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of Lindon's Inn, _. Bfinister-at-Law.

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LAW OFFICERs_OF THE uNio:N oF nu:R:M:~ rifuuNG
THE YEAR r7o

Attorney-G~neral

U BA SErN, B.Sc., B.L.

Assis~tant Attorney:-General

.. ;

Law Officer to the ~tates

: U TIN OHN, :a.A. (Hons.), rB.L. (Rgn.), .LL.B. (Lond.)t,.

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: .:_:. J ~
Barrzster-at-Law. . .

Gove1n ment Advocates

u Tui-l LwrN; "h.A.., :s.L., Up to 26th July 1970.
lVIR. s..K. GHOSH, B.A., )3.L.
DAW M~x ti1:k~ Nu, B.A., iLL.
u MY~ _SHEIN, B,.A., B.L.
r. ,, :;. l, .., . /.. ! \ .

u BA THAN, B.A., B.L.

DR. lVIYo HTUN LYNN, M.Com. (Rgn.), LL.M. (Lond.}
Jur. Drs. (Utrecht) of the Inner Temple, Banister-at-
Law.
vKYAW GAUNG, B.A., B.L.

-R. _. ,
r WIN PE, B.A., .B.L.

KYAW
C. GANGOOLY,
MYINT, B.A., B.L.
B.A., B.L.

. HLA THOUNG, B.Sc., B.L., Dip. Law (Lond).

.THEIN HAN, B.A., B.L.
Assistant Government Advocates
.v u MYINT
..
AUNG, B.A.,
. .B.L.
U AuNG THAN TuN, M.A., B.L.
u TIN NYUNT, B.A., B.L . .
U TUN NAING, B.A., Barrister-"at-Law. From 5th February
1970.
\'

Legal Draftsmen
U LuN PE, B.A., B.L. Advocate
D~w AYE KYr, B.A., B.L. Advoc~te

u SEIN WIN HLAING, B.A., B.L. , : ,: .

Law Transhition-and. Law Revision Officers ..

U MAUNG !VfAUNG K'Yr (r), B.A., B.L., Office.r-in,.Charge
Advocate.
U MAUNG MAUNG KYI (2), B.~. , B.L., Assist~t Officer-
in-Charge.
U THAN SwE, B.A. (Hons.) B.L., Assistant La\f Drafting
Officer. Advocate.
U YAN WAY, B.A., B.L., Assistant Officer-in-Charge.
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LIST OF CASES REPORTED .

SPECIAL .CRIMINAL COURTS' APPEAL COURT

.,
 LIST OF CASES CITED

SPECIAL CRIMINAL COURTS' APPEAL COURT

.. ..
.,
M. Muthiah. Ser\rai ~ . Union of Burma, 1955, B.L.R.
(H.C.) 175. <f~~OJ2 u q
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LIST OF CASES REPORTED

CHIEF COURT OF BURl\fA

9
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 .
LJSf.. OF CASES CITED

CHiEF COuRT OF BUltMA

-~1 Sein and others_v. The Government, (1939) R.L.R., .

p. #7 OJ?
Annamalia Chettiar, P.R.M. and another v. A.L.V.
Aiagappa Chettiar, 1964, ]3.L.R., p. 371 oo7
13
a Thaung, U v. lVia Aye, I.L.R.; ro, Ran. p. 194 ... ~
I $
1J o
Basrir-un-Nissa Bibi v. Abdur R~hman and others, .
. I.L.R., 44 All. 244, oo
Chidhambaram Chettyar, K.M. v. S.I.P.N. Subbiah
of
Chettyar, ag.e nt and Attorney S.T.;p. N~chiappa
Chetty~r, (r'963)'B.L.R., p. 509 ... oo7
Chwa Hun Htive and another v. The Government,
I.L.R., 12 Ran., p. 107 J 09
Civil First Appeal No. 91 of 1967 :Jo :J
Civil Revision No. 33 of 1963 (Chief Court) :Joo
Col)necticut Fire Insurance Co .. v. Kavanagh, 1892,
A.C., 473 at 48o ??
. E )VIya, Ma v . U Ko Ko Gyi, A.I.R., ( 1937), Ran.,
i p. 370-372 j Jo .
Government, the v. Po Min and other, I.L.R., ro Ran.,
p. SII .. J:::l~

Haji Abdul Shakpor Khan v. The Burma Publishers

Ltd., 1956. B.L.R., p.l (S.C.) ??
~twan Htin v. The Government, I.L.R., 13, Ran.,
P 130-138 ool j 09
.
lV

Jagaroup v. Jcet Singh and orie, 1955 B.L.R., p. 164

(H. C.) . .-; . . oo'2
Jagaroup v . Jcet Singh an<;f on~, 1955, B.L.R., p. 164
(H.C.)
Joyce v. Directors of Public Prosecution, 1946, A.C.,
347 at 369
K. lVL Chidhambaram Chettyar v. S .T.P.N. Subbiah
Chettyar, agent and AttJrney of S.T.P. Nachiappa
Chettyar, 1963, B.L.R., p . 449 (H.~.)
Khadersa Hajee Bappu v. Puthen Veettil Ayiss~ U mmah
and others, I.L.R:, 34, Mad., 51 r, (F.B.) 00
Koclairam v. Pardeshi, 1956, B. L. R., p. 449
..
(H.C.) . '@('!
Kodaram v. Pardeshi, 1956 B.L.R., p. 449 (H. C.) ' ' .. . . '"'()
....., (){

London and North Eastern Railway Company v.

B.rentnall, 1963 'Appea! Cases, p. 489 ooe..
IVIa Ain Yu v . Dr. Miss A. G. D. Netto and others, ' . .
1 9 52, B.L.R., p. 6 5 (S.C.)

l\1ohamed Ameen v . Eusoof H~jee Ahmed and others,

A.I.R., 1936, Rangoon., 407 ... .OO<l
. '
l\1ohamed Raisat Ali v. Hasin B~mu, I.L.R ., 21 , Cal.,
157 at r63 . ... 00
IVIohamed All Tycbally and others v. Safiabai and
others, A.I.R., 1940, Privy Cou!lcil' ~rs
l\1uthiah Servai, l\1. v. Union of Burma, 1955 B.L.R.,
c 'lC" c coo co
P 17:::v O)C
A
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l\1ya Tlnvin, l\1a v.
\.\ C'
Ko Maung Than, r 965 B.L.R.,
. . .
.p. 282 q~:n~ ..... .... ....
Naikwara, M. S . v.
Ma 'Aye Byu and eight, I.L.R. r;
Rang., p . 770 . . .
P. R. M. Annamplia Chettiar and others v. A.L.V.
Aiagappa Chettiar, 1964, B. L. :R:, p. 371
Ram, R. D. v. Kunja l\1aistry, 1963, B. L . R., p. 928 ~ ..
Ram) R.D. v. Kunjn lVIaistry, (r963) B. L. R., p . 928 ...
 .v
~
C?~Jo:>i')

Rees v. Tho~s, r899, I.Q.B.D., p. ror5 ... : : .. : @(;

Swarna.ni<?yee Dasi Sl!l::v. Probo~~. Chandra ~arkar and
others, A.I.R., 1933, Cal_~utta 253 o::>

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INDEX

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o 'c o c o r:
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CmEF COURT OF 'BURM~

ACTS:
THB BuRMA's L .\W: AcT.

c- C'
ct.l?CX>a>f:::CD~to:>O? ~roeUGSII
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r.:c- c C)C'
tjeGCO'J C~ O?'P:co9CG9: ooroeoG!311
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?CXXV
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xxxv1

Annamplia Chettiar and others v. A. L. V. Ala11gappa
Chettiar, xgfi4, B. L. ~. P37 Civil Revision No. 33/63~
Chief Court. Civil First Appeal No.. 91 of 1967 9e~f:o:>au
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cor;::::c C' C' ()

~:J.)Qt:J~: .. 8droeuGG'1G~ 90 j . 0 00
' i14 :(r) No O~m:rt shall-
{a) pass a de<:ree agains_t a ~eb~or of a deceased per~on
. for' :pay~~nt of. his debt t<? ~ person claiming on
succession
. . to . be entitled' to
. the
. . effects of .the .
deceased person or to any part thereof, or
. . ~.

(~) proceeq, upon a.J;l application of a person claii~ing

, .tQ b~ so ' entitled, to execute against such a debtor
_a ~ecree or or.der for the paynien.t of his d~bt. .

except on the production, by ;he person so daiining of

71'
\ ) :. ..
{H) ....
Jiii) a succession certificaite having the debt specified
. therein wHh. effect in the U.nion of Burma/'
o .
. '

"Undoubtedly a~sumed !that . upon . the death

Plaintiff pendente lite,". though the suit might. be con
by_ his . repres~ntative, a certificate in proof of Jlis
tative ltitle must be produced, before a decree
- -.made."

' .
. - '.' J:he claim contetp.p~ated byse~tion - 4 (r) (~) [2 .
.: . .Succession. Act] is a claim made by a person it:1 . the
0
: of arid. as a personal. representative of _a: deceased..
" J

and .from the point of view of :t he. ptirpdse of t}1e.:

,. . . .asset. out iri. t he preamble, it i~ dearly immaterial
thedecree has ;t<? be made in favour o.f a pe1~so' :mu:il
: -: sehtative, .wbo .has himself ins.tituted the suit .-or
of o.ne who has taken the conduct of the suit .
- .. after ;its f~sititti ti~>n. by
the .;r~gin.~I ~~~ciitor. .Th~ :
..( o) . I.~.R. :IP Bombay, sr8. . ( i~ Calcutta Weekly
cr) 45 I. C. no.
f,9~ the~ matter i~ t_ha~, in ,both 'the cases, w~en the decree oe..~ ,
~.is~ passed, it is passed in . favour of a person who claims to . . :.:. . :. . .
~pe entitled to the' ffects of . the deceased . person and wh~ ,c~;Jr ~:) .
~)nust consequently produce proof of the representative title. ,too~ mff ~.
;: .W hether the same prinCiple does or does not apply to execu-. (i,)~CJS~~~.~-
~-~{?;n cases, ..does not arise .for consrderation on the present G_::i>:qr) .(q8r:_
;rerer~nce, but. -it may. be observed that there appears to . be c 9dt:~~~
: ~ S\lbstantial difference in phraseology between clauses .{a) 8oSc;~ cq1oS:
.and Xb}; the former contemplates the point of .time when on e=~t) ,.
the decree is passed, the latter refers to the point of time - .ts
..when 'the Court i~. called . 4pon tO proceed on the basis of . G!lTZ.f ri_ .
: ~t]].e application for -execution. Mohamed Yusuf v. Abdur
'Rahim Bepari (c;). We hold accordingly that section 4 (I)
(a) of the Succession, Certificate Act [section 214 (r) (a) of the
Succ;essio,n .Act] ~pplies to the case of a person who }:las
been sub~ituted as plaintiff upon the death of the original
plaintiff 'during the pe;ndency of the suit." : .
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"i14 .(r) .No Court shall-

(a) pass a decree against a debtor of a deceased person
-for payment of his debt to a person claiming on
succession to be Jentitled to the effects of the
deceased person or to any part thereof; or
(b) pro~eed, upo.n an application of a person claiming
to be so entitled, to execute against such a debtor
a. decree or order for the payment of his debt.
except on the production, by the person so claiming of
li) ~~ ...
{ii) .... ...
Ni) a succession certificate having the debt specified
therein with effect in the Unio.n of Burma."
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by. survivorship." . ~
~
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,, Now in every p~rt of InJia where the Mitakshara p~evails ~~- G~1~ ~':>.
ihe .position ~f ~n undi:id~d .fan;ily is exactly the same, ~2=.~~~f) .
except that w1thm certal.ll llm1ts each male member has a ,a
right .to daim a partition, if he likes: But until they elect GoT~~ It
to do so, the property continues to devolve upon the members .
of tbe family for the time being by survivorship and not by
succession."
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;~73 ~t 480: Abdul Shak~r Khan v. The Burma publishers Ltd.: 19.56
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.{~_.L.R. p. r (S.C.)
B.L.R. p. 6s
Ma Ain Yu v. Dr. Miss A. G. D. Netto and others, 1952
e t:OJeu
<s.c.) 9 21 --
 questions of fact i_n considering which the Co-ur-t of ul
...o e~o
-~ review is placed in much less advantageous position
~a'f'l8t the Courts below. But their Lordships have no- hesitation
. ~~ holding that ,the course ought n9t in any case to be
~P?J~G~: o1 u.nless the Court is satisfied that .the evidence upon
-ru they are asked to decide, established beyc.nd doubt
the facts if fully investiga,ted would have supported the
plea."

q ~')tW:og::n211 ill)1(rq GtX~~98a.1: :nG?:-b:D~-:n~<3

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" The practice with regard to the concurrent findings

v fact is well established. Such findings will not be dis
unless there has been a miscarriage of justice or viola
of some principle of law or procedure.''

(?) 1952. B.L.R. p. 65. (S.C.)

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1. Is the deed of gift dated 10th September 1963 in r
of t~e suit house executed by the plaintiff in
of the ,Defendant a benami transaction?
2. Is the suit house in the possession of the plaintiff
defendant?
3. Is the plaint sufficiently stamped?
4 Whether the provision of section
Pro.perty Act are applicable to the instant
5 To what relief, if any, is the plaintiff entitled?
 0

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" Held, that there is no presumption that a gift

Burmans. is beJ?ami. The practice of benamz among Burffi
 .....
t'e
is not ipdigenous or common, and if employed it IS to
.. defeat or delay an immediately impending claim of some
creditor or other . person. Decisions as to benami tran-'
, sactio.n s between Hindus and Mahomedans afford but little
~elp in such cases."
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OC' C: .C
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' ~
" It should be remembered that the question whether ~-
Burmese citizen possesses dual nat~onlity or not, i.e., tQ--~
nationality of ano.ther State in addition to Burmese nation~."
ity, will have to be judged prima:ri,ly in accorda.nce w( '
the Municipal Law of Burma and not the . law of any oth':
State.: In ~~e pres~nt ca~e, the :rroble~ . is whef?. ~h~ul_d~~
Burmese c_Jtlzen be considered to have also . acq'\..nred th~
d~izenship o.f a~other ~tate? The legislat~re i,n its supre~~
WI~dom obv1ous1y ,reahzed that embai:"rassmg and awkwar~ ,
situations were certain to arise for ~urmese citize.n s:_especiall.>
those of the mixed blood if other States began to clai ~
them as 'their own.'.citizen.s and proceeded to legislate accor~~
ingly. Section 14 .( m) of the. Union Citizenship Act se"''t
out the position of those Burmes~ ~ationals who .may acqtir,
dual natkmality owing to the acts of foreign. governments.::t . :~.

Article 23. <:onstitutionof the

t
Peop)e~s. Rep.ublic ofChina) I954
: :
!f
~-
 . It should be noted however that there are several ways
.and mea.n.s by. which Burmese nationality may be acquired,
e.g., direct descent from Burmese nationals or by naturali~'!-
tion and these are to be found in the Union .Citizenship Act.
As and when a Burmese national . acquires dual nationality
the Municipal Law of Burma, i.e., the Union Citizenship
Act, proceeds. to div~st hill\ of Burmese citizenship unless he
takes steps to renounce the nationaLty of the fore:gn state
concerned. The procedure to be adopted in such cases is
divided into two per:ods, i.e., those .occurring before the rst
Apri~ 1955 . or at a later date. A.n interesting feature of the
above section is that in so far as Burmese nationals covered
by Section I r of the Constitution and section 4 (2) and 5 (b)
of the Union Citiz~nship Act are concerned they are expressly
exciU:ded except . where .. such individuals have 'registered as
a fore'gner in a foreign etp.bassy or obtained a passport as a
foreigner from a foreign Gqvernment concerned.' The
Burmese nationals men~ioned i.n those sections are ~ n f.act
direct descendants. of Burmese C:iti'lens and as far as \ve
can see, the legislature was bent on safeguarding them from
harassment by the acts of foreign governments. So far as
such ind'viduals are concerned, they are not deemed to have
acqu1red dual nationality unless arid unt il they have acquired
foreign P<!-SSorts or registered the~~elves as nationals of a
foreign :State. The. Respondent U S~n Koi has not reg~stered
as a .foreigner with the_..Chinese Embassy nor has he obtained
any passport from that quarter. we fail to see therefore
how he would possibly be said to have acquired dual
nat:on~lity." (~)

: (~) u san Win v. U Sin Koi, Reports of the Parliamentary Election

Petitions Enquiry Commission, Government Press, 1959, p. So.
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 "It {a passport) is a document issued in 'the name of the
sovereign on_the . responsibility of a minister of the Crown
to a named indiv:dual, intended to be presented to the gov-
ernments of foreign nations and to be used for that indivi-
dual's protection as a British sub~ect in foreign countries
By. its terms it req~ests and requires in the name of His
Maj~sty all those wb.om it may concern to allow the bearer
to pass . freely wJthopt let or hindrance and to afford him.
every assistance and protection 'of which he may stand in
need. It is, I think, true that the possession of a passport
. by a British subject does not increase the sovereign's duty
of protection, though it will make his path easier. For him
it ~erves as a voucher and means of identification. But the
posses~ion of a passport by one who :s not a British subject
gives him rights and imposes upon the sovereign obligations
which would otherwise not be given or imposed. It is
immaterial that he has obtained it by misrepresentation and
that he is not in law a British subject. By the possession of
that document he is enabled to obta!n in a foreign country
the protection extended to British subjects. By h!s own
act he has ma~ ntained the bond which while he was with!n
the realm bound him to his soy-ereign. The question is not
whether he obtained British citi~enship by obtaining the
passport, but whether by its receipt he extended his. duty
of allegiance beyond the moment when he left the shores
of this country. As one owing allegiance to the King he
sought and obtained the protection of the King for himself
while abroad." (?.)

(?.) Joyce v. Dire~tor of Public Prosecutions, 1946 A. C., 347 at 369.

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.fY?~qc(s8: ffiJS~g(\)Jffi1)GOO::>~ 11 Vagliano Brothers v. Bank of England :)
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sent the bills as vouchers, which were retained by the plain
o . ~ ;q c when he returned without objection the pass-books. It
8:3d:GY?C
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contended that this was a settlement of account between

and the bank, and that he had been guilty of such n

with respect to the examination of the vouchers as
have prevented him from being relieved from this settl
of account. But there was no evidence to show that,
between a customer and his banker, is the implied
as to the settlement of account by such a dealing with
pass-book, or that, having regard to the ordinary course
dealing between a b,a nker and his customers, the p!Giintiff
done anything which can be considered a neglect of his
to the bank or negligence on his part."
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- Mohamed Raisat Ali v. Hasin Baru I.L.R. 21 Cal. 157 at 163. Baslzirj1
Un-Nissa BiBi v . Abdur Rahman and Others, I.L.R. 44 All 244 Sm '
Swarmamoyee Dasi v. Probodh 'Chandra Sarkar and Other~, A.I. R. 1933.
Calcutta 253. Mohamedally Tyebally and Others v. Safiabai and 0
A.I.R. 1940 Privy Council 215. Khadersa l!ajee Bappu v. Puthen
A y issa Ummah and Others, I.L.R. 34 Mad. 511. (FB). Mohamed Ameen
Eusoof Hajee Ahmed and Others, A.I.R. 1936 Rangoon, 407,

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Gm')t~~ ~9tcq:SG::D'JI Mohamed Raisat Ali v. Hasin Bar~u (1) .

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''The next objection was that the claim to cash and

moveables was rightly held by the first Court to be barred
by limitation. Their Lordships do n<;>.t agree with either the
Judicial Commissioner or the Dis.t rict Judge as to the article
in the schedule to the Limitation Act which is applicable.
This is not a suit for a distributive share o.f property (article
123), nor a suit for specific moveable property wrongfully
taken (article 49).. This latter article does not appear to be"
applicable to a s~it to establish a right to inherit the property:
of a deceased person . . Article 120 provides a pedod o[
limitation of six years for a suit for which no period o(
limitation is proyided elsewhere in the schedu~e. Thei/
Lordships think this article should be applied, unless it is :
clear that the suit is within some . other article, whkh in .l ~

their opinion it is not, and consequently the suit as regar~.~

the moveable property is not barred.''
----~ .---

(x) I.L.R. 21 Cal. 157 at 163.

~::.r !gJl~9t~:cq Bashir-Ut:-Nissa Bibi v. Abdur Rahman and o~o :
,~ th eTS (2 )
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1 "'~. Sm. Swarmamoyee Dasz v . Probodh Chandra Sarkar and ,_8
C'
~others (3) 8J1t~S Mohamedally Tyebally . and other v. Safiaba
o ' c '
Gro~
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e
~ai....'and
't o c c c c o G c o c
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others (4) m<JmCDcro.::n:
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"The heirs of a Mahomedan succeed to his estate in

specific shares as t~nants in common and such suit is governed
as regards immoveable property by Article 144 and as regards
moveables by Artjcle 12o."

G C' o C' ')C' C'C' C' ~ OC' ~ C'

OS<J 09CCX(:~c GQICW23 GSJ'JffiU roqc:t:Ja>::>:o:>211

"Where an estate partly consists of immoveable property

and partly of business, a suit for share in the estate of a
:(2) I.L.R. 44 All. 244 (3) A. I.R. 1933 Calutta 253
''(4) A.L.R. 1940 Privy Council2r5. (s) I.L.R. 34 Mad. 51 r (F.B.)
:(6) A.I.R. 1936 Rangoon. 407. ( 7.) o~GG1 ~-:>e ~9dc4;~p: OjoOH
deceased ancestor, against heirs. in possession and .managing
the same cannot be maintained, so far. as it relates to im-
moveable prope rty, if not brought within 12 years of the
death of the ancestor, under Article 144, a.nd that for an
accoun t of the business of the .deceased ancestor if not
brought w~thin six years under Article 120, Limita t:on Act."
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ment ; and there is no doubt that it arose in the course of
as he was taking the rep<;>rt to the office in the
course of his duty."

(7) 1899 I Q.B.P. p. 1015.

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u.nless the mon~y-lender is regist~red . under this Act and the

registration in force.'' is
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G~:x:m~c~2t:l0GO:x>211 <.D<t tlO:O~?~~oroxwSJ Succession Act t(O(;) })9
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P. R. M. Annamplia Chettiar and another v. A. L. V. Alagappa
g c o c cr,: o c g c c o
Chettiar (6) 09ccq:~p:rqro~:~ftfC\.(~Oo:>~ 11 OOO(;) 09CCX(W~cG~CJ.(:
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"In S. P. SL?bramanian Chettiar v. Hajee Ahmed Abdulla
U San Maung, J. of this court had had to deal with a simil
situation. In that case the learned trial Judge of the Ra tgo<)U.S
City Civil Court tried a suit on a pro-note but did not pass
decree, holding that sectio.n 9 of the Money-Lenders
stood as a bar. Plaintiff then applied by way of a rev.u''-',1.4i!111
application to the ' Chief .Court. The same arguments t
Mr. Jaganathan made before me were advanced by
learned Advocate for the applicant before U San Maung,
The learned Judge held that the trjal Judge was correct
refraining from passing a decree because 5ection 9 of
Money-Lender's Act clearly stood in the way."
" . . . . As section 9 of the Act makes a decree in fa
of the plaintiff whose registration as a money-lender is
i'n force incompetent, I inust hold that the decree passed
the learned 2nd Judge of the Rangoon City Civil Court ,
without jurisdiction. The decree must therefore
vacated."
"U Aung Min submits that the suit may be remanded
the learned 2nd Judge to be kept pending, in fairness to
plain tiff-respondent, until suclf time as he may be able
(5) 1963 RL.R. p . 928. (6) 1964 B.L.R. p. 37 1.
(7) Civil Revision 33/63, Chief Court.
 -

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(8) Civil F irst Appeal No. 91 of 1967.
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Where one , person signs and delivers .to another a Ua1'~tGu1 (aS) 11
" 20.
paper stamped in accordance with the law relating to
negotiable instruments then in force in the Union of Burma,
and either wholly blank or having. written thereon an
incomplete negotiable instrument, }le thereby gives prima
facie authority to the holder thereof to make or complete, as
the case may be _upon it a negotiable instrument, for any
amount specified therein and not exceeding the amount
covered by the stan:P The person so signing shall be liable
upon such instrument, in the capacity in which he signed
the same,' to any holder in due -course for such amount:
Provided that no person other than a holder in due course
shall recover from the p~rson d~livering the instrument
anything in excess of the amount intended by him to be
paid thereunder."
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" 15. (r) No creditor shall take from a debtor or intending
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terms of the loan, the date of execution of the document,
the rate of interest charged and the time, if any, within
. which the principal is stipulated to be repaid in full, or which
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instrument in which any of the above particulars is left
. blank to be filled up at a subsequent date. "
 (2) Not withstanding anything contained in any iaw
the time being in force, any such note, bond,
promise, or document shall be void."
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 I I No applicatio,n for revision in ~ Criminal case shall
330.
be accepted l.f the relief asked for can
Direct Applications be granted by the District Magistrate
for Revision.
or Sessions judge under sections 43S
to 437, Code of Criminal Procedure, unless application has
already been unsuccessfully made to either the District
Magistrat,e or Sessions Judge. Such applications, shall, under
the orders of a Judge, be returned for presentation to the
orders of a Judge, be returned for presentation to the
District Magistrate or Sessions Judge."
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;,::D~ II

~BO))r? (o) ,
" W~ether the Income-tax App~llate Tribunal ,after p.o~ding
that the security pciy~ent made . to t.h.e. insurgents _as being
opposed 'to publi'c pqlicy is . not an . allowable . item o'f
-expenditure, has not e_rred in law:-in making the order which
has the effect of .a llmving half . of the amount of the.. said
payment, namely, K 2r,28o ?."
:{~:mr? (J ) . ., . . , . .
. " Under the dreuinstances of' th~. case whether the..Income-
tax Appellate Trib~_nal was r.ight in .n9~' allowing half of the
Security allow~nces amounti~g to K 4i~s6o and if so whether
it ~as rig~t Jn. not ?etting aside the ass~ss~ent."
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~? _(~) .. .
"Whether the Income.: tax Appellate .Tcribunal,' after holding
. :}: i_':.. >. ... ~''')
that the security payment . made to the insurgents as bein:g
opposed to pubEc policy, is not-:'..~~ - all9wable.; iterrf of
expenditure, has not erred in law in making the <:>rder whicla
 has the effect of allowing half of the said security
amounting to K 9,280 included in 'weeding
totalling K 42,700"
Of?.. (J) 111, ,

"Under the circumstanc,es o~ the case whether the !nc:on:t~

~ J ~ ~ '
tax Appellate Tribunal w as nght in not allowing half
weeding expenses amounting to K 42,700, which
the sum of K 9,280 for security payment and if so,
it was dght in not setting aside the assessment."
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 "The High Co:urt as a Court of revi$ion will not :t
the app~ication as a Court of appeal, and will not as a
go into the evidence but will accept the concurrent
of facts by t he lower . Courts, except where the judgment
the facts is manJfestly wrong and palpably unjust."

e. (r) 1954 B.L.R..293 '(H.C.R.)

 C'
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v. N!a Aye Byu and eigfat, I. L. It x., Ran., 77o
. . ' .. . . .. : :

~~
144 (1) Where' and in so . .fe:ir .as 1a de~ree is
, I I , ,,

reversed, the Court of first inst~nce shall,_on the

of. ~my party entitled to any. ben~.fit.
: .
by way of restitution
.

othei'wis~... cause such res~t~ution to be made as will; s6
' I I , '

as .may: beJ plac7 the par.ties in the po~ition which ~hey,

have occupied but for such decree or s~ch part
ha~ been vari.ed or re~ersed ; and, for this purpose, th~
may make any orde~s, including or~ers for .Jhe_1:ef~d
costs and for the. payment of i.nterest, damages, camp~....... -._,.
and mesne pro~ts, which are properly consequential -o~ .
variation or nwersal.
(2) (No su~t shall be instituted for the purpose of o
any restitution or other relief which could be o
application under sub-section (r)."
 ~ c c c c ~ . c c c o c c~
g)IOO<)Jffi~~ ( UOXDffi9J GC\jj ')0)00'):~~ .QQ)9GO)')'Jffi axp:qft=l~

l~;:>:<n;::l:>: ~:oS~G~')I_ Shzv~ppa Dlzandappa Bradar and others V

. : ..;,..] - 1 Q c 0 0 0
Sh t'lappa Btrt-War ( ) q:,9c~:~p:rq ~p:~:>ndrq:oom'):
' c -~ Q c .'I c c
~:x>2 !I g]lq)'JC~: G<)IC:0e,m -

,.,"$ection 144 ap'plies' when decree is varied or reversed in

same proceedings between parties whether by appeal,
:r~view or otherwise-It does not apply wh.en decree is
varied or reversed in another unconnected suit-Application
for restitution under section 144 cannot be ,granted in such
later case."

(x) A.I.R. I937(Bombay) ~73 (z) I.L.R. t Rangoon no.

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!. <JG5~~~o:><J~'' Jeet Si1Jgh and one (1) : Kodairam v. ~.

6 Ll L L
Jagarup v.

f'Pardeshi (2): K. M, Cltidhambaram C~.1ttyar v. S. T. P. N.

i' Subbiah Chettyar, agmt and attom r:y of. S. T. P. . Nachiappa
!t rl (
( C~zettyar 3). .
'

' (x) .1955 B.L.R. p. 164 (H.C.).

(3) I963 B.L.R. p. 509.
:.. (s) 1 ) ') 3 u
n . L . R . p. 9 ?. 3.
 " In:S. P. ~ubramanian Chettiar v . Hajee A~med Abdulla (7)
usan Maung,]. of this Court h~d had to deal with .a similar
situation. In that case the learned trial .judge of the Rangoon
City Civil Court tried a suit on a pronote hut did not pass a
--~ecree, holding that section 9 of the Money Lender;s Act
-stood as a bar. Plaintiff then applied .by way of a. revision
. applic~tion to the Chief. Court. The same arguments :that
. Mr. Jtganathan made before. me- were advanced by the
_learned Advocate for the applicant .before U San Maung. J.
The learned Judge held that the trial Judge was correct in
refraining fro~i passing a de~ree because section 9 of the
Money.:Lender's Act deariy stood 1n . the way.;' .
.. "; .. . .As se~don 9 of the Act makes a decree in favour of.
t~e. pl~~ntiff whose registration as a money~lender is not . in
Jorce incompetent, I must .. hold that th~ decree pa~sed py ~the
learned 2nd Judge of'the Rangoon Gity Civil Court is without
jurisdi~tion . The decree mus't the!efore be vacated. .
"U Aung ivlin submits that the suit may be remanded to
t~e ]earned 2nd Judge to be l<ept .pending,. in fairness t9 the
plaintiff-respondent, until such time as he may be ab le to''
ootain a~d produce a valid cert~ficate aii money-l~nei.er. I 1
direct that be done .. . :" }
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11-:Dm ~OO'J.T.>~CCGJ),;) ;:Q~.S~Il() J : C\;~x:; : II
L . ~ Jt. T ll G J .
 "If, in the case mentioned in section 236, the accused is
charged with one offence, and it appears in evidence that he
committed a different offence for which he might have been
charged under the provisions of that section, he may be
convicted of the off'e~ce which he is shown to have
committed, although he was not charged with it."

c: C' r c c c CG c c o C: ,-:-:' C' C' > C

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jOO

"It would appe~r therefore that in those suits also the

<;:ourt is r~garded as keeping control aver the action, and it:
s'eems to me that wh.ere the Cou.rt reserves to itself the right:.
to confirm elections held under a scheme framed by it and
where application for confirmation is made by parties on one
side in the suit and is opposed by. parties on the other side,
the order which the Court makes is not really an order in
execution but is <a decree in the suit itself and is therefore
appealaqle as a decree under the Code.'r
---
( 0) ad~ (S I 9f~f I e711
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GO~~ II

" Mr. Basu has argued that as the scheme provided the
procedure to be followed when a vacancy occurred on the
board of trustees and also provided that Chulia Mohamedans
could nppiy to the ~oun in connection with the appoinment
of a trustee, any order made on such an application must be
taken tc be pan of the R.nal decree.. If Mr. Basu's argument
v.yere correct it would mean tl).at such a case as this would
never end; the suit would always be pending. The order
which t he learned Judge has passed is an order directing the
trusl:ee~ to do what they are required by the scheme which
was embodied in the final decree, and from whatever point
one looks at the matter _it is perfeq:ly clear that the order
is not a judgment within the meaning of clause 13 of the
Letters Patent, or even a decree within meaning of section 2
of the Code of Civil Procedure."
c !,~ (' (' c (' C' 0 (' c 0
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~G:>J?O?tGr:3'JC: g)j ~~:Y.>~fi.:D'L ~~~II
11
I agree. At one time during the argument I entertained
some doubt as to whether the decree was final or could be
said to be partly final and partly preliminary within the
meaning of section 2 of the Civil Procedure Code, and
whether therefore the order of Ba U J. was really in the
nature of a final decree .respecting matters which had still
been left undisposed of at the time of the settlement of the
scheme ; but I am persuaded that such is not the correct
view. If it were to prevail, as my learned brother has said,
there could be no . finality at all in suits of this nature, and I
regard the order of Ba U J. as a consequential order merely
- - - - -------.. - - - -
(J) 0~?'1
passed subsequent to a final decree by my learned brother
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 it wou19-- be ~ lamentable faHure of justice if they were to
be held entitled to an acquittal merely because the Excise
Inspector wrote the name$ of the search witnesses in the
s~arch list, instead of the search witnessess signing their o'Nn
names. It is admitted in the present case that there were
irregularities in connection with the search, but, nevertheless,
ff the fact that these articl~s were found in the possess'ion of
the appellants is proved their conviction must follow."

Thr: flovemment v. Po Min and othi!rs (~) ~~Q~~~

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" It is ever to be b~rne in mind that rules and regulations

are intended to be the handmaid and not the mistress of the
law, and that, in criminal proceedings, it is of the utmost
importance that a decision just and reasonable on the merits,
should not be disturbed, because in the course of the
proceedings some flaw can be detected that is not
fundamental, and which is not proved to have worked
injustice to the accuse~! although it may constitute a breach
of the rules of criminal procedure."
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"7 \Vhen any instruments of gaming are found .

abou~ the person of any of those who are found therein .
it shan be presumed, until the contrary is proved ; . . . . .
that the pe:sons found therein were present for the purpose
of gaming. a :though rio play w<1s actually seen by the
Ma.gis~r~ne or polic~officer, . . . . ."

(~) LL.R. 10, Rangoon, 511.

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section 488, Criminal Penal Code; be lit:lble to maintain it.''
.. :. : 0 ~ ;

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LIST OF CASES REPORTED

COURTSI\IARTIAL APPEAL COURT

 LIST OF CASES CITED

. COURTS-MARTIAL APPEAL COURT

Manual of Military :Law, Part I, H ..M.S.O. 1961, p. 414.

1936 II, K.B., 442 at 446. 9221t::n~
 INDEX

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 " If a conviction by Court-Martial is quashed by a reviewing
, authEnity on the ground of want of jurisdiction, the case has-
1

. not been " tried" within.. the meaning of this section (R.V.
. Gee and others), and may be .tried by a fresh Court.'' ( o)
..
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. . "The result is that there has been what is sometimes
called a mis-trial, though it would be more acourate to say
.that there had been no trial at all. This Court has power
tc;> order that a proper trial shall take pla~e and in that case,
the . proceedings would recommence from the point where
they' broke down." (J)

( ~) Manual of Military Law, Part 1, H . l\1. S. 0. x:~6r, p.414.

(J) 1936 II K. B. 442 at 446.
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"No. 45/47 LEGAL AND JUDICIAL-PERIOD OF ACTIVE

SERVICE IN BURMA
The Burma Active Service Act, 1943, lapsed on the Istf
February 1947 the date on which hostilities were declared to;j
have been terminated by the Governor of Burma. Personnel]
. ~ ~,

subject to the Burma Army Act ceased to be "o~n

ACTIVE SERVICE" . with effect from that date. And the~ :1';;
1
words ' WHEN ON ACTIVE SERVICE " will no longer be_J
averred in the statement of particulars in c?arges in respec~~
of offences committed by personnel subjett to the Burrria'g
Army Act. This will not. effect the legality of sentenc~~
passed during the period 1st February . 1947 to date ~~J
publication of th.is order.
Colonel,
A & Q .. HQ Burma Army."
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" 'active service ', as applied to a person subject to this

Act, means the time during which such person is attached to,
or forms part of, a force which is engaged in operations
against an enemy, or is engaged in military operations in, or
is on the line of march to, a country or place wholly or
partly occupied by an enemy, or is in military occupation of
any foreign country."
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" 'enemy' includes all armed mutineers, armed rebels,

arm ed rioters, pirates and any person in arms aga inst whom
it is the duty of a person subject to military law to act."
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011 The Judicial system in the U.S.S.R.
jll Interview with Chief Justice of U.S.A.

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66
 or with the sanction of the local Government, it is clear from
the terms of the section that if any authority subordinate
. to the local Government has the power of removaL
section 197 of the Code could not have any application."

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( o) The Burma Official Secrets Act, S. 23 (3).

\ ~) The Police (Incitement to Disaffection) Act, S. 5
( oo) The Rangoon Police Act, S. 53
( oo) The Transfer of Immoveable Property (Restriction)
Act, S. 7
( oJ) The Vaccination Act, S. 16.
(:)?) The Village Act, S. 28.

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UC'II

~ 101 !~ 0 ~\;/cr( ~)IY"l'Jh?!ClY

IV
 THE JUDICIA L SYSTEM IN THE USSR *

A . F. Gorkin
In my discou'rse here I intend to expound the basic
principles underlying the organisation of the Soviet judi-
cial system, and tell of the Soviet court's tasks and its
sphere of competence and of the legislation covering the
activity of the judicial bodies .

As we know, every social system has its own specific

institutions, its ovvn inherent forms of state administration.
The institutions and forms of state. structure and admini-
stration are not arbitrary ; they are created, in the process
of development of the particular society, answering its
purposes and corresponding to its peculiarities.

I
As a result of the -victorious socialist revolution in
October 1917 there emerged ih Russia a new state, which
set itself the task of establishing no new rule of one class.
over another. but of elhninating the exploiting classes a~d
building a classless socialist-and later communist-society'l
in which full social equality is ensured for all members of
society and work for the good of society will become a:
prime vital necessity for everyone, and material values will
be distributed according to needs.
After accomplishing the socialist revolution
and gaining power, Russia's working class destroyed the
old bourgeois state machinery and along with it the judi-
cial system created by that state.
Ahead lay the difficult job of organising a new
machinery of state administration and building ~p a nevv
judicial system for the Soviet state.
The funtamental prin\:iples of organisation and activity
of the Soviet court were firmly established in the first
decrees of the Soviet government on the court. By the
T ext of a lecture delivered by A. F. Gorkin, Chairman of the Supreme
, Court of the USSR, to members of the diplomatic ' corps ac-credited to the
Soviet U nion. The lecture is followed by questions and answers reproduced
from International Socialst M iscellany, 4, December 1963.

IV
decree issued on 24 November I9I7 .. ~be bourgeois
machinery of justice was abolished and it was replaced by
new, genuinely peopie's courts, formed on dem.~cratic
principles. Besides abolishing the old courts, the deere~
also repealed tsarist Russia's law, which designed to protect
the interests of the landed proprietors and capitalists, laws
which had firmly secured exploitation and rightlessness of
the workers and peasants.
-,
. Later decrees and l(;lWS relating to ~he coqrt have. pro-
:yide<;l for a whole system of proce.durai guarantee~ to
.ensure legality in the. activity .of the organs of: revqhi-
.~io:f1ary justice an~ _a<;:~iye .p articipation. by the working
people in its adrninistration. .Pron1ulgated too were; the
principles of democ;:ratic .justice : that all courts are to. b~
elected, that cases are to be heard in public, that judicial
proceedings are to be conducted in the language of the
partic;:ular republi<;: or a utonomous region, that cas~s are
to be tried collegiat~ly with the particip~tion of pe.opl~'s
as$essors, and that the accused had the right to. defence.
. . ' .
. Our courtry's entry intq the period of full-scale build-
ing of communist socie,ty involyes the effectuation of very
:i.mportant measures in: the spher.e of administration of
socialist justice.
The programme of the CPSV. says that .aU-round exten-
sion and perfection of socialist den1ocracy, active partici-
p atlon of all citizens in the adn).inistration of the state, in
.the management of economiC and cultural development,
improvement of the government apparatus, and increased:
control over its activity by the people constitute th~ . main
direction in which socialist statehood : develops in the
.period of the building of communism.
The party [said. Khrushchev in his report on the:
draft programme of the CPGU} attaches great impor-:
tance to a fqrther strengthening of legality and of.
law and or<ier, and to the protectionof the rights of ;
citizens. The rights, freedom, honqur and dignity of~
the So~riet dtizens will be closely protected by society~
and by the state. Those who expect that . public~
order in our country .will be less rigid are in .. for a]
 -vvoeful disappointn1ent. Alongside the state organs.
public organisations of working people will play an
, increasing role in combating anti-social and criminal
elements. "fhe fight against misappropriators of
public property, against parasites and rowdies will be
waged still more effectively, since it will have becon1e
the business of ail working people and their organisa-
tions.
It is the function of the Soviet court to protect against
. any encroachment the social and state system, the socialist
syste1n of economy and socialist property, the political,
.labour, residential and other person~! and property rights
. and interests oi Soviet citize.!)S, the rights and .f~wful
interests of state institutions .and enterprises, collective
farms, cooperative and other public organisations.
justice is administered in the ussR by hearing and
deciding in court sittings civil cases involYing the
infringement of rights and interests of private citizens,
.state enterprises and other establishments, collecth-e farms,
cooperative and other public organisations, and by hearing
crin1inai cases in court sittings and meting out the punish-
ment provided by law to those found guilty of the
co1nn1ission of a crirpe, or acquitting those found not
guilty.
Criminal and civil cases are tried by the court in the
n1anner prescribed by legislation of the USSR and the
union republics on criminal and civil procedure.

II
The judicial systen1 of every state is comprised of all
its judicial institutions, united by common principles of
organisation and activity and headed, as a rule, by a single
highest court for the whole country.
~

Administering justice in the Soviet Union ~re: the

Supreme Court of the USSR, the supreme courts of the
. union republics, the supreme courts of the auton01nous re-
' publics, the regional, territorial. an<! town . courts, the
!' courts of the autonon1ous regions and national areas, the
', district (city) people's courts. and the military tribunal$_
 . '
The main link of the judicial chain is the d!strict (city)
people's court, and the next higher link is the regional and
territorial court, the supreme court of the autonomous u
republic or autonomous region. In the union republi,s
which have no regional divisions the higher link imme-
diately above the district (city) people's court is the
supreme court of the union republic directly.
. In the USSR justice is administered only by the courts,.
a1.1<! all s::itizens C}r~ equal. before the law and the
irrespective of the.ir social .o r property status,
nationality, race or rel_igion.
In .1953, with the a'im of re-'e~tablishing the .....,....,AA.u......._'!.~
principles of ~socialist legality, the so. called special ....,...,~ _,,..
.fe~ence, functioning t.u,.per the Miqistry of 'rntetnal
of the USSR w.as abolished : it was an extra-judicial nnl"'tu.a
which existed in t4e Stalin cu~t P.~riod.
All courts in the USSR are elective.
People's judges . of district (city) people's courts
elected by the popl}.lation of the district on the basis
universal, direct and equal suffrage by secret ballot.
pie's assessors of d~strkt (city) courts are electeq at
. meetings of industri~l, office and professional workers _ ~nn-
peasants in the place of their work or residence.
The regional, territorial and 'c ity courts, the courts
autonomous regions and national a~eas are elected by
respective Soviets of Working_people's Deputies.
The supreme courts of the autonomous and
r~publics and the SupremyJ:;our~ of the USSR are e . . . . . . ......~.
by the respective Supreme ._SoViets of Working
Deputies. Members of inilitary tribunals are elected _
the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
All judges are elected for a term of five years,
peop~e's assessors for two yea:rs.~
pvery citizen of the USSR who enjoys the right
suffrage is eligible for el~ction as judge or people~s asses~:or~
No property or otper qualificatio.n, e~cept the
to the age of 25, has been fixed by USS.R or union
legislation for holding these offices..
 Let me cite some data to illustrate the make-up of the
peop~e's courts.
Thirty and one-tenth per cent of the people's judges
are women ; in the Latvian USSR the percentage is 54.0.
Seventy-four and nine-tenths per cent of the people's
judges have a higher education; in the Ukrainian Republic
the percentage is 83.2, in the Uzbek Republic, 9L3 and in
Georgian Republic, 937
People's judges with a record of five or n1ore years
service in courts, procurator's office, or other organs of
justice make up 78.3 per cent of the total.
The judges have been elected from atnong the nation-
alities inhabiting the p~rticular republic, territory or
region. For instance, in the Lithuanian Republic 90.6 per
cent of the judges are Lithuanians, and in the Armenian
SSR 9 5 .o per cent are Armenia11:s.
In all courts, cases are heard collectively. In courts
of first instance cases are heard by a judge and two
people's assessors. the latter enjoying equal rights with the
judge in the trial of the case .
..
Reinforcing the democratic syste1n of electing the
judges is the accountability of people's judges to their
electors, and of all other courts to the bodies which elected
them . The people's judge, while independent and subject
only to the law in hearing cases, has to give an account to
his electors of his work and the work of the people's
courts. The reports of people's judges to their electors
strengthen their ties with the population and ensure
control by the electors over the work of the people's
court. Accountability has also been fixed for higher
courts to the bodies which elected them.
People's assessors who are factory, office or profes-
sional workers receive their r~gular wages or salary while
discharging their duties in court. Those who do not work
are reimbursed their expenses incurred in connection with
the discharge of their duties in court.
During the time they serve in court, people's assessors
enjoy the same rights as the judge. They take part in the
 ~-

examination of cases in. the aclrninistrative session of. the

people's'
.
court at which the court' decides a
whether. 02' not.
-t~e accused is to be held ~or tri~I, and in the sittings (ft
which cases, both criminal and civ'il, are heard in all courts
functioning as courts of first instance. Like the judge,
people's assessors have the right to put question to the.
accused, witnesses, plaintiffs and defendanrs, to experts~
and so qn. Decision~ o~ questions arisir:g in the cou:s~
of the court examination, and also 111 pronounc1rtg~l
judginent, passing sentence or :i11aking a ruling are adopteq~
by a simple 1najority vote.
. 'i
:J
1he presiding judge or people's assessor who is in .ai
.n1inority has the right to set forth in writing why 4eJ
disagrees with the decision taken~ ;:tnd his dissentiri~
opinion goes into the .file in the . case. This
.
has certain~
. --:;
importance In the exainination of the case by a higher~
court. ,';
~~
. ~ -~
:a
?
, . :; ~
""
The jurisdiction of the different courts in criminal anq1
civil cases is defined by the codes of criminal and civiJ~
procedure of the unibn republics . . ~
,

The district (city) people's court is the .first and at th~;

sam.e time the main link of the judi~ial . system. Being:
courts of first instance, people's courts try the bulk of th~~
crimin~l and civil cases. . j
. . . ~ . . ! :'~

The law has placed yvithin the cqrnpetente of th~~

people's court the hear_ing . of criminal cases involving{
crimes against the life, health and dignity of citizen~~
n1isappropriation of state or public property, . .<::rimes.1
against the personal ,property of<> citizens; :'ma1feasance anq_:
economic offences,. and crimes against -p~blic security andl
law and. order. . . . .
.~~$j:~

The people's court hC:tS jur!~di_ctio_n 'i n 'all propert~

. controversies between private citizens on
the one hand~
and enterpris'es, other establishme~ts 'and organisatio'ns on~~
the other, bet\veen collective farms, and b~tween collectivel
farms and state organisations. For e~ample, the people}1
court hears ' civil suits, such as complaints charging
dism)ssal from work Without valid grounds therefor; cases
~nvolving division of property ; alimony cases ; cases
seeking the establishment of facts giving rise to legal
consequences, and so on.
Courts, give special attention to .the protection of
citizens' labour rights. fv1ore than half-545 per cent of
the actions for reinstaterhe.n t in one's job brought in r 962
-were decided in fa\our of the' plaintjff by the courts,
and suit' for con1pensation for inj_uries caused in
conr;ection with work in factories or other establishments
were decided in favour of the complainant? in 91 per cent
of the cases.
Territorial and regional courts and courts of
autonomous regions and of national areas are higher
courts with respect to people's courts, but they act as
courts of first insta!lces in crimina~ and civil cases over
which they have been given jurisdict~on. As a court of
second instance-~n appellate court-they examine
appeals from and protests filed against judgments,
sentences and decisions of a district peop!e's court which
have not come jnto force . As courts of first instance,
thes~ courts he;.u tl"~e more compb::ate cases, such as
crimes against th:- state. gangsterism, premeditated murder
under aggravatiug c;rcumstances, and so on. They also
hear the more important civil cases which they deem it
necessary to hear themselves.
However, the chief function of the regional and terri-
torial courts and courts put on the same footing is to
supervise the activity of the people's courts and to. rectify
errors committed by the latter in hearing criminal or civil
cases.
Procedural la\v h2s established that a sentence or
judgement of a court does not come into force immediately
after its pronouncement but after a certain period of time
(a sentence pronounced in a criminal case after seven days,
and a judgement rendered in a civil case after ro days).
During this period the person concerned-the convicted
persons or their defence counse1, the injured parties, p!ain-
tlffs, defendants, or those representing their interests-may
 ~

file an appeal with the higher court ifthey believe the sen-
tence or judgement is unjust. The procurator has the same
time limit for filing his protest againsf' the sentence 01-
jud,gem~t of the court, if he finds them contrary to the
law or unfounded. T~e filing of an appeal or protest
suspends the execution of the sente~ce or judgement until
the case is examined by the higher court.
. The following are grounds for setting aside or modify~~
ing a verdict in examining a case on appeal: a one-sidedi
.o r ..incomplete preliminary or judicial investigation; the ;
court's conclusions set forth in the verdict not being in.
accord with the facts in the case; a n1aterial infringement';
of the code of criminal procedure ; wrong application of:
the criminal law, and where the punishment imposed by:
the court clearly is not in accord with the gravity of the.~
crime or the personality of the defendant. ._,.
A court of second instance, after checking the legality.
of a sentence or judgement pronounced by a court of firs~
instance and the grounds for it on the ba~is of the material
of the case, either affirms it or orders a new trial by th~
court of. first instance. or a new. pr~Iin1inary investigation.::
pr modifies it. In n1odify~ng a sentence a court of secon.<l'
.instance may mitigate a punishn1ent but has no rlght .tc)
impose a severer punishment.
For the purpose of ensuring the legality of a sentence
and the validity of the grounds the~efor, a court of the
.second instance is duty bound iri each case in which an
-?ppeal or protest: has been filed to examine the case in full
.irrespective of the grounds for appealing from the sentence
given in . the appeal O! _protest. In the Soviet Union this
ends the stage of di~ect' appeals.
Where a sentence or judgem~nt of a court Q.f. first in~
stance has not ,been appealed from (or prot~sted), or affirm~
ed by a higher court, _it is 'to be carried out. ..
After a sentenc~ or judge1nent has tome into legal
for<;:e, only the foll<9wing official_s, in whom this right has
been vested by the law, have the right to file a protest with
the respective .court, which re-examin~s the case by way
of supervision : the chairman of regional and territorial
 courts, supreme courts of the autonomous and union re-
:put:lics, the regional and higher procurators, the Procura-
0tOr-General of the USSR, and the Chairman of the Supren1e
court of USSR.
. The supreme courts of the union -z:epublics are the
highest judicial organs of the union republics ; they have
,original jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases of excep-
lional importance. They exercise supervision over the
'judicial activity of the courts of their rep.ublic by revie'w-
'ing cases (a) on appeals from or protests filed ~gainst
'judgements, sentences and decisions rendered by territorial
and regional courts, the supreme courts of autonomous
Tepublics, and courts of national areas which have not
come into force, and (b) on protests filed against judge-
ments, sentences and decisions rendered by any court in
the republic which have . come int.o legal force . The
supreme court of a union republic has the right to eluci-
date the law to courts of the particular union repubtic to
guide them in applying the republic's legislation in hearing
criminal an dvil cases.
Cases of infraction of the law by servicemen are tried
by military tribunals, which . are an integral part of the
general judicial system and are organised on the same
democratic principles as the other courts. Supervision
over their judicial activity is exercised by the Supreme
court of the USSR.
Recent ye:.1rs have witnessed a considerable shr!nking
of the jurisdiction of the military tribunals. TodJy. the
tribunals try only cases of crimes committed by those
.serving in the armed forces and all espionage cases.
The highest judicial organ in the Soviet Union i~; the
Supreme Court of the USSR; it hears as a court of first
instance criminal and civil cases of exceptional importance
(such as the Powers case, the case of especially large m1s-
appropriations tried in Kirghizia, and similar c1ses of
national importance). It acts as a court of second instJ.nce
(a court of cessation~ for district and fl~ets' n:iUtary
'tribunals.
. The Supreme Court of the USSR exercises supervision
over the judicial activity of the courts of the USSR and
 ~hoseof the. union republics within .the limitsafixed by law
~nd exercises organisational guidance .o f the military ,.tri...
buna]s. It has the right to initiate -legisl~tion . , .
The Supreme Court of the USSR is elected by the
Supreme Soviet of the USSR for a term of five years and'
is accountable to it, and in intervals between sessions, to
the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet.
The cb.ainnen of the supn;me courts of the union re~
publ-ics are ex-officio 1nembers of the Supreme Court of.1
the USSR. The present SuprenTe Court of the USSR was<
elected in April 1962; it-consists of r6 justices (includiqg)
tl~e Chairman of the Court and his .two deputies) . . and 4S-~
people's assessors. Ex-officio members are the r 5 chair~:
n1en of the ~upreme courts of the union .republics. . '~
It functions as the following bodies: the judicial colle-
giutn for civil cases, the judicial . collegium for criminal
cases, the military collegium, and the plenary session of"
the Supreme Court.
The collegiums for civil and criminal cases . hear as,
. courts of first instance exceptionally important civil.. and
crin1inal cases placed in their ~ juris~iction by the law;, th~y
also examine by way of supervisiol.1 protests filed by .th.e-
Cha irmall Of the Supreme Court,. the Proc;u.rator-General
of t.he US~R or their .deputies against judg~ments or sen-
tences by the supreme courts of the unio11 republics wher(,_:::.
the . judge1nen ts or sentences are in conflict. with all-Union-
1egis1ation or they infringe the interests of other union~.
republics. .
The military col~egium he~ts in the capadty of a court
of firs:t instanee exceptiona:lly important cases, cases or
crin1es con1mitted by high officers of the armed forces,
such as generals and admirals, also -commarrders of forma--:
tions and higher and those put <;>n \he same footing. .
The military collegium hears appeals from and protests
against sentences of military tribunals of districts and~
fleets, of grq,uns of ,,forces, and 6'( individual armies . By '
way of judicial supervision it examines protests filed b y.
the Chairman of the .Supreme C9J:i.t~ . o.fth~ l).SSR or the.j
Pr?curator-General of the USSR .or .their deputies, also .bf~
 the chairman of the :M ilitary Collegium or the Chief tvlili-
tary Procurator against sentences and decisions of military
tribunals of military districts and fleets.
The P1 enary Meeting of the Supreme Court examines
protests filed by the Chairman of the Supreme Court of
the USSR or the Procurator-General of the USSR against
decisions, sentences and rulings of the judicial collegiums,
and decisions of the supreme courts of the unio11 republics
\vhere they are in conflict with all-Union legislation or in
violation of the interests of other union republics. The
Plenary Meeting also examines materials generalising judi-
cial practice and materials used in making up judicial
statistics and gives courts elucidations as to the application
of al!-Union legislation in, hearing cases. It may submit
to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR re-
presentations on questions requiring legislation and on the
interpretation of USSR laws. and it settles disputes between
judicia] organs of union republics .
Guiding elucidations which are based on the results of
generalisation and study of judicial practice and analysis of
judicial statistics, are of great importance for orienting the
activity of the judicial bodies of th= USSR and of the union
republics, for the proper application of legislation in hearing
cases, and help to establish a uniform practice f,or all c~urts
in the USSR.

IV
The purpose of criminal procedure is the speedy and
complete disclosure of crirnes, exposure of the guilty and
th~ guarantee of the correct applkation of the law so that
every pers~n vvho commits a crime shall suffer just punish-
ment and no innocent berson shall be held criminallv liable
and convicted . No orie tnay be held as an accused" except
on grounds and in the manner established by the law.
During the Stalin cult period the democratic principles
of legal procedure were grossly violated, and the Party
frankly, and straightfon,ardly told of the distortions
which took place in that period, holding that the people
. .....
qo

should know about it so as never again to permit a repeti-

tion of such things. ., ~
Since eliminating the evil consequences of the per-
sonality cult the Communist Party of the Sov~et Union has
seen to it that the democratic principles of)egal procedure
are rigidly adhered to, forcefully emphasising that legality
in the activity of judicial bodies is a basic requirement for
.the ad1ninistration of socialist justice .
.
En~uring the inviolability of the person and strict ob-
servance of the law are the following basiC legal norms :
No perso:n n1ay ~be placed under arrest except l?Y decision
of a court or with the sanction of a procurator: no one
.n.1ay be found guilty and subjected to- a. criminal pe~al.t:J
except by sentence of a court; all citizens are equal before
~he la\v and the court; judicial pro~eedings are conducted
in the language which the persons partiCipating in the tri.al
understand ; cases are heard in public ; and the accused
has the right to defenc.e:
Guaranteeing obj~ctive decisions in criminal and civil
.cases is that judges make thei:(decision only in accordance
with their inner conviction: on the 'basis of the law and
in st~ict conformity <with . the facts in the case as
established by the cou:r,t. No one, neither .state nor
public establishments, nor officials may order courts or
recomn1end' to them to hand down a particul.a r verdict in
a concrete criminal or civil case. The independence of
judges and their subordination only . to the law is a
constitutional principle. Guarantee]ng the . independence
of judges and their subqrdination onJy to the law are the
special . regulations rrovided' by law for holding judges
crin1inally liable or for taking disciplinary action against .
.the1n for misdemeanours. . :,: - -
. Judicial proceedings are conducted in. the language of
th~ union republic or. autonomous republic, and where
the constitutions of union and autonon1ous republics
provjde for it, in the language of--the -national area or in
the language.of theo- majority of the population of the
d.istrict ; persons not knowing the language axe guaranteed
the opportunity of fully acquainting themselves vvit.h the
inaterial of the case through an interpreter. and likevvjse
 the right to use their own language in court. Infringe-
ment of these rules will cause the setting aside of the
sentence.
'
t
Soviet law makes it incumbent on the court, procura-
tor, investigator, and .the person conducting the inquiry
to make sure that the investigation of all the facts in the
case is comprehensive, complete and .objective, and that
the aggravating as well a~ the extenuating circumstances
are brought out.
The court. procurator and investigator have no right
to put the burden of proof on the accused. It is. forbidden
to force the accused to give testimony by the use of
violence, threa~s or ~:my other illegal means.
The rights and duties of participants in a trial are
precisely defined by law . .
The accu~ed has the right to offer explanations in
respect of the charges preferred against him and present
evidence; to present motions ; to ac;:quaint himself witlt
all the material of the case on the termination of the -
preliminary investigation ; to have defence counsel ; to
challenge ; and to appeal from actions and decisions of
the investigating offic~!' the procura~or or the court.
Before the court . sitting begins, the court must giv~
the accused the opportunity for preparing his defence.
The court is charged with the duty of handing the accused
a copy of the indictment not less than three days before
the case comes up for trial. This enables the accused to
find out exactly what he is charged with and the evidence
offered to prove the charges. Failure to hand him a copy
of the indictment, or tardiness in handing it to him, is
regarded as a gross violation of his right to defence, and
the verdict pronounced by the court where such violations
exist is to be set aside.a
At the hearing of a case in a sitting of the court the
accused has the same procedural rights as the other
partidpants in the trial to present evidence, take part in
examining it.. and to offer motions, ~nd he has the right
to .the last plea.
 At trials before a court of first instance,' cases an
heard with the participation of the accused. " The trial o1
a case without the presence of the accused, excep~ in
cases provided for by law, is a gro~s procedural v iolation
and will cause the setting aside of the verdict.
Defence counsel is allowed to participate in the case
as soon as the accused is informed that the preliminary
investigation has been completed and has been handed alJ
'the n1ater~al of the case for acquainting himself w ith it. .
: .. wh~re the p~rsons .charged with the commission pf ~
.Crime are minors, or persons who ~eca,use of physical or
mental defidendes are unable to exercise their righ~ to
.defend .themselves, the defending . couns~l is. permitte4' to
t'a ke part from the time the charge is preferred.
Defence counsel is either retained by .the accused or i~
.appointed by the. court where such a request is made by
,.the accused.
From the moment the defence counsel is permJtted to
participate in the . case he has the right. to interview th~
accuse9 ; to acquaint himself with all the mat~ria l of the
case and copy out needed informati9n ; to offer evidence ;
to present n1otions; to participate in the court examina:.
.tion ; and -make challen'ges ; to lodge complaints .against
.actions and decisions of .the inve~tigator~ procurator and
court. \rVith the sanction of the investigator, the defence
.-<;ounsel _n1ay be present during the interrogation of the
.accused and during other acts ofinvestigation carried out
at the re.quest of the accused or counseJ.~ The accused
m~y r_~tain any law)rer to. defend him, and the laWyer,
once he has undertaken to act as counsel, may not
withdraw from the case. . . .. . . . . .....
Article 23 of the Fundamentals of Criminal Proc;e4ure
. for the .USSR, the union and autonomqus republic's provides
that defence counsel is duty bound to employ all ways
and means envisaged by the la\v .to bring out the cir-
cumstances exone.rqting the accused or . n1itigating his
:liabi1ity' and 'to give him the necessary legal _aid . . Partici-
pation by defence counsel in a trial is an important
 guarantee of a )ust verdict. \,Yhen a lawyer defends his
odient; argues against unfounded charges, he thereby helps
to ~"Stab!ish the truth.
0
e
The procurator participates in the administrative
sessions of the court and the sittings of the court during
the hearing of criminal and civil cases, conducts the pro-
secution on behalf of the state, and starts and supports
civil actions in court. Procurators exercise supervision
to ensure that sentences, judgements, rulings and decisions
of judicial bodies are legal and are well-founded, and that
sentences are carried out, by filing appropriate protests
:with the higher courts. .
.
The law guarantees .the rights of the accused in the
later stages of a criminal trial too. The law hoids it
inadmissible to increase the punishment of the accused or
to apply to him a law covering a graver crime when the
case is reviewed by a court to ces~ation or by way of
supervision.
.
A review by way of supervision of a verdict of guilty,
or ruling or decision of the court on the ground th:1t the
penalty was too mild or that it was necessary to apply to
the convicted person a .Jaw covering a graver crime. and
likewise a review of a verdict of acquittal or an order or
decision of the court to quash the case is permitted. only
within one year from the time they have come. into force .
In a11 courts cases are heard in public except 1vhere
state secrets are involved. Other cases that may be heard
in camera are those which concern crimes committed by
persons under the age of r6, sex crimes, and cases where
it is deemed necessary to prevent the spread of informa-
tion on the intimate sides of the lives of those concerned
in the case; in all these cases the court must state in its
decision that this is the reason for holding the hearing in
camera. Verdicts in all cases are pronounced in public.
The hearing of cases in public places the actiYity of
the court under the control of the .broad masses of the
working people and favours the performance by the court
of its major function, that of education.
\
 v
Under Soviet criminal law a penalty is not merely a.
punishment for the crime committed; it also has :.fou its
purpose the reform and re-educ~tiqp. ~f ~onvict_ed .Per$Ons.
and the prevention of further cri.ll?-e both on the part of
those convicted and on the part of other persons.
Punishment is not int~J)ded to inflict physical suffering or
'denigrate hu1nan ,ciig!fity: ~
... \

The law provides the f~llowing types of punishment.;;

for penal offences: <;:orrective labour without depriva~onj
:of liberty ; fines ; public ~ensure ;. exile ; banishment:.]
deprivation of the right to occupy certain posts or engage :_j
in certain actiVity; anq deprivation of liberty. MeP1bers j
.' of the armed forces on regular service m~y be sent to a~
disciplin~ry b;:tttalion. . - . 1
J
A sentence of deprivation of - li~;ty may not exceed ~:~
a term o{ ro years. except for especially grave cr~mes and :~
for particularly dangerous habitual criminals, in which ~:
cases the sentence J!1ay . run to 15 y~~rs. . However, ,
where the person was under the age of I 8 wpen he com~
mitted the crime, he may not be senten~ed for more than
. IO. yea!S . . .
Soviet Iegis1atfon "has given up the imposition of
exceptionally long term$ of depriyation of liberty as that
does not sfCrve the purpose of reforming those who have
com.1nitted a crime.
Widely employed in judicial . practice are . suspended ..
~entences; where the court, in fix!ng ~he penalty a1L
:depriyatiQn of liberty or corrective labour, and .takingr-
into consideration the 'facts ~'in the case and the character ;
.o! the guilty person deems it inexpedient to have him .
serve the sentence, it wi~l suspend : the .~entence. -The
'Sentence will not. have to be served at all if the' con.. ;
victed person does not commit again a similar criminal .
off~nce or one no less grave within a probationary period ~,
fixed by the court. __. . ,. . . ,:
To indicate how widely ~usp-e~ded sentences are '-1
.given the follow~ng figures are- offered : .{n Byelorussi~ ~f
., :suspended sentences last year made up 12.4 per cent of
total sentences p~~sed in cases with a preliminary investi-
gation, and in the Lithu~_nian SSR, 14.5 per cent.
([

Until such time as capital punishment is totally

abolished, Soviet law permits the imposition of a sentence
of death by shooting, as an exceptional measure, for the
. grave crin1es of high treason; espionage, sabotage, ter-
ro.dst acts, banditry, and premeditated murder under
aggravating circumstances.
Under legislation passed in 1961 and 1962 a death
sentence may be .passed by courts for e~pecially large
misappropriations of state or public property ; taking
bribes under aggrav~ting circumstances; counterfeiting
or violating of regulations .covering foreign currency opera-
tions involving large sum~ or <;lealing in foreign currency
as a business ; rC\pe under 4ggravating circumstances ; .
attempts at disorganisation in places where particularly
dangerous habitual criminals and persons convicted of
grave crimes are confined, connected with attacks on
officials or convicts who are sincerely reforming for the
purpose of terrorising them ; and . attempts on the life
members of the militia or of the voluntary public order
squads.
Under laws in force, the death sentence may not be
passed on persons under the age of I 8 at the time the
crime is committed or on women who are pregnant at
the time the crhne is con1mitted or at the time the
sentence is passed. Nor can a death sentence be carried
out in the case of a woman who is pregnant at the time
.set for its execution.
The enactn1ent of legislation broadening somewhat the
application of the death penalty was needed for \vaging
a determined -struggle against manifestations of crime
which have become especially intolerable in the present
conditions of development of the Soviet state. The publi-
cation of these enactments is designed primarily to serve
as a warnil).g.
In fixing a greater liability for particularly large
misappropriations, violatjon of regulations covering

v
foreign currency operations by. dealing in such cu-rrency;
as a business or involving large sum~. and for . btibery
under aggravating circumstances, Soviet legislation has in:
view criminal acts which, whi.le ~ctually rarely met with,
are highly dangerous and refined. crimes committed by
inveterate criminals.
. : Misappropriation of state or.. public-. property is nq~.
j1,1st an ' economic ' crime ; it is a: very grave crime again$.
the people, for jt undermines the very foundation of .t~.
socialist sy~tem. . . j
The crin1inal activity of organisers of misappropriati~ , ft
of socialist property is especially dangerous because th~ _.:
draw in morally unstable persons ro work with the ~
bribe officials, and bring in eleme11-ts of demoralisation(
the economic and government~'} apparatus. .-.:~
. ' . . . . t,i.:
A .s tudy of concrete cri~minal ,cases has shown that t~ n-~:~
organisers of hirge :rqisappropria~ions are morally degr~d-. :., .
renegades, not infrequently convkted in the pas~
for similar or other grave crimes, p~ople . who resort tg~
forged ..documents, fr.aud and bribery and disdain ~~
machinations to accomplish their criminal ends, who in' 1:~-n

a number
.
of cases "have robbed
,.
the state, collective Jar . ~1.1.;

and consumers over .many years. . ~~~

~ .. . t: '
Persor.1s sentenced to deprivation of lib'erfy serve thei~~. -~.
sentence in corrective labour . colonies, and those under
~ 8 in labour colonies for juveniles: Deprivation . 9~
'liberty by way of imprisonment . may be imposed .by tl:l~
court_only on those wh9 have committed ~- grave crim'{l
or. OR particularly dangerous habit~aL .C!iininals .and. su~k1J
persons who have served not less than half the term of)
their sentence may, if their behaviour has been exemplary:<~
have their imp:risonment commuted to detention. in .
colony by order of t~e cou~t: . , . .. .
Con~icts serv)ng their ~ehtence in ~ corrective l~b~,
colony or in pri?on are pu.t on productive work, le~i"'
a trade .and _a ttend general educational courses. The.~
may send -money out of. .the~r earnings for the suppo .
of thei.r family. After serving .their s~ntence they t~~~
up a_hfe of honest labour. Local SoVIets and econom11~
 ..
bodies are charged with finding jobs for them and helping
th~m get fixed up.~

c As a result of the character training they get in

colonies or prison and the influence exerted by the
collective of the_ir place of w9rk, it is rare for released
convicts to commit a fresh crime.
In cont~ast to some Western countries, there is
practically no organised professional crime in the Soviet
Union. Cases of recurring commission of crimes
. following release are comparatively rare.. In judicial
practice we have not come across any gangster organisa-
: tions, proficient bands qf robbers ~nd ravishers.
Very important for reforming and re-educating crimi-
nal offenders is the suspended sentence or commutation
of a sentence, )'Vhere the ~ convicted person has by his
exemplary behaviour and honest attitude toward work
iproved that he has reformed.
I
~ Persons convicted for a crime committed when they
!were under r8 may be. released afte:r serving a third of
ttheir sentence. and others after serving half or two-thirds
:of their sentence, depending on the nature and gravity
of the crime. r

Functioning .under local Soviets are supervisory com-

missions, made up of representatives of public organisa-
tions, to keep an eye on the conditions in which convicted
persons are kept in places of deprivation of liberty, to
help officials of corrective labour colonies carry on char-
acter training work among the convicts, and help released
convicts find jobs and get fixed up.

Supervisory commissio~s have the right to recommend

convicts for release before termination of their sentence
or to commutation.
Playing an important role in the re-education of con-
~victs is the patronage exercised over corrective-labour
olonies by factories and collective farms. Factory
,ollectives arrange lectures for the convicts and talks on
 <~-G>
. ;,7f'

. c..
~opics of rhe d~y, aJ:!.q help the. colony 4nd prison adm~TI-:
istrations organise cultural activity apd :vocationakr tr4in
i~g. After serving their sentence many of the convit:t5
find work in the plant, state farms or collective fan11
~hich exercises patronage over the corrective labq~r
colony in which they served their sentep.~e .
. Thus, the Soviet state, through the whole system of
ll!e4s;u;res car-rkd o:ut by govern~eq.t ~9di~s and pub,
orgap.isations, ende~vours t.o . }].~ve .ev~ty person who
~omiJ.iitted a crirp.e prove by conscien~ious )abour
~~efflplary. bepaviou.r ' wl~He ~ery~ng his .s~p.tence that '.
P-:as ' reforme~ (}!}d. t~~~ 'his p}~c.e ~~ (} col~~c~tve and .
himself to honest labour. Th~ q~ors ar~ not c~osed
to those serving sentences for the comrriission of a
..crime ; they can go bac\< to tp:e .copectiy~ ~nd to t
f~mily.

. V:l. .
Elected on a democratic basis, Soviet courts are
supported in all or' their activity by public organisati
..and c,e.llecdves of wo.:rking peqpJe. : .. : :
Th~ eP.ucatiqnal sign~~ca~ce of judicial activity
~n~ured by the fact ,rhat all .c~ses are }J.e~rd in public,
par~icipation of people's 'assessprs, and the more
and important cases are heard by the court in sitd
held at "the factory' collective farm or ot4er establish u.'-'~l'!fll
where the crilne was committed. :.The press .. radio
television are used extensively :to report and
ion the trials: In 196i, for example, 24.8 per. cent of
'Criminal cases tried in~ the Kazakh: Republic were
in <~mtside s~ttings. an? in . the Ukrainiari.SSR 2.6.4 per v'-'~ ,11];:~
.

Legislation of. the USSR ~ng .o~ r~~ ~nion ~ep1J

provide for representatives of 'publi'c :organisations to
f~I?}F~~~ by th~ -COl.l_!t to part.i.~i.p~~e ~n ~b,e trial .as
prpse~utors or p~phc qefenq~r~; vyher_ e .~~cl1 a :request
made by the public organisations. ! :

Where a particular' collective -is interested in a

the tfade"llD:ion, Komsomol and other p~blic organisa
of the plant, office or other establishment, as the
may be, choose at a gerieral meeting a ..public '""'"o.o~ T'\
-

fro.m among their fellow workers with t4e best reptita

 ,
The collective acquaints itself with the nature of the crime
committed .bY their fellow worker, hears what he has to
say ab,r;>ut it, if he is not in custo_d y, also vyhat people who
kn0-vv him have to say about him and also listen to a report
~rom a :r_-eprese~tative of the procurator's Office and then
decide what attitu,de to take to the cri~inal offence com-
mitted and to the offender.
1 The public prosecutor has the right to offer evidence,
[: take part in examining evidence, present motioas and
{make challenge, participate in the pleadings, tell the court
n~is opinion as to whether ~he charges have been proved
~- and as to the social danger of the prisoner at the bar and
~ of what he has done. He may express his vi~w as to the
[. application of the criminal law and the penalty to be
\imposed and as to other questions involved in the case.
The public defender has the right to offer evidence,
l take part in examining evidence, present motions and
[;m~ke challe_nges_, pa~ti:ipate in the 'p~eadir:gs, tell the
~court what m h1s op1n10n are extenuating circumstances
or circumstances calling for an acquittal, or why he
thinks a milder penalty should be imposed, or the sentence
suspended, or the defendant discharged, or ask that the
defendant be turned over to the custody of the collective
in whose behalf he, the public defender, appears.
'
In 1962, a public prosecutor appeared in r r.5 per cent
of aJl cases heard in Estonian courts and r 2 9 per cent in
Ukrainian courts, and public defenders appeared in 6 .2
per cent of the cases heard by courts in the Turkmen
R_epub1ic, 6.9 per cent in the Mo1davian Republic, and 99
per cent in the Estonian Republic.
Laws of the USSR and of the union republics provide
or turning over an accused to the custody of public
rganisations or collectives of working people. Where
' petition to that effect is submitted, the court, the pro-
urator's Office, the investigator, or the militia (with the .
. ns_e nt of the procurator) have the right to quash a
'iminal case with respect to persons who have co,mmitted
crime not constituting a great social danger and who
ave sincerely repented. In such case, the accused whose
cases have been quashed an~ turn~d over to tlfe-custody
the public organisations or collectives of u;vorking .
which have submitted the petition, for the re-educa
and reform of the accused. ., 0
..
: ..The public organ.isadon or: collective of working .:..
takes tht steps needed for re-educati~g . them~ . . , .
. ~ . . .
Testifying to the positive effect of this form: of
educating law-breakers and prevention of crime i~ .
fact that of the nu1nber of persons turned over by
(?r investigating bodies to t~e custody of public or
tions only r. I per cent were convicted by peopl_e'$.
in i 96 I for the commission of a fresh crime, arid o.5
tent in I 962~ according to the statistics for the latter
The S~viet court is not me~ely a state agency of
ercion ; it 'is also an agency of education ; it has been
the task of co~bining measures of coercion with
of persuasion, and is supp~rted in i~s activity by
forms of public cooperation.
. Besides hearing cases, judicial W,<?rkers report on t
work to the population,.deljver lectures' on legal .
and talks on the state .of crime in the particular
~own and the measures taken to combat it. In 19
people's. judges made 60,~98 reports and delivered 204,
lectures and talks o~ legal subjects .
..
Vll
. In combattihg crime the Soviet ~tate _proceeds frorn t
proposition tha.t it is better to prevent 'crime th~n to
po$e criminal penalties-and reform the law~breaker ;
in line with this: side by side with provision for pu
Itlent, . the public, colle~tives of the wqrking . people;
widely enlisted to help comba~ c_ri~~ .
in
: P~rticipation of the publi<;_ t~e . struggle
?reaches of public order and amoral deeds varies grea
1n form. There are the voluntary public order. squ
comrades-'. courts, commissions for the -affairs .of min
and so on. .. .
 Public order squads are voluntary bodies made up .of
foremost factDry and office workers at plants, offices, and
house managements, and collective farmers, and they
carry on considerabJ.e preventive and educational activity.
Their method is persuasion, and they take measures to
' prevent breaches of public order.
Playing an important role in the struggle against
violations of labour discipline, an1oral deeds and law-
breaking are the comrades' courts, which the great Lenin,
founder of the Soviet state, called ' proletarian courts of
honour.'
These courts hear cases of violation of labour dis-
cipline, of unworthy conduct in public pla~es or at work,
of unbecoming attitude towards parents or towards
women, of failure to perform one's duties in respect of
bringing up children, of insults. and of other anti-social
actions . for none of whicl). criminal . liability attaches.
Comrades' courts Inay apply the .following Ineasures .
to those found guilty: make them publicly apologise to
the injured person or to the collective ; issue a comradely
warning; issue a public reprimand with or without
publication in the press ; impose a fii?e not exceeding ro
roubles, provided the c:rction did not involve violation of
labour .discipline. A comrades' court may decide that
the hearing of tl)e case in public is enough and will not
apply any of the measures if the guilty p~rson has
sincerely repented, publicly apologises to the collective
or the injured party and voluntarily makes good the dam-
age inflicted.
Comrades' courts function on the basis of a special
statute, are elective public bodies and their task
is actively to help in educating people. Their principal
task is to prevent law-breaking and actions harmful to
society, to educate people through persuasion and public
influence, to create an atmosphere, of intolerance toward
any and all anti-social acts.
For prevention of law-breaking by those under age,
implementation of Ineasures for combatting' neglect of
minors, for fixing up children and juveniles and protecting
.a-~J.
their . rights, commissi'oris. for ~11~ affairs .of tnin"qrs ..are
formed to functi'6n under the -executive oommittees of
district, town, territorial arid' regional' SoVie.ts ; they are
~~sed on wlde parti'dpati9n by the public: .They are t.ilade
i.lp of representatives <?f the tfad : urii'~ns, . ~omsomol ' and
other public organisation's', of educa:tiohal', health, socia~
maintenance workers, and work~rs of the Public Order
Minist.ry.
. :.. The commissions', working joiridy . wit:h' p\Ib1ic edlica~.:
ticn1 agencies and with th.e p~rticipatfori .of the. public~ ,~
seek out children and juveniles requiring state and public
aid, and juveniles who nave left school and do not work,
find jobs for then1 qr send them back to sc_hool, boarding,
school or children's home; they also help parents iri ,
bringing- up children. The commissions k~ep an ~y~ on.:
the behaviour of minors following their .return from:;,
special character-training institutions or spec~al health and:;
edu.cational institutions, or from a labour colony ~fter !
$erving their sentence,; they keep an eye too on those ;
who h.ave re~eiveq a suspended sentence, or 4-ave been''.:
released qefore the . expiration of their sentence~ giving..i
_them needed help in their ~hara~ter training. ::
. : -~
The commissions , may bring influenc~ to bear on~~
parents or guardians who fail to give proper attention :1
to the upbringing of tli:e childr'eri, who create conditions
favouring .law-breaking by the children or juveniles.
The commissions are charged -w ith hearing .cases of
_minors under 16 who commit socially dangerous acts':
They have the. right to ask ~he court not -to -impose a
penalty, to suspend s~nten~e or to apply a.milder penalty,
or to . expunge a conviction before the expiration of the
term, or to release the minor before he has served the.
full sentence, or to commute the sentence:: .
Measure_s of an educational' and. preventive ' nature,.
against those who violate tlie niles of the socialist com-~:
Inunity are carried out also by__ st~nding commissions of .;
lpcal Soviets, factory and local trade union committees, ;
parents' . corflmittees co-operating with schools, boards o(~
trustees of children's homes and boarding .schools. street ::;
 and house committees, and many other independent
organisation:s of the working people.
~Recent years have withnessed the passage, at the re
' quest of the wo_'rking people, following an extensive dis
cussion in the press, of a law for combatting idlers and
parasites. Persons doing no socially useful work may
be banished from the town or village in which they live,
by order of a people's court, or a court made up of a
collective of fellow citizens t.o make them go to 'Nark.
These measures a:re not criminal penalties, and their appli-
cation is not counted as a conviction and does not entail
any other restriction of ;ights following banishm.ent.
Much attention is given by courts and the Soviet
public to doing away with the causes of and the conditions
making for crime; they proceed from the proposition that
a person is not born a criminal.
Soviet society can, .by exerting its efforts, eradicate
the causes giving rise to crit:ne in our country, as they
do not lie in the conditions of out society but are con~
ditioned by the shortcomings in our educational work,
the negative survivals of the past, and the still persisting
consequences of the . war.
The further rise in material seturity, advance of the
cultural standard and social consciousness envisaged by
the programme of the Communist party of the Soviet
Union will make it possible to eradicate crime and
eventually to replace state measures by measures of public
influence and education.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ASKED AFTER LECTURE

r . How many appeals are taken from sentences and

judgements of courts t>f first instance and how many
sentences an~ judge1nents are set aside ?
Answer : The records show that in I 962 appeals
were taken or protests filed in roughlY, 35 per cent of the
sentences and 8 per cent of the iudgements ' pronounced.
In 2o per cent of the criminal and civil cases heard by way
 of cassation or superv1s1on on appeal or on protest. the
. sentence or judgement was reversed;. but mamly modified
or the case was sent back to the lower court for a new
trial. . ~

2. Please explain the provision of the law with

reference to the application of capital punishment to
pregnant women : is a death sentence executed after the
birth of the child ?
. .
Answer : Soviet legislation provides that a sentence
of death may not be passed on women who are pregnant
at the time the crime is committed or at the time sentence
is passed. Neither may a death sentence be carried out
in the case of a woman who is pregnant at the time the
sentence is to be e:X:e~uted. In general, I cannot recall a
single instance of a wdinan bei1:1g sentenced to death in
our country. And if there were cases here and there of
a court of first instance hnposing a sentence of death by
shooting, the higher court, as a rule, substituted depriva-
tio~ of liberty for' shooting. Such substitution could also
take place in the case . of a commutation -of. the sentence
by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of a ~nion republic
. or of the USSR.
_ 3 What do you t}link of the jury system, which is
found in a number of countries ?- . ..
Answer.: The judicial system in the Soviet Union is
fashioned- differently fron1 that in capitalist countries.
We have no jurors, who decide only .whether the accused
is guilty or not guilty and whether th~ defendant deserves
a ~ilder penalty or not. People's assess9rs decide not
rner.e ly 'Yhether or .no~ th~ defendant is g\lilty ; they have
a voice in deciding all other"questions to be se~tled by the
court: qualification of the crime committed, the penalty
to be imposed after . taking into . account the
facts of the case and the persqnality of the accused,
whether a sentence should be . su'spended, . and so on.
P_eople's ass~ssors in the USSR are vested .w ith far greater
:tghts than JUrors; they enjoy the same rights as the judge
1n the hearing of .criminal and ci.i1 cases -and in passing
sentence and in pronouncing judgement. . .:.
 4 Hov~ n1uch "tin1e passes het"V~;een tt1c (Ql1111li.ssion of
a crime, i~s solution, institution of criminal proceedings, '
detention in jail and execution of the sentence ?
J .
Answer: ln the Soviet Union no one may be placed
under arrest except with the sanction of a procurator or
by decision of a court" and the longest one may be kept in
custody 'vhile t4e case is being investigated .is two m9nths.
Ip exceptional case,s the Procurator General of the USSR
1nay extend the time: but for no more than nine months
in all. This, however, happens rather seldOiii.. Fixed by
law too is the tin1e within which civil or criminal trials
have to be started.
~tshould. be stated, that some crin1e~ are solved a long
time after they have been committed, and occasionally a
crime remains unsolved. Sometimes there is a delay in
headng a case in court, but as a. rule, the investigation and
trial of C?Ses are managed within the time fixed by the
law. The law also has fixed the time within which as
.appeal may be taken from a sentence passed in a criminal
case seven days, and from a judgement pronounced ill: a
<:ivil case ro days. Where a sentence or judgement is
affirmed by a higher court it is ready to be carried out.
5 What per c~nt of the judges participating in the
trial of cases have a legal education ?
Answer: The 749 per cent of the people's judges I
spoke of have a higher legal education, and the rest have a
special secondary education or have acquired a legal
training by taking courses in law during their long service
:in organs of justice.
6. Does the concept of plaintiff and defendant exist in
.Soviet law ?
Answer: Soviet law envisage the concept of plaintiff
and defendant. A praintiff is a person who seeks from a
<:ourt the protection of his rights. lt may be a physical
person, that is, a private citizen, or a juridical person,
t.h at is, an enterprise, office or institution, or an organisa~
tion. A defendant too n1ay be a physical or juridical
!Person \vho ~as infringed the rights of a private citizen,
 enterprise, office or institution or orgahis~t~on arid <against
whom an action has been .started in a court. ~
.
.

. .

.
... 1. .... . #

. 7.- There are many women ap1ong ~oviet judges. DO>

s~ntences passed by courts presided over by women, who
are stricter, differ from sentences~- passed by court~.
piesided over by men ?
Answer : As a representS'ltive of the masculine half-
of the hu~an r?ce I can say that in. hearing cases and
passing sentences women judges, I believe, are more _alert
thari we~ men ; they thoroughly consider the facts in the
case, catch the finest points, . and pass sentences in stric~
accordance with the law. Many cases iri whiCh J11ii?-ors
are involved are heard by_courts presided over oy w_d men
judges. Women j,udges hear cri'n1irlat ~and civil cases and
they deCide tf.lem in conformity with tlfe ta:vy. .,
_8. Does Soviet legjslation. perr:ni~ .i he appli~?ttion of.
a la.w r~troactiveiy and how, and doe~ . the principle of
limitation op~rate ?
Answer: Article 6 _of the Fundan1ent~ls oi" Criminal'
Legislation for the USSR and the union rep"ublits provides<
that .the .crimina-lity of an act an~ .liability to pu:h.ishment .
are d~termined by the law operative at .tpe time the act is:
cmnmitted : a law removing punishability of an act or
reducing the penalty for it ., is retroactive, that .is, is:
applicable also to acts committed before its publ~cation.
But a law instituting punishment for an :.act or increasing
the penalty for it is not retroactive. . Courts strictly abide
by this principle.
._~.
...
There have been isolated cases in which couits have-
applied . a law . retroactively, buf only Where in the
particular case the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the:....
USSR had passed a decision giving the GO~rt the 'i:ight 'fo~
apply ~he ,law retroactively to a parti<~:u.la:~(p,ersori Who has :__
committed a.n ,especially gra~e crime ... ~~t t~e. e:o_qrts Q.ict
nqt exercise .(nis. right in all .cases.. The Jaw was :applie~
retroactively in respect of a few p~f.~ons who had
.misapproprfated,especiaJly_large amounts qf s~ate. property: :
or who had engaged 'in. jllicit deals in for~ign currency on.~ .
. a :particularly large scale.
 )

Under the pdncipl~ of limitation established by Soviet

l:1w criminal proceedings may not be instituted against a
person after the lapse of certain periods folloWing the
commission of the criine ; the periods are fixed by law in
accordance with the term of the penalty provided for by
the law for the crin1e committed. The minimum
limitation fixed by USSR legislation is three years, and the
maximum Io years. Un~on republics may,. fix shorter
.time limits for cert~in types of crimes. For example, the
. minimum period fixed by the Criminal Code of the RSFSR
is one year. The limitation does not operate where the
person who has committed a crime remains in hiding from
investigation or tria.J. But at the same time the law
provides that such a. person cannot be held cdm.inally
liable if I 5 years have passed from the day the cdn1e was
committed and he has committed no fresh cdme during
th~s period. There is a statute of limitation coverhlg the
e xecution of a sentence too. ' The question of the
applicability of the statute of limitation to a person
sentenced to death is decided by the court, and in the
event the court does not find it possible to apply the
statute, the death sentence is commuted to deprivation of
liberty.
9 With reference to .the law on idlers, could you give
the figures on how many persons were b~nished from
Moscow in 1961-62. Can these people appeal from the
decision rendered in their case and where ?
Answer: It should be stated that the law covering
parasi~ic . elements, idlers, persons who shun socially
useful labo~r has for its purpose to get people not ~ngaged
in socialJy..u?eful l~pour to go to work. The law provides
for ba_nis~i.ng idlers fqr a peripd of from two to .five years .
where the person qanished proves by his exemplary
behaviour and honest attitude to work th~t he has
refOtll?ed he may, on the petition of public organisationS,
be freed before the expiration of his term . In the place
of their banishment these people are not restricted in their
rights ; they iust have to work, and' on the expiration of
the term of banishment they may return to their former
p1ace of residence. The bulk of the idlers are banished by
decision of a people's court.
 The preveritiv~ v~lu'e of this law is :show~ by th~ fact
that many 'idlers went to Worl< arip lbe q uestion bf
banishing them. ceased to- exist. The law provides that
before a person Ic:ading a: paraslti.c lif~ may be bc;tnished
he has to be admonished to find ~ job an_d is given ,a tfrri~
limit for it, and if necessary he will b~ helped to find work.
Where banishment is unwarran~ed, on a protest fi1~d by
a procurator by way of supervision a higher: court or the
ex~cutive committee of the partiular Sqviet re-examine
the decision taken and where t4ere are good grounds
therefor set the decision aside.
. . '

. . I .am unable to furnish figures on the number of persons

ordered to be banished from Moseow. The number is
small ,. as the-overwhelmingmajorityof. able-:bodiedpersons
who were not working went to work. after being ..
warned.
. .
. I O. Are there statistics indicating a difference in the
nature of crime in the .d}fferent union. republics -a nd how
it differs ?
'
Answer : Statistics by .republics indicate that there
are . differences in . the nature ' of. . crime in particular
republics. In the Central Asian republics, for instance,
offences o~cur which are not 'found in the other union
repulblics ; we have reference to offences stemming from
the feudal attitude towards women-.a painful survival of
.the past. Illicit distillation of liquor is more prevalent in
some districts of the RSFSR, and -of the . Ukrainian and
Byelorussian republics. Law-break_ing .is met with more
often in newly develqping industrial ~entres_than in older
and se~tled communities. This is .'largely , to: be. .explained
by tl)e fact that it takes time for new commun'i'ties-to have
a settled population, as the people "rriving JO Work ther~
dp. not . immediately get fixed . tlp . 'comfortably, and
sometimes live for long separated ,frqm th.eir. f~milies , . _. In
studying the causes of ap.d con~itio_ps contributing t<;> crime
the specific features of the particu~ar regiqn or- republi~
are taken into~account and measure~ ._ taken for eliminating
them are in keeping with. these feat_ur~? .
r r. How many appellate stages are .there? Can one
appeal from a decision of a court of appeal?
 Answer : A sentence or judgement pronounced by a
col1rt of first in~tance not appealed from or protested, or
where the appeal or protest is turned down by the higher
court, acquires legal for~e after the expiration of a specific
period of time fixed by law and is carried out. Appeals
Jnay be filed, within the time fixed by Jaw for appeals,
namely, seven days in .criminal cases and I o days in civil,
by the defendant, his relatives or defence connsel. The
appeal is examined by way of cassation, and where the
higher court finds that the sentence or judgement
pronounced by the court of first instance is proper it will
affirm it and it is ready to be carried out. But the
defendant or his lawyer may appeal to the Chairman of
the Regional Court or to the Regional Procurator, or to
the Chairman of the Supreme Court of the union republic,
or to the republic's procurator to exercise their supervisory
powers, arl'd where these find that the lower court has
erred in pronouncing the sentence or judgement they may
demand the file of the case and enter a protest with the
appropriate higher court. Where necessary the Chairman
of the Supreme Court of the USSR or the Procurator
General of the USSR files a protest with the Judicial
Collegium for Criminal or Civil Ca~es or the Plenary
Session of the USSR Supreme Court. . While there are two
main instances for appealing a case, appeals by way of
supervision may be filed also with other higher judicial
bodies.
12.Could you tell us how the number of crimes
committed in Russia after the Revolution compares with
the numbe.r committed before the Revolution ?
Ansv:er: I regret to say that I am unable to furnish
such figure:;. The nature of crime, its causes, legislation
anq mcosures for combatting crime in tsarist Russia and
1n the US.SR are entirely different. In the old days
fantastic tl1ings were. going on, such as regular bloody
battles often fought . on holidays ; in tsarist Russia
professional crime throve. 'vVe do .,not find such things
today. '
13. Th~ esteemed lecturer stated that Soviet laws.
provide fo~ re~education and not for punishment. I a1n
....J:.-0
' . .N,

a . representative of a m~rit~1ne COUP.Jry; ?lld :W~ hq~ had

cases wher~ our seatnen w ho had com.e to the Scw.-iet
# 1"' ~ J

Un'ion did not return home on tl?.eir ship b~-~~use ~h~y h?td
been ~ arrested and made answerable to the law. .What
. 1 ~ .. . 7 ... ...

. rights ' has an embassy .during the fnvestigation of su~h a

. case ? . . !' -

.' : A~swer: . Sovit:)~gisl~~iqn. h:as set th~ ta.s~ of. bot}l

.-PU11l~hing" an9 re-eqlJ.~a.ting ~he ,law-breaker, anQ. neither
.. ~~n, R.~- -~ounterpo$~<;1 t.~;>' the o~he~. We cannot n1a~c~_g.e
io/Ith~H,tf p:tJpishm~Pt~ . ~~t ~4e very ...n.ature q{ the penalty~
.hCls grr,at ~9~~a~~ona.J yal~e. ~otil~ a .collrt pass serit~~ce
-1p1posing a-n exce?siy~ly ?~vere penalty., the effect will be
. :qega,tiy~; . blJt yvh~r.~. th~ ~q~rt p_~s~~-~ - ~ j}lst se~!en<;e,
t~\dlfg iiJ.tO ~c~oun.t ..~11 .t}le facts ..bf the case a~d t~e
p~~~q.n~lity . .qf. the . ~W~.~S.~~. s~.c!l ~ ~~nte_J!Ce has. great
.. ~du<;~noP.a.l valu~. , . I.n qur s,Qc~ety .,.we P.roeed from the
.1.1a~iC.' p'pinciple th~t ~ ~~rs<;>Ii ~h~~~-~ . w~rl_<, as .b~lieve we'
..t~at lfl~6~r i$ t}1~ ~qyn9a~~~~1 of people''~ e9:cat~op. It ,:is
not ra:q~-fqr. a p~rSOI,l. "Yvh9does nqt want to work .and does
.. 11Q1 wqr.~ l~t~r ~Q t~ky,the pqth of ci-im,e. ..
. Now~ as rega~d;. fprejgri ~~a~e~.' vy~9 viqlate our laws
while their ship is in ' ~ sov..iet port. In some cases~ o.f
'COUrse, seamen have. be~n held to '!f}~yY~r to ~he l.a w, after
considering the act. they have <;6.rn,mitted: True, there .
have Qeen bhly isolat.~d cases. : YqH aH' kq.~)V that w'h:ere
a Soviet citizen commits a crime while in another countrv
}1~ is .m~de ...t.o $ips.w~r .for it un<;l.er .tq~ :l~:v o{ ~h~. co.~ritry
in which ~he .~rime .1$ cm;nmit~ed. . Foreign~rs committing
a. criminal off~nce ~n. tb,e USSR gre ahswerable under Sovit:.l:
law. In s':l~h case's embassi~s have the possiqility of
inqu~r~ng_ through the 'USSR Ministry of f oreign Aff~.i:rs or
other proper channels about the c.ase of their geq~j~~&l
na~io~~l, p etition for an intervie\i\t with -.him, proyi.q eJqr
tJ:le P.!Ote.c tion . of his rights fn the manner pre$Ctib~<;l .
~y 1~-yv-. a~d so ot:t. :': . ., , ; -.i
. 14. .Can a wqman .w hp has married a foreigner, or a ;
man who has married a foreign .woinan, get a visa for . ;
leaving the Soviet Union ? . ; i~i
. Ans~er: In stid~ cases the ~law puts soviet - and 'i
foreign citizens on an equal footing. Once the.law per~ r.
mits marriage~ between a Soviet and a foreign c1t1zen ,a
petition by a Soviet citizen for a visa to leave the USSR or
fQr a vjsa for a foreign citizen to enter the country .will
receive due consideration.- These questions are not decid-
ed by courts but by the. QSSR Ministry of Foreign Affair~
and organs of Public Order Ministries of the union
republics.
r 5. The ~ecturer has said that no one is born a crimi-
nal, b~t becol)1es one under the impact of social factors.
Does this not contradict the principle underlying the
punishment and re-education of a person who has con1mit-
ted a crime?
Answer : I think th~re are no contradictions here.
In the conditions prevailing undez:- the Soviet system the
causes of crime lie in _the _shortcomi.ngs of the educational
work and stem from the comp~ratively slow overcoming
and getdng rid of such survivals of the past as private-
property psychology, money grubbing and parasitism, the
desire to give society as little as possible and grab from
it as much as possible, and a remiss attitude to work and
public property. A high percentage. of criminal offences
are committed under the influence of liquor-another pain-
full survival of the past. For instance, some 75 per cent
of especially dangerous crimes~ such as murder under
aggravating circumstances, are committed while ih a state
of drunkenness.
r6. Are there federal courts in the RSFSR?
Answer : We do not have the concept of ' federal
courts, in our country. The RSFSR is not made up of
union republics ; it is comprised of autonomous republics,
territories and regions, and the respective courts are the
supreme courts of the autcnomous republics, the territorial
and regional courts. There is also the supreme Court of
the RSFSR, which enjoys the same rights as the supreme
'COUrts of the other .union republics. The Soviet Union is
composed of r 5 union republics, each of Nhich has its own
supreme court. The highest judicial organ of the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics is the Supreme Court of the
USSR.

VI
INTERVIEW WITfi, CHlpF JU~TI~:g Of . U~/i-. WAR~EN E':
, BURG:gR
. (i
.
.,
Q. Mr. <:::4~~ j~s!~~e, a re~e!}t G~llvp J?qll s9qw~ that
th~ f~depd juqidary g~ner<}~~y ~nd p4rticij}~rly the
Supreme Court have f~B~n in p-q:qlic e~t~em. How you .1o
account for that?
. A. cl wquld h~ve. ~o ~ay ~h~,t it is diffl~ylt ~q e~plain
~he rise pr f?~l pf miblLc apcep~gnfe C?f ~qy ~r~~ft~ti~l} ~t
~P.Y tim~. Jn~lp.din~ tlf~ coHrts . . -fo.ll +1-!~ ~n~tit4-fip~s qf
01;1r so~ie~y '}re ~P.4~r att~~~. ~P.~ t)le cpgrt~ ~r~ no~
excepted. There are many causes.
. Som~ of. th~ f!t:~i~u._q~, of poHr~.~' i~ ~~l~t~d t9 tl}~ .~p.der-.
st~pdiq.g ~J:l~~ .peop}~ h1ve gf .'h-fi~ t4~ r:.RI~ .ft9.-Y~ J~eyff.
qqjJg- . ~Rr ~~fl~P~~. i~ ~lte. ~!@tl pf s:rfmi~?I j~~JF~~~
F~.q>p}~ yvJ:lq 4-q~ft lj~~ WP1t th.~i H:~fl~r~ffPQ ~h~ ~))ttrt P.~~
~~Jl 4()i~~ wtH
~fl-e , ~ Ipw~tPd Pl~i@n pf the ~9ijf~r J.tl?f
9.~ ot4,er P~C?P.J.e WPQ ffi.~Y b,a~- f fli!f~r~n~ lJP.4~r~~qp,.,,. Iilfg:
wUl 'h~y~ a fi.Jg~r PP.i~iq~ C?f !he fo~rt,. . . .- ... .
l

.9 ~r~ _yo~ ~ef~9~ - ~4~ pyl>J~~ ~s mis~nf~!~~ ~p~~~

what courts do?
, . .. ' . - ~ ~. .. ~ - ' .t
.

not quhe that~ B_ut the pul?lic j?. ;not well-
A . No-
fuHy' infqrmed-and much of th~t is pn1>bably
informec;_i-
unavoidable. '
Some of it .~s .4:ue _to ~isunde:rst.and~ng b~cause ~f the:;
tradition that the Court does n0t explah)."its fu-ncti0n: and;
its 4-ecisiops ~o the. PHP~ic. U~J:i:ke p~~f g?Y.~rpm,ental~
age pies, ~our~& .4o aot .. und,ert~l_(e ~o --~xpl51in nqr;QB-glJl
;reg~ler new~ conf~!.~l1c~~ ~IJ.4 Pf~S~. :r~.l~fl~es. . . ,.1
I thi~k propabJy ~he 'publi~ 4o~_sn't)1~ve.. a-riii.ich- b~ttef~
understanding
' . .
of courts
' . ~St'a~e level,
... . .C\t the . . or the 'feder'
'. . a. l~ ' ' " "~

~o:urt? generap~, ~pa!,i i~ do~s. of r~e .~u~~.ern~ Cqgrt. T~~l

Supreme Court s work 1s s1mply more In the ~ews. We~
are at the hub o! 11 ~reat neWS c~tkt, ~nd we de'al wit~
p.~W$WOrthy c~s.es . V\(ith rare excptions, aU ou~
decisions an~ news. , _. . -~~
Extract From " U. S. NEWS & WORLD REPORT ". Dec, 14, 197.0. :j
 Q. Within two months after you took office in 1969,
you made so~e proposals to the American Bar Association
at .its. convention in Dallas and followed that up this year
vvith a serie~ of proposals and a message on the "state of
~ the federal judiciary" at. St. Louis. What were the pro-
posals and what response did you get?
A.I made three very specific proposals to the r969
ABA meeting in Dallas :
The first, I thought, was the most urgent-namely,
n the neeq fQf introducing m9re modern methods into the
courts in ~errp~ of the te~qniqt.Jes, machinery and the admi-
nistratiQJ1. There was nothing really :qew ~n what I said
except a 9efipite proposal to create a training institlHe of
some kind to train court rn~nager-executives-something
we have not had in the country.

Q. You're not now speaki.ng about judges-

A. No, t~e aq~inistrat9r-manager. I m~de the ana-
logy to vyhat hospit(:)ls ~ad dope 35 or 40 years ago when
they found that the senior nurse or a re~ired doctor or
some other individual ):_Vas no longer adequate to manage a
modern hospital: They peg~11 to train hospital mcmG1ger.
And many schools of b4siness administration now
teach ~pq tr~in people in hq~pital m~nagemen t. It is a
s~bspecialty of business 4dmi~istration.

Bernard Segal, who was ele~ted President of the Ame-

rj~an Bar Associa~ion in 1969, immediately moved on this
.s~ggestion, and within less than six months we had the
Institute for Court Management, created by the joint
action of the American Bar Association, the Institute of
Judicial Administration and the American Judicature
Society as cosponsors. They secured substantial private
grants. I think they may have received some public
money, too:
For reasons I'm sure vou're aware of, I insulated
myself for having anything; to do with the fu nding of the
program, but Mr. Segal and I had a great deal to do with
the organization of the school.
. This new institute, which is located at the University
"\ (,

of Denver law school, will graduate Its first 3 I people on

December 12 . , (~
"
,. To emphasize the impO:rtance I attach.to this. !nstitut.e~
i have invited them to hol;d t he cere,mo.n y fqr a \Yarding
certificates in the East Conference Room in the Supren1e
Court.
. . i

The institute is, of course, a nonprofit organization~ , .e;c;

Q. Are these people lay1nen ? .:::~
. . A. Some. of them . . . are
. . men. in mid
' . .. career
. . . with Iavi!
, i '':.]

training ; all qave J?ackgn;)l~nd irt _publH: _q.<}ministra.tion of!:

law. But , they've . now. })ad . six months. of . full~_time,' ~
intensive training in class~$, 'in . ~otirts and in systems:.;
analysis and related management subjects. /!
The second proposal I made related to the desperat~~
need for. . a re-exa.mihation of our _penal :systems. I,:1
proposed that the American bar d~ that at every _leve:J. ;;:
~ . . . . . ,. .
~ r r ~ ... ~

. The ABA crea~ed a commission which includes laymen'

-. -not just lawyers- .~long with judges ari'q law professors ;
?nd penologists. . . . . . >~
. '~ -~

Former Governor Ric9-ard Hughes of New Jersey, wh~ ~

was a judge for rs year~ bef9re_h~ became Gqvernor, isf
.thalrman.: It has su~h dis_ti~guished.. pen~logists as James ~
Bennett a~d Myrl -Alexander, bpth former heads of the .
federal prison system; Rich~rd McGe~, 'former head
of . the . California .system in .the . period . of its great:
expan~ion, and ~everal . other . . Sta'te . correctionsi~
administrators. It also include~ Dr... Karl Menninger;~
George. Meany, of the AFL-CIO; . Rob~rt . McNamara,~
Jo.r mer.'Secretary of Defense,_and judg~s and ~~wyers. :sj
' ~ ~ 0 .l ~

~ They pave begun the work on a program to apply~

known and accepted t~~hniqu~s to prj$pl}s and -pena~~
jnstitutions which have ignored them for years. . :.~
' . ' ' ' '. ' : l\1i
. Q. Can you po.i nt to the principal problems you see ?.~i
A . The great shortco!Tling has be~n-at the Statei
'level :particularly-a lack of aiiy meaningful educational~
system for il).mates, many . of whom can't even read ot~
 )

write, and then the lack of vocational training and the

lack .of what we vaguely call " rehabilitation ", in terms
cf psychological testing and counseling to get them ready
. to make a living on an honest basis.
Two thirds of the people in prisons, roughly-in all
penal institutions-are people who have been there before
and who will be back again. We simply can't permit
this to run that way any more. No other publicbusiness
is run as badly as our prisons.

Q. Will this group study and make recommendations

on lengths of sentences and such things?
A. No. They will deal with correction facilities and
correction techniques. They aren't going to do a lot of
studying, because most of them have done that all their
lives. Bennett, McGee and Alexander have spent 40 years
at it. Others on the commission have been dealing with
it all their adult lives.
Their objective-we 1nade that very clear when we
started it-is to take the known techniques and programs
and make use of them ....
Q. How do they get this applied?
. A. The application wiH have to be to pers}lade the
States and Congress to do what is necessary: the rebuilding
of plants ; hiring of training personnel, psychologists,
teachers; putting in the personnel and equipment for
training people to do a great variety of useful things when
the inmate is released.
One proposal I urged the1n to consider was to offer a
prisoner a literal chance to learn his way out of prison.
For example, take a prisoner with a five-to-rs-year
sentence whose tests show aptitude to be a plumber,
stonemason or electrician. This man would have a great
incentive to work; study and learn if you could tell him
that when he passed his journeyman examiuations he
would be released on parole-assuming his general prison
record was good. This is no guarantee he will be a good
citizen, but it goes a long way in that direction.
 . . ' . (...

Senne prisons give sotii~ vdtatiorl.al training how, but a

rrt~rt
. irt a cage ne~tls incentive; motivation aiid som<Sthing
to look forward to.
.
You can look at some prisons now and yo~~i find they
. are still ,teaching people ~0 be parits pressers, fdr example,
:or how tb make a few simple items- . auto tags and things
.o f th~t kind. Marty of the skills that they're teaching are ~
eithet t>bsblete <Jr 'in over supply. Tliere a re just a liniite~r;~
number of people needed to make auto tags, arid a limited ~
need for pants pressers. ' ~
' . . .. . :. . '.~~
The objeGtive .~s to train these people in occupations.~i
.suited to their flptitudes to gite them a motivation to go ::~
.otit ~Rei earh a liVing honestiy~ Every htnhan being needs~~
:tO bike pfide in }ij~ OWn skills. . I. 'I' .
t
't.
., , ') :.:~

. Q. Isrt't thiS going to cost a lot of money, both:]

:feaercil and state? . ~ ~ . -~
~

A. Oh, yes. This will cost ari eno'(mo~s amount of]

'morley. . -~
' .. ~

d. Can the ~tates affOrd it? .: ~

A . The public is , now_ v.ayirlg literally billions i~~"
hidden taxes in the cdst of crime. ~~
.
. ~resident Ni~o~ has C:ln~01i~ced a pr<:>~r.~m in. wh
the U.S. Government contemplates co-operat1on With
:st:ates-joint action, ioiflt faci1it~es: in some instanr/PC.-a:-1
;and iedera1 grants to help .the State pr~~rairis.
.~ f ..

The problem is enormous. Right iri nearby Marylan .

.-an d this is typical of many of the States-you have o
of the best and some of the worst prisons in ~h~ Uni
States, all in the same State systein and.within two or t
.miles 'o f each dther. . .
. . The i~s~itution.'at Panixent, which cl1iefty for men - is
~defed:ive~, is o'ne of the best to be_rourid anywhere.
Within a few miles there is a State
=institution whet~ . the buildings are sohi.ewhere be
. Ibo ahd rso years old. They.have rhen iri tells 6 feet-
8 feet, more or iess, in dirrierisioti-
made for one
 (:entury ago- ) which now have two inmates. There are
virtually no recreational facilities or libraries, and most
?f the inmates a:r_:e young men who can be destroyed by
IdleneSS ahd boredom. "
Q. Is this the fault of the warden or the
:superintende1it?
A . No-the system. Generally . the most severe
critics of the correction systems in this country include
the wardens and the administrators of the penal and
correction systems.
Q. \Nhat was your third proposal?
A. The third proposal was that, pa'rticularly with
respect to the administration of criminal justice, the la\1\r
schools were doing an inadequate job of training people
for the realities of litigation. This has a relationship to
<Civil litigation as we11.
There has lohg beert a debate between law-school
faculties and lawyers ahd judges on this subject. Many
professors iri the past took the position generally that they
were not running trade sthools ; they're teaching people
to think, they're teac}:l.ing legal theory. That is good, hut
1t is not enough. They must also be trained as to how
they should act.
I think n1ost lawyers and most judges who've had ta
preside over trials have long felt that there were terrible
gaps in the training of these recently graduated lawyers in
terms of how to conduct themselves in the courtroom and
in terrns of their attitude toward Professional
responsibility. And this can best be taught ~hen these
students are learning their profession. It is really more
important than pure legal learning.
This is essentially what is done in England in the
training of a lawyer ft>r litigation under their bifurcated
system. It is done in the four Inns of Court. And that's
the only place yqu can become a trial lawyer-a barrister
-in England. The colleges of these Inns are managed
and run by lawyers and judges, just as medical education
ii1 this country is almost entirely in the hands of practicing
physidans and surgeons.
 . - Q. Do you think that the English ~ system is a. good
one?
A.. Well, the training system for <;ourt work i~ cer-
ta-inly very, very superior to what we haveiri this <;ountr}'.
But bear in mind that it is directed at a bifurcated profes-
sion where they have s'olicitors, who are generally .
~-
what
.
we call " office lawyers , and barristers, who are the trial
' lawyers. - -
. ~
. . .
. There are only 2,500 barristers in all of England. They .
have the exclusive right to appear in courts of general
jurisdiction .
Q . . How .coui_d this . pos~ibly_ be applj~d in this ,
country? . .
, . A. It would. be very difficult .witb-s o States and the .~
federal courts. . . l ....
. Going back to my recommendations on legal educa-
. tion: The An1e.rican Bar Association . has created a com-
.mittee with representatives of the . American Bar
-.Association, the American Law Institute and the -American
. Assodatio'n of Law. Schools-so that we have ali three
.branches of the professic~m represented in three great
.organizations working on so111e new approaci?-es to legal
education. This is necessarily a long-range affair. .
Q. Is this all rlesigri'ed to speed dispensinK of justice?
~ . .
A. It is very definitely aimed. not .only at speeding it
up but making it better quality. J.' CG!ri illustrate that by
. mentioning that in England. they try a.case in a fraction of
. the .time ~t: takes to try it in this coun~ry . .. .
Q... Why?. . .
A. It's partly because they have no amateurs, no
beginners in their courts of general. ju~isdiction . ... Tney're ~
all -highly trained professionals w~o , do not engage in any ,
.branch of the practic~ of law e:x~ept trial practice. : .~
Q. Do they have the volume of cr.fminal ~ases that -~
exists
.
in this country?
~ . .. . . . .
;i
.. A. They do riot-eit,h er ip. relatiye yolume or other~ .:~
wise-but t he difference in population is. not enough to }J
0 .~: ~;~
 explain the difference in the way cases are handled. In
the way they dispose of them, there's a great disparity.
_,
r. Ninety-five to 97 per cent of all criminal case!:; in
England are disposed of-and with finality-in justice-of-
the-peace courts and county courts. There is nothing
comparable to our long-drawn-out appeals and reviews
after the conviction is final. And when there are appeals
they are decided within a matter of months, and that is
the end of the case.

. But in this country can't someone accused of a

Q.
crime hire a clever lawyer and find a _way to prolong_
appeals that go clear to the Supreme Court?
He can certainly keep the litigation going for ~
A.
v~ry great length of time-years, in many cases. Our
system permits this ; some critics think our system
encourages it.. .
Q.How do you get at tha't problem? How can we
borrow ideas from the English?
A. First, we must recognize the differences in the two-
systems-ours with .50 separate State-court systems, plus
the federal. Added to' that we are -a country of diverse
people spread over a continent. We are new and young,.
and England is old, stabilized by tradition with a single
central government functionfng without a written constitu-
tion. Yet they have many problems, too. We could not
simply transplant their system to this country even if vve
wanted to. But we can adopt some of their ideas.
Nevertheless, we n1ust make some fundamental changes.
in our system if we really want it to work:
. No systen1 of justice . can function if there is not
finality at some reasonable point. No system makes sense
. if it encourages a long-drawn-out war with society. The
re-education or rehabilitation of a man cannot be carried
on while he is at war with society in a process of inter-
.rriinable petitions, writs and hearings. It is z.. bit like ~ry-
.ing to have a real peace conference. at the beginning of a
war.
 LllvtlTINO THE RIGHt iD .APPEAL

Q. Does this imply a limitation on the right~ to

appeal ? . . . ~
0 0

A. i suppose,
when you;, talk aHb-ut fihttlity, that rrttfst
carry with' it a limit somewhete- . that thete is point at
0 a.
whith proceedings . of all kinds eire tehniilated. We
haven't fdund tliat point iiir our system. We ate fumbling
and_. groping because every judge in AmeriCa 0

k~ows we must make some changes .

You wouldn't _limit a defendant to one appeal,

0 '

Q. 0

sax- . .;
.. ._. A., No, you can~ ?-a~e rig:id!~Y- ,o~ tpat _kind._ . _T he
point is to be sure that the accused ha~ a meaningful
_r_~yi~w or ~PP~~i_ that ~~pibr~s _a ii ?~ ihe_ 1 cTfihns ~hat he
<Could possibly have. And when he's had _that, theri. 'Ne
should be very n~ar the end of it- unless, of course, there
is the discdvery of some
.
significant
.
new evidence.
. .
O
Q. In this country, carl a defeiidatit appeal ori diie
:point, lose that appeal a.n d thert appeal on another point?
A . Not quite. tHe dirett~appeal 1?fdtess requires th~
.defendant to raise all .his daiitls ~t that time. BUt we
00

'have vastly enlarged wh,.at are dilled the postconviction II

temedies : . . The petitioris rot wtits of habeas . corpus,

*hiCH are collateral attacks orl th~ toriv-ictidn, are.- . an
:~::kafiti?l~ - rhey are not yeJ .uri,der .:~e~s(l;jnable .c::ohtrol: .
. 6. rioes_aii this IegjJ _m~neuveritig c9ntribute to the
congesti~n of criminal cases in the courts?
lL it tol)tf!bt.ites .o vety ile~viiy. tel rlte 'illtistrai:'~ that
with just one example .
. _.. rwetitv years or : so _ ag9; tP,ere'_ .w~f~ vi~tuauf: n 9
j>etit:~qlis !r~nn .i?fi'~o'.tler~ .Jn. .s~t.~ ..p~i~dh~ ~6 tHe federal
;;tb'lirts. Ah opinion. o! Hi~ SufjH~m~ tbtirt iii tet~:Hi years
-g~'Ve th~ state pris~nets. thiH- r!ght- -, ~Re -~1gfif-io habe<is
~orpus review in fep~ral _ to~h. -- Petitions ~n that C:ategdty
~ have grown-from less than roo annually io years agd to:
' appro'}<:imately i2,ood this year--' quite ~ load ori the
federal courts. ,
 Q. TC>")do that~ doesn't the defe1idant have to raise a
cqnstitutional issue?

A. Yes-but we can't always know whether he has
raised a valid constitutional issue until it is reviewed by a
federal . ju~ge. . Now, only a fraction of these people ever
_g et relief, btit the proc~eding is_in the court, thereby using
the time of the federal court and the whole machinery of _
the cotiri.
Q. D'o yotl feel t~at certain _types _of criminal cases
:Should not get to the federal co~rts?
A. Well, it would be difficult to say how you would
eliminate certain crin1inal jurisdiction in the federal
c~mrts _
: Those for . violation of federal statutes belong in
:federal jtirisdidion.
In the broad sense-anq this goes : beyond your
.-q uestion- ! have a strong feeling that a great many
matters traditionally handled in the court systems, both
'State and feder~l, should be diverted away from the courts
;:e ntirely.
Q. Iri what way?
.. ,.
A. Now I'm going out of my field of responsibility in
my present position, but there is a broad and serious social
'question-! think you would have to call it-whether such
things as divorce, child custody, adoptions, receiverships,
various other matters of that kind belong in the courts at
all.
There is a curiot:Is paradox relating back to your
_opening question: In spite of what seems to be a
'lesseni!1g of esteem for the courts, there is an attitude that
the courts should resolve all problems.
But that is not rea1istic ; coyrt<> can serve only a limited
'function and it shotild not be broadened any more than is
.absoluteiy necessary. -
We shm._l ld encourage, for example, the use of private
:arbitration for the settlement of private disputes.
The question of dealing with the chronic alcoh0lic.
the narcotic addict, the serious mental patient-there 's a
~ serious question whether they. shoul.d be dealt'With in the
judicial framework at all. ,
..
~. Hs>w would such th~ngs b~ .handled?
.4.. Well, this is what some very competent people
should study carefully. It :would be .some administrative
treatment necessarily, but with limited judicial revie\v.
Her~ we will encounter some constitutional" problems.

We can't overlook the fact that 50 years .ago, rriore or-
less, people with this same ob]ective-a .yery se~sible
objective-set up the juvenile courts with the idea that we
would insulate . young offenders from the tra uinatic-
exp.erience of going throu~h the criminal' machinery.
. ... . .
But, bit by bit and piece by piece, the courtshave added
requirements in the juvenile area so that a juvenile novv
must receive almost .the 'same treatment as the adult,.
hardened criminal :when he's charged with a cr~mihal act ..
So we've come almost full circle. '
Now, how do you deal with . these . problems;.
non judicially witho.u t 'impinging on constitutional rights?
I don't have the answer to that. I say.simplythat it must
be_studied. .
Part of the blame for. the virtqal elimination of the
juvenile-coutt concept-~he benevolent aspect-'must rest
on the States.. They failed to giv~ juvenile courts the
staffs and means to carry out the original idea.

NEW IDEAS FOR ACCIDENT

. CLAIMS
.

Q. . W ould such changes. indude a:bsolut~ liability in

automobile accidents? . .. . ~
' : : - 1 ' --

A. There has been a great deaJ of. sentiment in this

country for a long time-and it's growing very rapidly- .
that in one way or another all autoinobile-~ccident claims,
to use that rough categorization, should be out of the
'courts entirely-that they should be disposeq of in much
the same way: so thi? argument runs, as we hand~e the
daims of an employee yvho is injured in the cours~. qf his.
.employme~t-the "workmen's compensation'.' concept.._
Some of th~ Stc,:ttes are experimenting in this direction. '
I don't advocate anything at this tiine, but I advocate
st:P.:mgly that i~ should be studied, along with other
alternatives.
I said in Philadelphia recently that the concept of
diversity cases-cases between Jitigants from different
States-has brought into the federal courts the largest
single category of its civil litigation: such things as
automobile cases and injury' cases. I repeat without any
hesitation .that in .the original . concepts of federal
jurisdiction an automobile case has no more place in the
federal courts than speeding
,.
on a city street.
. Q. Isn't the diversity specified in the Constitution?
A. Yes, but with limitations. Congress has the
power to define the jurisdiction of federal courts.
Q. 'Didn't you propose some time ago that the Chief
Justice make an annual state-of-the-courts message to the
Congress? What response have you had to that
suggestion ?
A . Well, that is not quite accurate. I have never
proposed this.
It has been proposed at various times since Hughes
was Chief Justice. And about r 5 years .ago, when
William P. Rogers, the present Secretary of State, vVflS the
Deputy Attorney-General, he renewed the proposal that
the Chief Justice make a periodic report to the Congress.
In a formal and technical sense, we do now. The
'Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts files a periodic
report with the Congress.
Q. Does anybody pay any attention to it?
.,~~ - . Well,
I'm sure ~he. staffs of the Judiciary
~omm1tt~e and the Appropnat10ns Con1mittee have a great
mterest m those reports-and some of the members as
well.

When M~. Rogers press~d the proposal in 1954, I think

he was reachmg for something that would get a little more
attention than filing with Copgress. a report .:as big as a
Washington telephone book. '
G .
Q. Do you endorse that "idea?
. I 'y~ ~ever taker}. 4P.Y PQS.itl.~ti. qn jt e~~eR~ to say
A.
th~t I rh.ink i} could be a us~fp.l qevke to foq.J.S att~ptiqq
on the prpblems of the co.p rts. I llPP~ the r~pon on
judicial problems that l maqe to tJ'le A"&A Jast A~gust
served some of that function. I I
o .,.,

Mr. C:hief J~stice, ~op1jpg p9,GJ<. to. ~he \\flY th~

Q.
courts are functiol}ing to~a:y : M~p.y P~Rp,le. bc:rye .the i4eCJ.
that lots of crin1inals are getting off scot-free because of
.legal ttchn~ca}ities. f:>p YQ:P. figree? .
A". well, I'm not sure how useful it is to tr;y to" deal
wid! .tJ"lat, .because there ~s a problem of defining ter,ms.
~ 0

SPmt:tim~$, i! is tn-lt. ~ll ~cp.~s~~ IJ?e!i~A!l vyhos,;e g~jlt is

olw~op~ ~n!-1 ~nq~e~tjqijeg. i~ .r-~U~Yt?d. frqw 'mY p.gni~pm~rat
or an;y C9.fl.Y.ictipJl b~ciqse pf W'Pflt p~w.s pe~pJe, iJ.l
journalistic shorthand, and laymen call " techn~cqlide~ " .
.!hi.~ .is~ f2 .~ .deg~~~' ~~t~c~~~~!e. . . . . , .'-
If a provision of the constitution or q, st~J:~.t~ i$
violated in f.he collection of evi~ence against ~n a,~ct}sed,
under our system that evid~nc~ is not ~dm!ssibl~ ~gainst
him. And.if that's the o~ly evide~c~ that tqe prosecHtiqJ?;
has, that's the end of the case.
' I '

-: Thjs is a choice which oqr ~Qf:ie,ty h'ls ma~e, PP,-t it js

q.. choice thar has many critics. .Sqwe legal sch.qJfl.r~ and
m~ny jJ.Iqges and lawyers question w~eth.e( . f~tun~ .police
miscol')duct or police mistakes ar~ i;nfll,J.ence(:l whe GOJ.Ii:ts
set free a person who is guilty in fact and this . is done
solely because of the }DOlice coqdq.ct. It- is difficult to be
certain
. in
.'
this sensitive
~ . ~
area.
.. . (
$ . ..... .. . - .

Q . . Would it be possible to do somer~il'!g a'Qog~ rh~s?

Well, remember justice- Car.dozo's statement to

A.

. the effect that the-criminal should not gp free .because the
constable blundered. That's qne point .of. :view.
 Th.e ot~~
point of view-expressed, I believe, by his
~o}J~ague3 Brandeis and Holmes-was that enforcement of
)
the law must never employ dirty methods. .
')

Do you thin~ Supreme Court rulings, or those of

Q.
courts in general; have had anything to do with the rise
in crime?
A. This is a ~atter on w~ich there is a great diversity
of opit?-~on. There are two extreme points of \(iew-each
of which I tl~ink is wrong:
One extreme point of view is that what courts do has
nothing whatever to do with crime and crime rates. This
argument rests on the proposition that criminals don't read
court opinions. I'm quite sure they don't, but if in any
given cmnmunity it _!:>ecomes the prevailing view that it .is
" easy to get by ", from whatever source that idea comes
irs gqlqg to ~1av.e ~n irrpact ~n the sense of negating
deterrence .
\ ; '.

Tlfe other poi~t of. view-and I doJ1.'t subscriQe to .that

QR-e either-is that ~h~ Supreme Court is responsible for it
~11'. .
The fq.ct is that inevitably th.e poldings of cotJrts have
~n i.m pact on the co'hd.u.ct of people. Belief is releva-nt to
action. If somethipg is found to be- permitted, then it's
more likely- to be done.
There are many areas where this is tru0. It would
apply equally if people came to believe that speed laws
wer.e not enforced, that driver's licenses were not needed,
or . clos.ing . hours. for' liquor stores or pars were not
ep.forced. On a different level, a lax enforcement of the
aptitrust laws would kad to a great many more violation~
of those statutes.
All this is what we vaguely call " human nature ".
I

Q. A recent 9evelopment has been what one could

call " antic bwyers " in courtrooms, who turn trials jnto
circuses. Are these lawyers within their legal rights? .
A. Well, I would like to broaden the question a bit.
The conduct of lawyers-good or bad-is critical to the
functioning of any system o f justice.
 . . .. . ,.. . . ..
:_ Again, a __comparison ..with -the :English sysl~m -is :use~ul.
Under their system,. with -the trial hiw)rers ]~eing ti~tned
in the importance of professional - resp6n~1bility, . peisof.lal
c ontluct . and decorum.....-mannei:~~- if : you 'win- .. are
.. recognized as the indispen$able_: ..ll;lp:r:iq1nts to what is
essentially a contentious and abrasive process .
. . The - British hav:~ . .no -such thing .. as ~ntics in _. the
pourt~oom. It. simp!~ never .happeri$,_b~~~use a lawy~r-;
a barristet in England-'k nows -~llat :;C~rtairi . kind?'l, of
~~nduc~ whicq are. -yvidely practk~q . ~~g /,tdl~rated . i~ .. thjs
~ou~try would . leaq _ to s~ift . . a~d~ :.s.~r\'e discipline: .~nd
possibly disbarm~nt .~nder t~e Br~.tish_.system ~ :
Again,-.this 'is bec_aus e people respond _in a <:Ieterre.nt
s~nse whether they're criminals ,or whether .they're doctors
or lawyers or bankers~and~ .I 'might well add, judges. .
~, .. _i::Q. ; Whose -re8ponsibi-iity- is it. to enforce the c~no.ns q(
ethics and professional" standards of conduct in the courts?
..: . A_-: . {:wo~ld say .th~t under . our system today -it is
'r egarded as .the collective responsipility of the.- -legal
profession as a whole an~ of the courts. But it has. ridt :
:t>eeh defined- iJ!,~th!s 'country in the':sense ..th~t: :i t.-b as .b een -
tlefined in England, an4 . therefore ii .terrds' tau.: between 'tor
two st9ols . . 'Tlle _juqges offer( ~co~lpla:in . ~th~t the bar
associati'Qns -are riot doin::g what rheyr.should; d.P~ and the
.t~rcassqda.tiqns -say tre juqges- ?.tr.~n:t: :-4qiti,g -~what they
p:ught,t0 _cto .. Both an~ quite c0rr~ct.- ~ :r : - ,
.!.':<;:rne :responsibility --~s- not ci~~rly :~~~gh:.'~e-fined-arid.
.. "!
~- ~~~-:~s.._~~t_-':P!.a~~d e _Jllust. detd~~ ~!ia_t ~he. ~ro~na: . r~les.
df; _eOUt:",troom conduct. ought ~0 " 9~ _-and \,_th~ll fiX : the
enfoiceriieht resp.onsibi}ity'. iii..6ne place -so -chat:wheii there
is a failure we will
;,.- .
know
.
whom to blame.~ :u :: --.~. -: : ::.: .'
-- - .. .
: - .
~ .:seaY-in"mind that' aU of the?e .pioblems .r~ne ~in1mensdy
p;1px~ -qj~cult, as I ~u~~este~~!Iief~_)n-{1 -~o.untrY~-.li!<~~.ours
,With . s.o~ State systems.. admlttlpg- Jq.wyer;$ t9~ .ppic_t~~e--rr5Q
sepai:~te. --sets of courts; each.:.qt, .whi<;hjs.. $ovetdg'l;). . tp_
9egre~'; .:::,~: . l . - ~......~"~.:_;
:
.. - -_'-' - . .. . . - .:
a
.;

~-.-. ~ fli~~~: . i~ Dnly .-6~~ . co~!t ~~~A~~~tJ.!r' E_n?l~~~..-~ .T_hey .

Simply . don t have . any :trouble': ~of. the ktpd . yo:u ar.e
discussing. And yet 'th~y have~-~~4V.0c,i~y-= th~f is:a:s good
 as any iii the world~ . as .zealous and as ~ffe~tive as a~y th~t
.(:'an 'oe' fauna; ahd 'l;>etter th_an If is in mosf pfaces "in the \
worl8..- ... But it is within strict limits in terms 'qf decoruin,
manners; .condnct. .. .. . . . . .
") .

What apout antics . on . th~ part qf accused:

Q.
. 1
;persons..
'
. A-:- In the -~ltirmte
-sense, the ..opinion of th~ Court
1ast ye~r in 1llin6'is against Allen,:in which the Court spoke ,
through Mr. justice.Black, has settled the extremes of that
p~oql<~m, vesting yer.y broad power in trial judges, both
.S tate. and federa), to rei,llove any offending person, any
person interfering with tHe process-remove.him from the
Courtroom even though .it be the defendant. Now t here
'is a clear standard to .gui~e co:urts, and that was perhaps
one of the most important ~pinions of the Court last year.
. '

Q. Earlier you seemed to reject the notion that the

.Supreme Court was .qy.its decisions in any .way responsible
for the rise 1n crime and violence-.
A. I don't!think I said " in any way ". It's a factor
which
.
enters into the total
' .... .
streaih of, causation:
.

Q~
Well, ~h~ court syst_em in -general has been accused
of contributing to the rise. t~:rough lack of speedy trials~
lack of sjgnifical)~ punish.~~nt~ Do you agree w~th t~is?
A. 1 do., in part. 1t's the lack of certainty, and the
promptness of the judic~al n~ocess, and the punishment.
Swift and sure trials and" reasonable finality would .cure a
great many evils.
Would yo.111 say that delay has been a major
. Q.
~Contribution to the rise of crime over the last decade? ~
Would you p'in ~t on the .oourt system that closely?
. .
A. I cann_o t think of any judicial factor more
; important than delay and uncertainty. It's always
i difficult to assign priorities ip. this so~t of thing, bpt I know
.o f none I can tpink of more impor~ant than the absence of

l the sure knowledge that a criminal act will be followed by

:.a speedy trial and punishment.
VII
 And that's why I_have said ~hat i~ we coltld have every
criminal trial ready to be presented within 6o days after
- th~ arr~st or the charge, I thillk you'q see a very, --very
sliarp drop in the crime rate. .~t would surely put an entl
to the large number of crimes 6ommitted by men out on
bail waiting six months to 18 months to be brought to
trial.
.. Q. yvhat about all these continuanc_
es and delays in
criminal proceedings? Who's responsible for that? . ...
A." \Nell, that responsibility would have to be c:;pread.
a'r ound: judges to some extent, lawyers to some extent,.,_
the absence of clearly defined ground rules on all of these .
thfrigs. . ;
Q. Is a typical criminal case in the courts loriger now.
than it was, say, 2o years ago?
A. I think it is ~efinitely longer.
At one time I saw some very reliable figures t hat'i
indicated that the time for the 't rial of a cdminal case in j
f~deral ,c;:ourts had altered.in two respects :. first,. th:at there i~
is n1ore th4n double the 'lapse of rime from the charge to1
the date of the trial," which means the accused-with tare :~
exceptions-is out on the street ; and there we!e also some ;j
figures that once the trial starts it takes about twice a.5 :~
long to try a crim"inal case today as.it did IO years a_go.
Q. Why is that?
A . .In some cases it is .due t o. decision~ of the
Cou_rt and, ~s to some aspects, acts of Congress.
. . The J?ail Reform Act and the Criminal Justice Act
enactments of the Congress, and we have not yet adjus
to the changes they "brought aboqt. .various decisions
the courts require. that motions may "be made for t
suppression of evidence, for the examhiation of eviden
and a wide range of things which are now available
were once not .available . . All of these ~an and are ....~'-.u;!MI
both properly and improperly by lawyers, and it
contr'ibutes to delay even though .some pf it is essential
-conforn1 to the Constitution. ;
 r,& ~, .
~ ,c. .1

!")

. The Criminal Justlc~ Act itself has brought into the

courts not only a great many more cases but a great many
mort:h lawyers. Many of these lawyers are. inadequately
t:rained. An inadequately trained lawyer will take tw.o
"or three times as long to try a case as a very expert lawyer.
Naturally he. is unsure and halting, no matter how well
motivated.
Q.. Could the same thing ,be true of judges ? Do
judges differ in their abilities to expedite justice ?
A..That's correct. Much has been done on that side
in terms of training of new judges in the federal system
as soon as they have qualified for office-aond then what
might' be called refresher courses, seminars for judges..
'Yhich are going on c~Histantly.
Q. . Are ~tates doing anything along this line ?
'
A . States have moved in this direction also. The
States have a college for trial judges which is a permanent
organization sponsored by the. American Bar Association
and others. Hundreds and hundreds of State trial judges
hav~ gone through that s.chool during what the news
111edia call the ". judiial vacatio_n :': That college has
~ade great improvement in the performance of State
judges. Justice Tom Clark was one of the moving forces
behind that program.
Q! Can any reforms be made with respect to juri~s
to speed up trials ?
A. Systems for handling juries and jurors in a busy
courthouse could be enormously improved. In a large
court with 15 or 20 judges calling for jurors on a given
'day, many jurors are needed. When they bring a ne\v
jury panel in, they may have 6oo or 8oo people present.
That's a great many people to handle, to get them to the
right rooms at the right time without confusion. The
system for doing this are not very good.
The most severe criticism of courts )n general and the
jury systen1 in .particular has come in recent years fr01n
laymen who have served on juries:
 They're called ; they must be there, let us say, at 9
o'clock-and then. they spend two 'thirds of their thne for
several \Veeks sitting around waiting for something-t<il do.
t . .

" The machinery for handling of jurors is not good, hut

a large part of th'is is inherent. in
the jury system. All
litigation is inherently a clumsy, time.;consuming business,.
Q. Would smaller juries )lelp ? . What is sacrosanct
about a 12-n1an jury ?
'
. A. There is nothing really sacrosanct about a r 2-man ,
jury at all. No one really knows how the common 1avv ~
settled on a figure of 12 jurors. It is n ot affirmatively:.
provided in lai'N-not in the federal system except as to ,~
-criminal cases. ,t:
. . . . . . . i ,.:

M~ny States have affirmative statutory provisions for:.;

1ess than 12. Last year the Supreme Court held that fix- -
irig. the number .at six was up.to the States. If they want~-.
e~ to have six-~an juries, they. could do so. There was .
no federal consitutional problem involve.d~
Q: How about unanimous verdicts by, juries ?
i-~
A. That is before the Supreme Court now, so it is an :
.. \ 0 . :...

area on whfch I couldn~t comment~ We must decide this ~

year in several cases whether a uri'animous verdict is 'co~~ .
.stitutkmally required. .
. Q. Mr Chief Justice, most of the things you have
.saidhere seem to indicate a feeling that the real difficulty .
js in the management, the admin!st~ative functioning of;
the courts. Is that what you are saying { .
A . Definitely-and 1 began to work on tha~ within
24 hours after I took office on June i3, 1969. The next-.
morning I had the first meeting on the problem of co~1rt'~
administration, with just three or fo'ur people~ "indu~ing~j
one of the distinguished experts ~in public administration~
in. this country, Dr . .George Graham. !1~ was one of. the~
key figures in helplng us develop the Institute of Court~
Manageme~t. ~~

Everything l"v~ done since in- the .way of public;:~

. utterance on the subject has -been directed at this broad ~
.:1
 problem : better management, on the one hand, and then,
alo'P.side that, consideration of some basic changes. J an)
not advoc~t~ng any . p~rtic.ul.~r changes. I do think it's
within my function to say-that these tl:tings must be looked
at.
We cannot blindly cling to methods and forms a
designed for tl:le .sev~nte~nth and eighteenth centuries.
'
Q._ How wou.Id-smalle~ juries help?
A. It would help in. management, dme arid . cost.
jury _,,:fe~s .for .next y~~r in the federal budget alone- and
:that's.: opJy.a , fracti_on of the total judicial system of the
colintr;y-~e 14 million .dollars. I would make a rough
guess that the total juty cost in the Unit~.d States is
:somew..here near rooi million ..!! Now, if you could cut that
'in h4.lf ,yo~ .would ~!hav~~,a; ,,ye~ 1~r.ge saving, and that
~money . is ' c::l~~p~rat.ely needed:for .other purposes to make .
: imprqv~men.is.
fn a lar-ge .and busy-courthouse then, instead of infusing
Bo'o or r ,ooo people into the corridors to be parceled out
and handled and brougfit to the right places wher~ they're
needed at the right time, you 1d have half that number.
This is one very sm~ll step tbat would save a great deal of
money and a great deal of time. Whatever tim.e it takes .
to picK the jury wouldbe, ag~:tin, half the time that it takes
to pick . r2 of them.
Q. If Congress .were to pass a law and say that
henceforth federal criminal cases a:nd civil cases will be
detern1ined by a jury of six, would that b~ the answer?
. ..

A. Conceivably it .could be .done by the rule-making

p:rocess of the federal courts, where the rule is proposed
by the Judicial Conferehce Committee on Rules, then
subn1itted to the Supreme Court, and, if approved by the
Court, it is placed before Congress and becomes law if not
rejected within 90 days.
..) .

Q.. We've::had a great growth in the last few years of

legal-aid societies, public:defender systems, tax-exempt
.
public-service law. firms and things like that. Oo you
. . . c ...
OJ
):1

think that that adds to litigation? Is this in the public

interest?
~

" A. I would not -w ant to suggest for one moment that

anything which adds to litigation is automatically against
the public interest or for the public interest. There is
more to it than that.
The legal-aid systems beg:ln on a private, volunteer .~
basis ha'lf a century ago anJ havt been slowly growing. :~
The public-defender systen1 -for criminal cases began soon.
after that tiii1e and has had a slower growth, but it has. ~
flowered in r.,ecent years. .And I must confess a conflict -~
in a way, because I have a bias in favor of some of these_J
~ programs, provided they are conforming . to high ~
, professional standards. . :J
Neighborhood Legal Services under the Office of ~~
Economic Opportunity has si million dollars in the federal :
budget this yea.r for the 0 E 0 legal staffs alone. That's :
. almost half of the , total an1ount being spent on ail ~
operations of the federal courts. It is not a correct:
assumption that all of the cases <Jf these Neighborhood
Legal Services arc going- to get into the federal courts-_o r ~:
indeed into any courts.
,,
;
I would think, on the .. contrary, such litigation as
develops, will be chanheled into-State courts becau.,se they ._
wi}l d~al with local matters: conflicts 'between l~ndlQrds
and tenants, rent defaults, the ma:n who buys a TV set :;
that he .can't afford on long-term installments with::~
exorbitant interest, other day-to-day things which have ~
gone unattended for a long time, really. : .i
. ~

Most of the work of.the 0 E 0 -Legal Services will not ~

get into the courts. It is counseling and advice. ~
- . :31
I said at the A B A ~eeting ~n St. ;Louis in Augu?t that -~
a sense of confidence in the court is essential to maintain '~
the fabric. of ordered liberty for a free people, and there,~
are three things t~at could destroy it :
.. ..
JJ
"1'3 "

One is that people come to believe that inefficiency~

and delay will_ drain even a just, j~dg~n:ent of 'its value~F
Four, five or SIX years after you ve broken your leg- 9T:i
. :;,~
 ~
.
damaged yoar automobile is too long a time to wait for a
recovery.
.
. . .
Second; if p~ople who have . been. exploited in the
.

smaller transaction~ of daily life- home - appliances, _

repairs, finance charges; and the like-come to believe
that courts cannot vindicate their legal rights from fraud
_.and overreaching _on t,h ~ part of others.
The third thing I spoke of w,as a feeling that the system
-isn't protectingthe.public from criminal matt~rs .
Le~ me go back to the ~~cond point-and this i$
,import~nt beca:use. it enters into the feeling on the part of
some people that there is one code of justjce for the rich
..?nd _another one for. the poor. . -
The private practitioner _with rent to pay, books to
. buy and secretaries to hi're siinply could not afford to take
. the small cqse for the 'man ; whose wife has been high-
pressured into signing a ;contract fbr an encyclopedia, the
<Other -door-to-door tl~ings, or a shingle job on the house-
often with unconscionable COQ_~itio~s in the fine print. .
All of these affairs were too small to engage the attention
of a practitioner. He simply couldn't afford to take that
case.
This is really, basically. no different fron1 a man who
has a ruptured appendix Of tuberculosis and can't hire a
doctor . .

Q. Then the Neighborhood Legal Services prqgram
is not really new-
A. It is new as a federally financed program, but
not in fundamentals. We've now come to accept the
idea that society is going to take care of these pr9blems.
we have come to the point where even these private civil
rights of people -must be vindica~ed with legal assistan<::e
if we .want all people to have confidence in our system,
believe in it, believe that it will protect them reasonably.
Q. Ar:e you saying that there have been two systems
involved.:
. .
one for- the poor; one
.
for the rich?
_A . N.o t two systems in the consc1ous sense but in the
sense that the busy lawyer who has large matters or the
lawyer of smallmeans simply" could n.ot give attention to
 a man who, for exa~ple, bougp~ a refrrgerator worth
$. 2oo, but the price on th(' time basis. with 5 . per cent ~
interest a month and finance charges ~u!lt it. up to mtly be .'
$ ~oo to buy this $2oo mac~ine. . . .' ..'
. _Q. In other words, it goes to the point of the financiaf
. resources of the litigants?
A. That's right. The system has not-f'm speaking:
i now of our system of socie~y and the legal profession--
has not had a compr~hensive mechanism to take care qf :;
' it!'except that as f~r-bacl<. as when r w~nt i~to the pi'actice~ ~:
: 35- y~ars ago now, our firm c~ntributed '. time~ .as many.~
nqns : did, to the..Legal Aid ~ociety. . One of us would'. go:
up-one of the young.e r ;rpen- . . an~ spend a Thursday i
afternoon or every ot~er frid~y , afte~riod~- fn the ~egaI .
' Aiq_, _-<;ounseling with -s~th peopl~; :
Thi~ .was our contr.ibut;ion.. .:'b.qctors . do it; _'=1 : gi"~~t .
.many other p,~ople do,it. ; ~u_t,i$, hfls . l?~come so .b.ig, s<) :.
.. vast.~tQ.at. it cap~t be . h~nqled on a_, O~~~-l?y:-~~se b~si~. T.Iie :
. oriiy way it can l?e. 'handl~d is' :on. ~n organized b'lsis.
! Copgr,~ss . hC!s - deciqed th.is is a public re~pQI}$ibjlity,

PROBLEMS IN LEGAL-AID PROGRAMS

Q. Whv are these ' programs under so -much
critidsm? Ci' -

A. Now we're in the transition stqge-from the

individual lawyer doing this as a service to the society and
to his profession, to putting it ori a more efficient and
_highly .organized basis, really . . Tha:fs th:e- objective: to
.put it on a more efficient. basis..
In n1oderrr terms, 'it is :a matter of delivery of legal
assistance. We're in the .transiti<?n. period? and~ like~qny
tolling-up for a new process, wh~~het 'intr factofy . or in
. public administration, it isn't ' xe.ry ' efficient ' !n the
beginning . . This program attracts Y<?Ung, idealistic
.lawyers, and son1etin1es they have .more zeal and adrenalin
than judgment and skill. This naturally creates tensions:
. and :frictioP..: Bu.t that will pass. . The program needs.
.. idealistic yo1:1ng people, but it . needs seas.q ned an.d:
.experienced lawyers in the m_anagement.
 ,~ .-
.~~o;;p if
.
,1~

What Y/e as a socie~y hav~ said now is that the " poor , .
-people who can't afford lawyers-can go to the-
, Neighborhood Legal Services. And if .there is some la'v-
about his medical aid OJ his Social Security or whatever
anq he thinks thi.s is . qiscriminating .against his particular
. problem in some way, legal assistanee is now. furnished to-
him to settle his problem and, if necessary, test that out
in the. cour~s. . And ~f a court decides that he's right, I
. : hay~-'4ifficul(y seeing qow we can quarrel with 'that result .
.' There is nothing new Qr . revolutionary about testing
,Ia~ys" ~d right? in .t}Je. cqur~~ : S4;r~ly it is a more $ensible
, spJ~~iUP. .than .th~ picket line, ~ demonstration or ariotiJ
t ~' ., : . .. # . ,

Q. , Dq~sn't this a~d to the work load of the c6:urts1?

. .. . ,.,, . ' . . . ..
:.: -A. Of. co.urs.e~' it.adds to thework:load of aU. court~r-
.Stat~ and f~_G~r~J. : .B!-~J ~h~ .ol:>j.~c.tive is to. tr.y to , pl~cC'
; ev.~rY; 'individ.ti~.l iq, ~tii~ . c9_uQp:y. o~ the same basis in ter'ms-
:.of.the a.~sur_~pe _of . hi~,rJgJ:tts: h9th ,in the sense of private
rights as well as in .~:r:imip.~l. c~s~s. .
. Q_. B~~or~ you had .completed your first year ip._.office~
some of the leading new~paj>_ers that cover the Supree
Court closely sa_id_tl1at you were already showing more
activist tendencies, in the sense of attempting to provide
; leadership, than any Chief'Justice since Ta.ft or Hughes~
:Would you comment on ehat? .
A. \Vel), in the fJrst _place, I suppose it"s better for
others to make the judgments about what I'l1l doing than
it is for me to try to do it. The coromen ts you refer to
, are the over-simplification and shorthand of the media, in
I large part : What is new m~st be depicted as somehow
:different: I do not think it is correct to evaluate what f
am trying to do as either more or less than others. It ic;
:a matter . of different emphasis.
From Taft to Earl,_Wa,rren, every Chief Justice has
urged many programs. What we need for the next
;,gene~ation of . change was not the central problem in
earlier days, so they did not advocate what I now urge.
I The first function of a Justice of the Supreme Court, .

.as ,with any other judge.. is to keep his work up to date irr
the judging department. That's his primary responsibility ..
 EXTRA DUTIES OF A CHlEF JUSTfCE
Q. How does y our position differ rom that of \he
eigli.t other Justices?
A. As Chief Justice, I an1 .: only one of nine, with
really no different position .f ronl any of the _others in terms
of the
.
judidal function .. .
Howe"er, with respect to other functions, by law
Congress made the C::h.ief Justice chain:nari pf the Judicial
Conference of the. United Stat~s, \vhich,. as, you _ know, is
composed of two representatives frqni .~a~h of the T I
federal circuits and two representatives from the special
courts. ..'
'
. J :! .

.. Q_., What does the Judicial Conference do'?

' .
A. That bodv functions
~ . somewhat
. as . a .board of
'

directors for the entire federal jtidicial .system-a '' general

staff " might be - anoth~r term for it~ except that it's .a
part-time
.
function of aH the members. . .
I might say parenthetically it is becoming an iricreasi~g
: burden for .these j~dges t.o carry. ' .
In addition, the Chief'.Justice,-by law, is chairman of
. the Federal Judicial Center,. recently set up by Congress
primarily as a research a,rm tostudy probler:ns of the kind
we're disc\)ssing here today, an~ also to car~y o.n training
progtams for court personnel- ju~ges, .court clerks,
probation officers, magistrates and others.
The Judicial Conference and the .Judicial Center have
more than 25 committees dea~ing with OUJ? problems, and
) must try to keep informed. ~~ to what they are doing and
what they ought to . be. doing. .
So I ani involved in all' of these activities-and
increasingly, so, I find. These matters take.-a pproxbnately
one third of 1ny working hours. .: ,
Q. When did you begin to see your'function. in this
light? . .. . . .. .
A. I deci9ed i~mediately on taking : office that the
time to begin was. then and. there, .and the means was
co-operation with the legal profession.
 . f~
~:.: t. ~~:

The Amerkan Bar Association now has almost r 5o.ooo

members in, I think, 1,700 State and local bar associations.
around the country. It is a grass-roots 'organization in
-every sense. The association has done monumental worK
in improving criminal 'justice and in. other fields.
' ' '

Q. What percen~age of. the legi:l.l professions is that?

. . ' .
1: . J qo_p 't know, but it has increased so rapidly that
'I .would say that it must be jn' the neighborhood of half of
all .the actively pr~ct~cirig la\~yers in -the country . .
The American Bar AssoCiation Is -not the
ultraconservative, dormant, ceremonial organization that
'it perhaps was 35 or 40 years ago. It is a very dynamic
organization, and if it . puts its will and its force and .it.<;.
:influence behi.nd. any 'p~rticular activity, the odds are it
.will get done. . . :
. . . .. }

, Witness the court-ad!flinistrator program : Have you

:ever seen lawyers or. judges move that fast before?
. I made the speech on August 10. I drew a rough
. blue-print for the program while I was on a vacation in
"September. W.e ha.d the first meetings in October, and
on December 7 1969. the final' meeting approving the
' structure, selecting a director and setting up the ' plan of
:-operations was completeCt. In May of 1_970 the cl'asses 0f
a s.ix rrionths' cours~ opened at the University of Denver.
Q. Are you saying that. could not have been done
:without the American Bar Association?
. A. That couldn't have been done-there wasn't a
chance of getting that done-without the prestige and the
power of the American Bar Association, the American
Judicature Society and the Institute of . Judicial
Administration, as c~sponsors. They selected a board of
.. directors, and Herbert Brownell, former Attorney-General,
'Was selected chairman of the board. james Webb, former
NASA Administrator ; John Ma_cy, former Civil Service
Chairman, and some other very distinguished lawyers and
:~udges are on the board. :' :.
.'; This is the best illustration of how I can be helpful in
;getting these things done. If I ask the American Bar
 .""""'
-,~~
:..-

Association to take on a responsibility, I find "that. if it is:

reasonable, if it makes sense to them, they will get the t~k
done. And the American Bar Association"can draw manv
~ organizations .into a collective program, partly because
most of the leaders of other lawyer organizat~ons are also
leaders of the American Bar Association.
Q. A lot of people are going to be surprised to. learn
that the Cqi~f Justice is as. active as he .is in.all these other :
func.tions. Is this . a proper
..
role?
.
A . . I've had a few le~ters questioning-but very,: very
few.
'
: Q: How do you answer ?
. .: A. \ ' Well, usually I answer them . and . 4sk; : " Who
i ..dd. you :suggest will do it ? If I don't do it; rwl\o wi~l ? .',.
Sdme people have written ' bad~ apd said, in ,essenct:; : . r H

n ow see this, and. I was wrong. -fhank you .very much .

and keep on going"~ However;. the ." overwhelming
volume of mail is warmly favorable and very encouraging.
0

. Q. When the federal ~ourts ha,v~ a financial problem

- a budgetary problem-db you baye direct access to
Cfmgress ?
A.Not really-except to d'o it in a formal way in a
. budget rcquctst, which isn't a very eloquent wa.y of arguing-
your case. It seems to be against tr.adition for me to ap~
pear before the Appropriations Cotl1rhittee to ~upport m.y- ,
requests, and this is probably sound. I doubt the need
for a personal appearance in the conventional sense. If
w~ make out a good case in wr-iting, ram con fident Con
gress \Viii co-operate. They ~re as much .:interested fn-
. justice as judges-and t~ey a!e much clo$er tp.the people; :
.,
Q. Do you th.ink, from a tec:Onological standpoint,
that the Supreme Court machinery .'4as fail~n ~ehind the
times?
. _.

A. Yes, in certaip respects, alt}?.ough I' would not put

it in qu.;~c tho-se. terms. The equipment-the machinery
.in the broader sense than hardware7-just isn':t.:there . . And'
son1e of our methods are not adequate for. the present .
. voh~me.
. - of cases.. We have
~-. .
a need for
. the kind of modern
-equipment most government agencies and . all successful
bu~inesses use:

. .w '>
~ hav.e almp~t. nothi~g but the most primitive basic
~quip111;ent~ . At _le~si 25 . employees still use n1anual,
non~electric typewriters We had' no efficient, modern
-copying machine until . recently. Justices read thousands
. of pag~s <?._c~rbon copies of legal memos each year-
. typed with .IO copies on very thin paper. These memos
were called " flipisies ,, and., . of- course, were terribly
(}ifficult to read. . 'We' riow have two modern co-piers, and
:rio Justice reads ;{ seve'rith, ejghth or ninth carbon copy.
. '

These are small details, but they are important in our

.daily wo_r:k. . We ,a~e . working on other improve~ents .
.: . Q. HoW: much=ih as'the- wo'rk of the Supreme Court'
~ -<:~ang~d hi rec;entyea~S'? . .
~: .: A. It ' ha~s: ~hank~d ln volume, 'chiefly. Just consider .-
\' 'these figures: In 1940, _in the Supreme Court, there were
!.approximately I ,000 cases filed, . and in 1970-30 years
! later-4.400. The projection for 1975 is 5,629.
; . . . . .
~- . We now project'7,r82 cases in 1980. Before that-
f long before that-the work of the Supreme Court of the
~ United States will either b.r-eak down or it willl deteriorate
t: in . quali_ty so that its historic role wUI not be'l performed
I~ adequately. .
~~ Q. Do you mean the Court by 1975 .wi!l be so
; 1nuhdated by work that the whole system will JUSt stop
..

, .at the top?

:. .4. No, it won't stop. I think what will happen is
~ we'll keep on going but the quality of the work w:ill
;-;progressive,ly deteriorate.
Q. What do you think should be done?
~ A . The entire jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
:shou1d be carefu_lly studied.
One example is th.e volun1e of' three-judge district
:c ourts which deal with constitutional claims. Those
courts are Specially conven.ed and are a mixture of three
~ 0
t~ial andappellate judges. Direct appeal to t~e Supreme
Court is allowed. These cases are an enormous burden .,
in some c;ircuits and a burden on the Supreme. Cou~t. F~v
.case~. except in lim~ted emergencies, . should never. go I

direct1y to the Supreme Court fro~ federal district court.

Cases should go through the courts of appeal. This is:
just one example.
The Supreme Court of the United States cannot
perform its. constitutional and historic function if it must
review over 4,ooo cas~s a year and hear arguments in 150
to r6o. - Som~ screenivg process must take this crushing
burden off nine men and spread it over a greater number
in other courts.
We can expand and enlarge the other f~deral COl:lrts.
We have more than doubled the number of district and
circuit judges in recent years, but the Supreme Ccnirt
probably cannot effectively opera.t~ if we increase it to 12
or r.8 or 24. So the only solution 1~ to limit the vofume .
6f cas~s .
Q. What about other courts?
A . This matter of modernizing equipment and
methodology is the sort of _overh~ul . th.a t's needed c:tll up
a11~ down the line. It'~ true in most of the State system~,
too.
Q. Should "
therebe an intermediate review court?
e .

A ... I'm not sure what the solution. is, but we must do
something-and do it very, very soon.
For example, when I tried to find out in the last year
how many automobile cases there were in all the State
courts in the cQuntry, :there ..was no reliable .place where
that information is gathered. I yvanted to find out how
many jurors were used in all th~ State court systems and
what the cost was, but there was :no place I could find
that information. ~ .-
Q. Do you nee~ a central a~ency to serve a~l th~
State?
A. Yes, definitely-a clearinghouse of information-
very important information, available to all courts. We
need some kind of national judicial center.
. There'S l,lO great teason,for exa1nple, why there should
be a.n . enormous disparity in the salaries of judges of
vani_O.\lS States_. nor in the method of selection and the
tenure'; .And nere again, the legal profession can., do
somet~ing about that. -
. aut if we had this central establishment-and. I think
the !American bar .Will._do something on th.is before too
long~we could inai<.e ffiany improvements. The Institute
of -Ju~Hdai .. Administration at' New York University has
tried, t6 ' do this task, but it is. underfinanced and
u_nderstaffed and cannot meet all the demands.

STATE_JUDGES: UNDERPAID
Q. Are most State judges still elected ?
. A. M~st ~f them "a;re. And yo~ can't expect to get
first-class supreme cou~ judges in the States at$ 16,500 or
$ -20,000 a year except by great personal sacrifice by these .
men. State judicial salaties range from $ 16,5oo
to $ 4o,ooo. : That is an unfair situation.
Q. . It.. ~o:unds as :though you agre~ that some critics
are on the right track when they complain that the judicial.
system in this country is out of date-
A . It's very much out of date. It is literally true
that, as to procedure, it yon could get John Adams,
Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson and bring them
back-you wo1J,ldn't even have to give them a bah-cut-
all they would need would be about a two-day briefing
over at the Federal judicial Center,. and they could walk
into court in Washington, D~C., or St. Paul or San
Franciso and try a case.
There is value to continuity, but that's carrying
continuity and stability a little bit far. Can you think of
where we'd be if ho~pitals and doctors were still using
techniques, drugs and equipment of 30 years ago?
Q. Mr. Chief Justice, do you envision a big expansion
in the nu1nber of federal courts?
l

A. I hqpe. not~ . I would. rather see a contraction of

jurisdiction.
 . Some people . seemed.. to think that at ' t . . Loilis I
believed that pollution cases and cO:ns~iner cases should be
kept out of the federal courts. . That isn't., .what I s'a id ~t
.all. ..
I said if Congress is goingto pass riew statutes relating
t9 pollution control and new statutes abo'!J.t consumer
actions, it had better .at -the same time think of the impact
on the federal court~; t ry :to.:put some calip~rs on it and
. say, '" wen: this will take number of additional judges over
the period of the next five years " and start .~eeding ~~em .
'in, plus additional court reporters-who are harder to .find
than judges. Yop don't have much trouble finding judges,
but court reporters are almost hnpossible to)ind ..
. ' ..
What I was pointing to was the !~l(itiop.sl?-ip : that if
~y.~:m'r~ going to do one, you've got' to do. the--other. .We
.in:us~ give the workman his tools. .
Beyond that there is indeed a question. Some people
glibly assume that all .polfution cases an<;l class actions .
belong. in federal courts. That is a simplistie:notion on a
very complex problem.. .. Some. of those cases will involve
'federal questions properly. ~or fede:~;al . courts, but m~ny
can better be treated in .:. State
.
courts..
Generalizations are nqt very- constructiv.e . ._-, ..

ELECTRONIC RECORDING. OF TRIALS

, Q. That raises . still another question-.the .:use of:

' electronic recording of trial proceedings as a suppl~ment
or substitute for traditional c<;mrt reporting. _W hat about
~hat? ~
A. There has been much . - research -- __. .a~a-
"~ !

experin1entation in that field. But , to rely -entirely on

voice recording dealing with te?timony in . which every
w~rd and nuance may be . cruciat pre:sents problems:
'First, the eq~ipment ~ musf .be . impro_ved; .second? the .
operator probably must be a trajned court reporter ; and~ :
tbird, lavvyers and judges must.' change their habits __of'/:S
<Courtroom performance. ... _-=:,:%,lfj
 For example, the judge; wit~esses and lawyers must
~ become rriicrophone-q)nscio~s,. and the starting point wiil
. be rro put each 19,wyer iri something. like the witness box .
.so that he cannot mo.ve out of range of the. micropho!le,
wandering about the courtroom. These are a few of the
problems: but .tP,ey are all ppen to sohltion. .
. '" . .. '

. Q. . Will it be possible .to .get lawyers and judges to

. - ......t}l~se.
: make .. - .changes?
A . It will take some monumental efforts, but it must
be done.
Q. What happ~ns if we just drag a~ofig as we have 7
A. Well, as with all archa,ic. methods and procedures,
it's somewhat like .a car that you keep on running and
dori't repair .or put any oil fn it and don't buy new tires :
Finally, that car just sto"ps. And that's what will happen.
W\;'re . brea.ki~g down iD: spots.' In New York . City~
the recent outbreaks of violence in the jails really resu~t~<l
. in Pel!t from th~ fact that the city had a great.pile-up of
. people confined and couldn't ge~ them to trial. . . .
... . . . .
Q. Haven't they had repeat_ed increases in the number
of judges in New York? >
A : I believe .so. This is why the organization-and-
: system aspect has got to be emphasized. Judge~ without .
. system and organization-and expert ~taffs-are a bit like
:an army With rio leader~ and no disCipline.
Here we have a completely new space science, new in
\ the highest twentieth-century sense-we've trained . 58
f.astronauts in less than ro years-.and yet we think we~re
~,doing well because for the 'first time in our hi~tory w~~re
i just gettj.n.g the first forrri~lly trained court administrators
Jin this country .on Dec.; I2, -~~70.
t I don't . mean to say there aren't any good court

~
administrators now. There are, but 1 think it would be
:fair to say there are no. more than a dozen or so-and
:they have trained themselves.
VIII
 .... Q. Many complaints . about the conp.uct of the
supreme < Court ~ have hinged on the - ~xtensive summer
re<:esses of the..Cq:urt. :: Is that a valid con1plaint? . e
0 0 t

, :A. This is r~ally part of: the American folklore. Tht:!

other day I 'call~Cl the Clerk of t1le Court and asked him.to
take' a typical week of last summer-any : week- ~ -a.ncl>.Iet
me see the briefs and petitiorfs :filed so that a could see
\vhat .was assignea<to each Justice inrany:week from the
time we n~cess~d on:'.:june 30 until ' the first hweek of
October. ~
I had made my own guess that it would be the
equivalent of a1 st'ack oi ordinary paperback books about
two feet high.!. -t was off the mark. It was nearly three
feet high~ This isvyhat is sent to every Justice every week.
I"had e;sHmated v'Hfe summet filings af so cases a. week.
]t turnd out tO' hef J;>tecisely :99 cases each week.
1 0

' ' ~ ( ' ,r 'I .: . '

. , . Q. _ J ~~fdl!ifpff ' t~e _so~c.~lled v~<;a!ion ?_ . .

A. Yes. And those cases. must_ be processed. in . the
.sense that, one wa.y or another, e~ch Justice inust
v I

familiarize hiniselfwith each-case so that at the conference

the first1 week in '0ctober each justice is ready tovote.-
n urtng .thos~ .~-Mrruner. )!lohths, t, ~ s6 cases c ame in
.,a~ter we.. stopp~.<t .. hearings- . . aft~'r we .went on'. that
u vacadon " . we'. read . about. . Of course, that . term
t
" vacation " is used iri the legal sense, but. now people
.have com'e to::think of it a_s playing golf or lying on a
beach somewhere. .,. . . . .. . . . .. . :~
Q. . On.-w hat do you base your ..view that thes~ extra :
burdens are part of the. function of a Chi~f justic;:e?.. . : :
. A. 'It is really as-much necessity .as It is a matter of '!
choice. ..:: . - . ; i
. j

Realistically, _if the Chief justice of. tl1~ '()ni.ted.States

does n't trY' icr,'.oring abc>ut pr~g~ess on these things I've
been talking about; they aren't going tO' bedone very fast.
o ~M 0

'An. AttO~l1~y-.Qeneral ' o'f 'the ,. United states could :get

-attention, b~t these ~re not his .. problems. .He is uot .the .
mini~ter of~usdc,e ~. he's an advocate for the Government.{
:Probably, lf an At9rney~General undertook .to. deal-with .
'these problerJs.i jtidges might resist his eff~;rts. . . .. . . -~
 ~--
The ab~ence of some official who is the .(':)Unterpart of
. -the :Lord Chancellor :in :England is very .sharply in focus
for 1ne. The ,!--ord Chancellor in England is the highest
judicial officer~.but ~he~ devotes only a li~ited time to p-crrely,
judiciai:duties. . He. is .also Speaker--of 'the : Hous~. of - ~ords
~nd ~~ rnetnbet of the P:dme Minister;'s <;:abinet.;; Thus~. he
has (ac_cess and constan~ communication with all three
branches:=of -govermnent and .can keep tl).e ,ex~cutive and
legislative ~ bran.che~ fully informed onalmost Cl day-to~day
basis.
. . .Sucl1: . an office.r . is_not possible UIJ.cjer. ,our (;oncept of
. separation :of... ''powers,. and that 'is ;~_w,hy ' ) proposed in
St.. ~oui~ . that Congress create a perm4n.e nt .. Federal
Judiciary' Council appointed . one thjrd by Congress, one
third , by . the .Pre?ideri t . and . on.e . ~~~rd by _. -~~1e, Judicial
Conferenc~ of. the U.S. This. Coun~il, : with a srnall staff~
could establish the three-way c<;>mmv~ic~:tion now absent
on aU_.problems of the courts on whic~ Congtess and the
~resident share responsibility. . .: ' o.

: One more . thing : . The office .of~ 'the Chief Justice

desperately .needs a high-level admiri.istrativ:e . deputy or
assistant. I ~evote . four to six hours ~ day: on
administrative matters apart from judicial 'work, and my
it is not possible-not physically p6S~ible- ~o continue
this sc;h~dule ve~y long. .. .
:
. .'; : . 0

.. Q; Can you give a concrete example o'f what this

Council and this administrative deputy -would do? '
A. the Council staff would .revie\\r :existing federal
JurisdiCtion, co-operating with congressional staffs, the
Attorney-General and the Federal Judicial Center, and
retomrp.end changes to divert some direct appeals away
f:ro;m. the Supreme Court and to the courts of appeaL It
would. examine ail new legislation to make sure resort to
# ~ : .:'' ) ~ 0 ~ .. :- , '

fed~ral courts vvas sound, as a ID?tter o( policy. Wl}.en

federal jurisdiction was significantly enlarged, it vvould
measure the_projected need: for more- judges an:d staffs.
The adn1inistrative deputy th~ .Chief' Justice would to
work closely -w ith ,_;this .Council,-with .the Federal Judicial
Center
.
and its committees . and. the. Judicial
. .. .. . . . .Confe-
.. .
rence
. . of ~ ..
..
-~~li.
;~~- !:
the U.S. and its committees and with the AdQlinist:rat~ve
Office of the United s tates Courts. In short, he would do
what the Chief Justice would do ifhe had ho cases to hoof'
, and -d edde; There are more than 2o stanCling an d special
committees t}le Chief Justice sh~~ld keep up witb. He
can~ot d9. it adequ~!ely in a 24"'hour day, but .<t . h~gpJy
qualified assistant C<?U~d do so and keep the Chief. J.~stice
informed and take important policy questior_1st9 him for
decision
. .
Today, as vve sit here in thi~ discus~ion, a crisiS:
approaching -a breakdown is 'in sight in the Fifth Circuit.
that embraces all the 9ulf S~ates fr9rn Texas to Key Wes~,
Fla., plus Georgia an'd South Carolj-qa. Their case lo~d
increases ~o per ceil~ to 2o per cent each year, ?rtd they
sin;iply cailriot continue to . cope with it. A F:ederal
judiciary Council bf."the kind I advocate wou19. hav~ tnove~r
on this years ago .
I have been in the .courts of almost every country o-f.
Europe except Spqin, Portugal and tl~e Iron Curtain .
countries. :r ve se~n - ~omething of 'how they work and
how, _even tnough_W.,eniay .think t hat our system is very
m:1.1ch better. in Il)a.n y! '}reas, th.ere_ j.s much yve can learn
from some of them. . - ' ' -
. .. . . .... I

In England, a patent case, for example, is not tried

wi(h a jury: They have not tried dvil cases with ~ jury
in England for 35 years, except -libel_and slander ca~es. .
When they try a patent case, -the judge 'has a great
flexibility,and if the ~ase invo_lvesnew spacecraft-problems
or chemical engineering or a'frp1anes, the judge will get ~
physicist or a chemical engineer or an (eronautic;:al expert,
and they sit on either side of him and they - decide the-
cas~ together. They probably finis}J. .the trial in a fraction
of ~he time we would require.
Q. Bo the men at the judges side decide the facts:

- A.
.
and he decides the law?
.
Essential~y

-
that is about the way it works. We
don't have that -kind !o f 'flexibility.
 ..,

Q. Should a recidivist-a man who is convicted time

~~ter time- ... be autoriiatically sentenced to lif.e
imprisonn1ent 'Wi~h no opportunity for parole? "
This raises two points: the mandatory sentence
, .4.
p:roQlem and .th~ p~:rr-p_<~ment incarceration of the chronic
repeater or incurabl~ . rec;i~ivist-the three or four;time
loser~ for example. ,. :

. ..first .. '"the man9a.~oryseqt~qce

is no solution for
~nything. the manq~,tory sentences that are written into
the $tattiteS, are ope .pf the impediments, not one of the
4SSets, to the .adm~n}~tratl.On of c:dminal justice~
The indeterni.inate. sentence is much the better system,
~!?-~ yet tl!~ :eupUs; !~~ponse tq rj~jpg c:rin1e i~ often :
c' Double .the sentence."
( . .
What it does is make it harder
J ,. t : 0 ~ - ~ #

.$oinetimes to get a ~onvictiop. a1~d harder to get the

conviction a..ffirme~ -by an appellate court. So that
,solution doesntt do it.
: vVe n1ay have to come to some~hing similar :to the
'$)'stem useq in son1e Northern EtJ.rop~an ~ountrie~ where
1Courts decide that a chronic offender is a hazard and he is
o)nfiried 1,1ntii they-think he i~ ~afe to rejqin society. This
cap b~ a long, long 'time. Of coqrse, thaes easier in a
Sq12.1l country operaf1n& ~nder a central govermnent.
\A/hat kinds of institutions a re the incurable
Q.
. .
;offenders copfined in? ~
Generally speaking, they pave no high-s~q1rity
. .4.
institutions. They use open pr~~9WI~ penctJ fa!-"JTIS inwhicP.
:all inmates keep busy. It would be fairly easy to escape,
but it isn't very usef\ll to escape from a prison in Holland
or Denmark. for example, because the prisoner has almost
novvhere to go. Vv'i~h all the strigent passport and travel
limitations, he can be picked up very easily. As a result,
~hey . hav~- n<_) prisons in .the sens~ that we do.

Q~ What about 'prisqn personnel?

" )

A. The pri~on guards in our country pretty generally

-are poorly trained and poorly paid. They're very often
:patronage j'obs, but almost the bott0n1 rung of the at
 political ladder. In Northern Europe, men in these jobs-
are carefully screened, substahtially-: trained and paid wt:ell
-perh~ps proportionately one.:and a half.or two times as:
well paid as is a gll~rd in a State pt~s~:m~
..
.
in this. country.
~

Q. Does the Europea!l .sys~eip !e~abi!itate a cqnv}ct?

A. It does . a much better job than ours does~ but it
. isn't.perfect. There .is no perfect soh1tion in this business.
Anybody who ever thinks there is _is dec.eiving himself.
In these older so cities they ~re more philosophical-res~
in1patient than \ye are. But they are firm with the
so-called incurable or incorrigible offenders. They have
many centuries
.
of experience
.
; we have only.two.
I have visited 11fany prisons her~ ,ahd abroad. If you
want a depressing experience, visit a State prison on. ~
Saturday, particularly, wheri the prisoners' work is over
for the week. There are exceptions .as .to some States. .
. " ..
. If any:one of you were running the insti.t ution, you
would se~: to _'.it that_' the inmates- . mostly young m~n-
h~~ .a, ball fleid: and v:olley-:pall ~o\].rts ~n~ R:~h~r exerci~e
faqht1es. . Absolutely nothn;tg ,In .~ost of these place~.
These young fellows ate just. lounging ~ ~round, sitting,
vegetating. Many of th~m are. confined two .to a tiny
cell that was built to hold .one man before the time of.the
Civil W ar . .

If we set out on a deliberate progran;J. to brutaliz~ and
dehumanize people and produce more c r.iin:inals, thi,s
would be the way .tQ dq ~t.
Q. no you think that's typical of our pen3:l
institutions ?
A. UnfortunatelY., yes. There ~are exceptions.
California .is an example. When Earl . Warren was
Governor, he completely reformed the ~hole p~nal system.
But even ther~ the giowth of the State and increase in
c~ime are giving them many new pro'blems.

Wisconsin has an excellent system.

 Q. Is oiie of the problems that people will not vote
' the.)tax money for pri<;OD: refor~?
;1 A. Yes, bu(thex're pa'ying more wi"thout it and don't
' realize it. It's a hidden.. tax that is enbrmous, and the
public must be made aware of h. L.ook, for example, at
the growth of privat~ pollcy forces. FinanCial journals
report that costs have now reached a. figure of over
two .. ~~Ilion dollars a year for private policjng, plant
.. Protectiop, .neighborhooq patrols an.d office buildings.
. This is an indirect cost every person helps pay-and there
are many. other indirect costs of inadequate correction
systems.
. . .
Q. Mr. Chief justice, to return for a moment .to the
matter of belng labeled an "activist ")n your nonjudicial
.affairs, is there a danger that in the public m.i nd tllls will
be associated with your -a~titude on the .bench?
A. That is possible, but as with a pudding the final
test will be the taste. . Someone must m~~e these problems .
of ~h~ courts kno~ to. ~~e publ.ic ~~ .that'.inte.1~ig~pt
choices can be made. Th1s, to me, IS one of the functions
of those who carry the responsibility. . ; .
, .! , ,.
. ..
I except?'ii"((i)n: the basis of many letters-that State
chief justices will b~cor~e more artic:ulate on. th~s~
problems. Perhaps Governors and th~ Congress, even
though overwheln1ed with other problems, will give more
.thought to the needs of the judicial systems. 1 am
optimistic enough to. believe so.


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