ISSN 0010-9525, Cosmic Research, 2006, Vol. 44, No. 4, pp. 334348. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2006.

Original Russian Text D.V. Titov, H. Svedhem, D. McCoy, J.-P. Lebreton, S. Barabash, J.-L. Bertaux, P. Drossart, V. Formisano, B. Haeusler, O.I. Korablev, W. Markiewicz,
D. Neveance, M. Petzold, G. Piccioni, T.L. Zhang, F.W. Taylor, E. Lellouch, D. Koschny, O. Witasse, M. Warhaut, A. Acomazzo, J. Rodrigues-Cannabal, J. Fabrega, T. Schirmann,
A. Clochet, M. Coradini, 2006, published in Kosmicheskie Issledovaniya, 2006, Vol. 44, No. 4, pp. 349364.

Venus Express: Scientific Goals, Instrumentation,

and Scenario of the Mission
D. V. Titova, h, H. Svedhemb, D. McCoyb, J.-P. Lebretonb, S. Barabashc, J.-L. Bertauxd,
P. Drossarte, V. Formisanof, B. Haeuslerg, O. I. Korablevh, W. Markiewicza, D. Neveancei,
M. Petzoldj, G. Piccionik, T. L. Zhangl, F. W. Taylorm, E. Lellouche, D. Koschnyb,
O. Witasseb, M. Warhautn, A. Acomazzon, J. Rodrigues-Cannabaln, J. Fabregao,
T. Schirmanno, A. Clocheto, and M. Coradinip
a Max-Planck-Institute for Solar System Research, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany
b ESA/ESTEC,
Noordwijk, Netherlands
c Institute of Space Physics, Kiruna, Sweden
d Service dAronomie du CNRS/IPSL, BP.3, 91371, Verrires-le-Buisson, France
e LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, 5 Place Janssen, 92195 Meudon, France
f Istituto di Fisica dello Spazio Interplanetario, via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Roma, Italy
g Universitat der Bundeswehr, Mnchen, Germany
h Space Research Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Profsoyuznaya ul. 84/32, Moscow 117997, Russia
i Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy, 3 av. Circulaire, B-1189, Brussels, Belgium
j Universitt zu Kln, Institut fur Geophysik und Meteorologie, A.-Magnus-Platz, 50923 Kln, Germany
k Istituto Astrofisica Spaziale (INAF-IAS), via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Roma, Italy
l Institute of Space Research, Graz, Austria
m Oxford University, UK
n ESA/ESOC, Darmstadt, Germany
o EADS Astrium, Tolouse, France
p ESA Headquarters, Paris, France

Received December 5, 2005

AbstractThe first European mission to Venus (Venus Express) is described. It is based on a repeated use of
the Mars Express design with minor modifications dictated in the main by more severe thermal environment at
Venus. The main scientific task of the mission is global exploration of the Venusian atmosphere, circumplane-
tary plasma, and the planet surface from an orbiting spacecraft. The Venus Express payload includes seven
instruments, five of which are inherited from the missions Mars Express and Rosetta. Two instruments were
specially designed for Venus Express. The advantages of Venus Express in comparison with previous missions
are in using advanced instrumentation and methods of remote sounding, as well as a spacecraft with a broad
spectrum of capabilities of orbital observations.
PACS numbers: 96.30.Ea
DOI: 10.1134/S0010952506040071

INTRODUCTION modules on the surface, yielded a lot of data for under-

From the very advent of space era Venus is an
extremely attractive object for planetary investigations.
Early exploration of the planet using the spacecraft of
the Venera series, Pioneer Venus, and Vega (1962
1985), together with ground-based observations
allowed one to describe basic physical and chemical
conditions in the atmosphere and on the surface of the
planet. At the same time, many problems concerning
physical processes that maintain so exotic conditions
on the planet remained unsolved. Global mapping of
the surface by Pioneer Venus, Venera-15, Venera-16,
and Magellan, along with investigations by landing
standing geology and geophysics of the surface. Venus
Express should make similar systematic study of the
atmosphere. This is especially necessary for atmosphere
below the clouds, which remains virtually unexplored,
excluding some experiments on descent probes and
observations by Galileo and Cassini flyby spacecraft.
Fundamental scientific problems in physics of Venus
are related to global circulation of the atmosphere, its
composition, chemical and physical interactions of the
atmosphere with the surface (including possible volca-
nic activity), processes in the cloud layer, heat balance
and the role of various gases in maintaining the green-

334
 VENUS EXPRESS: SCIENTIFIC GOALS, INSTRUMENTATION
house effect, origin and evolution of the atmosphere,
circumplanetary plasma, and the interaction of the solar
wind with the planet. In addition, the problems of his-
tory of volcanism on Venus, global tectonics, and phys-
ical properties of the surface remain in many respects
open [30].
In spring of 2001 the European Space Agency
(ESA) suggested the scientific community to use
repeatedly the design of the Mars Express spacecraft in
order to realize some new astronomical or planetary
mission. The project to use a modified spacecraft with
already available scientific payload in the Venus orbit
[1] was chosen by ESA from nine proposed projects.
Existing systems of the spacecraft and scientific instru-
ments developed for the Mars Express and Rosetta mis-
sions, as well as already formed scientific and industrial
teams, allowed ESA to prepare the spacecraft for
launch in less than four years.
Venus Express will give an opportunity to make a
breakthrough in exploration of Venus. The instruments
designed for Mars Express and Rosetta, supplemented
with two new experiments, were found to be quite suit-
able for these purposes. The new generation of experi-
ments will be able to penetrate into the undercloud
atmosphere due to observations in the so-called trans-
parency windows, in which the emission of the lower
atmosphere or even of the surface can escape to space
through the thick cloud layer. This will allow one to dis-
close many mysteries in physics of the planet, to study
a mechanism maintaining hurricane winds and polar
vortices in the atmosphere, and to find a relationship of
extreme climatic conditions with volcanic and tectonic
processes.
BASIC SCIENTIFIC GOALS
Venus Express is aimed at a global investigation of
the Venusian atmosphere, circumplanetary plasma, and
some properties of the surface from the orbit. In this
section we describe the main scientific tasks of the mis-
sion, commenting how observations by Venus Express
will help solving them.
Structure of the Atmosphere
Previous investigations of the lower atmosphere of
Venus (060 km) were restricted to measurements by
16 descent probes, mainly at low latitudes [2, 3]. They
demonstrated the structure of the atmosphere below 30
km to be almost independent of latitude and time of the
day (Fig. 1). However, there are virtually no accurate
measurements of temperature and its gradient in the
lower atmosphere. The structure of the middle atmo-
sphere (60100 km) was studied by the infrared radi-
ometer onboard Pioneer Venus and by the Fourier spec-
trometer onboard the Venera-15 spacecraft [4]. At these
altitudes, temperature strongly depends on latitude and
local time, which is determined by radiation and
dynamic processes poorly studied at the moment too.
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
335
H, km
200
150
I
100
3 II III
1 clouds
2 H2SO4 + ?
50
atmosphere
CO2, N2, H2O, SO2, COS, CO, HCl...
4
0 200 400 600 800
T, K
Fig. 1. Structure of the Venusian atmosphere [3, 5]. Temper-
ature profiles below 100 km: low latitudes (1), 60 (2), and
75 (3). Profiles above 100 km are given by dotted (day) and
dashed (night) lines. Rectangles in the right-hand side of the
figure present the altitude ranges to be studied in the exper-
iments SPICAV (I), PFS and VIRTIS (II), VERA (III), and
in thermal sounding on the night side (IV).
The temperature of the thermosphere (100200 km) was
derived from observations of night ultraviolet glow by
Pioneer Venus and from density measurements [5, 6].
These observations indicated relatively low (300 K)
dayside temperatures and abrupt drop of temperature
down to 110 K while passing through the terminator on
the night side. Such a behavior turned out to be quite
unexpected, and it has no analogs in the Solar System.
Our knowledge about the thermosphere of Venus
remains incomplete due to several reasons. First, until
the present time, satellite observations were made with
a limited spatial resolution. Second, nightglow observa-
tions allow one to study a layer with a thickness of 15
20 km, i.e., they are made with poor resolution in verti-
cal direction. And third, most observations were made
at equatorial regions. Thus, the global distribution of
temperature and density is not known so far in detail.
Venus Express will study the structure of the atmo-
sphere using spectroscopic observations in a broad
spectral range, from ultraviolet to thermal infrared
emissions, and by the radio occultation method. The
upper atmosphere (80180 km) will be studied with a
high vertical resolution during solar and stellar occulta-
tions [7]. Spectroscopy of CO2 in the 4.3 m band and
in 15 m band will provide for remote sounding of tem-
perature from 60 to 100 km with a vertical resolution of
about 2 km. These observations will cover the planet
completely with resolution of a few tens of kilometers
[8, 9]. The radio occultation experiment of the atmo-
sphere will allow one to penetrate deeper (8040 km)
and to get temperature profiles with an altitude resolu-
tion of several hundred meters [10].
Thermal mapping of the regions with a large altitude
drop in the transparency windows on the night side will
336
H, km
150
H2O
CO
100 H2O
SO2 H2O CO
SO2
CO
H2O
50
H2O
SO2
HCl
HCl CO
H2O H2 O
0 sions, remains almost unexplored. Determination of the
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
Contents, ppm
Fig. 2. Contents of minor gas constituents of the atmosphere
of Venus. Rectangles show the data of previous studies
according to reviews [14, 31]. Vertical bars with arrows
demonstrate the limits of detection (or presumed errors of
measurements) for Venus Express experiments.
allow one to determine the temperature profile in the
lower altitude scale [8, 9, 11]. In [12], a hypothesis that
at every altitude the surface temperature is equal to tem-
perature of the atmosphere was used in order to recon-
struct the temperature gradient near the surface from
ground-based measurements. This is important for
determining the atmospheric stability parameter.
Composition and Chemistry of the Atmosphere
Carbon dioxide and nitrogen are the basic compo-
nents of the Venus atmosphere. Sulfur-bearing gases,
carbon oxide, water vapor, and other minor components
are present in the atmosphere with abundances of from
several pro mille (ppm) to a few thousand pro mille [13,
14, 31]. Figure 2 shows mixing ratios for basic minor
components of the atmosphere determined in the pre-
ceding missions.
Though their quantities are small, minor compo-
nents of the atmosphere participate in complex chemi-
cal cycles. There is a photochemical factory in the
upper troposphere (6070 km), where the reactions
between CO2, SO2, H2O, and chlorine-bearing gases
result in formation of sulfuric acid aerosols. Chemistry
of the lower atmosphere is determined by thermal
decomposition of sulfuric acid and by thermochemical
reactions between sulfur- and carbon-bearing gases and
water. Apparently, minerals of the surface also play an
important role in supporting a certain level of abun-
dance for some atmospheric gases [15].
Early studies of Venus resulted in a general idea
about the atmosphere composition. However, our
understanding of chemical cycles on Venus is far from
being complete. For example, the content of basic sul-
TITOV et al.
fur-bearing gas SO2 whose abundance in the atmo-
sphere is a few hundred ppm vastly exceeds balance
when carbonates are on the surface. Moreover, for 14
years of observations Pioneer Venus measured a strong
drop of this gas abundance near the cloud tops, which
can indicate to volcanic activity. Earlier observations
also found considerably inhomogeneous distribution of
water vapor near the cloud tops.
To study variations of the abundance of minor gas
components with latitude and local solar time is the
important problem in studies of composition and chem-
istry of the Venusian atmosphere. This is especially true
for the lower atmosphere which, with the exception of
scarce observations by landing modules and remote
sounding during flybys of Galileo and Cassini mis-
atmosphere composition is also of importance for
understanding the heat balance in the atmosphere and
the greenhouse effect.
The set of optical instruments of Venus Express
designed for remote sensing in a wide spectral range
(from ultraviolet to thermal infrared emissions) is per-
fectly suitable for solving this problem. Table 1 and
Fig. 2 present the ranges of altitudes and the levels of
abundances for various gases that will be measured by
the satellites instruments. The abundance of such gases
as SO2, SO, H2O, HCl, and CO and their variations will
be permanently determined near the cloud tops, which
will allow one to understand the process of photochem-
ical production of the sulfuric acid aerosol.
The discovery of spectral transparency windows
[16] through which the thermal emission of the lower
atmosphere can escape into space has given us a good
opportunity to investigate the lower atmosphere
remotely from the orbit. The spectral analysis of its
composition in the transparency windows is one of the
main tasks of Venus Express. More specifically, its sci-
entific tasks include monitoring of abundance of such
gases as H2O, SO2, COS, CO, H2O, HCl, and HF
together with their spatial and temporal variations.
These observations will substantially enrich our knowl-
edge about chemistry and dynamics of the Venusian
atmosphere.
Composition of the upper atmosphere will be investi-
gated during solar and stellar eclipses [7]. The profile of
CO will be measured from the cloud tops up to ~120 km
(the range in which photochemical production of car-
bon oxide takes place). The vertical profiles of SO2,
H2O and HDO, HCl and HF will be determined up to
altitudes of 80 km above the clouds (Fig. 2).
Cloud Layer
Venus is fully covered by the cloud layer occupying
the altitude range from 50 to 70 km. The optical thick-
ness of clouds changes from 20 to 40, depending on the
wavelength and location [13, 17]. In the visible range
Venus looks like a uniform disk. In ultraviolet range
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
 VENUS EXPRESS: SCIENTIFIC GOALS, INSTRUMENTATION 337

Table 1
Gas Wavelength, m H, km VIRTIS PFS SPICAVSOIR VERA VMC
H2O 0.94 012, 70 x x x x
1.11.18 012, 70 x x x
1.74 23, 70 x x x
2.402.43 3040, 70 x x x
27.0 (365 cm1) 60 x
HDO 2.382.46 3040 x x x
2.4, 3.7 6090 x
CO 2.3 3040 x x
70150 x
COS 2.43 3040 x x
3.44 130 x
SO2 0.3 70 x x
2.46 40 x x
4.0 70 x x
8.7 (1150 cm1) 60 x
7.3 (1360 cm1) 70 x
19.0 (520 cm1) 70
HCl 1.74 23 x x x
H2SO4 3050 x

contrast details are seen on the cloud tops. They are
caused by the presence of specie whose origin is still
unknown. To reveal the nature of ultraviolet absorber
which absorbs about a half of the radiation flux
received by Venus from the Sun is one of the main tasks
in future investigations of the planet. The second
important problem is related to determination of com-
position of the large aerosol particles discovered by the
major probe of Pioneer Venus.
The instruments of remote sounding onboard Venus
Express will analyze the structure, composition, and
dynamics of the cloud layer. Cameras will study the
spatial and vertical distribution of the unknown ultravi-
olet absorber [9, 11]. Eclipse and limb observations [7],
together with nadir sounding in the thermal range [8],
will allow one to investigate the structure of the upper
part of clouds and overcloud haze. Observations in the
transparency windows on the night side will make it

k
oc
sh
w
Bo Magnetosheath
e Clouds and streamers
Mantl
Solar e
wind us
pa se Ionosphere
no au Ion outflow
Io op Ion flow
ion to nightside
on
es
av Io
W n slu
dg Filaments
e

B
Ion tail
Hole
Magnetotail
Day Night Central tail
beam
Hole
Venus B
Express
orbit
Tail beam

Fig. 3. The structure of the Venusian ionosphere induced by interaction of the solar wind with the planet according to [29]. The
radial scale is increased twice above the planet surface. The black line shows the Venus Express orbit.

COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006

338
Resolving power, /
SPICAVSOIR
10000
SPICAVIR VIRTISN
1000
SPICAVUVVIRTISM PFS
100
VMC
0 1 10 100
Wavelength, m
Fig. 4. Spectral characteristics of optical instruments
onboard Venus Express.
possible to determine variations of the total optical
thickness of the cloudy layer [9, 11]. Spectroscopy of
the atmosphere composition near the cloud tops will
allow one to construct a model of the formation and
evolution of sulfuric acid clouds. Finally, the study of
correlations between the spatial distribution of the
unknown ultraviolet absorber and atmospheric gases
will be of utmost importance for revealing the mystery
of this substance.
Dynamics of the Atmosphere
One can distinguish two modes of global circulation
in the Venusian atmosphere: the retrograde zonal super-
rotation in the troposphere and mesosphere [18] and a
flow from the subsolar region to antisolar one [19].
Monitoring the UV details of clouds and trajectories of
descent probes and balloons in the atmosphere gives
evidence that the planets troposphere is in a permanent
retrograde zonal rotation. In this rotation the wind
velocity changes from ~100 m/s near the cloud tops
down to zero near the surface. A slower meridional
motion from the equator to poles is imposed on this cir-
culation, and it culminates in huge polar dipole vorti-
ces. It seems that the field of winds in the mesosphere
can be well approximated by a balance of the pressure
gradient and the centrifugal force (cyclostrophic bal-
ance), which results in an almost regular zonal flow.
The velocity of the thermal wind calculated in this
approximation using measurements of the temperature
field in the mesosphere decreases in the overcloud
atmosphere being inferior to the thermosphere circula-
tion from dayside to the night side.
No attempts to model the zonal circulation of the
Venusian atmosphere have been successful so far,
which indicates that the mechanism supporting it is not
completely understood. In particular, there are no
answers to the following questions:
TITOV et al.
VIRTIS
M N
1
SPICAV PFS
UV
IR
VMC
Fig. 5. Comparative fields of view of the optical instruments
onboard Venus Express on the disk of Venus from a distance
of 20000 km.
1) is meridional circulation represented by a single
global Hadley cell or there are several such cells?
2) how polar dipole vortices close two main modes
of circulation and what are their main properties and
behavior?
3) how the zonal super-rotation in the tropo-
sphere/mesosphere goes over into circulation from day-
side to the night side in the thermosphere?
In order to solve the above problems, one needs
detailed observations of the wind velocity in the atmo-
sphere of Venus. Venus Express will quantitatively ana-
lyze the wind field at altitudes of about 70 km by mon-
itoring UV details on the cloud tops and by observing
the motion of contrasts on infrared images of the night
side [9, 11]. Remote sounding of temperature will
allow one to determine the field of thermal winds in the
mesosphere [8] and to check the boundaries of applica-
bility of the cyclostrophic approximation. Observations
of the night glow in the bands of O2, NO, O, and H will
help to understand the global circulation of the thermo-
sphere at altitudes of 110160 km. Eventually, we
expect that Venus Express will get the three-dimen-
sional picture of the atmosphere dynamics. In addition,
cameras onboard the satellite will be able to study the
phenomena on different scales, from planetary polar
vortices and waves to such local phenomena as convec-
tion with a spatial resolution of order of several hun-
dred meters.
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
 VENUS EXPRESS: SCIENTIFIC GOALS, INSTRUMENTATION
Energy Balance and the Greenhouse Effect
High temperatures of the Venusian surface are a
consequence of a strong greenhouse effect caused by
the existence in the atmosphere of such gases as CO2,
H2O, SO2, and of sulfuric acid clouds [20, 21]. Less
than 10% of the solar flux incident onto the upper
boundary of the atmosphere penetrates down to the sur-
face. However, strong absorption by greenhouse gases
prevents the surface from being cooled by way of emis-
sion in the thermal range. This results in a difference of
almost 450 K between temperatures of the surface and
of the cloud tops, which is an absolute record among
the terrestrial planets. Venus Express will regularly
measure in a wide range of wavelengths the fluxes of
emission coming from the planet both on the day and
night sides. This will allow one to characterize quanti-
tatively the radiation heat balance and to reveal the role
of various gases in the planetary heat balance and in the
greenhouse effect.
Near-Planet Plasma and Erosion of the Atmosphere
Investigation of the processes of losses of matter by
the planet is directly related to origin and evolution of
the Venusian atmosphere. Venus is similar to the Earth
in size, density, and position in the Solar System. It is
quite probable that both the planets were supplied in
their formation with equal amounts of volatiles. The
main problem is how the Venusian atmosphere evolved
under the action of processes of erosion in the upper
atmosphere and interacting with the hot surface. At the
present time Venus is obviously depleted of water,
which is probably explained by the intense loss of
hydrogen at earlier stages of evolution. Similarly, the
absence of considerable amount of free oxygen sug-
gests its intensive bounding by minerals of the surface.
Understanding of these processes is based on measure-
ments of abundances of noble gases and their isotopes,
and it is rather approximate at the moment.
The history of water on the planet is recorded in the
ratio D/H. Deuterium was found on Venus in the
amounts exceeding terrestrial values by a factor of 150
[22]. Such enrichment by deuterium can be explained
by higher rate of escape of light hydrogen atoms from
the upper atmosphere. The escape rate of gases is deter-
mined, first, by the abundance of its molecules in the
upper atmosphere and, second, by specific features of
interaction of the solar wind with the atmosphere. The
quantitative analysis of the rate of erosion of the atmo-
sphere on its upper boundary requires knowing the con-
tent of atoms in the upper atmosphere. Preceding mis-
sions to Venus have no instruments capable to solve
these problems.
Venus has no internal magnetic field, which leads to
substantial difference from the Earth as far as the loss
of matter by the planet is concerned. The upper atmo-
sphere of Venus is not protected by the magnetic field
against the incident solar wind. As a result, the larger
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
339
part of the exosphere of Venus is permanently inside the
solar plasma flow, where the processes of ionization
and charge exchange lead to efficient removal of atmo-
spheric gases by the solar plasma stream. In the process
of interaction of the solar wind with the ionosphere,
complex structures are formed on the night side
through which a considerable amount of matter leaves
the atmosphere (Fig. 3). These processes determine the
loss of heavy molecules (for example, of oxygen) for
which the thermal mechanism is inefficient.
Venus Express will investigate the circumplanetary
plasma, its interaction with the solar wind, and escape
processes by measuring the fluxes of energetic neutral
atoms, ions, and electrons together with regular moni-
toring of the magnetic field [23, 24]. These contact
measurements will be supplemented with remote
sounding of the structure and composition of overcloud
atmosphere up to altitudes of about 200 km [7], as well
as by probing the ionosphere structure in a radio occul-
tation experiment [10].
Investigation of the Surface
Radar mapping of the surface from the Magellan
satellite showed that the surface of Venus is one of the
youngest in the Solar System. Volcanism and tectonic
processes have strongly changed the planets surface
[25], having formed strongly strained plateaus (tessera)
and extended plains. Many scientists adhere to the
hypothesis of global and catastrophic renovation of the
crust: a unique mechanism for the terrestrial planets
[26]. Up to now the important problems of existence of
volcanic activity on the planet in the modern epoch and
of the role of the surface in chemistry of the atmosphere
remain unsolved.
In spite of the fact that there are no special instru-
ments onboard the Venus Express spacecraft for inves-
tigating the surface, the satellite will supplement previ-
ous studies in several ways [28]. Radar sounding will
be executed by emitting the radio signals to a chosen
region on the surface and by detecting the reflected sig-
nal by ground-based antennas. These experiments will
be concentrated on studying the highlands Aphrodite
Terra, Beta Regio, Atla, and Maxwell Montes [10].
Magellan recorded anomalously strong reflection in
these regions. A gravitational experiment will investi-
gate the mass distribution in the region of Atalanta
Planitia. Optical instruments will make thermal map-
ping of the surface in transparency windows near 1 m
on the night side, which will allow one to make up an
emissivity map and, probably, to find some traces of
volcanic activity. Spectroscopic measurements of the
composition of the lower atmosphere will give indirect
evidence about the character of interaction between the
atmosphere and the surface.
It is quite probable that Venus is a seismically active
planet. As is well known, seismic waves propagating in
the solid body of the planet can be transmitted and
340 TITOV et al.
amplified by the atmosphere. Near the epicenter, the
disturbances reaching the upper atmosphere lead to
modulation of the temperature field, and they can be
observed in the form of characteristic emissions in the
4.3 m CO2 band [9].
SCIENTIFIC PAYLOAD
Seven instruments constitute the scientific payload
of the Venus Express spacecraft. Five of them have been
taken from the Mars Express and Rosetta missions with
minor modifications: ASPERA is an analyzer of space
plasma and energetic neutral atoms; Planetary Fourier
Spectrometer (PFS) is a high-resolution infrared spec-
trometer; SPICAV is a spectrometer for observing solar
and stellar occultations; VERA is a radio experiment;
and VIRTIS is a sensitive spectral camera and high-res-
olution spectrometer for visible and infrared ranges.
These experiments are supplemented by two instru-
ments specially designed for Venus Express: wide-
angle camera (VMC) and a magnetometer. In this chap-
ter we briefly describe scientific tasks of the instru-
ments and their characteristics.
ASPERA: Analyzer of Cosmic Plasma
and Energetic Neutral Atoms
The instrument ASPERA-4 is a copy of the Mars
Express instrument with the same name [23]. It
includes four sensors; two for detecting energetic neu-
tral atoms (ENA), one for electron spectrometer, and
one for ion spectrometer. The detector of neutral atoms
measures the flux of ENA in the range 0.160 keV
without analysis in masses and energies, but with a
fairly high angular resolution 4 11. The detector of
neutral particles will measure the ENA flux in the range
0.110 keV with resolution in energy and with capabil-
ity to discern masses from H to O, but with a coarse
angular resolution of 4.5 30. The electron spec-
trometer represents a compact electrostatic analyzer for
measurements of the flux of electrons from 1 to 20 keV
with a resolution of 8%. These three detectors are
mounted on a rotating platform with a viewing angle of
360. The instrument also includes an ion mass ana-
+ ance of the planet to be studied in detail.
lyzer for measuring the basic ion components (H+, H 2 ,
+ +
He+, O+, O 2 , and CO 2 , as well as ion group with M/q >
40 a.m.u./q) in the energy range from 0.1 to 10 keV/C.
The solar wind interacts directly with the iono-
sphere of Venus, since the planet has no magnetic field
(Fig. 3). The main task of the ASPERA-4 experiment is
to investigate this interaction and to probe the near-
planet space. The method to be used consists in map-
ping the fluxes of energetic neutral atoms and charged
particles. The ASPERA experiment will fulfill the fol-
lowing tasks: (1) to investigate the interaction of the
solar wind with the atmosphere of Venus; (2) to study
quantitatively the influence of plasma processes on the
atmosphere; (3) to get the global distributions of
plasma and neutral gas; (4) to study quantitatively the
composition and flow of the matter escaping the planet;
(5) to investigate the structure of plasma environment;
and (6) to measure parameters of the undisturbed solar
wind. These observations will allow us to solve the fun-
damental problem of interaction between the solar
wind and the planet without magnetic field and of the
role of this interaction in the atmosphere evolution. The
similarity and distinction of these processes for terres-
trial planets should be also understood. ASPERA will
make observations along the entire orbit, thus probing
all zones of circumplanetary plasma, from disturbed
plasma near the planet to undisturbed solar wind in the
apocenter.
PFS: Infrared Fourier Spectrometer
The planetary Fourier spectrometer (PFS) [8] is
optimized for exploration of the atmosphere. The
instrument is inherited from the Mars Express mission
with minor modifications. Two channels of PFS cover a
wide range of wave lengths from 0.9 to 45 m. The
boundary between them is close to 5 m, which
approximately corresponds to dividing the Venus spec-
trum in the ranges of reflected solar radiation and
proper thermal emission. The spectral resolution of
PFS is about 1 cm1. Its field of view is 1.6 and 2.8 for
shortwave and longwave channels, respectively, which
gives spatial resolutions of 7 and 12 km in the peri-
center. PFS has scanning mechanism that allow the
instrument to make calibration measurements and to
change the direction of the field of view when observ-
ing the planet.
The main goal of the PFS experiment is to study the
mesosphere and upper part of the cloud layer of Venus.
Spectral measurements in the channel of thermal emis-
sion and, especially, in the CO2 band around 15 m will
be used for remote sensing of the vertical temperature
and aerosol structure at altitudes of 60 to 100 km. Such
meridional measurements are especially suitable for
mapping the thermal wind in the mesosphere. Observa-
tions of the escaping thermal and reflected solar fluxes
in a broad spectral interval will allow the radiation bal-
High spectral resolution makes PFS an ideal instru-
ment for studying the atmosphere composition. Obser-
vations in the regions of absorption bands of H2O, SO2,
CO, and other atmospheric gases will allow one to
determine their abundance and altitude distributions in
the overcloud atmosphere. The upper boundary of the
cloud layer will be located using O2 absorption bands.
Observations in the transparency windows on the night
side will provide for a possibility to study the composi-
tion of the subcloud atmosphere. However, averaging
of hundreds of spectra will be required for this, in order
to get sufficient signal-to-noise ratio.
Sufficiently broad field of view of the instrument
restricts PFS observations basically to distances lower
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
 VENUS EXPRESS: SCIENTIFIC GOALS, INSTRUMENTATION
than 10000 km, which will allow one to cover in the
nadir mode the region from latitude 50 south up to the
North Pole. Scanning capability of the instrument will
allow one to have a look somewhat further to the south.
It is planned to get 500600 spectra in every orbit.
SPICAV: Spectrometer for Observation of Solar
and Stellar Occultations and for Nadir Observations
SPICAV is a complex of three spectrometers
designed to study the atmosphere of Venus by the
method of solar and stellar occultations and using limb
and nadir geometry [7]. SPICAV-UV is a high-sensitiv-
ity instrument operating in the range 110320 nm with
a spectral resolution of 1.5 nm and using an intensified
CCD detector. SPICAV-IR has the working interval
from 0.7 to 1.7 m and resolving power R = 1500. The
second IR-channel (SOIR) is designed to study the
upper atmosphere in the range 2.24.4 m with
extremely high spectral resolution R ~ 15000. This
channel consists of a dispersion spectrometer operating
in high orders of diffraction and of an acoustooptical
filter isolating one order of diffraction. The HgCdTe
matrix (Sofradir) cooled down to 90 K serves as a
detector. The UV and IR channels of SPICAV repeat
the SPICAM experiment onboard Mars Express with
the only difference that the spectral range of the IR
channel was extended to 0.7 m. The SOIR unit was
developed and designed specially for Venus Express.
The main goal of the SPICAV experiment onboard
Venus Express is to study the structure and composition
of the planets upper atmosphere including the mesos-
phere and lower thermosphere. The experiment using
the method of solar and stellar occultations will be used
at Venus for the first time. Observations of CO2 absorp-
tion bands in the ultraviolet range will allow one to
sound the vertical profiles of density and temperature in
the altitude range from 70 to 180 km. The UV channel
will also investigate the altitude distribution of sulfur-
bearing gases SO2 and SO above clouds. One of the
main tasks of SOIR is to study HDO in the upper atmo-
sphere using spectra in the band 3.7 m. This channel
will also measure contents of SO2, COS, CO, HCl, HF,
and other minor constituents in the upper atmosphere
(Table 1).
Due to its high spectral resolution and the use of
geometry of solar occultations, SOIR is ideally suitable
for searching for new molecules, especially hydrocar-
bonates (CH4, C2H2), nitrogen oxides (NO, N2O, ),
and chlorine-bearing components (CH3Cl, ClO2) play-
ing important part in chemistry of the atmosphere.
Eclipse observations will also be used to study the
structure and optical properties of the overcloud haze.
These observations will improve considerably our
understanding of the composition and chemistry of the
Venusian atmosphere and will make a contribution to
studies of the atmosphere evolution and of the peculiar-
ities of water loss by the planet.
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
341
SPICAV will also operate in the nadir mode. Obser-
vations on the night side will be concentrated on trans-
parency windows, which will allow one to probe the
composition of the lower atmosphere, the optical thick-
ness of the cloudy layer, and the surface temperature.
Mapping of night glow in the bands of NO and O2 will
be used for establishing the circulation pattern of the
thermosphere [19]. The processes of loosing atoms of
H and O in the upper atmosphere will be studied by
observing the emissions of these gases.
Solar occultations occur in certain seasons with
duration of about one month. In this time SPICAV
observations will have high priority. The observations
will be basically made near the pericenter. Beyond
these seasons, SPICAV will participate in observations
equally with other experiments.
VERA Radio Experiment
The radio experiment onboard Venus Express uses a
radio system of the spacecraft operating in X and S fre-
quency ranges (wavelengths of 3.5 and 13 cm) in order
to sound the neutral atmosphere and ionosphere and to
find properties of the surface and gravitational field, as
well as of the interplanetary space [10]. An ultra-stable
oscillator serves as a high-quality reference source of
onboard signal for the spacecrafts transmitter. The
ground-based instruments analyze the amplitude,
phase, propagation time, and polarization of a signal
received. Simultaneous measurements at two wave
lengths allow one to separate effects due to propagation
in the interplanetary space and the Doppler effect. The
ultra-stable oscillator onboard Venus Express is a direct
descendent of the similar unit onboard the Rosetta
spacecraft.
The main goal of the radio experiment is to study the
vertical structure of the neutral atmosphere and iono-
sphere of Venus by the radio occultation method. The
sounding of the neutral atmosphere will allow one to
reconstruct the profiles of density and temperature at
altitudes of 40 to 80 km with a vertical resolution of a
few hundred meters, which exceeds the capabilities of
temperature sounding in the thermal range substan-
tially. Such observations will allow one to find the
structure of waves in the mesosphere and troposphere,
as well as to determine the abundance of sulfur acid
vapors above the clouds. The structure of the iono-
sphere or the vertical profile of electron density will be
determined in the overcloud atmosphere up to altitudes
of about 600 km.
Studies of the surface in the radio experiment will
include bi-static radar sounding of the surface and some
investigations of the gravity field. The former will be
concentrated in mountain regions where the radar
experiment on the Magellan spacecraft has found
anomalously high reflection coefficient. These observa-
tions will allow the surface roughness and dielectric
coefficient to be determined on spatial scales from cen-
342 TITOV et al.
timeters to meters. A search for gravity anomalies will
allow one to better understand the structure of the crust
and lithosphere of Venus. And, finally, the radio exper-
iment will study dynamic processes in the solar corona
using disturbances of the signal on its way from Venus
to the Earth.
The radio experiment will be made basically near
the pericenter. It will require a specific geometry and a
maneuver of the spacecraft for high-precision antenna
pointing. Radio occultation investigations of the atmo-
sphere will be possible at certain periods when VERA
will have a high priority. For one and a half years of
observations in orbit the radio occultation will cover
virtually all latitudes and longitudes, and certain geo-
logical structures on the surface will be sounded [27].
VIRTIS: Mapping Spectrometer for Visible
and Infrared Ranges
The VIRTIS instrument includes two channels: (i) a
mapping spectrometer (VIRTIS-M) operating in the
range 0.255 m with a moderate spectral resolution
(R ~ 200) and (ii) a high-resolution (R ~ 1200) spec-
trometer VIRTIS-H for a range of 25 m [9]. The
angular resolution of both channels is 0.25 mrad, which
will allow one to map the planet with a spatial resolu-
tion of about 20 km from the apocenter. The VIRTIS
instrument onboard Venus Express is a copy of the
instrument installed on the Rosetta cometary probe.
The VIRTIS experiment has a broad spectrum of
scientific tasks. First of all, the high sensitivity of VIR-
TIS makes it an ideal instrument for sounding the atmo-
sphere composition on the night side by way of measur-
ing weak emissions in the transparency windows.
VIRTIS will sound the abundance of such gases as H2O,
CO, SO2, and COS in the lower atmosphere (Table 1)
and the cloud opacity. If variations of the atmosphere
compositions are discovered, this can be an indirect
evidence of the character of atmospheric dynamics,
interaction of the atmosphere with the surface, or vol-
canic activity. On the dayside VIRTIS will measure the
composition of the atmosphere and aerosol near the
upper boundary of the cloudy layer.
The second task of VIRTIS is to study the atmo-
sphere dynamics. The experiment will measure the
wind velocities at altitudes of 70 and 50 km using the
observed displacement of cloudy layer details in the
ultraviolet and infrared ranges. In addition, mapping of
O2 emissions at 1.27 m will be used. The spatial dis-
tribution and variation of this emissions give evidence
of circulation in the lower thermosphere (100120 km).
In the final analysis, VIRTIS will accomplish three-
dimensional sounding (tomography) of the general cir-
culation of the atmosphere.
The third task of VIRTIS is to sound the temperature
and aerosol structure of the mesosphere in the range
6090 km. To this end, measurements of thermal emis-
sion of the atmosphere in the range 45 m will be
used. The fundamental absorption band of CO2 is
within this range. These observations will supplement
the thermal sounding of the PFS experiment, providing
for high-resolution observations in the southern hemi-
sphere. The limb geometry will make it possible for
VIRTIS to study the vertical structure of the overcloud
aerosol haze with an altitude resolution from hundreds
of meters to 2 km.
In addition, VIRTIS will make thermal mapping of
the surface in the transparency windows near 1 m,
which should supplement the radar studies of Magellan
and make it possible to discover hot spots associated
with volcanic activity. The spatial resolution of these
observations is limited by scattering in the cloud layer,
and it will not be better than 50 km. Night observations
will be also used to search for lightning events and to
observe thermosphere emissions of CO2, which, theo-
retically, can give indirect evidence in favor of seismic
activity on the planet.
The research program of VIRTIS requires that the
experiment would be performed both in the pericenter
and far from the planet. The most important task of
mapping is to observe the motion of cloud details and
to create a spectral mosaic of the southern hemisphere
from the apocenter. At distances closer than 10000 km
to the surface the mapping capability of VIRTIS will be
limited by fast motion of the spacecraft, which will pre-
vent one from making full reconstruction of images.
Here, the images will consist of separate points distrib-
uted along the orbit. Another limitation will be repre-
sented by a large amount of data that can be obtained in
the experiment. This problem will be solved by prop-
erly choosing scientific priority and by using the data
compression.
VMC Camera for Monitoring Observations
VMC is a wide-angle digital camera for observations
of the atmosphere and surface of Venus through four nar-
row-band filters. The instrument is a single unit includ-
ing optical part, a CCD detector (1024 1024 pixels),
and electronics [11]. The camera has 17.5 (0.3 rad) field
of view and angular resolution of 0.75 mrad/pixel, which
corresponds to spatial resolutions of 0.2 km and 50 km
in the pericenter and apocenter, respectively. The detec-
tor and electronics provide for a dynamical range of
6000 DN, and exposure time can be chosen from 0.5 ms
to 30 s.
Magnetometer
The magnetometer of Venus Express is designed for
measuring the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field near the planet [24]. Since Venus has no proper
magnetic field, these measurements will characterize
the field frozen into plasma. The instrument includes
two detectors and electronics. One detector is installed
on the upper panel of the spacecraft, and another one is
mounted on the end of a meter-long boom. Such a con-
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
 VENUS EXPRESS: SCIENTIFIC GOALS, INSTRUMENTATION
figuration allows one to separate a signal of the external
magnetic field from the background of noise produced
by the spacecraft systems. The magnetometer has a
wide dynamical range from 32.8 to 8388.6 nT with
resolution, respectively, from 1 to 128 pcT. The magne-
tometer of Venus Express descends from the ROMAP
instrument of the landing module of the Rosetta lander.
It will be a first miniature magnetometer with two
detectors installed onboard a scientific satellite.
Since Venus has no proper magnetic field, the larger
part of the upper atmosphere of the planet is permanently
in the solar plasma flow. The incident solar wind inter-
acts directly with the ionosphere of Venus, where the
complex structures of plasma clouds, tail rays, lines, and
ionospheric holes are formed. The planet intensively
looses atmospheric gases in these regions (Fig. 3).
The orbit of Venus Express will intersect the regions
of interaction of the solar wind with the ionosphere.
The magnetometer will make measurements with high
temporal resolution in the magnetosheath, on the mag-
netic barrier, in the ionosphere, and in the magnetotail.
It will explore the boundaries between different plasma
regions. These observations will produce important
data necessary for interpretation of the ASPERA result.
It should be noted that Venus Express will make obser-
vations in the solar minimum period, thus supplement-
ing the measurements made by the Pioneer Venus
spacecraft. The experiment will also search for thun-
derstorms by detecting electromagnetic waves gener-
ated during atmospheric electric discharges.
The magnetometer will be in operation along the
entire orbit. At distances more than 10000 km from the
planet the magnetic field will be measured with a fre-
quency of 1 Hz. For two hours in the pericenter region
the frequency of measurements will be increased up to
32 Hz, and immediately in the pericenter the instrument
will make measurements with a maximum frequency of
128 Hz (searching for thunderstorm discharges).
General Performance of Scientific Payload
Venus Express will deliver to the planet a powerful
complex of spectral and mapping experimental equip-
ment. Its capabilities include both high-resolution spec-
trometers and a wide-angle filter camera. Figure 4
shows spectral characteristics of the instruments of
Venus Express. The optical experiments cover the spec-
tral range from ultraviolet (0.1 m) to thermal infrared
(50 m) emission with a resolving power of 100 to
20000. This instrumentation will provide for a possibil-
ity to study (in great detail and with high precision) the
structure, composition, energy balance, and other prop-
erties of the atmosphere and the surface. Such a set of
optical instruments will operate in the Venus orbit for
the first time.
Figure 5 presents a comparison of the fields of view
of the optical instruments. They vary from a wide-angle
camera that grasps the entire Venus disk in the apo-
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
343
Magnetometer VIRTIS
PFS
SPICAVSOIR
VMC
VERA
ASPERA
Fig. 6. The Venus Express spacecraft and arrangement of its
payload.
center down to the instruments whose field of view is a
few degrees. VIRTIS has the best angular resolution
(0.25 mrad), which allows it to reach spatial resolutions
of 100 m and 16 km in the pericenter and apocenter,
respectively. Different fields of view of the Venus
Express instruments allow one to combine the observa-
tions with high spatial resolution and observations giv-
ing the general context.
One should note two other important advantages of
Venus Express over preceding observations. First, VIR-
TIS and VMC give a possibility to get almost instanta-
neous pictures. By comparison, it was required about
4 hours for Pioneer Venus to make one picture, since
spatial scanning was provided by rotation of the space-
craft itself. Second, Venus Express has a three-axial sys-
tem of stabilization, which provides for considerable
opportunity of pointing the instruments. This will make
it possible for Venus Express to fully cover all latitudes
and longitudes of the planet with much better spatial
and temporal resolution than in all preceding missions.
The use of various observational methods and a broad
spectral range will provide for complete and reliable
coverage of the entire field of research programs in
the altitude range from the surface to the thermosphere.
In many cases the measurements of different instru-
ments will supplement each other. The principles of
mutual complementarity and team work are actively
used when planning observations onboard the Venus
Express.
SPACECRAFT
Venus Express re-uses the design of the Mars
Express spacecraft, as well as some available onboard
344 TITOV et al.
systems [32]. Small modifications of the satellite are
caused basically by four times higher flux of the solar
radiation at Venus and by the necessity to accommodate
some new instruments on the spacecraft. Such an
approach allowed ESA to minimize both risks and costs
of the project and, as a result, to prepare the spacecraft
for launch in November 2005.
Venus Express is a spacecraft of cubic form with a
dimension of about 1.7 m (Fig. 6). Onboard systems
and experimental equipment are arranged on walls and
inner boards of the satellite that are mounted around the
fuel tank. Venus Express has a three-axis system of atti-
tude control. It includes star trackers, gyroscopes, and
reaction wheels. Communication with the spacecraft
will be maintained with the help of one low gain and
two high gain antennas: the main antenna with a diam-
eter of 1.3 m and the auxiliary 30-cm antenna for com-
munication in the periods of Venus lower conjunction
when the distance to the Earth is small. The maximum
rate of data transmission from the Venus orbit will be
equal to 228 kbit per second.
The electrical system will provide for a high degree
of autonomy of the satellite and for sufficient amount of
power at all stages of the flight including solar eclipses
in orbit lasting about 1 h. The spacecraft has symmetri-
cally located panels of gallium-arsenide solar batteries
with a total area of 5.7 m2 which provide for a power of
1400 W. Lithium storage batteries with a total capacity
of 24 A h serve as onboard accumulators of electric
power.
The onboard system of data acquisition has two
channels: high- and low-rate channels. The first of them
assumes direct recording of data into the onboard stor-
age device with a capacity of 12 Gbit. This channel will
be used by the VIRTIS and VMC instruments which
produce a large amount of data. The second channel
includes a special interrogation unit. Collection of data
from other instruments and their recording to the stor-
age device will be performed through this channel.
The propulsion system includes a cruise propul-
sion unit with a thrust of 415 N (in order to reach the
Venus orbit and to form a working orbit) and eight
low-thrust engines (10 N) of the system of attitude
control and orbital maneuvers. The total onboard sup-
ply of two-component propellant is 570 kg, which is
sufficient for injection into orbit and for operation in
this orbit for 3 years.
MISSION SCENARIO AND WORKING ORBIT
Venus Express was launched on November 9, 2005
from the Baikonur cosmodrome in Kazakhstan using
Russian rocket launcher Soyuz with a Fregat booster. In
the first month after the launch the systems of space-
craft and the experimental equipment were tested. This
operation included tests of separate instruments, taking
images of the Earth and the Moon, and observations of
point-like sources (such as stars and Venus) and the
Sun. These tests demonstrated that all systems of the
satellite and experimental equipment operated nomi-
nally. The focusing of optical instruments was also
checked, the precise location of optical axes in space
was determined, and the thermal regime was investi-
gated. In the beginning of the flight the magnetometer
boom was opened, and this instrument has started reg-
ular observations. The first measurements of the parti-
cle fluxes of interplanetary plasma by ASPERA were
also successful. At the transfer stage a regular commu-
nication with Venus Express was kept, and some addi-
tional tests of the instrumentation were made.
On April 11, 2006 the Venus Express spacecraft was
inserted into an orbit of a planetary artificial satellite.
The first ten-day capture orbit was strongly elongated
with a maximum distance from the planet 325000 km.
Already in this orbit, along with necessary dynamical
operations, the first observation runs of Venus were
made. Such a hurry is justified by the fact that the cap-
ture orbit provided for unique opportunity of observa-
tions that would not take place again. For example,
VIRTIS had an opportunity to see full disk of Venus
from a distance of 200000 km, which was important for
studying the general circulation of the atmosphere in
the southern hemisphere and, especially, for searching
for the dipole vortex in the south polar region. The con-
ditions of observing heliospheric energetic neutrals by
ASPERA were also unique. SPICAV made a search for
a hydrogen corona around Venus.
Several subsequent orbits were used to form the
working orbit with a revolution period of 24 h and a dis-
tance in the apocenter about 66000 km. After that sev-
eral weeks are spent for trying out various modes of
orbital observations which require precise coordination
of operations executed by the spacecraft, scientific pay-
load, and ground-based control center.
The regular scientific observations will continue
until October 2007 (nominal mission). To this time two
Venusian days will elapse so that the observations will
cover the daily planetary cycle twice. The spacecraft
lifetime is designed for two additional Venusian daily
cycles, i.e., for 500 days more of orbital observations
(extended mission).
The polar working orbit is chosen for Venus Express
with a pericenter at 78 N (Fig. 7). The orbit is strongly
elongated with the distance in the pericenter/apocenter
250/66000 km and with a revolution period of 24 h.
Under the action of gravitational attraction of the Sun
the pericenter height will increase during the nominal
mission with a rate of 12 km per day. In order to keep
the pericenter height in the range 250350 km, regular
orbit corrections will be made. In addition, the peri-
center will drift slowly poleward. No compensation of
this drift is planned.
The resources of the spacecraft are planned for three
years of orbital observations. Further strategy can
include three possible variants. The first is to continue
operations for supporting the pericenter at low altitude
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
 VENUS EXPRESS: SCIENTIFIC GOALS, INSTRUMENTATION 345

and to concentrate on some specific tasks. The second Observation

variant consists in admitting the drift of the pericenter in pericenter Altitude below 10000 km
upward in order to have a possibility of the global sur-
vey of the northern hemisphere. However, after elapse 10
0h
of some time the drift of the pericenter height will 30 20 10 10 20 km
change its sign, and regular corrections of the orbit will Venus
be required in order to save the satellite from destruc- 1
tion in the atmosphere. The third possibility is to use the 10
aerobraking, which is allowed by the Venus Express 1h
construction, to make the apocenter height lower. This 2

will allow one, first, to reduce the effect of gravitational 20

influence of the Sun on the pericenter height, and, sec-
ond, to carry out observations of the southern hemi-
sphere of the planet with better spatial resolution. The
strategy choice will depend on the conditions of the
spacecraft and payload and on the course of observa-
tion during the nominal mission.
PROGRAM OF OBSERVATIONS IN ORBIT
The orbit of Venus Express is split in two parts
(Fig. 7). The orbital segment between 2 and 10 h of
orbital time (relative to the pericenter) is reserved for
everyday sessions of communication with the deep
space telecommunications station at Cebreros (Spain).
The remaining 16 hours will be used for various
research activities, both near the pericenter and from
the remote segments of the orbit up to the apocenter. A
detailed description of the types of research activities
for Venus Express can be found in [27, 28]. Here, we
give only a brief description of them.
Observations in the pericenter include the operation
of all instruments for 96 min at the spacecraft orienta-
tion to the local nadir. The distance to the planet surface
will vary from ~10000 km to 250 km when latitude will
be changed from 30 south to the North Pole. Basically,
during these observations the northern hemisphere will
be explored with high spatial resolution. In addition, of
special value will be plasma observations near the
planet. The orbital time between 15 and 23 h on the
ascending leg of the orbit is assigned to the global
observations of the planet. Their main scientific tasks
are tracking the motion of cloud features for recon-
struction of the global circulation pattern, global ther-
mal mapping of the surface on the night side, and study-
ing the large-scale variations of composition of the
atmosphere and properties of the cloud layer. Near the
apocenter, at the maximum distance from the planet,
VIRTIS will make global spectral mapping of the
southern hemisphere. Since even in the apocenter the
narrow field of view of the instrument does not cover
the entire disk of Venus, about 10 changes of spacecraft
orientation will be required in order to accomplish the
complete mosaic of the planet. Observations beyond
the pericenter will be, as a rule, grouped in 1015 orbits
in order to get a continuous series of homogeneous
observations sufficient for reconstruction of the general
circulation pattern.
3
2
Cebreros
30 (Spain)
4
40 3
5
Observation 4
6 in apocenter 50
5
7
8 6
9 7
10
9
8
70
11 12
11 10
Fig. 7. The outline of Venus Express orbit. Numeral along
the orbit show the time reckoned from the pericenter
(orbital time). Arrows mark various segments of the orbit:
zone of telecommunication with the Earth, observations in
the pericenter, and beyond pericenter.
In addition to nadir observations near the pericenter
Venus Express will perform a series of occultation
experiments. Solar eclipses will be used for studying
the vertical structure and composition of the overcloud
atmosphere up to altitudes of about 200 km. Four sea-
sons of solar eclipses each of which accounts for about
30 orbits will allow one to study properties of the upper
atmosphere at all latitudes near the morning and
evening terminators. The second type of occultation
observations is radio occultations of the Earth. They
will be used for probing the temperature structure of the
atmosphere in the range 4080 km with vertical resolu-
tion of a few hundred meters and for determining the
ionosphere electron density up to altitudes of 600 km.
These observations will also be of seasonal character,
and they will provide for full coverage in latitude and
local time. Finally, the third type of occultation obser-
vationsstellar eclipseswill be used by SPICAV and
other experiments for sounding the vertical structure of
the atmosphere and overcloud haze. The similar prob-
lem will be posed in limb observations where the pri-
mary emphasis will be put on getting the limb spectral
images with a spatial resolution of about 1 km in order
to study the structure of overcloud haze and the optical
properties of aerosol particles.
Radar sounding of selected regions of Venus will
also be performed near the pericenter. This experiment
will be aimed at studying the reflective properties of the

COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006

346 TITOV et al.

Table 2. Phases of the nominal mission and their principal observations

Data transmission
Phase Beginning Days Specific features of the period and high-priority observations
rate, Gbit per day
1 June 4, 33 Regular observations in the pericenter and beyond, near the terminator. Radar 2.52.1
2006 sounding and thermal mapping of Ishtar Terra and Maxwell mountains
2 July 7, 2006 64 Radio eclipses (season 1), solar eclipses (season 1), regular nadir observations 1.5
in the pericenter, Regular observations of the night side beyond the pericenter,
Night thermal mapping of Beta Regio, Phoebe Regio, and Theia Mons volcano
3 September 10, 65 Venus close to opposition, regular nadir observations in the pericenter and be- 1.2
2006 yond, Campaign of dynamic observations in the northern and southern hemi-
spheres, Radio occultation of the solar corona, Gravity experiment over Atal-
anta Planitia, First Venus flyby by Messenger (October 23, 2006)
4 November 14, 75 Solar eclipses (season 2), radio eclipses (season 2), regular observations 0.81.4
2006 of the dayside beyond the pericenter, Radio occultation of the solar corona,
Night thermal mapping of Theia Mons and Lakshmi Planum
5 January 29, 45 Regular nadir observations in the pericenter and beyond, near the terminator, 1.42.0
2007 Campaign of dynamic observations in the northern and southern hemispheres,
Night thermal mapping of Atla Regio and Ozza Mons
6 March 15, 40 Regular nadir observations of the night side in the pericenter and beyond, Solar 2.13.2
2007 eclipses (season 3), Campaign of dynamic observations in the northern and south-
ern hemispheres, Radar sounding of Beta Regio and Theia Mons, Night thermal
mapping of Themis Regio and Phoebe Regio
7 April 24, 64 Radio eclipses (season 3), regular nadir observations in the pericenter and be- 3.36.5, 0.5
2007 yond, near the terminator, radar sounding of Atla Regio (Ozza Mons), thermal
mapping of Ishtar Terra and Maxwell Montes, Gravity experiment over Atal-
anta Planitia, Second Venus flyby by Messenger (June 4, 2006)
8 June 27, 53 Solar eclipses (season 4), regular nadir observations in the pericenter and be- 13.2
2007 yond, on the dayside, Radar sounding of Beta Regio (Theia Mons), Thermal
mapping of Beta Regio and Phoebe Regio, Continuation of gravity experiment
over Atalanta Planitia
9 July 19, 60 Regular nadir observations in the pericenter and beyond, near the terminator, 3.21
2007 Campaign of dynamic observations in the northern and southern hemispheres,
Radar sounding of Thetis Regio, Thermal mapping of Atalanta Planitia, Guin-
evere Planitia, and Ishtar Terra

surface in mountain regions which showed anoma-
lously strong reflection in the Magellan radar sounding.
A gravity experiment will be carried out above some
regions. This experiment consists in precise measure-
ments of the spacecraft velocity variations caused by
inhomogeneous mass distribution in the planetary inte-
riors. Finally, when Venus will be in opposition with the
Earth, VERA will make radio sounding of the solar
corona in order to study the properties of near-solar
plasma.
The nominal mission (500 days) is partitioned into
nine phases whose boundaries are determined by obser-
vational conditions and by seasons of solar and radio
eclipses. Table 2 presents such a partition with the pri-
orities of research programs in each observational
phase.
The plan of Venus Express observations is described
in [27] in great detail. Below we present the general
principles and specific features of planning. First of all,
the homogeneous coverage of the entire range of lati-
tudes and local solar time is reached in this planning.
Different types of observations are almost uniformly
distributed over the nominal mission period, though at
some periods the eclipse experiments have the higher
priority. Second, by combining observations in the peri-
center and beyond it, the plan reaches a balance
between more detailed observations from the close dis-
tance and global monitoring from the remote parts of
the orbit. Due to the same reason the observations of the
northern and southern hemispheres turn out to be bal-
anced. This allows one to investigate various processes
and phenomena on different temporal and spatial
scales. Third, when planning experiments, the principle
of complementarity was used, i.e., one and the same
scientific problem should be addressed by several
experiments.
GROUND-BASED CONTROL CENTER
As in any space mission, the task of the ground-
based deep-space facility is to control the parameters of
spacecraft and payload, to trace the satellite and flight
dynamics, to plan all operations with the spacecraft

COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006

 VENUS EXPRESS: SCIENTIFIC GOALS, INSTRUMENTATION
accounting for available resources, and to provide for
data reception and for their distribution among research
teams.
The ground sector of Venus Express is based on the
system of deep-space telecommunications terminals
that provide for radio contact with spacecraft in X- and
S-ranges of frequencies. The 35-m antenna of ESA
recently constructed in Cebreros (Spain) will be the
main station maintaining the communication with
Venus Express. A similar antenna New Norcia, in Aus-
tralia will be used for carrying out radio occultation
experiments. For some experiments (as, for example,
radar sounding) the 70-m NASA antennas will receive
signals. The spacecraft operations will be controlled
from the European Center of Deep-Space Telecommu-
nications (Darmstadt, Germany). The European Space
Research and Technology Center (ESTEC) will provide
for a necessary bridge between the control center and
research teams participating in experiments.
CONCLUSIONS
Venus Express is the first spacecraft in recent two
decades specially designed for studies of the atmo-
sphere, near-planetary plasma, and the surface of
Venus. Returning to the forgotten planet with the use
of an advanced spacecraft equipped with a powerful set
of instruments, one is able to perform a global survey of
physical and chemical processes in the Venusian atmo-
sphere and in near-planetary plasma, and to investigate
in great detail the phenomena discovered at the first
stage of studying our neighboring planet by the Mari-
ner, Venera, Pioneer Venus, Vega, Magellan, Galileo,
and Cassini missions, as well as by ground-based
observations. The heritage of European missions
Rosetta and Mars Express is successfully used in the
Venus Express project, as far as the satellite systems are
concerned, as well as payload and ground-based con-
trol center, research and engineering teams, and the
scheme of launch by the SoyuzFregat space launching
complex from Russian cosmodrome Baikonur in Kaza-
khstan. All this allowed ESA to prepare Venus Express
for launch in less than four years with minimum costs
and risks. Collaboration on the project has played an
important part in consolidation of the European plane-
tary community whose formation was initiated by the
Mars Express mission. Venus Express is also of crucial
importance in strengthening the RussianEuropean
collaboration in the field of studies on the Solar System.
Venus Express will execute global remote investiga-
tions from the orbit. Next to it will be the Planet-C mis-
sion (Venus Climate Orbiter) of the Japan aerospace
exploration agency (JAXA). It will be concentrated on
meteorological studies of the atmosphere from an equa-
torial orbit using multi-spectral mapping instrumenta-
tion.
Undoubtedly, Venus Express and Planet-C will be
able to make a breakthrough in our understanding of
COSMIC RESEARCH Vol. 44 No. 4 2006
347
Venus physics. Nevertheless, limited nature of the
methods of remote sounding will not allows these mis-
sions to answer all questions. For example, the prob-
lems of isotope abundance of some noble gases will
remain unsolved, though they are important for under-
standing the history and evolution of both Venus and
the Solar System as a whole. In order to finally solve the
problems of geochemistry and chemistry of the atmo-
sphere and cloud layer, it will be required to measure
with high precision the abundance profiles for minor
gas constituents and to analyze the composition of
aerosol particles. Still insufficiently studied remain the
problems of mineralogy of the surface, its interaction
with the atmosphere, geological evolution, and, espe-
cially, of the interior structure of the planet. Solution of
these problems will require contact investigations in the
atmosphere and on the surface. These investigations
can be conducted onboard descending modules or with
balloon-borne long-living atmosphere laboratories.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Venus Express mission is a result of fruitful
cooperation of many European and Russian research
institutes and aerospace manufacturers. The authors
heartily thank numerous colleagues that participated in
development and implementation of this mission.
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