PHYSICS- I

LAB MANUAL

II SEMESTER

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 Experiment No 01

Aim: To determine the frequency of AC mains using a sonometer and an electro-magnet.

Apparatus: Sono-meter with steel wire, an electro magnet, a step down transformer, balance, weight
box and a clamp stand

Formula:
f = (1/4l) T / m, where f is the frequency of the mains A.C l is the length of the wire vibrating in
resonance with A.C oscillations, m is the mass of wire per unit length, T is the tension in the wire =
M g, here M is the mass hung from the wire
Figure

Theory
If a sonometer wire of mass per unit length m, of length l stretched between two knifeedges under a
tension T is once plucked and then released, it executes transverse vibrations of fundamental
frequency given by n=(1/2l ) T / m . Here n is called its natural frequency of the vibrating wire.

To find the frequency of A.C. mains using an electromagnet and a sonometer, the A.C. is passed
through the primary of a step-down transformer (220-240 V to 4-6 V). The two ends of the secondary
coil of the step-down transformer are connected to the two ends of the windings of the electro-
magnet. The electro-magnet gets magnetized twice in each cycle, first with its face as North pole and
then with the same face as South pole. The electro-magnet is kept close to and vertically above the
steel wire of the sonometer. Now the wire is pulled by the electro-magnet twice in each cycle- once
when its end near the wire is north-pole and again when it is a south- pole. Thus the wire starts
vibrating with frequency twice the frequency of the A.C. When the natural frequency of the wire
becomes equal to this frequency, resonance is produced and the vibrations produce large sound.
Therefore the frequency of the A.C.(f) is given by:
2f = n= (1/2l) T / m
Or
f= (1/4l) T / m,
Here T = Mg
Where M= mass hung from one end of the wire
m= mass of unit length of the wire
l= length of the wire between the two knife-edges when resonance is observed

Procedure-
1. Set up the sonometer apparatus.
2. Arrange the electro magnet in a clamp stand and hold it 2-3 mm vertically above the centre of the
steel wire of sonometer. Connect the electromagnet to the secondary of the step down transformer.
Switch on the A.C mains and test the magnetization of the electromagnet with the help of an iron
needle.
3. Cut a V shaped light paper rider about one cm long and 2mm wide. Bring the two knife-edges
close to each other and place the paper ride on the wire in between the knifeedges. See that the pole
of electromagnet is just above the centre of sonometer wire. Now gradually increase the distance
between the two knife-edges till the rider begins to flutter. The wire is now in resonance with the
frequency of AC mains supply. Measure the length of the wire.
4. Increase the distance between the two knife-edges by a few centimeters. Repeat the above process
by decreasing slowly the distance between the two knife-edges till the rider again flies off. Measure
the length of the wire between the two knife-edges again. The mean of the two lengths is true
resonant length.
5. Weigh the weights suspended including the hanger with trip scale balance.
6. Increase the weight by half a kilogram and repeat the observation to find the length of wire
vibrating in resonance with AC mains supply Take such four sets of observations by changing the
load by kg each time.
7. Switch off the AC mains and remove the electromagnet. To find the mass per unit length of wire,
adjust the distance between the two knife-edges to be exactly 50 cm apart. Mark with ink a point on
the wire at the position of each knife-edge and cut the wire at these points. Find the weight by a
sensitive balance. Or obtain the value of mass per unit length from the Lab Assistant/ Faculty.

Observations-
Length of wire = cm = m
Mass of wire = g = kg
Mass per unit length (m) =
 Experiment No: 02

AIM: Determination of wavelength of sodium light by Newton Rings.

APPARATUS USED: A sodium lamp, Newton ring apparatus (consisting of a traveling microscope,
a plano convex lens filled on a plane glass plate and a glass plate inclined at an angle of 45,
spherometer, magnifying glass etc.

Theory of experiment
Introduction: Circular interference fringes can be observed if a very thin film of air or some other
transparent medium of varying thickness is enclosed between a plane glass plate and plano-convex
lens of large focal length. Such fringes were first observed by Newton and so are called Newtons
Rings.

Experimental Arrangement: Light from monochromatic source S is rendered parallel by a convex

lens L and then it is made to fall on a glass plate G inclined at a angle of 45 to the incident beam.
This beam is reflected normally on to a plano-convex lens placed on a glass plate P as shown in

Figure 1.
Telescope

Convex Lens

45

Glass Plate G1
Monochromatic Source

Plano-Convex Lens

Glass Plate
Light rays reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the lens O and
glass plate P superimpose upon each other and depending upon the path difference between these
rays, circular bright and dark rings are observed with a monochromatic light. The fringes are circular
because the air film is symmetrical about the point of contact of the lens O and the plane glass plate
P. These fringes can be observed by a traveling microscope which can also measure the diameter of
the various rings.

Theory of Newtons rings. Let CME be the vertical section of the lens surface and let R be the radius
of curvature of the lens. The lens is contact with plat at M in such a way that the film thickness at CL
and EN is equal, i.e., CL = CN = t.

Now from the geometry of the circle, we have.

CDDE ADDM = (AM DM) DM
= (2R t) t = 2Rt t2
PROCEDURE:
1. Level the microscope and find the vernier constant of the horizontal scale of microscope.
2. Put the Newton ring apparatus in position place the arrangement in front of a sodium lamp so that
the height of the centre of the glass plat4e G is the same as that of the centre of the sodium lamp.
3. Focus the microscope so that it lies vertically above the centre of the lens D and alternate dark and
bright rings are clearly visible.
4. Adjust the position of the microscope so that the point of intersection of the cross wire coincides
with the centre of the ring system and one of the cross-wires is perpendicular to the horizontal scale.
5. Move the microscope to the left so that the cross-wires lies tangentially along the 25th dark ring.
Note the reading on the vernier scale of the microscope. Move the microscope backward with the
help of the slow motion screw and note the reading when the cross-wires lies tangentially at the
center of the 20th, 15th, 10th, 5th dark rings respectively. Keeping on sliding the microscope to the
right and note the reading when the cross-wire again lies tangentially at the 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th, 25th

dark rings.
6. After reaching the 25th ring move the microscope backwards and again not thereadings
corresponding to the same rings on the right and then on the left of the centre of the ring system.
7. Remove the lens D and find the radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the
glass plate P with the help of a spherometer

Observation:
Pith of the spherometer = mm
No. of divisions on circular scale = n
Least count = Pitch/ n
Distance between the two legs of spherometer = 1 . 2. 3
Spherometer reading on

Precautions

1. The lens and the glass plate should be cleaned properly.

2. Lens of a large focal length should be used.
3. The point of intersection of the cross-wires should coincide tangentially with a particular ring.
4. The micrometer screw should always be moved in the same direction to avoid back lash error.
5. The radius of curvature of the surface of the lens is contact with the glass plate should be measure
accurately in formula since

6. The amount of light for the source should be adjusted for maxima visibility of the rings and good
contrast between dark and bright ring.
 Experiment No: 03

AIM: To determine the wavelength of sodium light using diffraction grating.

Apparatus: A spectrometer, table lamp, Spirit level, Sodium lamp, magnifying glass, diffraction
grating etc.

Theory
PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING
The diffraction grating as stated above consists of a large no. of fine equidistant lines of large
number (between 12000 LPI to 30,000 LPI) marked on a polished glass plate. The spaces
between the lines act as transparency and opacity be a and b respectively the distance (a + b)
is called grating constant or grating element. The points between adjoining transparencies
separated by distance, (a + b) are known as corresponding points. In figure 4, ABC.. represents
the section of a plane transmission grating having N number of clear space placed to the plane
of paper. Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength be incident normally on
the grating surface. Most of the light from the spaces go straight, but a part of it is diffracted in
various direction. This light is converged by convex lens L on the screen where alternate dark
and bright bands are formed on both sides of the central maximum. All the rays starting from AH
reach O in phase with each other and so reinforce each other producing an image of the slits
corresponding to central maximum. The rays whichare diffracted at an angle with the normal
reach PL on passing through the lens indifferent phases. If AK is drawn to the diffracted lights
from the corresponding points A and C at an angle .
So path difference CN = AC sin = (a + b) sin

Now the condition of maxima

(a + b) sin = n
And condition for minima is
(a + b) sin = (2n 1) /2
Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 .
So the diffracted rays from any pair of corresponding points of the slits will produce constructive or
destructive interference at a point P according as the path difference is an even or an old multiple of
/2. This condition holds for all the pair of rays from the corresponding poits of the total grating
surface.
For n = 0,
(a +b) sin = 0
= 0,
This corresponds to the central maxima at
0. For n = 1,
(a + b) sin=
This gives the position of the second order principal maxima at P1 and P2 a on either side of 0.
Also for n = 0, (a + b) sin = /2, which will corresponds to the first order minima on either side of
0.
For n = 1, (a + b) sin3/2, we get positions of second order minima on either side of point O. So we
get alternate bright and dark bands.

PROCEDURE:
1. The initial adjustment are made as usual in the case of spectrometer, however, in this case, since a
grating is to used instead of a prism, so final adjustment and leveling should be done with grating on
prism table.
2. Adjustments of grating. The surface of the grating should be set up on the prism table so that it is
normal to the incident light and the lines of gratings are parallel to the axis about which telescopes
rotates. The grating is put on its stand fixed with screws on the prism table so that the ruled surface is
just over the centre of the circle and parallel to the line joining two leveling screws Y, Z. The grating
is put on its stand and is mounted on the prism table so that the ruled surface is just over the centre of
the circle and parallel to the line joining the two leveling screws XY. The telescope is fixed roughly
and table is rotated until the light reflected from the grating surface is received by the telescope. If
the image of the slit is not located at the centre of the field of view, the screw Y and Z are adjusted to
bring the centre of the cross wire to the centre of the image. Next rotate either the grating or the
telescope so that the reflected image from the other surface appears in the field of view. The screw X
is now adjusted to get the image again to the centre of the cross-wire
3. Now the telescope is turned to view the direct image of the slit and the corresponding reading x is
noted. It is then turned through exactly 90 to a reading x + 90 and fixed so that the axis are at right
angles to the direction of the rays proceedings from the collimator. Now the grating is rotated till the
image, which is simply reflected from the ruled surface of the grating (not diffracted) coincides with
the centre of the cross-wire of the telescope. The reading of the vernier attached to the prism table is
noted. The plane of the grating now makes an angle 45 with the incident light. The prism table is
turned through 45 from the above position so that the plane of the grating becomes exactly normal
to thedirection of the incident light.
4. In order to find the grating element N:, the sodium light is taken as the standard source since its
wavelength known (mean = 5893 A). The slit is illuminated
5. by the sodium lamp. As the telescope is moved from the direct position to one side or the other the
first and second order images of the slit are seen on both sides. Taking the first order spectrum the
angle of diffraction is given by the difference between the telescope reading in the deviated
position and the direct position. So N is calculated
Grating element (a + b) = 2.54/N

Calculations
Wavelength from Ist order
( a b) sinA
Mean Wavelength =
Actual value = 5893 A
[Sodium has to spectral lines D1 = 5896
A D2 = 5890 A
Mean = 5893 A
% error = .

Precautions
1. The ruled surface of the grating must face the telescope.
2. The slit should be made very fine and bright.
3. The grating surface should not be touched.
4. While setting the grating, two images are seen, the telescope should be focused on the brighter
one.
 Experiment No: 04

AIM: To find the specific rotation of cane sugar solution using polarimeter
.
Apparatus : Polarimeter, graduated cylinder, common balance, weight box, beaker, a wall glass,
magnifying glass, sodium or mercury lamp, electric lamp, magnifying lens, filter pap tunnel, glass
rod, sugar.

THEORY:

SPECIFIC ROTATION
The term specific rotation is used to bring rotation of all optically active substances in a comparable
form .Specific rotation for a given temperature t C and for a light of given wavelength is defined
as the rotation (in degrees) produced by a path of one decimeter length in a substance of unit density.
It is the rotation produced by decimeter length of a solution of density dlec; then specific rotation S
corresponding to some temperature t and light of wavelength is given by
S l d =Rotation in degrees/ Length in decimeter concentration in g/cc
Sugar is the most commonly used optically active substance and the instruments used for measuring
the optical rotation produced by substance are called polarimeters or saccharimeters. Basically, they
consist of two Nicol Prism capable of rotation about the incident beam as axis. The optically active
substance is placed between the two nicol prisms. Generally, it is very difficult to locate the position
of analyzing nicol when no light is received but with the used of Laurents half shade device, this
difficulty is overcome.
Sugar is the most commonly used optically active substance and the instruments used for measuring
the optical rotation produced by substance are called polarimeters or saccharimeters. Basically, they
consists of two Nicol Prism capable of rotation about the incident beam as axis. The optically active
substance is placed between the two nicol prisms. Generally, it is very difficult to locate the position
of analyzing nicol when no light is received but with the used of Laurents half shade device, this
difficulty is overcome.

LAURENTs POLARIMETER
It is an instrument used for finding optical rotation of certain solutions when used for finding specific
rotation ofr sugar, it is called a saccharimeter. Also if the specific rotation of sugar is known the
concentration of the solution can be found.

Construction: It consiss of two Nicol Prisms P and A mounted in brass tube and capable of rotation
about a common axis. A glass tube D containing optically active solution is placed in between the
two nicols as shown Fig. 6.2. All the tubes are in line. Monochromatic light from a source is rendered
parallel by a convex lens L and is made to fall on polarizing prisms P which renders the light plane
polarized with its vibrations in the principal plane of the nicol prism. This polarized light is then
made to pass through half shade device H and the tube D containing the active solution and then in
passes through analyzing Nicol prism A. The emergent light is viewed through telescope T.
The analyzing nicol A can be rotated about its axis and the rotation can be measured on a graduated
circular scale in terms of degrees with the use of Vernier Scale (V.S.).

LAURENTS HALF SHADE DEVICE

It consists of two semicircular plates, one made of glass and other of quartz. Both glass and quartz
are connected together as shown in Figure 5.The quartz plane is cut parallel to its axis which being ||
to the line joining two plates Y Y quartz plate is made as a half wave plate, [i.e. its thickness is so
adjusted that it introduces a path difference of /2 between E-ray on O-ray for sodium light. In other
words, in passing through the Quartz plate. O ray gains /2 on E-ray. Thickness of glass plate is so
adjusted that it transmits the same amount of right as the quartz plate

Let the light after passing through the polarized P be incident normally on half shade plate and has
vibrations along OP, but on passing through the glass half, the vibration will remain along OP, but on
passing through the quartz half of these will split E and components. The vibrations of E-component
are along OY and those of O component long OX. On passing through the quartz plate a phase
different of a or path difference of /2 is introduced between the two vibrations. The O-vibrations
will advance in phase by and will appear along OX instead of OX on emergence. So the resultant
vibration after emerging from the quartz plate will be along OQ, such that POY = YOQ.
In the analyzing Nicol is placed with its principal plane parallel to OP, the plane polarize light
through glass half will pass and hence it will appear brighter than the quartz half from which light
will be practically obstructed. If the principal plane of Nicol is parallel (II) of OQ, the quartz half will
appear brighter this glass due to the above reason. When the principal plane of analyzing Nicol is
parallel (II) to OQ, the two halves will appear equally bright. It is because the two vibrations coming
out off the two halves are equally inclined to its principal plane and so the two components will have
equal intensity. Again if the principal plane of the analyzer is to YOY, we will have components
of C and OQ equal. The two halves are again equally illuminated but since the intensity of the tv
components passing through its small as compares to that in the first case, the two halves a equally
dark. Since the eye can easily detect the change when the two halves are equally dark the readings
are taken for this position.

Procedure
1. Weight a watch glass and put 20 gm sugar on the watch glass, weigh accurately a dissolve the 20
gm sugar thus weighted slowly in distilled water in a beaker putting above 40 cc of distilled water.
Put the solution thus obtained in a graduated cylinder and ri. The beaker slowly and number of times
using about 20 cc of distilled water each time that the volume of the solution in cylinder is 100
cc. Filter the solution. This is 20% sugar solution.
2. Remove one of the caps of the polarimeter tube and put distilled water in the tube after cleaning it
and the caps thoroughly. See that there is no air bubble in the tube Screw the cap gently without
undue pressure on the glass windows of the tube. Place the tube in position in polarimeter and see
that no air bubble is present in the path of light through the polarimeter. Also note the vernier
constant of the polarmieter.
3. Illuminate the circular aperture of polarimeter with sodium lamp (in case Bi quartz is used, then
mercury lamp may be used). Adjust the eye piece of the telescope, so that circular image is clearly
visible. Adjust the position of analyzer for equal darkness of the two images seen through the field of
view of telescope.
Note the reading at the vernier. Turn analyzer through 180 and again set if for equal darkness of the
two images. Take the reading at the vernier.
4. Fill the tube the Sugar solution prepared above and repeat the observations as stated in 3 rd step.
5. Now make the concentration of the sodium 15%. It can be done by taking 75 CC of the above
solution and diluting it to 100 CC
The above experiment may be repeated for 15% strength.
6. Again take the observations for 10%, 7.5%, 5% of sugar solution.
7. Take the length of the polarmieter tube and also measure the room temperature.
Observations and Calculations
Vernier constant =
Mass of the watch glass = m1, gm
Mass of watch glass + sugar = m2 gm
Mass of sugar m = (m2 m1) = .. gm
Length of thetube in decimeter =
Room temperature t = C = .
 Experiment No: 05

Aim: To find the wavelength of Sodium light by Fresnels biprism experiment.

Apparatus used: Optical bench with uprights, sodium lamp, biprism, convex lens, slit and
micrometer eye piece are already fitted on the optical bench.

Formula used: The wavelength of the sodium light is given by the formula in case of biprism
experiment.
= 2d / D
Where = fringe width,
2d = distance between the two virtual
sources, D = distance between the slit and
screen. Again 2d = (d1d2)
Where d1 = distance between the two images formed by the convex lens in one position. d2 =
distance between the two images formed by the convex lens in the second position.

Description of the Apparatus:

Two coherent sources, from a single source, to produce interference pattern are obtained with
the help of a Bi-prism. A bi-prism may be regarded as made up of two prisms of very small
refracting angles placed base to base. In actual practice a single glass plate is suitably grinded
and polished to give a single prism of obtuse angle 170 0 leaving remaining two acute angles of
30 each. The optical bench used in the experiment consists of a heavy cast iron base supported
on four leveling screws. There is a graduated scale along its one arm. Te bench is provided
with four uprights which can be clamped anywhere and the position can be read by means of
Vernier attached to it. Each of the uprights is subjected to the following motions:
i) Motion along bench
ii) Transverse motion
iii) Rotation about the axis of the up[right.
iv) With the help of the tangent screw, the slit and bi-prism can be rotated in their own vertical
planes.

Action of Bi-prism:
The action of the Bi-prism is shown in the fig.
Monochromatic light source S falls on two points of the prism and is bent
towards the base. Due to the division of wavefront, the refracted light appears to
come from S1 and S2. The waves from two sources unite and give interference
pattern. The fringed are hyperbolic, but due to high eccentricity they appear to be
straight lines in the focal plane of eyepiece.
Fig.

Procedure:

Adjustments:
i) Level the bed of optical bench with the help of spirit level and leveling screws.
ii) The slit, Bi-prism and eye-piece are adjusted at the same height. The slit and the cross wire
of eye piece are made vertical.
iii) The micrometer eye piece is focused on cross wires.
iv) With an opening provided to cover the monochromatic source, the light is allowed to
incident on the slit and the bench is so adjusted that light comes straight along its lengths.
This adjustment is made to avoid the loss of light intensity for the interference pattern.
v) Place the bi-prism upright near the slit and move the eye piece sideways. See the two
images of the slit through Bi-prism; if they are not seen, move the upright of Bi prism right
angle to the bench till they are obtained. Make the two images parallel by rotating bi-prism in
its own plane.
vi) Bring the eye piece near to the bi prism and give it a rotation at right angle of the bench to
obtain a patch of light. As a matter of fact, the interference fringes are obtained in this patch
provided that the edge of the prism is parallel to the slit
vii) To make the edge of the Bi prism parallel to the slit, the bi prism is rotated with the help
of tangent screw till a clear interference pattern is obtained. These fringes can be easily seen
even with the naked eye.
viii) The line joining the centre oft the slit and the edge of the Bi prism should be parallel to the
bed of the bench. If this is not so, there will be a lateral shift and the removal is most important.
This is shown in the fig.
(a) In order to adjust the system for no lateral shift, the eyepiece is slowly moved away from Bi-
prism; the fringes will move to the right or left but base screw provided with Bi-prism, is
moved at right angle to the bench in such a direction so that bridge in such a direction as to
bring the fringes back to their original position.
(b) Next move the eye piece towards the bi-prism; the fringe system will move towards right or
left but this time, they are brought to their original position by moving the screw of eye piece.
On using the above process repeatedly, the lateral shift is removed.

Measurements:
(A) Measurement of fringe width ():
i) Find out the least count of the micrometer screw.
ii) Place the micrometer screw at such a distance from bi prism where fringes are distinct,
bright and widely spaced, say 120 cms.
iii) The cross wire is moved on one side of the fringes to avoid backlash error. Now the cross
wire is fixed at the centre of a bright fringe.
iv) The crosswire is now moved and fixed at the centre of every second fringe. The micrometer
readings are noted. From these observations can be calculated.

(B) Measurement of D:
The distance between the slit and eyepiece uprights is noted. This distance gives D.The
value of D is corrected for the bench error.
(C) Measurement of 2d:
The distance 2d between the two virtual sources can be measured with the help of fig.
i) To obtain the value of 2d, the positions of slit and Bi-prism uprights are not disturbed.
ii) A convex lens is introduced between Bi-prism and eye-piece and moved in between to obtain
the second position where again two sharp and focused images are obtained. The distance
iii) The lens is again moved towards the eye-piece to obtain the second position where again
two sharp and focused images are obtained. The distance in this case is denoted by d2. Knowing
d1 and d2 , 2d can be calculated by using the formula: 2d = (d1 d2)

Result: Wavelength of sodium light =

0A Standard value of =..0A
% Error = %

Precautions and Sources of Error:

i) The setting of uprights at the same level is essential.
ii) The slit should be vertical and narrow.
iii) Fringe shift should be removed.
iv) Bench error should be taken into account.
v) Crosswire should be fixed in the center of the fringe while taking observations for fringe
width.
vi) The micrometer screw should be rotated only in one direction to avoid backlash
 Experiment No: 06

Object: To compare the capacitances of two condensers by De-Sautys bridge and hence to find
the dielectric constant of medium.

Apparatus Used: Two condensers, two high resistance boxes, accumulator, Morse key,
galvanometer (ballistic) and connecting wires.

Formula Used: The ratio of the capacitances of two condensers is given

by: C1 /C2 = R2 /R1
Where R1 and R2 are the resistances introduced in the two other arms of wheat stones bridge,
the two arms of which contain the two capacitances, C1 and C2
Procedure:
(i) Set the galvanometer and lamp and scale arrangement
(ii) Make the electrical connections as in the fig.
(iii) Adjust a suitable resistance in resistance box R1 and depress the knob O to charge the two
condensers. Release the knob O, thereby discharging the condensers through the galvanometer.
The spot of light will move either towards left or right.
(iv) By trial now introduce such a resistance in R 2, of course R1 remaining the same, that by
discharging the condensers, the deflection remains unaltered.
(v) By changing the value of R 1 and finding the value of R2 such that there is no change in the deflection
of spot, other readings are taken.
(vi) Obtain the ratio of R2 / R1 which is also the ratio of the capacitance of two condensers.

Result: The ratio of the capacitance of the given two condensers =

Sources of Error and Precautions:

(i) The galvanometer coil should be made free properly.
(ii) The resistances R1 and R2 should be non-inductive.
(iii) For sufficient sensitiveness of the bridge, the battery should be of high E.M.F.

VIVA-VOCE
1 What is the order of the resistances R1 and R2?
2 What happens when you press the Morse
Key? 3 When are the condensers discharged?
4 Is there any restriction over the choice of resistance
now? 5 Does this method give accurate result?
6 What do you mean by capacity of a conductor?
7 What is the effect of dielectric constant on the capacity of a
condenser? 8 What are practical unit of e.s.u. of capacity?
 Experiment No: 07
Aim : To determine the velocity of ultrasonic wave in non-conducting medium by piezo-electric method.

Apparatus Used: Ultra sonic spectrometer, sodium lamp, R.F.oscillator, glass cell for containing
experimental liquid, quartz crystal, convex lens fitted in a stand and spirit level.

Formula Used:
(i) The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid is given by V = (vD / dn / n)
Where, v = Frequency of R.F.oscillator, D = distance of the crosswire of the eyepiece from the
objective of the telescope, = wavelength of sodium light, dn = distance of the diffracted image.
(ii) The compressibility of the liquid is given by:
C = 1 / V2
Where = density of the liquid, V = velocity of ultrasonic waves in experimental liquid.

Diagram:

Procedure:
(i) The ultrasonic spectrometer is shown in the fig. The glass cell is filled with the experimental liquid and
placed at its proper place inside ultrasonic spectrometer with its opposite walls facing the telescope and
collimator. The crystal is dipped in the liquid near the wall of the cell as shown in the fig. The leads of
the crystals are connected to R.F. oscillator.
(ii) Switch on the monochromatic source of light. Now adjust condensing lens L, slit of the collimator,
height of the glass cell and eyepiece, a sharp and clear image of slit is obtained in the telescope.
(iii) The oscillator is switched on. The crystal now oscillates and ultrasonic waves are propagated in the
liquid. The frequency of the oscillator is adjusted, using dial, to match the neutral frequency of the
crystal. Now resonant vibrations are produced and a number of diffracted images appear on both sides
of the central image in the telescope. In case, the diffracted images are not seen, the position and the
orientation of the crystal is adjusted.
(iv) The distance d1, d2, are between first order, and second order, respectively. They are measured on
the scale provided in the telescope. The diffraction pattern is shown in fig. dn 1 = d1 /2 and dn2 = d2 / 2

Observations:
(i) Wavelength of sodium light = 5893 x 10-8cm.
(ii) Distance of the cross wire of the eyepiece from the objective of telescope D = cm.
(iii) Density of the liquid = gm / c.c
(iv) Frequency of the R.F. oscillator v = .x 106

Calculations:
(i) V = vD / dn1 / 1 = ..cm/sec = met./sec. (For first order)
V = vD / dn2 / 2 = ..cm/sec = met. /sec. (For second order)
Mean Value, V = .met./sec.
(ii) The compressibility of the liquid C = 1 /V2 = .cm2/dynes.

Result:
(i) The velocity of ultrasonic waves in given liquid = .m/sec.
(ii) The compressibility of the given liquid = .cm 2/ dyne.

Precautions and Sources of Error:

(i) The walls of the cell should be properly cleaned.
(ii) The liquid should be filtered twice or thrice before filling it into glass cell.
(iii) The crystal should not touch the walls of glass cell.
(iv) The crystal should be placed parallel to the incident beam.
(v) The leads of the quartz crystal should not cross each other at any point.

VIVA-VOCE
1 What are ultrasonic waves?
2 How can they be produced?
3 What is piezoelectric effect?
4 Why the diffracted images appear?
 EXPERIMENT NO 08
Aim: To find the wavelength of sodium light by Michelson Interferometer.

Apparatus: The wavelength of sodium light is given as

Where x1 = initial position of mirror M1 of michelson interferometer

x2= final position of mirror M1 of Michelson interferometer

(x2 x1) =distance moved by mirror M1

N= number of fringes appeared at the center of field corresponding to distance (x 2-x1)

Diagram :

M1

G1
1 G2
M2

Fig.
Procedure:

1. Adjust the position of mirror M1,so that a bright spot of circular fringes appear the centre of field of view
, Note corresponding micrometer reading.
2. The mirror M1is moved away so that a good number of fringes (say 25) appear at the center of the field .the
micrometre reading is again noted .
3. The procedure is repeated to take various readings.

Observations: Least count of fine micrometer screw=-------------- cm

S.No. No of Main scale Position of mirror M1 Difference Mean

fringes reading(cm) x for 50 difference
appeared RMS FMS Total fringes x(cm)
reading(cm) reading(cm) (cm) (cm)

Calculation:

= 2x/N

Result: Wavelength of sodium light = -----------cm

Precautions:

1. Glass plate G1 , G2 and mirrors M1, M2 should not be touched or cleaned.

2. The micrometre screw should be handled carefully.
3. The screw behind mirror M2 should be rotated through a very small angle.
4. In the position of maximum indistinctness, the fringes should almost disappear.
5. There should be no disturbance near the experiment.
 Experiment No 9
Aim: To find resolving power of a telescope.
Apparatus: A telescope with slit of adjustable width on the objective, a monochromatic source of light ,
a microscope , an object having two slits separated by small constant distance, measuring tape etc.
Formula used: =
Where =wave length of the light used

a = the diameter of the objective of telescope

d= distance between two point objects
D= distance of the object from the objective of telescope.
Diagram

Procedure:

Mount the telescope horizontally on the stand ,and keep the card-board at a large distance (say 2-3m) from
the telescope in such a way that the axis of the telescope meet its surface normally.

1. Illuminate the slits with a source of light.

2. Obtain the image of the two objects on a cross-wire of the objective of telescope such that their
images lies symmetrically with respect to the intersection of the cross wire in the field of view.
3. Adjust micrometer screw provided on the slit of adjustable width on the objective of telescope
and take the reading of the micrometer screw when the two images just cease to be
distinguishable as two. Now close the adjustable slit and again note micrometer reading gives
width of adjustable slit.
4. Measure the distance between the centres of the two consective object-lines with a travelling
microscope.
5. Repeat observations for different distances between telescope and the slits.
6. Note width of adjustable slit in each case.
Observation:

Vernier constant of microscope =---------------cm

0
Wavelength of light used, =5893A

Distance between two slits d=-------------cm

Observation Table:
S.No Distance Micrometer reading width of
between Slit
telescope and Slit open Slit closed width(a) R.P=d/D /a

the object(D)

Theoretical limit of resolution = /a

Practicallimit of resolution = d/D
Result :/a =d/D
Precautions:
1. The card board as well as the white rectangular objects drawn on it should be vertical and the slit
employed in front of the objective should be parallel to these lines.
2. The axis of the telescope should be horizontal and it should meet the surface of the card-board normally.
3. The minimum width of the aperture for resolution of the two linear objects should be determined both by
narrowing and by widening the slit.
 Experiment No: 10

Aim: To find the flashing quenching potential of Neon/Argon and also to find the capacitance of
unknown
Apparatus:
Condenser of unknown capacity, three condenser of known capacity (1, 2 F), resistance of the
order of few mega ohm, neon and argon flashing bulb, stabilized, D.C. power supply of 220 volt.
Procedure:
1. Draw the diagram showing the connections as in the figure make the connection with all
the condensers in the parallel with a separate key to operate and high resistance are in
series with the circuit containing power supply with stabilized output of 220 V DC.
2. Connect the condenser C1 in the circuit by inserting K1 also connect the key to power
supply and increase the voltage till neon lamp just begin to flash. The bulb starts flashing
and quenching as it is connected in parallel with the condenser.
3. Note the flashing and quenching time for 20 flashes. The power supply disconnected.
4. Put in the key K4 for the circuit of unknown capacity C0 so the C0 and lamp are in
parallel their capacities get added and total capacity with parallel with the lamp is
(C1+ C0). Again adjust the power supply voltage again to the sum value as in previous
case note the time for 20 flashes. Remove the key k1 and K4.
5. Repeat the experiment with the capacity (c2) alone (c2+ C0) and C3 alone (C3+C0)
then repeat the experiment with known capacities C1, C2, C1+C2+C3 and each time
taking time for 20 Flashes.

Circuit Diagram:

C1 C2 C3 C4
Neon D.C. Supply
Bulb
K1 K3 K1
 Observation Table:

S.No. Known Capacity Time for 20 flashes

Without C0 With C0
1. C1=0.5F
2. C2=1F
3. C3= 2F
4. C4=C1+C2=1.5F
5. C5=C1+C3+2.5F
6. C6=C1+C2+C3

Result: The Capacitance of unknown capacitor is

Precautions:

1. Count the number of flashes very carefully.

2. Connections should be tight.
3. Capacitors should always be connected parallel to lamp.
 Experiment No: 11

Aim: To study inverse square law using photovoltaic cell.

Apparatus: Photovoltaic cell, lamp, optical bench, ammeter

Formula: Intensity of radiation is inversely proportional to the square of distance

2
between source and cell: Intensity (I) 1/d
2
And intensity current So that the current 1/d
Diagram

Procedure: The optical bench contains two uprights and carries the electric bulb and other
carries a photovoltaic cell. The two terminal of photovoltaic cell is connected to ammeter.
(1) Make the electrical arrangement (connection) and adjust lamp and scale arrangement.
(2) Fix the photovoltaic cell in one position.
(3) Now move the bulb towards photovoltaic cell slowly
(4) Now repeat the experiment and take an observation by fixing the lamp at other position.
Observation Table:

S. No. Distance I(m) d2 1/d2

between lamp
and photocell
(cm)
Calculations:
Plot a graph between I and 1/d2.

Result: Plot a graph by taking 1/d2 on x-axis and micro-ammeter reading on Y-axis if
that graph is come out to be straight line than inverse square law is verified.
Sources of Error and Precautions:
(1) The photocell should not be emposed to light got long time continuously.
(2) Bulb should be mounted in such a way that light falls normally on the surface of
photocell.
 Experiment No:12

Aim: To find the wavelength of He-Ne laser source.

Apparatus Required: He-Ne laser source, two uprights with micrometer, laser screen, and graph
paper, optical bench of laser source etc.

Formula Used: The wavelength of He-Ne laser is given by the formula: =

d/D Where = fringe width
D = Distance between slit and the screen
= wavelength of He-Ne laser source
d = distance between two slits.

Diagram:

Procedure:
1 Mount the double slits on the uprights and place near the laser.
2 Adjust the position of the screen and the double slit to get a clear parallel fringe pattern on the
screen. 3 note the fringe pattern on the graph paper from the screen.
4 Find the distance between the slit and screen and also find the distance between the two slits. 5
Now change the distance between the source and the slits and record the pattern formed on the
screen.
6 After recording the pattern find the distance between every two consecutive pattern and then find
the mean fringe width.
7 After finding the value of mean fringe width we will calculate the value of wavelength of He-Ne
laser source.

Observation Table For fringe width:

Distance between the source and the screen D = .cms.

Distance between the two slits = d1 and d2.
 Case I

Result: The wavelength of Laser beam is ..

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1 The slit must be narrow and close to each other as laser beam is very thin.
2 Keep the distance of the screen on the eyepiece from the slit sufficiently large to observe measurable
fringe width.
3 slit should be adjusted for a vertical position and very near the beam coming from the laser source.

VIVA VOCE
1 What is LASER?
2 What is the meaning of Population Inversion?
3 What are the types of Laser?
 EXPERIMENT No. 13

Object: To find the temperature coefficient of resistances for platinum, using a platinum
resistance thermometer and a callender and Griffiths bridge.
Apparatus Used: Callender and Griffiths bridge, platinum resistance thermometer, galvanometer and
connection wires.
Formula Used:
The temperature coefficient of resistance, , is given by the formula: = R2 R1 / R1 t2 R2 t1
Where R1 = resistance of the platinum wire at t1 o C
R2 = Resistance of the platinum wire at t2 o C
Using a Callendar and Grafith bridge the resistance R, is given by the formula: R = r +2 x ,
Where = re sistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire.
r = resistance introduced in resistance box.
x = distance of null point from middle point (electrical zero.)
The proper sign is used according as the balance point lines to the right or left of the electrical

zero. Diagram

Resistance
thermometer
G
Procedure:

(a) Determination of electrical zero:

Complete the connections as shown in fig. Short circuit the gaps PP and CC i.e. connect the terminals
by a thick copper wire. Make the resistance R zero by moving the key of variableresistance. Now make
the cell circuit on by inserting the plug key. Determine the position of null point by moving the jockey on
the bridge wire. The null point gives the position of electrical zero.

(b)Determination of resistance per unit length () of the bridge wire:

To determine the value of , the gap (PP) and (CC) are short circuited. The value from R is
adjusted to a small value r to obtain the balance. Let the balance be on the left side of O at a distance
x, then, 0 = r - 2x
= r / 2x
Determination of R2 and R1 at steam temperature and room temperature respectively:
(i) Connect the compensating leads and platinum leads of platinum resistance thermometer to
the callender and Graffiths bridge at CC and PP respectively. Other connections are made
according to the circuit diagram shown in fig.
(ii) Place the bulb of thermometer in a tumbler of ordinary water bath at room temperature and wait for some
time to ensure that it has acquired the temperature of water. Note the temperature of water with the
help of mercury thermometer. By introducing a suitable resistance, in the circuit of compensating leads
with the help of moving coil resistance, balance is obtained. This length of the bridge wire is noted.
Using the following formula the resistance of platinum wire R1 at room temperature is calculated: R1 = R
+ 2x Where R = resistance introduced in the moving coil resistance.
x = length adjusted on bridge wire to get the null point.
(iii) Now the platinum resistance thermometer is placed in hypsometer or in a hot water bath and wait
for some time such that it acquires the constant temperature of the bath. Note this temperature also and
determine again the resistance of the platinum wire as described above in the point (ii) let the resistance
at this temperature be denoted by R2.
(iv) Calculate the value of using the relation,
= R 2 R1 / R1t2 R2t1
Result: The temperature coefficient of resistance for platinum = .per o C

Standard result: The standard value of temperature coefficient of resistance for platinum = .pero C

Precautions and sources of error:

(i) The end of the connection wires should be well cleaned; moreover connections should be made tight.
(ii) The balance points for the measurement of R1 and R2 should be determined only when
the temperature acquired by the platinum resistance thermometer is steady.
(iii) Jockey should be pressed gently on the bridge wire.
(iv) The jockey should never be kept pressed while it is being moved on the wire.
(v) Protect the galvanometer with a shunt while approximate null point is obtained

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is the temperature coefficient of resistance?
2. What is its unit?
3. Why have you chosen platinum for this purpose?
4. What is the use of determining ?
5. Why are there mica discs inside the tube of the Pt-resistance thermometer?
6. Why do you record observations when the temperature is falling? Cant you record them
when it is rising?
7. What are the advantages of platinum resistance thermometer?
8. What are its disadvantages?
 Experiment No.14

Object: To determine the refractive index and Cauchys constant of a prism by using a spectrometer.

Apparatus Required: Spectrometer, given prism, mercury source and reading lens.

Formula Used: The refractive index of the prism is given by the following formula: = sin (A + m / 2)
Sin (A / 2)
Where A = angle of the prism, m = angle of minimum deviation.

Diagram:

Procedure:

(A) Measurement of the angle of the prism.

(i) Determine the least count of the spectrometer.

(ii) Place the prism on the prism table with its refracting angle A towards the collimator and with its
refracting edge A at the centre. In this case some of the light falling on each face will be reflected and can
be received with the help of the telescope.
(iii) The telescope is moved to one side to receive the light reflected from the face AB and the cross wires
are focused on the image of the slit.The reading of the two verniers are taken.
(iv) The telescope is moved in other side to receive the light reflected from the face AC and again the
cross wires are focused on the image of the slit.The readings of the two verniers are taken.
(v) The angle through which the telescope is moved or the difference in the two positions gives twice
the refracting angle A of the prism. Therefore half of this angle gives the refracting angle of the prism.

(B) Measurement of the angle of minimum deviations:

(i) Place the prism so that its centre coincides with the centre of of the prism table and light falls on one
of the polished faces and emerges out of the other polished face, after refraction. In this position the
spectrum of light is obtained.
(ii) The spectrum is seen through the telescope and the telescope is adjusted for minimum deviation
position for a particular color (wavelength) in the following way: Set up telescope at a particular color
and rotate the prism table in one direction, of course the telescope should be moved in such a way to
keep the spectral line in view. By doing so a position will come where a spectral line recede in opposite
direction although the rotation of the table is continued in the same direction. The particular position
where the spectral line begins to recede in opposite direction is the minimum deviation position for that
color. Note the readings of two verniers.
(iii) Remove the prism table and bring the telescope in the line of the collimator. See the slit directly
through telescope and coincide the image of slit with vertical crosswire. Note the readings of the two
verniers.
(iv) The difference in minimum deviation position and direct position gives the angle of minimum deviation
for that color.
(v) The same procedure is repeated to obtain the angles of minimum deviation for that color.
Precautions and sources of error:
(i) The telescope and collimator should be individually set for parallel rays.
(ii) Slit should be as narrow as possible.
(iii) While taking observations, the telescope and prism table should be clamped with the help of clamping
screws.
(iv) Both verniers should be read.
(v) The prism should be properly placed on the prism table for the measurement of angle of the prism
as well as for the angle of minimum deviation.

VIVA -VOCE
1. What do you mean by refractive index?
2. Does the angle of minimum deviation vary with the color of light?
3. What do you mean by pure spectrum?
4. How vary with wavelength?
5. Can you not use a monochromatic source (sodium).