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1. Anactionpulsereachestheterminalendingsofthepresynapticcell.
2. A neurotransmitter is released, which diffuses across the synaptic gap to bind to receptors in
specializedmembranesofthepostsynapticcell.
The human nervous system uses a number of different neurotransmitter and neuroreceptors, and they
dont all work in the same way. We can group synapses into 4 types:
1. Excitatory Ion Channel Synapses.
These synapses have neuroreceptors that are sodium channels. When the channels open, positive ions flow
in, causing a local depolarisation and making an action potential more likely. This was the kind of synapse
described above. Typical neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, glutamate or aspartate.
2. Inhibitory Ion Channel Synapses.
These synapses have neuroreceptors that are chloride channels. When the channels open, negative ions
flow in causing a local hyperpolarisation and making an action potential less likely. So with these synapses
an impulse in one neurone can inhibit an impulse in the next. Typical neurotransmitters are glycine or
GABA.
3. Neuromuscular Junctions.
These are the synapses formed between motor neurones and muscle cells. They always use the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and are always excitatory. We shall look at these when we do muscles.
Motor neurones also form specialised synapses with secretory cells.
5. Electrical Synapses.
In these synapses the membranes of the two cells actually touch, and they share proteins. This allows the
action potential to pass directly from one membrane to the next. They are very fast, but are quite rare,
found only in the heart and the eye.
Some neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can both excitatory and inhibitory effects
depending upon the type of receptors that are present.
Huntington chorea:
A degenerative disease characterized by involuntary movements secondary to the loss of
GABA producing neurons in the caudate and putamen.
Decreased GABA- containing striatonigral (straitum to substantia nigra) projections result
in a lower GABA levels to the substantia nigra.
Parkinsonism:
A reduction in GABA causes an elevation of the ratio of dopamine to acetylcholine, which
produces abnormal movements.
A lower ratio of dopamine to acetycholine , resulting from loss of nigral dopaminergic
cells, is associated with the reduced movement (bradykinesia) or lack of movements of
Parkinsonism.
SYNTHESIS OF GLUTAMATE
SYNTHESIS OF GLYCINE
DOPAMINE
Inhibitory NT
When it finds its way to its receptor sites, it blocks the tendency of that neuron to fire.
Strongly associated with reward mechanism in the brain. Drugs like cocaine, opium,
heroin and alcohol increase the levels of dopamine, as does nicotine.
The main function of dopamine is co-ordination of body movements and emotional
arousal.
Involved in motivation, reward and reinforcement.
Schizophrenia has been shown to involve excessive amounts of dopamine in the
frontal lobes, and drugs that block dopamine are used to help schizophrenics.
Too little dopamine in the motor areas of the brain are responsible for Parkinsons
disease,
Uncontrollable muscle tremors
Dysarthric and stropping posture
Reduced movement.
NOR EPINEPHRINE
Associated with bringing nervous system into high alert.
Prevalent in the sympathetic nervous system
Increases our heart rate and blood pressure.
Maintains attention and forming memories.
Active projection of nor epinephrine in the forebrain is a key feature of awakeness-
arousal as distinguished from sleep.
Nor epinephrine projection to the basal nucleus of the forebrain is low in sleep and
virtually absent in REM (Rapid eye movement) sleep.
The basal nucleus when stimulated by nor epinephrine sends neuromodulating
acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex, thereby promoting alertness.
Metal toxicity
Digestive problems