Academic writing

1. What is Academic writing?

Academic writing is a style of writing governed by rules and practices such as a formal structure and
order, citations for research to support ideas, and the use of correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
A formal tone is also necessary. Academic writing differs from personal writing primarily because it
explores and analyzes theories in depth and offers explanations for societal customs, problems and
events.

2. Features of academic writing

Academic writing is linear it has one central point with every part contributing to the main line of
argument, without repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. There are 8 main features
of academic writing: complexity, formality, objectivity, explicitness, accuracy, hedging and responsibility.

a. Complexity

Written language is complex and is lexically dense with varied vocabulary. It uses noun-based phrases,
subordinate clauses/embedding, complement clauses, sequences of prepositional phrases, participles,
passive verbs, lexical density, lexical complexity, nominalization, attributive adjectives and adjectival
groups as complements.

b. Formality

Academic essays should avoid:

Colloquial words and expressions: stuff, a lot of, thing, sort of, etc.
Abbreviated forms: cant, dont, shouldnt.
Two word verbs: put off, bring up.
Sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays.
Asking questions.

c. Precision

Facts and figures are given precisely. Phrases to be avoided: a lot of people it is preferable to be
precise and specific: 50 million people. (Not: many, people, etc.)

d. Objectivity

Written language is in general objective rather than personal. Academic writing tends to use nouns and
adjectives rather than verbs and adverbs. In general, the following words should be avoided: I, me,
myself, you to refer to the reader or people in general.
 e. Explicitness

Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. It has explicit connections shown by
signaling words (transitions).

f. Accuracy

Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately.

g. Hedging

A feature of academic writing is the need to be cautious in ones statements in order to distinguish
between facts and claims. This feature is termed 'hedging'. Hedging can be defined as the use of
linguistic devices to show hesitation or uncertainty and to display politeness and indirectness.

When writing for academic disciplines it is necessary not only to show that you are able to write in a
formal, abstract fashion, but also that you are able to show the extent to which you believe in, or are
prepared to stand up for, what you are reporting/claiming.

h. Responsibility

In academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source text,
providing evidence and justification for any claims you make.

Literary Essay
Purpose: to examine and evaluate a work of literature or an aspect of a work of literature; convince the
person reading the essay that you have supported the idea you are developing.

Features: analyzing a short story might include identifying a particular theme and showing how the
writer suggests that theme through the point of view from which the story is told. This kind of writing
demands tight organization and control. Therefore, a literary essay must have a central idea (thesis), it
must have several paragraphs and everything in it must be directly related to the central idea and must
contribute to the readers understanding of that central idea.

Structure of a LITERARY ESSAY

1. Introduction:

It should capture the readers interest and it prepares the reader for your major thesis. The introduction
must include the author and title of the work as well as an explanation of the theme to be discussed.
Other essential background may include setting, an introduction of main characters, etc. The thesis
goes in this paragraph usually at the end. The thesis statement tells your reader what to expect; it
stated the purpose of your essay

2. Body paragraphs

Each paragraph in the body includes (1) a topic sentence, (2) textual evidence (quotes from your
reading) and commentary (explanation), and (3) a concluding sentence. In its simplest form, each
body paragraph is organized as follows:

a. topic sentence
b. lead-in to textual evidence 1
c. textual evidence 1
d. commentary
e. transition and lead-in to textual evidence 2
f. textual evidence 2
g. commentary
h. concluding or clincher sentence

a. Topic Sentence: the first sentence of a body or support paragraph. It identifies one aspect of
the major thesis and states a primary reason why the major thesis is true.

Example: When he first appears in the novel, Sidney Carton is a loveless outcast who sees
little worth in himself or in others.

b. Textual Evidence: a specific example from the work used to provide evidence for your topic
sentence. Textual evidence can be a combination of paraphrase and direct quotation from the
work.

Example: When Carlton and Darnay first meet at the tavern, Carlton tells him, I care for no
man on this earth, and no man cares for me (Dickens 105).

c. Commentary: your explanation and interpretation of the textual evidence. Commentary tells the
reader what the author of the text means or how the textual evidence proves the topic sentence.

Example: Carton makes this statement as if he were excusing his rude behavior to Darnay.
Carton, however, is only pretending to be polite, perhaps to amuse himself. With this
seemingly off-the-cuff remark, Carton reveals a deeper cynicism and his emotional
isolation.

d. Transitions: words or phrases that connect or hook one idea to the next, both between and
within paragraphs. Transition devices include using connecting words as well as repeating key
words or using synonyms.

Examples: Finally, in the climax Another example: Later in the

 story In contrast to this behavior
Not onlybut also Furthermore

e. Lead-In: phrase or sentence that prepares the reader for textual evidence by
introducing the speaker, setting, and/or situation.

Example: Later, however, when the confident Sidney Carton returns alone to his home, his
alienation and unhappiness become apparent: Climbing into a high chamber in a well of
houses, he threw himself down in his clothes on a neglected bed, and its pillow was wet with
wasted tears (Dickens 211).

f. Clincher/Concluding Sentence: last sentence of the body paragraph. It concludes the

paragraph by tying the textual evidence and commentary back to the thesis.

Example: Thus, before Carton experiences love, he is able to convince himself that the
world has no meaning.

3. Conclusion

It gives the essay a sense of completeness and lets readers know that they have come to the end of
the paper. The conclusion might restate the thesis in different words, summarize the main points made
or make a relevant comment about the literary work analyzed, but from a different perspective. Do not
introduce a new topic in your conclusion.
The conclusion also should broaden from the thesis statements to answer the so what?
It should:

Reflect on how your essay topic relates to the book as a whole

Evaluate how successful the author is in achieving his or her goal or message
Make predictions
Give your opinion of the novels value or significance

Reflective Essay
Purpose: to expose and talk about:
Your personal insight about a topic, your reflections.
Your individual views on the matter.
An explanation of your attitude and your own thoughts on the subject matter.

A reflective essay requires knowledge of your own thoughts and the factors that influence your thinking.
Another purpose is that it allows the author to detail and carefully consider one experience. This essay
serves as a tool of metacognitive assessment.
Feature: It explores how the writer feels about a particular subject or experience. You arent recounting
events or presenting a story of a time mechanism. You are reflecting on or evaluating those events. A
reflective essay is not to be confused with an informative essay. A reflective essay is an evaluation. Its
a record of your feelings and findings from the beginning of your experience until the end.

Structure of a REFELCTIVE ESSAY

1. Introduction

The opening paragraph includes an introduction that explains why youve chosen the topic and why it is
important to you. The thesis refers to how you problematize your topic. The thesis states exactly a
question about what you are reflecting.

Begin writing your essay by describing your subject, your feelings and/or expectations at the beginning
of the project and by partly disclosing or hinting at your conclusion.

2. Body paragraphs

The body should expose your ideas and experiences with the subject that you are writing about. In new
words you are reflecting or hunting after an incident or circumstance and mention what you learned
from it. The body caters for evidence or further information about most of the situation and your
reflections on it.

In reflective essay, you describe what went right and what went wrong or could be improved and how.
For example, you might describe attractions you didnt visit that you would like to see and/or side trips
that disappointed you and why. The most important factor to remember in writing a reflective essay is
that your opinions and conclusions should directly relate to the experience you examine in the essay
body.

3. Conclusion

The conclusion to a reflective essay usually includes what you learned from the experience. A possible
integrative answer to the thesis question.

Imaginative Essay
Purpose: to imagine that you are something or someone else and write from his/her point of view.
Imaginative writing is closely related to freedom of content, form and outline; the field and mode of
discourse offer certain flexibility for the writer to appeal to the function of language she/he most prefers.
However, the poetic function of language focuses on the message and play with it form is one of the
main features of this genre.

Features: an imaginative essay is fiction or type of short story. You imagine a particular historical or
fantastic situation and write the rest of the story. Depending on the prompt, the imaginative essay can
discuss anything from space travel to civil rights.

Tips for writing imaginative essay

Think about the prompt and brainstorm some ideas: usually, imaginative essays start with an imaginary
situation and ask you how you would respond to it.

Add sensory details: how do you feel? What do people and things around you look like?

Add some personal change: your character should see things differently or act differently by the end of
the story.

Types of imaginative essay:

Personification: it refers to the animation of an animate object.

Extended metaphor/two ways of looking at sth: A metaphor is a comparison between two dissimilar
things that says that one thing is the other. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not use "like" or "as" to
compare the things. It simply says that one thing is the other.

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is developed over several lines of text, over an entire poem,
or throughout an entire text. Sometimes in an extended metaphor, the writer comes out and says that
one thing is the other, and then develops the metaphor further by comparing characteristics of the two
things.

On the other hand, some extended metaphors are implied metaphors-meaning that the writer does
not come right out and directly compare the two things; rather, the comparison is developed over
several lines by comparing characteristics of two things until the reader begins to understand the
comparison.

Examples of Extended Metaphor:

1. In As You Like It, Shakespeare develops an extended metaphor comparing life to a drama performed
on stage: "All the world's a stage and all the men and women merely players. One man in his time
plays may parts."
2. In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare develops an extended metaphor comparing Juliet to the sun: "But
soft! What light through yonder window breaks? It is the East, and Juliet is the sun! Arise, fair sun, and
kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief."

It is a text type in itself in which one aspect, person or object of description is presented metaphorically
with textual appearance of similes and metaphor.

Two ways of looking: combine 2 meanings of a same thing (experiential, metaphoric, figurative,
connotation, denotation)

Fabulation: it is similar to writing a fabula, but the focus is not on the moral conclusion, rather it
emphasizes the mode of discourse through irony, satire, parody of the real, of course employing
animals. Eg: an animal is personified and used to build a metaphor.
Defamiliarization: it is a mode of discourse that aims at breaking patterns in the ways of telling, either in
narrative or description. Write from a different perspective/time/space than the usual; write with a voice
of an expected narrator.