental degradation .
Industrial activity
- for transforming the extracted natural resources into goods
and services.
Storage and transportation for making the resources and the
goods & services available wherever and whenever required.
Use/consumption of natural resources (in the form of goods &
services) by human beings for meeting their needs.
Natural resources are integral components of the environment.
Their extraction is associated with environmental pollution and
change.
Environment has a limited capacity for resource regeneration and
waste assimilation.
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Non-renewable resources exist in fixed quantity or stock in the
earths crust. These resources can be depleted much faster than they
are formed.
Fossil fuels (coal, oil & natural gas which cant be recycled),
metallic mineral resources (such as iron, copper, and Aluminium
which can be recycled) and non metallic mineral resources (such as
salt, clay, sand, phosphates which are difficult or too costly to recycle)
are non-renewable resources.
Natural resources can be classified as:
Forest Resources
Water Resources
Mineral Resources
Energy Resources
Food Resources
Land Resources
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Forest resources Current classifications and definitions that relate

to valuation
Forests are the worlds most important and most valuable renewable
natural resource and also repositories of terrestrial biological diversity.

This resource is in imminent danger due to adverse abiotic and biotic

Forest, Other wooded land and Other land
stresses resulting from urban expansion, infrastructural development, Forest designation and management
agriculture and global warming. Forest characteristics
Since forests are long-living, out-breeding, generally highly Forest stocks (volume, biomass, carbon)
heterogeneous and found in variable environments, they have
developed complex mechanisms to maintain high intraspecific
diversity.

Forest - definition Other wooded land

Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher Shrubs and bushes and sub-arctic and
than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10
percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. mountain dwarf-tree formations
It does not include land that is predominantly under
agricultural or urban land use. Not primarily used for agriculture (e.g.
Current definition is a combination of tree cover and grazing)
land use. Definition has been stable since 2000 and is Do not produce timber, but in some areas
now globally accepted.
Note that there may be a considerable amount of trees provides substantial amount of fuelwood
growing on land that is not classified as forest.

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Other land Forest designation and management

Agricultural and urban areas, barren land Designated for production

Designated for protection of soil and water
May have tree cover when the tree cover Designated for conservation of biodiversity
fulfils the threshold values in the Forest Designated for social services
definition, it is reported as Other land with Designated for multiple use

tree cover Area of Permanent Forest Estate

Other land with tree cover may produce Forest area within protected areas
Forest area under sustainable forest management
timber, fuelwood and wood for other Forest area with management plan
purposes

Forest characteristics Types.

Forests are three distinct types
Naturally regenerated forests Tropical Rain forests

Primary forests Temperate forests

Boreal forests
Other (with signs of human impact)
Tropical Rain Forests
...of which of introduced species
Prominently found near equator
Planted forests Have warm annual mean temperature, high humidity and
...of which of introduced species heavy rainfall
Typically possess broadleaf evergreen plants
NOTE, the concept of semi-natural forests have been
Have incredible biodiversity
dropped, as it was mostly suited to European conditions
The diverse life forms occupy a variety of specialized niches
in distinct layers

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Types. Types.
Tropical Rain Forests Temperate forests
The stratification enables coexistence of variety of species Grow in areas with moderate average temperatures significantly
(biological diversity) changing with seasons
Intense soil biodegradation activity Distinctly with long warm summers and intense winters
Possess broadleaf deciduous trees
These forests cover only about 2% of the earths land
surface, but are habitats for 50-80% of earths terrestrial Low biodegradative activity in soils
species Boreal Forests
Tropical deciduous forests farther away from equator Found South of Arctic Tundra
Have long, dry and extremely cold climates and especially long
Have warm climates and extreme wet and long dry
daylights
seasonal effects
Dominated by coniferous evergreen trees
Have drought tolerant evergreen trees and shrubs
Coastal Coniferous Forests
Found in scattered coastal temperate areas with ample rainfall and
moisture

Uses. Global forest resource

Commercial uses
There were 3 454 million hectares of forest, including some 3 221
Timber; pulpwood, firewood, gum, resins, oil, rubber, etc.
million hectares of natural forest, throughout the world as of 2000
Ecological Uses
Global distribution and availability differ significantly by region.
Oxygen production
The largest aggregate area of natural forests is in South America and
Carbondioxide sink Russia.
Biodiversity The availability of natural forest as resource is greatest (in terms of
Hydrological cycle actual area) for Russia and North America, while the share of natural
Soil conservation forests deemed available as resource within a region is the greatest for
Europe (85.1%), Russia (76.0%), Asia (56.6%) and North America
(56.0%).

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Global forest resources Global roundwood production 2006

Growing stock total 434 bill. m3 (with bark) Total 3 536 mill. m3 (without bark)

North America Russia

Europe North America
68 bill. m3 80 bill. m3 Europe Russia
29 bill. m3 679 mill. m3 3
479 mill. m3 191 mill. m

Asia & Oceania

Africa
53 bill. m3 Africa Asia & Oceania
65 bill. m3
654 mill. m3 1 083 mill. m3
Lat. America &
Caribbean Lat. America &
Caribbean
139 bill. m3
451 mill. m3

SOURCE: FAO SOURCE: FAO

Global industrial roundwood production 2006 Global forest area

Total 1 666 mill. m3 (without bark) Total 3 952 mill. ha

Lat. America
924
&
North America Russia
Europe Russia
631 mill. m3 3 809
372 mill. m3 145 mill. m
Asia &
767
Oceania

Asia & Oceania Africa 635

Africa
66 mill. m3 281 mill. m3
North America 613
Lat. America &
Caribbean
Europe 203
171 mill. m3 mill. ha
0 250 500 750 1000

SOURCE: FAO SOURCE: FAO

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Russia has 21 % of global forest resources More than half of the global roundwood consumption is used
Total 3 952 mill. ha for heating and cooking

Europe
5%
Lat. America North America
& 16% Sawn goods
Caribbean 28%
23%
Household
fuelwood
Africa 52%
Russia 16%
21%
Paper
Asia & Other forest 15%
Oceania industries
19% 5%

SOURCE: FAO SOURCE: FAO

More than half of the global roundwood consumption is used

for heating and cooking Global forests
Global roundwood consumption and forest resources Natural forests in legally protected areas are unavailable for
Forest resources, mill. m3 over bark harvesting. Additional natural forests, can also be unavailable for
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000
harvesting by reason of:
Russia 80,000
I. Physical conditions and terrain, such as steep slopes.
Lat. America &
Europe 28,000
II. Remote locations and limited access through lack of
Industrial
Africa 65,000
roundwood infrastructure (roads, etc) and transport.
North America 68,000 III. Other factors, such as low productivity, poor stand quality, lack
Asia & Oceania 53,000
of commercial species, etc
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Roundwood consumption, mill. m3 under bark

SOURCE: FAO

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Global forests
Overall, only 290 million hectares (17.5%) of natural forests are
unavailable for harvesting under legally protected status.
Asia, Russia and South America lead in the legal designation of
protected natural forests in terms of area.
Some 256 million hectares - unavailable for harvesting due to physical
constraints (Category I) with the majority in South America, followed
by North America and Africa.
Over 365 million hectares - remoteness and lack of infrastructure
(Category II) accounts for of which about 69 percent is in South
America.
Global forests
Deforestation is the most critical factor in the reduction of natural
forest area available for harvesting.
An estimated 11.4 million hectares of natural forests are deforested
annually.
However, the recent trend to designate additional protected areas is
also significant, removing natural forests from the production forest
base.
FAO has estimated that some 290 million hectares are now under
some form of legal protection with the gross area (including non-
forest) increased from about 550 million hectares to almost 1 200
million hectares
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Global forests
Over 746 million hectares - degraded and poor quality natural forests
(Category III) not available for harvesting, with significant amounts in
Central America, Russia, Africa, South America, Asia, Europe and North
America.
A large majority of timber production is harvested from currently
available natural forest.
Globally, an estimated 3 354 million m3 was removed from the worlds
forests of which 56 percent is woodfuel.
Woodfuel is most significant in Asia and Africa while industrial
roundwood production was heavily concentrated in North America,
Asia and Europe.
Forests of India
India is one of the 12 centres of biological diversity in the world and
the origin of several cultivated plants.
It is estimated that about 45000 species of plants occur in India, of
which flowering plants account for 15000 species.
About 5000 of the flowering plants are endemic. The wild relatives of
crop plants, together with other economically important species
(about 150 species) are rich sources of many important and desirable
characters and constitute a gene pool of potential use.
It has been reported that in India there are about 6270 economically
important species.
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Forest Cover of India Forest Cover of India

Class Area in sq.km. Percentage of
Geographic area Among the states
Dense forest 377,358 11.48 Madhya Pradesh (20.68%)

Open forest 255,064 7.76 Arunachal Pradesh (10.80%)

Orissa (7.38%)
Mangrove 4,871 0.15
Maharashtra (7.32%)
Sub-total 637,293 19.39
Andhra Pradesh (6.94%).
Scrub 51,896 1.58 The seven North-Eastern states (25.70%)
Non-Forest 2,598,074 79.03

Total 3,287,263 100.00

Forest Cover of India Economically important plant diversity of India

The total annual value of Indias forest products -
Rs 3,00,000 million compared to the meager investments of Economic uses Number of species
Rs 8000 million in this sector.
Food 1200
Indian forests significantly contribute to meet the demand
Fodder 2200
for fuelwood, fodder, and non-wood forest products and the
major portion of all wood harvested (92%) is for fuelwood Fuel and timber 1000
for cooking. Medicines 1500
The non-timber forest products (NTFPs) - another important Fibre 150
component in the forest economy viz., medicines, fibre, oil,
Spices 120
spices, etc.
Oil 100

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Economics and Exploitation..Effect
on forests
Dependence on forests for energy, housing materials,
timber and fodder.
Demand for forest products and services with the rapid
economic growth and increase in population whereas the
forested area in the country is declining.
Increasing urban and rural population will continue to
grow, this factor will be important from the point of view of
forestry and genetic conservation.
India has 2% of the worlds land area, 1% of its forests
and 0.5% of its rangelands but supports 16% of the
human population and 15% of worlds cattle population.
Economics and Exploitation..Effects
159.6 percent increase in overall roundwood production
between 1970 and 1993. The largest portion (104 percent)
occurred between 1970 and 1980, which may be attributed to
the introduction of fuelwood species
Roundwood is defined simply as wood in the rough, and
includes trees felled for any purpose.
It is estimated that by the year 2015, demand for fuelwood
and charcoal will exceed 40 million cubic meters.
The majority of total roundwood production has been for use
as fuelwood and charcoal, much of which is harvested by
villagers, and towards urban expansions.
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Economics and Exploitation..Effects
The total annual value of Indias forest products -
Rs 300000 million compared to the meager investments of
Rs 8000 million in this sector.
Indian forests significantly contribute to meet the demand
for fuelwood, fodder, and non-wood forest products and the
major portion of all wood harvested (92%) is for fuelwood
for cooking.
The non-timber forest products (NTFPs) - another important
component in the forest economy viz., medicines, fibre, oil,
spices, etc.
Economics and Exploitation..Causes
Shifting cultivation
Agrarian society of India dependent of cultivation of crops
5 lakh hec. of forests cleared annual to expand cultivation
Major deforestation activities Andhra Prad., Bihar, M.P
Growing food needs of increasing population
Fuel Requirements
Increasing demand 65 million tons (1947); 400 million tons
(2001); 900 million tons (2010).
Industrial raw material
Timber, plywood, pulpwood, infrastructure, etc.
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Overgrazing Major Consequences of Deforestation

Monoculture plantations
Threat to many wild life species due to destruction of their
For industrial raw material natural habitat endangered
Loss of genetic, species and biological diversity
Disturbances in hydrological cycles and influence on rainfall
Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility
Landslides
Expansion of Deserts
Lowering of water Table
Loss of medicinal plants

Power Sector at a Glance!

(All India)

Non-Commercial Biomass fuel

Energy Sources
Conventional

Commercial

Non-Conventional Solar, Geothermal,

Wind & Tidal waves

Source: MoP, GoI

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Biomass as Energy Resource
Biomass is a plant/animal derived organic matter available on a renewable
basis.
In poorer countries, wood and other biomass fuels still provide upto 95% of
all the energy used.
Versatile fuel:
Can be stored & transported
Can be converted into high quality gaseous, liquid & solid fuels &
electricity.
If used sustainably, no net release of CO2.
Biodiesel
Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from
domestic renewable resources i.e. vegetable oils and animal fats.
These natural oils and fats are made up mainly of triglycerides.
These triglycerides when reacted chemically with lower alcohols
in presence of a catalyst result in fatty acid esters.
These esters show striking similarity to petroleum derived diesel
and are called "Bio-diesel".
In the US bio-diesels are mainly derived from Soybean oil and in
Europe from the Sunflower oil.
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Biomass Energy Utilization Techniques
Biomass can be used to provide heat, to make fuels & to generate
electricity.
Biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels (ethanol, methanol &
biodiesel) for transportation needs.
- Ethanol & methanol are produced by anaerobic digestion of plant
materials mainly with high sugar contents grains & sugarcane.
- Both ethanol and methanol make good fuels for transportation and
fuel cells.
- Biomass can be converted into gas (H2, CO, CH4), at high
temperatures & this gas can be used for fuelling a turbine.
Decay of Biomass in land fill produces biogas (methane)
- Biogas is generated from the treatment of animal manure & other
organic wastes like agricultural residues & municipal solid wastes.
Biodiesel for India
Bio-diesel - more attractive recently because of its environmental
benefits and the fact that it is made from renewable sources and
can be prepared locally
Since India is deficient in edible oils, therefore, the non-edible oil
like Karanjia, Jatropha, etc. could be the desirable source for
India for production of bio-diesel.
These plants could be grown on wasteland, about 80 million
hectare of which is available in India.
These crops grow in arid and semi-arid region and require almost
no post plantation management and care.
Since, all most all the wasteland is available in rural and
economically underdeveloped region, the large-scale bio-diesel
production has an enormous potential for employment and
development of these areas.
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Compatibility of Biodiesel
The major application of Bio-diesel is in transportation sector as
an alternate to mineral diesel.
Many automobiles builders like Ford, John Deere, Massey-
Ferguson, Mercedes, BMW, Volkswagen, Volvo, etc have
accepted Bio-diesel as the fuel suitable for their vehicles in the
existing diesel engines.
However, mostly Bio-diesel is used in 10% or 20% blends rather
than as neat Bio-diesel.
The depletion of the world petroleum reserves coupled with the
global environmental problems stimulated the search for the
alternative source for petroleum fuel.
Bio-diesel is one of such candidates for the exploitation as an
alternative to diesel fuel.
Biomass Energy for India
India is world leader in the development and application of biomass
gasifier technology
Under Gasification programme, 12 Biomass Gasifier plants have
been installed for generating Thermal energy for industrial
applications, for water pumping and for power generation in India.
These Gasifiers are up to a capacity 500 KW .
Success Stories
22MW bagasse-based cogeneration project at Shamanur Sugars,
Karnataka exports 18 MW to Govt. Elec. Board
Totally indigenous project
Employment and Economic benefit to area
6 MW biomass based power project at Miryalguda, And. Pradesh
uses rice husk and Prosopis juliflora
500 KW Biomass gasifier plant at Sunderbans, W.Bengal 2 million
people getting electricity from 10 lakh units electricity generated
Strictly run by cooperative system with no govt. intervention
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Biomass Energy
Biomass Energy is produced by burning the solid Biomass fuels
(green plants, agricultural residues, carbonaceous waste, wood
etc).
Direct burning of Biomass in an efficient manner causes the
energy loss. But through Gasification programme, Biomass is
converted in to high quality of gaseous fuel through Gasifier
power plants.
In the Biomass Gasifier , Biomass (a solid fuel) is converted into
gaseous fuel, called producer gas formed through a series of
thermo chemical process.
The producer gas mainly consists of carbon-monoxide, hydrogen
and nitrogen gas.
The gaseous fuel energy is used in several applications.
BioGas
Biogas is a mixture of methane (major constituent),
carbondioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide
Produced by anaerobic digestion of animal wastes in the
presence of water
A non-polluting, clean low cost fuel
The enormous potential of biogas, estimated at 17,000 MW.
The capacity was derived principally from estimated agricultural
residues and dung from India's 300 million cattle.
Biogas technology may have the potential to short-circuit the
'energy transition'
Biogas technology is a particularly useful system in the Indian
rural economy, and can fulfil several end uses.
The gas is useful as a fuel substitute for firewood, dung,
agricultural residues, petrol, diesel, and electricity, depending on
the nature of the task, and local supply conditions and constraints
thus supplying energy for cooking and lighting.
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Biogas
Small-scale industries are also made possible, from the sale of
Biogas surplus gas to the provision of power for a rural-based industry,
Biogas systems also provide a residue organic waste, after therefore, biogas may also provide the user with income
anaerobic digestion, that has superior nutrient qualities over the generating opportunities
usual organic fertilizer, cattle dung, as it is in the form of ammonia Success story of biogas plant Industrial scale
Anaerobic digesters also function as a waste disposal system, Satia paper mills ltd., Muktsar, Punjab
particularly for human waste, and can, therefore, prevent Biomethanation (biogas10,000cum) of black liquor
potential sources of environmental contamination and the spread (52,000 cum)

of pathogens Savings on 20 to 22 tonnes of rice husk used as fuel

Less tangible benefits associated with this renewable technology-
biogas can replace the traditional biomass based fuels, notably
wood
15-20% of energy requirement of mill provided by biogas
plant
Savings on electricity, chemical consumption, low COD and
BOD in wastewater treatment systems

Biogas
Two basic types of biogas plants
(1) Floating gas holder (KVIC model) and (2) Fixed dome type
Hinderances in success of Biogas plants
Technical lacunae in operation and maintenance
Non-Commercial
Cultural practices
Social stigma
Energy Sources
Climatic variations (winter temperatures) Conventional
Compared to the biogas programme in China, where seven million
Commercial
household and community biogas systems have been successfully
installed, India has a long way to go to realise the benefits of biogas Non-Conventional Solar, Geothermal,
Wind & Tidal waves
technology.
China, through the creation of effective institutions and by placing
an emphasis on training and education, has achieved widespread
dissemination of biogas technology

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Solar Energy
Solar Energy in the most readily available and free source of
energy since prehistoric times and being used in most primitive
way.
India alone receives 5000 trillion KWH of Solar radiation per year
Through this Solar Energy it is possible to generate 20 MW Solar
power per square kilometer land area.
Solar Energy can be used directly for heating and lighting home
and buildings, for generating electrical, cooking foods, hot-water
heating, solar cooling, drying materials and a variety of
commercial and industrial uses
Solar Energy
Solar Energy can be utilised through two different routes, as
Solar thermal routes and Solar photovoltaic routes. Solar
Energy can be converted into Thermal Energy with the help
of Solar Collectors and receivers known as Solar-Thermal
devices
The Solar-Thermal devices can be classified into three
categories
Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of 100
centigrade.
Medium-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of
100-300 centigrade.
High-Grade Heating Devices - above temperature of 300

Solar Energy
Fuel savings 100 litres capacity SWH can replace electric Solar Energy
geyser use and saves 1500 units of electricity annually More than 7,00,000 PV systems of capacity over 44MW for
The use of 1000 SWHs of 100 litre capacity each can contribute
different applications are installed all over India.
to a peak load saving of 1 MW
A SWH of 100 litres capacity can prevent emission of 1.5 tonnes The market segment and usage is mainly for home lighting,
of carbondioxide per year street lighting, solar lanterns and water pumping for irrigation.
Life 15 to 20 years Over 17 grid interactive solar photovoltaic generating more
Solar Energy can be directly converted to electrical energy by
than 1400 KW are in operation in 8 states of India.
means of Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) System.
Solar Photovoltaic Technology enables the conversion of direct As the demand for power grows exponentially and
sunlight into electricity without involving any moving part such as conventional fuel based power generating capacity grows
turbine etc.
arithmetically, SPV based power generation can be a source
The basic part Solar Photovoltaic is known as Solar Cell. Solar
Cells are made of semi conducting materials- a thin wafers of to meet the expected shortfall.
Silicon which is exposed to sunlight, to produce D.C electric
current.

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Flat Plate Collector Flat Plate Collector

The most common and Because of the vagaries of solar irradiance from day to
economical form of day, a solar collector, no matter how big, can never
solar thermal energy completely satisfy the demand for year-round heat for
collector is the flat domestic hot water or space heating, and a backup supply
must be available for satisfactory operation.
plate collector.

It consists of a thermally conducting collector plate equipped

with passages through which a heat transfer fluid passes,
transferring heat from the collector plate to a fluid storage
tank.
The collector plate surface facing the incoming sunlight is
treated to absorb as much of that sunlight as possible.
A transparent cover (usually glass) is placed parallel to the
collector plate, forming an enclosed space that reduces the
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heat loss to the surrounding atmosphere

Focussing collectors Focussing Collector

The purpose of employing focusing solar collector systems
is to increase the intensity of the solar radiation falling on
the collector, thereby making it possible to collect solar
energy at a higher temperature and with a smaller collector
area than for a simple flat plate system.
Focusing systems collect solar energy at a sufficiently high
temperature to use that energy in a heat engine cycle to
generate electric power efficiently.
40 MW-California

60

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Solar Energy
Photovoltaic cells Success stories
50 KW SPV power project Neil Island, Andaman & Nicobar
The electron and hole then 200 KW Grid-interactive SPV Karkar Kalan Village,
move to the negative and
positive electrodes Nawanshahr, Punjab installed in 2003 and generates 9400
respectively and provide a units of electricity per year
current that moves through
Large scale deployment of solar powered water pumps in
the external circuit from
the positive to the negative Punjab (2002-03) 500 pumps each capable of delivering
electrodes with an 1,40,000 litres water per day from depth of 6-7 meters and
accompanying electric
potential drop, both irrigate 5-8 acres of land (implementation in AP, Gujarat,
sustained by the flow of Haryana)
photons into the cell.
When sunlight falls upon the cell, some photons penetrate to Worlds largest solar cooker Brahmakumari Ashram,
the region of the interface and can create there an electron Mount Abu, Rajasthan
hole pair, provided that the photon energy equals or exceeds
Cooks meal for 10,000 people without a single unit of
the gap energy Eg needed to move an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band; that is, provided that commercial fuel used
61
the wavelength is less than hc/Eg.

Wind Energy
Big Wind Turbines or Wind Farms, like old Wind mills are
mounted on a tower to capture the Wind energy with there
propeller like blades
The turning through Wind power spins a generator to produce
electricity. Wind Turbines which are suitable for residential or
village scale wind power range from 500 watts to 50 kilowatts
India ranks fourth in the world in Wind power generation after
Germany, USA, and Denmark.
India now ranks as a "wind superpower" with an installed wind
power capacity of 1167 MW and about 5 billion units of electricity The Indian wind energy sector has an installed capacity of 17,365.03 MW (as
have been fed to the national grid so far. on March 31, 2012).

Altogether 13 states of India have a net potential of about 45000

MW 64

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WIND POWER Wind has both advantages & disadvantages

Wind energy been used by humans for centuries to pump
water and grind grain through wind mills.
Todays wind powered electricity generators or aerogenerators
are just advanced wind mills. Large no. of wind mills installed in
a cluster is known as wind farms.
In India, more than 2000 MW of wind powered electricity is
being generated commercially whereas potential is 20,000 MW.
In India winds are relatively low (5-20 Km/hr) & varies with
season. It is available in remote areas so exploitation of wind
energy is expensive.
20 million MW of wind power could be commercially tapped
worldwide (not including contribution from wind mill clusters at
sea)
Like solar power & hydropower, wind taps a natural physical
force
Like solar power (its ultimate source) wind power is an
abundant non polluting resource causing minimal
environmental disruption.
It requires expensive storage during peak production times to
off set non-windy periods.
Wind farms occupy substantial areas & the sight of such farms
may not be aesthetically appealing.

How Big is a 2.0 MW Wind Turbine?

80

59.6

This picture shows a

Vestas V-80 2.0-MW wind
turbine superimposed on a
Boeing 747 JUMBO JET

67 68

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Recent Capacity Wind farms in India

Enhancements
2006
5 MW
600

2003
1.8 MW
2000 350
850 kW
265

69 70

Wind Energy Tidal Energy

Success stories Following sites represent 50% of the tidal potential
Bay of Fundy (Canada)
540 MW wind power plant Muppandal, Kanyakumari
The seven Estuary (UK)
Largest concentration of wind turbines in a given location
Gulf of St. Malo (France)
Created in remote, backward region of the state of Tamilnadu South East Coast of China
Providing power to large population living without means of Russian coasts boarding the white sea.
electricity reaching the area India has two sites:
Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat (0.6 to 3.0 TWh potential)
350 MW commercial wind power plant Jogimatti,
Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay), Gujarat (10 to 15 TWh potential)
Chitradurga, Karnataka Recorded worlds highest annual
Planning to have 2 MW plant in Sunderban of West Bengal
capacity factor
350 MW semi-commercial plant Vankusawade, Maharastra
Transformation of barren and unproductive district into an
industrial belt without consumption a single unit of power from
central/state grid

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Tidal
Sea (High Tide)
Reservoir
Barrage
Tidal Power
For a typical single effect plant, .
Beginning at midtide, the sluice gates are opened and sea water
flows into the pool, filling it to the high tide level in the first
quarter period, at which point the sluice is closed.
(a)
Shortly thereafter, the turbine inlet is opened and the turbine
Water
stored at power output rises quickly to its rated power for nearly half of the
high tide in tidal cycle.
Reservoir Turbine Sea

Low
Tide

(b)

Fig. Water flows into the reservoir to turn the turbine at high tide (a), and
flows out from the reservoir to the sea, again turning into the turbine at low
tide (b) 74

Merits of Tidal Energy

Geothermal energy
Inexhaustible and renewable source of energy Earths internal temp. can provide a useful source of energy. High pressure,
Independent of rainfall high temp. steam fields exist below the Earths surface. There is an increase
in temp. with increasing depth. Hot molten rock called magma is present in
Pollution free the core of the earth and when ground water find its way into such a rock
Dont require large land area then, it comes in the form of steam or hot water.
- Around the edges of continental plates or where the earths crust
Limitations overlays Magma pools close to the surface, this energy is
expressed in the form of hot springs and geysers.
Variability in output caused by variation in tidal range - Yellow stone National park is the largest geothermal region in US. -
Intermittent in operation Also Ice Land, Japan and New Zealand also have high
Expensive Turbine concentrations of geothermal springs & vents.
- Radioactive decay occurring deep within the earth is believed as the
Large energy losses during transmission ultimate source.
Hampers the aquatic life - Hot molten Magma can also be exploited but technology is not yet
available.

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 9/10/2015

Geothermal energy : Direct Use Applications

Clean & reliable sources both for heat & electricity
Firm power 24 hours per day & 365 days per year over 98%
annual availability factor
For an installed capacity when compared with wind 3.5 times
more energy supply is possible.
Historical Uses :
Use of natural springs for bathing & cooking
Piped heating systems in Europe and USA.
Geothermal heat pump/geo exchange system/ground source heat
pump
Widely used in USA, Canada, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, Germany
and other European countries
Appropriate for air conditioning both heating and cooling)
Most energy & cost efficient requires 44 to 72% less energy. Has the
lowest overall environmental cost among the available air
conditioning technologies.
Produces less noise & ensures improved humidity conditions
Involves pumping out hot waster & using for heating buildings, for
growing plants in green houses, for drying vegetables, for fish
forming, for pasteurizing milk & other industrial uses, for melting
snow on side walks of roads etc.
In Ice Land > 20% of houses are warmed through this source
Geothermal energy : Electricity Generation
Hot geothermal fluid (> 300of)
Low mineral & gas content & shallow fluid aquifers are ideal for
geothermal energy
Limitations
Surface Subsidence
Air pollution due to release of gases like H2S, NH3, & CO2
Overall efficiency is quite low
Minimum temp. required is 100oC so many reservoirs cant be used.

Coal
Proven coal reserves of the country 70 billion tonnes
Mining ~ 400 tonnes/year
Conventional Energy Resources
National demand as on 2004 550 million tonnes
Coal
Domestic production stagger around 360 million tonnes
Petroleum and its products
Therefore, deficit of 190 tonnes and therefore dependence on
Natural gas
imports.
Surface water
Coal consumption pattern
Nuclear material
Power sector 60 %
Steel 14 %
Cement 5 %
Miscellaneous 21 %
Type of coals Anthracite, bituminous & Lignite

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 9/10/2015

Coal for India as an important energy resource Coal

Causes of lack of development in coal sector
Slow development of sector
Under utilization of mine capacity
Low output per man-shift
Delays in project implementation
Power constraints
Labour unrest
Coal movement problems
Falling quality

Petroleum
Fractional distillation and processing results in petrol, diesel
Global oil reserves
and other products of commercial and energy importance
One million tonne of crude oil on fractional distillation provides
about 0.8 million tonnes of petroleum
Percent composition
- 25% Petrol (C6-C12)
- 45-60% Diesel and kerosene (C6-C22)
- 15-20% Naphtha (C8-C30)
- 8-10% Fuel Oil (C30-C80)
- 2-5% Asphalt (C50-C100)
- 40 % in transport sector and 60% in industrial sector
- 66 MT of petroleum products are being used in India of which
more than half are being imported

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Petroleum
The OPEC (Org. of Petroleum Exporting Countries)
Time period left for reserves
+ Western Europe 9 years
+ Asia 18 years
+ Africa 25 years
+ USA 10 years
+ Australia 18 years
Estimated availability as global resource 45 years
Major resource base (77%) OPEC
Per barrel Only 40 % released into global market i.e., major strength of
OPEC in years to come
Indian statistics (as on Jan 2005)
Consumption - 120 MT
Own production - 55 MT
Deficit - 65 MT

Crude Oil Prices

Crude Oil imports by India

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Petroleum Natural Gas

India has thirty-five major fields onshore (primarily in Assam and There are two basic reasons why use of natural gas as fuel
Gujarat) and four major offshore oil fields (near Bombay, south of
source is expected to increase.
Pondicherry, and in the Palk Strait)
Environmental concern including CO2 emission and green
The oil field with the greatest output is Bombay High, with 402,797
house effect and therefore NG is considered to be most
barrels per day production, about fifteen times the amount produced
environment-friendly
by the next largest fields.
reserves of natural gas are comparable to that of crude oil
Total reserves are estimated at 4.33 billion barrels.
with much lower consumption levels. NG, accordingly,
India's oil demand has risen (2004) to 1.6 million barrels per day
could last longer than crude oil.
(b/d), or more than twice domestic output.
Almost half of India's trade deficit is due to petroleum imports, the
cost of which also limits capital that could be invested in the
economy.
Indias major hope is to restrain demand by gradually raising product
prices to international levels, import oil through trans-national
pipelines & increase production efficiencies

Natural gas resources in India Natural gas resources in India

Major sources - Gulf of Cambay (West Coast); Krishna-Godavari
Delta (East Coast), Bombay High
Presently, about 65 mmm3 / day of natural gas is supplied to the
consumers.
About 40% of NG is used for power generation, 28 % for fertilizer
and balance for other uses such as industrial, residential etc.
Current and future trends - increase in natural gas consumption
from present 65 mmm3/day to 130 mmm3/day (as per 10th plan) -
double the consumption level in five years; & Vision 2025 document
predicts consumption level to rise to 391 mmm3/day an increase by
six fold
It is unlikely that indigenous production could reach anywhere near
130 mmm3/day- consumption level predicted in the 10th Plan.
Expected increase in indigenous production to about 75 mmm3/day
leaving a gap of 55 mmm3/day.
Obviously, the gap would need to be filled through imports.
Looking yet further (year 2025), assuming that indigenous production
doubles itself, even then a big gap of about 260 mmm3/day would
exist between demand and indigenous supply
There are basically only two options.
Through additional discoveries in the Indian basin.
Through imports by pipeline from Bangladesh, Iran etc.
or as LNG by tankers.

23

Hydroelectricity
India has one of the highest hydropower potentials in the world.
India celebrated 100 years of hydro power development in 1997,
with first project of 200 kW plant in Darjeeling (1897).
As on today, the total installed capacity is 28,250 MW and share of
hydroelectricity is 25% of the overall national power generation
capacity
There is potential for an installed capacity of over 150,000MW, and
for an additional 90,000MW of pumped storage schemes.
However, of the total hydro potential in India, only 15% has so far
been utilised, with another 7% under various stages of development.
Major hydroelectric projects (above 750 MW): Bhakra, Dehar,
Koyna, Nagarjunasagar, Srisailam, Sharavarthy, Kalinadi and Idukki
Nuclear power
235
Most commonly used fuel in nuclear power plants is U , a naturally
occurring radioactive isotope of uranium
Radioactive uranium atoms are unstable when struck by a high
energy subatomic particle neutron they under go nuclear fission
releasing energy and more neutrons. When uranium is packed tightly
in the reactor core, the neutrons released by one atom trigger the
fission of another uranium atom and a self sustaining chain reaction
sets in leading to the release of vast amounts of energy
235
Fission of U yields 25 million times the heat released by the
combustion of the same amount of C
Nuclear energy is also produced by fusion reactions. The nuclei of
two light atoms deuterium and tritium (both forms of hydrogen) are
joined together releasing large quantities of energy in the process
9/10/2015
Hydroelectricity - Small hydro power programme
Small and mini-hydel projects have the potential to provide energy in
remote and hilly areas where extension of grid system is un-
economical.
India has 420 small hydro power projects up to 25 MW station
capacity with an aggregate capacity of over 1423 MW.
Types river schemes (1-25MW), canal fall schemes (0.1-1MW) and
pumped storage schemes (upto 0.10 MW)
Complementary to major projects
6% of the total hydropower potential
4096 potential sites for mini-hydel projects with total capacity of
15000 MW
Nuclear power in India
India's Nuclear Power Programme has fourteen reactors in operation
that includes 2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) and 12 Pressurised
Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR).
It has eight power reactors under construction at present of
which two PHWRs of 540 MW capacity each are at Tarapur in
Maharashtra, four 220 MW capacity power reactors two each at
Kaiga (Karnataka) and Rawatbhata (Rajasthan) and two of 1000
MWe capacity each at Kudankulam (Tamilnadu).
India plans to put up a total installed nuclear power capacity of
20,000 MW by the year 2020
24
 9/10/2015

Nuclear power
Nuclear power sector is viewed as a potentially risk sector
Nuclear waste handling and disposal problem - By 1988 worlds
nuclear power plants generated 7000 tons of spent fuel, by 1994
it was 145,000 tons & by 2010 it will be 322,000 tonnes
Proliferation of nuclear weapons & Nuclear terrorism
Risks of Catastrophic accidents
Nuclear energy not being cheaper
Introduction
Nuclear energy is derived from the binding force (the
strong force) that holds the nucleons (neutron and
proton) of the atomic nucleus together.
The binding force per nucleon is greatest for elements
in the middle of the periodic table and is smallest for
the lighter and heavier elements.
When lighter nuclei fuse together, energy is released;
and energy is also released when heavier nuclei
undergo fission.

98

Nuclear Reactors Nuclear Reactors

The first commercial scale nuclear power plant of 180-MW Installed Under
Power Reactor
capacity went into operation in 1956 at Calder Hall, England. station
Type Location State
units (MW)
Capacity construction
(MW) (MW)
The first nuclear-powered submarine, the Nautilus, was Narora Atomic
PHWR Narora Uttar Pradesh 2 x 220 440 na
Power Station
launched in 1954. Submarine reactors produce steam that Rajasthan
1 x 100, 1 x
drives a turbine, which in turn propels the submarine. Atomic Power
Station
PHWR Rawatbhata Rajasthan
200, 4 x 220
1180 -

Nuclear Power Generation in India (2006-07 to 2012-13) Tarapur Atomic 2 x 160, 2 x

Power Station
BWR/PHWR Tarapur Maharashtra
540
1,400 -
Gross Generation Availability Factor Kakrapar
Year Capacity Factor (%) Atomic Power PHWR Kakrapar Gujarat 2 x 220 440 2 x 700
(MUs) (%)
Station

2012-13
27463 80 91 Kudankulam
(Upto January - 2013) Nuclear Power PHWR Kudankulam Tamil Nadu 2 x 1000 - 2000
Plant
2011-12 32455 79 91
2010-11 Madras Atomic
26472 71 89 PHWR Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu 1 x 500 - 500
Power Station
2009-10 18803 61 92 Kaiga Nuclear
PHWR Kaiga Karnataka 4 x 220 880 -
Power Plant
2008-09 14927 50 82
Madras Atomic
2007-08 16930 54 83 Power Station
PHWR Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu 2 x 220 440 -
2006-07 18634 63 85
Total 4,560 2,720
99 100

25
 9/10/2015

Nuclear Reactors Indias Future energy scenario

By 2010, the share of natural gas in primary energy consumption is
The energy of a nuclear reactor is derived from splitting a expected to rise to 12 percent, of coal to diminish to 50 percent, and
of oil to remain at 30 percent. Given modest increases in the
fissile heavy nucleus, such as 235U or 239Pu.
domestic production of natural gas and oil, India is set to become a
In a nuclear reactor of a power plant, the splitting of the
major importer of these fuels by 2005.
nucleus and sustaining of the ensuing chain reaction has
to proceed in a controlled fashion. India's rapidly growing economy
will drive energy demand growth
at a projected annual rate of 4.6
The basic ingredients percent through 2010. This is the
of a nuclear reactor highest incremental energy
are fuel rods, a
demand rate of any major country
moderator, control
rods, and a coolant.
Estimated investment of $200
million in next 5 years
Private sector participation in
energy generation and
transmission
101

Indias Future energy scenario

Indias Future energy scenario
Bridging the gap
Presently India ranks sixth in the world in terms of energy consumption,
accounting for 3.5% of world primary energy (commercially traded fuels
only) consumption in 2002
With a GDP growth of 8% set for the Tenth Plan period, the energy
demand is expected to grow at 5.2%. Accordingly, the Tenth Plan
strategy for the energy sector includes the following.
Increasing the production of coal and electricity
Accelerated exploration of hydrocarbons
Equity oil abroad
Electricity shortages in India by region (2010) Introduction of reforms through restructuring/deregulation of the
energy sector to increase efficiency
Demand management through introduction of energy-efficient
technologies/processes and appliances
Emphasis on pollution abatement processes
Integrated energy approach.
1 Btu = 0.25 kilocalorie

26
 9/10/2015

123 Agreement
The 123 agreement between India and USA refers to Sec. 123 of the U.S. Atomic
Energy Act.
There is a ban on transfer of nuclear technology to other countries under this Act.
The Hyde Act was passed by U.S.A to make an exception for India, to enable

transfer of technology for civil nuclear energy.
The 123 Agreement is the terms of engagement which operationalizes the treaty
Food Resources
agreement between india and u.s.a for transfer of civil nuclear technology.
The next step is to enter into agreement with the IAEA ( international atomic
energy agency) for safegaurds of the civil nuclear reactors to be set up under the
123 agreement and to enter into an agreement with the NSG ( nuclear suppliers
group) for supply of nuclear fuel i.e uranium for the civil nuclear reactors.
Once it is approved by the U.S. Congress, then the deal is complete and India and
U.S.A can enter into nuclear commerce i.e supply of nuclear reactors, transfer of
technology, supply of nuclear fuel etc.
http://cpim.org/nuclear/folders/08292007-123.pdf

Food Resources
Thousands of edible plants & animals over the world but only about three Fish & sea-food contribute about 70 million metric tons
dozen types constitute the major food of humans. of high quality protein to the worlds diet.
3 systems for Human food supply:
Fish & seafood are important source of food for about 1
- Croplands- which mostly produce grains and provide 76 % of the worlds billion people mostly in Asia & in coastal areas of
food. developing countries.On global scale, fish & shell fish
- Rangelands- produce meat mostly from grazing livestock and supply supply only 7% of the worlds food, less than 6% of
17% of the worlds food. protein & 1% of the energy in human diet.
- Oceanic Fisheries- supply about 7 % of the worlds food.
Main food resources include wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley, oats, cassava,
sweet, potato, sugarcane, pulses, sorghum, millet about twenty or so
common called fruits & vegetables, milk, meat, fish & seafood.
Wheat, rice & maize are major grains constituting half of all the agricultural
crops, 1500 million metric ton of which grown each year.
About 4 billion people in the developing countries have wheat & rice as their
staple food.
Meat & milk mainly consumed by more developed nations of N. America,
Europe & Japan who consume 80% of the total.

27

WWorld food problems
AAccording to FAO of UN average minimum caloric intake on a global
scale is 2500 calories/day
PPeople getting less than 90% of these calories are undernourished & if it
is less than 80% they are said to be seriously undernourished.
DDeficiency or lack of nutrition often leads to malnutrition resulting in
several diseases like stunted growth, mental retardation, Kwashiorkor,
Marasmus, anemia, goiter, cretinism, blindness etc.
UUN assessment (2001) puts number of malnourished close to 1 billion i.e.
nearly one of every five persons (more than 50% children below age of 5)
AAccording to WHO & FAO (2002 data) in 2001, 9 million people- 6 million
of them children (under age 5) died prematurely from malnutrition &
undernutrition, infectious diseases caused by drinking contaminated water
& increased susceptibility to normally nonfatal infectious diseases like
measles & diarrhea because of their weakened condition from malnutrition.
Facing food insecurity
The FAO defines "food security" as a state of affairs where all
people at all times have access to safe and nutritious food to
maintain a healthy and active life.
Food security thus has three dimensions:
o Availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate
quality, supplied through domestic production or imports;
o Access by households and individuals to appropriate foods for
a nutritious diet; and
o Optimal uptake of nourishment, clean water and adequate
sanitation, together with health care.
9/10/2015
Depleting Food resources
During the last 50 years world grain production has increased almost
three times, thereby increasing per capita production by about 50%
However, simultaneous increase in population growth in less
developed countries has outstripped food production.
Every year 40 million people (50% of which are young children below
age of 5 yrs) die of malnutrition.
Although India is the third largest producer of staple crops such as
rice and wheat, an estimated 300 million Indians are still
undernourished
India has only half as much land as USA, but it has nearly three
times population to feed
Facing food insecurity with depleting resources
Human demands are approaching the limits of
Oceanic fisheries to supply fish
Rangelands to support livestock
Hydrological cycle to produce fresh water and
Cropland productivity
Adding to loss of cropland are - soil erosion, air pollution, soil
compaction, aquifer depletion, the loss of soil organic matter, water
logging, and salination of irrigated land
On the global level, major key indicators show that the physical
condition of the earth is deteriorating, i.e. the earth is getting warmer;
the deforestation of the planet continues unabated, and soil erosion by
water and wind continues to increase
28

Facing food insecurity with depleting resources
The scale of land degradation is estimated to be very high: According
to UN deptt. of Economic and Social affairs (2002 study) 30% of the
worlds croplands has been degraded and 17% has been seriously
degraded.
The degradation of cropland appears to be most extensive in Africa,
affecting 65 percent of the cropland area, compared with 51 percent in
Latin America and 38 percent in Asia.
The Sahelian Zone in Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be among the
ecologically most endangered regions of the world.
Each year Indonesia, for example, loses 20,000 hectares of cropland
on Java alone, which is enough to supply rice to 378,000 people.
China, the most populous country in the world, continues to be under
heavy land pressure, with uncertain consequences for national food
self-sufficiency
Facing food insecurity with growing population
The world, in particular the developing world, is in the midst of an
unprecedented urban transition.
Within the next decade, more than half of the world's population, an
estimated 3.3. billion, will be living in urban areas.
As in 1975, just over one-third of the world's population lived in urban
areas; and by 2025, it will be almost two- thirds
The megacities of the future are increasingly to be found in developing
countries, and will confront with social and food problems of
unprecedented magnitude
The 800 million subsistence farmers of the year 2025 will not possibly
be able to feed 4 billion city dwellers
9/10/2015
Facing food insecurity with growing population
1950 1990 - world added 2.8 billion people an average of 70 million
a year
1990 2030 the world is projected to add 3.6 billion, an average of
90 million
As the food production per person falls, the nature of famine itself is
changing.
Traditionally, it was geographically defined, concentrated where there
were crop failures
With todays worldwide food distribution system, the food insecurity is
found mainly among the third worlds landless rural labrourers and
urban poor
As per UN assessment number of malnourished (< 2500
calories/day) close to 1 billion, nearly one in five persons
Global Implications of food insecurity
In a world of spreading hunger, desperate people may cross national
boundries in unprecedented numbers in their search for food.
The deteriorating balance between between food and people in one
way or another will increasing preoccupy national and international
political leadership, reorder priorities and dominate international affairs
Fully 96 percent of the projected addition of 3.6 billion people by 2030
will occur in third world countries
Ecological imbalances added with growing number of humans is
already creating highly unstable relationship between people and their
natural support systems
During 1995 2005, world grain exports totally roughly 200 million tons
annually, with closely half coming from the US, the other half coming
from Argentina, Australia, Canada, France, South Africa and Thailand
29
 9/10/2015

Global Implications of food insecurity Two Ecological Factors which have significantly influenced food
With world grain exports even more concentrated than those of oil, the production are:
risk that any short fall in carrying capacity of any of the exporting
Agricultural practices
countries is going to affect more than 100 grain importing countries
Today the world is more polarized than ever before in human history. Overgrazing

The poorest 20 percent of the world's people saw their share of global
income decline from 2.4% to 1.4% in the past 30 years, while the share
of the richest 20 percent rose from 70% to 85%.
Individuals economic status directly related to food quality and quantity
of intake
The combination of falling grain output per person and a shrinking
seafood per person is taking the world into uncharted economic
territory
It is important to recognize that the world is approaching a potential
crisis which need to be responded at appropriate scale
Agriculture- Environmental Effects
Traditional agriculture and its impacts
Deforestation slash and burn of trees to clear land for cultivation
Soil erosion Loss of top fertile soil and its water holding capacity
leading to soil degradation
Depletion of nutrients- Destruction of organic matter and
beneficial microorganisms that supply nutrients during slash and
burn practice

Agriculture Agriculture

Modern agriculture and its impacts
Use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety, high-tech
equipments and lots of energy subsidies in the form of fertilizers,
pesticides and excess irrigation water
Impact of high yielding/genetically engineered varieties
o Genetically engineered (GE) plants are created by splicing
foreign genetic material into plant genomes, creating new
organisms that could never arise in nature
Fertilizer related problems - Indiscriminate use of NPK to boost
crop yields
o Micronutrient imbalances Excess use of NPK results in
micronutrient imbalances (soil zinc deficiency in Punjab and
Haryana)
o Nitrate pollution Leaching of nitrogenous fertilizers into
aquatic systems due to canal/open channel irrigation
o Eutrophication
Pesticide related problems Thousands in use

o Implications monoculture plantations, chemical dependence, o Creating resistance in pests and producing new pests (super
pests)
super weeds, pesticide plants and effect on non-target
organisms o Death of non-target organisms
o Biological magnification

30
 9/10/2015

Agriculture
Water logging over irrigation and inadequate drainage
o Drenching of pore spaces in the soil and depletion in soil-air
available for roots
o Extensive water logging episodes in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat
Soil salinization
o 2/3rd of worlds cultivable land affected by salinity
o India 7 million hectares affected
o Accumulation of soluble salts like sodium chloride, sodium
sulphate, calcium chloride, etc.
o pH exceeds 8.0 and the exchangable sodium percentage
(ESP) is more than 15%
o Stunted growth and lower crop yields due to salinity reported in
major parts of the country
Overgrazing
Livestock a major source of rural economy
Lack of enough pasture lands for feeding livestock
Livestock grazing on pastures surpassing the carrying capacity of
the land
Impacts
o Land degradation removal of vegetal cover on the top soil;
loss of moisture; compaction of soil; decline in organic cycle of
soil
o Soil erosion Loss of top soil resulting in soil exposure to
vagaries of weather
o Loss of useful species Overgrazing adversely affects the
composition of plant population and their regeneration
capacity; fodder plants taken over by thorny bushes of no
fodder value

Need to create awareness on food insecurity

To feed a growing population, agriculture must provide more food.
Millions of people remain hungry around the world and still more suffer SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
from micronutrient deficiencies.
Over the next 30 years, a transition from unsustainable
It will also be essential to increase its resilience by protecting a wide and environmentally harmful agriculture to a more
sustainable form of agriculture is needed.
array of life forms with unique traits, such as plants that survive drought
or livestock that reproduce in harsh conditions.
Sustainable agricultural practices can both feed people and protect the
oceans, forests, prairies and other ecosystems that harbour biological
diversity.
Biodiversity is another key ally in fighting malnutrition. Its protection is
something we cannot afford to forget.
Global efforts have so far been insufficient to reach the World Food
Summit and related Millennium Development goal of reducing the
number of hungry by half by 2015.

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Major components of more sustainable, low-input agriculture

More Less
High yield polyculture Soil Erosion
Organic Fertilizers Soil Salinization
Biological Pest Control Aquifer Depletion
Integrated Pest Management Overgrazing
Irrigation Efficiency Loss of Biodiversity
Water resources
Perennial Crops Loss of Croplands
Crop Rotation Food waste
Use of more water-efficient crops Population Growth
Soil Conservation Poverty
Subsidies for more sustainable
farming and fishing

WATER CYCLE Condensation

5 Water users
11 Water
Water
cycle
uses
Evaporation
Potential impacts
Transpiration Disposal of
heated water
Streamflow
reduction Rainfall
PowerStation
activity

Run-off Mining

Abstraction Discharge of
Infiltration Water found
Treated water Industry underground

Storage Industrial discharge

Impeding
Waste water the flow
Treatment works

Recreation
Aquatic
Domestic Ecosystem Irrigation with waste Recreation

Altering
The banks of
A watercourse

Agriculture Borehole

Industrial pollution and Drinking

Solid waste disposal Nitrates and other agrochemical pollution water

32
 9/10/2015

The risks of water insecurity

What are the potential implications of an increasingly water
insecure world?
Water conflicts
Water supply problems Where demand exceeds supply and
Increasing water shortages no effective management operates,
may be more important than then there will be conflicts between
energy shortages- because the various players involved
there is no alternative!
Water geopolitics
The conflicts between nation states,
despite the international agreement
called the Helsinki Rules designed to
create more equitable use of water
extending across boundaries

Water transfers
Of this precious resource by either
diverting the actual river, or using canals
. Long carried out at a small scale but
increasingly over larger distances, and
even transboundary

Human influences on water supply and scarcity Some key definitions

Blue water flow is the visible part of Water low level of water measured by annual renewable flows (in cubic metres) per head of
Humans affect the hydrological cycle at shortage supply relative to basic population, or the number of people dependent on each unit of water
the hydrological system: surface flows
many points of flows and storage: and then recharging aquifers needs.
Green water flow is water Water often taken as less growing conflict between users and competition for water
By Quantity intercepted, stores and released by stress than 1700m3 per declining standards of reliability and service
( adding to or vegetation by evaporation and person per year harvest failures and food insecurity.
Land use changes
affect interception +
abstracting) or transpiration Water supply of water per Domestic
an imbalance of supply and demand
Quality(pollution)
infiltration + surface Grey water is polluted water scarcity person falls below a high rate of use compared to available supply, especially if the
storage; Supply can be from: 1000m3/year remaining supply is difficult or costly to tap.
Eg urbanisation, Surface sources Physical reached when 60% of Physical water scarcity is shown by:
deforestation Disruption of river flows are diverted Severe environmental degradation
groundwater sources water
water cycle In the UK 2/3 of supply is from scarcity for agricultural, Declining groundwater and water allocation which favours some groups
surface and 1/3 from groundwater, industrial & municipal over others.
with regional variations. purposes; globally Arid and semi-arid areas are most at risk
over 75% is now used
Freshwater is effectively a finite
Water abstraction resource since only about 1% of Economic when less than 25% of This is often due to political reasons and conflict: easiest to solve by
affects ground freshwater is easily available for water rivers are used, and low technology solutions: small dams, water harvesting from roof tops
Flood management water storage, and human use. there is abundant etc. It is targeted by NGOs like Water Aid
+ dam construction can create
scarcity
The water footprint indicates how supply potential: water
affect channel flow salinisation and does not reach the
salt water much is required by consumers- and
+ storage in an increasingly globalised world, poorest people
incursion
the footprint of someone in a country
like the UK will not be just local as so
many products using water will have
been produced elsewhere!

33
 9/10/2015

According to the International Water Present and potential water conflict hotspots
Management Institute environmental research
organisation global water stress is increasing, and
Water scarcity hotspots
As water supply decreases, tensions will increase as different players try to access common
1/3 rd of all people face some sort of water water supplies
scarcity. Agricultural uses dominate in the Aral Sea faces environmental catastrophe,
growing need for food. although recent attempts to reduce Many conflicts are transboundary in nature, either between states or countries
impacts of river diversions for especially
River basins currently in dispute
cotton production
Severe water scarcity N China,
Egypt imports > 50% of its food because of leading to South North transfer
Tigris-Euphrates
physical scarcity scheme-see later slide River basins at risk in the future
Iraq + Syria concerns that
Turkeys GAP project will divert
Ob
R Ganges: physical stress from Colorado: disputes their water Large International drainage basins
Ogallala aquifer provides pollution and over abstraction
1/3 all US irrigation
between the 7 US
The Aral Sea, an
water, but is seriously states and Mexico it
inland drainage
depleted: the water table flows through. The
basin, once the
is dropping by about river is so overused,
1m/yr. Australia; diversion worlds 4th largest
that it no longer
As a fossil reserve, of all water away from inland lake has
reaches the sea!. Lake Mekon
formed probably from Murray Darling Basin shrunk sine the
for agriculture 90% abstracted Cha g
past glacial meltwater 1950s after the 2
before reaches d
flows, it is effectively a Much of sub Saharan Africa suffers Gange rivers feeding it: the
finite resource Mexico s
from economic scarcity from Amu Dayra and Syr
especially poverty but also lack of Darya were diverted
infrastructural development . Some 1
Okavango Zambezi for irrigation.
bn people involved1
By 2007 the sea was
Little/no water scarcity
La Plata
Insert Figure 2.11 page 47Orange 10% of original
Note: although there have been rising volume and split into
Physical water scarcity- not necessarily dry areas but those where over 75% river flows are used by agriculture,
Nile hotly disputed 2 lakes. The ex
industry or domestic consumers tensions globally, many areas demonstrate between Ethiopia and soviet states are in
Economic water scarcity- less than 25% rivers used, and abundant supply potential but not reaching the poorest effective management to diffuse the Sudan ,who control its conflict: Uzbekistan ,
people . situation and create more equitable and headwaters, and Egypt Turkmenistan and
sustainable demand-supply balance, such . Kazakstan.
Approaching physical water scarcity More than 60% river flows allocated, and in the near future these river basins
will have physical scarcity as the Mekong River Committee,& the Nile
River Initiative

Water distribution pattern on land

WATER RESOURCES At global scale about 71% of earths surface is covered with water.
Total volume of water in hydrosphere is estimated to be 1.4 billion Km3 of
Water is the lifeline of environment. It is one of the three vital which 97% is ocean water (unfit for human consumption) and rest 3% is
resources of the mankind. available as fresh water.
Set the stage for the evolution of life. 77.2% of fresh water is stored in glaciers and ice caps, 22.4% is ground
All living things require water for survival. water and just 0.4% is distributed in lakes, swamps, rivers and streams
Water possesses unique physical and chemical properties. It can
Oceans 1.32 x 109 Km3 97.3%
be frozen, melted, evaporated, heated and combined. It turns into
a solid form at 0 deg.C and to a vapour form at 100 deg.C. Polar ice caps glaciers 2.92 x 107 Km3 2.14%
Habitat for aquatic ecosystems and aquaculture systems and
reserve for biodiversity. Ground water 8.35 x 106 Km3 0.61%
Most precious resource of mankind has many in-stream and off-
stream uses Saline lakes & inland seas 1.04 x 105 Km3 0.008%
Water keeps on cycling endlessly in the environment through Fresh water lakes 1.25 x 105 Km3 0.005%
hydrological cycle. Enormous resources of water are available on
the earth amounting to about 1404 million km3. Atmosphere 1.30 x 104 Km3 0.001%
Solar energy drives the water cycle through transpiration from the
plants and evaporation from the water bodies which return back Rivers & Streams 1.25 x 103 Km3 0.0001%
through rainfall and snow.

34

Water bodies -- Water bodies include
River, Streams, lakes
Wetlands & marshes, estuaries, mangrove forests, salt marshes &
coastal wetlands.
Shorelines & shallow ocean water systems
Open Oceans
Water bodies are
Habitats for life-fish & wildlife-aquatic ecosystems
Productive systems (Commercial fisheries)
Water sources for municipal, industrial & agriculture activities
Used as a medium for transportation
Sinks for the wastes discharged
Have aesthetic recreational & religious value
Water bodies have waste assimilative & self cleaning
capacities
By 2004, two- third of the world population is already suffering from
acute water shortage.
Water scarcity will cause annual global losses of 385 million tons of
food production.
Since 1970s water stress of scarcity has killed more than 4,000
people per year & created millions of environmental refugees.
Dwindling water supplies the various part of the world would be a
major factor inhibiting economic growth & development.
Water allocation Patterns
On a global average 70% of the water withdrawn each year is used for
agriculture; Industry uses about 25% global water& Municipal uses
10% of total water withdrawn
- In India 93% of water is used in agriculture sector.
- Kuwait which is water poor nation, uses only 4% of water for watering
the crops
- It varies from a high of 70% in European countries to as low as 5% in
less developed countries.
9/10/2015
Water bodies are dynamic
Rivers & streams can change their path, width & depth & even the
flow velocities
Can show seasonal fluctuations in flow rates, volume and depth
The space occupied by them can change (Can shrink or can engulf
additional land areas)
Fresh Water Availability
Depending upon water availability, world nations are divisible into
water rich, water stressed & water scarce nation
According to 2002 report by United Nations about 500 million people
live in water stressed or water scarce countries.
Canada with only 0.5 % of the world population has 20% of the
worlds usable fresh water.
China with 21% of the worlds people has only 7% of the supply
As per the United Nations estimates (2002) at least 101 billion
people dont have access to safe drinking water & 2-4 billion do not
have adequate sanitation facilities.
Freshwater scarcity & drought
Drought- a period of 21 days or longer in which precipitation is at
least 70% lower & evaporation is higher than normal
Desiccation drying of exposed soil due to deforestation&
overgrazing by live-stocks
Water Stress- low per capita availability of water caused by
increasing numbers of people relying on limited runoff levels
When annual rainfall is below normal & less than evaporation,
drought occurs.
About 80 countries in the world lie in arid & semi arid regions facing
drought conditions
Drought is due to several anthropogenic causes like overgrazing,
deforestation, mining, intensive cropping patterns, increased
exploitation of scarce water resources to get higher productivity
Social forestry & wasteland development can check the drought to
some extent
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The importance of water

Many do not have access to water
80% of the human body is made up of water.
Water is crucial element of our food and materials Region Percent of Total Population Absolute Number of People
without Access to Water in without Access to Water
75% of the earths surface is covered with water.
1994 (in millions)
only 3%, is fresh.
Africa 54 381
Only1% of the water is available for human consumption.
Latin America
Much of this water contain chemicals making it inappropriate
& the Caribbean 20 97
for human consumption.
Asia & the Pacific 20 627
We distinguish between water quality and quantity problems.
Western Asia 12 10
On average we have sufficient water to meet human needs. The
problem is water distribution. Total 26 1,115

Heterogeneity of water Different uses of water

consumptive usage is diversion + consumption of the water through
There are differences in water availability within regions-in transforming it into water vapour (where it is lost to the
Brazil,Mexico, California, Hawaii, Russia, there are regions of atmosphere),
floods and surpluses and deserts. letting it seep into the ground, or
Differences in water availability over time matter - at the same significantly degrading its quality. For example
year you may have floods and shortages Residential
Differences in water quality are crucial- consumption, farming of Industrial
various crops and production require minimum quality. Agricultural
non-consumptive usage. Do not reduce water supply and, frequently, do
Value and use of water dependent on
not degrade water quality. Examples
location Fisheries use water as a medium for fish growth.
Time Hydroelectric users extract energy from the water.
Quality Recreation may involve using water as a medium (example: swimming)
and/or extracting energy from the water (examples: white-water
rafting, surfing)
Transportation is especially important use of water in the tropics.

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Different uses of water Ground Water

Infiltering & percolation of some precipitation downwards through
No region in the world uses as much groundwater pores, fractures, crevices & other spaces in soil & rock forms ground
as South Asia does.. water.

Figure 1: Groundwater Use in Selcted Countries in the 1980s

- Pores, water saturated layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through
which ground water flows are called aquifers.
150 b cu m
160
- Ground water normally moves from point of high elevation & pressure
140
1985 figures; to points of lower elevation & pressure. Ground water moves very
120 101 Indias use >200 slowly about a meter in a year.
100 km
75 - Eventually most ground water flows into rivers, lakes, estuaries &
80

45 45
wetlands.
60
29 28
40
3
- About 9.86 % of the total fresh water resources is in the form of
7.7 13 12
20 0.9 3.7 2.8 groundwater. It is 35-50 times that of surface water supplies.
0
- Till some time back groundwater was considered to be very pure but
USA

Former USSR

Thailand

Pakistan

Bangladesh

Iran

Mexico

Japan
India

China

Philippines

Indonesia

Australia

Italy

of late even groundwater aquifers have been found to be

contaminated by leachates from sanitary landfills.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF WITHDRAWING GROUND WATER

Rs 65000 crore of agricultural output is supported by groundwater irrigation
Advantages Disadvantages

1. Good source of water for drinking 1. Lowering of water tables by over-

and irrigation pumping
Pakistan
India
2. Available year round 2. Sinking of land (Subsidence) When Punjab
water removed.
A # of wells (million) 21-26 0.5
3. Exists almost everywhere 3. Polluted aquifers unusable for
decades or centuries. B Average output/well (m3/hr) 25 100

4. Renewable if not over pumped or 4. Saltwater intrusion into drinking water C Average hours of operation/well/year 330 1090
contaminated. supplies near coastal areas.

5. No evaporation losses 5. Reduced water flows into streams, D Price of pump irrigation (US $/hr) 1 2
lakes, estuaries & wetlands.
E Groundwater used (km3) 215 54.5
6. Cheaper to extract than most surface 6 Increased cost, energy use &
waters. contamination from deeper wells.

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Nowhere in the world do we find over half of the total population depending on No country has experienced explosive growth in irrigation wells as India has..
groundwater for livelihoods..

Country Annual No of Ground Extraction/ % of population

ground- water Structure dependent on
water use Structure (m3/year) groundwater
(km3) (million)

India 200 19 7900 55-60

Pakistan- 45 0.5 90000 60-65

Punjab

China 90-100 3.5 21500 22-25

USA 100 0.2 500,000 <1-2

The risks of water insecurity
What are the potential implications of an increasingly water
insecure world?
Water supply problems
Increasing water shortages
may be more important than
energy shortages- because
there is no alternative!
Water transfers
Of this precious resource by either
diverting the actual river, or using canals
. Long carried out at a small scale but
increasingly over larger distances, and
even transboundary
Human influences on water supply and scarcity
Blue water flow is the visible part of
Humans affect the hydrological cycle at
many points of flows and storage:
the hydrological system: surface flows
and then recharging aquifers
Water conflicts Green water flow is water
Where demand exceeds supply and
no effective management operates,
By Quantity intercepted, stores and released by
then there will be conflicts between ( adding to or vegetation by evaporation and
Land use changes
the various players involved affect interception +
abstracting) or transpiration
Quality(pollution)
Water geopolitics infiltration + surface Grey water is polluted water
The conflicts between nation states, storage; Supply can be from:
despite the international agreement Eg urbanisation,
called the Helsinki Rules designed to
Surface sources
deforestation Disruption of
create more equitable use of water groundwater sources
extending across boundaries water cycle In the UK 2/3 of supply is from
surface and 1/3 from groundwater,
with regional variations.
Freshwater is effectively a finite
Water abstraction resource since only about 1% of
affects ground freshwater is easily available for
Flood management water storage, and human use.
+ dam construction can create
The water footprint indicates how
affect channel flow salinisation and
salt water much is required by consumers- and
+ storage in an increasingly globalised world,
incursion
the footprint of someone in a country
like the UK will not be just local as so
many products using water will have
been produced elsewhere!

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Some key definitions According to the International Water Management

Water scarcity hotspots
Institute environmental research organisation global water
low level of water measured by annual renewable flows (in cubic metres) per head of stress is increasing, and 1/3 rd of all people face some sort
Water
of water scarcity. Agricultural uses dominate in the
shortage supply relative to basic population, or the number of people dependent on each unit of water Aral Sea faces environmental catastrophe,
growing need for food.
needs. although recent attempts to reduce
impacts of river diversions for especially
Water often taken as less growing conflict between users and competition for water cotton production
Severe water scarcity N China,
stress than 1700m3 per declining standards of reliability and service Egypt imports > 50% of its food because of leading to South North transfer
person per year harvest failures and food insecurity. physical scarcity scheme-see later slide

Water supply of water per Domestic

an imbalance of supply and demand
person falls below a high rate of use compared to available supply, especially if the R Ganges: physical stress from
scarcity Ogallala aquifer provides pollution and over abstraction
1000m3/year remaining supply is difficult or costly to tap. 1/3 all US irrigation
water, but is seriously
Physical reached when 60% of Physical water scarcity is shown by: depleted: the water table
river flows are diverted Severe environmental degradation is dropping by about
water 1m/yr. Australia; diversion
scarcity for agricultural, Declining groundwater and water allocation which favours some groups As a fossil reserve, of all water away from
industrial & municipal over others. formed probably from Murray Darling Basin
purposes; globally Arid and semi-arid areas are most at risk past glacial meltwater for agriculture
flows, it is effectively a Much of sub Saharan Africa suffers
over 75% is now used finite resource from economic scarcity from
Economic when less than 25% of This is often due to political reasons and conflict: easiest to solve by especially poverty but also lack of
infrastructural development . Some 1
water rivers are used, and low technology solutions: small dams, water harvesting from roof tops bn people involved1
scarcity there is abundant etc. It is targeted by NGOs like Water Aid
supply potential: water Little/no water scarcity
does not reach the Physical water scarcity- not necessarily dry areas but those where over 75% river flows are used by agriculture,
poorest people industry or domestic consumers
Economic water scarcity- less than 25% rivers used, and abundant supply potential but not reaching the poorest
people .
Approaching physical water scarcity More than 60% river flows allocated, and in the near future these river basins
will have physical scarcity

Present and potential water conflict hotspots

As water supply decreases, tensions will increase as different players try to access common
water supplies
This colossal anarchy has yielded massive social gains..
Many conflicts are transboundary in nature, either between states or countries
River basins currently in dispute
Livelihoods and food security
Tigris-Euphrates
River basins at risk in the future
Iraq + Syria concerns that
Turkeys GAP project will divert
Ob
At the heart of Green Revolution
Colorado: disputes their water Large International drainage basins
between the 7 US
states and Mexico it
The Aral Sea, an Provides irrigation access to more farming households than all public
inland drainage
flows through. The
river is so overused,
basin, once the
worlds 4th largest
irrigation systems
that it no longer
inland lake has
reaches the sea!.
90% abstracted
Lake
Cha
Mekon
g
shrunk sine the Ownership of wells is more equally distributed than farm land
d 1950s after the 2
before reaches
Gange rivers feeding it: the
Mexico s Amu Dayra and Syr Spatial equity
Darya were diverted
Okavango Zambezi for irrigation.
By 2007 the sea was Better control over timing and quantum of water application
La Plata
Insert Figure 2.11 page 47Orange 10% of original
Note: although there have been rising volume and split into
Nile hotly disputed 2 lakes. The ex
tensions globally, many areas demonstrate between Ethiopia and soviet states are in
effective management to diffuse the Sudan ,who control its conflict: Uzbekistan ,
situation and create more equitable and headwaters, and Egypt Turkmenistan and
sustainable demand-supply balance, such . Kazakstan.
as the Mekong River Committee,& the Nile
River Initiative

39
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Water conflicts and the future

..but its socio-ecological costs are mounting..
Business as The cost of water will increase
usual Water consumption will increase resulting in declining stores
Aquifers are being pumped dry Food transfers will mitigate shortage of water in areas where agriculture declines

Arsenic, fluoride, nitrates and other contaminants Water Crisis Demand will outstrip supply
The proportion of the worlds population without access to clean water will increase
Salinity hazard Food insecurity and migration will increase
Conflicts of water supplies (intra and inter state) become more likely
Reduced drought proofing
Mounting energy costs of pumping Sustainable Agricultural and household water prices will double in the developed world and triple in the
Water developing world
Global water consumption will fall, although the gap between per capita use will close
Drying up of shallow wells Green water flows will increase
Improvements in water harvesting and farming techniques allow food yields to increase
Growing rate of well failures whilst water consumption declines

Creative destruction?..
From: 2002 International Food Policy and Research Institute future models

Too Much Water: FLOODS

Heavy rain or rapid melting of snow is the major cause of natural Causes of floods
flooding by streams.
precipitation
- This causes water in a stream to overflow its normal channel and flood inadequate capacity (within banks)
the adjacent area called a flood plain. bank erosion and silting
- Flood plains have fertile soil, ample water for irrigation, availability of land slides
nearby rivers for transportation and recreation, flatlands suitable for tidal and back water effects
crops, buildings, highways and rail roads. poor drainage
- Floods are a natural phenomenon and have many benefits and snow melt and glacial out bursts
disadvantages.
- They provide the worlds most productive farmlands.
- Recharge groundwater and help refill wetlands.
- Kill thousands of people and cause tens of billions of dollars in
property damage.
- Between 1985-2001 floods killed about 3,00,000 people, 96% of them
in developing countries.

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INDIA
Increased vulnerability
AREA (M. Ha) Causes

Geographical 328 Indiscriminate encroachment

Flood prone 40 Increasing economic and developmental activities in flood
plains
ASSAM Lack of regulations
9.40% WEST BENGAL
BIHAR 7.91%
12.71% Inadequate drainage system
ORISSA
4.18% Inadequate maintenance
Lack of disaster preparedness

UTTAR PRADESH
21.90%

OTHER
STATES
43.9%

Disadvantages
Dams
- Impacts both at upstream as well as downstream levels.
A flood control dam built across a stream or river can reduce - Displacement of tribal people
flooding by storing water in a reservoir & releasing it gradually.
- Loss of forests, flora & fauna
India has the distinction of having the largest number of river
valley projects. - Siltation & sedimentation of reservoirs
- Water logging & salinity due to over irrigation
Dams have a number of advantages & disadvantages.
- Flash floods
Advantages
- Breeding of vectors & spread of vector borne diseases
- They can keep in checking floods & famines
- In comparison to big dams, there is shift towards construction of
- Generate electricity & reduce water & power shortage
small dams or minihydel projects.
- Provide irrigation water to lower areas
- Provide water to remote areas
- Promote navigation, fishery etc.

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Flood management TOO LITTLE WATER: DROUGHTS

Structural measures Physical measures to modify/reduce flood - When annual rainfall is below normal & less than evaporation,
magnitude (to keep floods away from people) drought occurs.
Dams and embankments - About 80 countries in the world lie in arid & semi arid regions
Channel improvements facing drought conditions.
River diversion - Drought is due to several anthropogenic causes like
Inter-basin transfer overgrazing, deforestation, mining, intensive cropping patterns,
Anti-erosion measures increased exploitation of scarce water resources to get higher
productivity.
Non-structural measures planned activity to modify susceptibility
to flood damage (to keep people away from flood) - Social forestry & wasteland development can check the drought
Flood forecasting and warning to some extent.
Flood plain zoning
Flood proofing and insurance
Relief and rehabilitation

WATER MANAGEMENT
In irrigation: Agricultural water consumption is 70% of the total. In Industries
Lining canals bringing water to irrigation ditches
Minimize percolation & evaporation loss of water - Industrial water consumption 25% of total.
- Irrigating at night to reduce evaporation - Efficient and conservative use (eliminating leaks and
Using soil & satellite sensors & computer systems to monitor wastages, minimizing need, efficient use in industries -
soil moisture & add water only when necessary setting water intake/consumption standards for
industries)
Sprinkler irrigation
- Redesign manufacturing processes
Use drip irrigation
- Recycling and reuse
Polyculture
- Charging for the water and waste-water services.
Growing water efficient crops using drought-resistant & salt-
tolerant crop varieties.
Irrigating with treated urban waste water

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Municipal water management

Municipal water consumption is 10% of the total
- Raise water prices
- Use water meters and charge for all municipal water use (may
reduce consumption by 10-30%)
- Curbing water losses in the distribution system (finding and
fixing water leaks) Mineral Resources
- Collect and reuse household water to irrigate lawns and non-
edible plants.
- Public outreach educating & making people aware of
Need for conservative & efficient use of water.
Approaches for conservative & efficient use of water
- Practicing landscaping- replacing green lawns in arid and
semi-arid regions with vegetation adapted to a dry climate.
Reduces water use by 30-80 %.

Mineral
A mineral is an element or inorganic compound that occurs naturally and is
solid. Most identifiable estimates of the supply of a given non-renewable
Earths crust has about 2000 minerals but only 100 are being used. resource refers to reserves
Some minerals consist of a single element, such as gold, silver, diamond Resources available is not fully known- much remains undiscovered.
(carbon), and sulphur
Reserves- A resource that can be extracted economically with presently
However, most of the 2000 identified minerals occur in inorganic compounds available technology under existing market conditions.
formed by combination of various elements, such as salts, mica, bauxite and
quartz made up of Si, O, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg etc. Reserves can increase when new deposits are found or when higher
prices or improved mining technology make it profitable to extract
Mineral resource
deposits.
A mineral resource is a concentration of naturally occurring material in or on the
earths crust that can be extracted and processed into useful materials Exploitation, technical advancements & rising prices constantly transform
resources into reserves.
Over many years the earths geological processes have produced numerous
non-fuel mineral and energy resources Ore is rock containing enough of one or more metallic minerals which is
Overall quantity is fixed cannot be replenished over the human relevant economically feasible for extraction
timescales.
As they take so long to produce, they are classified as non-renewable
resources

43

Mineral Resources
Mineral Resources are divisible into 3 groups
Metallic Mineral Resources Iron, Copper, Aluminium,
Chromium, Manganese, Nickel, Gold, Silver, etc.
Out of various metals iron & steel are used in maximum
quantity followed by manganese, copper, chromium,
Aluminium and Nickel.
Non-Metallic Mineral Resources Salt, Clay, Sand,
Phosphates, Silica, Limestone, Gypsum, Potash.
Energy Resources Coal, Crude oil, Natural Gas, Uranium
Mineral resources of India
India is endowed with significant mineral resources. India produces
89 minerals out of which 4 are fuel minerals, 11 metallic, 52 non-
metallic and 22 minor minerals.
The total value of mineral production was Rs. 5,68,070 million in
2000-2001, of which the value of minerals other than petroleum
and natural gas was Rs. 3,06,751 million.
The metallic production is accounted for by iron-ore, copper-ore,
chromite and/or zinc concentrates, gold, manganese ore, bauxite,
lead concentrates.
Amongst the non-metallic minerals, more than 90 percent of the
aggregate value is shared by limestone, magnesite, dolomite,
barytes, kaolin, gypsum, apatite & phosphorite, steatite and fluorite.
Some well known reserves
Coal & Lignite WB, Jharkhand, Orissa, MP, AP, TN
Uranium Jharkhand, AP, Meghalaya, Rajasthan
Aluminium Jharkhand, WB, Orissa, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
9/10/2015
Mineral Resources (Contd)
Civilizations depended heavily on minerals for survival
Mineral use is on increase-
Increased 10-fold during 1750-1900 (World population doubled) &
during 1900-1990 increased 13-folds.
Pig iron use increased 22,000 times between 1700-1990. Cu and Zn use
increased 560 and 73,000 times between 1800-1990. Aluminium use
touched 18 million tons/yr in 1990 ( not commercially known until 1845)
CIS countries, USA, Canada, South Africa & Australia are having the world
reserves of most metallic minerals.
Demand for mineral resources in industrial nations is showing decline.
Use of Mineral resources is growing faster in developing countries.
Scarcity of mineral reserves is very unlikely in future - Though life of global
reserves of most minerals is 20-224 years.
Mineral resources of India
India has a large number of economically useful minerals and they
constitute one-quarter of the world's known mineral resources.
Iron deposits - Orissa and Bihar border; Other haematite deposits -
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa; Magnetite iron-
ore is found in Tamil Nadu, Bihar and Himachal Pradesh.
India has the world's largest deposits of coal - Bituminous coal -
Jharia and Bokaro in Bihar and Ranigunj in West Bengal; Lignite
coals are found in Neyveli in Tamilnadu.
Next to Russia, India has the largest supply of Manganese - mining
areas are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Bihar-Orissa area.
Chromite deposits - Bihar, Orissa, Andhra and Karnataka.
44

Mineral resources of India
Bauxite deposits - western Bihar, southwest Kashmir, Central
Tamilnadu, and parts of Kerala, U.P, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
India also produces third quarters of the world's mica. Belts of high
quality mica are, Bihar, Andhra and Rajasthan.
Gypsum - Tamilnadu and Rajasthan.
Nickel ore - Cuttack in Bihar and Mayurbanj in Orissa.
Copper ore Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan Sikkim and
Karnataka.
Gold mines Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are the important.
The Panna diamond belt is the only diamond producing area in the
country, which covers the districts of Panna, Chatarpur and Satna in
Madya Pradesh, as well as some parts of Banda in Uttar Pradesh.
India also possesses the all-too valuable nuclear uranium as well
as some varieties of rare earths.
Environmental Impacts of Mineral Extraction
Environmental impacts
Sedimentation - Erosion from waste rock piles or runoff after
heavy rainfall often increases the sediment load of nearby water
bodies.
Acid drainage - Acid drainage is one of the most serious
environmental impacts associated with mining. It occurs when
sulfide-bearing minerals, such as pyrite or pyrrhotite, are
exposed to oxygen or water, producing sulfuric acid. The
presence of acid-ingesting bacteria often speeds the process.
Acidic water may subsequently leach other metals in the rock,
resulting in the contamination of surface and groundwater.
Occupational health hazards miners and inhabitants suffering
with respiratory and skin disorders such as asbestosis, silicosis,
black lung disease, etc.
Impacts on Biological environment which includes death of
plants and animals & changes in nutrient cycles.
9/10/2015
Environmental Impacts of Mineral Extraction
Mining processes
Surface and sub-surface mining
Surface mining open-pit, dredging, strip mining
Environmental impacts
Devegetation and defacing of landscape deforestation,
dumping of debris, soil erosion
Subsidence of land mainly associated with sub-surface
mining, major impact sinking of land
Air pollution increase in SPM, toxic gases, soot, metal dust
causing health and ecological impacts
Waste generation - By nature, mining involves the production of
large quantities of waste, in some cases contributing
significantly to a nations total waste output.
Energy- Extraction and Transportation requires huge amount of
energy which adds to secondary concerns like global warming.
Remedies
Low waste Approach which includes recycling, reuse
and waste reduction
Less emphasis on dumping, burying and incineration
which would reduce pollution, energy requirements and
extend the supply of minerals.
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Mineral Extraction
Case studies
Uranium mine, Jharkhand exposing local people to radioactive
hazards
Jharia coal mines, Jharkhand underground fire leading to
subsidence of land and forced displacement of people
Sukinda chromite mines, Orissa seeping of hexavalent (toxic) Land Resources
chromium into surface waters
Kudremukh iron ore mines, Karnataka Causing river pollution
and loss in biodiversity
North-Eastern Coal Fields, Assam Very high sulphur
contamination in ground water

It is estimated that about 174 million hectares of land (53%) suffers from
different types and varying degrees of degradation.
Land is a finite resource and put to many competing uses. About 800 hectare of arable land are lost annually due to ingress of
It comprises soils, minerals, water and biota. ravines.
In India land is a source of livelihood for 60 % of the population through It is estimated that more than 5000 million tonnes of topsoil are eroded
agriculture and related activities. every year.
Population growth and the consequent demand for land, water and All this has a direct bearing on food production and the livelihood of the
biological resources has put tremendous pressure on land. people.
Of Indias reported area for land use statistics, about 46.6% is under
agriculture, 22.6% is forested, and 13. 6 % is not available for
cultivation.
Roughly 41 million hectares of land are considered totally unfit (snow
cover, desert) or not available (urban use, rivers) for vegetation.
The per capita availability of land declined from 0.89 hectare in 1951 to
0.3 hectares in 2001; the per capita availability of agricultured land
declined from 0.48 hectare in 1951 to 0.14 hectares in 2001.
Besides the pressure of human population, there are about 500 million
cattle and other livestock living off the biomass from the land

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