UNIT 8 SEDEMENTATION,

FLOCCULATION AND FILTRATION

Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Sedimentation
8.2.1 Principle of Sedimentation
8.2.2 Fundamental Theory
8.2.3 Sedimentation in Practice
8.2.4 Common Design Criteria
8.3 Flocculation
8.4 Flotation
8.5 Flow Through Porous Media
8.5.1 Porous Bed Hydraulics
8.5.2 Cleaning of Deep Bed Filters
8.5.3 Deep Bed Filtration in Practice
8.6 Chemical Aided Sedimentation
8.7 Important Lessons for Physical Treatment Processes
8.7.1 Flow Distribution
8.7.2 Subsidence
8.7.3 Flow Pattern
8.8 Summary
8.9 Key Words
8.10 Answers to SAQs
8.11 Further Reading

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Screen and grit chambers remove most of the floating materials and heavy inorganic
settleable solids from the sewage. A part of the suspended organic solids which are too
heavy t ~ be
r removed as floating matters and too light to be removed by grit chambers are
generally removed by the sedimentation tanks. Hence, sedimentation tanks are designed
to remove a part of the organic matter from the sewage effluent coming out from the grit
chambers.
In a complete treatment of sewage, the sedimentation is carried out twice. Once before
the biological treatment (known as primary sedimentation) and next after the biological
treatment (known as secondary sedimentation). When chemicals are used for flocculating
the organic matter during the process of sedimentation, the process is known as
sedimentation aided with coagulation.

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to
calculate settling velocity for a discrete particle,
estimate removal efficiency of a settling tank,
appreciate the characteristics of different settling basins,
calculate the power required for flocculation, and
understand the differences between different types of filter.
Physical Treatment
8.2 SEDIMENTATION
8.2.1 Principle of Sedimentation
Sedimentation is a natural process by which solids with higher density than the fluid,
settle under the action of gravity. The settling velocity of a particle in a fluid is a function
of its density, size and shape as well as the density and viscosity of the fluid. The organic
matter present in sewage has specific gravity greater than that of water. In still sewage
these particles tend to settle down by gravity. In a flowing sewage they are kept in
suspension, because of the turbulence in water. As soon as the turbulence is retarded by
making storage of sewage, these impurities tend to settle down at the bottom of the tank
offering such storage. The basin in which the flow of sewage is retarded is known as
settling or sedimentation tank. If the tanks are big, they are also known as sedimeritatCon
basin.

8.2.2 Fundamental Theory

Discrete suspensions are made up of particles with a fixed rigid shape, sand grains for
example, which do not coalesce when brought into contact. Such a suspension thus has a
constant settling velocity under specified conditions. Flocculent suspensions are
composed of particles with spongy adherent characteristics which tend to agglomerate on
contact and produce fewer, but larger, particles with increasing settling velocity with
time. Simple settling theory considers the situation'in which a descrete particle is placed
in a fluid of lower density. The particle wiH accelerate under gravity until a terminal
velocity is reached when the gravitational force is balanced by an equal and opposite
frictional drag force. Mathematical analysis of this situation leads to the classical Stoke's
Law expression for the terminal settling velocity of a discrete particle in water under
laminar flow conditions :

where, v, = descrete particle terminal velocity,

g = acceleration due to gravity,
d = particle 'diameter',
V = kinematic viscosity of water, and
S, = specific gravity of particle.
Table 8.1 :Discrete Particle Settling Velocities
Specinc Gravity Diameter Temperature OC Settling Velocity
, mm m/s
2.5 0.1 10 6.25 x
20 8.15 x
30 1.02 x lo-2
0.01 10 6.25 x
20 8.15 x
30 1.02
1.5 0.1 10 2.09 x
20 2.72 x
30 3.41 x
0.01 10 2.09 x
20 2.72 x lo-'
30 3.41 x lo-'
1.1 0.1 10 4.17 x
20 5.43 1 0 - ~
30 6.81 x lop4
0.01 10 4.17 x
20 5.43 x 1 0 - ~
30 6.81 x
Table 8.1 gives some examples of terminal settling velocities calculated from Eq. (8.1) Sedimentation
Flocculation and
for a number of coditions, including different temperatures which affect the viscosity of Filtration
the water and hence the settling velocity.
Practical consideration of the settlement of discrete suspensions involves the concept of
the ideal settling basin (Figure 8.1) in which it is assumed that there is :
- quiescent settlement in the settling zone
- uniform flow through the settling zone
- uniform solids concentration entering the settling zone
- solids entering the sludge zone are not resuspended.

Inlet Zone Outlet Zone

In Flow

I Sludge Zone

Figure 8.1 :The Ideal Settling Basin

A discrete particle with settling velocity v, enters the settling zone at the surface and just
reaches the sludge zone at the outlet end of the basin. This particle falls through a depth
h, in the retention time of the tank to.
Hence v, = ho /to
but to = volume I flow per unit time = V / Q
thus v, = h, x Q N =
where A = surface area of basin.
Thus critical settling velocity vo = Q / A . . . (8.2)
The term Q / A is termed as the surface overflow rate and has units of velocity. Thus for
discrete particles, removal is independen~ofdepth, and in theory, all particles with a
settling velocity of v, or greater will be removed if the surface overflow rate is equal to
this critical velocity, v,. If a suspension of discrete particles with a range of settling
velocities is fed to the tank all those with v, equal to or greater than vo will be removed
and for particles with v, < v,, the removal will be in the ratio v, /v,. If a particle with
v, < vo enters the tank at a height of not more than v, x to from the bottom, it will be
removed. If it enters at a higher level than this, it will not reach the sludge zone and hence
will not be removed.
Example 8.1
Calculate the settling velocity in water of a spherical discrete particle, 0.06 mm
diameter and specific gravity 2.5, if the kinematic viscosity is 1.01 x at 20°C.
Solution
From Eq. (8.1)

Note :Eq. (8.1) only ac ; rcrs in laminar flow conditions, i.e., when Reynolds
Number is < 1. k: ia, therefore, important to check that the velocity
calculated falls within the laminar flow range.
Physical Treatment
Reynolds Number (R) = v, d2/ v

i.e., the flow is laminar and hence, Eq. (8.1) is applicable.

In practice, the settling velocities encountered in water and wastewater treatment
are almost invariably scch that laminar conditions occur. For calculation of settling
velocities in the transition or turbulent flow regions, other relationships which are
covered in texts listed in the Further Reading section should be consulted.
Example 8.2
Determine the surface area required in an ideal settling basin to ensure removal of
all discrete particles with a settling velocity of 0.0029 m Is from a flow of
500 m3 I h.
Solution
From Eq. (8.2).

Example 8.3
Determine the theoretical removal in the tank in the previous example for discrete
particles with a settling velocity of 0.001 m I s.
Solution
Removal of particles with settling velocity less than the critical velocity is given
by vs v*
i.e., % removal = (0.001 x 100) / '0.0029
= 34.5%
Insertion of a series of trays or false bottoms in a tank at a spacing of the lowest vs x to
would in theory, ensure complete removal of suspended matter. In practice, there are
limitations to this concept because of the difficulties of ensuring uniform flow
distribution and also of removing the deposited solids. In locations where land area is at a
premium, it may be possible to utilise sedimentation tanks with two, or sometimes three
floors, although the tanks are usually somewhat deeper than conventional units.
An extension of the tray concept is that of the inclined tube or plate settlers which
provide large surface areas for settlement within a small space. Depending upon the
arrangement of the tubes or plates, it is possible to obtain effective surface areas of as
much as ten times the plan area occupied by an inclined settler. A inclined tube settler is
depicted in Figure 8.2.

Outflow

Outlet Box

Inlet Bo

Figure 8.2 :Inclined %be or PI& S e w

8.2.3 Sedimentation in Practice Sedimentation
Flocculation and
The basic sedimentation theory described in the previous section is for low Filtration
concentrations of discrete particles. As indicated in Figure 8.3, the settling characteristics
of flocculent suspensions are non-uniform. In addition, with SS concentrations in excess
of around 2000 mg / 1, the phenomena of hindered settlement can complicate the
prediction of settling basin performance. An indication of the potential for settlement in a
suspension can be obtained by determining the settleable solids content in a sample. This
involves the use of a graduated imhoff cone or determination of SS before and after a 30
minute period of settlement in a conventional measuring cylinder. More detailed
information about the settling characteristics of a suspension can be determined using a
settling column. The SS content of samples withdrawn from the column at known depths
and time intervals can be used to produce a settling characteristics curve which is
analogous to that derived in a sieve analysis determination for sand or soil samples.

Top Surfice

,Flocculent
Suspension

Discrete
Suspension

1 Top Surface

---
Hindered Settling

Bottom I -
Tm
Fipre 8.3 :Settling Behaviour
Example 8.3
A settling column test on a suspension of discrete particles gave the following
results from a sampling depth of 1.3 m.

Sampling time (min) 5 10 20 40 60 80

% of initial SS in 56 48 37 19 5 2
sample
Determine the theoretical removal of suspended solids from this suspension in a
horizontal flow tank with a surface overflow tank with a surface overflow rate of
200 m/d.
Solution
It is first necessary to convert the sampling time and the depth of collection into
velocities which the solids in each sample have not exceeded:
thus 1.3m/5min = 4.33 x 1 0 - ~ m / s

Settling velocity 4.33 2.16 1.08 0.54 0.36 0.27

10-~m/s
% SS with v, < v 56 48 37 19 5 2
Physical Treatment These data are plotted in Figure 8.4 which shows the percentage of SS with a
settling velocity less than or equal to a specified settling velocity. Readers familiar
with a sieve analysis curve will at once see the similarity between this settling
characteristic curve and the way in which sieve analysis are expressed.
The surface overflow rate of 200 m I d = 200 / (60 x 60 x 24)
= 2.38 x m 1s
From Figure 8.4,50% of the SS have a settling velocity of greater than
2.38 x lob3 m I s and will thus be removed. In a horizontal flow tank, there will
be an additional removal of SS with settling velocities less than 2.38 x mIs
in the ratio v,/v,. This additional removal would be given by the integral from 0 to
50% of v, / v, with respect to percent of SS. Since the equation for the settling
characteristic curve is not normally known, the solution can be obtained by
arithmetic integration of the appropriate area as shown in Figure 8.4. Thus the
overall removal of SS from the suspension in a horizontal flow tank will be
50 + 17 per cent. It should be noted that in a vertical flow tank the theoretical
removal would be 50% only, i.e., removal only of those SS with v, of equivalent or
greater than v,. Particles with lower settling velocities will be washed out of the
tank. However, once a sludge blanket is formed, this will serve to trap some
particles with lower settling velocities in a form of filtration. The removal
efficiency of the tank will thus increase as the blanket develops. This growth in
removal efficiency is not readily predictable and depends on the nature of the
suspension being treated.

All Removed
Because Vs > 2.38 x

,---

Settling Velocity lo-) m 1 s

Figure 8.4 :Settling Characteristic Curve

When dealing with flocculent suspensions, which includes most of those encountered in
water and wastewater treatment, the basic theory and techniques described above cannot
be applied directly. In the case of flocculent suspensions, it is difficult to express their
changing settling characteristics in a mathematical relationship. Because of the
agglomeration which takes place with flocculent suspensions as particles collide with one
another, the depth through which particles settle does have an influence on the suspension
settling velocity. Thus, with flocculent suspensions, it is necessary to carry out settling
column tests with samples collected at a range of depths up to the full scale tank depth.
The results obtained then plot as a series of curves which can be used to establish the
probable removal performance over a range of depths and retention times.
As outlined earlier, the hydraulic characteristics of continuous flow systems are never
ideal and flow distribution is a major factor in the design of efficient sedimentation tanks.
The problem is complicated by the fact that many tanks have to operate over quite a large
range of flows and under a range of climatic conditions with varying temperatures and Sediment-+;--
.--...t~uvn and
wind action. It should therefore not be surprising that sedimentation tanks do not alwallo Filtration
perform as well as might be predicted by theory. It is also important to appreciate that
solids separated from the flow by a settling tank must be removed from the sludge zone
as rapidly and effectively as possible. Failure to ensure effective sludge removal will
seriously hinder the overall performance of a settling basin and possibly that of
associated treatment units. In design, it is therefore, necessary to consider the speed with
which settled sludge can be scraped from the floor into a collecting hopper. Some
concentration of sludge will occur in the hopper and it is important to ensure that this
more concentrated sludge can be withdrawn at a rate which will at least balance, the rate
at which it accumulates. If this does not occur, sludge levels will build up in the tank,
leading to anaerobic breakdown in the case of wastewater sludges, causing a deterioration
in effluent quality. The hydraulic design of sludge removal systems is important since
concentrated sludge has a much higher viscosity than water. If the velocity of sludge
removal is excessive, it is likely that 'piping' will occur in which the liquid is drawn
through the sludge mass without removing much sludge. If this happens for any length of
time, blocking of the sludge withdrawal syster is likely.

Collector Effluent adiustable

(a) Horizontal Flow Rectangular 'lgnk

(b)Radial Flqw Circular 'lgnk

Influent *

Sludge drain
(c) Vertieal Flow Clreular lbnk

(d) Flocculation and Sedimentation

VJ -
V - notch

-
(e) V notch Weir Scumboard Outlet Arrangement
-Scum board

Figure 8.5 :Qpes of Sedimentation Tanks

Sedimentation tanks take a variety of forms and some common types are shown
diagrammatically in Figure 8.5. Although early treatment plants sometimes used batch or
Physical Treatment 'fill and draw' operation for sedimentation, virtually all installations now employ
continuous flow systems. A sedimentation tank (or a clarifier) may be rectangular,
circular or square in plan and the flow through the tank may be horizontal, vertical or
, radial. Thus sedientation tanks may be classified as horizontal flow rectangular tank,
radial flow circular tank, vertical flow circular tank, etc. (see Figure 8.5). Rectangular
horizontal-flow units provide the most effective use of land area but because of their
configuraiton they have hydraulic problems at inlet and outlet sections in relation to
establishing quiescent conditions in the settling zone. Sludge deposited on the bottom of
the tank must be scraped to a hopper using a reciprocating blade mechanism which can be
prone to operational difficulties. A particular problem with rectangular tanks is the
relatively short length available for the effluent discharge weir. A simple weir across the
exit end of the tank will cause relatively high local velocities with the potential for scour
of settled deposits. A better solution is to utilise inset weirs to provide greater discharge
length and hence lower velocities, as shown in Figure 8.6. Circular sedimentation tanks
operates as horizontal-flow units with a baffled inlet at the centre and discharge over
peripheral weirs which provide ample length to ensure low discharge velocities.
Adjustable weir plates with small 'Vee' notches provide an effective discharge system
which is not affected by surface tension at low flows. A rotating scraper mechanism
operating continuoulsy directs sludge to a central hopper. For primary sedimentation of
wastewater, it is essential to provide some form of device to trap surface scum and grease
so that this can be prevented from escaping with the effluent. Vertical-flow
hopper-bottom tanks are used in some small wastewater settlement units since they have
the advantage of not requiring mechanical desludging mechanisms.
In water treatment the nature and concentration of suspended solids is such that chemical
coagulation is often employed to improve settling characteristics. In general, however,
suspensions in water treatment are of lower density and more flocculent in nature than
those found in raw wastewaters. Sedimentation in water treatment is thus generally
undertaken in sludge-blanket units. The sludge blanket once established provides a form
of filtering action which removes particles with lower settling velocities than the upward
velocity in the blanket region of the tank. Vertical-flow sludge blanket units are popular,
although in more recent designs the hopper bottom has been replaced by a float floor with
the inflow distributed by a pipe system. It should be appreciated that vertical flow tanks
are designed to operate at a specified velocity. If the solids do not attain this velocity or
the hydraulic loading on the tank is increased, its performance will deteriorate.

Inset Geir cantilevered

from walls

FIgure 8.6 :Inset Weirs for Reduced Ovemow Velocities

8.2.4 Common Design Criteria

Although waters and wastewaters vary quite widely in their settling behavioor, it is
possible to establish general design criteria for sedimentation processes. Table 8.2 sets
out such general design criteria for conventional wastewater treatment. If there is any
reason to beIieve that a particular suspension has a typical settling characteristics it would
be prudent to cany out laboratory studies to establish its settling behaviour and hence
amve at appropriate design criteria. Table 8.3 shows typical design features of
rectangular and circular sedimentation tanks.
 Table 8.2 :Typical Design Criteria for Sedimentation Tanks Sedimentation
Flocculation and
(at maximum flow) Fitration

Wastewater Treatment
Primary Sedimentation
Horizontal and radial flow units :
Surface overflow rate 1 - 1.5 m I h
Retention time 2 h
Outlet weir loading < 12.5 m3 m h
Width : Length (rectangular units) 1 : 4 to 1 : 8
Vertical flow units :
Surface overflow rate 1 - 1.8 mh
Retention time 2 - 3 h
Outlet weir loading c 12.5 m3 I m h
Final Settlement after biological Treatment
Surface overflow rate 1.5 m I h
Retention time 2 h
Outlet weir loading c 10 m3 m I h
Table 8 3 :Design Features of Sedimentation Tank for Wastewater

Parameter 'ljpes of Sedimentation +

Tank
Rectangular Circular
Max. Length 90 m -

Max. Width 30 m -
Depth 2 - 2.5 rn 2 - 3.5 m
Range of lengthtwidth ratio 1.5 - 7.5 -

Range of lengthldepth ratio 5 - 25 -

Bottom slope 1% 7.5 - 10% (from

periphery to centre)
Max. Diameter - 30 m
Inlet Multiple pipes on the Central inlet ipe with
width side with baffle concentric i&t baffle
boards of depth 0.5 m of diameter 15% of the
and 0.8 m in front of the tank diameter and
pi e inlets and extending extending about 1 m
2.P m below water below water surface
surface for scum
passover
Outlet Overflow weir with Peripheral weir
V-notches to provide rovided with
uniform flow at low !- notches. Scum
baffle extending 0.3 m
heads. Scum baffles
provided ahead of weir below Water surface
for wastewater provided ahead of
installations effluent weir for
wastewater installation
Peak velocity depends upon feed -

Scraper arms velocity 0.2 m / min 1.5 m / min

Example 8.4
Design a rectangular horizontal-flow settling tank for the primary sedimentation of
a maximum raw sewage flow of 0.25 m3 I s.
Solution
From Table 8.2
Surface overflow rate = 1.2 m I h
Tank area required = 0.25 x 6 0 x 60/ 1.2 = 750 m2
Physical Treatment Hence breadth B = 13.69 m and length L = 54.77 m
Two hours flow = 0.25 x 60 x 60 x 2 = 1800 m3
Hence average depth = 1800/750 = 2.40 m
Minimum length of weir = 0.25 x 60 x 60/ 12.5 = 72 m
Clearly, a single weir across the outlet end of the tank will be insufficient. A
double-sided 'U' shaped inset weir will be necessary for which the total width will
be approximately 2 x tank width plus 4 x the extension back up of the sides of the
tank.

Hence e = 11.15 m
Thus the weir channel will need to be inset about 1 m from the outlet end of the
tank and the sides extending about 11 m back up the tank.
In contrast, using a circular tank for the same duty
Diameter for 750 m2 surface area

Length of periphery = 3.14 x 30.9 = 97.1 m

Thus a single-sided peripheral weir on a circular tank more than satisfies the
maximum weir loading constraint.
Example 8.5
Calculate the necessary design data for a secondary settling tank of an activated
sludge treatment plant receiving a peak daily flow of 50,000 m3 of domestic
sewage and operating with a mixed liquor suspended solids MLSS) of 300 mg I 1.
Assume a peak factor of 2.25; a surface loading rate of 20 m3! 1m2 d at mean flow
and solids loading of 125 kg 1m2d at mean flow.
Solution
Peak flow ---
- M'OOO - 23,000m3I d
Average flow= =
Peak factor 2.25
Adopting a surface loading rate of 20 m3 1 m2d at average flow.
23000
Surface area required = -= 1150 m2
20
Check surface loading for peak flow :-

This is within the prescribed range (see Table 8.2)

For solids loading of 125 kg I m2 d at average flow, the area required is

Area needed for peak flow at a solids loading of 250 kg 1m2 is

The higher surface area based on volumetric loading is adopted for design
purposes. Adopting a circular tank, the diameter of the tank, d, is calculated thus :-

7
3.142
38.26 metres
=

Weir loading is calcualted as follows :-

The weir loading is higher than the prescribed value of about 150 m3 I m d and so
on trough instead of a single weir should be provided at the periphery.
 Sedimentation
8.3 FLOCCULATION Flocdation and
Filtration
With small suspended solids and those having low specific gravities the actual settling
velocities can become so low that removal by sedimentation is not a practical option. In
water and wastewater treatment, this usually occurs with particles of less than about
50 pm in size. When high concentrations of flocculent particles are present, the creation
of velocity gradients in the suspension causes collisions between particles with
consequent agglomeration. This natural flocculation process can be enhanced by the
application of controlled velocity gradients through hydraulic turbulence or mechanical
stirring. The number of collisions in a suspension is proportional to the velocity gradient
and the power input necessary to produce a particular velocity gradient is given by :

where, P = power input per unit volume,

p = absolute viscosity of fluid, and
G = velocity gradient in basin.
For hydraulic turbulence in a baffled basin

where, mf = mass density of fluid,

h = head loss in tank, and
t = retention time in tank.
In a tank stirred by rotating paddles

where, CD = Newton's drag coefficient,

A = cross-sectional area of paddles,
v, = velocity of paddles relative to fluid, and
v = peripheral velocity of paddles.
2V = volume of tank
Example 8.6
A flocculation tank is 10 m long, 3 m wide and 3 m deep with a design flow of
0.5 m3/ s. Flocculation is done by three paddle wheels each with two blades
2.5 m x 0.3 m with the centre line of the blades being 1 m from the shaft which is
at mid depth of the tank. The paddles rotate at 3 revs / min and their velocity
relative to the water in the tank is three-quarters of the rotational velocity.
Newton's drag coefficient for the paddle blades is 1.8 and the kinematic viscosity
of the water is 1.01 x 10- 6 m3 / s at 20°C.
Solution
Paddle velocity = 2 x 3.14 x 1 x 3 / 6 0 = 0.314mIs
Relative velocity= 0.75 x 0.314 = 0.236 m / s
Paddle area = 3 x 2 x 2.5 x 0.3 = 4.5 m2
Total power input from equation 8.6

(
From equation 8.4 G = 70.8/ 1.01 x x lo3 x 10 x 3 x 3
,"' = 27.9s-
In many cases the concentration of suspended matter is not high enough for significant
agglomeration to occur under tha action of flocculation alone. It is thus frequently
necessary to introduce a chemical coagulant which precipitates in the water and enmeshes
the suspended matter.
Physical Treatment For most flocculent suspensions in water and wastewater treatment, the optimum velocity
gradient is usually in the range of 25 - 75 s-'. There is some benefit in providing tapered
flocculation such that high G values at the inlet encourage collisions and as the floc
particles grow the agitation is reduced to prevent shearing of the floc.

8.4 FLOTATION
With suspensions of particles whose mass density is close to or less than that of the
surrounding fluid, settlement will be impractical. In these circumstances, the particles can
be. more readily removed by encouraging them to float to the surface where'they can be
removed as a scum. Particles with a density less than the fluid will wish to float in any
event and those only slightly denser than the fluid can be given positive buoyance by the
addition of a flotation agent. Small air bubbles make excellent flotation agents and the
dissolved air flotation (DAF) process as shown in Figure 8.7 makes use of this property.
About 10 per cent of the flow is recycled through a saturator operating at high pressure
(up to 400 kPa). The pressurised flow is returned to the inlet of the flotation tank where it
is mixed with the incoming flow at the bottom of the tank. The sudden drop in pressure
causes the release of clouds of fine air bubbles from the supersaturated portion of the
flow. These air bubbles become attached to suspended particles and thus cause them to
float to the surface. DAF is particularly useful in water treatment for the removal of iron
and manganese and with coloured low-turbidity water following chemical coagulation.
Rise rates of up to 12 m / h can be achieved as compared with typical settling rates of
around 2 - 4 m / h. Flotation units are thus much smaller than conventional settling units
and can usually produce lower turbidities than sedimentation. The process can be rapidly
brought into operation when required in contrast to floc blanket settling units which can
take 24 hours or longer to achieve stable operation. The scum removed from the surface
of flotation units usually has a significantly higher solids content than the sludge from
gravity settlement of the same water.

Floatauon Zone

Figure 8.7 :Dissolved Air Flotation Unit

Flotation has applications in wastewater treatment for the separation of suspended solids
in activated sludge systems and also for the thickening of activated sludges produced by
conventional gravity settlement.
- -

8.5 FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA

Beds of sand are frequently employed to provide tertiary treatment of wastewater
effluents. In this situation, the main purpose of the bed is to remove fine suspended
solids. Other forms of porous uncompacted solids in deep beds are used to provide
adsorption and ion exchange processes.

8.5.1 Porous Bed Hydraulics

The hydraulics of flow through porous beds, which applies to clean filters and to granular
activated carbon (GAC) and ion exchange beds is usually described by empirical
relationships of which that based on the Carman Kozeny equation is probably the most
used :
 Sedimentation
Flocculation and
Filtration
where, h / l = head loss per unit depth of bed,
F = porosity of bed,
d = bed grain 'diameter',
s = particle shape factor = A, /A,
*
A, = surface area of sphere volume, V,,
A = surface area of bed grain volume V,
s = 1 for a sphere,
s = 0.70 - 0.90 for sand grains,
E = [150(1 - F ) / R ] + 1.75,
R = Reynold's Number = vd/u, and
u = Kinematic viscosity of fluid.
Example 8.7
A filter bed is composed of 900 mm of unit-size spherical sand, 0.5 mm diameter
with a porosity of 40%. Determine the head loss when the clean bed is operated at
a rate of 140 m / d. Kinematic viscosity of water at 20°C is 1.01 x 10- I5 m2 / s.
Solution
Filtration rate 140 m 1 d = 140/24 x 60 x 60 m / s

Reynolds Number = 1.62 x x 5 x l 0 - ~ / 1 . 0 l x 10-I5 = 0.8

In Eq. (8.7)
E = [I50 (1 - 0.40) /0.8] + 1.75 = 114.25
S = 1 for spherical particles
Hence head loss / unit depht

i.e., head loss 1 unit depth = 0.573

or head loss in 900-mm deep bed = 0.515 m
The relationship in Eq. (8.7) applies for a bed of uni-size grains and for sand beds which
are usually graded in arithmatic integration of head loss across, sieve sizes must be
undertaken.
In a bed which receives suspended matter, the porosity is continually changing due to the
position of the solids and thus the head loss behaviour is dynamic. It is usually assumed
that the rate of suspended matter with depth into the beds is a function of the inlet particle
concentration. If all the suspended particles are retained by the bed, the overall head loss
(H) for a unit size medium is thus made up of the 'clean-bed head loss' (h) as calculated
from Eq. (8.7), plus an additional head loss caused by reduction in porosity due to
deposition.

where, c, = influent suspended particle concentration,

t = duration of filter run, and
k = a constant depending upon bed and solids.
The build up of head loss with time can be pictured as shown in Figure 8.8 which
illustrates the way in which negative pressure can be produced in a bed with detrimental
effects on the rate of low. Dual media beds using sand and anthracite are often used to
increase the length of filter runs without affecting filtrate quality. For optimum operation
of a deep bed filter, it is desirable for the limiting head loss to be reached at about the
Physical Treatment same time as the filtrate quality approaches the allowable limit. Such a situation can in
theory be achieved by selection of appropriate bed depth and filtration rate for a given
water quality and filtration rate. Such optimisation does, however, become difficult to
achieve if the influent quality is not reasonably constant.

I I 1 \ static pressure b

.. .. . . - . . Pressure when filtering

at Times tl. t2, t3.
. . . .-. .

Nagative pressure
region
Figure 8.8 :Head Loss Build up in a Deep Bed Filter

8.5.2 Cleaning of Deep Bed Filters

For deep beds operating at low flow rates (up to 0.3 m / h) such as slow sand filters there
is little penetration of solids into the bed. With flow rates in range 2 - 20 m / h, as typified
by rapid filter beds, solids are carried deep into the bed and may eventually penetrate
throughout the full depth causing a deterioration in filtrate quality.
Low-flow rate deep bed units are cleaned when necessary by removing the top few
centimetres of medium and washing it. The washed medium can be replaced on the bed
when its depth becomes insufficient.
High-flow rate beds can clog in 24 hours or less with turbid feed. Waters and solids
penetrate deeply into the bed. Cleaning must therefore be carried out in-situ using a back
washing process. This introduces previously filtered water into the base of the bed to give
an upward velocity sufficient to fluidise the bed and produce an expansion of
10-20 per cent. During backwashing, the bed grains are violently agitated so that trapped
and attached particles are released and carried upwards through the enlarged pores. The
introduction of compressed air immediately prior to or at the same time as the wash water
moves upward is common since it provides more effective cleaning. The backwash water
is usually taken to a settling basin where the solids are concentrated for disposal and the
water can be returned to the works inlet.
The head loss per unit depth of an expanded bed during backwashing is given by

where, 1, = expanded bed depth, and

f, = expanded bed porosity.
The expansion which can be produced by a given backwash rate is a function of the
settling velocity of the bed grains and the bed porosity

where, v b = backwash rate (based on superficial area of bed),

v, = bed grain settling velocity (from Eq. 8.1), and
n = an experimental constant (commonly 0.22).
Example 8.8
Determine the expansion produced when a bed with unit-size sand grains with a
settling velocity of 100 mm / s and unexpanded porosity of 40% is backwashed at
a rate of 36 m / h.
Solution
Unexpanded porosity = 40% fe = 0.4
Wash rate 36 m / h = 10 mm / s
 From Eq. (8.10) Sedimentation
Flocculation and
Filtration
1,/1 = (1 - 0.4)/[1 - ( l o / 100)O.~~]
= 1.51

i.e., bed expansion = 5 1%

Both of the above expressions are for beds of uni-size grains so that for a graded
bed, arithmatic integration between sieve sizes is necessary.

1 8.5.3 Deep Bed Filtration in Practice (I

The essential characterisitcs of the two main types of filters used in wastewater treatment
are sumrnarised in Table 8.4 and their main figures are shown in Figure 8.9. Conventional
filters use beds of graded sand as the filtration medium and the bed grain characteristics
Table 8.4 :Technical Features of the Conventional Slow
and Rapid Gravity Flow Sand Filters

Parameters Slow Sand Filters Rapid Sand Filters

Rate of filtration
I
3m3/m2/d I 125m31m2/d
Side of bed Large, 2000 m2 Small, 200 - 400 m2
Depth of bed 0.3 m of gravel; 1.2 m of sand,
usually reduced to not less than
0.6 m by scraping
Size of sand Effective size 0.25 to 0.3 to 0.35 0.45 mm and higher-coefficient
mm; coefficient of uniformity 2 of uniformity 1.5 and lower,
to 2.5 to 3 depending on underdrainage
system
Grain size distribution of sand in Unstratified Stratified with smallest or lightest
filter

Underdrainage system Split tile laterals laid in coarse (1) Perforated pipe laterals
stone and discharging into tile or discharging into pipe mains;
concrete main drams (2) porous plates above inlet
box;
(3) porous blocks with included
channels
Loss of head 0.15 m initial to 1 m final 0.3 m initial to 2.5 m final
Length of run between cleanings 20 to 60 days 12 to 72 hrs.
Penetration of suspended matter
- Superficial Deep
Method of cleaning (1) Scraping off surface layer Dislodgin and removing
of sand and washing and suspendedmatter by upward flow
storin cleaned sand for or backwashing, which fluidises
perio8c resanding of bed the bed. Possible use of water or
(2) Washing surface sand in air jets, or mechanical rakes to
place by washer travelling , improve scour
over sand bed
Amount of wash water used in 0.2 to 6% of water filtered 1 to 4 to 6% of water filtered
cleaning sand
Preparatory treatment of water Generally none Coagulation, flocculation and I
sedimentation
Washwater rate m / h -
Air scour rate m / h - 20 - 40
Supplementary treatment of water Disinfection Disinfection
Coct of construction Moderate to high Relatively low
Cost of operation Relatively low where sand is Relatively high
cleaned in place or labour costs
I are low
Depreciation --
Relatively low Relatively high.
are usually specified by two parami-:ers : effective size -the aperture size which will pass
10 per cent of the grains by weip ~ r and
, uniformity coefficient - the aperture size which
passes 60 per cent of the particles by weight divided by the effective size. These two
Physical Treatment parameters thus give a measure of the 'average' size of the grains and the 'width' of the
grading. Slow filters normally use finer grains with a somewhat wider range of sizes than
rapid filters as indicated in Table 8.4.
Slow sand filters were the original form of filtration used in potable water treatment and
are sometimes felt to be obsolete because of their large area and inability to deal with
highly turbid waters. Nevertheless, for raw waters with less than about 30 NTU they can
provide a very effective form of treatment which is particularly good at removing harmful
micro-organisms. This latter property is of great value in developing countries where
disinfection using chlorine may not always be possible. Much of the purification which
takes place in a slow filter is achieved in the surface layers of the bed and the biological
activity which produces a surface layer known as the schmutzdeke contributes to the
removal of fine particulate matter and also causes some removal of taste and odour
forming organic compounds. Slow filters will usually operate for several months before
surface clogging grows to the point where the flow rate can no longer be maintained. At
this point, surface scraping, manually or by machine, will restore the flow and the bed
can be put back into service. To prevent disturbance of the bed surface, a depth 1 m of
water above the bed is used and this provides the head required for flow through the unit.

--
Underdrains
(a) Slow Sand Filter

TWL
- - - .- - --- -3- wahswater trough
sand
gravel
filter bonom and
under drains

If?
Washwater and
qir scour
(a) Rapid Gravity F
ilter

Inflow

W a
drain s h i c

. . . -. :....
C >
- : .. .. ............
. . . .. . ..............
. ..._ --
. . . .. . .. . .. . . . .
I .
Pressure vessel

sand
. ..,..,.. . . . . . . -..... .. .

- -filter bottom ana

underdrains

~ a s h w a t i and
r
Air Scour
(b) Rapid Prossure Nlter

Figure 8.9 :Qpes of b p Bed Filter

8.6 CHEMICAL AIDED SEDIMENTATION

Very fine suspended particles present in waste water sometimes cannot be removed by
plain sedimentation. Such fine particles are settled by increasing their size by changing
them into flocculated particles with addition of some chemicals to the waste waters. The
chemicals are known coagulants and mostly used chemical compounds are ferric
chloride, femc sulphate, alum, chlorinated copperas etc.
The chemicals when added to waste waters and mixed thoroughly, form a gelatinous Sedimentation
Flocculation and
precipitation known as floc. The fine particles and colloidal matters present in waste Filtration
water get absorbed in flocs, forming the bigger sized flocculated particles. The
coagulated sewage is then passed through sedimentation tank where flocculated particles
after getting settled are removed. The addition and mixing of chemicals is known as
coagulation. The coagulation process of sewage is similar to that of water and has been
described in detail in the "Pollutants and Water Supply" course. But in modem plants of
sewage treatment coagulation is not so common due to the following demerits :
(a) The secondary biological treatments, which are used now a days are complete
in themselves and do not need coagulation.
(b) The coagulation and subsequent sedimentation produces larger quantities of
sludge, adding to the problems of sludge disposal.
(c) Chemicals used in coagulation react with sewage and during these reactions,
they destroy certain micro-organisms, which are helpful in digestion of the
sludge, thus causing difficulties in sludge digestion.
(d) Cost of chemicals is added to the cost of treatment.
Still in certain special cases, it is adopted as discussed below :
(i) Using some special chemicals for treating sewage from a particular industry.
(ii) When there is large seasonal variation (such as hill station where flow
considerably increase during seasons) in sewage flow and the sedimentation
tank gets overloaded. The addition of chemicals in such condition accelerates
sedimentation.
(iii) When there is space constraints for treatment plants. Coagulated settling tank
requires less space than that is required by an ordinary plain settling tank.
(iv) Where better effluent with lesser BOD and suspended solids is required.
8.6.1 Properties of Some Common Coagulants Used in Sewage
Treatment
Ferric Chloride
Ferric chloride is a widely used coagulant. It forms a dense heavy floc settling
rapidly. The sludge formed is not bulky and is digested and dewatered easily. BOD
removal is 80 to 90%. Removal of suspended solids is around 90 to 95%. pH
required for best result is 5.5 to 7.0 and dose require and in ppm is around 25 to 35.
Ferric Sulphate with Lime
Ferric sulphate is more effective than chlorinated copperas if used with lime. BOD
removal is 80 to 90%. Suspended solids removed is 90 to 95%. It gives best result
in the pH range of 8.0 to 8.5 when added with dose of 35 to 40 ppm.
Chlorinated Copperas
Ferrous Sulphate (Copperas) with chlorine is called chlorinated copperas. This
coagulant is effective for producing sludge for activated sludge process. BOD
removal is 70 to 80%. 80 to 90% of suspended solids are removed. Best result is
obtained when 35 to 80 ppm is added in the pH range of 5.5 to 7.0 and 9.0 to 9.5.
Alum
Although alum is very common coagulant used in treating water supply, it is
generally not used in sewage because they form spongy floc which settles slowly
and volume of sludge produced is large. BOD removal is around 60% and around
80% of suspended solids are removed.

8.7 IMPORTANT LESSONS FOR PHYSICAL

TREATMENT PROCESSES
It will be apparent from the preceding sections that much of the design of physical
treatment processes is based on somewhat idealised concepts supplemented by pragmatic
and empirical considerations. Failhire to understand the underlying mechanisms of the
various processes can result irt ir~dtmentunits which perform inefficiently or unreliably.
Physical Treatment 8.7.1 Flow Distribution
In all but the smallest works, the total area or volume of treatment units need to be
divided into multiple units. This allows for treatment to continue when one unit is being
cleaned or maintained. In such a situation, it is, however, vital to ensure that flow
distribution between the individual units is accurate. Many treatment plants perform
badly because the designers have assumed that the principles of hydraulic similarity can
be applied to a large works. Minor differences in elevation, pipe length, or valve
characteristics can have a major influence on the flow received by different units. Studies
have shown that because of poor flow-splitting arrangements in a group of four
apparently identical settling tanks, one unit received almost 75% of the total flow. Not
surprisingly, its performance was poor. As a general rule, flow splitting should be
achieved by individual free-falling weir discharges as sketched in Figure 8.10.

1 I( T Free Dischaze T
U Weirs

---- -- Sbut off

Penstock
A
A ----
----
+----

0 [+f Outflow
lnBaar -----
----
---- =
- Outflow

(a) 14an of the Flow Dividing Structure (b) Flow Dividing Structure (SecUon A-A)
Figurr 8.10 :Flow Dividing Structurr

8.7.2 Subsidence
Major units like sedimentation tanks are prone to differential settlement due to ground
conditions during and after construction. It is therefore common to see tanks where slight
subsidence has affected the effluent discharge over weirs so that most or all of the
discharge takes place over a fraction of the available length. This causes high local
velocities with the likelihood of scouring of settled solids in vicinity. As outlined earlier,
the problems of differential subsidence in sedimentation units can be greatly alleviated by
using movable weir plates, preferably with 'Vee' notches, which can be re-levelled as
necessary (see Figure 8.5).

8.7.3 Flow Pattern

It will be recalled that settlement theory assumes quiescent laminar flow conditions in the
sedimentation basin. Horizontal and radial flow units for primary settlement of sewage, in
particular, suffer from the fact that they have to operate under a wide range of flow
conditions (perhaps 0.4-3dwfl with a feed varying considerably in its SS content and in
the settleability of those solids. Flow through studies often demonstrate that the residence
time of the flow is much less than the theoretical detention time. With some rectangular
horizontal-flow tanks tracer residence times of only 40 minutes or so have been recorded
under conditions when the theoretical detention time was 10 hours! It is perhaps fortunate
that most of the settleable solids in raw sewage settle out rapidly but clearly when actual
residence times are very much shorter than expected, the design of the tank must be in
question. Careful baffling of the inlet to settling tanks can do something to reduce the
'submerged waterfall' effect which is inevitable when a flow containing suspended matter
enters a tank whose contents have a lower density due to the settlement which has taken
place. In the same way, the provision of ample discharge weir length and the extension of
weirs over a large part of the tank surface can reduce short-circuiting effects to some
extent.
Flow distribution and flow patterns are also of considerable importance in filter
installations, particularly in relation to the backwashing of rapid gravity filters. Uneven
backwash flow distribution can result in the formation of 'mud balls' in the bed. These
occur where deposited material is not scoured because of reduced backwash flow in an
area of the bed, which if not rectified can quickly reduce the effective capacity of the bed.
 An important point when flocculation is being carried out to improve the settling Sedimentation
Flocculation and
characteristics of a suspension is to ensure that the floc particles when formed are not Filtration
subjected to excessive shear. If this happens the floc particles will be broken up and
sedimentation will be ineffective. One particular plant undertook chemically-aided
flocculation in a stirred chamber separated from the sedimentation chamber by a ported
baffle wall. At the downstream end of the flocculation chamber large floc particles were
visible but the settled effluent was of poor quality with a large number of fine suspended
solids. Closer inspection showed that after passing through the ports in the baffle wall the
large floc particles had been broken up. This was because the designer had made the ports
in the baffle of sufficient area to pass the flow without checking the G value which would
be produced. In fact the port area was very restricted and the G value was an order of
magnitude higher than would have been appropriate to ensure safe transport of the floc
particles. Enlargement of the ports transformed the performance of the settlement stage
thus highlighting that although turbulence is necessary for floc formation, excessive
turbulence can be counter-productive.

SAQ 1

By plotting a settling c i i a v cr. -

nccz\sar) to pb .>\,!de LI 9ii7,' - .
horizcnta! frob srdiment:~!~<:~

SAQ 2
Design alternative rectangt~:,::-
of 0.5 m3 I s cl\ing the cr;t e:~:
B

provide the recluised cap<lcr:\

SAQ 3
Calculate the necessary desa~,.
sludge treatment plant reel.
sewage anti operating wit!. :, i )
A~sulue3 peak facto!- o! C.'<
solids loading of 120 kg n i

SAQ 4
A filter bed at sewage rrearrne
spherical sand uf diametei : I.'.

when the clean bed is oper~i:'

sewage at 20°c may be takc .
Physical Treatment
SAQ 5
Why chemical aided sedimentation is not so common in case of waste waters?

SAQ 6
Discuss properties of some common coagulants used in sewage treatment.

8.8 SUMMARY
This unit describes in the brief the process of sedimentation with its fundamental theory
and design criteria of sedimentation tanks. Flocculation and coagulation also play an
important role in the process of sedimentation. In fixed or attached growth systems the
sewage is made to pass through filter beds also. The unit describes porous bed hydraulics
and details of filters which explains the filtration process. Basic principles and design
criteria with examples of sedimentation flocculation, flotation, filteration and coagulation
have been given in this unit.

8.9 KEY WORDS

Concentration : A general term referring to the quality of a material or
substance contained in unit quantity of a given medium.
When the term concentration is used without further
qualification, it now mean amount of substance
concentration.
Flow Rate, Q : This is amount of liquid passing a plant per hour or per
day.
Filter Resistance : This is equal to the head difference between inflow and
outflow (head loss). It increases as the voids in the filter
medium gets clogged by retained particles.
Filtration Rate : This is also called filtration velocity or flow velocity,
through a filter area of 1

Sedimentation Tank : A tank in which sewer containing sediment is retained for

a sufficient time at a sufficiently low velocity to remove
part of the settlement by gravity.
Suspended Solids : The solids which are suspended in a sewage.
- - - -

8.10 ANSWERS TO, SAQs

SAQ 1
Refer Example 8.3.
SAQ 2
Refer Example 8.4.
SAQ 3
Refer Example 8.5.
SAQ 4
Refer Example 8.7.
SAQ 5
Refer Section 8.6.
SAQ 6
Refer Sub-section 8.6.2.
 Sedimentation
FURTHER READING Flocculation and
Filtration

(1) Nathanson, Jerry A.: "Basic Environmental Technology",John Wiley and Sons; 1986.
(2) Metcalf and Eddy Inc,; "WastewaterEngineering", Collection and Pumping of
Wastewater,McGraw Hill, New York, 198 1.
(3) Geyer, J. C.; and Lentz, J. J.; "Evaluationof Sanitary Sewer System Designs", The
Johns Hopkins University School of Engineering, 1962.
(4) Garg, S. K., "Sewage Disposal and Air Pollution Engineering", Khanna Publishers,
Delhi, 1988.