Polarization of Visible Light

Advanced Physics Lab

Author: Kiran Adhikari
March 6, 2017

Date Performed: 27 and 28, Februaury,2017

Partners: Shiyi Gao
Instructor: Prof. Dr. Arnulf Materny and Alireza azaheri Tehrani

Abstract
Polarization is a phenomenon which specifies the geometric orienta-
tion of oscillation. We analyzed the properties polarization of electromag-
netic light under different sections like Malus law, Fresnels equations and
Quarterwave plates. Our experimental finding for Malus law, Fresnels
equations and Quarterwave plates were similar to what theory predicted.
The curve for relation between intensity and angle of incidence for Malus
law, reflection coefficients, and datas for properties of polarization in quar-
terwave plates were very similar to what theory predicted.

Theory
Polarization is a phenomenon which specifies the geometric orientation of os-
cillation. This phenomenon is only observed for transverse waves. Light is a
transverse wave with an oscillating electric field orthogonal to an oscillating
magnetic field. By convention, the polarization of electromagnetic wave refers
to the direction of electric field. There are two types of polarization: circular
or elliptical polarization where field rotate at a constant rate to the direction
of wave, and linear polarization where field oscillate in a single direction.The
objective of the experiment was to study different properties of polarization of
visible light such as Malus law, Fresnel equations, and Polarization by quarter-
wave plates.

Mauls law
When a linearly polarized light is directed through athe polarized making an
angle to the transmission axis of the polarizer, transmitted field strength EA
can be obtained by following equation:
EA = Eo .cos

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This phenomenon is described as Maus law. As angle increased, the light
intensity reduced. The intensity I is propotional to square of the electric field
E and is given as:
IA = (Eo .cos)2

Fresnels equation
Fresnels equation described the behavior of light when it passes through medium
of different refractive indices. Reflection and refraction phenomenon occur when
light masses from one medium with refractive index n1 to another medium with
refractive index n2 .The fresnels equation gives the ratio which describes what
factor of light is reflected and what factor is transmitted. This behavior depends
on the polarization of the incident light which can be classified as s polarization
where incident light is polarized with its electric field vector perpendicular to
plane of incidence and p polarization where incident light ray is polarized with
its electric field vector parallel to plane of incidence. Suppose, is the inci-
dent angle and is the refracted angle then, for s polarization, the reflection
coefficient is given by
sin( )
Rs =
sin( + )
. Similary, for p polarization, the reflection coefficient is given by
tan( )
Rp =
tan( + )
Brewsters angle is an angle of incidence at which light with a particular polar-
ization is perfectly transmitted without any reflection. As a result of Fresnels
equation, the light with p-polarization will not reflect if the incident angle is:
p = tan1 (n)
where p is the Brewster angle.

Quarterwave plates
Birefringent crystals have a optical property that its refractive index depends on
the direction of propagation and the polarization of the transmitted light. When
a non-polarized light passes through bifingent crystal, it splits into ordinary and
extraordinary ray which have perpendicularly polarization vectors. Suppose Eo
is the amplitude of an electric field vector emerging from the polarizer and
is the angle between the direction of polarization P and the optic axis of a
birefringent crystal. Electric field of light, passing through polarizer is
~ = E~0 sin(wt)
E
. We can derive the amplitudes of the ordinary and extraordinary rays at the
crystal structure as follows:
E1 (t) = Eo .sin.sinwt

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 E2 (t) = Eo .cos.sinwt
Bifringement crystal with such a property causes a path difference of /4 be-
tween these two rays when they combine to form a resultant ray while emerging
from crystal. For angle = 0 and = 90 , we will obtain a lineary polarized
light of intensity
2
I = IO E O
. For angle = 45 , we will obtain circularly polarized and its intensity is:
Io E2
I= o
2 2
. For other angle, we will obtain an elliptically polarized transmitted light.

Experimental Setup
Setup for Mauls law

Figure 1: Experimental setup for determination of intensity in dependence on

oritentaion of polarizing filter

The experimental setup was as shwon in the figure above. The light emitted
from the laser beam was directed through the polarization filter upto photocell.

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The ammeter was connected on the photocell to measure the current intensity.
The polarization filter was rotated in steps of 5 between filter positions 90
and corresponding photo current was measured.

Setup for Fresnels equation

Figure 2: Experimental set-up for demonstration of Fresnels equation

The first experimental setup was setting up the swivel devices. The laser point
was screwed into stand tube as shown in figure above. The stand tube was
inserted into radial holder. Another end of the stand tube was fastened with
tripod base. The protactor was fixed on the prism table in such a way that
it could rotate but not wooble. The support rods were fastened with the H-
feet. The pointer, and the longitudinal edge of protactor scale were lined up
with the upper edge of the support rods. Finally, the clampling screw of the
radial holder was tightened. After this, we put the polarizing filter infront of
the laser in order to make beam polarized parallel to the plane of incidence.
The photocell as shwon in the figurewas lined up with the support rod. It was
connected to ammeter with the maximum current range of 300 A. Setting the
incident angle 0 , the prism was placed on the table with its reflecting surface
centrally positioned so that the incident ray reflects back along its path. At
first, we carried out measurement for s-polarization. Laser was warmed up for
15 minutes. The primary intensity was noted. Then, the angle of incidence was
changed in steps of 5 beginning from incident angle 10 . The step of 1 was
selected near the Breswter angle. The laster was turned through 90 for the
case of p-polarization, and the same procedure was repeated.

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Quarterwave plates

Figure 3: Experimental setup involving quarterwave plates

The experiment was setup as figure above except for amplifier. Instead of am-
plifier, the multimeter of maximum current range 300 A was used. The ar-
rangement of optical components are as follows:
Experimental lamp with condenser (focal length of 60mm)
Lens holder with Iris diaphragm
Interference filter
Polarizer
holder with /4 plate
lens holder with focal length 100mm
analyzer
photocell with multimeter
The function of experimental lamp was to create a source of unpolarized light
while Iris diaphragm controlled the amount of light passing through. The inter-
ference filter was applied inorder to transmit light of certain wavelength. The
polarizer was placed inorder to change the direction of the electric field vector
while /4 was placed to obtain a polarized light. The transmitted light was
passed throught the analyzer for all orientations. At first, the intensity distri-
bution of linearly polarized light was meausred as a function of the analyzer
positon without /4. The optic axis of the quarterwave plate was adjusted at 0
and 90 to the poslarization vector of incident light. Light intensity behind the
analyzer was measured in steps of 10 degree over the range of -90 to +90 degree.
The measurement was repeated with the quarter wave plate rotated by 30,45,60

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and 90 degree to initial position. The experiment was repeated again with two
quarterwave plates one behind each other. The angle of 0,45 and 60 degree was
maintained between the optic axis of quarterwave plates and the polarizer.

Results and Analysis

Malus law
The photodetector current as a function of the orientaion of the polarizer are
as follows:

Figure 4: Photoelectric current as a function of orientation of the polarizer

between 0 to 90 degree

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Figure 5: Photoelectric current as a function of orientation of the polaizer be-
tween 0 and -90 degree

The background current was I=0.003mA. The table with normalized current
and cos2 from both = 0 to = 90is as follows:

Figure 6: Relation between Normalized current vs cos2

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 Figure 7: Relation between Normalized current vs cos2 ()

The graph plotting Normalized current vs for = 0 to = 90 is as follow:

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 Figure 8: Normalized current vs

The graph plotting Normalized current vs for = 0 to = 90 is as follow:

The graph plotting Normalized current vs cos2 for = 0 to = 90 is as

follow:
The graph plotting Normalized current vs cos2 for = 0 to = 90 is as
follow:

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 Figure 9: Normalized current vs

Figure 10: Normalized current vs cos2

From Table 4 and 5 and graph 8 and 9, it can be seen that with increasing angle
~
between polarizer and direction of the E-field the light intensity is reduced.
Similarly from table 6 and 7 and graph 10 and 11, it can be seen that intensity
of light wave is increasing linearly with respect to cos2 :

IA cos2

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 Figure 11: Normalized current vs cos2

Fresnels equations
Calculation of Brewster angle
The refractive index of the prism is n = 1.63. The equation relating brewster
angle and refractive index of the prism is given by:

tanp = n

p = arctan(1.63)
p = 58.47
Thus, brewster angle for the prism is p = 58.47.

Reflection coefficients
Suppose, is the incident angle and is the refracted angle then, for s polar-
ization, the reflection coefficient is given by
sin( )
Rs =
sin( + )
. Similary, for p polarization, the reflection coefficient is given by
tan( )
Rp =
tan( + )
. Using Snells law,
sin
= sin1 ( )
n
This value for need to be inserted for obtaining respective reflection coeffi-
cients. The incident angle for both s and p-polarization in degre and radian are
as follows:

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 Figure 12: Incident angle in degree and radian

sample calculation for getting refracted angle

Suppose = 10 , then
sin
= sin1 ( )
n
sin10
= sin1 ( )
1.63
= 6.11
In terms of radian, = 0.10 rad. The calculations for getting refracted angle
are done in radian because excel accept radian easily than degree. The final
answer nevertheless will be same. The table showing reflected and refracted
angle in radians are as shown below: With the values for incident angle() and
refracted angle(), we can just plug it in our equation for reflection coefficient
for s and p polarization.

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 Figure 13: Reflected and refracted angle in radian

sample calculation for reflection coefficient for s polarization

These calculations are done in radian.
sin( )
Rs =
sin( + )

sin(0.17 0.11)
Rs = = 0.24
sin(0.17 + 0.11)
We take the absolute value for Rs and get

|Rs| = | 0.2| = 0.2

The table showing reflection coefficients for s polaration and incident angle in
degree is as follow:

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 Figure 14: Reflection coefficient for s polarization

sample calculation for reflection coefficient for p polarization

These calculations are done in radian.
tan( )
Rp =
tan( + )

tan(0.175 0.101)
Rp = = 0.235
tan(0.175 + 0.107)
We take the absolute value for Rp and get

|Rp| = | 0.235| = 0.235

The table showing reflection coefficients for s polaration and incident angle in
degree is as follow:

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Figure 15: Reflection coefficient for p polarization and incident and reflected
angle in radian

The primary incident intensity was Io = 0.151mA. For s-polarization, the

primary incident intensity and reflected intensity were meausred.The reflection
coefficient was calculated with:
s
Ref lectedIntensity
Rs =
P rimaryIntensity

Sample calculation for reflection coefficient

r
0.0075mA
Rs = = 0.223
0.151mA
The table showing primary incident intensity, reflected intensity and reflection
coefficient were as follows:
The primary incident intensity was Io = 0.151mA. For p-polarization, the
primary incident intensity and reflected intensity were meausred.The reflection

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Figure 16: Table showing primary incident intensity,reflected intensity and re-
flection coefficient

coefficient was calculated with:

s
Ref lectedIntensity
Rp =
P rimaryIntensity

Sample calculation for reflection coefficient

r
0.0058
Rp = = 0.196
0.151
The table showing primary incident intensity, reflected intensity and reflection
coefficient for p-polarization is as follow:

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Figure 17: Table showing primary incident intensity, reflected intensity and
reflection coefficient for p-polarization

plot for reflection coefficient

The plot showing measured and calculated reflection coefficient for s-polarization
is as follow:

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Figure 18: Plot showing measured and calculated reflection coefficient for s-
polarization (Blue=calculated reflection coefficient and orange=measured re-
flection coefficient)

The plot showing measured and calculated reflection coefficient for s-polarization
is as follow:

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Figure 19: Reflection coefficient for calculated and measured data for p-
polarization

From the plot of reflection coefficients for s-polarization, one can see that reflec-
tion coefficient increases as we increase incident angle. This is like what we ex-
cepted from the theory. From the plot of reflection coefficient for p-polarization,
one can see that the reflection coefficient decreases at first as we increase in-
cident angle. The reflection coefficient is lowest at the range of 58 which is
known as Brewster angle.

Quarterwave plates
The polarizer was first set to zero. Without inserting /4 plate, the analyzer
was rotated until the intensity was minimum. The table showing anlge and
intensity is as follow: The plot showing relation between angle and intensity is
as follow:
This graph shows that intensity of the transmitted light decreases as the angle
increases which was also predicted from Malus law.
After inserting /4, we set it to zero and change the position of analyzer. The
table showing the position of analyzer and intensity(mircoA) is shown below:
Similarly the table showing the position of analyzer and intensity(mircoA) with
quarterwave plate rotated by 30,45,60 and 90 is also shown below:

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Figure 20: Measurement of Intensity of transmitted light as a function of posi-
tion of analyzer

Figure 21: Without /4 plate

Figure 22: /4 =0

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Figure 23: Measurement of Intensity of transmitted light as a function of posi-
tion of analyzer when quarterwave plate rotated by 30,45,60 and 90 respectively

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The data for two quarterwave plates one behind each other for angles of 30,45
and 60 is tabulated below:

Figure 24: Measurement of Intensity of transmitted light as a function of posi-

tion of analyzer when two quarterwave plates one behind each other for angles
of 0,45,and 60 between the optic axes of quarterwave plates and the polarizer

From table of /4 plate at position 0,45, 60 and 90, we can see that for 0 and
90, there is a growth in intensity while position of analyzer is changing from -90
to 0 and decrease in intensity while position of analyzer is changing from 0 to
90. This is like what we expected from equation:

I Eo2 cos2 .cos2 + Eo2 sin2 .sin2

where is the positon of quarterwave plate and /gamma is the position of

analyzer. For position of analyzer 0 and 90, we will get the results as measured.
For the position of analyzer 45, we got somewhat constant Intensity which is also
what we predicted from theory. For other angle like 60 degree, we got different
result than from 0,90 and 45 which means it is elliptically polarized. For /2
plate, where we put two quarterwave plates together, the plane polarized light is

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produced. This can also be seen from tablle. For all position of /2 plate: 0, 45
and 60, we got a increase in intensity while increasing the position of analyzer
from -90 to 0 and decrease in intensity while increasing the position of analyzer
from 0 to 90.

Error sources and Error analysis

Error sources
The main sources of error during the experiment are: fluctations of laser beam
intesnity over time and change in position of prism while moving the protac-
tor.Anothe possible source of error was our lack of ability to accurately measure
the rotation of the protactor. The protactor could move back and forth from
its position creating a disturbance in path of incidence.

Error analysis
Malus law
While evaluating the relation between Intensity and cos2 (), we got the slope
of line m = 0.15. The Linear regression error R2 = 0.97. Thus, error in the
slope is : r
m 1 1 R2
| |= ( )
m n 2 R2
r
m 1 1 0.972
| |= ( )
0.15 15 2 0.972
Thus, error in our slope is m = 0.02.

Fresnels equation
For Fresnels equation the most significant source of error was fluctations of laser
beam intensity over time instead of the change in position of protactor. We
got different values of primary incident light when measured in different time.
But the error due to the position of protactor doesnt get much propagated as
slight change in the angle doesnt makes big difference when we put into Snells
equation. The error due to fluctation of laser beam is very random so the error
analysis for it is ignored.

Quarterwave plate
The main source of error in Quarterwave plate was the fluctations of laser beam
intensity over time. Other source of error like angle of analyzer and quarterwave
plate has less significance because there was not much change in these angle as
they were fixed with holder unlike for Fresnels equation experiment. The error
due to fluctation of laser beam is very random so the error analysis for it is
ignored.

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Discussion
From this experiment, we study the phenomenon of polarization of light. We
studied the Malus law, Fresnel equations and polarization by Quarterwave
plates. For Malus law, we observed that when linerly polarized light was di-
rected through polarizer making a certain angle, the light intensity was reduced
while increasing the angle. For Fresnels equations, we obtained the reflection
coefficient for s and p polarization as predicted from the theory. For s polariza-
tion, reflection coefficient increased as increasing in angle of incidence while for
p polarization, the reflection coefficient decreased for until it reached minimum
value and increased again. The angle of incidence at which p-polarization trans-
mitted intensity reached its minimum value was around 58 degree and is known
as Brewster angle. This matches with the literature value for Brewster angle
58.47 degree. Similarly for Quarterwave plates, our experimental finding was
similar to theoretical prediction. For position of quarterwave plate, 0 and 90
degree, we got a linearly polarized light while for 45 degree we got a circularly
polarized light and for 60 degree, we got a elliptically polarized light.
As already mentioned n the error analysis section, the main possible source of
error was fluctuation in laser light intensity and change in position of prism
and protactor over time. In order to improve the precision of the result, one
can warm up the laser for more than 30 minutes so that there is no distrubing
intesnity fluctations. One can also use amplifier to amplify the current so that
he can get better intensity readings. One should also fix the protactor tightly
in such a way that it can move freely without creating much distrubance.

Conclusion
From this experiment, polarization of light was studied using Malus law, Fres-
nels equations and Quarterwave plates. The result for the Malus law, Fresnels
equation and Quarterwave plates was similar to predicted from the theory.From
the experiment, we obtained the value for Brewster angle around 58 degree
while the literature value is 58.47 degree. One can improve the precision of
this experiment in the future by using better intensity measurement devices like
amplifying the current, and by heating the laser beam for more than 30 minutes.

References
1. M.Alonso and E.J. Finn, Physics, Addison-Wesly,1992
2. A.Materny and A.Tehrani, Advanced Lab, Jacobs University, Spring 2017

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