THE NATURE of HEAT

As we know, heat is a form of energy. In the form of infrared radiation,

heat from the sun travels through space at the speed of 186,000 miles
per second. Upon arriving on earth, much of the radiant heat is
absorbed by different kinds of matter and is converted into heat that
we can feel (sensible heat). When you sit in the sun for a period of time
on a clear spring day, you may find that your clothing and other
objects around you become warm. Similarly, when you walk barefoot
across a beach on a summer day, you may find the sand so hot that it
burns your feet. In both cases, radiant heat from the sun has been
absorbed by matter, and has been converted into heat that you can
feel. In this chapter, we will study the effect of heat upon matter.

HEAT AND THE MOTION OF MOLECULES

Have you ever tried to drill a hole through a piece of metal? Both the
drill and the metal become very hot.

Around 1800, an English scientist named Count Rumford noted that,

when a drill was used to bore a cannon, the bit of the drill and the
cannon both became very hot. To keep the metals cool, he placed a
cylinder of water around the end of the cannon. As the boring
continued, the water became warmer and eventually boiled. Since the
bit of the drill and the cannon were cold at the start, Rumford
concluded that the heat produced probably came from the friction
created by the particles of the metal of the bit rubbing against the
particles of the metal of the cannon. Further, he theorized that the
motions of the particles in the metals themselves (atoms or
molecules) generated the heat.

Recall that various forms of energy can be converted into other

forms: When electrical energy passes through a thin wire, as in a
toaster, the wire becomes hot (electrical energy to heat energy). When
you rub your hands together, heat is produced from the friction
between the rubbed surfaces (mechanical energy to heat energy). In
general, when any form of energy is absorbed by matter, the energy is
changed to heat. This may be explained by the kinetic-molecular
theory: The energy excites the molecules in the matter, causing them
to move faster and to collide more frequently. As more collisions take
place, more heat is; produced.

The effect of heat energy on the motion of molecules can

demonstrated by using a sealed tube containing a little mercury with
some glass beads floating on the surface of the mercury. At ordinary
temperatures, the glass beads merely float on the surface of the
mercury. However, when the tube of mercury is heated, the glass
beads, bounce up and down in a violent but random fashion. As still
more heat is supplied to the sealed tube, particles of mercury begin to
move more swiftly. The glass beads are repeatedly struck by many
mercury particles at the same time; consequently, the glass beads
begin to move randomly themselves. Thus, Rumford's theory that heat
is related to the motions of molecules appears to be correct.

According to the kinetic-molecular theory, heat energy acquired by a

body is transformed into increased kinetic energy of the molecules of
the body. We observe this increased kinetic energy whenever a solid, a
liquid, or a gas expands on heating. A further increase in kinetic
energy will eventually cause the particles of a solid or liquid to
become a gas.

Recall that when an ice cube (a solid) is heated, it melts and becomes
liquid water. When the water is heated, it vaporizes and becomes
gaseous water. According to the kinetic-molecular theory, as
increasing amounts of heat are supplied to a piece of ice, the water
molecules move more rapidly until they gain sufficient energy to
overcome the attractive forces holding them together. This permits
the ice to liquefy and become water. Similarly, as still more energy is
received, the water molecules move at even greater speeds. The
attractive forces in the liquid are weakened and the water is
converted into gaseous water.

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

Your laboratory experience with the ball and ring apparatus indicated
the effect of heat on volume. The increase in size is not due to an
increase in the size of the particles that make up the solid ball, but
rather to an increase in the average distance between the particles.
When an object is heated, its particles vibrate faster, collide more
violently, and consequently move farther apart, thereby increasing the
volume of the object.

When the object is cooled, the opposite change occurs and the
volume of the object decreases. This decrease in volume is called
contraction.

The expansion of solids by heating may cause serious practical

problems. For example, the expansion of railroad tracks, bridges, or
the concrete in a roadbed can create dangerous situations. Thus,
allowance for the expansion of solids daring hot weather must he
made in the construction of rails, bridges, and roads. For example,
when rails arc laid, gaps between the ends of the rails provide for
expansion. If this were not done, consider what would happen to the
railroad tracks on a very hot day. The metal would expand, making the
tracks bend and buckle, which might cause an oncoming train to be
derailed. In bridge construction, expansion joints allow for changes in
the length of the bridge. Concrete roadbeds are built with spaces
between the sections of concrete to allow for expansion.

The contraction of solids, by cooling, may also present problems.

Thus telephone and electrical wires are strung loosely to prevent their
snapping as contraction takes place during the colder times of the
year.

UNEQUAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

Through extensive studies, scientists have found that different metals

expand at different rates when they are heated. For example, when a
piece of iron and a piece of aluminum of equal size are heated
together, we find that the aluminum expands more than twice as much
as the iron. When two strips of different metals are fastened together,
they form a compound bar, or bimetallic strip, which is employed in,
useful devices such as thermostats and metallic thermometers. In
these devices the two different metals, usually brass and steel, are
welded together. When the bar is heated, it bends because the brass
expands more than the iron and becomes longer than the iron.
 Thus, the brass strip will be on the outside of the bend. As it cools,
the bar returns to its original shape.

The thermostat is a device containing a compound liar that regulates

the heating systems of our homes. When the temperature in the house
falls below the setting on the thermostat, the compound bar, which
contracts as it cools, closes the circuit, turning on the heat. As the
room is warmed, the compound bar in the thermostat expands, bends,
and thereby breaks the circuit, shutting off the heat.

The bimetallic thermometer is often used as an oven thermometer to

indicate the temperature within an oven, or within a piece of meat that
is cooking.

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS

Liquids, like solids, expand when heated. In the laboratory experience

we demonstrated that when water is heated, it expands. When the
same water is cooled to its original temperature, the water contracts
to its original volume. Many other liquids, such as alcohol and
mercury, behave in the same way. At lower temperatures, however,
the behavior of water is an exception to this rule. As water is cooled
from 100° C to 4° C, it contracts-like other liquids do. However, when
water is cooled below 4° C, the water expands-unlike other liquids.
Water continues to expand until it reaches 0° C, its freezing point. It
has been found, as shown in that the spaces between the water
molecules in ice are larger than the spaces between the water
molecules in liquid water. Ice is therefore said to have an open
structure. Thus, as ice is formed, the need for increased space
between the molecules causes the volume of the ice to be greater
than that of the water from which it was formed. (This expansion in
volume begins as liquid water is cooled below 4° C.) Since the volume
of ice is greater than the volume of water from which the ice is
formed, the density of ice is less than the density of water. (Recall
that density equals weight divided by volume.) This is why ice floats
on water.
 Like solids, different liquids expand at different rates. As we will see
later, the expansion of liquids is used in alcohol and mercury
thermometers.

The expansion of liquids must be considered in certain heating

systems. In a hot-water heating system, allowances must be made for
the expansion of heated water. As the furnace heats the water in the
heating system, the water expands. If the expansion continues,
pressure would build up in the pipes and could damage the entire
system. To avoid this difficulty, an expansion tank is provided. Excess
heated water enters the expansion tank and thereby reduces the
pressure in the system.

EXPANSION OF GASES

Cases, like solids and liquids, expand when heated. Our laboratory
experience indicated that, as air is warmed, it expands. Scientists
have made similar observations with other gases which indicate that
gases confined in an elastic container expand when they are heated
and contract when they are cooled.

The expansion of gases by heat must be considered by automobile

tire. manufacturers, since tires may burst if allowed to remain in the
sun indefinitely. A less serious hazard caused by expanding gases is
that bottles of soda may crack or even explode if they are ex posed to
heat for a considerable length of time.

Products such as whipped cream, shaving cream, deodorants, and

insect repellents are now supplied in aerosol cans.
These cans contain the product itself and a gas that forces the produ
becomes heated, expands, and may cause the can to explode. Such
aerosol cans should be discarded in a manner that does not involve
heating.

Different solids and liquids expand at different rates when heated.

Gases, however, generally expand at the same rate when heated to
the same temperature, at a given pressure.

TEMPERATURE
 Heat and temperature are two terms that are often confused. We
know that the temperature of a small sample of molten iron is
considerably higher that the temperature of the water in the ocean.
However, the total heat in a sample of molten iron is much less than
the total heat of the water in the ocean.

Scientist now accept Rumford·s theory that heat is related to the

motions of particles in matter. Thus, heat depends on the total kinetic
energy of the particles in a body. Recall the equation relating kinetic
energy with mass and velocity:
K.E. = ½ m v2. Thus, the total kinetic energy of the particles in a body
depends on the number of particles (mass) and the velocity of these
particles.

Because the water in the ocean is colder than the sample of

molten iron, the velocity of the particles in the water is less than the
velocity of the particles in the molten iron. However, the much larger
quantity (mass0 of water compensates for the smaller velocity of the
particles and thus the particles of water in the ocean possess greater
kinetic energy. This means that there is more heat in the water in the
ocean than in a small sample of molten iron.

But why is the temperature of molten iron higher? Temperature,

unlike heat, depends on the average kinetic energy of the particles,
that is, the kinetic energy per particle. To find this average, we divide
the total kinetic energy by the number of particles. Thus, the large
mass of ocean water has a smaller average kinetic energy per particle
and consequently has a lower temperature than a small sample of
molten iron.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Instruments designed to measure temperature are called

thermometers. Most thermometers are based on the principle that
matter, on heating, expands and, on cooling, contracts. In general,
matter expands and contacts regularly. This means that the amount
of expansion or contraction in length are generally equal for the same
increase or decrease in temperature. This regular expansion and
contraction has made it possible to construct three different types of
thermometers: gas (air), liquid (mercury and alcohol), and solid
(bimetallic) thermometers.

The gas (air) thermometer

In this thermometer, the glass bulb contains air. When the bulb is
warmed, the air in the bulb expands and forces some of the colored
water out of the tube. This changes the level of the liquid in the tube.
By placing a suitable scale alongside the tube, temperature changes
can be measured. Air thermometers of this type, while interesting, are
not very accurate because the volume of a gas is also influenced by
the air pressure around it. (Note that the flask contains a tube open at
both ends. Why?).

LIQUID THERMOMETERS

Thermometers containing liquids such as mercury and alcohol are

useful and accurate because these liquids usually expand and
contract uniformly (regularly).

Mercury thermometers are made by filling a thin glass tube with

mercury at a temperature greater than the maximum to be measured.
The tube is then cut and sealed at the top. When the mercury cools, it
contracts, leaving a partial vacuum above the mercury. (Liquids
expand and contract to a much greater extent than do solids. Thus, in
the given temperature range, the glass tube is scarcely affected by the
temperature change.) The partial vacuum eliminates the effect of air
resistance to the expansion of the mercury. The scale of the.
thermometer is generally fixed by locating the boiling and freezing
points of water on the scale. The distance between the boiling and
freezing points is then divided into units depending on the temperature
scale used. This will be discussed in the next section.

Since mercury freezes at -39° C, it cannot be used to measure very

low temperatures. However, mercury boils at 357° C, which means
that a mercury thermometer can be used to measure temperatures
above the boiling point of water. On the other hand, alcohol freezes at
-114° C. Accordingly, alcohol thermometers are used to measure low
temperatures. However, since alcohol boils at 78° C, alcohol
thermometers cannot be used to measure high temperatures.

SOLID (BIMETALLIC)

Recall that a bimetallic strip behaves as it does because different

metals expand at different rates. Because most metals melt only at
very high temperatures, a thermometer that uses a bimetallic strip can
measure temperatures as high as 1000° C. The dial thermometer, used
in most homes as an oven thermometer, is an example of a bimetallic
thermometer. A curved bimetallic strip, with the faster-expanding
metal on the outside of the bend, is attached to a pointer. Upon
heating, the bimetallic strip moves, causing the pointer to indicate the
temperature on a circular scale.

Other metallic thermometers, called resistance thermometers, use

the principle that the resistance of a wire changes with temperature.
Such thermometers also measure high temperatures.

THE FAHRENHEIT AND CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALES

Temperature markings on thermometers are indicated in Fahrenheit

degrees or Celsius degrees. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are
named after their originators, Gabriel Fahrenheit and Anders Celsius.
(The Celsius scale is also called the centigrade scale.) Both
Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are calibrated by using the boiling and
freezing points of water. The Fahrenheit scale is used in the English
system of measurement and the Celsius scale in the metric system. In
the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32.° F, and the
boiling point of water is 212° F. The remainder of the scale between
these two points is marked off into 180 equal divisions (212 - 32 = 180)
. In the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is 0° C and the boiling
point of water is 100° C. The remainder of the scale between these
points is divided into 100 equal divisions (100 - 0 = 100). Note that
there are 180 divisions between the freezing and boiling points of
water in the Fahrenheit scale and 100 divisions between these points
in the Celsius scale. Thus, each Celsius division ( degree ) is 9/5 as
large as Fahrenheit division. This relationship, together with the fact
that there are 32 Fahrenheit divisions between 0 °F and 32° F, makes it
possible to convert one scale into the other by using the following
formulas:

O C = 5/9(O F ² 32) O F = 9/5 OC + 32

THE KELVIN SCALE

Confined gases, like most solids and liquids, expand and contract
uniformly. For this statement to be true, however, a gas must be
heated or cooled in such a way that the pressure remains constant. (
Recall that the air thermometer is inaccurate because it is affected by
surrounding air pressure.) If we start at 0° C, we find that, for every
Celsius degree rise in temperature, the volume of a gas increases 273
of its original volume ( provided the pressure does not change).
Similarly, if we again start from 0° C, we find that for every Celsius
degree drop in temperature, the volume decreases 273 of its original
volume. At -273° C, the volume of a gas would shrink to zero and all
molecular motion would cease. This, in turn, means that the gas would
contain no heat.

(Actually, gases generally liquefy before this temperature is reached.)

Scientists refer to -273°C as absolute zero, a temperature that has
never been attained, although some scientists have come very close
to this point.

Absolute zero, -273°C, is also called 0 Kelvin ( 0 K ). The Kelvin scale,

named after its originator, Lord Kelvin, is based on absolute
temperatures. Since the Kelvin scale begins with absolute zero (-273°
C), we use the following formula to convert the Celsius scale to the
Kelvin scale:

degrees Kelvin = degrees Celsius + 273 degrees

This formula may be written as K = ° C + 273

Let us find the freezing point of water (0° C) in the Kelvin scale:
K=0 + 273=273 K

Thus, 0° C is equivalent to 273 K.

Now, let us find the boiling point of water: K =100 + 273 = 373 K

Thus, 100° C is equivalent to 373 K.

TRANSFER of HEAT

When a metal spoon is placed in a bowl of hot soup, the entire spoon
soon becomes hot because the heat travels from the soup to the bowl-
shaped part of the spoon, and then to the handle. When ice is placed in
warm water, the ice soon melts. Both of these examples show that
heat travels from one body to another. Generally, when objects are at
different temperatures, heat is transferred from the warmer object to
the cooler object until both objects are at the same temperature. Heat
transfer can occur through one of three methods: conduction,
convection, or radiation.

CONDUCTION

When one end of a metal rod is held in a flame, the entire rod will
become hot enough to burn the hand. The heat from the flame reaches
the hand by traveling through the rod. Substances that allow heat to
travel through them are called conductors. In general, as we learned
before, metals are good conductors. However, some metals conduct
heat more readily than others. This can be demonstrated by inserting
rods of aluminum, copper, iron, nickel, and brass into a brass sphere or
disk and then attaching a small ball of wax to the end of each rod.
When the center of the brass disk is heated, the wax at the tip of each
metal melts in the order in which the different metals conduct heat.
The wax at the tip of the copper melts first and the wax at the tip of
the iron melts last.

Conduction in most materials can be explained by the kinetic-

molecular theory. When one end of a rod is heated, the molecules in
that end of the rod vibrate faster and strike other nearby molecules,
causing them to vibrate faster. In this manner, the increased
molecular motion is transferred from one end of the rod to the other,
permitting the heat to travel through the rod.

Substances that do not readily allow heat to pass through them are
called insulators. Gases and liquids are generally poor conductors of
heat because their molecules are farther apart than are the molecules
in solids. Therefore, neighboring molecules in a gas or in a liquid are
less affected by the increased motions of heated molecules, and
consequently heat is not conducted rapidly.

Substances like wood or plastic are poor conductors of heat, so they

are used to make handles for metallic objects that are to be heated.
The clothing we wear is also a poor conductor of heat, enabling us to
retain body warmth. Porous material is generally non-conducting
because it contains layers of trapped air which do not permit heat
transfer.

CONVECTION

Although gases and liquids are poor conductors of heat, heat is

transferred through them by the process of convection. Convection is
the transfer of heat due to the motion of the liquid or gas itself. For
example, when a beaker of water is heated the water layer closest to
the heat source is warmed slowly by conduction. As the water
becomes warmer, it expands, becomes less dense, and rises. This
brings heat to the upper layer. At the same time, cooler water from the
upper portion of the beaker moves down, takes the place of the rising
water, and becomes heated itself. When warm enough, this water rises
and carries heat upward. As these processes continue, heat that
enters the bottom of the beaker is distributed throughout the beaker
until all the water is at the same temperature. The moving water in
such a case is said to have set up a convection current.
Heat is also transferred through gases by convection. It is by this
means, in part, that a stove or a radiator heats a room. Heat from the
radiator warms the air above it, causing the air to expand, become
less dense, and rise. The cooler air that moves in to take the place of
the warmed air is also soon warmed. As this air rises, a convection
current is established. The convection current continues to distribute
heat throughout the room until the entire room is warmed.

The formation of a convection current in air is demonstrated with a

convection box apparatus. First the candle is lighted, then smoking
touch paper is placed over the chimney, opposite the candle. The
smoke, coloring the air, can be seen to move down this chimney,
across the box, and out through the other chimney. This occurs
because the air over the candle is heated, becomes less dense, and
rises, leaving a partial vacuum. Cooler, more dense air from the first
chimney moves in to fill the partial vacuum. This cycle continues as
long as heat is given off by the burning candle.

RADIATION

We know that light energy and heat energy travel from the sun to the
earth through space, which is an almost perfect vacuum. These forms
of energy, traveling without the aid of molecular collisions, are
transferred from the sun to the earth by radiation, that is, by means of
rays, or waves. You can understand this method of heat transfer by
standing a short distance from an open fire or by placing your hand a
little to one side of, but not touching, a hot radiator. Since neither
source of heat is being touched, you cannot receive heat by
conduction. Since warm air rises vertically from the heat source, the
heat cannot reach you by convection. The heat that is transferred to
you from the fire or radiator reaches you by radiation.

The heat radiated by one body ( the sun, for example) is most rapidly
absorbed by other bodies that are black in color and rough in texture.
In warm climates, white clothing which reflects the radiant heat of the
sun is cooler than dark clothing which quickly absorbs the radiant
heat. Similarly, bodies that are rough and dark tend to radiate heat
better than shiny smooth bodies. This is why steam radiators are often
dark and have a roughened surface. It is for the same reason that coal
burning stoves are black.

Bodies that are shiny and smooth do not absorb heat readily. Instead,
these bodies reflect heat. Thus, aluminum used for roofing keeps
homes cool in the summer and warm in the winter. This principle is
utilized in the thermos (vacuum) bottle, which is so constructed as to
permit liquids to retain their temperatures for a long time. A thermos
bottle is double walled, with a partial vacuum between the walls to
prevent heat transfer by conduction or convection. A cork stopper also
prevents heat transfer by conduction. The inner glass walls are
silvered to reflect radiant heat back into the liquid, thereby minimizing
heat loss by radiation. Thus, a hot liquid remains hot because heat is
lost very slowly. A cold liquid remains cold in thermos bottles because
outside heat enters very slowly by conduction, convection, or
radiation.

MEASURING HEAT

We learned that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic

energy of the molecules of a substance. This is the same as saying
that temperature represents the average intensity of the motion of the
molecules, or the degree of hotness of a substance. Average kinetic
energy means the total kinetic energy divided by the total number of
particles. Recall that the ocean contains much more heat than does a
small amount of molten iron. However, since the ocean contains many
more particles than the molten iron, the temperature of the ocean
(that is, the total kinetic energy divided by the total number of
particles) is lower than that of the molten iron.

Temperature, therefore, does not tell us the quantity of heat present.

The quantity of heat represents the total kinetic energy contained by
all of the particles of the substance.

In the metric system, we measure the quantity of heat by a unit called

the calorie. The calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water 1 Celsius degree. In the English
system, heat is measured by a unit called the British Thermal Unit
(BTU). A BTU is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
1 pound of water 1 Fahrenheit degree. The amount of heat energy
present in a substance cannot be measured directly with simple
measuring devices. Instead, it is measured by observing its effect on a
given quantity of water in a device called a calorimeter. One type of
calorimeter, consists of two polished metal cups surrounded by air, a
poor conductor of heat. An insulating cover, holding a thermometer,
makes up the top of the calorimeter. The polished cups reflect heat,
thus maintaining the temperature of the liquid in the container.

To determine the amount of heat energy absorbed (or lost) by a given

quantity of water, we multiply the weight of the water in grams by the
change in temperature of the water in Celsius degrees. Thus: amount
of heat = weight of water X change in temperature

In a calorimeter, when 20 grams of water at 20°C are heated to a

temperature of 30°C, how much heat is absorbed?

The temperature change = the final temperature - the initial

temperature = 30°C - 20°C = 10 Celsius degrees. Substituting, amount
of heat = 20 grams X 10 C° = 200 calories

We conclude that 200 calories have been absorbed. (We assume that
no heat has escaped from the calorimeter.)

HEAT EXCHANGE IN WATER

In a calorimeter, when a quantity of water at a given temperature is

mixed with a quantity of water at a different temperature, the amount
of heat lost by the "hot" water is equal to the amount of heat gained by
the "cold" water.

Suppose we mix 100 grams of water at 90° C with 100 grams of

water at 40° C and find that the final temperature of the mixture is 65°
C. Let us calculate the number of calories lost. by the hot water and
gained by the cold water.

The temperature of the hot water dropped from 90° C to 65° C, a

decrease of 25 Celsius degrees. Since we began with 100 grams of hot
water that underwent a temperature change of 25° C, we determine
the amount of heat lost:

amount of heat = weight of water X change in temperature

(calories) (grams) (Celsius degrees)

amount of heat = 100 grams X 25° C amount of heat = 2500 calories

The minus sign in the answer indicates that 2500 calories of heat
have been lost.

The temperature of the cold water increased from 40° C to 65° C, an

increase of 25 Celsius degrees. Since we began with 100 grams of
cold water that underwent a temperature change of 25° C, we
determine the amount of heat gained:

amount of heat = weight of water X change in temperature

(calories) (grams) (Celsius degrees)

amount of heat = 100 grams X 25° C amount of heat = 2500 calories

Note that the amount of heat lost by the hot water (2500 calories) is
the same as the amount of heat gained by the cold water (2500
calories). We assume that the heat exchange was "perfect" and that
no heat escaped from the calorimeter.

The quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a

substance 1 Celsius degree is called the specific heat of the sub-
stance. For water, the specific heat is 1. This means that 1 calorie of
heat will raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1° C. Water is the
only substance for which this is true. Other substances vary in the
quantity of heat needed to raise 1 gram of the substance 1 Celsius de-
gree. Consequently the formula

amount of heat =weight of water X change in temperature applies

only to water.
CALORIES AND FOOD

Your body requires energy in order to perform its daily tasks. Most of
this energy comes from energy-rich foods such as carbohydrates and
fats. This energy is released when the body utilizes these foods. Using
special calorimeters, scientists have measured the energy content, or
the number of calories present, in fixed quantities of certain foods. For
example, a slice of white bread contains about 60 000 calories; a
typical chocolate bar may contain about 300 000 calories.

Nutritionists use a special kind of notation when discussing the

calorie content of foods. They define a food Calorie ( written with a
capital letter) as 1000 calories. On a calorie table, therefore, we would
read that a slice of white bread contains about 60 Calories and that a
chocolate bar contains about 300 Calories.

This information comes from "Physical Science Workbook", 1961

The History of Heat

Aristotle and the Greeks had their idea of fire as one of the 4

Primal Elements. Even the ancients realized that heat and light were

not alike as aspects of fire, though. After the fire had gone out and

the light gone, the heat of the kettle and its contents remained.

First modern chemist to study heat was Joseph Black (1728 -

1799). Black tried to explain heat in terms of a fluid. He explained

how a kettle of water placed over a fire increased in temperature but a

kettle filled with water and ice placed over a fire did not change in

temperature till all the ice was melted. He said that until the ice was

saturated with the heat-fluid and thus became melted could its
temperature rise. Lavoisier accepted this theory and gave the name

for this heat-fluid ´caloricµ from the Latin word for heat.

Another idea competed with the caloric theory. Scientist knew

that kinetic energy of motion plus the stored energy called potential

energy was given the name mechanical energy and that friction was a

part of the conservation of these energies. They knew friction could

warm up an object so maybe the invisible motion of invisible particles

was what we call heat. Summed up; friction was converting

mechanical energy into heat. The problem was this idea of really small

particles of matter (i.e., atoms and molecules).

Count Rumford (really Benjamin Thompson - a spy for the British

authorities during the Revolutionary War) was to supervise the boring

of cannon for Bavarian army. Using a horse to work a treadmill he

realized that the solid block of brass grew hot as the borer cut its way

in. Rumford calculated that if the caloric theory were correct the heat

released during the boring would have melted the entire block of metal

first. He pointed out that heat was produced without fire, without

light, without chemical combustion. It came just out of motion.

John Dalton comes along with his ideas of atoms and the kinetic

energy idea of heat began to gain favor. An English physicist, James

Prescott Joule (1818-1889) was attempting to find the mechanical

equivalent of heat. In the end he found that a given amount of energy

of whatever form always yielded that same amount of heat (at 4.18

joules per calorie). The relationship of the motion of atoms to

temperature and heat was placed on firm theoretical basis about 1860

by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell.

Specific Heat

The ability of water to stabilize temperature depends on its

relatively high specific heat. The specific heat of a substance is
defined at the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of
that substance to change its temperature by 1º C. The specific heat
of water is 1.00 cal/g ºC. Compared with most other substances, water
has an unusually high specific heat. For example, ethyl alcohol, the
type in alcoholic beverages, has a specific heat of 0.6 cal/g ºC.

Because of the high specific heat of water relative to other

materials, water will change its temperature less when it absorbs or
loses a given amount of heat. The reason you can burn your finger by
touching the metal handle of a pot on the stove when the water in the
pot is still lukewarm is that the specific heat of water is ten times
greater than that of iron. In other words, it will take only 0.1 cal to
raise the temperature of 1 g of iron 1ºC. Specific heat can be thought
of as a measure of how well a substance resists changing its
temperature when it absorbs or releases heat. Water resists changing
its temperature; when it does change its temperature, it absorbs or
loses a relatively large quantity of heat for each degree of change.

We can trace water·s high specific heat, like many of its other
properties, to hydrogen bonding. Heat must be absorbed in order to
break hydrogen bonds, and heat is released when hydrogen bonds
form. A calorie of heat causes a relatively small change in the
temperature because must of the heat energy is used to disrupt
hydrogen bonds before the water molecules can begin moving faster.
And when the temperature of water drops slightly, many additional
hydrogen bonds form, releasing a considerable amount of energy in the
form of heat.
 What is the relevance of water·s high specific heat to life on
Earth? By warming up only a few degrees, a large body of water can
absorb and store a huge amount of heat from the sun in the daytime
and during summer. At night and during winter, the gradual cooling
water can warm the air. This is the reason coastal areas generally
have milder climates than inland regions. The high specific heat of
water also makes ocean temperatures quite stable, creating a
favorable environment for marine life. Thus, because of its high
specific heat, the water that covers most of planet Earth keeps
temperature fluctuations within limits that permit life. Also, because
organisms are made primarily of water, they are more able to resist
changes in their own temperatures than if they were made of a liquid
with a lower specific heat.

Water is one of the few substances that are less dense as a solid
than as a liquid. While other materials contract when they solidify,
water expands. The cause of this exotic behavior is, once again,
hydrogen bonding. At temperatures above 4º C, water behaves like
other liquids, expanding as it warms and contracting as it cools.
Water begins to freeze when its molecules are no longer moving
vigorously enough to break their hydrogen bonds. As the temperature
reaches 0º C, the water becomes locked into a crystalline lattice, each
water molecule bonded to the maximum of four partners. The
hydrogen bonds keep the molecules far enough apart to make ice
about 10% less dense than liquid water at 4º C. When ice absorbs
enough heat for its temperature to increase to above 0º C, hydrogen
bonds between molecules are disrupted. As the crystal collapses, the
ice melts, and molecules are free to slip closer together. Water
reaches it greatest density at 4º C and then begins to expand as the
molecules move faster.

The ability of ice to float because of the expansion of water as it

solidifies is an important factor in the fitness of the environment. If
ice sank, then eventually all ponds, lakes, and even the oceans would
freeze solid, making life as we know it impossible on Earth. During
summer, only the upper few inches of the ocean would thaw. Instead,
when a deep body of water cools, the floating ice insulates the liquid
water below, preventing it from freezing and allowing life to exist
under the frozen surface.

Specific Thermal Electrical

Metal Density
Heat Conductivity Conductivity

k
cp g/cm3 1E6/ƺm
watt/cm K
cal/g° C

Brass 0.09 1.09 8.5

Iron 0.11 0.803 7.87 11.2

Nickel 0.106 0.905 8.9 14.6

Copper 0.093 3.98 8.95 60.7

Aluminum 0.217 2.37 2.7 37.7

Lead 0.0305 0.352 11.2

Heat and Temperature Teaching Notes

1) Heat flows from hot to cold areas due to a temperature difference

only.

example: A small hot block of a material is placed next to a

larger, cooler block. Heat flows from the small hot
block to the larger block till equilibrium is reached.

2) Note the difference between the heat content and temperature.

A lake may be cooler in temperature than a liter flask of water but the
lake has a much greater heat content due to the vast number of
particles and their associated motion.

3) Human perception of heat and temperature is not adequate for

scientific work. So we must investigate tools that provide the
accuracy and repeatability we need.
 4) For temperature we will be using thermometers. There are other
devices that allow you to measure temperature.

5) For heat we will be working with simple calorimeters. We will

look at these devices when we look at the transfer of heat.

Thermometers and Temperature Scales see comparisons charts

thermometers = instruments to measure temperature

see drawing: gas (air) thermometers

see drawing: liquid (Hg and alcohol)

see drawing: solid (bimetallic)

Mercury thermometer -- fill thin glass tube with Hg at a temp.

greater than the maximum to be measured; tube is cut and sealed; the
Hg cools and contracts leaving a partial vacuum above the Hg
(eliminates effects of air resistance on expansion of Hg); then
calibrate thermometer

Hg freezes at -39° C so it cannot be used for low temperatures (use

alcohol which freezes at -114° C)

can use Hg for high temperature boils at 357° C (alcohol cannot be

used for high temperature work due to its low boiling point - 78° C)

use alcohol thermometers in schools unless extreme accuracy is

needed due to safety factor. The alcohol may be inaccurate by 1 - 2
degrees but this may not be a problem if you are looking at changes in
temp.
Calibration

Both Celsius (Anders Celsius) and Fahrenheit (Gabriel Fahrenheit) scales are estab

step 1 -- establish a mixture of ice and water in equilibrium (0° C)

mark point of liquid in thermometer at 0° C

establish a mixture of steam and water at equilibrium (both at a

pressure of 1 atm.) steam condensing and water vaporizing)

label this point of liquid as 100 °C

step 2 -- divide the interval between 0° C and 100° C into 100 equal
parts, each representing a change in temperature of 1° C.

using this scale you can extend your marks below 0 °C and above 100
°C as far as ,you wish.

The Fahrenheit scale labels the freezing point at 32°

(his label for the temperature he could achieve with an ice and water
mixture and labeled the boiling point temperature of water at 212 °
which was a number chosen for convenience apparently creating 180
divisions.

You might ask your self about the amount of heat energy need to
cause a 1 degree change in temperature on a Celsius scale compared
to that needed on a Fahrenheit scale. (more heat needed to cause
change of 1 degree on Celsius scale.)

KELVIN scale

We know that gases decrease in volume 1/273 of its original volume

for each degree drop in temperature. Thus at -273° C the volume of
gas would shrink to zero and the gas would have no molecular
motion. We know this is impossible (particles have zero-point
energy). To label these very low temperatures a scale called the
absolute or Kelvin scale is often used. It designates -273° C at the
zero point, and is called called absolute zero.
 Extrapolation to absolute zero: A good research project for students
or a quick review of graphing can be done by using the method to
calculate absolute zero. Use a capillary tube with a trapped bubble of
air between light machine oil. Measure the length of the bubble after
placing it in different temperature mixtures. Plot the length versus
temperature.

Since it is not easy to obtain very cold temperatures, the linear series
of points that you did obtain should allow you to extrapolate, (extend a
curve beyond the known data points following the apparent pattern of
the curve) until it intersects the temperature axis. See actual plot!

Transfer of Heat by Conduction, Convection, Radiation

Conduction is a consequence of the kinetic behavior of matter. Faster

vibrating particles collide with less energetic neighbors and transfer
some of their kinetic energy to the slower moving particle.

Through successive molecular collisions energy travels through a

material without the average position of the particles being changed.
There must be a temperature differential (one end of some object at a
higher temperature than the other) for heat to be conducted.

Gases are poor conductors of heat (compared to liquids and solids)

because the molecules are relatively far apart and collisions are
infrequent.

Metals have the greatest ability to conduct heat (for the same reason
as their high electrical conductivity). This is due to a significant
number of electrons being able to move about freely instead of being
bound permanently to particular atoms.

Thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to

conduct heat.

Example: wood and metal (see class discussion)

Convection involves the actual motion of a hot fluid from one place to
another, displacing a colder fluid in its path and setting up a
convection current. Convection is the chief mechanism of heat
transfer in fluids.

Natural convection occurs when the buoyancy of heated fluids leads

to motion. Heated fluids (gas or liquid) expand and becomes less
dense than surrounding cooler fluids. It then rises.

Radiation is defined as the energy that is transmitted by

electromagnetic waves and requires no material medium for passage.

All objects radiate electromagnetic waves with the higher the

temperature of an object the shorter the predominating wavelength of
its radiation.

Example: see glass lined thermos bottle in heat packet in class.

Transfer of Heat

Conduction -- place iron rod in fire -- the end you are holding
becomes warm due to conduction
Convection -- stove heats room by convection
Radiation -- heat the earth receives from the sun is radiation

Natural direction of heat flow is from hot bodies to cold ones.

Conduction -- conduction is a consequence of kinetic behavior of

matter

faster vibrating particle collide with less energetic neighbor

and transfer some of their kinetic energy the slower moving particle

example: place hand on wood and metal sample at same temperature.

The metal will seem cooler because it conducts the heat away much
faster than the wood

Convection -- actual motion of hot fluid from one place to another,

displacing cold fluid in its path setting up a convection current = chief
mechanism of heat transfer in fluids in most instances
 natural convection - the buoyancy of heated fluids leads to
motion - heated fluid (gas or liquid) expands and becomes less dense
than surrounding cooler fluids and rises

Radiation -- energy that is transmitted by electromagnetic waves

and requires no material medium for passage

all objects radiate electromagnetic waves but the higher the

temperature of an object the shorter the predominate wavelength of
its radiation

There are many examples you can use to demonstrate these three
ideas but discussing a glass lined thermos bottle will allow you
discuss them as well as

High specific heat capacity material demonstrates relatively small

change in temperature for a given change in internal energy content

add 1 calorie of heat to 1 gram of water, helium, ice, gold

temperature rises: water 1 °C

helium 1.3 °C

ice 2 °C

gold 33 °C

Calorimetry:

1) Use 2 polystyrene cups (one within the other) -- the polystyrene

will not absorb very much heat.

2) You may find if difficult for the students to be patient when

working with the calorimeters. Your step-by-step procedure must be
very simple and clear. This type lab is also a very dangerous time for
your thermometers.
 3) Several labs have been included in the packet involving the use of
the calorimeters and thermometers: a) the heat of reactions and heat
of solutions labs deal with endothermic and exothermic reactions (and
you can incorporate the use of the mole as review) b) the specific heat
capacity lab is an excellent demonstration of the principle of heat
exchange as well as specific heat capacity of different metals and
liquids. 1) for better results with this lab try to use as much metal as
possible and as little fluid as possible and still cover the metal in the
cups. Drain the metal samples quickly after removing them from the
boiling water. This is a good time to have the students watch the
boiling process which will be one of the final topics in this unit. 2) the
math may be a bit difficult for you at first.

Thermal Expansion of water

1) From 0° C to 4° C the volume of water in a sample decreases (the

greatest density is at 4° C)

2) We know that ice floats (less dense) so that a body of water in

winter freezes from the top down. The ice is a poor conductor of heat
so that the initial layer of ice that freezes impedes further freezing
allowing fish and plant life to live through the winter.

3) The spaces between molecules in ice are greater than the same
spaces in liquids.

4) Ice has what is called an Open Structure --> each water molecule
can participate in 4 bonds with other water molecules, while other
solid molecules can have as many as a dozen bonds with surrounding
molecules resulting in a more compact substance.

5) As stated the density of the water increases from 0 °C to 4 °C.

Large clusters of water molecules break into smaller clusters that
occupy less space in the aggregate as the temperature rises to 4
°C. Only above 4 °C does the normal thermal expansion show a
decreasing density with increasing temperature. Above 4° C , the
normal thermal expansion of materials is seen. Here as the
temperature rises the density decreases.
 Heat and Temperature

HEAT Heat is a form of internal energy which is transferred from one

object to another due to a difference in temperature between the
objects. Heat is the total energy of motion of all particles (the total
kinetic energies of all the particles.)

TEMPERATURE The temperature of a body of matter is a measure of

the average kinetic energy of the random motion of its particles.
Temperature is the kinetic energy divided by the number of particles.
Temperature is that property of a substance which determines
whether it is in thermal equilibrium with another object.

Thermal Conductivity - a measure of the ability of a substance to

conduct heat

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM This is the situation in which no heat moves

from one object to another.

CALORIE A 15° Calorie is the amount of heat energy needed to

change the temperature of of 1 gram of water by 1° C (from 14.5° C to
15.5° C at 1 atmosphere of pressure). 1 calorie = 4.185 Joules and 1
kilocalorie = 1000 calories.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY This is the amount of heat (in calories

or Joules) that must be added or removed from a unit mass of that
substance to change its temperature by one degree. Different
substances have different capacities because they absorb and release
heat at different rates.

WATER Water has a specific heat capacity of 1.00 cal/g °C or 4.185

Joules/g °C. The SI unit would be 4185 J/kg °C.

PRINCIPLE OF HEAT EXCHANGE The heat lost by an object must

equal the heat gained by the object to which the heat is transferred.
There must be a temperature difference for heat to be transferred.
Q (heat energy) = m (mass) x At (temp.) x cp (specific heat capacity)
(cal/Joules) (g) (°C) (cal/g °C) or (Joule/g °C)

Problems:
1) How much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of 100
grams of water from 0 degrees to 30° C?

2) A calorimeter contains 300 grams of water at 10° C. After a food

sample is burned in the calorimeter the water temperature changes to
15° C. How much heat was given off by the food sample?

LATENT HEAT Latent heat is the heat required to bring about a

change in state.

HEAT OF FUSION The heat of fusion is the amount of heat that must
be supplied to change a unit mass of the substance at its melting point
from solid to liquid. The heat of fusion of water is 80 calories per gram
(80 kcal/kg).

HEAT OF VAPORIZATION The heat of vaporization is the amount of

heat that must be supplied to change a unit mass of the substance at
its boiling point from liquid to gas or vapor state. For water this is 540
cal/g or 540 kcal/kg.

HEAT OF SUBLIMATION The heat of sublimation is the heat needed

to change a solid to a gas.

HEAT OF CONDENSATION The heat of condensation is the reverse

of the heat of vaporization, it is the heat given off when a gas
condenses to a liquid.

Four States of Matter

Matter is defined as any material that has mass, occupies volume,

and exhibits inertia (resistance to movement).

Solids definite shape and volume, resist deformation

 very close spacing of particles that make up the solid
these particles appear to vibrate about fixed points
particles vibrate faster at higher temperatures, slower at lower
temperatures

Crystalline solids particles are arranged in regular, repeated

patterns - said to have "long-range order" to their structure -example
would be NaCl (table salt)

Amorphous solids solids that lack the definite arrangement in

crystals are `amorphous' which means `without form'. Can be thought
of as liquids whose stiffness is due to exaggerated viscosity. These
solids are said to have "short range order". Examples are pitch, glass,
plastics. Polymers are flexible and some will change their structure
when undergoing a physical change (examples are rubber bands,
Saran Warp, Lucite, DNA, fats, cellulose, glycogen. Jello is a natural
glucose polymer.

Liquids definite volume, resist compression, will flow, takes the shape
of its container

greater spacing between molecules, liquid particles appear to travel

in straight line paths between collisions but appear to rotate or
vibrate about moving points

Gases Have no definite shape or volume, takes the shape and volume
of its container

can be compressed or dispersed, the particles vibrate very rapidly,

are relatively far far apart, and there are no forces holding them
together

Plasma very high temperature ionized gas (as high as 100 million
degrees in some fusion reactors). These plasmas have no fixed
volume or shape, most are mixtures that are not easily containable.
They all have particles that are electrically charged and of low
density. The Milky Way is a huge plasma.

Energy Definitions
Energy: having the ability to do work (move matter)

Work: a push or pull over some distance (force x distance)

Force: a push or a pull

Potential Energy: the energy a body possesses by virtue of its

position, composition, and or condition
stored energy or energy of position
P.E. = mass x gravity x height
examples: water behind a dam,
stretched/compressed spring, explosives

Kinetic Energy: the energy of motion (conserved in every elastic

collision)
K.E. = 1/2 mass x velocity2
heat energy flows from hot objects to cooler ones
through transfer of K.E. when particles collide

Momentum: mass time velocity (momentum is conserved in every

collision where there is no friction)

Linear momentum of a moving body is a measure of its tendency to

continue in motion at a constant velocity. The conservation of linear
momentum states that in the absence of forces from outside the
system the total momentum of colliding particles cannot change but
the distribution of the total momentum may change. Momentum is
redistributed in a collision.

Intermolecular Forces:

potential energy forces that hold molecules together and in correct

position in solids
potential energy forces that hold molecules together in liquids
the kinetic energy of the molecules in solids and liquids cannot
overcome intermolecular forces holding the molecules together (so
they do not fly apart)
gas molecules have enough kinetic energy to break free from
intermolecular forces or to keep such forces from forming
Kinetic ² Molecular Theory of Gases

gases are made up of molecules that are in continuous motion

an increase in the temperature increases the speed of the
molecules, thus increasing the kinetic energy of the substance
All gases are compressible
Gases display diffusion (random movement of molecules from one
area to another with a net change in concentration ² rate varies with
temperature and molecular mass)
Gases can be liquefied (called liquefaction)

Closed System Criteria

In using the above information we look at pressure, temperature,

and volume in a closed system.

1.Ê In a closed system nothing escapes or is allowed in (unless we

choose to allow it)
2.Ê all molecules are in motion (have K.E.)
3.Ê molecules exert a uniform pressure on all surface areas of the
walls of the container
4.Ê Pressure = force/area (see examples given in class)
5.Ê Atmospheric pressure is the cumulative effect of the force
generated by the weight of the atmosphere. Given values that
must be used in problems include: 14.7 lb/in2, 101.3 kPa, 1
atmosphere, 760 mm of Hg, 1 033.6 g/cm2
6.Ê Molecules exert pressure on other molecules inside container as
they collide, push, and bounce off other molecules
7.Ê The pressure a gas exerts on the walls of its container is the sum
of the forces acting on the walls (equals the frequency of
collisions with the walls of the container plus the force of each
molecule as it pushes against the wall) due to the random
collision of limitless numbers of these moving molecules.

Collisions that occur between molecules are perfectly elastic, the

particles bounce off each other and exchange energy, but there is no
loss of energy
* elastic atomic collisions: atoms (molecules) bounce back as
far/fast as it would have had it not collided (no change in the total
kinetic energy of the two particles before and after the collision)
* inelastic collisions: the normal order in which the objects lose
energy and slow down

Momentum is conserved in every collision where there is no friction,

energy is conserved only in elastic collisions.

Gas Laws

1.Ê J.L. Gay-Lussac·s Law If the volume remains constant, the

pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature:

P ~ T P 1 / T1 = P2 / T2

2.Ê Boyle·s Law If the temperature remains constant, the volume

of a gas varies inversely with the pressure:

V ~ 1/P P 1 V1 = P2 V2

3.Ê Charles· Law If the pressure is kept constant, the volume of a

gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature:

V ~ T V 1 / T1 = V 2 / T2

For each degree increase in temperature, the volume increases

1/273 of its original volume

4.Ê Combined gas law:

P1 V 1 / T1 = P2 V 2 / T2

5. Ideal Gas Law:

PV = nRT

Overall conclusions:

The temperature of a gas increases when it is compressed because

the average energy of its molecules increases. The molecules
rebound from the inward moving piston, traveling faster than before
 hitting the piston.
Molecules rebounding from fixed walls have unchanged speeds.
The temperature of a gas decreases when its volume is expanded
because the average energy of its molecules decreases. The
molecules rebounding from outward moving piston move slower than
before.

Gas Law Problems:

1) An insulated system is known to have a temperature of 100.0O C at

a pressure of 4.00 atm. If the absolute temperature is cut in half, what
will be the new:

___________ atm, __________kPa, ______________O C, _______________ K

2) The volume is given as 27.0 L. If the pressure goes from 3.00 atm.
to 9.00 atm., what is the new:

___________L, _____________ kPa

3) The volume is given as 5.00 L. If the absolute temperature goes

from 273 to 819 K, what is the the new __________L (if new temperature
was 800. K, what is the new volume in liters?)

4) The temperature is given as 25.0O C. If the volume is decreased

from 100. mL to 10.0 mL, what is the new: ____________K, ____________O
C

Thought Work -- Heat & Gas Laws

1. Devise a way to remove carbon dioxide (carbonation) from soda

pop. This must be done quantitatively. How does temperature affect
the solubility of gases being dissolved in liquids under pressure?
 2. Explain what happens to a marshmallow when it is toasted. Why
does this happen? What would happen to a frozen marshmallow? Why
does a marshmallow float?

3. Find the pressure you exert when standing on both feet, on one
foot, and lying flat on your back.

4. Explain why a toy balloon filled with hydrogen partially deflates

overnight.

5. Using a steel ball and pieces of old pottery or modeling clay,

devise an experiment that would demonstrate potential energy, kinetic
energy, and momentum (all of which are involved with mass and
velocity).

6. Suppose you had two identical sections of glass plate before you,
one heated above body temperature and the other cooled by ice. What
happens when you breathe on the two of them and why? Maybe try
this at home first.

7. Devise an experiment to show the concept of diffusion, another

to show cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension, and one to show
buoyancy and Pascal's Law.

8. Changing ice to water requires 80 calories per gram of ice, but

changing water to steam requires about 540 calories per gram of
water. What does this tell you about the intermolecular forces in ice
and water, both qualitatively and quantitatively? Also explain why the
chemical change of splitting or forming water requires about 5 times
as many calories as the physical change of state.

Chemical Properties of Matter

Chemical properties are those properties of a substance that can be

determined by a chemical test. Chemical properties are seen by the
material's tendency to change, either alone or by interaction with
other substances, and in doing so form different materials.

1.does the substance support combustion: examples are O2 and Cl2

2. does the substance burn (combustibility)

3. how does the substance react with acids (does it dissolve, evolve
gases, explode, do nothing)

4. how does the substance react with oxygen (burn, form new
compounds)

5. what is its reaction with electricity (usually it will be separated into

simpler components)

examples: alcohol burns, iron rust, wood decays, sodium explodes in

water

Physical Properties of matter

Physical properties are those properties used in identifying

substances when we use our senses. These do not require chemical
analysis.

1. color - reaction of eye and brain in recognizing

combinations of certain wavelengths of visible light.

2. hardness - a measure of the ability of a substance to resist

abrasion (see Mows Scale of Hardness)

3. density - the mass divided by its volume (often reported as

specific gravity which is a unitless relationship between the density of
the substance and the density of water)

4. texture - how object feels to touch; usually rough or smooth

5. magnetic attraction - is the material attracted to a magnet or

can it be magnetized (must contain Fe, Co. Ni, or steel)

6. solubility - the amount of a substance which will dissolve in a

known amount of solvent at a given temperature
 7. taste - reaction of taste buds to stimuli along with the brain's
recognition of the pattern

8. light transmission - is the substance transparent, translucent, or

opaque

9. viscosity - a measure of the internal resistance (friction) to flow

in a liquid (molasses and tar would have high viscosities)

10. refractive index amount a ray of light is bent as it passes through

a substance (technically the ratio of the speed of light in that
substance to the speed of light in a vacuum)

11. specific heat capacity - the amount of heat energy (calories or

Joules) required to change the temperature of 1 gram of a substance
by 1 °C

12. atomic radius - the distance from the center of an atom's nucleus
to the outermost orbital electron

13. boiling point - the temperature at which the liquid's vapor

pressure equals atmospheric pressure during the boiling of a pure
substance the temperature remains constant as long as both liquid
and vapor are present

14. melting-freezing point - temperature at which solid-liquid phase

is in equilibrium - during melting of pure solid the temperature remains
constant; when all solid is melted and only liquid is present, further
heating results in a steady increase in temperature to the boiling point

15. odor - olfactory nerves are stimulated by certain molecule and

send messages to the brain which remembers the pattern

16. expansion - contraction coefficients - materials expand or

contract a known amount when heated or cooled

Collapsing Can Demo

area of surface of Coke can = 0.031 m2

pressure on this area = 3.1 E 3 N (about 680 lb)

1 atm = 1.0 E 5 N/m2

if we can reduce pressure by as little as 75% there would be a 500 lb

difference between pressure inside and outside the can

1) when can is inverted in water bath - the water seals the

opening and cools the can

2) as can cools vapor condenses - reduction of pressure inside

can

3) can is sufficiently weak and water sufficiently viscous that

can collapses before it fills with water

4) must use all aluminum can

Physical Changes in State

a change in the physical properties of a substance without a change

in the chemical composition
the arrangement of molecules may be changed but the molecular
make-up remains the same
these changes deal with intermolecular forces which increase or
decrease during the change.

Problems:

1. 72 grams of ice + 51 840 calories yield 72 grams of water vapor.

How many calories must be removed from water vapor to condense it
back to ice?
 2. If 1 gram of water at room temperature evaporates, about 600
calories are taken from the surroundings to convert the liquid to a gas.
How many calories are `needed' to change 1001 grams of gas to a
liquid?

3. If 50 grams of water vapor loses 36 000 calories in turning to ice,

how many calories would 1 gram of water vapor have to lose to be
turned back to ice?

ice (0O C) + heat l water vapor (100O C)

36 g 25 920 cal 36 g

water vapor (100O C) l ice (0O C) + heat

36 g 36 g 25 920 cal

2 H2 + O2 l 2H2O + heat energy released

4g 32 g 36 g 136 600 cal

2H2O + energy l 2H2 + O2

36 g 136 600 cal 4g 32 g

Chemical Changes in State (Phase)

The molecular make-up (the specific arrangement of atoms) is

changed, resulting in new substances being formed and energy
changes occurring.

EXOTHERMIC - any chemical change that releases energy is

exothermic

the amount of heat released is greater than the amount of heat used
to start the reaction
 bond making is exothermic (energy is released into surroundings)
example: oxidation l wooden splint burning ( heat, light, gases like
CO2 and H2O being given off with carbon and ashes left over)
other examples: burning H2 in O2, body reactions, dissolving metals
in strong acids, mixing acid and water, homogenization, plaster of
Paris in water, sugar dehydration

ENDOTHERMIC - any chemical change that absorbs energy is

endothermic

energy continues to be absorbed as long as the reaction continues

bond breaking is endothermic (energy is absorbed from
surroundings)
example: electrolysis l splitting some compound (usually water) by
running an electric current through it
other examples: photosynthesis, pasteurization, canning vegetables

Sugar dehydration demo here

The chemical change involving splitting or forming water takes

about 5 times as many calories as the physical change of state. The
reason is that atoms (or molecules) are bonded together in a
compound; the stronger the bond the more energy holding the parts
together, thus more energy required to break these bonds. A physical
change needs far less energy to overcome intermolecular forces
holding groups of molecules together. Much more energy is needed to
break bonds within molecules than to overcome the forces between
molecules.

physical change -- strength of intermolecular forces increased or

decreased

chemical change -- bonds formed or broken

energy absorbed -- bonds broken or intermolecular forces overcome

energy released -- bonds formed or intermolecular forces

strengthened
Problems:

Tell whether each of the following is a chemical or physical change

and further describe each chemical change as endothermic or
exothermic and the physical changes as absorbing or releasing
energy.

dry ice sublimates

CO2 + H2O + sunlight l glucose
air in heated tire expands
burning coal
water frozen into ice
acid dissolves metal

Endothermic vs Exothermic Reactions

All chemical reactions involve bond breaking and bond making.

Bond breaking is endothermic (energy is absorbed from surroundings)

Bond making is exothermic (energy is released into surroundings)

Imagine stretching a rubber band until it breaks. You must do work to

stretch the band because the tension in the band opposes your efforts.
You lose energy; the band gains it. Something similar happens when
bonds break in a chemical reaction. The energy required to break the
bonds is absorbed from the surroundings.

Energy is absorbed or released when the heat capacities of the

products and reactants differ. Usually this is small. Remember that
heat capacity is best thought of with a penny and specific heat best
thought of as copper metal.

Neutralization reactions are usually exothermic but when you add

baking soda to vinegar it is slightly endothermic. The neutralization
reaction actually does release heat:

HC2H3O2 + NaHCO3 l CO2 + NaC2H3O2 (aq) + H2O

This is because there is net bond formation. The products collectively
have lower energy than the reactants. But evaporation of the liquid
occurs as the carbon dioxide escapes from solution. Evaporation
absorbs heat, cooling the liquid. (The expansion of the carbon dioxide
gas bubbles as they are released also helps to cool the surroundings
by Joule-Thomson cooling). The net result is an endothermic reaction.

Mixing a strong acid with water is exothermic. Breaking a chemical

bond requires energy (remember that stretching a spring until it
breaks requires energy). Forming a chemical bond will release energy.
So in a reaction that releases heat (exothermic) there must be net
bond formation. Lets looks at HCl dissolved in water:

HCl l H+ (aq) + Cl1- (aq)

You would think at first this would be a heat absorbing (endothermic)

process, because it looks like the bond between H and Cl is broken.
But there is another reaction hiding here. The hydrogen ion reacts
with water to form a complex of the form: H3O@(H2O)+n where n is a
number between 1 and 9. It is much easier just to write H+(aq).
Because the hydrogen ion is so tiny, a large amount of charge is
concentrated in a very small area, and the polar water molecules are
strongly attracted to it. This "hydration" of the hydrogen ion involves
the formation of a covalent bond to one of the waters and a large
number of strong hydrogen bonds, so it·s a strongly exothermic
process. This causes the mixing of a strong acid with water to be
strongly exothermic overall.

Exothermic processes Endothermic processes

making ice cubes melting ice cubes
formation of snow in clouds conversion of frost to water vapor
condensation of rain from water evaporation of water
vapor
a candle flame forming a cation from an atom in
the gas phase
mixing sodium sulfite and bleach baking bread
rusting iron cooking an egg
burning sugar producing sugar by photosynthesis
forming ion pairs separating ion pairs
combining atoms to make a gas splitting a gas molecule apart
molecule
mixing strong acids and water mixing water and ammonium
nitrate
nuclear fission melting solid salts

Heating Curve Information: This graph will aid in understanding the

following information.

Phase Change Diagram

Solid - Gas Phase Change

This change involves sublimation which is the direct change of a solid

to a gas (deposition is the opposite).

Examples include: moth balls (naphthalene), paradichlorobenzene,

camphor, iodine crystals, and CO2 fire extinguishers (advantages:
does not conduct electricity, colder than water, replaces O2 since CO2
is heavier and settles on ground area and the CO2 does not combust),
will sublime away reducing cleanup - disadvantages include difficulty
in keeping container pressurized over time, fact that you cannot use
on living things due to extreme cold, and cost).

Liquid - Solid Phase Change

This discussion deals with melting-freezing point. A complete

discussion of this concept using ice and heat units will be completed
in class.

See class discussion of ice cube. The addition of 1 calorie of heat to

the ice cube at 0° C does not cause a change in the temperature of the
ice cube though 1 calorie would change the temperature of 1 gram of
water at 0° C.
 It will take 80 calories just to melt the ice cube. That heat that is
consumed in melting the solid is converted into potential energy.
Freely moving molecules in liquids, with respect to intermolecular
attraction, possess more energy than similar molecules bound rigidly
in solids at the same temperature.

Remember that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic

energy only while heat content is a measure of the total kinetic energy
plus potential energy possessed by that body.

See class examples of the heat energy needed to change ice at any
temperature to steam at any temperature.

The melting-freezing point is defined as the temperature at which the

solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium. This is the temperature at
which a change of state between the solid and liquid phase can occur.
Some of the solid will be melting and some of the liquid will be
freezing.

When a solid is heated to its melting point, its atoms or molecules

acquire enough energy to shift the bonds holding them together so
they form separate clusters. This clustering in liquids is confirmed
with X-ray studies but the clusters are constantly shifting their
arrangement unlike the permanent arrangement in solids.

When heat is added to a solid the temperature of the solid will

increase till it reaches the melting-freezing point. It will remain there
until all the solid has melted and only then can the temperature of the
liquid rise according to its specific heat.

Water molecules at 0° C contain more energy than the ice molecules

at 0° C , not in the form of a faster more rapid motion but in the form of
an ability to resist the attractive forces tending to pull them together.

Melting points also depend on pressure (though not as much as

boiling points.) Ice is strange in that its melting point decreases with
increasing pressure. Almost all other materials show increasing
melting points with greater pressures. The pressure an ice skater
exerts on the ice due to the small area of the skate blade is usually
enough to melt the ice creating a thin film of water that acts as a
lubricant. On unusually cold days the pressure may not be enough to
melt the ice and thus skating would be impossible.

Liquid - Gas Phase Change

The change from a gas to la liquid is condensation. This is due to

cooling and/or a pressure change.

In liquids, the energy of the particles is raised by adding heat. When

some molecules have enough K.E. they break away from the liquid
surface and become vapor.

If the temperature falls, there is a decrease in the energy of the

moving molecules and the liquid may eventually freeze to the solid
phase.

Process of EVAPORATION: Molecules that have enough energy of

motion (K.E.) break free from intermolecular forces and escape into
the air as vapor. Some may return to the liquid is their energy is lost to
other atoms.

The liquid surface left behind is cooled. In evaporation the molecules

that escape are the ones with the greatest velocity (heat) thus the
average velocity and K.E. of the remaining particles is reduced. This
results in cooling effects. Heat must be absorbed from the
surroundings to continue the evaporation process.

Adding heat increases evaporation because the VAPOR PRESSURE is

increased. This is the pressure exerted by the vapor (gas) of a
substance when it is in equilibrium with liquid or solid phase. The
system is in equilibrium when the rate of evaporation equals the rate
of condensation.

The temperature at which the liquid's vapor pressure is equal to

outside (atmospheric) pressure is that liquid's BOILING POINT. At this
temperature the pressure of the vapor escaping from liquid equals the
outside pressure.
 When the vapor pressure equals outside pressure bubbles of vapor
form and push through to the surface. As they move into the gas phase
we say this is boiling. Conduction of heat creates the gas, which rises
because it is less dense than the liquid, as it strives for equilibrium.

The boiling point varies with atmospheric pressure. In mountains, the

boiling point is below 100°C because the pressure of the atmosphere is
less.

Cooking requires longer times at high altitudes because of low boiling

point

Pressure cookers make food cook more rapidly because the foods can
be heated above the normal boiling point without actually boiling.

Intermolecular Forces and Latent Heat

if we heat a mixture of ice and water, we find that no matter how

much heat is transferred to the mixture, the temperature remains at 0°
C until the last of the ice is melted. Only after all the ice is melted is
heat converted into kinetic energy, and only then can the temperature
of the water begin to rise. Experiment shows that 80 calories of heat
must be absorbed from the outside world in order that 1 gram of ice
might be melted, and that no temperature rise takes place in the
process. The ice at 0° C is changed to water at 0° C.

But if the heat gained by the ice is not converted into molecular
kinetic energy, what does happen to it? If the Law of Conservation of
Energy is valid, we know it cannot simply disappear.

The water molecules in ice are bound together by strong attractive

forces that keep the substance a rigid solid. In order to convert the ice
to liquid water (in which the molecules, as in all liquids, are free of
mutual bonds to the extent of being able to slip and slide over, under,
and beside each other) those forces must be countered. As the ice
melts, the energy of heat is consumed in countering those
intermolecular forces. The water molecules contain more energy than
the ice molecules at the same temperature, not in the form of a more
rapid motion or vibration but in the form of an ability to resist the
attractive forces tending to pull them rigidly together.

The Law of Conservation of Energy requires that the energy change

in freezing be the reverse of the energy change in melting. If liquid
water at 0° C is allowed to lose heat to the outside world, the capacity
to resist the attractive forces is lost, little by little. More and more of
the molecules lock rigidly into place, and the water freezes. The
amount of heat lost to the outside world in this process of freezing is
80 calories for each gram of ice formed.

In short, 1 gram of ice at 0° C, absorbing 80 calories, melts to 1 gram

of water at 0° C; and 1 gram of water at 0° C giving off 80 calories,
freezes to 1 gram of ice at 0° C.

The heat consumed in melting ice or any solid, is converted into a sort
of potential energy of molecules. Just as a rock at the top of a cliff
has, by virtue of its position with respect to gravitational attraction
more energy than a similar rock at the bottom of the cliff, so do freely
moving molecules in liquids, by virtue of their position with respect to
intermolecular attraction, possess more energy than similar molecules
bound rigidly in solids.

It is the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules that together

make up the internal energy that represents the heat content. It is
kinetic energy only that is measured by the temperature. By changing
the potential energy only, as in melting or freezing, the total heat
content is changed without changing the temperature.

In converting a gram of liquid water at 100° C to a gram of steam at

100° C what remains of the intermolecular attractions must be
completely neutralized. Only then are molecules capable of displaying
the typical properties of gases -- that is, virtually independent motion.
In the earlier process of melting, only a minor portion of the
intermolecular attractive force was countered, and the major portion
remains to be dealt with. The latent heat of vaporization of water (the
amount of heat required to convert 1 gram of water at 100° C to 1 gram
of steam at 100° C) is 540 calories, almost seven times the earlier 80
calories needed in changing ice to water.
 The energy content of steam is thus surprisingly high. 100 grams of
water at 100° C can be made to yield 10 000 calories as it cools to the
freezing point. 100 grams of steam at 100° C can be made to give up
54 000 calories merely by condensing it to water. The water produced
can then give up another 10 000 calories if it is cooled to the freezing
point. It is for this reason that steam engines are so useful and hot
water engines would never do as a substitute.

If we boil water in a kettle its temperature remains at 100° C, no

matter how fast we boil it, but we have to keep adding heat to keep it
boiling. Heat is absorbed by the molecules as they escape their liquid
state and become a gas. The amount of heat needed to pull apart
liquid molecules is called heat of vaporization (calories/gram). The
heat of vaporization which a molecule must absorb before it can
become a gas molecule is released by it when it cools again to liquid,
as heat of condensation. Liquids with low boiling points, such as
alcohol or ether, chill the hand as the molecules pick up their heat of
vaporization and become a gas. The same is true for a glass of water,
it will be cooler than room temperature.

The kinetic molecular theory states that the kinetic energy depends
on heat energy, which can be measured as temperature. A
thermometer in boiling water and a thermometer in the vapor just
above the boiling surface will read the same; 100° C at sea level.
Therefore the average kinetic energy of the liquid molecules must be
the same as the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules above it.
An average molecule in the liquid state will be moving as fast as an
average molecule in the gaseous state.

Gas particles move in a straight line until they collide with another bit
of matter, then they bound away in some other direction but always in
a straight line, and without losing any of their energy to friction in the
collision. The particles have perfect resilience. However, they will
change their kinetic energies in the familiar way of all normal matter,
as, for instance, do billiard balls. A slow-moving particle hit from
behind by a fast one is speeded up, while the fast one is slowed down,
but the sum total of their kinetic energies remains the same. In the
world of normal matter, perfect elasticity is unknown, as there is
friction between surfaces. Two billiard balls when they collide will
change each other's speed and direction of motion, and they will also
roll to a stop in a short time. The ultimate particles of matter lose not
a bit of their energies in collisions. They simply exchange speeds. If
two particles collide, their total heat before and after is the same, but
the originally slower particle after the collision is traveling faster and
is therefore hotter, while the formerly speedier particle is now cooler
and moving more slowly that it was. Heat and molecular motion,
according to the theory, are two ways of speaking about the same
thing.
 The above curve attempts to demonstrate the addition of 100
calories of heat energy per minute to 1 gram of water. A thorough
class discussion will attempt to identify the amount of time needed for
each change to occur. Knowledge of specific heat capacity, latent
heat of fusion and vaporization is needed to determine these values.
The above chart shows a graph of the contraction of an air bubble in a
capillary tube filled with oil. As the tube was cooled the length of the
air bubble was measured and plotted as dots. When it could no longer
be cooled to a lower temperature the graph line was extrapolated to
find Absolute Zero (a temperature unobtainable in the actual world).

Heat of Solution Reactions Lab

Chemical and physical changes are usually accompanied by the

liberation or absorption of energy. If energy is evolved, the reaction is
said to be EXOTHERMIC. If the energy is absorbed, the reaction is
ENDOTHERMIC.

Heat is a form of energy. The calorie or joule is the unit used to

express heats of reaction. The calorie is defined as the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water one Celsius
degree. For conversions, 1 calorie = 4.185 joules.
 Energy may be transformed from one kind to another within an
isolated (or closed) system but the total energy does not change. If
the change in energy of a system can be measured and if this change
is due solely to a chemical reaction, then the energy change must be
equal to that of the chemical reaction itself.

In this experiment a simple calorimeter will be used and the change

in energy of the system will be measured by observing the
temperature of a given weight of water before and after the reaction
occurs. The specific heat capacity of water (i.e., the energy required
to raise the temperature 1o C of 1 gram of the material) is very nearly
1.00 cal/goC for temperatures between 0o C and 100o C. Thus, if a
calorimeter contained 100 grams of water at 23.0o C initially and
after the reaction took place there were still 100. grams of water and
the temperature was now 30.0o C, the energy liberated in the reaction
would be

Q (cal) = mass (g) x t (oC) x cp (cal/goC)

700. cal = 100. g x 7.00o C x 1.00 cal/goC

This calculation assumes that no energy was required to raise the

temperature of the calorimeter itself and that no energy was lost, or
gained, by the calorimeter during the experiment.

Accurate calorimeters are very expensive and very tedious to

operate. In this experiment a simple calorimeter will be made by
placing one styrofoam (polystyrene) cup inside another and covering
the inner cup with a piece of cardboard to minimize heat loss or gain
from the surface of the liquid. Expanded polystyrene is a good
insulator and has a very high specific heat capacity.

Procedure:

1. Measure as accurately as possible with a graduated cylinder 75.0

mL of water and transfer the water to the inner styrofoam cup. Record
the temperature of the water.
 2. Mass accurately, a quantity of NaOH between two and three
grams.

3. Add the NaOH to the water, continually swishing the cup gently,
and with constant observation of the temperature until it remains
constant for about 15-20 seconds. Record this temperature.

4. Repeat using NH4NO3.

5. After completing all data collection for this experiment, move on to

the second experiment.
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

Some chemical reactions absorb energy and are called endothermic

reactions. Many chemical reactions give off energy. Chemical
reactions that release energy are called exothermic reactions. You
will study one endothermic reaction and one exothermic reaction in
this experiment.

You will study the reaction between citric acid solution and baking
soda. An equation for the reaction is

H3C6H5O7 (aq) + 3 NaHCO3 (s) 3 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (l) + Na3C6H5O7 (aq)

You will study the reaction between magnesium metal and

hydrochloric acid. An equation for this reaction

Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)

OBJECTIVES

In this experiment, you will

‡ observe two chemical reactions

‡ determine the change in temperature, t, for each of the

reactions

‡ identify endothermic and exothermic reaction

PROCEDURE

1. Obtain and wear goggles.

Citric Acid Plus Baking Soda

2. Mass your calorimeter. Measure out 30.0 mL of citric acid

solution in the graduated cylinder and place it in the calorimeter. Mass
the calorimeter with acid solution and record so that the mass of the
acid can be calculated. Place the thermometer into the citric acid
solution and record the temperature after 15 seconds with no change
in the reading.

3. Weigh out 10.0 g of solid baking soda on a piece of weighing

paper.

4. Add the baking soda to the citric acid solution. Stir the solution to
ensure a good mixing.
Continue to watch the temperature carefully. Record the lowest or
highest temperature that is
reached.

5. Dispose of the reaction products into the plastic waste cups.

Hydrochloric Acid Plus Magnesium

6. Measure out 30.0 mL of HCl solution into the clean graduated

cylinder and transfer into a cleaned calorimeter. CAUTION: Handle this
acid with care. It can cause painful burns if it comes in contact with
your skin or gets into your eyes. Mass and record to find the mass of
the acid solution. Place the thermometer into the HCl solution and
record the temperature after 15 seconds with no change in the
reading.

7. Get approximately 0.1 grams of magnesium. Record actual

mass of magnesium used.

8. Add the Mg to the HCl solution.

‡ Stir the solution to ensure good mixing. CAUTION: Do not

breathe the vapors!

‡ Collect data until a minimum or maximum temperature has been

reached.

9. Dispose of the reaction products into the plastic waste cups.

 Quantity of Heat Lab

The principle of heat exchange is often demonstrated by heating a

metal sample in boiling water, then adding the metal to a known
quantity of water. The temperature of the water is measured before
and after adding the metal sample. The heat lost by the metal is
gained by the water. The following equation can then be used:

mmetal x tmetal x cp metal = mwater x twater x cp water

Procedure: Immediately begin boiling water in the beaker. Place

precisely 100.0 mL of water in the styrofoam cup (a cup within a cup)
and the determine the mass and temperature of that water. Record
these measurements. Mass the dry metal samples. Record. Heat the
metal samples in the beaker. Heat the samples in boiling water until
the temperature remains constant for 3-4 minutes to insure that the
samples are heated evenly throughout. DO NOT RUSH THIS
IMPORTANT STEP. Record the temperature of the boiling water (we
are assuming the metal samples are at the same temperature). Using
the string pick up the mesh containing the metal samples. Holding it
immediately above the boiling liquid, allow it to drain FOR A FRACTION
OF A SECOND. Immediately place it in the water the styrofoam cups as
quickly and safely as possible. This step should not allow the samples
to cool. As you read the thermometer swish the water gently for a few
moments. Record the highest temperature reached by the water.

Data:
sample material .. ......................
mass of metal sample .... . ............
specific heat capacity (metal) ...........
mass of 100.0 mL of water................
initial temp. of water (in cup) ..........
initial temp. of metal (boiling water)...
final temp. of water/samples (in cup) ....

2. Repeat above experiment with 100.0 mL of permanent antifreeze.

Remember that the samples must be thoroughly reheated in boiling
water before being added to the antifreeze.
 Data:
mass of 100.0 mL of antifreeze ............
specific heat capacity (antifreeze) ......
initial temp. of antifreeze (in cup) .....
initial temp. of metal (boiling water)...
final temp. of antifreeze/samples (cup)..

3. Repeat original procedure using 100.0 mL of the 50/50 mixture of

water and antifreeze.

Data:
mass of 100.0 mL of 50/50 mixture .........
specific heat capacity (50/50 mixture)...
initial temp. of mixture (in cup) ... ....
initial temp. of metal (boiling water)...
final temp. of 50/50 mix/samples (cup)...

Safety Awareness: Be careful with the boiling water and the hot metal
samples. Thermometers must be allowed to slowly adjust to changes
in temperature. This is especially true in going from boiling
temperatures to room temperatures. Be certain to return the pure
antifreeze to the proper container as well as returning the 50/50
mixture to its original container.

Analysis:
1. Why use boiling water as the method of heating the metal samples
each time. Why not just hold the samples over a burner?
2. List the materials used in this lab in order, from lowest to highest, in
specific heat capacities?
3. How does the quantity of heat transferred depend on specific heat,
mass, and initial temperature?
4. List the liquids, from lowest to highest, based on the amount of
change in temperature. Can this be explained?
5. How did the heat lost by the metal samples in each run compare?
List this and explain.
6. Which of the liquids would be the most effective coolant in a car's
radiator. Why?
7. Should one run 100% coolant (antifreeze) in a car's radiator in the
summer? Why?
8. How would your results differ if you ran the experiment again with a
different metal?
9. Explain briefly how specific heat capacities could be used to
identify an unknown metal or liquid?
10. Given a true 50/50 mixture of ethylene glycol and water and
without using the lab scales, how could you calculate the mass of the
mixture. (The given density of pure ethylene glycol is 1.1157 g/cm3)

Calculations:

1. Calculate the specific heat capacity of water. Use the specific heat
capacity for your metal. See the chart on the board for densities and
specific heat capacities.

mmetal x tmetal x cp metal = mwater x twater x [cp water]

Calculate the percentage error between that of the actual value for
water and what you found.

% error = theoretical value - experimental value; x 100 =

%
theoretical value

2. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal you used. This
time you must use the actual vale for water.

mmetal x tmetal x [ cp metal ] = mwater x twater x cp water

Calculate the percentage error for the metal.

3. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the pure antifreeze. Use the
actual value for the metal. The anti here indicates antifreeze.

mmetal x tmetal x cp metal = mantifreeze x tantifreeze x [cp antifreeze]

Calculate the percentage error for the pure ethylene glycol. Additives
may have changed the value.

4. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the 50/50 mixture. Use the
actual value for the metal. The 50/50 here indicates the mixture.
Attempt to calculate the actual ratio of antifreeze to water.

mmetal x tmetal x cp metal = m50/50 x t50/50 x [cp 50/50]

Lab Write-up: As usual you may substitute your notecard for the
procedure and data table. You may leave out the equipment listing and
safety rule section. Be prepared for an extensive calculation and
result section. Remember to answer all the questions in the discussion
section.

Heat of Combustion of Candle Wax

CONTENT:

This lab deals with heat transfer, combustion of candle wax,

heat loss within a system, and physical/chemical changes that occur
as a result of energy transformations. Transfer of heat is seen in
weather studies (i.e., within thunderstorms the release of heat of
condensation helps to power the cell), in absorption of solar radiation
at the surface of the earth and re-release of that energy to the
atmosphere (Greenhouse heating), and in biological systems when
food is burned to provide energy for the organisms use.

Energy is an important consideration in all physical and

chemical changes. This experiment has you look at the energy
involved in the chemical change of candle wax. We will be using
joules instead of calories (1 cal = 4.185 joules or 1 joule = 0.2390
calories.)

OBJECTIVE:

In this lab heat energy from a burning candle is directed to a

Coke can filled with water. The elevation in the temperature of the
water as the candle burns indicates heat is being transferred.
Students should readily observe the principle of heat exchange.
Students must attempt to design the procedure and equipment such
that heat is neither gained nor lost to the environment. The student
then must calculate the heat of combustion of candle wax (i.e., the
amount of heat energy released per gram of wax consumed.)

Remember the principle of heat exchange: the heat lost by

some object should be equal to the heat gained by the object to which
the heat is transferred. Look over the general set-up. An aluminum
Coke can filled with water is suspended over the burning candle. How
can we determine the amount of heat lost by the candle as it burns
and how can be eliminate heat loss to the environment or gain from
the environment?

Make a drawing of the experimental setup. Try to incorporate

into your design and experimental procedure factors that will
eliminate heat loss/gain from the environment. (hint: Simple insulation
of the system is not enough. Use your knowledge of heat transfer
mechanisms, specific heats, temperature differences, etc. to design a
system that will not product a high percent error.) After the lab group
decides on the factors they wish to control and decides how to build
their apparatus, the group should confirm what information they wish
to collect and in what order.

PROCEDURE:

I. Attach candle to notecard base (with heated wax) and record

mass of candle/card. Record.

II. Record mass of empty can (with rod inserted). Add 150 mL of
very cold water. Record mass of can and water. Calculate
amount of water used.

III. Record room temperature.

IV. Design insulating system. Remember that oxygen must get to

the flame.
V. Prior to lighting candle, record temperature of water in can.

VI. With constant stirring as candle burns, heat water to a

temperature as many degrees above room temperature as it
was below room temperature prior to heating.

VII. Put out candle flame as gently as possible. Record final

temperature (realize that the temperature may in fact continue
to go up after the flame is put out. Calculate change in
temperature.

VIII. Mass candle/card. Record. Calculate change in mass of candle.

Sample Data Table:

mass of candle and base before burning:
mass of candle and base after burning:
mass of empty can:
mass of can and water:
room temperature:
temperature of water before heating:
temperature of water after heating:

CALCULATIONS:

1. Using the specific heat of water, calculate the amount of heat

transferred in both calories and joules.

2. Calculate the heat of combustion of candle wax in both cal/g

and J/g.

3. Actual values for paraffin wax is about 42 kJ/g. Calculate

percent error with your value.

Questions:
1. In what way did your insulation help control heat loss or gain?

2. Assuming some heat is always going to be gained from the

room and that some heat will probably be lost, how can you have
the two changes cancel each other out?

3. What purpose would be served by starting with cold water an

equal number of degrees below room temperature as the number
of degrees above room temperature finally reached?

4. To do the calculations, it was assumed that all the joules

released by the burning was went totally into the water and that
no extraneous joules of energy were absorbed by the water.
What factors in this experiment could have validated those
assumptions. What factors might have led to errors in the final
results?

5. What further modifications in your procedure and experimental

design would you now make to reduce error.

Problem:

A given birthday candle has a mass of 0.84 g. The mass remaining

after 1 minute of burning = 0.77 g. What would be the burnout time for
that candle. Explain why your answer might not be exactly the same
as the actual burnout time.

Problem:

A 5.00 gram sample of motor oil is burned in a calorimeter. The

calorimeter contained 720. mL of water initially at 21.4O C. After the
oil was burned, the water temperature was measured at 33.9O C. What
was the heat of combustion of the motor oil in J/g?

Extended Problem:
You are given a block of wax that has a mass of 150. grams (molar
mass = 450). The melting point is 95.0O C, the specific heat of the
solid is 0.80 J/gO C, the specific heat of the liquid is 1.2 J/gO C, the heat
of fusion is

60. J/g. The was is heated on a stove that provides 6.0 E 3 J of heat
per minute. The room temperature is 25 O C.

a) how many joules of heat are required to heat the wax to melting?

b) how long will this take?

c) how many joules of heat are required to melt the wax and how long
will this take?

d) how many joules of heat are required to heat the liquid wax to 245O
C and how long will it take?

e) make a graph of the data. What do the slopes of the solid heating
and liquid heating indicate about the relative specific heats?

f) at 245O C the wax will burst into flame and completely react with the
air to produce CO2 and H2O. The heat of combustion is 1200 kJ/mole.
How many joules of heat are produced with the wax burns? Is this
enough to melt and heat to burning another block of wax of the same
size?

Refer to the Data Table below to answer questions:

Substance Specific Heat Heat of Fusion Heat of

Vaporization
(J / gO C) (J / g) (J / g)
water (l) 4.185 334 2260
water (s) 2.06 334 2260
ethanol 2.45 109 879
aluminum 0.895 376 11371
copper 0.387 205 4726
silver 0.233 88 2300
granite 0.803 - -
1. How much heat is required to melt a sample of 550 grams of
copper?

2. How much heat is absorbed as a 95.0 gram sample of water is

heated from 10.5O C to 48.2O C?

3. How much heat is absorbed by 25 grams of ethanol as it

evaporates?

4. A 950. kg granite wall inside a solar house is used to absorb heat

during the day. During the day it reaches a temperature of 24.0O C . At
night, it will cool off to 17.0O C. How much heat will be released by the
wall? How much heat would be released if the wall was made of 20.
kg of aluminum filled with 180 kg of water and had the same
temperature change?

CHARLES' LAW LABORATORY EXERCISE

This law states that as the temperature of a gas changes its

volume will vary proportionally. The pressure acting on the system
must remain constant as well as the amount of gas (air in this lab)
must remain the same.

V 1 / T1 = V 2 / T2 V2 = (V1T2 ) / T1 V2 = unknown, can be found

by formula and experimentally

OBJECTIVES:
1. to observe the change in volume of a gas when its temp. is changed
2. to practice laboratory techniques involving gases
3. to perform a lab with a % error less than 2%

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1. Handling extremely hot glassware and working with boiling water

requires attention given to equipment and instructions.
2. Use of the Bunsen burner requires careful lighting and one lab group
member assigned to watch the burner at all times.
3. Clean dry equipment will always provide better results and perform
in a safe manner.

PROCEDURE:

1. Place stopper (with glass tubing already inserted) into the 250 mL
Erlenmeyer flask firmly and as level as possible. Using tape mark the
flask where the stopper extends.. This should be even around the neck
of the flask.

2. Attach the universal clamp to the neck of the flask and also to the
ring stand. The flask should extend down as far as possible in an
400/600 mL beaker sitting on wire gauze ring attached to the ring
stand. Add water to the beaker so that it fills the beaker to
approximately 1 inch below the lip of the flask. NO water should boil or
splash out of the beaker. Use boiling chips.

3. Heat the empty flask using this water bath arrangement till the
water has been boiling for 8-10 minutes. Record the temperature of the
water. This should now also be the temperature of the air inside the
flask.

4. Disconnect the clamp from the ring stand. Place your finger over the
end of the glass tubing in the stopper and transfer the entire flask and
clamp to the standing water in the sink. This must be done so that no
air enters or escapes from the flask. Only remove your finger when the
entire flask is submerged.

5. Keep the flask completely submerged for approximately 8-10

minutes. Record the temp of the water in the sink. This should be the
temperature of the water and air inside the flask.

6. The most critical step in attempting to reduce the % error comes at

this point. Continue to submerge the end of the flask with the stopper
but raise the base of the flask. Look inside the flask and attempt to
have the water level inside the flask correspond to the water level of
the water in the sink. This sounds more difficult that it really is. By
keeping the water levels inside and out of the flask exactly the same
the atmospheric pressure inside and outside the flask will be the same
(held constant) and we can eliminate it from our
calculations.

7. Place your finger over the end of the glass tubing (maintaining the
same level of water inside and out) and then lift out the entire flask
and clamp. Remove and dry the clamp with paper towels. Carefully
pour the water inside the flask into a dry graduated cylinder and
record the amount.

8. Fill the flask with water up to the mark made earlier (the neck
where the stopper had extended). Again pour this water into a dry
graduated cylinder (this may take several full cylinders, just
accumulate the volume). The final volume (V2) can be found by using
the formula or by simply subtracting the amount left in the flask after
cooling from the original total amount (V).

SAMPLE DATA TABLE

Temp. of water bath = T1 ___________º C

Temp. of water in sink = T2 ___________º C
Volume of water in flask after cooling __________ mL
Total volume of water in flask (V1) ___________mL
Final volume of air in flask (by subtraction: = V2) _______________mL

CALCULATIONS:

1. Find V2 using Charles' Law:

2. Perform graphing example as shown in class: value of absolute

value found: ___________º C

3. Perform the following percentage calculations:

PERCENTAGE ERROR:
% error = |experimental ² theoretical result|/ theoretical result x 100 =
 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENCE: (for V2)
% difference = |difference of two values| / larger of two values x 100
=

QUESTIONS:

1. Explain what your lab group could have done to reduce your error.
2. Why/how did we eliminate the need to measure the atmospheric
pressure inside the flask after cooling.
3. Find examples of Charles' Law in our daily lives.

Answer Space:

Energy Content of Foods

Energy content is an important property of food. The energy your

body needs for running, talking, and thinking comes from the food you
eat. Energy content is the amount of heat produced by the burning of 1
gram of a substance, and is measured in joules per gram (J/g).

You can determine energy content by burning a portion of food and

capturing the heat released to a known mass of water in a
calorimeter. If you measure the initial and final temperatures, the
energy released can be calculated using the equation

Q = t‡m‡cp

where Q = heat energy absorbed (in J), t = change in temperature (in

°C), m = mass (in g), and cp= specific heat capacity (4.185 J/g°C for
water). Dividing the resulting energy value by grams of food burned
gives the energy content (in J/g).

PROCEDURE

1. Obtain and wear goggles/aprons.

 2. Get a sample of food and a food holder. Find and record the initial
mass of the food sample and food holder. CAUTION: Do not eat or drink
in the laboratory.

4. Set up the apparatus. Place aluminum foil on the table top to catch
any spills and also to reflect heat upward.

Determine and record the mass of an empty can.

‡ Place about 50.0 mL of cold water into the can.

‡ Determine and record the mass of the can plus water.

‡ Use a rod to suspend the can about 2.5 cm (1") above the food
sample.

‡ Use a utility clamp and stopper to suspend the thermometer in

the water. The thermometer should not touch the bottom of the
can.

5. Record the initial temperature of the water.

6. Remove the food sample from under the can and use a wooden
splint to light it. Quickly place the burning food sample directly under
the center of the can. Allow the water to be heated until the food
sample stops burning. CAUTION: Keep hair and clothing away from an
open flame.

7. Stir the water until the temperature stops rising. Record this final
temperature.

8. Determine the final mass of the food sample and food holder.

9. Repeat the procedure for a second food sample. Use a new 50.0 mL
portion of cold water.

10. When you are done, place burned food, used matches, and partly-
burned wooden splints in the container supplied by the teacher.
DATA

Sample
1 Sample 2

Food used _______

_______
Mass of food and holder (initial) ______ g
______g
Mass of food and holder (final) ______ g
______g
Mass of empty can ______ g
______g
Mass of can plus water ______ g
______g
Initial water temperature ______
°C ______°C
Final water temperature ______ °C
______ °C

PROCESSING THE DATA

1. Calculate change in water temperature, t, for each sample, by

subtracting the initial temperature from the final temperature ( t = tfinal
² tinitial).

2. Calculate the mass (in g) of the water heated for each sample.
Subtract the mass of the empty can from the mass of the can plus
water.

3. Use the results of Steps 1 and 2 to determine the heat energy

gained by the water (in J). Use the equation Q = t‡m‡cp

where Q = heat absorbed (in J), t = change in temperature (in °C), m

= mass of the water heated (in g), and cp = specific heat capacity
(4.185 J/g°C for water).
 4. Calculate the mass (in g) of each food sample burned. Subtract
the final mass from the initial mass.

5. Use the results of Steps 3 and 4 to calculate the energy

content (in J/g) of each food sample.

6. Record your results and the results of other groups below.

Share data with other groups.

Food Type Food Type Food

Type Food Type

____________ ____________ ____________

____________
_________ J/g _________ J/g _________ J/g
_________J/g
_________ J/g _________ J/g _________ J/g
_________J/g
_________ J/g _________ J/g _________ J/g
_________J/g
_________ J/g _________ J/g _________ J/g
_________J/g
_________ J/g _________ J/g _________ J/g
_________J/g
_________ J/g _________ J/g _________ J/g
_________J/g

Avg. _________ J/g _________ J/g _________ J/g

_________ J/g

7. Which of the foods has the greatest energy content? Why

do these foods have the greatest energy content?

Heat of Fusion

During melting, heat is absorbed by the melting solid. In this

experiment, you will determine how much heat is needed to melt 1 g of
ice. Heat has units of joules (J). The heat used to melt the ice will
come from the cooling of warm water and will be measured with a
calorimeter. A calorimeter is an insulated container fitted with a
device for measuring temperature.

OBJECTIVE: Determine the heat of fusion of ice (in J/g)

PROCEDURE:

1. Use a balance to measure the mass of the calorimeter. Record

this mass in your data table. Using the large flask, obtain some hot
water from the hot water faucet at the teacher·s desk and mix with
tap water until the temperature of the water is about 30 to 35 C.

2. Use a 100-mL graduated cylinder to measure out 100.0 mL of

this water into the calorimeter. Measure the mass of the calorimeter
and the 100.0 mL of warm water. Record this value in the data table.

3. Place the thermometer into the warm water inside the cup to
warm the instrument to the temperature of the water. The
thermometer must be in the warm water for at least 15 seconds before
ice is added.

4. Obtain several pieces of ice out of the cooler. Drain the ice
cubes while allowing them to still have a wet surface. Add the ice
cubes to the warm water.

5. Gently stir the contents of the cup as the ice melts. The
temperature will stop dropping and level off when the ice has all
melted. End your data collection when the temperature stops
dropping.

6. Measure and record the mass of the calorimeter and water

(original water + ice melt).

DATA

mass of calorimeter ______ g

mass of calorimeter and warm water ______ g
mass of warm water _______g
mass of calorimeter and all water/ice ______ g
mass of ice added _______g

initial water temperature (maximum) _______°C

final water temperature (minimum) _______°C

PROCESSING THE DATA

1. Calculate the change in water temperature, t (tmax ² tmin).

2. Calculate the heat (in J) lost by the water melting the ice using the
equation

Q = m ‡ Ʀt ‡ 4.185 J/g°C

where Q = heat (in joules), m = mass of warm water (in g), and Ʀt =
change in temperature (in °C)

3. Calculate the heat needed to melt 1 g of ice (J/g).

4. An accepted value for the heat of fusion of ice is 334 J/g. Calculate
your percent error:

5. What assumption did we make about heat lost by the water in the
calorimeter as compared to heat gained by the melting ice?

EXTENSION
 Design an experiment to find out if an ice cube taken from a freezer
and immediately placed into a calorimeter needs the same amount of
energy per gram for melting as does an ice cube that has been outside
the freezer for ten minutes.

Thermochemistry is the study of heat changes that take place in a

change of state or a chemical reaction - heat energy is either
absorbed or released. If a process releases energy in the form of heat,
the process is called exothermic. A process that absorbs heat is
called endothermic.

Heat is defined as the energy transferred from one object to another

due to a difference in temperature. We do not observe or measure
heat directly - we measure the temperature change that
accompanies heat transfer. In a chemical reaction it is often not
possible to measure the temperature of the reactants or products
themselves. Instead, we measure the temperature change of the
surroundings.

The difference between the system and the surroundings is a key

concept in thermochemistry. The system consists of the reactants
and the products of the reaction. The solvent, the container, the
atmosphere about the reaction (in other words, the rest of the
universe) are considered the surroundings. Heat may be transferred
from the system to the surroundings (the temperature of the
surroundings will increase) or from the surroundings to the system (the
temperature of the surroundings will decrease).

When a system releases heat to the surroundings during a reaction,

the temperature of the surroundings increases and the reaction
container feels warm to the touch. This is an exothermic reaction.
Heat flows out of the system. An example of an exothermic reaction
is the combustion of propane (C 3H8) in a barbecue grill to produce
carbon dioxide, water, and heat. Note that heat appear in the product
side of the equation:

C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g) + heat

When a system absorbs heat from the surroundings during a reaction,

the temperature of the surroundings decreases and the reaction
container feels cold to the touch. This in an endothermic reaction.
Heat flows into the system. A familiar example of an endothermic
process is the melting of ice. Solid water (ice) needs heat energy to
break the forces holding the molecules together in the solid state.

The heat absorbed by water in turning it to steam has been used to

break apart the forces (i.e., hydrogen bonding) between water
molecules in the liquid phase. The amount of heat that must be
absorbed to vaporize a specific quantity of liquid (usually one gram or
one mole) is called the heat of vaporization. In a similar manner, heat
is also required to melt ice. The amount of heat that must be
absorbed to melt a specific quantity of solid is called the heat of
fusion.

The amount of heat transferred in these processes depends on the

difference in the energy stored in each substance. This stored energy
is called the heat content or enthalpy, and is represented by the
symbol H.. The enthalpy change ( ƦH) for a physical process or a
chemical reaction is defined as the heat change that occurs at a
constant pressure. This is convenient, because most of the reactions
that are carried out in the lab are in flasks or containers that are open
to the atmosphere ² that is, they take place at a constant pressure
equal to the barometric pressure.

Equation 1 shows the equality between the change in enthalpy (ƦH) of

a system and the amount of heat transferred, symbolized by qp, for a
reaction carried out at a constant pressure.

ƦH = qp Equation 1

The amount of heat (qp) transferred to a substance or object depends

on three factors: the mass (m) of the object, its specific heat (cp) and
the resulting temperature change (Ʀt)

qp = m ‡ Ʀt ‡ cp Equation 2

The specific heat (cp) of a substance reflects its ability to absorb heat
energy and is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius. The
specific heat of water is equal to 4.185 J/gºC. In most laboratory
situations, the temperature change is measured not for the system
itself (the reactants and products) but for the surroundings (the
solution and reaction vessel). The amount of heat released by the
system must be equal to the amount of heat absorbed by the
surroundings. The sign convention in Equation 3 reveals that the heat
change occurs in the opposite direction.

q(system) = - q(surroundings)

For an exothermic reaction, the heat released by the system results in

a temperature increase for the surroundings (Ʀt is positive) and the
heat absorbed by the surroundings will be a positive quantity. The
heat released by the system must have the reverse sign ² it must be a
negative quantity. According to this convention, the enthalpy change
for an exothermic reaction is always a negative value. For an
endothermic reaction, in contrast, the heat absorbed by the system
results in a temperature decrease for the surroundings (Ʀt) is
negative) and the heat released by the soundings will be a negative
quantity. The heat absorbed by the system must have the opposite
sign - it must be a positive quantity. According to this convention,
the enthalpy change for an endothermic reaction is always a positive
value.

The energy or enthalpy change associated with the process of a solute

dissolving in a solvent is called the heat of solution (ƦHsoln). In the
case of an ionic compound dissolving in water, the overall energy
change is the net result of two processes - the energy required to
break the attractive forces (ionic bonds) between the ions in the
crystal lattice, and the energy released when the dissociated (free)
ions form ion-dipole attractive forces with the water molecules.

Heats of solution and other enthalpy changes are generally measured

in an insulated vessel called a calorimeter that reduces or prevents
heat loss to the atmosphere outside the reaction vessel. The process
of a solute dissolving in water may either release heat into the
aqueous solution or absorb heat from the solution, the amount of heat
exchange between the calorimeter and the outside surroundings
should be minimal. When using a calorimeter, the reagents being
studied are mixed directly in the calorimeter and the temperature is
recorded both before and after the reaction ahs occurred. The amount
of heat change occurring in the calorimeter may be calculated using
the equation: qp = m ‡ Ʀt ‡ cp The specific heat of the solution is
generally assumed to be the same as that of the water, namely 4.185
J/gºC.
The mass of grams of solute is usually the independent variable and
will be varied in different trials. The temperature change that is
produced depends on the mass of the solute and is thus the dependent
variable in a calorimetry experiment.

Calorimeter Constant

All chemical reactions involve changes in energy as a result of bond

breaking and bond formation during the chemical change. This energy
change is an important parameter when studying chemical reactions
and is normally measured in an insulated vessel called a calorimeter.
When using a calorimeter, the chemical reagents being studied are
mixed directly in the calorimeter with the temperature recorded both
before and after the reaction. If the mass of the material is also
recorded, then the change in the energy occurring in the calorimeter
can be calculated by the relationship:

Ʀq = m ‡ Ʀt ‡ cp

where Ʀq is the change in energy, m is the mass of the solution, Ʀt is

the temperature change of the solution, and cp is the specific heat of
the solution. Since most reactions are carried out in dilute water
solutions, the specific heat of the solution is assumed to be the same
as that of water (1.00 cal/g°C or 4.185 J/g°C).

The underlying principle utilized in calorimetry is the law of

Conservation of Energy. The basic premise of this principle is that
´energy can neither be created nor destroyed but may be converted
from one form to another.µ In other words, the heat lost (or gained) by
the chemical reaction is equal to the heat gained (or lost) by the
solution in the calorimeter.

In this experiment we are going to simply mix hot and cold water,
determine the change in the temperature, and compare the total
amount of energy lost with the total amount of energy gained. If the
Law of Conservation of Energy is valid, then

Ʀqhot water = Ʀqcold water

where Ʀqhot water is the energy lost by the hot water and the Ʀqcold water is
the energy gained by the cold water. Unfortunately, no system is
perfect and some of the energy transferred is absorbed by the
calorimeter. Therefore, the actual relationship for the Law of
Conservation of Energy in this experiment should be:

Ʀqhot water = Ʀqcold water + Ʀqcalorimeter

The purpose of this experiment is to verify the Law of Conservation of

Energy and to determine the amount of energy absorbed or lost by the
calorimeter called the calorimeter constant. Calorimeter constants
are unique to each calorimeter and must be determined
experimentally. they are usually express in calories or Joules per
degree Celsius. That is, calorimeter constants represent the amount
of energy absorbed or lost by the calorimeter for every one degree
change in the temperature. The equation to be used:

calorimeter constant = | Ʀq hot water - Ʀq cold water |

 _______________________

Ʀt

The change in energy of both the hot and cold water is calculated from
the mass of the water, the specific heat of water, and the difference in
the temperature of the water in each calorimeter before and after
mixing. By measuring these values, the calorimeter constant can be
determined and utilized in each subsequent experiment which uses
the calorimeters.

Procedure:

P1. Label the two calorimeters ´cold waterµ and ´warm waterµ. Mass
each. Add 8 mL of the cold tap water to the calorimeter labeled for
cold water and find its mass. Add 8 mL of the warm tap water to the
calorimeter labeled for the warm water and find its mass.

P2. Stir the water in the calorimeter frequently and when the
temperature has been constant over several five-second intervals,
record the temperature in each calorimeter to the nearest 0.1 °C. Pour
the cold water into the warm water and record the resulting
temperature of the mixture.

P3. Thoroughly dry each of the calorimeters, re-weigh, and repeat the
experiment another time.

Calculations and Questions:

Q1a. Calculate the mass of the water in each calorimeter.

Q1b. Calculate the changes in temperature, Ʀtcold and Ʀtwarm of the
water in each calorimeter by subtracting the final temperature, tfinal
from the initial temperature of both the cold and warm water.

Ʀtcold = tcold - tfinal

Ʀtwarm = twarm - tfinal

Q2. Calculate the energy gained by the cold water by multiplying the
mass of the cold water (Q1a) by the specific heat capacity of water (cp
= 1.00 cal/g°C), by the change in temperature of the cold water (Q1b).

Ʀq cold water = mcold ‡ Ʀtcold ‡ cp

Q3. Repeat for the warm water.

Ʀq hot water = mwarm ‡Ʀtwarm ‡ cp

Q4a. Calculate the absolute difference between the energy lost by the
warm water (Q2), and the energy gained by the cold water (Q3).

Q4b. Calculate the calorimeter constant in cal/°C by dividing the

absolute difference in energy (Q4a) by the temperature change in the
warm water (Q1b).
 calorimeter constant = | Ʀqwarm - Ʀqcold |

_________________

Ʀtwarm

Q4c. Repeat the experiment and calculate the average calorimeter

constant in

cal/ °C. Record your average value on the chalkboard. Then repeat
the experiment with Styrofoam cups and record your values on the
board.

Q5. The Law of Conservation of Energy states that ´energy can

neither be created nor destroyed but may be converted from one form
to anotherµ. According to your calculations, has energy been
conserved? That is, is the heat lost by the warm water equal to the
heat gained by the cold water? Explain your answer in terms of your
calculated results.

Tips:
 1) It is important that the calorimeter be completely dry form one
trial to the next. A dry calorimeter should have almost exactly
the same mass at the start of each trial.

2) Covers are not needed for the pink micro-scale calorimeters.

For this experiment they will not be used on the Styrofoam cups
since equilibrium is established in just a few seconds.

Heat of Solution

The energy change associated with the process in which a solute

dissolves in a solvent is called the heat of solution. This energy
change in the net result of two processes, the energy required to
break the solute-solute bonds, the crystal lattice energy, and the
energy released when the solute particles bond with the solvent
molecules, the heat of hydration. For example, the heat of solution for
KCl in water can be considered the sum of the two heat effects.

The crystal lattice energy of KCl, the energy necessary to break apart
the KCl crystal lattice and form free ions is represented by equation 1:

[1] KCl (s) K 1+ (g) + Cl1- (g) ƦH = + 167.6 kcal

The heat of hydration of KCl, the energy released when the free ions
are hydrated, is represented by equation 2.
[2] K 1+ (g) + Cl1- (g) K1+ (aq) + Cl1- (aq) ƦH = -
163.5 kcal

In this example, the overall reaction is endothermic, and the heat of

solution is positive since more energy is required in step 1 than is
released in step 2.

Overall reaction: KCl (s) K1+ (aq) + Cl1- (aq) ƦH = + 4.1 kcal

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the heat of solution for

some selected compounds from the energy change associated with
their solution process.

Procedure:

P1. Mass a small, clean dry massing pan to the nearest 0.01 g. Add
1.00 to 1.25 grams of the solid to be studied to the massing pan and
re-mass to the nearest 0.01 g.

P2. Mass a clean, dry calorimeter to the nearest 0.01 g. Add roughly
15 mL of tap water to the calorimeter and re-mass. Stir and record the
initial temperature of the water in the calorimeter to the nearest 0.1
°C.
P3. Add the solid to be studied to the calorimeter. Stir the mixture
until the solid is completely dissolved and the temperature remains
constant over several readings. Record the final temperature.

P4. Rinse and dry both the thermometer and calorimeter, repeating
the experiment with the same solid.

P5. Repeat experiment with the second solid.

Questions and Calculations:

Q1a. Calculate the mass of the solid, msolid, by subtracting the mass of
the empty massing pan from the mass of massing pan plus solid.

Q1b. Calculate the number of moles, n, of your assigned solid

dissolved in each of your trials by dividing the mass of solid dissolved,
msolid, by its formula mass in g/mol.

Q1c. Calculate the mass of the water, mwater, by subtracting the mass
of the empty calorimeter from the mass of the calorimeter plus water.

Q1d. Calculate the total mass of the reactants, mtotal, by adding the
mass of the water, mwater, to the mass of dissolved slat, msolid.
Q2. Calculate the change in temperature, Ʀt, by subtracting the initial
temperature of the water, tinitial, from the final temperature of the
solution, tfinal.

Q3a. Calculate the heat required or liberated when your assigned

solid dissolved in water, Ʀqwater, from the total mass of water plus salt
(Q1b), the specific heat capacity for water

(cp = 1.00 cal/g°C), and the change in temperature (Q2).

Ʀqwater = mtotal ‡ Ʀt ‡ cp

Q3b. Calculate the energy absorbed or released by the calorimeter,

Ʀqcal, using the calorimeter constant and the change in temperature of
the water (Q2)

Ʀqcal = calorimeter constant ‡ Ʀt

Q3c. Calculate the total energy absorbed or released by the solution

process, Ʀqsoln, from the sum of the change in energy of the water
(Q3a), plus the change in energy of the calorimeter (Q3b).

Ʀqsoln = Ʀqwater + Ʀqcal

Q4a. Calculate the heat of solution, ƦHsoln , in cal/mol by dividing the
amount of heat liberated or absorbed when the salt dissolves (Q3c) by
the number of moles of salt dissolved (Q1a).

ƦHsoln = Ʀqsoln / n

Q4b. Convert each of the heats of reaction in cal/mol into kcal/mol by

dividing each ƦHsoln value by 1000 cal/kcal.

Q5. Calculate the average heat of solution, ƦHavg, in kcal/mol by

averaging the heats of solution (Q4b) for all your trials.

Q6. Calculate the percent error between your average heat of

solution, ƦHavg, and the theoretical value, ƦHtheor.

% error = | ƦHavg - ƦHtheor | ‡ 100

________________

ƦH theor

Theoretical heat of solution, ƦHtheor (kcal/mol):NaOH = -10.6

exothermic,

NH4NO3 = 6.1 endothermic, KNO 3 = 8.0 endothermic

Data: Heat of Solution Lab Name:

_____________________
Formula of solid studied: _____________________ Formula mass:
____________ g/mol

Trial #1 Trial #2 Trial #3

P1 mass of empty
massing pan

P2 mass of pan + solid

Q1a mass of solid, msolid

Q1b # moles of solid, n

P2 mass of empty
calorimeter

P2 mass of calorimeter +
water

Q1c mass of water, mwater

Q1d total mass reactants,

mtotal

P2 initial temp. water,

tinitial
P3 final temp. of water,
tfinal

Q2 change in temp., Ʀt

Q3a energy lost/gained by

water, Ʀqwater
Q3b energy
absorbed/released by
calorimeter, Ʀqcal
Q3c energy
absorbed/released by

dissolving salt, Ʀqsoln

Q4b Heat of solution, ƦHsoln

Q5 average heat of
solution, ƦHavg
Q6 theoretical heat of
solution, ƦHtheor
Q6 percent error

As an ionic compound dissolves in water, the entropy increases. The

ions in the solid phase are arranged in a regular geometric pattern.
For example, sodium chloride crystals have a cubic structure. In
water, however, the ions are separated from one another and are
scattered randomly throughout their container giving the solution a
much higher entropy.
Specific Heat of a Substance

When a hot object is added to cold water in a calorimeter, the heat

lost by the hot object,

Ʀq hot object is equal to the heat gained by the cold water, Ʀq cold water and
the calorimeter,

Ʀq calorimenter as predicted by the Law of Conservation of Energy.

Ʀq hot object = Ʀq cold water + Ʀq calorimeter

or

[ m ‡ Ʀt ‡ cp ]hot object = (calorimeter constant ‡ Ʀt)calorimeter + [ m ‡ Ʀt ‡ cp

]cold water

The purpose of this experiment is to compare the energy lost by a hot

object with the energy gained by cold water and a calorimeter and to
determine the specific heat of the hot object.

Procedure:

P1. Heat about 300 mL of tap water in a 400 mL beaker using a hot,
blue flame. Mass the test tube and then fill it about one-half full of the
material to be studied, and re-mass to the nearest 0.01 g. Place the
test tube containing the material in the warm water. As soon as the
water boils, reduce the flame so that the water barely boils.

P2. Mass a dry calorimeter, add 15 mL of cold tap water, and re-mass.
Record the temperature of both the water in the calorimeter and the
temperature of the material in the test tube to the nearest 0.1 °C. The
temperature of the material in the test tube can be measured by
pressing the thermometer against the material until the temperature is
constant over several five-second intervals.

P3. When the temperature of the material is constant, quickly pour the
hot material into the cold water in the calorimeter. Stir the mixture
and record the temperature to the nearest

0.1°C when it is constant over several five-second intervals.

P4. Drain the water from the material studied and return it to the
collection point designated by the teacher. Dry the calorimeter and
repeat the experiment with another material.

Calculations and Questions:

Q1a. Calculate the mass of the material in the test tube.

Q1b. Calculate the mass of the water in the calorimeter.

Q1c. Calculate the change in the temperature of both the water and
calorimeter, Ʀtwater, by subtracting the initial temperature of the cold
water from the final temperature of the water after the hot material
was added to it, tfinal.

Q1d. Calculate the temperature change of the hot material in the test
tube, Ʀtmaterial, by subtracting the initial temperature of the material
while it was still in the boiling water from the final temperature of the
mixture.

Q2a. Calculate the change in the energy of the water, Ʀqwater , from its
mass (Q1b), the specific heat of water (1.00 cal/g°C), and the change in
its temperature (Q1c).

Ʀq water = mwater ‡ Ʀtwater ‡ cp water

Q2b. Calculate the change in the energy of the calorimeter (Ʀq cal)
from the calorimeter constant and the change in temperature of the
water (Q1c).

Ʀq cal = calorimeter constant ‡ Ʀtwater

Q2c. Calculate the total energy lost by the hot material, Ʀq material, from
the energy gained by both the cold water (Q2a) and the calorimeter
(Q2b).
 Ʀq material = Ʀq water + Ʀq cal

Q3. Calculate the specific heat of the material studied, cp material, from
the energy lost by the hot material (Q2c), the mass of the material
(Q1a), and the temperature change of the material (Q2d).

Ʀq material = mmaterial ‡ Ʀtmaterial ‡ cp material (solve for cp)

Note: if multiple trials of the same material are used, average the
results you have for the different trials at this time.

Q4. Calculate the percent error by comparing your value for the
material (Q3 or average of all Q3s) with the accepted value found of
the chalkboard.

% error = | cp - cp theoretical | x 100

_______________

cp theoretical

Procedure 2
Using the final specific heat of the metal found above, repeat the
experiment replacing the water in the calorimeter with ethylene glycol
(antifreeze) and then a 50/50 mixture of ethylene glycol and water
(prepared for you by the teacher). Solve for the specific heat of the
ethylene glycol (which is known to be 0.571 cal/g°C) and for the
mixture (which is assumed to be

0.785 cal/g°C, the difference between 1.00 and 0.571 since the mixture
was based on 50% by mass of water and ethylene glycol). Complete
the calculations for this section by doing % error calculations.

Write-up Procedure:

1.Ê Include all collected data in a table (use the P# and Q#s to help
identify) including all appropriate units and significant figures.
2.Ê Show all calculations required. Include the appropriate formula,
fill in all data with units, and solve. Circle the final answer to all
calculations (remember units and sig figs).
3.Ê Answer all analysis questions fully.
The Compressor

Let's begin with the heart of the system, the compressor. There are a number of
different types of compressor currently used in modern vehicles including piston,
rotary vane, screw, wobble plate etc. Despite this, all these compressors have a
common purpose - which is threefold:

Firstly, the compressor must transfer refrigerant (for the cooling effect) and oil
(for the lubrication of component parts) around the system. Secondly, the
compressor must increase the pressure (and thus the temperature) of the
refrigerant before it enters the condenser. And thirdly, the compressor must
draw low pressure refrigerant vapour from the evaporator.

The compressor is located at the front left or front right of the engine where its
pulley is driven by the auxillary drive belt. It draws cool refrigerant vapour from
the 'low pressure' lines and compresses it into 'hot - high pressure' vapour for
delivery to the condenser.

Refrigeration compressors and air conditioning compressors provide air

conditioning, heat pumping, and refrigeration for large-scale facilities and
equipment. They compress low-pressure, low-volume gas into high-pressure and
high-temperature gas. Refrigeration compressors and air conditioning
compressors also remove vapor from the evaporator. Most refrigeration
compressors (refrigerant compressors) are large, mechanical units that form the
heart of industrial cooling systems or heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems. Air conditioning compressors are also large-scale mechanical
devices; however, these compressors are designed specifically for air
conditioning systems and do not provide heating or ventilation functions.

There are three main categories of refrigeration compressors and air

conditioning compressors: screw, scroll and piston. Screw compressors pass
refrigerant vapor through screw spindles which compress the gas. Although
most screw compressors have two spindles, products with three or more
spindles are also available. Scroll compressors are the most common type of
refrigerant compressor. They have a relatively low rate of leakage and provide
high efficiency. Piston compressors or reciprocating compressors are
specifically designed for industrial and commercial applications. They compress
gases to high pressures and are designed for continuous operation. Other types
of specialized refrigeration compressors and air conditioning compressors are
also available.

Selecting refrigeration compressors and air conditioning compressors requires

an analysis of refrigerant options and nominal cooling specifications. Refrigerant
choices include R12, R13, R22, R134a, R404a, R407c, R502, and R507. There are
four nominal cooling specifications to consider: capacity, input power,
condensing temperature, and evaporative temperature. Capacity measures the
ability of a refrigerant compressor to remove heat from the refrigerant gas.
Nominal ratings are based on a standard set of conditions which include
condensing temperature (CT), evaporative temperature (ET), refrigerant, and
motor revolutions per minutes (rpm). Typically, refrigeration compressors and air
conditioning compressors can run at many different values for these parameters,
with corresponding changes in their cooling capacity.

Refrigeration compressors and air conditioning compressors also carry power-

source specifications that include voltage, frequency and phase. Common
choices include 12 VDC and 24 VDC, as well as 115/60/1, 230/50/1, 208-230/60/1,
208-230/60/3, 380/50/3, 460/60/3 and 575/60/3. Refrigeration compressors and air
conditioning compressors with other power-source specifications are available
for European and Asian markets
2 - The Condenser

The condenser is located at the front of the engine compartment (in front of the
radiator) and receives 'hot' refrigerant vapour direct from the compressor.

Cool air passing over the condenser reduces the temperature of the 'hot'
refrigerant vapour and allows it to condense into a liquid which collects at the
bottom part of the condenser.
3 - The Receiver/Drier

Next is the receiver/drier which receives the 'high-pressure' liquid refrigerant

from the condenser. The receiver/drier has two functions, firstly it provides a
means of storing a sufficient quantity of liquid refrigerant for effective running of
the system and secondly, it absorbs moisture from within the system by means
of dessecant.

Over a period of time, the receiver/drier will loose its efficiency (much the same
as an oil or fuel filter does). Therefore, Red Dragon Air Conditioning Ltd
recommends the receiver/drier be changed every 2 years or following any major
repairs to the system.

Note: Systems fitted with an 'orifice tube' metering device are fitted with an
accumulator instead of a receiver/drier (See 'Metering Devices').
Metering Devices

Liquid refrigerant (still under 'high pressure') leaves the receiver/drier and is
delivered to the 'metering device'. In the diagram above, the 'metering device' is
an expansion valve. The expansion valve meters the amount of refrigerant
entering the evaporator based on evaporator temperature and system demand.
The metering device acts a restrictor and releases a mixture of liquid and vapour
refrigerant into the evaporator at a 'low pressure'. Lowering the pressure of the
refrigerant also lowers its temperature (as there is a direct
pressure/temperature relationship). As this mixture passes through the
evaporator it is transformed into a low pressure vapour due to the incoming
warm air passing across the fins of the evaporator. Also, as the heat is being
transfered from the incoming air to the fins of the evaporator, this
now allows cooled air to flow into the cabin of the vehicle.

Active Energy Manager can monitor metering devices and hardware acquired
from another vendor. Specifically, it can monitor IBM® PDU+s, and non-IBM
PDUs, as well as Emerson-Liebert power units, SynapSense sensor nodes,
SmartWorks monitored power units, Eaton PowerXpert Reporting System
monitored power units, and APC ISXC monitored power units and environmental
monitoring devices, Sensatronics sensors, iButtonLink and 1-Wire sensors, Arch
Rock sensors, and Rittal sensors and power units.

A metering device is an object that monitors values such as power use,

temperature, humidity, and dew point of other resources. When you associate a
resource with a metering device, such as a PDU outlet group or a SynapSense
sensor, you are effectively monitoring the power or environment of the resource
through the metering device. The metered values are shown as properties of the
resource with '(externally metered)' added to the label. For example, input power
metered for a resource through a PDU outlet group is shown as a property of the
resource with the label 'Average input power (externally metered)'.

The resource associated with a metering device is called a metered device. A

metered device can be a power-managed resource, a server which does not have
built-in power metering support, or any other resource which is defined using the
Configure Metering Device task. See Configuring metering devices for details.

To add and work with Emerson Liebert devices in Active Energy Manager, the
SiteScan user ID used for accessing SiteScan must have Remote Data Access -
ð
 functional privilege. ðupported Emerson Liebert hardware must be
monitored and controlled by Emerson Liebert ðiteðcan (ððWEB) Version 3.0 or
Version 4.0.

Metering Devices Cont'd

s previously mentioned, some vehicles are fitted with an 'orifice tube' metering
device. These metering devices serve the same purpose as the expansion valve
but are located inside the refrigerant pipe. When refering to an air-conditioning
system, it is common to use the terms 'Expansion Valve' or ' rifice Tube' to
describe or identify the system in question.

lso, the 'orifice tube' system utilises an 'accumulator' which is located between
the evaporator and the compressor and is designed to prevent liquid refrigerant
entering the compressor.
The Evaporator

The purpose of the evaporator is twofold:

Firstly, it removes heat from the incoming air thus allowing cooled air to pass
into the cabin of the vehicle and;

Secondly, it utilises the heat removed from the incoming air to raise the
temperature of the refrigerant inside the evaporator and transform it back into a
vapour form before returning to the compressor.